University of California • Berkeley JOSEPH M. BRANSTEN COFFEE & TEA COLLECTION Acquired in memory of Joseph M. Bransten COFFEE: PDYSIOLOGY, HLSTOEY AND CULTIVATION: ADAITED A3 A WOliK OF REFERENCE FOR CEYLON,' WYJS-AAD, COOEG AND THE NEILGHEEEIES. EDxMUND C. P. HULL. GANTZ BKOTIIEIIS, ADELrm PRESS, 175, WOU^'T ROAD. 1865. INTEODUCTION. Ix the present time, when so much Capital is being expended on, and so much attention given to, Coffee cultivation, the subject of the present work is one of great importance, and I have been the more tempted to write on it, on taking into consideration the paucity of reliable information bearing on it, which has yet been published. The only works devoted to Coffee cultivation, with which I am acquainted, are — Laborie's Coffee Planter of St. Domingo. Abridgment of do. by Higginbotham. W. on Pruning. Wall on Manuring, and Dr. Shortt*s Hand-book. The oldest of these, Laborie's, is an excellent work in its way, but as it was written many years ago, it is not sui'prising that many improvements should have been introduced into Coffee cultivation since its publication, and, moreover, as it was intended to apply mostly to the cultivation of the plant in the "West Indies, it is not a very great assistance to the young planter in the Eastern side of the hemis- pheres. 11 W/s paper on Pruning is most useful as a guide to that particular branch of the subject, and is written by one of the most experienced and intelligent of the Ceylon planters ; as it will be seen in the body of the present work, I have been indebted to it for some of my remarks on Pruning ^ assistance which I have much pleasure in acknowledging. Dr. Shortt's Hand-book contains much that is in- structive and interesting in Analyses, Statistics, &c. ; ' its practical hints, however, are few and difficult of ajoplication ; this is not to be wondered at when we read the author's preface, in which 'Dr. Shortt informs us that he is ''merely an amateur planter," and that his '' experiments extend over a few plants only." Mr. Wall's paper on Manuring is a valuable autho- rity on this branch of cultivation, and will be found useful to every planter, and some hints which I have taken from it will add to the value of my chapter on the same subject. Thus, I trust, it will be apparent, that a want was felt by the planting community, especially by those who have newly joined it, of a work embracing all sub- jects connected with coffee planting, which might be made available as an adviser at any moment when difficulty or doubt was experienced. In bringing the present work before the public, my object has been to make it a vade-mecum to Ill any person, who having a small capital which he de- sires to increase, and deciding on doing so by means of the produce of the coffee tree, to take in his hand, go and select his land, and carry on every necessary work, with system, regularity, and confidence; this without any previous knowledge of planting, and in situations where it may be impossible to obtain the aid of the experience of others. With this object in view, I have endeavoured to be as minute and exact in the description of each work, as possible. I have been indebted for much that is useful and practical to Mr. Loudon's work on Gar- dening, it having occurred to me that many of the operations of culture, practised by scientific gardeners in Europe, might with advantage be applied to the cultivation of cofiee in the East. Some of my Physiological information I have ob- tained from that beautiful work, Rhind's Vegetable Kingdom, and some from Dr. Willick's Encyclopaedia. Chambers's Encyclopsedia also contained some historical facts connected with the subject, which I took the liberty of extracting. Written, as the present work has been, in the jungle, it was put of my power to obtain the assistance of many books, which I would gladly have repaired to, such as Balfour's Botany, Cyclopaedia, &c., but the ab- sence of extensive compilation on the theoretical IV branches of the subject, tend to make the work more handy and practical, which is of greater importance- I do not pretend to bring out much that is new on the subject of coffee planting, what Ihave writtenbeing simply the results of my own experience, and of my observation of the operations of others ; nor do I suppose, for an instant, that other planters of the same experience know less on the subject than myself; to them I look for corroboration and support, that begin- ners may regard the present work, notwithstanding its deficiencies, with confidence as a trustworthy friend and adviser. At this present time, when the scarcity of labour in India presents so alarming an aspect, it will, un- fortunately, be in most cases barely possible to culti- vate an estate in the exact method here described, but the object I have endeavoured to keep in view being the manner in which a model Coffee Estate ought to be conducted, I believe I may confidently advise as close an adherence to the rules I have lai d down, as possible. Like all questions of supply and demand, however, that of labour will eventually right itself, and I have no doubt that the first symptom of improvement will be when our Government begins to regard the interests and welfare of the Peninsula as of greater importance than that of the West Indies, Mauritius, Natal, and countries tlie property of otlier nations, to which, year after year, they permit the exportation of the thews and sinews of the land : it being worthy of notice that a very small proportion of the labour so exported ever returns. It is strange that a work, similar to the present one, has not before been undertaken by any other planter; many of whom, I am aware, are better qualified than myself for the undertaking, as, in these days of a copious literature, there are few subjects of so great impoiiiance which have not been written about, till they may be said to be exhausted. Such not being the case, however, I trust the motives which induced me to enter claims for author- ship will not be misconstrued, but that my book may meet with a friendly, even though it may receive a severe, criticism. Close examination of its contents I do not depre- cate, but whatever shortcomings and defects are dis- covered in it will, I trust, be treated with leniency. Should the present edition receive sufficient encou- ragement to tempt me to venture on bringing out a second one, such hints and corrections as I may in the meantime receive from my brother-planters, shall receive the fullest consideration, and in this manner I can promise that my second edition will be a more complete and valuable work than the present. Digitized by the Internet Arcinive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/coffeeitsphysiolOOhullrich INDEX. CHAPTER I. Page, Coffee Botanically and Physiologically considered — Botanical description 1 When first introduce d to tlie notice of Europeans 3 Nutritive and medicinal properties , 4 Cofifee-houses • 6 Coffee-tea ••••• 7 Analysis of coffee 9 CHAPTER II. Some account of Ceylon, Wynaad, Coorg, the Neilgherries, Mysore, and the Shevaroys, as coffee-producing districts — Introduction into Ceylon 14 Kandy 17 Coffee Districts of Ceylon 18 Labour in Ceylon 20 Wynaad, description of 21 Labour in Wynaad 22 Necessity for combination amongst planters 24 Steps to be taken to introduce Labour into Wynaad 25 The Neilgherries, Ootacamund, Labour 29 Mysore and Munzerabad, Coorg, Mercara , 30 Sheyaroy Hill3 ...iM. 32 Vlll Page. CHAPTER III, Terms for, and means of procuring suitable land in Ceylon and Southern India — Ceylon... 33 In Wynaad 34 In Coorg 35 CHAPTER IV. Elevation, lay, site, temperature, aspect and soils — tempera- ture and elevation - 37 Necessity for humidity of atmosphere . 39 Small yield at great elevation 40 South-west Monsoon 41 Site, evils of an exposed situation, Wind 42 Northern and Eastern fencings best 46 Lay 46 CHAPTER V. Soil 50 Plants, the most certain indicators of 51 Necessity for absorbent power in hot climates 6^ Stagnant water injurious to all land plants... 53 CHAPTER VI. Opening — Coolies — Tools — difficulty of getting coolies 54 Advance system = 5S Mountaineers, and hill tribes preferable — Labour 59 Tools 59 Billhooks 60 Axes, crowbars, quintannies, &c , 61 Care in selecting site for cooly lines. 62 The Bamboo 63 Temporary Bungalow ••* 6^ Page, CHAPTER VII. Nurseries — Jungle plants in Ceylon ..\ » 65 Time of year to commence work 6^ Seeds — and seed beds and sowing : , QQ Description of germinating process ; 67 Dr. Shortt's work 67 Evil of watering during sunshine 68 CHAPTER VIII. Felling and clearing 71 Felling Bamboos ,...^ 72 Lopping, Firing 73 Jungle Leeches » , 75 CHAPTER IX. Lining, Pitting and Filling-.. 76 Lining squares — tlie West Indies, Java 77 Distances between rows....... 78 Quincunxes, Pitting or Holing, not less than I J feet •.. i^ Contracts for Pitting, Filling in 81 CHAPTER X. Planting, Stumps, pruning the roots 83 Planting with ball — method of planting 84 Puddling * 85 Age and size of plants 86 Hanging the plants ••• 87 Dibbling 88 CHAPTER XL Roads, Draining, Resume... 91 Roads 92 Patent road tracer — tracing 93 Blasting ^ * 95 Draining— surface draining on slopes 96 s Page. Easy gradients — Mr. Wall 97 Draining swampy ground — Mauritius grass — Grass cutting machine 9S CHAPTER XII. Weeding, Filling up vacancies, exhaustive effects of weeds, means of removing weeds ♦ i)9 Frequency of weeding — by hand — with the scraper 100 With the maraootie — Burying in — cost of 101 Filling up vacancies — old trees dying, cause of in old soils... 102 CHAPTER XIIL Shelter — protection and shade — staking ^ 104 European method — shade 105 Trees acting as a blight — trees exhale noxious gases 106 Jack tree — Loquat tree 107 Trees should not be planted too close together Mauritius — Castor oil plant 108 Plantains and bananas 109 CHAPTER XIV. Bungalow^ and Lines ••• 110 ►Stone and mortar — Bricks Ill Tile making— " Wattle and dab" ^ 114 White ants — trees proof against...*... • llo Laterite, or cabook — roofs — thatch cadjans — shingles 116 Cost of putting on shingles — Tiles — Iron roofs 118 Preventing Iron roofs from blowing off 119 Cost of building Bungalows — Floors 121 Sawing timber — Ceylon and Malabar measurement 122 Coolie lines — Land wind — necessity of water 123 Cleanliness necessary for health — charpoys — plastering with cowdung — whitewash 124 Coolies' gardens — liability to combustion , 1 25 ]^1 Page, CHAPTER XV. Topping, Handling, and Pruning •. Topping — height at which necessary — cold climates — expos- ed situations 126 In sheltered situations — keeping the ground covered — height of a tree not affecting its productiveness 127 Disadvantage of high trees — method of topping. 128 Primaries — secondaries.. 129 Handling — description of form and economy of coffee tree... 130 Tertiaries 131 Objects of pruning — methodof 132 Criterion of good pruning 133 Systematic handling ensures good pruning .^ 134 Primaries notto be cut 13o Cost of pruning ,... 136 CHAPTER XVI. Manuring — object of 137 Plants consist of 138 Substances useful as manure \ Vegetation green — Woody fibres j Wood-ashes — Dead bodies — Poonac 140 Bones— Guano — Sal ammoniac 141 Coffee pulp — Thatch grass 142 Cattle dung — Argols ., 143 Humic acid — proper condition of manure for application — method of preparing manure in German-Switzerland 144 Dr. Shortt's method — method followed in Ceylon 145 Author's method 146 Advantage of proximity to a public road — manner of apply- ing manure with most benefit — not to be put in too deep.. 147 Cost of manuring 148 Method of application for pulverized manures 149 xa Paqe. CHAPTER XVII. Diseases— causes of 150 Bug 151 White Bug 153 Worm 154 Grubs 155 Bats and grasshoppers, their depredations 156 CHAPTER XVIII. Crop — Description of blossom 157 Picking — Arab method 158 Strong men often bad pickers — Green berries — overripe ber- ries in wet weather — in dry 160 Iron spouting — method of laying — cherry loft 161 Pulping — washing — drying — despatching 162 Uncertainty of weather in Ceylon — not so in Wynaad — Mr. Clerihew's patent 163 CHAPTER XIX. Stores — Pulping houses and machinery — cherry loft — cisterns 164 Ample supply of water necessary — pulping — pulpers 165 Crusher — Butler's pulper 166 Ceylon planter on pulpers , 167 Disc pulper , .. 169 Stores — Iron stores — two-storied stores 170 Fans — ample barbecue room desirable 172 Trays — curing, criterion of good — setting of pulper 173 CHAPTER XX. Estimates, tfcc. — outlay in purchase of land 175 Average of cost of — Estimate for Wynaad 176 Condition of estate, and value at end of six years — cost of bringing to that period 185 Xlll Page. Estimate applicable to Ceylon 186 Difference between the Wynaad and Ceylon estimate — reasons of 192 Dr. Shortt's estimates ^... 193 CHAPTER XXI. Medical hints — medicines required — Fever 200 Bowel complaint — Dysentery 503 Cholera 204 Liver 205 Snakebites 206 Cuts and wounds 207 Fractures and dislocations — Sores 208 DIRECTORY, KORTH WYNAAD. Name by which known to Euro- peans. Alitoor Agampoora Mulla Bahgoor Mulla - Bellevue Name by which known to Na- tives. Names of Propria- Names of Mana- tors, gers. Haltoor -|j. A. Cameron -R. C. Wother- j I spoon J. M. Closson -'J. M. Closson !p. H. Gordon -|j. Gilby Agampoora Mulla Bahgoor Mulla - Bullia Mulla Bon Accord Bon Espoir Balmoral Bushy Park Brahmagherry Bargherry Collessie Carticollum Ghapara Mulla Chenga Moodin Coomben Mulla Canoot Mulla Coonda Coon Charlotte Coondoor Dindimul Drumcree Kanatee Mulla - - Dindimul Atty Mulla Croocherpardy - Beermagherry - Carneggie others and Bargherry Collessie - Carticollum - Chapara Mulla -'Aiken -|Chenga Moodin ' Colonel Smith - Do. Beetham J. Macfarlane Madras Coflfee Co. (Limited.) Limjee Mauock- jee -J. R. Malcolm J. Macfarlane -W. F. Macfarlane W. N. Higin- bothom A. R. Higin- bothom Do. C. F. Wilkins G. Hubbard John Brown -iForman & Steven J. R. Malcolm Mulla Coomben Mulla Canoot Mulla Coonda Coon Terrioot Coondoor Dindamul J. Gordon O'Halloran - C. A. Vern^de - W. Gladstone L. J. O'Halloran -;J. M. Closson - J. M. Closson - J. A. Cameron - R. C. Wother- I spoon -Boyd & Co. -Jeffries -|P. H. Gordon -|j. W. Smith '" ^ Dun- -pumgherry -jFraser and bar -Thompson and | I Richmond -F T. R. Richmond E. Richmond. XVI XORTH WY^AAT>—{Co7iti7iued.) Name by which kuowu to Eui'O- peans. Emily Fairfield Furlaugh Farrington Glenlee Huntley Jessie Kelliout Kenilworth Kanatu Mulla Kaikerry Langcliff Manantoddy Minue Ha Ha ]SIary Estate Mary Middleton Moodra Mulla Nemonie Olliout Oolygood Pattery Pillay Cardoo Pandoorang Pagoda Ramsay Richlieu Name by which known to Na- tives. Terrioot Perria Totum Do. Names of Proprie- Names of Maua- tors. gers. Furze and Bar rington |G. Campbell and others Ghaut Coffee Co (Limited.) F. H. Tomlinson Anderson J. Gordon Dr. Cream Trichiterry j Huntley Croocherpardy Do. Macfarlan Totum-!J. Macfarlane Kunatu Mulla Kukkerry - C. Puddicombe -JHundy Cull -Manant a wad dy - -iCroocherpardy - Tucker P. H. Gordon H. Dawson Terriout Dawson Totum Moodra Mulla Doray Kemonife lOlHout Oolygood Atty Mallay jPillie Kahdoo Panduraug Daivissa Thulapoora Dunbar & Fraser J. Macfarlane Carnatic Coffee Company Manderson & Co. { Heycqpk \ Davidson Bombay & Coast Company R. W. Barrington F. H. Tomlinson C. B. Speechley F. H. Tomliuson W. Gladstone T. R. Richmond Buxy C. Puddicombe W. F. Macfarlane J. D. Bell P. H. .Gordon W. C, Dawson T. R, Richmond W- F. Macfarlane H. Lemesurier B. Miller W. C. Dawson R. Haden and E. Qtuarme -J. B. Kibble -J. R. Malcolm -;G. F. Brown -|\V. Gladstone J. Nicholson Form an Cama & Co. J. Gordon -i Madras Coffee Co.jW. T. Rayne Cama & Co. - F. E. Richmond P. H. Gordon -J. W.Smith Pandoorang and Richmond Rich and Rich- mond T. R. Richmond F. E, Richmond xvu NORTH "WYl^ A ABy—iConiinued.) Name by which knowu to Euro- peans. Richville Ragonath Reading Rasselas Soosauker Tata Mulla Tandiote The Hermitage Teddington Vellera Mulla Winterthur Weycoon Wynaad Name by which known to Na- tives. .^Coodray Gotta -jBombay Totum Kirrinelly Aliam Mulla Tatamullah Tandiote Croocherpardy Vellera Mullay Waycoon Wynaad Names of Proprie- Names of Mana- tors. gers. -Rich - - -jF. E. Riclimond .|Cama & Co. - G. F. Brown Sigg - - -H.Sigg F. E. Richmond- F. E. Richmond -Pandoorang - -Boyd & Co. -Nicholas .IP. H. Gordon -'Bombay & Coast I Company Col. J. \V. Wool dridge Sigg Brothers -Forbes &Co. -'Col. Smyth- T. R. Richmond R. Hadeu Miller J, Lowrie R. Haden Col. J. W. Wool- dridge H. Sigg • J. M. Closson A. R. Higinbo- thom SOUTH WYNAAD. Arrahmulla Adelaide Askeen Anderose Annaparah Annettee Armacullah Ballia Parah Carpen Culli Charlotte Arrahmulla Perendatty Pooda CuUoor Natives' W. D. Cartwright -J. Smith |K B. Wiuterbo- I tham F. J. Ferguson & others Leckie & Co. J. H. Rossall A Native J. Boosey, and A, Lamond Owner &S.Prager Owner Native J. Fargie Owner W. M. McCiiilochlSmith A. R. Hinde -.Owner and Wap- I shaw Leckie & Co. -C. S. Moon XVlil SOUTH WY^AAD.—iContinuei.) Name by which known to Euro- peans. CuUoor Chumbatie Coombatoor Coonumbatta Chumbrani Caroline Culputty Charity- Catherine Pereudatty EllumbellaryPeak Jannyoot Name by which known to Na- tives, Names of Proprie- tors. / Southern In- ) ( diaCofieeCo.| Emily Faith Field, The Hope Kotamundah Lackadie Lancaster ]\[aipardie Molina Manara Mulla ]\Ioota Mulla Mowbray INIadutella Munda Mulla Pootha Cooly Palla Coon Chumbra Mulla - Chumbra Mulla Leckie & Co. P. S. Punnett J. Hester, M. D. R. Wardrop Southern dia Cofiee M. Rimington H. B. Wiuterbo- tham A. R. Hinde A. Lopez M. Rimington H. D. Cartwdght M. Rimington and others Ren dan Tote Kroocher Kroocher Mtdla G. L. Yonge and others iA. Rimington Mulla-|G. J. Glassonand I others j J . Boosey & others J. Gordon A. Barnes and R Petman Southern of India j Coffee Company I J, G. Glasson Rendan -|j. B. Buckham - W- Kennedy C.Wildes Croocher Mulla -IG. L. Fonge Poodoo Tote Names of Mana- gers. A. Wildes and E, Mitchell Owner Owner J. Boydell L. S. Clark G. Harcourt Percy Guard Owner Owner and Wap- shaw Owner J. H. Gordon G. B. Elliot and Boosey W. Kennedy and H. Gordon H. Winterbotham J. B, Buckham Langshawe Kinney Reid A. C. Barnes Viscardi A. F. Schlunk Owner Owner Native Owner XIX SOUTH WYNAAD,— (Conimwcc?.) Name by which known to Euro- peans. Perim Chole Panora Peak Footha Para Prendamotele Perendatye Pokoote Eimington No. Do. No. Steppanie St. jMary Tanoortha Thalapaya Vythery Wallace Walthamstowe Virginia Name by which known to Na- tives. Names of Proprie- tors. Perendatty CherriaChumbra-'j. H. Rossall Names of Mana- gers. J, Gordon - Reid Owner and Gait- skell Southern of India ^}c Chumbra MuUa - Tannyoot Coffee Company. G. J. Glasson Boyd & Co. Robson & Brown- M. Eimington - S. India Coflfee Co. S.India Coffee Co. F. Jones G. J. Glasson H. D. Cartwright G. J. Glasson and others A. Lopez C. Wildes J. Jones (Lessee) Turner & Archer H. H. Brown T. J. Ferguson C. Kilgour Thompson and Richardson Owner Jordan Owner T. Jones G. B. Elliott and Boosey JA. F, Schlunk Owner SOUTH-EAST WYNAAD- Principally derived from Gantz' People's Almanac for 186-: Name of Estate. Proprietors. Managers. Ambillee MuUa Adelphi ... Balmades Beta Mund Burnstein Balcarras W. H. Sinclair J.W. Minchin Rhode Vigars Lazaron and Malcolm... Steedmau Owner P. Cherry Swan Owner J. Lazaron Owner XX SOUTH-EAST WY^ A AD, --{Continued.) Name of Estate. Chernimbady Caroline Coomallay Chembillee MuUay Elleii Grange Glenrock Glen do we GlenJale Glen Vans Guynd Goodaloor Mullay Hamslade Helen Hope Hatcham Harewood Hope Kintail Kiilliad Lauriston Moyar Valley Maramootoo I\laryland ]\Iary Ann Naiken Choi a Neddakanuay Nellialluin Do. Peak Needle Rock Nundutty Oakley Pundaloor Perseverance Provident Pillee Mullah Pawady Poyah Peria Chola Richmond Proprietors. . . . Lovell and May lor ... A. Wright ... F. Hughes ...J. D'Silva ...Maylor ...Watts ...J. Penie ...Lascelles .. Do. ...VansAgnew ...J. Ouchterlouy ...| Do. ...'j. W. Minchin ...I Do. ...! Do. ...iBroomhall ...'j. T. Mackenzie ...I Malabar East India Co. Managers. Rodrigues Owner Owner Owner Cranley Wright W, Ryan Capias E. Laseron T. Murray C. Y. Ueed Dickens Owner and Hawkins J. Tyndall Do. Owner Brunton Fernandez Mackenzie and Linton .IW. H. Linton A. Lascelles ... J. R. Malcolm J. Ouchterlony ...|C, Y. Reed Scott and Taylor ...'J. Hicks J. B. Burnett ...! Owner Lascelles ,..|J« Brown AYright ...|a Native Cox and Minchin ... 'Native Nelamboor Rajah ... Native W. R^^an ... Owner J. Hollis ... Owner Aboo Sait & Co. ... W. Bunyan J. Higginbotham ...Owner Rhode, (Junior) ... Swan Ryan ... Owner Malabar E. I. Co, (Ld.)jFernandez5 Malabar E, I. Co. (Ld) jReinman T. Browning ... Owner C Godfrey ...'Owner J. C Andrew ...{Owner A. Wright ...'Owner XXI SOUTH-EAST WYNAAD,— (Co/ia'nwec^.) Name of Estate. Sheerdale Stratheru Surry Seaforth Sandy Hills Suffolk Wentworth Yellammulla Proprietors. ..I Miller and Lowe .Ja. Lascelles ..iBates Brothers . JArbiithuot and Co. .Jj. Ouchterlouy ..I Do. ..'Schmidt and otheis ..|C. Godfrey Managers. A. Lowe J. Turner A. Griffin J. Tjndall H. Coates Native Owner LIST OF COFFEE PLANTERS IN COORG, TAKEN FROM GANTZ' MADRAS PEOPLE'S ALMANAC, FOR 1865. No. of Acres. Coorg Coffee Company "Limited" Mercara Talook... Horamulnaad . . . 7,882 Donald Stewart, Esq. ... do do 4,100 Henry Mann, Esq. do do 2,334 A. C. Campbell, Esq. and others do do 1,730 Joseph P. Hunt, Esq. ... do do 1,700 Peter James, Esq. do Kuggodnlnaad ... 1,500 Alexander Bain, Esq. do do 1,160 Carnatic Coffee Company " Limited" do Horamulnaad ... 1,000 H. A. Mangles, Esq. do Halarynaad 920 Major G. M. Martin do Horamulnaad ... 828 Rev. A. Fennell, Bulthy- muUay Estate do Halarynaad 519 Bittienda Caryuppa do Horamulnaad . . . 500 Messrs. Charles Grant, Lewis Ross, George Rosa and W. G. Aspinall ... do Kuggodulnaad ... 500 William Urquhait Arbuth- not, Esq. do Horoornoorakul- naad 491 Kodandra Appachoo do Horamulnaad ,,. 423 x:xii LIST OF PLANTERS IN COORG, &c. —(Continued.) C. W. James, Esq. and R. H. James, Esq., Helen- hully Estate D. McPherson, Esq., M.D. Matandra Appaclioo Cheppudi Subbiah, Esq.... Kongandra Appiya P. V. Ragava chary and others AYoodiendra Daviya P. Rami en gar Mahomed Hoossain S. Thimmappiya P. A. ;Moultree, Esq. Captain J. G. INIai'shall Mr. C. Kamsika Calavandra Caryappa and others William Burnett, Esq. and others Manawatty Bopoo Koottettira Jyappa Apparandra Caryappa ... Thomas Taylor, Esq. Dr. W. G. Maxwell and J. McKenzie, Esq. David Rose, Esq. Reverend C. G. Richter ... Carnatic Coffee Company John McKenzie, Esq. Reverend H. A. Kaundinya Henry P. Minchin, Esq.... Messrs. Farrier and Brown S. G. Tipping, Esq. George Andersou, Esq, ... James Stewart, Esq. Colavandra Caryappa William Brown, Esq. Augustus Plumbe, Esq. ... Mercara Talook do do do do do do do do do do do do Paddynacknaad Talook do do do do do Ye ddaynacknaad Horamulnaad . . do do do do do Kuggodnlnaad .., IHoramulnaad .. do do Horooruoorakul naad do do Kadiethnaad Koingherrynaad Paddynacknaad . Koiijgherrynaad do do Talook do do do do do do do do do do do do do .'Yeddaynacknaad do Unmuthnaad do do do Yeddaynacknaad Unmuthnaad .. do do Yeddaynaad do do Ummuthnaad .,, No. of Acres. 419 333 316 304 200 154 101 100 60 57 50 46 45 50 300 200 200 80 60 2,461 1,300 900 600 500 500 500 500- 360 300 300 201 120 56- XXIU LIST OF PLANTERS IN COORG, kC^-iContinued.) J. .Gillibrand, Esq. Messrs. J. Peebles & Rose W. C. Dawson, Esq. Dr. Nicol Martin, and Sam Martin McGregor, Esq. W. V. Drummond, Esq. ... Captain Ralph N. Taylor Colonel W. J. Wooldridge Major J. Ren ton J. W. Savage, Esq. Frank Brown, Esq. Messrs. Green and Denton Yeddaynacknaad Talook KiggutnaadTalook do Yeddaynacknaad Bettiethnaad Thavulgherry- moornaad do do do do do do do Nanjarajputten Talook Bettiethnaad Murraynaad Aujigerynaad Thavulgherry moornaad Murraynaad Bettiethnaad do Lieut.-Col. Cunningham & Major Grey ...I C. F. Nepean, Esq. ...I Mrs. E. Wright, Lotidon! Valley Estate ...j Joseph Lacey, Esq., Lieut.' J. Markham, and W.j Jennings, Esq., Coom-j boocaud Estate . . . i R. Carr, E.sq.,Curton Estate' Native holdings from one' Acre and upwards in ... Mercara Talook do do do do do Do do Do Do Do Do do do do do do do do do do ..IPaddynacknaadi I Talook ...! .Yeddaynacknaad, I Talook ...I . KiggutnaadTalook .'Nanjarajputten i Talook Yeloosaverasee- may Talook ... Soorlabee naad Mooth- do Yedayanaad SoolabeMoothnaad No. of Acres. I 56 1,600 1,000 700 700 700 530 300 300 250 750 500 50O 350 do do 271 200 5,592 3,341 3.604 1,918 652 198 61,516 XXIV COONOOR- Name of Estate, Extent. Proprietors. Managers. Adderley 400 Acres. Messiu Arbuthnot and Co. Clarkson and Thomas Ben Hope 66 do J. G. Herklots Owner Brods worth 100 do C. Sanderson Owner Coonoor GMt ... 50 do Mahanjee Sait Owner Charles' Hope ... 70 do Reillyand Woodfall.. Reily Chelmsford 250 do T. Staines Owner Chengal ... 250 do Mullaly, (Junior) ... Owner Colacumbe 200 do T. Stanes Owner Carolina 80 do Major Sweet Owner Craigmore 80 do Major Hodgson Stainbank(Lessee) 50 200 do do Captain Fuller VV. Mullaly, (Senior)... Owner Droog Owner Glen more 170 do Hunter and Allan ... A. Allan Hilgrove 250 do Colonel Woodfall and Marden Darling, Frank & Reily, (Lessees) Hulicul 150 do Stainbank and Cham- bers Owners Krillarama 50 do Nanjaparow Owner Kartaii 120 do Messrs. Vincent and de Facien Owners Louisiana ,,. 100 do Major Sweet Owner Little Ireland ... 150 do C. Murray Owner Neriolay 300 do J. G. Herklots Owner Pilloor 400 do J. Hunter Owner Beading 180 do C. Sanderson Owner Kunnymede 300 do T. Stanes Owner Vellanee (Tea Estate) 100 do Carnatic Coffee Co. ... J. Gordon Woodlands 150 do Stainbank J. Mclvor SeddipuUi, No. 1 Do. No. 2. 200 200 do do Mr. J. Hayne Do. ( Owner Do. No. 3. 100 do R. Grove Owner Do. No. 4. 80 do W. Mullaly, (Senior)... Owner EERATA. Page 18 for "knowledge of superstition," read •' knowledge of this super- stition." ,, 22 ,, "magnitude for the crops," read "magnitude 0/ the crops." ,, 63 ,, "object bemg to exclusive eternal inflaences," read "object being to exclude casternal influences." ,, 73 „ "filled over them," read "/c^Zcdl over them." „ 114 ,, " unto the mould," read "tn^o the mould." ,, 129 ,, "waste of sap, vitality, and lime," rcixd "was^e of sap, vitality, and time/* ,, 141 ,, " Islands of China," read " Islands of Chinca.^' ,, 157 ,, "they will then come whiter," read "they will ihen hecome whiter." ,, 167 ,, "at just in use," read "at first in use." ,, 175 „ "selling Es. 30 to 40per acre," read "selling at Rs. 30 to 40.'* „ 181 ,, "exceeding double quantity," read "exceeding double that quantity." ,, 202 ,, " contusion of thought," read " co«/M5ton of thought. " ,, 206 ,, "and cut bloody," read "and cut 6oZrf/y." ,, 207,, " as lightly as possible," read "as t/^^f/y as possible." CHAPTER I. COFFEE BOTANICALLY AND PHYSIOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED. Coffee (Coffea Arabica) belongs to the natural family RuhicLcecBy and to the class Pentandria Monogynia of Linnseus. In the Arabic language Kahivah is the name for the liquor of Coffee, in the Turkish Capee, hence the common name Coffee. The Coffee tree, or more properly shrub, is of a graceful and elegant form, and when permitted to grow naturally attains a height, under favorable circumstances, of from fifteen to twenty feet, slender and at the upper part dividing into long drooping branches, which seldom grow to any great thickness. The leaves are evergreen, opposite, very shiny on the upper surface, elliptical, pointed, and between three and four inches long ; they are connected with the branches by short foot stalks, and somewhat resemble those of tho Portuguese laurel : each pair is usually two to four inches apart from the next on the branch. The flowers are white and small, and very like those of the Jessamine, both in scent and appearance ; they are botanically described to be axillary, sessile, calyx monope- talous, funnel-shaped, cut at the limb into fine reflcxcd lanceolate segments. They grow in groups varying from four to sixteen in number, in each group, from the axils of the leaves. The bark is almost smooth, of a greyish brown. The fruit or berries which succeed the blossom, are at first dark-green, then changing as they approach maturity to light yellow, and light red, until they become of a dark crimson, like a ripe cherry, which tint announces that they are ready for gathering. The pulp of this berry has a sweetish insipid taste and is slightly glutinous ; within it are enclosed two hard, oval seeds, one side of which is convex, and the other flat, and having a straight furrow inscribed through the latter side lengthwise ; while within the berry the fiat sides of the seed face each other. These seeds are generally termed " beans," not from their resemblance to that pulse, but, as Chambers's Encyclopaedia informs us, from the Arabic word '' bunn ;" they are enclosed in a cartilaginous membrane, which, from its faint strawey colour and peculiar consistency, lias received the name of " Parchment." Besides the C. Arabica, there are other kinds, of which the C. Mauritiana, when prepared in the same manner as the C. Arabica, has a bitter unpleasant taste and the property of being slightly emetic. Some Botanists have named only two distinct species of the Coffee tree, the G. Arabica and the C. Occidentalis ; others again, are of opinion that the different sorts are only varieties, resulting from soil, climate, and modes of culture. The tree is a native of Arabia ¥clix and Ethiopia, and was first introduced to the notice of Europeans by Eau- wolfius, in 1573 ; but Alpinus in 1591 was the first who scientifically described it. The Dutch were the first to introduce the plant into Europe. Having procured some berries at Mocha, which were carried to Batavia, and there planted, a specimen was sent to Amsterdam, in the j^ear 1690, by Governor Wilson, where it bore fruit and produced many j^oung trees ; from these the East Indies and most of the gardens of Europe were furnished. It was first cultivated in Britain by Bishop Compton in 1696. In 1714 a plant was presented by the Magistrates of Amsterdam, to the French King, Louis XIV. ; this plant was placed at Marley under the care of the Jussieu, and from this source plants were forwarded some years after- wards, to the French islands in the West Indies, from whence all the Coffee plants now found there, derive their origin.* " The Coffea Arabica, from its being the principal producer of Coffee, is the chief and most useful, but besides this, other species arc cultivated in other parts of the world, on account of their commercial value, all of which though now regarded as separate species, owe their origin to the CoflTea Arabica, which was first introduced into Arabia about the commencement of the 15th century, fromEnarea and Caffa in Southern Abyssinia, to which countries it is indigenous."t Coffee contains many valuable medicinal properties, principally as an anti-soporific, and a remedy in cases of * Rhind's History of the Vegetable Kiugdom. t Beverages we infuse, — Blackwood's Magazine. narcotic poisoning. From the stimulating and enlivening effect the beverage is found to exercise on the system, one cannot but suppose that it contains a considerable amount of nutrition, though we see in one writer,* both tea and coffee put down as articles which contain no real nutriment. On the other hand, a periodical! informs us that there is much nutriment contained in the Oil of Coffee, or Caffeine, which we may see floating on the surface of the pure beverage. That medical men have frequently found Coffee the best form of administering nourishment and stimulant, to persons rescued from starvation, by cold or hunger, is a strong argu- ment in its favor, es])ecially as ardent spirits administered under the same circumstances will often prove fatal. Coffee is also valuable as a disinfecting agent. "It is useful to purify any place having an offensive smell or foul air. The Coffee beans should be roasted in the vicinity of the room to be purified, and when they have attained their brown colour, and while quite hot, removed to the room and placed in the centre, in the same pan or chatty in which they were torrified. The doors and windows should be closed, and in half an hour, by which time the Coffee will have become cool, the room will be rendered thoroughly purified and the air sweet."t Which of us does not know the grateful fragrance of a cup of good Coffee, whether on the midnight railway journey in the melting heat of India, or before a skating expedition on a frosty morning in England ? * Galton's Art of Travel, t Household Words, 1851. + Dr. Shortt. Doctor Shortt also enumerates some diseases, in which CofTee has been found efficacious. " Grindell used it in cases of intermittent fever. It is sometimes very useful in relieving headache. >i< >i< * As a stomachic in some forms of dyspepsia ; as an astrin- gent in diarrhoea, and a stimulant to the cerebro-spinal system, in some nervous disorders ;" in curing gout, asthma, &c. It will be apparent that the merits of Coffee as a beverage, would have remained quite unknown, but for the discovery of the means of using it roasted. For this discovery we are indebted to the Persians, who practised this method of preparing it long before it was known in Arabia. The name of the fire- worshipper who first initiated the idea, is unknown. We are informed,* that in the middle of the 15th century, the Mufti of Aden, when on a journey to pay homage to his superior, saw the processes of roasting, grinding, and boiling the Coffee, and that he on his retum, introduced the discovery into Arabia. There was considerable opposition made by the " true believers," at first, to its '^use, who judging from its stimulating powers that it must have an intoxicating effect, considered it to be under the ban of the Prophet. The Sultan, however, issued a proclamation, declaring its use lawful and proper, upon which numerous booths for its sale, were at once erected. The consumption of Coffee is exceedingly great in Turkey, * Household Words. and this fact may be in a great measure accounted for, by the strict prohibition which the Moslem religion lajH against the use of wine and spirituous liquors. So necessary was Coffee at one time considered amongst the people, that the refusal to supply it in reasonable quantity to a wife, was reckoned among the legal causes for a divorce. The Turks drink their Coffee very hot and strong, and without Sugar, occasionally they put in, when boiling, a clove or two bruised, or a few seeds of starry aniseed^ or some of the lesser cardamoms, or a drop of essence of amber. In England, the use of Coffee met at first with violent opposition, as has indeed been the case with almost every new article introduced among our conservative country- men ; it was denounced as a " Hell-drink," or " Hell-poison," or by some other equally unflattering title, and a heavy tax was imposed on it by the legislature of so much a gallon. This method of taxation is singular, as, of course, it might be a very mawkish drink or otherwise, at the option of the seller. It was brought to England first by a Turkey merchant returning from a voyage to the Levant, in the time of Cromwell ; he was accompanied by a Greek named Pasqua, who understood the art of preparing the beverage. This man founded a Coffee-house in London, which prospered so exceedingly, that it is said, in twelve months there were as many Coffee-houses in London as in Constantinople. This merchant was Daniell Edwards, who is well worthy of being remembered with gratitude by lovers of Coffee, a drink which, far more than tea, cheers without inebriating. Coffee-houses from that period formed an important feature in the economy of the Metropolis, and the very name of " Coffee-house" is replete with associations of the literature of the last century. It is not, however, only the berry of the Coffee plant which is a febrifuge ; I am informed that an infusion made from its leaves have, in the absence of more powerful tonics, been found very beneficial. This is not much to be wonder- ed at, when we recollect that this plant is one of the Cinchonacece. It seems to be one of the most inviolable rules of Nature, . guided as she is by a bountiful Providence, to per'mit no evil to exist, without having provided at hand a remedy ; and doubtless the further we advance in the knowledge of nature and her doings, the more unexceptional this arrange- ment will be found : under this supposition, it is asserted that Coffee grows best in feverish localities, which I consider, from my own experience, to be extremely probable. A decoction made from the leaves, dried in a peculiar manner, forms, I believe, an agreeable beverage, but the difficulty in procuring this preparation in perfection ap- pears to consist, in discovering the proper method of drying the leaves, so as to preserve a greenish tint, and this is a secret which is not known to Europeans, though Doctor Gardner exhibited specimens of the leaves, dried for use as tea, in the Great Exhibition, and took out a patent to protect his method. Coffee-tea is the common beverage of the inhabitants of Sumatra, and cannot therefore, be considered as otherwise than wholesome and nourishing; though, unfortunately, 8 from tlic experiments which iiave been made^ it does not appear to possess the deliciously aromatic flavour of the Coffee bean or of tea leaves, but to resemble more a mixture of both. In answer to this objection, however, it must be borne in mind that the taste for many valuable exotic productions is only acquired by habit. When required for use, the Coffee leaves should be dried fresh oTi a pan, over a slow fire, until they have become of a clear brown colour ; by which process the Theine or Caffeine or Volatile oil becomes fixed, and they can then be infused, in the same manner as tea leaves in a tea pot. Though possessing slightly tonic and stimulant proper- ties, it has not nearly the same exciting effect as an infusion of the roasted bean ; however, as it could be produced and sold at one-fifth or one-quarter of the cost of the latter, it might be a valuable acquisition to many, who, from the high price of the bean, are precluded from purchasing it. It may be sweetened with sugar and diluted with milk in the same manner as tea, and will then be an innocent, pleasant, and nutritious drink. * " Thus, while the public are supplied with a good and useful drink, the planter will have an additional source of revenue." The price of prepared Coffee leaves in Sumatra is about one anna per lb., and this price is remunerative to the planter. It could thus be imported and sold in England at 2cL per lb. Dried Coffee leaves contain about 1^ per cent, of Theine, Dr. Shortt. Of J per cent, more than the bean ; they also contain more of another characteristic principle of Coffee, Caffeic Acid, the only difference in the properties of either being ap- parently, that while the bean contains about 12 per cent, of fat and 7 per cent, of sugar, the leaf possesses but little of either. We cannot dismiss the physiological consideration of Coffee better than by introducing the following extract from Ferguson's Ceylon Common-Place Book for the year 1860, entitled, " Analysis of Coffee" :— *' The paper we publish below, cannot but be of interest and value to our Planting readers : Lime, if it could be procured cheaply and in quantitj", is, of course, one of the best applications to Coffee Estates, for it forms 60 per cent, of the ashes of the plant. Doctor Gygax, who analyzed the wood as well as the berries, was of opinion that one cwt. per acre of lime would generally suffice. The difficulty is to get the lime ; for, although excellent Dolomite abounds in many parts of the Coffee districts, the expense of burning, carrying, and applying has been hitherto found to be too high in most cases. It becomes quite a different matter where Planters are told that the Quartz and Gneiss, which are found on every Coffee Estate, are when pounded, valuable as constituents of manure. This accords with experience, for the finest Coffee grows amongst masses of Gneiss, gradually decomposing from the influence of the climate on its felspathic con- stituents. About 10 years ago Mr. Herepath analyzed 150 grains of fine West Indian Coffee berries, for the purpose of determin- 2 10 ing the best manure for the Weat Indian Coffee Estates. The results did not differ materially from those now arrived at. Deducting the Carbonic Acid, 100 grains of ash gave as their principal constituents, Phosphate of Lime 45*551 Phosphoric Acid 12*801 Potash. 16*512 Soda. 6787 Magnesia 5942 Lime 2*329 Sulphate of Lime 1*751 with small quantities of Sulphuric Acid, Chloride of Sodium, and Silicic Acid. *' Consequently," remarked Mr. Herepath, " for every ton of dried Coffee beans that is raised on a plantation, the Proprietor must consider about the following quantities of the various mineral substances, as having been removed from his land : — lbs. oz. Phosphoric Acid 27 14|- Sulphuric Acid 13J Potash 11 4 Soda 4 10 Chloride of Sodium or Common Salt... 7 Lime 18 14 Magnesia 4 1 Silicic Acid or Silica 5 68 5 When bone-dust, cow-dung, and wood-ashes can be obtain- n «d and applied cheaply, of course nothing can be better ; a little pounded Gneiss might be an improvement. Failing bone-dust and cow-dung, then recourse must be had to ammoniacal manures, (such as Guano) and to Lime. The Dolomite of the interior contains, according to Doctor Gygax, the proper proportion of Phosphoric Acid in the slia^e of Apatite or Phosphate of Lime. PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION. Extract of Proceedings of a Committee Meeting held on Saturday i the 20th November 1858. Bead letter from Mr. Walters, offering a chemical analysis of Ceylon plantation Coffee by Mr. Herepath, Analytical Chemist, Bristol, on our paying £5 fee, paid by him for Lime, and publish results of experiments when ascertained. Resolved, — That the offer be accepted. Extra/it from Proceedings of a Committee Meeting held on Monday, the 27th December 1858. Read Walters' letter from Here path, Analytical Chemist, on chemical analysis of Coffee. Resolved, — That the letter be published. (True extracts.) Alex. Brown, Secretary. (Copy.) Bristol, England, June ISth, 1858. W. H. Walters, Esq., Bambra Ella Estate, Ceylon. Sir, — I have studied the subject of your letter through 12 the Rev. Walter Marriott, and having made the necessary experiments and calculations, I have to report that 1,000 lbs. of raw CoflPee berries of Ceylon plantation growth contain as under, of mineral ingredients : — lbs. Potash 87 Lime 2J Magnesia 5| Peroxyde of Iron J Sulphuric Acid, 2| Chlorine f CarboniQ,Acid llf Phosphoric Acid 7 m I do not know the exact analysis of your granitic rocks, but presume they must contain a little potash, lime and iron, and possibly magnesia ; but the ash is too alkaline for me to think that all the potash comes from that source ; the principal portion of it must come from the felled wood ; the carbonic acid, of course, comes from the atmosphere, but the principal ingredients you require as manure I conceive to be phosphoric acid, sulphate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia. About 100 lbs. of Peruvian guano, with 7 or 8 lbs. of ground gypsum, 10 lbs. of magnesian limestone, and II lbs. of salt, mixed up with your vegetable or the ashes of the wood clearance, and some of your granite or quartz, pounded, would, I think, make a good manure for 1,000 lbs. of raw berries. I cannot calculate what would be necessary to Bupply the woody matter of the trees with nourishment, as 13 I do not know their chemical analj'sis, but should imagine that if the whole of the woody matter or their ashes were returned to the land, it would be sufficient ; but if any part of the vegetation is not economised, of course that loss must be made up in manure. I am, Sir, Yours respectfully, (Signed) W. Herepath, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, (5 Guineas.) CHAPTER 11. SOME ACCOUNT OF CEYLON, WYNAAD, COORG, THE NEILGHERRIES, MYSORE, AND THE SHEVAROYS, AS COFFEE-PRODUCING DISTRICTS. Coffee is grown in Arabia, Africa, S. India, Ceylon, Java, the West Indian Islands, the Brazils, Peru, and in the Mauritius, in mountainous regions where the climate is mild and temperate ; but as my experience as a planter has been entirely gathered in Ceylon and India, this work will doubtless be found more applicable to its cultivation in these localities, than in any of the other countries above- mentioned. By whom, or at what period, the Coffee tree was first introduced into Ceylon and India, is not, I believe, known, but that this occurred at least two centuries ago, there is little doubt. It is probable, that it may have found its way along the Coast, from Southern Arabia in Mussulman craft at a very early period : indeed, the natives of Mysore have a tradition that Coffee was introduced inMunzerabad orChick-Moogloor, by an Arab 400 or 500 years ago, as will be seen hereafter. It is stated that trees then of a great age were found in 15 the Coorg territory more than 40 years ago ; and in Manantoddy, Wynaad, a tree, supposed to be 30 years old, if not more, was discovered by a Captain Bevan, the Com- mandant of the small garrison of the place, twenty-six years ago, who thought the circumstance of suflScient consequence to be reported to Government. However, the systematic cultivation of Coffee, on the Indian Peninsula by Euro- peans, does not appear to date more than about thirty years back : but in an old book published in 1802, I have seen it stated that Coffee had then been some time cultivated in Arahiay America, and the East* and West Indies. Dr. Shortt states, " It was introduced into Ceylon by the Arabs, prior to the invasion of that island by the Portuguese. The Dutch introduced the CoiFee plant into Batavia in 1690, and at the same time commenced its culti- vation in Ceylon. On the cession of this territory by the Dutch, its culture was continued by the Cingalese, and during the British occupation of Ceylon the Mahomedan inhabitants bartered its produce at Galle and Colombo." In Ceylon, it appears to have been originally cultivated by the natives, with a very aifferent object to that which now forms our incentive, namel}'', in order that its sweetly- scented blossom might be used for decorating the Buddhist shrines ; and accordingly the plant was first discovered at Hangurankette, where there were at one time a king's palace, and a large Buddhist's establishment. From this nucleus, it had sown itself over a large tract of forest ; when the value of the produce of the plant had become known to the natives, and the Kandian kingdom had passed into the * Reference is here evideutly made to the operatioDs of the Dutch of Batavia. ' 16 hands of the English, a wealthy and intelligent native bought the entire mountain on which the Coffee was grow-^ ing, from Government, at the then upset price of 5s. an acre. This gentleman has realized, as may be supposed, a handsome fortune from his purchase. A gentleman residing on the Neilgherries^ informed me recently, that there is a wild description of coffee to be found growing in the forests on those mountains, and that it is well known to the Todars or aboriginal inhabitants. I have some doubts, however, as to the correctness of this statement, the probable solution of which, is that seeds carried from plantations by birds, squirrels, or other crea- tures, may have fallen and germinated in those spots where the supposed wild Coffee is found. Sir Edward Barnes, that energetic Governor to whom belongs the credit of uniting Eandy and the Western Coast of Ceylon at Colombo, by one of the finest roads in the world, was the first European who brought English energy and capital to bear upon the pursuit now under discussion, in Ceylon. His estate, which was first planted in about 1825, is still under cultivation, and is now managed by his son. It is named Gangaroowa, and is situated about four miles from Kandy, on the banks of the river Mahavilla Gauga, facing the Botanical Gardens called Peradenia, a visit to which latter, forms one of the pleasantest drives in the vicinity of the Mountain Capital. Besides this, there are some other very old estates in existence, Condesalle, 6 miles from Kandy, having been originally planted about forty years ago, and others near the town of Gampola about the same time. 17 These facts are encouraging to the intending speculator, as they tend to shew how durable is the value of property of this sort ; and, indeed, I have no doubt whatever, but that a Coffee Estate might, with careful cultivation, bo kept up for any number of yeai-s. Mountainous regions alone in India and Ceylon are chosen for this cultivation, and the Kandian Province, forming the mountain zone, and in extent about one-fourth of the island, is now the theatre of operations so extensively carried on, as to have earned for Ceylon the position of a Colony so flourishing, as to surpass all other parts of Her Majesty's dominions, in the quantity and quality of its Coffee. The Western Ghauts of Southern India, and their branches stretching into Coorg and Mysore, and the Neil- gherries, now show many a smiling plantation on their slopes, which, spreading industry and comfort into many a previously impoverished village, render the Coffee planter a benefactor of his species, well worthy the protection and encouragement of the Government, which his energy tends to enrich. It is my intention to give in this chapter a short descrip- tion of each of the districts abovenamed, and I will com- mence with Ceylon, it being of the most importance. The town of Kandy, little more than half a century ago the stronghold of a savage tyrant, now the centre of indus- try and civilization to a district which exports annually produce to the value of nearly one million and a half sterling, is 72 miles from Colombo, with which it communicates daily by two mail coaches. It is situated within a valley, and with its lake, churcheS; and villas nestling in the surround- 8 18 ing verdure, forms aii almost romantic picture of beauty. In this town there are many European and native shops of high order, which drive a brisk trade; two manufactories of machinery which ahnost render the planter independent of Sheffield or Birmingham ; two Banks of sterling reputation, and hotels which, though much abused, can accommodate a large number of visitors. The Barracks, which usually contain from 600 to 800 troops, and numerous visitors to the place besides those who are resident, give a dignified and stirring appearance to this little city. I must not omit to mention " the Pavilion," or summer residence of the Go- vernor, which is surrounded by tastefully laid out gardens. This Palace forms the scene of an annual gay entertainment, to which most of the lieges of the Kandian Province resort. Kandy is connected with Colombo by a most excellent carriage road, which is, as a work of engineering skill, universally praised ; this road, as I said before, was made in the government of Sir Edward Barnes, and is the more remarkable, from the satin-wood bridge at Peradenia, an arched tunnelling through a massive boulder, and the Kaduganava Pass. It is said that the old Kandian chro- nicles contained a prophecy, to the effect that their fastness would be lost to them, when the stranger should pass through mountain and over the river, and it was from a knowledge of superstition that Sir E. Barnes caused the road to pass through the rock in question, the bridge over the Mahavilla Ganga being, of course, a necessity. The different districts within 30 miles of Kandy, which they communicate with by excellent macadamized cart roads, are Cornegalle, Matella, Madoolkelle, Knuckles, Ran- 19 galla, Mada-Maha-Newera, Pusilava, Rambodde, Gampola, Cutmalie, Dimboola, Ambegamoa, Kewahette, and Maturatta, besides Badulla and Happootella beyond Newera Ellia, and about 80 miles from Kandy. The roads are kept up by Government, and about 16,000 coolies are regularly employed on them, under the superin- tendence of Commissioners and their subordinate Officers. Carts ply continually between Colombo and the districts mentioned above, supplying the estates with rice and other necessaries, and convey back the crops to the Coast, at the average approximate rate of 2s. or 25. Sd. per bushel for the rice they bring up, and from 7cZ. to \5d. for the coffee they take down. Rice of good quality, usually costs on the Coast about 5$. or 6s. per bushel ; adding this to the rate of cart hire named, the average cost on the estates is from 7s. 6d. to 85. 6d. per bushel ; it is, therefore, usually supplied to the coolies at a fixed price of 8s., there being sometimes a profit on the Estate books, and sometimes a loss. A cooly is allowed to buy fi-om the store one bushel per month, but other supplies, with the exception of cumblies, are not issued to the coolies on the estates. Labour is drawn from Southern India, the Districts of Madura, Tinnevelly, Tanjorc, Trichinopoly, and Madras, supplying the greater number, though Mysore furnishes a considerable contingent. The coolies are brought by Can- ganies, who are under advance from the Estate Managers, in order that they may make a small loan, for preliminary expenses to each cooly who enrols himself in their gangs. The usual time for their arrival in Ceylon, is between May ^0 and October, and for returning to their own country, between January and April ; many coolies remain two or three years in Ceylon on the same estate, while others will only remain one season : on most estates it is usual for about a third of the coolies to leave for their country every year in rotation. The ferry by which they cross at Manaar, is conducted under Government supervision, and facilities are also afforded them, of crossing by Steamer between. Colombo and Tuticoreen, Negapatam, and other ports on the South Eastern Coast, on the payment of a trifling sura. The legislature has provided just and impartial enact- ments for regulating the conduct of master and servant, entitled the '* Labour Ordinance,'* by which both the coolies themselves and their employers are greatly bene- fitted. The rate of pay for coolies, throughout all the planting districts, is 8d. per diem for men, and 6d. for women and children. The Canganies, or gangers, are paid in propor- tion to their value, either as to their ability to keep a large number of coolies in their gangs, or their influence and fidelity in working them ; some Canganies get as much as £5, and others as little as 15s. per month. Cingalese labor is always available for contract works, such as felling, clearing, building lines or stores, &c., and is cheap and satisfactory when thus employed; the native sawyers and carpenters are also good workmen. The Coffee crops are all cured at Colombo which is the shipping port, and works of the greatest magnitude and per- fection, are there kept up for this purpose : the general charge for the curing is 4s. 6d. per cwt. 21 WYNAAD. Wynaad is a District about 70 miles long and averaging about 25 in width, situated above the Western ghauts of Southern India in latitude 11*=* or 12^ ; it is bounded by Coorg, Mysore, the Neilgherries, and the ghauts in question, and is divided into North, South, and South-East Wynaad. Wynaad contains no town of any magnitude, though Manantoddy in the North, Culputty in the South, and Goodaloor in the South-East Division, ought perhaps to be so styled. The principal of these, Manantoddy, was for- merly garrisoned by native troops under command of a European Officer, and figures in the Despatches of Colonel Wellesley, in the time of Tippoo's wars ; there have been no troops here, however, for some years. The Cutcherry, Police and Post Offices, with a traveller's bungalow, are the Government buildings of the place, and there are besides one or two private bungalows, a native bazaar, Parsee's shop, and a Club House, which is the resort of the surround- ing planters, when business, sickness, or the desire for a brief social intercourse, lead them to visit the place. North Wynaad is connected with the Coast by three roads, which descend the ghauts at Terriout, Cotiaddy, and Perria ; with South Wynaad by two; one by Culputty and another vi^ Terriout ; there is also road to Mysore, and one to Ootacamund via Goodaloor. South Wynaad com- municates with the Coast at Calicut by the Tambracherry Ghaut. None of these roads are opened for wheeled traffic, except in the fine weather, during which season parts may be made available where the gradient admits of it. 5. 7 The coffee crops are taken to the Coast at Tellicherry and Caliciifc, where there are several curing establishments, by means of bullocks from the Mysore country, which are brought in annually for this purpose about crop time, in large herds, and the cheapness of transport or otherwise depends on the supply of cattle and the magnitude for the crops; the rates have averaged in the present year from 7 to 13 Annas per bushel, (lO^d to Is. TJci^.) Labour is fluctuating and uncertain, the supply being generally inadequate to the demand. It is drawn from Mysore principally, though many estates employ a resident gang of " locals." The Canarese coolies generally come into Wynaad between April and July, in gangs under charge of a maistry, as in Ceylon, and leave between January and March, leaving a far smaller proportion of their number, behind them, than in the same case in Ceylon. The coolies are quite free to come and go, the law not binding them to work for any specified time, except under special written contract ; whereas in Ceylon, a day's labour, unless express stipulation is made to the contrary, is con- sidered to constitute an agreement for a month's service. The fact of the excessive cheapness of food in their native country, which enables them to subsist for many months, on the savings of a few weeks' wages, earned in Wynaad, added to the natural sloth, inherent in the Asiatic^ charac- ter, are strong inducements to the Canarese people to remain idle. They subsist principally on a grain termed Raggee, four Annas worth of which will support a man for a week. Another cause for the shortness of time during which^the 23 Canarese coolies remain at work on the estates, is, that they are required to gather in the grain and other crops in their own villages. That class of labour, termed "local," consisting of Errawers, Adij^ars, Cooroombers, Punyars, &;c., is capricious and desultory, and although these people do the entire work on one or two small estates, they are generally the servants of paddy owners, either in this district, or in the adjacent one, Coorg. Long usage, joined to the traditional feeling of subjection, dating from the time when they were slaves in the eye of the law, as well as in fact, render them entirely subservient to their native masters and former owners, and hence it is, when paddy cultivation is in progress, few can be got to work on estates ; though when the works of ploughing, sowing, and reaping, are over, and maintenance would be only an unproductive burden on the paddy field owners, they are sent to work on the adjacent Coffee estates, where they are gladly employed. Small estates can get on tolerably well with this labor, and a few Canarese, who may generally be depended on, about the commencement of the monsoon, who will help to complete the important works of that season, and again return to their country, leaving a small portion of their number on the estate, at a season when work is slack. The " locals" are most profitably employed on buildings and small clearings. On estates where the principal works are extensions, how- ever this labour has not been found by any means adequate, inasmuch as it is at the very time, that a large gang is re- quired for pitting, that labor is not forthcoming, owing to the 24 causes named above ; many estates, therefore, have succeeded in introducing a sj^stem of contracts, issued to natives from the adjacent Coasts. These contracts are high, but when successfully carried out, are nevertheless exceedingly advantageous and remunerative. Being fully convinced of the total insufficiency of these sources of labour for carrying on works on an extensive scale, a Company formed for the cultivation of coffee, with great trouble and expense, made the experiment of introducing into Wynaad, 'J'amil coolies from the same districts as those which supply the Ceylon, Mauritius, Natal, and the West Indian labour markets : but notwithstanding every efiPort which was made to render them comfortable and contented, it was found impossible to induce them to settle down ; from the first, they evinced a dislike to the district, and finally absconded. This was only to be accounted for by the fol- lowing facts ; that this was to them a strange country ; 2nd, the difference of season, and excessive wetness of the monsoon, which produced dysentery and other complaints ; and 3rd, the comparative liability of all low country people, to be attacked by fever, on residing in these Hill districts, until acclimatized. I am still, however, of opinion, that labour will eventually have to be procured from this or some other sources, in addition to those already tried, in order to render coffee planting in Wynaad on a large scale successful. This cannot be done by one proprietor, or even by one Company however ; the planters must combine, and strengthen their object by their unanimous exertions, before this or any great and important undertaking like this, can be successfully carried out. It was said the other day, in a report on the condition of India, " the natives combine, the Europeans compete" every one knows how true that remark is ; if it were not so with planters, there is no undertaking, how- ever, at present apparently impossible, which could not be accomplished, either as regards the improvement of their own interests and prospects, or the welfare of the masses. This will apply to a community as fully as to a nation. To the planter who would repeat the experiment refer- red to above, I offer a few remarks on the best steps to be taken with this view, 1st. — One of the causes to which I attribute the success of Tamil labour in Ceylon, is, that from the great difficulty the coolies find in returning to their own country, they are compelled to be more dependent on their employer, who finds it his interest to take as good care of them as possible. A march of 150 miles by the one route, and some 80 or 90 by the other, followed by a sea voyage, lies between them and their home. Another reason, doubtless, is the extensiveness of a system by which 120,000 of their own people are, on an average, domiciled in the country to which they are going ; so that it hardly resembles a new country to them at all. There systematic arrangements for supplying them with good wholesome food, at prices which they can easily afford to pay, are made (and this they know beforehand) at a time when food is hardly obtainable at all in their own villages. All these arrangements, and former precedents communi- cated to them by their own relatives, who have themselves 4 26 tried the experiment, point to the existence of a grand organization and system, and the Malabar coolie going to Ceylon, knows as well what he is going to, as the Irish labourer going to reap the crops of England. This system is the result of the combination of the Ceylon planters, who will all pay their coolies alike, all charge the same sum for rice, &c., and all meet together as members of an Associa- tion which counts its members by the hundred, to consult and determine for the general good. 2nd. — In choosing a new field for supplying "Wynaad with labour, I think it ought to be at a considerable dis- tance, in order to induce the immigrants to depend on their new employer, and at once to reconcile themselves to settle down contentedly, to take an interest in and render their habitations cleanly and comfortable, and to make little vege- table gardens for the production of articles of diet for them- selves. Contentedness and a feeling of being settled and provided for, will tend more to render them healthy than almost anything else ; and, therefore, any course of treat- ment which will tend in this direction should be adopted. It appears that a gentleman who was deputed from Ceylon to visit Ganjam, to report on its capabilities as a labor producing country, made a satisfactory and promising return. Without doubt one of the greatest difficulties that will present itself is the name for feverishness which this district possesses, and that it proves very much so, during certain seasons of the year, cannot be denied ; this drawback can only be met by sanitary arrangements, such as erecting the coolies' lines on dry and moderately elevated situa- tions, protected as much as possible from the easterly winds, supplying good well-water, and enforcing cleanliness amongst the coolies themselves, and, above all, suppljnng abundance of good *^ boiled rice" as food. From what I have universally observed, of the treatment of coolies when sick, by planters generally, I feel that it is unnecessary to recommend that proper medical treatment be found for them, under these circumstances, as humanity and kindliness has already ensured them this, in almost every case. 3rd. — In getting coolies on lengthened engagements, it would be important to ascertain what assistance the Govern- ment would give, to render such agreements actually binding, what punishment would be inflicted on deserters if appre- hended, and what steps the authorities would take to apprehend such. 4th. — It will also be most important to recruit only among agriculturists, and persons accustomed to out-door labour, avoiding cotton-spinners, silk- weavers, cheroot makers, &c., residents in towns and especially Military cantonments. 5th. — The importer of foreign labour should take peculiar pains to ascertain that the agreements coolies sign had been first clearly and distinctly translated and explained to them, and to ensure this a competent and respectable person should attest the fact on the back of the contract, signing his declaration in the presence of a Magistrate, if possible. This is necessary to render a labour agreement binding in Ceylon, by the new Labor Ordinance, and will enable the planter to feel sure that the coolies have not been inveigled or induced to sign by false representations. This is the more especially to be guarded against, as the class of persons # 28 •who earn a nefarious livelihood, as native cooly agents, will not usually scruple to hold out all kind of impossible pro- mises to the coolies, and engage them on any terms, being quite indifierent, whether they remain at their destination, when once the commission is paid. If, after arriving on the Estate, the coolies find thej'' have been deceived, and that the style of work they are required to do is different from what they were promised, that they will receive less pay or different treatment, they will not remain, not till they distinguish between the native con- tractor who really deceived them and their employer, who would probably be quite ignorant as to the real causes of their dissatisfaction. 6th. — Maistries should be shrewd, respectable men, and they also should be made to understand that they will be paid in proportion to the strength of their gang, say 8 Annas per head per month, thus every desertion would cost them 8 Annas, which would make it their interest to try and keep the men steady and contented. Additional remunera- tion might be promised them, contingent on their general good conduct and length of service. 7th. — It is a difficult task in W3'naad, under present cir- cumstances, to supply quantities of '' boiled rice,"* on which it would be necessary to feed the coolies. This is not gene- rally used by the local inhabitants, whose food is princi- • ilice is described aa " boiled," when it has beeu boiled and dried, before being separated from the husk. " Raw rice" being simply obtained from the paddy, witliout having uudergone this operation. The latter appears to agree with natives who do not make rice their only staple of food, but with those who live exclusively on rice, it produces dysentery and other troublesome and dangerous complaints. 29 . pally raggee, or raw rice. Should an importation of foi'eign labour on a large scale be attempted, it will be, therefore, necessary to import rice for their subsistence from Bengal as is done in Ceylon. This could be brought by ship to Tellicherry, Cannanore, or Calicut, or else to Madras, whence it can be forwarded by rail to Bangalore, and then per bandies via Mysore, in the dry weather, to Manantoddy. A great want like this, however, would doubtless be met by those enterprising European gentlemen who have already established a considera.ble trade on this Coast. THE NEILGHERRY HILLS. The highest of these mountains, forms the culminating point of this part of India, and runs up to upwards of 8,000 feet above the sea. At this great elevation is situated the town of Ootacamund, the sanitarium of the Madras Presidency, containing several handsome private residences, a Club, Hotel, and several European and native shops. This place is the annual resort of most of the beauty and fashion of Madras and other towns of the Plain and Coast, the climate of which, during the hot season, becomes almost unendurably hot. Ootacamund is approached from the Plains by four ghauts, the Coonoor, Kotagherry, Seegoor, and Neddiwuttum or Goodaloor ghauts, on the slopes of some of which lie many large and valuable Coffee Estates. Labour is not abundant, but many facilities, such as good roads, a magnificent climate, and a rich soil, render coffee cultivation on the Neilgherries a highly profitable as well as pleasant occupation. :^0 CoflPee is cuUivated at a greater elevation in the Neilgherry Hills than in any other district, some estates there reach- ing as high as 6,000 feet above the sea ; this would proba- bly, in some seasons, be nearly the limit of frost. The chief port of caring and shipment for the coffee produced in this district is Calicut^ from which 30 miles or so of water carriage are available. MYSORE AND MUNZERABAD. Coffee is supposed to have been naturalized in this coun- try from 200 to 400 years, having been brought from Arabia by a pilgrim named Baba Booden, who established himself and a monastery near Chickmoogloor in the uninhabited hills named after him. It is most probable that from this origin sprung the coffee found growing in Coorg and other districts, before its cultivation was commenced by European planters. More than 30 years ago a few Europeans were engaged in Coffee planting in Mysore^ and the district called Mun- zerabad was established some 10 years later. The port of shipment is Mangalore. COORG. Coorg is a district some 60 miles in diameter^ situated above the ghauts to the south of Mysore. It is a native dependency under the Government of India, and is administered by a Superintendent appointed by the Supreme Government at Calcutta. Its capital, Mercara, called by the natives ^'Mudkerry,'* 81 is situated about 4,500 feet above the sea-level, and contains a Travellers* Bungalow, several private residences, and a fort garrisoned by a regiment of M. N. I., Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, and a very considerable bazaar, besides some European shops. This town being situated on the summit of a mountain, is approached by three very excellent ghauts, one from the Coast at Tellicherry and Cannanore, which are about 50 miles distant, vi^ Veerajenderpett ; another from Man galore, also distant about fifty miles; and the third from Mysore. In the vicinity of Mercara are several Coffee Estates, some upwards of twenty years old, and on the Mangalore ghaut, some eight or nine miles from the town, lie some of the most promising and well-conducted estates I have ever seen, to the extent of some thousands of acres under cultivation. Fresh land is continually being opened, and is rapidly increasing in. value. The labour is drawn from Mysore, as in Wynaad and the Neilgherries, but the rate of pay is lower, being only 6 Rupees per mensem for men ; notwithstanding which, the Canarese prefer this district, probably owing to the great abundance and cheapness of food. The lower parts of this district consist of Bamboo jungle intermingled with forest trees, while the higher hills are covered with a dense and luxuriant forest. The soil is generally rich and fertile. Veerajenderpett is the chief village in the lowlands, and its market is of considerable importance ; it promises to become a place of note shortly from the number of planters who have settled themselves in its vicinity, and I have even 32 heard rumours of the probable establishment of a Bank in the place, which would be an immense convenience to the planters of Coorg and a portion of Wynaad and Mysore, who are expending large sums in the cultivation of coffee. The natives of Coorg are a fine, spirited, and athletic race, generally supposed to entertain a friendly feeling to- wards the English Government, to whom they rendered much assistance in the subjugation of Mysore. The annual rainfall in Coorg is very great, being about 1 50 inches. SHEVAROY HILLS. The coffee plant was introduced into the Shevaroy Hills about the year 1820, by a Mr. Cockburn ; notwithstanding this, I am given to understand that cultivation in that district is still in a backward condition — weeds being rampant, and pruning but little attempted. Under these circumstances, it cannot be wondered at that the average jueld is not large. Dr. Shortt, one of the residents, informs us that there are about 5,000 acres under cultivation of coffee. The town of Salem, containing, I believe, about 40,000 inhabitants, is situated at the foot of these hills, and as the Madras Railway runs past the town, great facilities are afforded for extensive cultivation, both as to labor and transit. The soil in the forest parts appears to be naturally rich, and land may be had from Government for the purposes of cultivation, on the annual payment of a rent of one Rupee per acre. CHAPTER 111. TERMS FOR, AND MEANS OF PROCURINa SUITABLE LAND IN CEYLON AND SOUTHERN INDIA. To the intending culti viator, it may be useful, if I give some information as to the terms, on which land suit- able for the cultivation of coffee, may be procured, in the districts of which I have endeavoured in the preceding chapter, to give some slight description. In Ceylon, *' waste lands" can be obtained from Govern- ment, on application to the Agent of the district or province, in which they are situated, and within a reasonable time from receipt of this, the extent within the boundaries or limits mentioned in the application, will be surveyed. Should the block of forest be contiguous to grass land or Patnas, a certain portion of this will probably be included with the more desirable forest, and the whole will be adver- tised in the Government Gazette, with the name of the applicant, and in the newspapers, for sale by Public Auction, on such a day, at the Cutcherry of the district. The upset price for forest land is £1 per acre, though so valuable has land now become in Ceylon that one or two large blocks have been recently sold at £6.* * In Happootella. 3^ The purchaser becomes a freehold tenant, and the land m subject to no tax, or restriction. These are by no means hard terms, in a country where the Government has, by a liberal and energetic policy, both as to public roads and bridges, and protective legis- lation, rendered the land really and permanently valuable. In Wynaad^ the state of the case is widely diff'erent ; without roads, bridges or adequate ferries, in a country which a few days' rain render absolutely un traversable,* and which being inaccessible to wheeled traffic from or to the Coast, affords no easy means to its planters of removing their valuable and dearly bought produce. Where also the planter has no *' labor ordinance" to protect him in the employment of a capricious and dishonest native population, all of which disadvantages render the soil less valuable, and the prospects of cultivation less secure, notwithstand- ino" which the Government has rendered the attain- ment of land more difficult and dilatory, and the terms more complicated. In this district application must be made to the Collector, at the same time naming the streams, paddy fields or other boundaries of the land required : after this, it is probable, ♦ In the monsoon of 1864, the tappals were prevented from reaching Ma^ nantoddy for fourteen days, by the flooding of the river, the raft or " pandy" Having been vpashed away, and traffic entirely shut out on the Culputty side. At this date (July 4th) early in the monsoon, no tappal has been able to get in for five days from the same cause. Were the tappals to run from Tellicherry, no such stoppage could take place, as there is no river between Manantoddy and that port which ever becomes impassable. It certainly does seem surpris- ing that the Government does not take this matter into consideration : surely for such a large European community and native population, as that of Maiiac- toddy aud North Wynaad, a separate runner might be afforded. 35 trliafc in the course of some six months, the applicant may receive an official communication, informing him that enquiries are being made as to its whereabouts, whether there are other claimants to its possession, &c. Perhaps in a year the block may actually be advertised in the Malabar Gazette, and some time later put up for sale at the Cutcherry. The upset price is the cost of survey, but the land is sub- ject to an annual tax of Rupees 2 per acre, it being optional to compound for this, by the payment of twenty-five years' tax, or Rs. 50 per acre, besides the cost of survey, and any additional sum to which competitors may liave raised the bidding. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that but little land has been hitherto bought from the Government for cofiee cultivation in Wynaad ; a preferable, as well as a more prompt and cheaper course, is to purchase land from natives, some of whom possess large tracts ; the price asked latterly is about Rs. 10 per acre. Land thus purchased is free of tax, until it is cultivated, when the Government claim Rs. 2 per acre on all such part as has been brought into full bearing. Corresponding to this impost, but more equally distributed, a duty is levied in Ceylon, of one shilling per cwt. on all coffee exported. In Coorg, the Government's terms for the sale of waste- lands are most favorable to the man of small means. Applications are made to the Superintendent, naming the estimated area, situation, and boundaries of the lot desired, and the estimated cost of survey is deposited, (unless the land has already been surveyed,) any surplus of which will subsequently be re-funded ; the Superintendent will now 36 order the area to be estimated by the Talook aurthorities,, and then advertise the lot for sale on a given day in English and Canarese, and have the notice of such sale posted for three months on the land itself and in the neighbourhood, and at the public offices. The upset price is two Kupees per acre, to include all survey expenses : on the day fixed, the lot will be put up for sale by public auction, and sold to the highest bidder above the upset price, subject to an annual assessment after four years, of one Rupees per acre, and after (9) nine years, of Rupees two per acre, on the whole area, in perpetuance. In order to make the payment easy for even the smallest capitalist, the successful bidder shall, on the day of sale, pay down 10 per cent, of the price, and the remainder within 80 days, failing which, i. e., "If the purchase shall not bo completed by the 30th day from the day of sale, the pur- chaser shall pay to the Superintendent interest at the rato of 12 per cent, per annum, on the remainder of his purchase money from the day of sale, until the purchase shall be com- pleted, without prejudice, nevertheless, to the right of re-sale, if not paid within one year" Up to within a short time ago the Coorg Government made free grants of land, subject only to a restriction that a certain portion should be under cultivation within a specified time, and that then the valuable timber, as esti- mated by an official, on such portion, should be paid for at a nominal valuation. CHAPTER IV. ELEVATION, LAY, SITE, TEMPERATURE, ASPECT AND SOILS. That coffee will not refuse to grow and even bear crop, in countries which are assailed by frost and snow, is proved by the following narrative from Dr. Willich's Encyclopaedia, on the authenticity of which, he says the reader may fully rely : — " A nobleman in Germany found, in a bag of raw coffee, twenty green berries, resembling oblong cherries, and each of which contained two beans. In March, 1788, he planted them in a common garden-bed, two inches deep. In April it snowed, and was so cold, that the windows were covered with ice for two days. Notwithstanding this un- favorable prospect, five of the berries appeared above ground, in the latter part of June, and all the rest previous to the middle of July. They grew rapidly, being in a shady situation, and a soil somewhat sandy, but well manured. In September of the same year, they had attained a height of about six inches, and dropped their small leaves during Michaelmas. During the winter he covered them with a little hay, and afterwards with snow ; both of which were removed in the fine weather of April. In this simple manner, they were defended against the severity of German winters, and in the fifth year^ four of the little trees, produced 38 together seventy -six berries. By the inattention of tlie gardener, two of the plants died in the very hard frosts of 1798 ; yet the remaining eighteen were all in full blossom the ensuing spring, and yielded, in autumn, three pounds and a half of coffee berries ; the flavour of which was not inferior to that imported from the island of Martinico." Thus it is evident that extreme warmth is not absolutely necessary to the existence of the plant, but our object is to cultivate it in a climate where it will not only live, but flourish and bring forth fruit abundantly ; experience shows that this is only the case within the tropics. In Southern India and Ceylon, the elevation at which the estates are situated varies considerably ; some are found having portions extending to nearly 6,000 feet above the sea, while others are as low as 300 or 400 feet. Where so much diversity exists, it is obviously difficult to give a decided opinion as to the exact elevation which is most suitable ; the more so, as any traveller visiting those places, will have seen coffee trees growing, and bearing abundant crops, on the Sea Coast, at Colombo, Madras, Tellicherry, Calicut, &c.* In these instances, however, the trees are in the vicinity of native houses, and are probably well watered in the dry season, and I may, I believe, safely assert that the excessive drought, which in such climates, prevails for several months every year, would quite preclude the possi- bility of forming coffee estates at the sea level, unless, indeed, irrigation might, in some degree, remove the difficulty. * I believe that when Coffee planters commenced operations in Ceylon, about 40 years ago, they first tried the low country, about Point do Galle, but soon abandoned it for the Hills, 39 In the districfc of Cornegalle, in Ceylan, there are several vahiable estates having fields as low as 400 or 500 feet; in the Kaigalle district there are some between 500 and 1,000 feefc, and in the neighbourhood of Kandy, in the Doombera valley, lie some well known plantations which are under certain circumstances, the most heavily yielding in that island. But estates at these low elevations are subject to the very serious drawback Jbefore alluded to, want of sufficient moisture, and a dry season will affect them so seriously, as occasionally to prevent the trees bringing their crops to maturity, and even to kill many of them. It was owing to this fact that works for irrigating the Hajahwella estates, before alluded, were some years ago erected, at the enormous expense of between £14,000 and £15,000, which outlay has been productive of the most highly remunerative results. It has been ascertained that coffee requires a great deal of moisture ; and a humid atmosphere, combined with a warm temperature, will tend to produce the most heavily-bearing trees ; but the latter requirement must not be overlooked, as it is well known, that on very elevated estates, where an almost perpetual fog and frequent rains, give more than an adequate supply of moisture, but where, at the same time, the air is seldom warm, even when the sun shines brightly, the coffee trees though sometimes presenting a healthy and even luxurious appearance, if the situation be sheltered, bear but very little crop. Such situations also prove, in many cases, strongholds of the blight called the black bug. Hence, amongst experienced planters, few would advocate felling above 4,000 feet. There arc, nevertheless, exceptions 40 to this rule ; one estate in the Cotmalie district in Ceylon, and one in the Neilgherries, the former at 5,000 feet and the latter at nearly 6,000, forming the most notable I can at present call to mind ; this is, probably, owing to some peculiar circumstances connected with the aspect or unusually good soil of these estates. It is supposed to be partly owing to the great elevation of some of the districts of Ceylon, that the average yield of the whole island is so low as 5J cwt. per acre, the rate of produce in the districts of lower Hewahettie, Matella, Kallibokka, Knuckles, Eangalla, &c., being un- doubtedly much higher. The elevation of most of the estates in the five districts named, ranges between 2,000 and 3,800 feet above the sea level ; this forms good ground for assum- ing that at this height will be found more of the requisites of climate and temperature than at any other. In elevations below 2,000 feet, a new obstacle presents itself, in that the great heat of the climate causes so rapid a growth of vegetation, that it is extremely difficult to keep down the weeds ; this is so much the case, that whereas in some districts, at a tolerable elevation, one monthly weeding would be amply sufficient to keep an estate clean, in another, two would be quite necessary,* and in these days of scarcity of labour, this is a great drawback, the more so, that estates situated low are generally subject to malaria, a condition of the atmosphere, which, though suited to the coffee plant, is not conducive to human health. The life of a Coffee planter has thus one vast superiority * Such a district as Cotmalie, in CeyloD, is an instance of the former case, and Corupgallc, of the latter. 41 over most other vocations within the tropics, that his lot is from expediency, generally cast in a cool and agreeable climate, so that he is enabled to take that continued and fatiguing out-door exercise which his position calls for, which tends, doubtless, to render him the robust, manly, and genial being he is generally found to be. The temperature within the tropics at an elevation of 3,000 feet is, generally speaking, exceedingly mild and pleasant, exertion is not distressing, nor does a European suffer from that depressing langour, induced by the greater heat of the plains. English flowers and vegetables succeed well at such an elevation. During the months of January, February, and March, the mornings and evenings are very cold and invigorating, but the noonday sun is, on the contrary, the hottest of the year. In this season but little rain falls, and the thermometer ranges between 70° and 80^ in the shade at noon, in the sun it will rise to 125^. April and May are also pleasant months, though the occasional showers and thunderstorms, which now precede the advent of the monsoon, make it less healthy, though they tend to revive and freshen the aspect of nature, which, towards the end of the dry season, had become rather burnt up and exhausted. These thunderstorms set in generally in the end of April and in Maj'-, and usually occur in the afternoons after mornings of hot sunshine, causing a great evaporation of miasma and unhealthy gases from the ground, which are displayed in numerous cases of fever and dysentery among the coolies and others who by a low diet are particularly liable to such influences. In the early part of June, and, indeed, for some time pre- viously, heavy masses of clouds begin daily to gather up iu 6 42 the soLifch-wesL Loiizon, iitiul squalid and gusts of wind set in from the same direction_, and then a day or two of driving mist, with some angry thunder crashes, usher in the burst of the monsoon, the great atmospheric event of the climate. Sheets of rain now fall with a vehemence and determination unknown in more temperate latitudes ; violent winds roar through the forest, the sky is overcast with a perpetual curtain, and the climate is completely metamorphosed : with slight intervals of less inclement weather^ the state of things lasts till the 1st of August, when pleasant breaks of sun- shine cause nature to smile, after the beneficial, though apparently severe ordeal, and towards the end of August the weather of May commences again, and a condition of the atmosphere more suited to our imaginings of a tropical clime again resuines its sway. In selecting a SITE for a plantation, there are so many subjects to be considered, so many evils to be avoided, that it would appear an almost hopeless task to })itch upon one entirely suitable. To make up, therefore, for natural deficien- cies, additional attention is called for, to what may be denominated, the science of coffee cultivation. As a guide to the inexperienced planter, I shall commence by enumerating some of the most important points to be observed in making a choice. Whatever disadvantages or drawbacks it may sometimes be expedient to overlook, there is one which should, in all cases, be scrupulously avoided, and that is, a hleah, or exposed situation; for, though we can obviate many evils, a cold biting atmosphere and high unruly winds are giants which the art of man can only shun, not curb. The south-west 43 monsoon wind, which blows incessantly for three or four months, is an ordeal, which a coffee estate full}^ exposed to its influence, cannot w^ithstand. I have seen large fields of coffee abandoned in despair, after years of expensive atten- tion, and assuredly if the planter has been so unfortunate as to have fixed on an aspect exposed to this influence, he will find it a profitless investmeut of capital. "Wind injures the plants in various ways ; in some cases its effects are at once recognizable in the pinched, stunted, and almost frost-bitten appearance of the coffee plants, both as to wood and leaves, the former being hard and small, having, if I may use the expression, a precocious look, the latter crumpled also small, and tipped with yellow. In other cases the trees will be found denuded and shorn of leaves, on the side on which they are most assailed, forming on the opposite one, a growth more like that of the bushy hard Box- wood of cold climates. In some cases, the wind acts with a different, though scarcely less fatal result, as in situations, where, by excessive moisture, or from other causes, the soil is rendered very soft and yielding, it does not denude the trees of leaves, but works the stem so much in the ground, that in a short time, a funnel is formed round the throat of the plant, the sides of which, continually chafing against the bark, wear it oflf, and the plant dies. A plant thus affected, is said to be " wind-wrung." Should it, however, be rescued before the bark is entirely worn off, the plant will generally recover, but its growth will be found seriously retarded. In all the above cases, plants so injured, become extremely liable to be attacked by bug, worm, or any other blight, 44 peculiar to the locality. In windy situations, however^ pre- cautionary and partially remedial measures may be adopted, which I shall subsequently describe : these are the more necessary, as when the block is far inland, it is not always possible to ascertain from its aspect, whether it is sheltered from certain winds or not ; indeed, a very small clearing of the forest lying adjacent will occasionally alter the direction of the wind so much, that it only remains to remedy what could not be foreseen. Thus I have known an estate which for many years remained quite sheltered, suddenly seriously injured by the different direction given to the wind by the felling of a belt of jungle, on a neighbouring estate, or the formation of a contiguous new clearing. That wind should prove injuiious to coffee cultivation, is not, however, surprising, as it is found to be the enemy of almost all vegetation. There area few persons wlio have not at one time or other seen the farmer's crops laid low, from this cause, and it is a well ascertained fact that grass, though Nature's universal carpet, unless it be of a certain kind, does not flourish when exposed to it. Forming the only exception I know of, to this rule, is the Doombegas tree of Ceylon, which, it is said, flourishes best in situations where the* atmosphere is habitually the most boisterous ; its abun- dance or otherwise is therefore not a bad criterion as to whether the land is sheltered or no. There are vast tracts of the finest forest, in the high lands of Ceylon and all along the tops of the Western ghauts of India, which would be doubtless admirably adapted for the cultivation of coffee, tea, cinchona, and perhaps many other valuable products, but which will probably never be 45 disturbed, owing to their being subjected to the onslaughts of the monsoon. I have no doubt in my own mind, that this is one of those wise arrangements which an advancing science is daily dis- covering, and is calculated to preserve that moisture of the climate, which is necessary for the sustenance and welfare of the inhabitants. There is, I believe, little doubt that the cutting down of large tracts of forest, in any country, tends to decrease its water supply, so that we may suppose, that if these forests were all felled and cleared, this excessive culti- vation would prove its own destroyer, and the annual rain- fall so much decrease, that the vegetation would be parched up b}' long seasons of drought. So important has this subject appeared to the Government, that I believe a Scientific Commission was at one time ap- pointed for its consideration, which has resulted in various measures, amongst which are, I understand, rules for the preservation of a certain quantity of standing forest in each district above a fixed elevation, and also orders, by which headmen of villages are obliged to plant and tend young trees, such as mangoes, jacks, &c,, bordering the roads, which pass through their districts. That a sheltered situation is one of the most important considerations in the selection of the site for a new coffee estate, I have, I trust, satisfactorily shown, and I will now proceed to another branch of my subject, namely, the most favorable aspect. As I have endeavoured to describe the pernicious, not to say ruinous, effects of winds, and as the strongest and most continuous wind of these parts comes direct from the south- [46 west, it will be at once palpable that this aspect is the worst that could be fixed upon ; neither is it wise to choose one diametrically opposite, as this is subjected, for some months in the year, to the north-east monsoon. Northerly and easterly facings are the best, as these are not subjected to any direct violent wind, and the latter gets the full rays of the morning sun, a circumstance to which experience attaches much importance. We all know how an English gardener loves a southern aspect : this is because the cold bleak wind in England comes from the north, and in these latitudes the corresponding blast comes from the south. Those who have made the long sea voyage from Great Britain will not readily forget the cold gale south of the Cape, when the wild and disturbed sky, the biting air and groaning timbers, all gave evidence that they approached the confines of a region, cold, drear^ and inhospitable. When, therefore, we consider that the south-west monsoon collects its forces in such a quarter, can we be surprised that its influence, on tropical exotic cultivation, should be injurious, even were its blasts more gentle. The next point to be considered is, what is technically termed, the " Lay" of the land. That there are many estates situated on surfaces, greatly differing from each other and all apparently attaining the same satisfactory j-esults, as to productiveness, would at first sight appear to argue that this subject is unimportant, but a similar inference might be drawn that elevation was of slight consequence from the knowledge that some estates are situated at 1,000 feet above the sea, and some at 5,000, yet bearing equally good crops, but those who have read the foregoing pages will be convinced of the fallacy of this supposition. I will, therefore, give the reasons from which I deduce my arguments, and it will then be competent to the reader to form his own deductions. Out of about 500 estates in Ceylon, it must necessarily happen that there exists every variety of *' lay/^ and that some of these are eminently more productive than others, must doubtless be ascribed to favorable *'lay," as well as to other peculiarities. Out of the many different appearances which the uneven surface of a mountainous district pre- sents, I will describe some dispositions which appear to me to be the most favorable. Slopes are the general feature observable, they are to be recommended owing to their incapacity to retain any undue quantity of water, which would be calculated to render the soil sour and stiff; they are also favorable, as regards the quantity of decayed vegetable matter which the rains must periodically wash over them from the hills above, thereby naturally leaving on their surface many valuable ingredients of soil : but after the land has been cleared and cultivated, this liability to '*wash" becomes a very serious drawback, a^ matter which might have been retained ; when the surface was covered by a close and minute vegetation, would float off after it had been cleared and the soil disturbed. Thus, slopes, unless protected from "wash" by artificial means, become poorer and poorer when under cultivation. A flat lying at the base of high hills naturally contains rich soil, more especially if the hills which command it be covered with forest, as the decayed leaves falling during 48 ages on the surface above, are necessarily partially washed down and deposited on it, thereby forming a rich loam. There is also a great advantage attendant on this lay, that the soil thus gained, it keeps, and should there be sufficient declivity to prevent stagnation, it is the best that can be adopted. One will frequently find a tolerably level stretch of land lying on the banks of some mountain stream, this would be particularly advantageous, as the superfluous moisture would thus be drained off, obviating any danger of the stagnation before-mentioned. Swampiness is a con- tingency which would prove quite fatal to coftee^ and a sour soil in wet weather will generally be hard and im- pervious in the dry season, under which circumstances a coffee plant would soon die. An estate forming two sides of valley, unless the outlet faced the unfavorable aspects before described, would promise well, as each side would protect the other, from the wind and the stream which would probably flow between, might be easily made available for curing operations. One property with which I was acquainted, consisted of a number of knolls, or mounds, rising from the foot of a slope, and its extraordinary fecundity was ascribed to this remark- able conformation, the soil being thereby rendered perfectly sweet and friable. To sum up, I may remark, that from my own experience, I would recommend, as a general rule, that preference be given to moderate slopes, towards the base of a range of hills, intersected by numerous ravines, or nullahs, with run- ning streams, not only from the fact, that such a ^^ lay" is entirely suitable, for the reasons above given, but also 49 because it generally is not difficult to procure, in countries whose scenery is possessed of a mountainous character. But it must always be recollected that steep declivities are, if possible to be avoided, and that a slope as gradual and gentle as possible, is preferable to a perfectly flat block. CHAPTER Y. S OIL. Soil is a subject which admits of a great deal of discus- sion, though it is one which need not he made a primary point by persons who cultivate so great an extent of land as a coffee estate of ordinary dimensions necessarily covers- A good plain axiom is, that when the soil is dark in color and free from grit, it is rich, and, therefore, good for coffee, as for most other cultivated plants. Planters managing a heavily yielding estate, possessing a light red or yellowish soil, are apt to argue in favor of that particular colour ; others may have come most in contact with black soil, others with that of a chocolate colour. But in making a choice of land, the best criterion is the luxuriousness or otherwise, of the vegetation on it, in its original state ; for instance, in forests which have a thick under-grovvth, and which abound in creepers and mosses, it may be safely concluded that the soil is good. In making an excavation in land, it will generally be per- ceived that the tirst stratum is dark in color, and that the shade lightens as we proceed in depth, until it gradually becomes a yellowish composition of sand and clay; and the thickness of the upper stratum, or real soil, is the guage of the probable productiveness of the land. 51 To the practical cuUivator on a large scale, a knowledge of the chemical constituents of soils is rarely necessar}'-, but as a few remarks on soils generally may be found useful, I extract the following, which may be easy of retention and application, from Mr. Loudon's work on gardening : — " The leading soils for the cultivator are the clayey, calcareous, sandy, ferruginous, peaty, saline, moist or aquatic, and dry. Plants are the most certain indica- tors of the nature of a soil : for while no practical cul- tivator would engage with land of which he knew only the results of a chemical analysis or examined by the sight and touch, * * * yet every one who knew the sort of plants it produced, would be at once able to decide as to its value for cultivation. *' Earths, exclusively of organized matter and water_, aro allowed by most physiologists, to be of no other use to plants, but that of supporting them, or furnishing a medium by which they may fix themselves to the globe. But earths and organic matter, that is, soils, afford at once support and food. " The true nourishment of plants is ivaier, and decom- posing organic matter. " The constituent paHs of the soil ivhich give tenacity and coherence, are finely divided^ matters ; and they contain the power of giving those qualities in the highest degree, when they contain much alumina. A great proportion of sand, however, alwa3^s produces sterility. * * * * " Vegetable or animal matters, when finely divided, not only give coherence, but likewise softness and penetrability : but neither they, nor any other part of the soil must be in too great proportion, 52 ''A certain degree of friahility, or looseness o/texture/m also required in soils, in order that the operations of culture may be easily conducted ; that moisture may have free access to the libres of the roots; that heat may be readily convej^ed to them ; and that evaporation may proceed with- out obstruction. These are commonly obtained by the presence of sand. " As alumina possesses all the prop^ties of adhesiveness, in an eminent degree, and silex those of friability, it is obvious that a mixture of these two earths, would furnish everything wanted to form the most perfect soil^ as to water and the operations of culture. " The power of soil to absorb water from air, is much connected with fertility ; when this power is great, the plant issupplied with moisture in dry seasons. * * * * ^he soils most efficient in supplying the plant with water, by atmospheric absorption, are those in which there is a due mixture of sand finely divided clay, and carbonate of lime, with some animal or vegetable matter, and which are so loose and light, as to be freely permeable to the atmosphere. The absorbent jpoiver of soils j is always the greatest in the most fertile, " The absorption ought to be much greater in warm or dry COUNTRIES. Soils also on declivities ought to be more ab- sorbent than in plains, or in the bottoms of valleys. *• Their productiveness is likewise influenced by the nature of the subsoil, or the ^stratum on which they rest. When soils are immediately situated on a bed of rock, they are much sooner rendered dry by evaporation, than when the subsoil is of clay or mud, A clayey subsoil will sometimes 53 be of material advantage to a sandy soil. A sandy or gravelly subsoil, often corrects the imperfections of too great a degree of absorbent power in the true soil. " Stagnant water may be considered as injurious to all land plants, by obstructing perspiration, and thus diseasing their roots and submerged parts." I think we may gather from the foregoing quotation, first, that luxuriant vegetation is a sign of rich soil ; and also, that the natural growth of certain plants may indicate the character of its constituent parts ; might we not go a step further and say, that in selecting a soil adapted for the growth of coffee, it would be wise, as doubtless practicable, to observe closely the nature of the growth on land adjacent to some already made and heavily yielding coffee estate ; this peculiarity might be used as a guide in our choice^ as other land producing the same kind of plants, would doubt- less be equally suitable. Fine and rich soil must contain suitably admixed propor- tions of earths, moisture, and decomposing organic matter ; these characteristics will afford nutriment. Tlie next i^equirement is, the due degrees of the qualities of adhesiveness, fiiability, and power of absorption, the latter being especially important, in hot or dry climates. It may, in addition, be observed that as one of the largest constituents of coffee is phosphate of lime ; a soil containing much of this property, would be the most fruitful, and eminently suited to the coffee planter. CHAPTER VI. OPENING, COOLIES, TOOLS. In opening a new estate, the first undertaking will be the obtaining a gang of laborers. The next the purchase of a supply of tools. Unlike most other countries^ and, especially, unlike our own mother-country, India presents great difficulties in the way of procuring the first desideratum. This fact is doubtless, as I said before, ascribable to the lethargic and slothful character of the Asiatic of the lower orders, and to the cheapness of food. I saw it stated the other day, that in 1826, it was calculated, that in the Bombay Presidency, a family of five persons, could live com- fortably for one month, on a sum not exceeding two Kupees, eight Annas ; or five shillings — about one shilling a head, per month. This is doubtless not the case now, but still, I have calculated that a cooly in Ceylon can feed and clothe himself comfortably on two-thirds of his monthly wages^ and a Canarese coolie in India, on less than one-third. Under these circumstances, it is hardly surprising that coolies are scarcely procurable in sufficient quantities, or that when they engage themselves, they only work for short periods. They have no ambition, as a rule no desire for wealth, so that their wants flom day to day are satisfied, do they desire no more. What inducement have they then to oflfer themselves for hard work 1 At present, such induce- ments as there arCj are insufficient. To get a gang of men, the first step to be taken is to engage the services of a cangany, maistiy, or duffadar ; this can generally be done by the assistance of some planting friend, if not, employment may be offered to a native writer or Conductor on condition that he bring in a gang of coolies. An advance of a sum of money must be given him, to enable him to do this : but before giving him this advance, it will be highly advisable to obtain some security from him for its re-payment. When we consider the mendacity and general dishonesty, (especially in small things) of all uncivilized and uneducated people, more especially those of the lowest ranks, and the poverty which would naturally induce a man, whose sole worldly possessions were displayed on his person, to make away with a (large to him) sum of money intrusted to his care ; it appears almost incredible that the advance system, carried on as it is, should be practised, or when practised, succeed in any case. It requires however a very short residence in India, to shew one, that as things stand, it is absolutely necessary. Should you require a pair of boots, the *' chackler" must have an advance before he sets to work on them ; a coat, and the tailor prefers the same request, and yet the more we consider the subject the more iniqui- tous it must appear. In nine cases out often if the person under advance chooses to abscond, he is beyond the reach of detection. Suppose a planter in Ceylon to give Mootoo- samy Cangany, (probably Mootoosamy is a horsekeeper 56 out of employment, who has invested his last rupee in the purchase of an umbrella and a walking stick as the insignia of his new dignity,) ^^10 to go to the coast to get him a gang of coolies, Mootoosamy will doubtless proceed to the coast, but will he return with coolies ? Most probably not, the £10 will have raised him to dignity and affluence in his native village, and the deluded planter will expect his return in vain. Then when conviction flashes upon his mind, let him try and catch Mootoosam}^ where is the delinquent ? — echo answers " where f What purpose is the advance system intended to serve ^ Is it as a guarantee to the poor ignorant native, that the Sahib-logue will not swindle him out of his just remunera- tion ? I do not believe that, as a rule, the natives of India are afraid of this contingency, precedent shews them that such a supposition is absurd. There are, doubtless, cases where natives are so poor as to be unable to undertake works of a certain class, without an advance of money, to enable them to buy material. But I need hardly ask my reader, whether these are the only cir- cumstances under which advances are given ? And so it is in procuring labourers ; the maistry must re- ceive an advance to enable him to advance part of their pay to the coolies he engages. The maistry in question may probably have earned sufficient during previous service to have rendered him a wealthy man, for his class, and most likely he is quite in a position if he wished it, to make the coolie advances out of his own spare cash ; but, never- theless, the advance must be forthcoming, and ail the while the person who receives it, to use as much for his own 57 benefit as for the planter's has Rupees galore buried in some quiet nook at home. Canganies in Ceylon often receive £20, £30, or even £50 in this manner. It will be supposed that large sums are often lost, and so they are in cases where the cangany is a new hand, but in the majority of cases, where he has earned some confidence from his master during lengthened service, some of his friends give security for his return, or else his family remains at work on the estate as it were in pledge, so that losses are not so frequent as might be expected. Care is needful in the selection of the persons to whom money is to be entrusted, in this way, as they are sometimes apt to expend the greater part of the sum for their own benefit, extorting from their coolies exorbitant interest for the moiety given them, so as to repay their master the whole amount. This circumstance in many cases has been the cause of coolies absconding from estates, merely to escape from their remorseless and usurious creditor the cangany, while the manager probably has attributed their desertion, being probably guided himself by the cangany's representations, to totally different causes. Contract labor where available should always have pre- ference, since it saves supervision and anxiety. In Ceylon, no difficulty is experienced in obtaining trustworthy and competent contractors to undertake felling, clearing and burning, building lines, &c., who only require to be supplied with tools, and rice for the consumption of their men. These contracts are, for the most part, verbal, and ad- vances are seldom given on the work until it is commenced. The usual plan is, to pay so much per acre after the felling 8 58 is completed, and the balance on the clearing being handed over ready for culture. In India, the system is more abstruse, a written contract being there entered into on stamped paper, signed in the presence of witnesses, and an advance of part payment made, in order to render the agreement binding. In making these agreements, there are several points to be attended to, to render them valid. It is necessary to state the amount of work ; the rate of remuneration agreed on ; the date when the work is to be commenced ; by what day it is to be completed ; and the amount of advance. I believe, without an advance, no contract to perforai work is binding, by the Indian law. The value of the stamp is to be proportioned to the amount of the advance, and not of the work to be performed. These formalities having been properly complied with, a breach of contract is considered criminal, and punishable by imprisonment, &c. Unfortunately, however, contracts, as a system, cannot be said to succeed in India, at least as far as my Wynaad experiences go. Although surprising, it is no less true that almost any native will agree, and bind himself to perform any sort of work, under whatever penalty, without the slightest hesitation or compunction, provided the amount of the advance, which by law must be given, be sufficient to gratify a momentary desire, or stave off a present diffi- culty. To give success to a system of contracts, it should be necessary for contractors to give some material guarantee of 59 fulfilment ; natives cannot in most cases do this, and Euro- peans in contracting to get work performed, will not, because they themselves are liable to suffer from the very vicissitudes in labour, which the contract system is intended to alleviate. In getting coolies, no Planter is in a position sufficiently independent, to select the exact class of men he wishes to employ ; the first who come, and all who come, are generally gladly received : were this not so, the following remark from Dr. Shortt's recent work, might doubtless be applied with advantage : — " In the employment of coolies, powerful and healthy men, if possible from among the hill tribes, should be selected, if any be procurable in the vicinity, as they are the most expert in the use of the axe." Another reason and an important one, why mountaineers should be preferred, is that coffee estates being alwa3^s in mountainous districts, they would not have to experience such a change of climate and temperature as would be likely to disagree with them. Tools are instruments which are used in performing mechanical operations on soils or other substances ; in the present case with reference to the destruction or cultivation of plants, or vegetation : those necessary for the working and formation of a coffee estate are of various kinds, and as they are mostly of a different form and character from those in general use in gardening operations in Europe, I will proceed to give some description of the most necessary. Tools should always be made of metal of the best des- cription ; of wrought iron with edges of cast steel, and, if possible, of the most approved shapes and size'. 60 There is an adage to ihe effect that " bad workmen make bad tools," but one equally true might be composed, with reference to bad tools spoiling good workmen. Good implements also, are more economical, as they last longer ; therefore, though they are more expensive, I would always advocate the purchase of the best that can be had. " Mammoties" are a kind of heavy, short-handled, hoe, like an English mattock ; they should have handles three feet or three and a half feet long ; if required for digging, the blade should be heavy and strong, six inches wide and about nine inches long, from the eye to the edge ; if for surface scraping, weeding, or shovelling loose earth or sand, they may be ten inches Avide by nine deep. Mam- moties are used for any purpose for which a pick and shovel together, a shovel separately, or a spade would be applied in Europe. It is obvious, that for laborers who go barefoot, the latter instrument would be quite use- less. Billhooks, or "Uarcatties." This instrument consists of a large blade for cutting under-growth, or lopping branches from felled trees, or for cutting and dressing any green wood, too small to be operated on by the axe, and not requiring the accuracy of the saw ; it is sometimes sharpen- ed on one, sometimes on both sides. It may either have a handle three or four feet long or six inches, at the option of the laborer, or according to the description of work for which it is required. The billhook in common use among the Cingalese has a handle about four feet in lengthy is sharpened on one side onlv, and is much hooked in the blade : that used by the 61 local tribes of Malabar, is similarly shaped as to the blade, but with a short handle. The best form for all purposes, is a heavy blade nine inches in length, sharpened on one side, with an iron socket handle, into which a wooden haft can be inserted at pleasure. The axes most commonly used for felling, are long and narrow, as to the blade, having a round eye for the inser- tion of the handle ; those made in the English manner for square-headed handles, being troublesome to lit. A curious description of the axe in use amongst the natives of Mala- bar, is a wedge of iron, thrust into an iron-bound helve : but this axe is troublesome, being composed of so many different parts, i. e., the wedge-shaped blade, the handle, and the two binding rings. Axes for the planter should be of better material than ordinary, as many of the trees to be felled are of such very hard material that inferior axes break up in a very short time. The crowbar should be flattened at one end, and pointed at the other ; it is useful as a lever for taking out stones, removing heavy weights, loosening the earth, and cutting roots, in narrow pits which require depth . " Quintannies^' or mattocks, will be found most useful where the ground to be dug is hard or gravelly ; they should be sharp and heavy, the blade five inches by ten. A few grass hooks, or sickles, and some pickaxes similar to those in use in England, a grind stone, and some other few instruments which require no description, make up the list. Having procured a gang of coolies, and a proper supply of fools, the first work to be undertaken, is the erection of 62 houses for the planter and his men. For this purpose, a small piece of land should be cleared lirst — this spot should be carefully selected, and the following advantages be look- ed to ; a dry, healthy and moderately elevated situation ; a good supply of water ; and convenience as regards the future estate and the nearest public road. In making a clearing, the underwood and saplings must first be cut down by a party of men (or boys) armed with billhooks ; these should be followed by the axe men to cut down the large trees. Should the position be determined upon for the future permanent bungalow, it will be well to leave a few of the most picturesque and symmetrically formed trees standing, to add to the coolness and beauty of the spot. In felling trees, it is always well to consider that though two or three axe men can, in a few hours, bring down a fine old tree, having perhaps a growth of centuries, it is always impossible to repair the error, should the result prove a want of forethought and consideration. Five or six weeks after the trees have been felled, the debris should be fired, and after the burn as much as necessary of the residue piled and re-kindled, to render the ground perfectly clear. Operations may now be commenced by the immediate erection of lines for the coolies ; these may be run up in a very short space of time, from the ma- teiial abundantly provided around by nature ; next should be erected a temporary bungalow for the planter himself. It is a most important point, to provide the coolies with proper accommodation, and the planter should always remember, that though he may be ready to ''rough it'* himself, he will not find them so willing to do so. It is 63 not, however, necessary to put up coolie lines, of an ex- pensive or even permanent character, and this is seldom done on new estates ; the great object being to exclusive eternal influences such as wind and rain, any building which thoroughly answers these requirements, will be suffi- cient. In localities where the Bamboo flourishes, it is a simple and expeditious job to erect a house, and that in a manner which would surprise an artizan, in our own country, for in this case no nails are used, and, in fact, no material which is not entirely the production of the adjacent jungle. The principal supports of the house are usually not of bamboo, it being liable to destruction by weevils, though, indeed, if cut near the root, and then left to soak in water, a post of this description will last a long time. When bamboos are required for building, the natives always cut them when the moon is on the decline, as when this is done the sap is not rising in the bamboos, and they are consequently less liable to premature decay. The walls of houses are made of bamboo split into lathes and woven like basket-work, subsequently plastered with mud, to fill up the interstices. Several valuable descrip- tions of fibre, which abound in almost every locality, afford material for tying the roof; which latter, it is unnecessaiy to say, will consist of grass thatch. Coolies' lines are generally simply one long building partitioned off into different habitations, each division about ten or twelve feet square, having a door communicat- ing with the outside. Four or five persons will inhabit one room if it is tolerably large, and they are of the same 64 caste. Married people should be provided with a room to each couple. The Manager's temporary bungalow to be now built, will doubtless be a simple parallellogram, divided into three rooms, or even two, with a verandah along the front, each end of which can be enclosed, and used as a pantry and bath room. A building of this kind may be made very comfortable, and if put up of good posts, or '' wattle and dab," will stand for many years ; this being the case, when a " puckah" Bungalow is subsequently erected, the original one may be used as godowns, cook-house, &;c. In districts where the felling can be performed by con- tract, the manager will be in a position comfortably to pro- , ceed with the above works, by means of his gang of daily paid coolies, while the contractors are going on with the felling ; after the buildings are completed, a nursery should be made ; that is to say, if plants are not abundant in the adjacent jungle, or to be cheaply purchased in the villages. CHAPTER VII. NURSERIES. In Ceylon, in the vicinity of old Estates, abundant sup- plies of coffee plants of all sizes can generally be obtained in the forest, the result of the pillage of numerous tribes of monkeys, wild cats, squirrels, &c. Such plants, from having grown entirely in the shade, are lanky and delicate, but when cut off about six inches above the first feeding roots, they come on very well, and grow readily when planted into the estate : after this operation they are termed by planters "stumps." The best size for selection, are those whose stem is rather thicker than a common lead pencil, as they bud and take root much more quickly than large ones, and those which are thinner are more delicate and are liable to be burnt up. Where jungle plants are not to be had, any number may usually be purchased from the native owners of small coffee gardens at the rate of about 2s. or 2s. 6d. per 1 ,000. Under either of the above circumstances, a nursery would be an unnecessary and wasteful undertaking, but should the planter not find himself so fortunate as to have plants thus provided for his use, it will be advisable to com- mence the formation of a nursery at once, 9 C>6 The time of year at which the planter should commence this work, is about the end of October ; and at this time it will be easy to purchase a few bushels of fresh coffee for seed, from the firstlings of the crop on any of the adjacent estates. A bushel contains about 40,000 berries of cherry coffee ; thus, as each berry consists of two beans, it will be palpable that a bushel will contain at least 80,000 seeds : from this number it will be prudent to deduct 10 per cent, as non -germinating, and we then have a result of about 70,000 plants from one bushel of parchment coffee. Seeds should be taken from perfectly healthy trees, of a good description, and when picked should be quite ripe ; each berry should have the beans pressed out of it by hand, as, if passed through the pulpers, a certain number will bo injured by the machinery : they should not be washed, but mixed with a quantity of wood-ashes, which will dissolve the saccharine pulp adhering to the beans, and prevent their fermenting ; they should then be slightly dried, when they will be ready for use. The seed-beds must be dug up to the depth of a foot, all roots and stones picked out, and the surface smoothed over. The coffee may then be put in, either broadcast or in drills, and lightly covered with a sprinJcling of fine mould ; over this should be placed a layer of rotten leaves, about two inches in depth, and the whole well watered at least once in every three days, until the seeds come up, which will occur in six weeks : if it be practicable to water every day, so much the better; when the seeds have come above ground^ the layer of leaves must be gently removed, 67 The germination of the seed is thus most correctly des- cribed : — *' Let the seed, with its parchment, be laid only upon a wet soil, you see it open itself a little. A pedicle peeps out, an extremity of which leans towards the ground. Here two radicals are seeking and soon grasp their nurse. The other extremity rears itself up, loaded with the whole seed. In a short time, two follicles, almost round, and of a tliin yellow colour, unfold themselves from the very sub- stance of the seed, and shako off the parchment. The stigma or fissure seemed to mark their separation on the flat side of the seed ; and, on the round side, they seemed to be perfectly blended together ; but now they part of themselves. Thus it is the seed itself which spreads out into these two follicles, which turn green by the contact of the air. " From between them a ^mail top rises. Its point is acute and divides itself into two leaves, of lanceolous form. The sappling rises again and again, still in the same manner, bearing its leaves two and two, or axillary, at equal dis- tances, and every pair opposite to each other, above and below.'^ Dr. Shortt, in his work on Coffee, lately published, makes several very erroneous remarks in his instructions for tho formation of a nursery. 1st. — ''The land should be thoroughly ploughed up or trenched with the mamraotie, to the depth of 18 or 24 inches * * *." This is clearly unnecessary, as the roots of the seed plant will never penetrate more than a foot in depth, within the space of time tliey are likely to remain in the nursery . I have never seen the ground dug up more than one foot, and this depth I consider ample. 68 2nd. — " When it should be freely manured, at the rate of 3 to 5 tons per acre.^' A nursery on a new estate, such as Dr. Shortt is describing, would be on virgin soil, in which case manure would not only be a waste, but abso- lutely detrimental to the seed. 3rd. — " The seeds should be the produce of tre^s from 7 to 10 years of age.-" I am of opinion that if the seed be well formed and ripened, the age of the tree from which they are obtained is quite immaterial. 4th. — He says, they should be sown *^ at a depth of one inch." This is a great mistake, if an early and forward nursery is desired, as in this case, they certainly will not germinate under 2 or 3 months. 5th. — They should be placed " in drills 10 or 12 inches apart from each other.^' If this plan be adopted, let the planter calculate what extent of land would be necessary for a nursery of two lacs (200,000) of plants, allowing 1 00 per cent, of space for paths, water channels, &c. Lastly.— Dr. Shortt observes, seeds " seldom come up under three weeks or a month," this is not surprising, when we consider that six weeks is the time required in all ordinary cases. "While on the subject of nurseries, I must warn the planter, that if hand watering be resorted to, it should be done in the morning or evening, and not during the heat of the day, as the application of water when the sun is shining will produce so great an evaportion, as to cause a chill, and be fatal to the plants. The beds should not be more than six feet wide or less, so that a person standing on either side may be able to reach 69 the centre without removing his foot from the path. This is in order that weeds may be easily pulled out, or the beds watered without injury. They maybe either raised above, the paths surrounding them, or otherwise, as each method has its advantages in different localities ; in moist situations, the beds should be raised above the surface, for dryness ; and in very dry hot localities, they should be depressed, so as to retain the moisture they receive. Many planters of experience prefer to make them in the manner of a paddy field, that is to say, level, and below the bund, or path by which they are surrounded, so that a stream of water may be turned in on each when necessary. The disadvantage of this plan for a seed nursery is, that the rush of water is apt to disturb the seeds, and wash them into heaps. After the plants are once up, however, this is the cheapest and most expeditious method of watering them, (where the soil is not inclined to clayeyness), and they may be flooded every other day. If the nursery is intended as a seed-nursery only, it does not much matter how close the seeds lie ; but if the young plants are intended to remain in it for a second season, they should be 3 or 4 inches apart every way, and put in drills at regular distances, so that it will always be easy to ascertain the number of plants in each bed, by measuring the space they occupy. Thus, in a bed 6 feet wide by 18 feet long, planted at 3 inches apart, there will be 1,750 plants. In hot climates, it will be necessary, just as the seed is springing up, to erect a " Pandall" or shade over the nursery ; this can be done in a very rougli manner^ the best covering for it being green branches out of the jungle. This Pandall should be removed on the approach of the rainy season, otherwise the drip will prove injurious ; besides, the sun and air let in on the plants at this season will tend to render them hardy. In the subsequent up-keep of the ^' Nursery" from year to year, the best method will be, to make fresh seed-beds, and when they are 4 or 5 months up, transplant them into the original nurser}^^ which must be previously re-dug, and some new soil added, and, perhaps, a little rotten dung or com- post, but not too much manure. It appears probable tliat plants grown in ver}^ rich nurseries, would suffer from the change when planted out in rather poorer soil, and this is a strong argument against manuring nurseries. Some cultivators are of opinion, that the seeds should be sown in the same soil, in which the plants are subsequently to be grown, and that, therefore, plants brought from a nursery at a distance, would re- ceive a considerable check when planted into the new estate. CHAPTEK YIIL ON FELLING AND CLEARING. The appearance of a newly felled clearing in Ceylon is thug described : — " The sun was high in the horizon, when we found ourselves at a turn of road, in the midst of a clearing ; the spot we had opened on, was at the entrance of a long valley, of great width, on one side of whicli lay the estate we were bound to. It was not difficult to fancy one's self in the recesses of the black forest, pile on pile of heavy, dark jungle, rose before us. Before us were, as near as I could judge, fifty acres of felled jungle in the thickest disorder ; just as the monarchs of the forest had fallen, so they lay, heap upon heap, crushed and splin- tered into ten thousand fragments. To me it was. a pretty as well as novel sight to watch the felling work in pro- gress. Two axe men to each tree if small, three and sometimes four to larger ones : their little bright axes flung far back over their shoulders, and then dug deep into the heart of the tree. I observed that in no instance were the trees cut through, but each one was left with just sufficient of the heart to keep it standing. On looking round I saw that there were hundreds of them treated similarly ; my planter-friend assured me, that if the trees were to be at once cut down, a few at a time, they would so encumber the ground, as to render it impossible for the workmen to have access to the adjoining trees. They (the workmen) were ranged in order; all being readj^, forty bright axes gleamed high in the air, then sunk deeply into as many trees, which at once yielded to the sharp steely groaned heavily, then toppled over, and fell with a stunning clash on the trees below them ; these having been cut through previously, offered no resistance, but followed the example of their upper neighbours, and fell booming on those beneath. In this way, the work of destruction went on from row to row ; only those fell, however, which had been cut, and of these not one was left standing." Felling bamboos is a more laborious and tedious opera- tion, this is done with the billhook. The bamboo with which the whole of the interior of Wynaad abounds, is one of the most useful of plants. It grows in clusters scattered at irregular distances, sometimes over grass land, and sometimes interspersed with forest trees ; in either case, it forms a beautiful feature in the landscape, giving it a soft and feathery appearance. It is universally used by tlie natives for building, for which purpose, from its length, strength, and straightness, it is peculiarly adapted : they also fashion from it receptacles for water or grain, buckets, bottles, and also spoons, baskets, mats, &;c. In the Shervaroy Hills, where it is not so plentiful, I am given to understand that the planters, when making clear- ings, do not fell the bamboos, reserving them for use as required. This fact I am at a loss to reconcile with the feeling of the Wynaad planters, that the close vicinity of 73 "bamboos to coffee is injurious ; the correctness of wliick belief I am inclined to support. In felling them, the thorny branches surrounding each 'fi) 6 „ X 5 „ „ „ 1,452 „ }, }, ), 12 per mile, exclusive, of coure, of blasting, or extensive building up. 95 In blasting rocks, many bad accidents frequently happen, through the inexperience of those who undertake it; it may be useful, therefore^ and appropriate to this chapter, if I give a short account of the manner in which this operation may be safely and effectually performed. A substitute for it, when the mass of rock to be removed is not very great, may sometimes be obtained by making large fires on the rock till it is quite hot, and then suddenly dashing bucketsful of cold water on it, when it will generally split and crack in every direction. For Blasting, there are several implements required, i. e., jumpers for boring, and these are generally made octa- gonally of steel ; some good hammers, and long spoons for removing the powdered stone. Coolies are usually tasked to make 36 inches of bore in a day, though, unless practised at the work, they will not generally accomplish more than about 30 inches, in granite, or other hard rocks. When the Jbores are complete, clean them tvell out with the spoon, and then with tow, observing that no grits be left in. When perfectly clean, the ramrod comes into use : this is made generally of iron, though it would be better of some metal, which would not strike fire, when brought in con- junction with stone f along one side of this, a groove is in- scribed, in which the fusee may lie when the loading is going on. With the ramrod first push down into the bottom of the bore a ball of clean dry tow or torn gunny : next put in * Qun melcU would, I believe, answer the purpose. 96 ihe^cliarge of powder, in the proportion of 1 inc?t of powder to 6 inches or 8 inches of bore. Next take fusee, and, cut- ting it to a length of about (6) six inches or more than the depth of the bore, open out with the fingers one end of it for about a quarter of an inch, so that the powder which it con- tains may be made to come in contact with the loading, then straighten it and put it down along one side of the bore till the end goes well into the charge. Next put doivn a wad of toiv or torn gunny over the charge. Now take some sand-stone, and break it up, into small pieces, the size of the little finger nail, or of good-sized peas, and sprinkle this with luater till quite moist ; put in a small quantit}^ (about a tea spoonful at a time,) and knock it down with the ramrod, gently at first, but till it is quite firm and close, then put in more, and hammer the ramrod down on it till it also has become a part of the first, and so on, increasing in the strength of the hammering, till the bore is completely filled. Now remove all implements, coats, &c., fronj the vicinity of the rock ; open out the end of the fusee, which protrudes some 6 inches from the bore, lay in the opened part a few grains of gunpowder, apply a fire stick, and get out of DANGER ! ! Draining. Nearly all cofiee estates, lying more or less on hill slopes, the soil during the heavy rains of the monsoon is extremely liable to wash, and, to prevent this, recourse must be had to trenches or drains across the face of the hill : the more frequently these occur, the better, and they will not t)7 only prevent any .of the soil from being lost, but will do it a great deal of good, by lightening and sweetening it. If the trenches are made quite close together, they may be very nearly level, but in any case they should have slight ten- dency to descend, in order to prevent their filling or bursting ; if at an easy gradient, the soil will be effectualy retained in them, and the water may be made to run off to the next ravine, or nullah. The fewer the trenches ai-e, the greater will be the amount of water and earth which will accumulate in them. The gi-adient should never be greater than 1 in 12, and the trenches should be 15 to 18 inches wide, and at least one foot deep on the lower side. A few hands should always be sent round after a heavy fall of rain to empty them with the mamootie. On this subject, Mr. Wall, of Ceylon, says, :— '* I have no hesitation in saying that surface draining is the most profit- able operation in coffee cultivation. It not only directly ac- complishes a ,most important object in preventing the washing away of soil by heavy rains, but it also prepares the way for modes of cultivation which v/ould other wise become impracticable. *' It is surprising to see the indifference with which plan- ters witness the loss of thousands of tons of their best soil, by the wash of heavy rains ; and whilst they use their most strenuous efforts to improve their soil, they scarcel}'" do anything to prevent its being carried away. True economy suggests that whatever we may do to improve it, we ought at least to preserve the soil we have. Draining, systematically and judiciously carried out, is an effectual preventive of wash." 13 98 In swampy or sour soils, eoflfee should never be planted, as, unless thoroughly drained, the plants will die from the perspiration at the roots being checked, and their sub- sequent rotting. Draining swampy ground is an expensive and labourious operation, and should never be resorted to v^hen land is abundant and labour scarce. Swampy grounds may be turned to great advantage, by planting on them a succulent juicy description of grass, term- ed " Mauritius grass f this is an excellent fodder for the cattle kept for manuring purposes, and grows most luxuri- antly in swamps, which would otherwise be entirely useless. Mauritius grass is most easily propagated, it is a creeping grass and throws out root fibre from each joint which touches the ground. Under these circumstances, it has to be used with some caution, as, when taken out of the manure pit with the manure and applied to the coffee, it is apt to spring up in every direction, and is then very difficult to eradicate ; the only method being to put it into bags and carry it off to a distance, when weeding. To obviate this evil, a grass-cutting machine should be used ; this can be worked by two men, or be connected by a belt with the water wheel ; the grass will then be chopped up into small bits, of about an inch in length, and be less liable to take root. CHAPTER XII. WEEDING, FILLING UP VACANCIES. Weeding is a most important and indispensable work and must be early attended to, for several reasons. Cultivated plants should have the full benefit of the soil on which they are placed. Weeds have an exhaustive effect on the soil, smother objects of cultivation, and absorb quantities of moisture : being of more rapid and frequent growth than coffee, they rob the latter of that nourishment and mois- ture which it only should receive ; they also deprive the soil of that atmospheric moisture, which it would otherwise have absorbed. Another deleterious effect which weeds, especially of the grass description, have on the ground, is, that their roots bind the soil so closely that it cannot easily be penetrated by the atmospheric influences, nor by the roots of the plants. It should be remembered that in a coffee estate every shrub, plant or herb, not expressly intended for growth, is a weed. The means of removing weeds are, hy pulling them out by the hand, hoeing them up, or by using the hand- scraper ; and of destroying them, by exposing them to the sun and air, burying, or burning them, 100 In commencing to weed early, much subsequent loss will be avoided, and the work should be systematically pursued once a month, or oftener, if necessary: unfortunately, however, this is not generally practicable, owing to scarcity of labour^ and hence many estates are frequently seen in a deplorable condition in this respect. Of the methods of removing weeds above named, each has its advantages and drawbacks under different circumstances and in different localities. Weeding hy hand, should be practised on all steep slopes, -where it is not desirable to stir the surface soil, lest it should be washed off; and where the weed not being abundant, the operation will not be too slow : on new forest- clearings wliere the soil is not naturally sown with grass, and other low tenacious weeds, producing only sow thistle, goat-weeds and other tall plants, weeding in this manner is easily performed : each weeder should be provided ^vith a small sackj tied round the waist, into which he can thrust all that are in flower or seed ; the bags can be emptied into pits made for the purpose at convenient distances in the land ; or on the road, in which case they be subsequently burned or buried at pleasure. With the scraper J weeding is practised on steep slopes when it is desirable to disturb the surface as little as possi- ble, but where the growth is too low, minute and numerous, for eradication by the hand. From being much lighter and smaller, the scraper penetrates less into the soil than the mamootie. Scrapers made in Ceylon for this purpose, consist of a piece of hoop iron, about fifteen inches in length, bent round at one end and pointed at the other. A common 101 piece of hoop iron off a barrel, benfc into a curve near one end answers equally well. With the mmnootle. On flat level fields, where no wash is to be apprehended, hoeing freely and deeply is the best mode of weeding, as by this method the soil is also pul- verized, and the sun and air admitted into it. Digging up the soil tends more than anything else to improve its quality, and is, in fact, nearly as important as weeding itself ; it allows free scope to the roots ; and also enables the soil to absorb moisture, by increasing its capillary attrac- tion or sponge-like capability ; stiff, clayey soil particularly require frequent digging up, as, without it, they either do not absorb moisture at all, or, having at last absorbed it, are too retentive. " Burying in."" This is another and an effectual plan, where the weeds are high and rank : in doing this, a wide shallow hole is dug, and all the weeds for several feet round are dug into it, and the pit covered over. On estates in Ceylon, contracts are usually given to Can- ganies to weed, at so much per acre per month. In these, the contractor has to provide and pay his own coolies, and to weed the portion allotted to him, once a month. Contract weeding is an excellent system, and should every where be adopted where practicable : on clean estates the price varies from 1«. to 2s. an acre ; but on old estates which have at one time been weedy, and consequently contain seed, 25. Got. to 4s. per acre monthly. By this arrangement, large estates may be regularly weeded cheaply and without anxiety or supervision. 102 Filling up Vacancies. In all newly planted clearings, as well as old fields of cofiPee, many plants occasionally die off, leaving a gap ; these vacancies should be systematically filled up. Plants are killed from many different causes ; young plants frequently die from having been put in with the roots bent ; from a flat stone at the bottom of the pit obstructing the advance of the tap-root, from being smothered with weeds ; and from drought or else swampiness. Old trees are more liable to attacks from insects and grubs, and hence numbers die from the entrance of worms or grubs into the roots or stem ; from consumption ; from dropsy ; or from other diseases incident to all classes of plants. As prevention is better than cure, it will be well to avoid these dangers, which can, in the case of young plants, be done at the outset, by careful planting, good pitting, and keeping them free of weeds : for old trees, pulverizing the soil, careful pruning and sufficient manuring. However, notwithstanding every precaution and care, a number of plants will die, and their places must be filled up in the folio wing manner. The original pit must be re-emptied, and enlarged an inch or two in width and depth, particularly the latter ; this should be done in the diy weather and the pit left open for some time, being only filled when it is neces- sary to plant. In old soils, or when the vacancy is surrounded by old trees, it will be necessary to make a large pit, in order that the new plant may not be incommoded by the roots of the 103 old trees : and, indeed, ifc will be better to make a ring trench round it for this purpose if practicable, a foot deep and a few inches wide will be sufficient to isolate the plant. It will also sometimes be necessarj'- to put a basketful of new soil into each pit near the surface ; or should the soil be much exhausted, a few handsful of Poonac, pounded and mixed with the soil, will be of benefit : should poonac not be procurable, a little rotten dung or compost will suffice. It will be quite futile to go to the labor and expense of filling up vacancies, unless the ground round the new plants be kept subsequently perfectly free of weeds. CHAPTER XIII. SHELTER, PROTECTION, AND SHADE. Staking is a work undertaken to protect the plants from tlie effects of the wind ; in exposed situations the sooner this is done the better, though it is not required until the plants are, at any rate, 10 or 12 inches in height. For small plants in the first season, the lining picket may be used for this purpose ; but for larger plants a good stout stake S to 3J feet long, of sufficient strength not to bend, and well pointed, so as to penetrate easily into the ground, should be used. Should any particular direction of wind prevail, this should be observed. The stake should enter the ground about 6 inches from the plant, at such a slant that it will touch the latter at about half its height from the ground, on the luindward side. Should the stake be inserted amons: the young roots, it will do much injury to them, and if to the leeward of the plant, the latter will chafe much, get its branches broken, and its bark rubbed off. The stake must be firmly knocked into the ground with a mallet, so as to form an efficient and steady support. The plant should be connected with the stake by a broad band of 103 jungle or other fibre in an open loop, or figure of eight, of which the stem of the plant occupies one opening and the stake the other : the string must not be tied round the stem, as, if this is done, the plant gradually increasing in size, the bark will grow over the fastening, as I have often seen to happen. Should the stakes be of good wood not liable to decay, they will last two or three j^ears, by which time the plants will generally have obtained so firm a hold in the ground as to require no artificial support. For fastenings, strips of aloe leaf, the inner bark of many descriptions of trees, jungle rope, or coir yarn, may be used. Should the plant, before, or notwithstanding the precaution of staking, have got worked round in the ground, the best remedy is, besides the insertion of a stake, to earth it up some 5 or 6 inches from the ground. Some planters have a belt of jungle to protect their coflTee from the wind ; but the opinions as to the advantage of this course differ, some persons stating that belts cause the wind to form itself into eddies or whirlwinds, and thus to do more injury than if permitted free course. The European method in making plantations is to plant some quick growing shrub in rows to protect the young plants. Others plant hedges. I recollect a gentleman in Ceylon erecting a wall some 8 or 10 feet high of posts and brush- wood, along the most exposed part of his estate with much benefit ; these, however, are all expensive operations, and staking combined with low topping ought to be sujSicient protection in moderately sheltered situations, and an exposed one, as I said before, ought not to be planted with coflPee. In hot, dry situations, where seasons of drought are fre- 14 106 quent and prolonged, experience has shewn that coffee requires protection from the sun as well as the wind : the only practicable method of doing this, is by leaving them when felling, or subsequently planting trees, for shade. It is a well known fact that some trees act as a blight on coffee, if growing near it, while the proximity of others has a beneficial effect : as this is a subject not generally un- derstood, I will try and throw a little light upon it. It is, I believe, not generally known, though no less a fact, that plants give out an excrement from their roots perhaps ana- logous to the same process in the animal kingdom ; this would, perhaps, account for the injurious effect of the vicinity of some trees to coffee, as an excrement beneficial as manure, to one description of plant, might probably be noxious to others of a different species. Again, many trees, instead of delving down into the sub- soil for their sustenance, their roots are apt to spread about the surface, thus interfering with the nourishment and mois- ture, the full benefit of which ought to be exclusively devot- ed to the coffee. Thirdly, every naturalist will be aware, that many trees exhale noxious gases, which render the atmosphere delete- rious to other vegetation : this is especially found to be the case in Europe with regard to the elder, walnut, and labur- num trees. On the other hand, besides their shade, many trees have other beneficial influences which ought to be considered ; the cover given to the ground causes the vegetable matter in the surface soil to decay more rapidly, and thus renders it more permeable to the fibres of the coffee roots ; then 107 the continual falling of dead leaves adds to the soil the best description of enriching matter in large quantities, and as these are formed from nourishment principally extracted from the sub-soil, they add to the surface, for the benefit of the coffee, matter which the latter would otherwise never have reached ; besides these, the value of estates growing large quantities of useful timber is gradually per- manently increasing : the time will arrive when all kinds of timber will, in Ceylon and Southern India, be worth ten times its present intrinsic value, whether as for fuel, build- ing, or cabinet-making. The jack is the best tree for planting on coffee estates, both as regards the value of its timber, and the benefit its shade affords the coffee, in hot, dry climates, which climates are those which produce it in the greatest perfection. This tree, the Artocarpus integHfolia, grows to a large size, it resembles and belongs to the same family as the Bread-fruit tree, it possesses an excellent timber, which is extensively used for building, making furniture, &c., being susceptible of a high polish, and having a pretty grain. The jack fruit weighs from 20 to 30 lbs., and is wholesome, though course and somewhat unpleasant in smell and flavour ; it contains 200 to 300 seeds, each as big as a date ; these are farinace- ous, and pleasant as food when boiled or roasted. The cultivation of this tree is worth}' of attention, and I cannot name any other which will answer the purposes of shade for coffee, equally well. In Wynaad and elsewhere, many estates have the road-sides planted with the loquat tree. Coffee appears to thrive well under it, but I am not aware that the wood is oi any value, 108 in which case it cannot be placed in comparison with the jack. The loquat is a pleasant fruit, yellow, and the size of a plum when ripe. Trees when planted for shade should not be too close together, as they would then prevent a free circulation of air, which is necessary for coolness, and health of the coffee : the disposition of them should be irregular or quin- cunx, and the distance some 20 yards. One of the most heavily bearing estates per acre in Ceylon, notwithstanding that in many parts of it the coffee trees stand 8 feet apart, is thickly studded with jack trees, with- out which indeed the sun would have burnt it up years ago. With a view to make the trees throw out large leafy heads, and increase the extent of ground covered, the trees should be pruned to single stems, for 10 or 12 feet from the ground, this will also tend to produce large, straight, and valuable timber ; moreover, the rays of the morning and evening sun which are mild and beneficial, will not then be excluded. When travelling last year, I met an old French gentleman, who informed me that in the Mauritius the coffee and sugar planters use, for the purpose of shade, a very quick growing plant ; unfortunately I cannot ascertain its name, but this gentleman gave as his opinion that by planting this shrub thickly with tlie coffee, the latter might be cultivated with success in the plains. The most rapid growing plant I am acquainted with, which would be of any use, is the castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis or Palma christi), it will grow from iS to 10 feet in a year, and bears a crop of the seeds from 109 which the oil is expressed in the first season. Its cultiva- tion will require no trouble or care, but it will take a great deal of moisture from the surface soil, and neither can it be much recommended as a shade-yielding plant, as its foliage is not very luxuriant. Plantains and bananas were evidently invariably planted for shade in St. Domingo, and I am quite sure, from personal observation, that these will do but little harm in any way to the coffee if planted in it, probably they might bo useful, and do good. CHAPTER XIV. BUNGALOWS AND LINES. Comfortable, permanent, and well-formed buildings wil 1 not only greatly add to the value of an estate, but contri- bute to the health and contentedness of the persons who reside on it ; when, therefore, all the more immediately necessary works in the formation of a young estate have been completed, and a slackness of work succeeds for a time before the coffee comes into " full bearing," a bungalow for the Manager, and lines for the coolies, of a substantial and *^ pukka" character, should be erected. *' Pukka" buildings are also really more economical than temporary ones, which require that endless repair and reno- vation which run away with so much labour and money year by year. I have seen given as the proper definition of a bungalow, a substantial, verandahed, one-storied place of residence : such a building may be built of various material, and in many different styles, and as its erection is an expensive and laborious undertaking, the subject should receive consi- derable previous attention. Of the different materials of which the walls may be Ill made, I may mention the following, namely, stone and mortar, bricks and mortar, bricks or stone and mud : bricks maybe either sun-dried or burnt, if the former process only is resorted to they will readily crumble away if at all subjected to the influence of damp or wet — wattle and mud, and, lastly, wooden boards. The strongest houses are undoubtedly those which are composed of stone and mortar, but they are also the most expensive and tedious of erection, involving generally im- mense outlay in coolie labor for collecting and carrying the stones, of which a much greater quantity are required than would be the case in other materials, for the reason that walls of undressed stone should not be less than one foot and a half thick. In stone-walls, all the door- ways and windows should be arched ; the arches may be made of bricks, if such are procurable. The expense of erecting a bungalow of these materials can only be determined or estimated by a knowledge of the distance at which suitable stone is found, and the means which are available for its conveyance to the required spot. Bricks, in my opinion, form the most preferable material for house building : they are cheap, strong, easily carried and built, and may be made from almost any soil ; a com- mon mason will lay from 4 to 500 large sized bricks each weighing 7 lbs. : of which, a coolie will carry 8 ; bricks of this weight will be about lOJ x 5 J X 3J inches in size. The tests of good bricks, are their freedom from cracks, their hardness, and uniformity of size, also their giving out a ringing sound when struck, and their not much increasing in weight by immersion in water. 11-2 An useful pamphlet on this subject, applicable to the Madras Presidency, has afforded me some of the useful hints on brick-making which I give below. The best size is, length 8| inches, breadth 4J, and depth 2, each brick with the mortar quarter inch joint, will then occupy 9 X 4 J X t2J inches. Thicker bricks would be better, if they could be equally well burned, both as regards the smaller number required, and their smaller liability to be broken, in carrying from the works to the kiln. The best brick earth consists of a mixture of pur6 clay and sand, free from stones ; five parts of clay, to one of sand being the best proportion : earth of this quality and of these proportions, will often be found in its natural state ; but bricks may be made of almost any description of earth, pro- vided it is free from pebbles and is not too sandy. It is a good plan to break up the soil intended for brick- making, some months before its being used, as by this means it mellows. The tempering is usually performed by men treading the clay mixed with water under their feet, but the treading may be better done by bufialoes or any other cattle, or by elephants.* The piece of ground, the soil of which it is intended to use, "having been well cleared, it is dug up to the deptli of a foot, and as much water as possible turned in upon it over night : the next morning turn in the cattle and let them tramp through it for, at least, two hours ; then let in some more water, and leave the mud till next day, or if time is wanting and this cannot be done, then repeat the tramping * As in Kandy. 113 at once, and continue it until tlie earth is in a homogeneous paste. Only use sufficient water to make the clay plastic for the moulder ; the next operation is to level and smooth off a bit of ground adjacent, on which the bricks when moulded may be laid. The moulds should be of wood, bound with iron, and in such a form as to admit of making two bricks at once ; they should also be a little larger than the intended size of the bricks, in order to allow for the shrinking of the clay in the burning. The manner in which the mould is applied is aa follows : first dip it in water, place it on the ground, and then dab in the wet clay : press this well in> smoothing the top with the wet hand, and remove any superfluous clay, then lift up the mould gently, and having removed it a few inches further on, repeat the process. The bricks must now be thoroughly, but gradually dried, and with the latter view they should be protected from the sun and wind. When half dry, take them and scrape off any dirt that has adhered and lay them on their aides. To hum the bricks, level a square piece of ground, Jay down two layers of bricks in rows, with a space of one brick between each j in this space place firewood, and also above the bricks to the heighth of, say, six inches : next, place others diagonally in two layers as before, and again firewood six inches deep : now two courses of bricks on edge, above which place nine inches of firewood. The clamp may then be raised six or eight feet high, with one foot of firewood to every four layers of bricks. As the clamp is increasing in height, build a wall round it, of sufficient strength to pre- vent the bricks falling out as the wood is consumed. The 15 114 bricks should not be packed too close together, and the fire should be lighted to windward, after which plaster up the top and sides with nmd. A large clamp of one lac of bricks would take a week to burn, bub a smaller one a lesser period. After the fire has gone out, the bricks should be allowed to cool for a week before the clamp is opened. For Tile-maJcLng, the clay should be prepared in the same manner as for bricks, if anything, more carefully tempered-, and the earth required more clayey ; they are moulded flat, and then bent over a semi-cylindrical piece of wood, off which they are gently slid on to the ground where they are left to dry. Another method is as follows : the clay is dabbed unto the mould, which is previously sprinkled with brick dust or sand, the superfluous clay having been removed, the contents of the mould are pressed in and smoothed over with a flat piece of wood, and the newly made tile then })laced on one previously ready made; it is then sprinkled with dust and the next placed on it, and so on, until a heap is collected. The heaps are left till next day and then re-bent and gently laid one hy one on the ground to become thoroughly dry. Tiles are burnt in a circular kiln, and must be carefully packed and slowly burned. " Wattle and Dab'' is a cheap, expeditious, and neat mode of building, which, if well done, will stand for a great number of years : the posts and lathes may be either of sawn timber, or be taken direct from the jungle; if of the former, the building will have a much better and more angular appearance. The posts should have a space of six 115 inches between them, and the transverse lathes which are opposite to each other on both sides, the same. These lathes may be either tied or nailed to the posts, after which all the interstices and spaces filled up with well tempered mud, and a good-sized stone pushed into each square of mud. After the first application of mud has thoroughly dried, another coating should be applied, covering all the wood work ; when this is also dry, the wall may be properly plastered with mortar, and will then have quite as good an appearance as brick work. I have seen bungalows of this description in localities abounding with white ants, which had nevertheless stood for upwards of 30 years.* And I account for the fact in the following manner — by a wonderful provision of nature white ants seldom eat away a post without leaving enough of it to ensure its stability, and they also deposit a sort of substitute for what they consume, probably with a view to preventing a destruction in which they themselves would be involved ; hence, though walls of this kind, in tropical climates, lose most of the wood work in a course of years, the}'' are not necessarily much weakened, as the mud work is sufficient to support itself on its own basis when hardened by time. In Ceylon there are one or two descriptions of timber which are proof against the attacks of white ants ; and in the Wynaad, blackwood, kino, and mutty, all of which kinds are abundant, have the same advantage. Wooden houses have the disadvantage of being too com- bustible. * CondcBalle, near Kandy. 116 I was almost omitting to mention the most common material of which buildings in Ceylon and Southern India are erected on the Sea Coast, and in some other localities, namely, Later ite or Cabook. This is a peculiar sort of de- composed rock, or perhaps it may be most correctly described as a- peculiar sort of clay, which becomes petrified by exposure. It is excavated at about 6 to 10 feet below the surface, in bricks of about 15x9x6 inches in size, and when exposed to dry in the sun for a time, these bricks, though originally sufficiently soft to be cut with an axe or a trowel, become tjuite hard, and make good substantial walls which become iirmer and stronger by age. Hoofs may be made of gi^ass thatch, ^'cadjans," or the plaited leaves of the cocoauut tree, shingles, tiles, or iron sheets. Thatch is generally the easiest attained on a Coffee estate, and as it affords the coolest roof, is the most commonly used : but its disadvantages are its great liability to combustion, and the necessity for putting on a fresh coat every year. " Cadjans'^ make a very cool and water-tight roof, but are only procurable in localities where the cocoanut tree flourishes. Shingles are strips of wood split into narrow boards of a certain length and nailed side by' side much in the same paanner as stated : they are, if made from good timber, a durable and water-tight covering. Any straight grained tree, not liable to rot, may be selected for making shingles, and the manner in which they are made is as follows : — A straight stem having been selected not more than 15 or 18 117 inches in diameter, it should be sawn into lengths of 22 inches : these should be split into such segments as will afford the greatest number of shingles, and this will be re- solved by the judgment of the workman. Two men will be en I ^ &4 o o o o o < o o o o "^ o oo o o o o o o o CO 00 O 00 c» Tt >c. t^ rH CM TJ4 05 '' ' ' '^ § 03 i :^ -^^ © © ^ JdO -J3 ^ ^ ^ 00 w ^ o >^ o. ^^ p :S 13 s-si £3 o. -»^ S i^ S |.2 ^ :^ :^'§^ «j >H a > flH § {>» M :^ :; K ~ ^ ooooco o" o l» "o" < CM iS<^^^fO cq" CO ■^ 00- cd^ »ff r-i rH 1— t r— 1 rm 1— 1 00 Oi ~co' "oTo • • 2 - ^ - ^ 03 3 P^ o § 1 1 S' ^ ^ P5 (^ (>) ^ n i TS 1 ^'^tS^^ OT S3 o 03 ■s 03 a t< ^ :5 — 1 C^ CO ""^t m ^ 'ee © !^ 1 a 'S g O j:j ;:J «3 S S © i 3 03 f > O o PmCQ Ph o ^ ^ .^ ^ ^ El - -> - - s •^ •^ a ^ a5 185 At the end of six years, the estate in thoroughly good order, i. e., perfectly free of weeds, all vacancies annually supplied, and well pruned, would, at the present valuation, be worth at least Rupees 500 per acre, or Es. 100^000. We thus find, that to plant and carefully cultivate for six years, two hundred acres of land, bringing the whole into full bearing, will cost about X^9,000, against which outlay a I'etnrn by the value of crops may be expected, of about £9,500. After this period, the probable working expenses, including Manager's salary, &;c., will perhaps amount to ri£*2,000 per annum, and the crop to 1,600 cwts. ; but putting the crops at 7 cwts. an acre only, or 1,400 cwts., worth at 6Q shillings per cwt. nett c^3,920, we have an annual profit of £1,920. I think the above figures will be found as nearly correct as any es^tma^e can be, though, in the actual carrying out of the theories above given, some variations would, of course, be experienced ; in some cases the difference might be in favor of the planter, in others, adverse ; my object has not been to show that in ordinary cases the profits result- ing from coffee cultivation " will be something fabulous,"^ as actual experience has shewn, that much care, hard lab)ur, and expense must be incurred before a handsome profit can be expected ; and it not unfrequently happens that, notwithstanding all these advantages, estates yield little but anxiety and disappointment to their owners, owing to bad soil, an exposed situation, too great an eleva- tion, or loant of labor, * Dr. Shortt; 24 186 Estimate For the cost of picrchasing 200 acres of land in Ceylon, and bringing it into full hearing of coffee, calculated on the basis of labourer's pay being Sd. per diem for men, 6d. per diem for women and children. First Year, October 1st to September SOth. £ s. d, £ s, d. Purchase of 200 acres forest 400 Felling, burning, and clearing 50 acres at contract rate, £2-5 per acre 112 10 Lining out 50 acres, at 5s, per acre. 12 10 Holing 72,600 holes, at 30 holes perScZ 80 13 4 Filling do. do. 120 do. do. 8(Z... 20 3 4 Plants, 72,600, at 35. per 1,000. . 10 18 Planting, at 200 per 8^ 12 2 Eoads, one mile. 12 260 16 8 Weeding during 7 months, 10s. per acre , 25 3 dozen Axes,2dozen Bill-hooks^ 50 Mamoties, 50 Crowbars, 1 dozen Grass-hooks, 1 Grindstone 26 Rice and tool-store, lines, and Conductor's house, all of tempo- rary nature 45 96 1S7 £ s. cl £ s. d, Maistiies', Canganies' pay 27 8 Conductor's pay 36 Medical expenses and contingencies. 82 1 145 9 X902 5 8 Second Year. £ s. d. £ s. iL Weeding 50 acres, 12 months' con- tract.. 50 Filling up vacancies by failures 9 4? 8 Thatching and repairing lines, &c.. 10 O Repairing roads , 5 Draining 7 10 81 14 8 Felling, burning, and clearing 50 acres 112 10 Lining out 50 acres, at 5s. per acre 12 10 Holing 72,600 holes, at SO holes per 8c?.. 80 13 4 Filling do. at 120 do. Sd. 20 8 4 Plants 10 18 Planting at 200, 8d - 12 2 Roads, one mile ,....»... 12 "Weeding 50 acres new to 80th Sept. 25 286 16 8 188 £ s. d. Canganies' pay. , 34 3 9 Conductor's pay 36 Medical expenses and contingencies 41 111 9 9 -£^480 1 1 Third Year. £ s. cL £ s. d. Weeding 100 acres, at £1 per acre 100 Filling up vacancies 13 17 New set of lines for coolies 50 Reparing old do. 6 Kepairing roads and draining 20 Topping and handling 100 acres 25 214 17 Purchase of new tools 18 Contract for pulping house, store and pulpers — (buildings tempo- rary) 150 Gathering 200 cwts. crop at 8c?. per bushel 66 13 4 Curing do. lOd. percvvt... 8 6 8 Despatch do. to Colombo 41 13 4 284 13 4 Felling, burning, clearing, lining, holing, filling, plants, planting, • weeding and roads for 50 acres, former rates 286 16 8 I8y £ s. d. £ s. it Conductor's pay 48 Canganies* wages 65 113 Medical expenses and contingencies 90 16 £990 2 Fourth Year. £ s. (I Weeding 150 acres, at £1 per acre... 150 Filling up vacancies ., 18 9 4 Thatching and repairing buildings.. 25 Superintendent's bungalow 200 Repairing and making roads 25 Gathering 600 cwts. of crop at 6c^. per bushel 150 Curing 600 do 25 Despatch do. to Colombo 125 Mats and bags ^o Pruning and handling 77 850 9 4 Felling, burning, clearing, lining, holing, filling, plants, planting, weeding, and roads for 50 acres, at former rates. This makes up 200 acres 286 16 8 Canganics' and Conductor's wages. 116 10 Medical expenses and contingencies 118 8 235 2 £1,372 8 190 £ s. d. £ s. d. Fifth Year. Weeding 200 acres, at £1 200 Filling up vacancies „ 23 1 8 Thatching and repairing buildings. 30 Repairing roads and draining 50 Handling and pruning 115 Purchase of cattle, 75 head at 25s... 93 15 Building cattle-shed 50 Keep of stock 36 ' 597 16 8 Gathering 1,000 cwts. coffee at 6cZ. per bushel 250 Curing do. do 41 13 4 Despatch to Colombo of the same... 208 6 8 l,000bags,&c 25 Canganies' and Conductor's wages. 113 12 Medicalexpenses and contingencies. 121 6 525 234 18 Jl,357 14 8 191 CQ o c o c o p m o c c -* c O ; "1 c oc g ^ >c «> OC ^ 03 -<-> ^ X. O o > ^ ^. •^ «c ts « c pC e3 ■*s t' .B ■» " c H ^.^ -s :S :S t o" cc "^ ifi JS .E ^ ^ u o c R f; g . Ph s > -i ^ V--- PC ^ '* o "oc ^ *= ■"■"qc o "3 -pr- j r-l' t^ r^i u: ,_, oq 00 ■^ o o ~o 00 1 o » r-» 1 1 "^ c c cq 1^ ^ «o ~~^ "8 j~C. 1 ^ oc O" t- O Q o •^ o id CO ' -^ B T» cr w CO^ lO^ ~. : «^ s CO » n ^ cu g ^ 8 >. O r- 1 > i 1 1 1 1 ^ 5 :5 5 d o 1 1 8 CO 5 ^ ^ ^ (4-1 o 1 § c 1 1 d C I ^ •\ •^ 1 xn < > b ^ •^ '» '■ f^ ^ •^ 7^ - 192 It will be noticed, in comparing fclie two estimates for Wynaad and Ceylon, that the cost of opening land in the former, slightly exceeds that in the latter, notwithstanding that the price of labour in Wynaad is only 4 annas (6d.) against Sd. in Ceylon. This is accounted for, by a great saving on several items, some of which I shall enumerate. In the first place, I have not thought it advisable to put down more than £2 per acre as the cost of land, as an intending purchaser at a Government sale in Ceylon will seldom meet with much opposition from his brother-planters ; and, indeed, late sales shew, that most of the blocks of land applied for, and sold during the past two years, have gene- rally gone off, at the upset price of £J. Felling, however, is entered at £2-5 for Ceylon, and £2 for Wynaad ; in the former locality this work is always performed by contract at a fixed rate, in the latter by daily labour at 4 Annas per day ; hence the difference. With reference to " pitting," which is cheaper in Ceylon than in Wynaad, I can only say that my experience shews, that on an average, 20 pits (holes) is as much as can be got in the latter, as, during the long dry season which prevails every year, the ground becomes so exceedingly'' hard, that 15 or 16 is then the utmost coolies will make a day. But in the matter of plants and nurseries, a very consider- able saving is effected in Ceylon, inasmuch as any number of plants may, as I have before stated, be purchased from owners of small coffee gardens at from 3 to 5 per 1,000, whereas in Wynaad, either an expensive nursery must be formed, or plants purchased at various rates, varying be- tween Rs. 5 and Rs. 10 per 1,000. It is, indeed, not un- 193 common for natives to form nurseries and withhold the sale of the plants until they have attained a good size, and then ask for them as much as Rupees U or Rupees 15 per 1,000. Chiefly in the cost of weeding, however^ does Ceylon ap- pear most favorably, when placed in comparison with Wynaad. In the former, it is not at all unusual to keep young estates^ commencing from the outset, perfectly clean, at Is. or even less per acre, per month ; many will be able to testify to this fact. In many cases Canganies will be found willing to contract to weed monthly at this rate. But in Wynaad, particularly in estates cleared in bamboo jungle, the grass weed and jungle spring up dense and luxuriantly tho first season, and unless steadily and carefully repressed, in- crease in thickness every season ; and I doubt if many estates are kept clean for the sum of Rs. 1-8 per acre per month, at which I have estimated. The expense and difficulty of weeding in Wynaad is greatly increased by the continuous downpour of rain which takes place during the monsoon. During this season the rapidity of vegetation is astonishing, while it is difficult to check it, when the air is almost turned into water, and the ground into soft mud. While considering this subject, I must, not omit somo notice of Dr. Shortt's estimates in the work he has recently brought out. Every one who has perused it and my own, cannot fail to be stiuck with the great difference between thq estimates given in his, and those in the present work. As mine, however, are based on personal experience, I offer them to the public with great confidence, and I shall endeavour 25 194' to shew some reasons why I thus openly impugn the correct-* ness of those given by Dr. Shortt. To any practical coffee cultivator, the task of judging of the authenticity of either will be an easy one, but the case would be . quite different with a person who, ignorant of coffee matters, was still desirous of obtaining information on the subject, and who would naturally be puzzled on finding two such very conflicting statements brought out nearly at the same time, unless one author should boldly come forward and prove the correctness of his calculations. There are other ways in which an excessively favourable and impossibly cheap estimate does much harm. Specula- tors, seeing such assertions as those Dr. Shortt puts forward, would be mortified and disappointed to find their hopes and expectations unrealized, as they assuredly would ; and persons in England, or at a distance, who read that 200 acres of land may be purchased and converted into a coffee estate in one season for £716, would naturally look unfavourably on their Manager or Agent when they found under his auspices the real cost to be perhaps £1,600 or £1,700. The following are the points in Dr. Shortt's estimates which I consider erroneous. The sura of E,|^pees 5 per acre is certainly not sufficient to estimate as the price of land in Wynaad, as land cannot be now purchased at that price, unless subject to assess- ment, for which no allowance is made in the expenses of the two following years. Rupees 10 per acre is the very mini- mum for felting, but still this work is occasionally com- pleted at that cost, but for " clearing, burning, &c./' we are 105 indeed surprised to see Dr. Siiortt put down so very moderate a sum as 8 Annas per acre ; it would have been almost better not to have mentioned this item at all, and the omission might then have been attributed to an oversight ; as the amount of brushwood left after a burn must indeed be small, if 2 men can lop, pile, and burn an acre in a day, and, in such case, where were the need of clearing it up at all. We might have supposed that Dr. Shortt alluded only to forest clearings, of which, with careful management, perhaps, 5 out of 10 burn so well as to obviate the necessity of any subsequent clearing up j bub we are prevented from adopting this conclusion, by tiie remark which precedes the estimate, in which Dr. Shortt alludes to the difficulty of making a correct esti- mate, for general use, owing to the '' difference of locality, soil, climate, command of labour, and also the kind of land, ivhether forest, bamboo jungle, or otherwise," for all of which he says he makes allowance. Now, I can state, that out of three clearings in bamboo land felled in this season, which have come under my own observation, the one cost very nearly Rupees 10 per acre, one certainly Rupees 3 or Rupees 4, and the other between Rupees 5 to Rupees 6 per acre/br clearing up after the burning ; and I can state further, that bamboo land seldom burns so well as to cost less than Rupees 5 per acre, for clearing up sub- sequent to the burn, and I appeal to planters generally in support of my assertion. With reference to forest clearings in Ceylon, an allow- ance of 15s. per acre is made for burning and clearing, in all cases where contracts are given for felling, burning, and 196 clearing inclusive, on the chance of securing' a good burn ; and when, in order to save expense, planters have given the contract for felling only^ most cases have resulted in an additional subsequent outlay, of even more than that sum for clearing up. ''Lining and marking out pits/' cannot be done for Rupees 1-8 per acre, if this include cutting and pointing the pickets ; Rupees 3 is much nearer the mark. Fortunate, indeed, would be the planter who could get his land pitted at 5 Rupees per acre, or for treble that sum, and fortunate would he be, who in these days, could get 200 acres pitted up in one season at any cost. In remarking on the erroneousness of this estimate, we must not forget that Dr. Shortt inculcates making the pits 3 feet cube ! Every planter will agree with me when I say that SO holes 18 inches cube-is a good day's work for a coolie ; at least, the Ceylon planters, who have a weakness for getting '' a good day's work for a fair day's pa}^" think so, and so also do those in Wynaad. When 2-feeb holes are required, 20, or even 15 to 18 in stony ground, are a good day's work. 30 holes 18 inches wide X 18 inches deep contain a space of 174,960 cubic inches : 18 at 2-feet cube contain 248,832 cubic inches. But we are informed by Dr. Shortt that coolies can make, " on an average, 35 pits 3 feet wide and 36 inches deepy^' or more than six times the amount of earth- work mentioned in the latter calculation, or nine times as much as what ])lanters have generally hitherto been satis- lied with, i. e.y 1,632,960 cubic inches. Would not a boon be conferred on the planting world, if we were informed where such labourers could be found ? 197 The Coorg -jjlanters had, I believe, within the last 3'ear or two, been giving 9 Rupees per 1,000 for pitting ; at 6x5 feet planting, or J, 452 pits per acre, this amounts to about Rupees 13 per acre. In Wynaad, Rupees IG and even Rupees 18 per 1,000 have been ruling rates this year for contract work, this would be about Rupees 24 to Rupees 2G per acre ; but Rupees 12 per 1,000 was formerly the usual rate, or Rupees 18 per acre ; though one of the oldest planters about Manantoddy informed me that 10 years ago he gave as much as Rupees 20 per 1,000. The above are contract rates, which would necessarily be higher than the cost of work performed by daily labourers at 4 Annas per diem, and, calculating the cost at 25 pits for 4 Annas, the amount would be Rihi^ees 14-8 per acre, and any one conversant with the present state of labour in the Madras Presidency would, doubtless, be well ' content that it should cost no more. It will be observed that Dr. Shortt has made no allow- ance for weeding, in the expenses of the first year ; this is an oversight which makes probably a difference of Rupees 1,200 less than the real cost. We have, therefore, on the three items above taken into consideration, a difference of, probably, say — On clearing Rs. 1,000 On pitting „ 2,000 And on ^veeding „ l,200==Es. 4,200 in all, most likely more, in the 1st year's expenses. In the estimate for the 2nd year, we see Es. 800 named as the cost of "12 monthly weedings^'' for 200 acres^ this is 198 5 Annas -t Pie per acre monthly, or Rupees 4 per annum. This is far lower than the cheapest weeding in Ceylon, where it is a source of pride to the planter to be able to keep his estate clean at f 1 per acre per annum, and where it is indeed an extraordinary thing to be able to do so at 1 shilling per acre monthly : let us calculate the distance over which a coolie would have to go at this latter rate ; 1,000 trees, at 5 feet apart, or nearly a mile, carefully inspecting a space 2 yards wide, and picking out every weed he comes across, and we shall see that weeds in such a case must be few and far between. But when we recollect that Dr. Shortt lias (as he says) made allowance for " difference of land, &c.," and knowing the growth of weeds in bamboo land, where the grass springs up as luxuriantly as in the richest Euro- pean pasture, the inadequacy of the sum allowed appears the more extraordinary. Take the average of the estates in North or South Wynaad ; what does the weeding cost ? and what would it cost were coolies plentiful enough to keep them clean ? (which is not always the case) cd least 18 Eupees per annum per acre ; and this is good work. I consider also Es. 100 as allowed for cost of filling up vacancies, an insufficient estimate ; I have in my foregoing calculations given the detailed account of the probable cost of this work which, at the same rates on 200 acres, would amount to Rupees 278. Thus, from what I have stated, I think it will at once be seen that Dr. Shortt's estimates are not applicable to Wynaad, or Cejdon. I have considered it my duty to prove this, in a work such as tlie present, in order that 199 neither the public generally, nor proprietors of estates, should be misled as to an investment, which, though really highly remunerative, if well conducted, is not the El Dorado, which will yield a *^ fabulous^' return for a very small outlay, or the exhibition of a very limited hnoidedge of the subject. ss^ CHAPTER XXL Practical hints for the medical treatment of coolies and others on coffee estates until professional assistance can he obtained. Medicines, &c., required. Sulphate of Quinine. Carbonate of Soda. Dover's Powders. Calomel. Jalap. Laudanum. Ipecacuanha Powder. Castor Oil. Epsom Salts. Cholera Drops. Essence of Peppermint. Fever. " For ordinary attacks, give half a tea spoonful of Jalap, a tea spoonful of Salts, and about J of a tea spoonful of Quinine (in powder, not lump) mixed together in a wine glassful of water, with a few drops of Essence of Pepper- mint if at hand. If this does not act on the bowels in four hours, repeat the dose, slightly diminished. This dose will often cure fever in natives, but in Europeans it should bo followed by Quinine — say J of a tea spoonful of powdered Caustic. Blistering ointment. Mustard. Turpentine. Sugar of Lead. Ehubarb. Powdered Nitre. Sulphur. Treacle. A syringe. 201 Quinine 2 or 3 times a day, dissolved in a wine glassful of water, beginning as soon as the above-mentioned purgative has done its work. If the taste of the Quinine be disliked, make it into pills, 3 or 4 grains each, with a little bread crumb or boiled rice. Persons in charge of large bodies of coolies should keep these medicines made up ready for use, thus — Purgative Mixture. 2 Dessert spoonsful of Jalap, 2 Table spoonsful of Epsom Salts, 2 Tea spoonsful of Quinine powder, and a few drops of Essence of Peppermint in a wine bottle of water. Dose. — A* wine glassful of the above to be repeated in four hours, if the first has not operated. Quinine Mixture. 40 Grains (i. e., 2 scruples, or about 2 tea spoonsful of Quinine Powder, and a little essence of Peppermint in a wine bottle of water. Dose. — A wine glassful. One such dose will cure or prevent fever returning ; if not, continue it two or three times a day. Each European should have a bottle of Warburg's Fever Tincture, and take it according to the printed instructions on the bottle. If there be much shivering and headache, at the commenc- ing of the attack, an emetic of half a tea spoonful, of Ipeca- cuanha powder, or one tea spoonful of mustard in water, will afford relief. Promote the vomiting by large draughts of warm water. In such case the stomach should be allowed to settle, before the purgative is taken. If . heada«^*he con- 20 202 tinue bad, or dilirium or contusion of thought come on, apply fi blister, (or mustard [blaster) to the back of the neck." frhe above is by Dr. Elliott, taken from Ferguson's Common-Place Book.) D'Esterre's Fever Powders will be found very efficacious and easy of use, they should be administered according to the instructions printed on each packet, after the action of the purgative mixture above. It is sometimes thought better in using Quinine, to com- mence with large doses of from 8 to 10 grains, to an adult, decreasing the dose gradually to 2 or 3 grains. Another mixture which I have used with the utmost success in treating coolies, is the prescription of a very clever medical friend of mine, i.e., 2 scruples Quinine, 2 drachms Powdered Nitre, IJ Wine glassful of Brandy, in a wine bottle of water. "Dose. — One wine glassful 3 times a day after the action of the purgative. As soon as the fever has ceased, nourishment should be taken, as the exhaustion which follows an attack is very great. Owing to their inability to procure nourishing food at this period, coolies frequently fall into a state of great weakness, and are then very liable to be attacked by Dropsy ; for the cure of this complaint I recommend the following, having administered it with great success : — 1 oz. Flour of Sulphur, 2 drachms Powdered Nitre, 2 scruples Quinine, in a wine bottle of Treacle. Pose. — 1 Wine glassful twice a day. 203 While the patient is taking this medicine, he should be fed with broth, or other nourishing diet, and half a glass of Brandy or Arrack, daily. Bowel Complaint. " Do not allow the bowels to be more than 3 or 4 times purged in one day without taking 20 or 30 drops of Lau- danum in a little water. If that be not sufficient, take as much Dover's Powder as will go on a Sd. piece and as muck Quinine as will go on a Gel. piece, two or three times a day. Avoid salt meat, and take ivhite bread, rice, broth, tea, &c." — Dr. Elliott, taken from Ferguson's Common-Place Book. As Diarrhoea frequently proceeds solel3'' from a disordered stomach, it will be well, after the Laudanum has stopped it, to take a small dose of Castor oil^ which will prevent a recurrence of the attack. If no medicine be at hand, a little powdered chalk, or powder of burnt cork in a wine glass of brandy and water, will sometimes stop the attack. Dysentery. ** If there be much pain, or twisting in the bowels, with blood and mucus in the motions with straining, it is Dysen- tery. Take the same powders. 1 Dover's to cover a 3c?, piece, and Quinine to cover a Gd piece every 4, 5 or 6 hours, according to the urgency of the symptoms. " These Diarrhoea and Dysentery powders should be kept ready made up, and in good quantity, where there are gangs of men employed — that is, 5 grains of Dover's Powder and 3 grains of Quinine in each powder, folded in paper, and kept in a wide mouthed bottle." " If there be much straining at stool, give J a tea spoonful 204 of laudanum in J a wine glassful of cold water, as an injection with a small syringe : and repeat it, if necessary, 2 or 3 times a day. " In Europeans, passing much blood, with pains and fever, apply 12 or 18 leeches in the early stages, over the most painful parts. Fine leeches can be got in the paddy-fields. Take a hip bath, by sitting in a small tub of hot water twice a day : and keep hot clay or sand in a pillow case spread upon the belly. " Diminish the medicines gradually, that is, from 4 to 3 times to twice, and to once a day : for if given up suddenly, the disease will probably return. " Take only farinaceous food, such as white bread, arrow- root, &c., and broth (without vegetables), as improvement takes place.** Dr, Elliott. In many cases, if the complaint be taken early especially, nothing will be found more efficacious than Dr. Collis Browne's Chlorodyne, in both Diarrhoea and Dysentery, or in Cholera. Another remedy for Dysentery, not very much known, is as follows : — Apply a mustard plaster for 15 or 20 minutes to the stomach, and then administer 30 grains of Ipecacuanha Powder, made into Pills : this should be taken without liquid, or it will act as an emetic ; if kept down, it wdll be found to exert a wonderful effect. The dose should be repeated 3 times a day as long as is necessary. Cholera. '* Be provided with * Cholera Drops' or ' mixture,' to be had at the Druggists, and which is usually composed of 205 various aromatics, with Opium, and use according to the instructions. " Or give Laudanum 20 to 30 drops, with a tea spoonful or two of Brandy, a little Carbonate of Soda, sugar, and any spices j^ou may have, in hot water, every 1, 2 or 3 hours, according to the emergency, until vomiting or purging is relieved. " Intense vomiting may often be stopped by a tea spoon- ful of Carbonate of Soda dissolved in hot water, and dt'unk as hot as possible. If thrown up, repeat the dose. " Lay a large mustard poultice on the stomach for 10 or 15 minutes. "Pills made of Calomel, Camphor, and Morphine, have been found very efficacious. They are retained in the stomach when fluid medicines are rejected. The pill should consist of two grains Calomel, three grains Camphor, and a quarter of a grain of Morphine. A pill should be taken every 3 or 4 hours, until purging and vomiting subside, and the heat of the body is restored." " During the prevalence of an epidemic, every effort should made to check the premonitory Diarrhoea : 30 drops of Laudanum in hot Brandy and water, will be found very efficacious." (Dr. Elliott.) In addition to the above remedies, it will be advisable to apply hot bottles to the feet, thighs, and arm-pits, and to rub the limbs strongly to restore and keep up circulation. A hot bath of mustard and water may also be resorted to if practicable. Liver. ^* Stitch or pain about the right side without purging; is 206 probably the beginning of inflammatiom of the liver. Purge freely with Jalap, Castor oil, or Salts, or the purging mixture given above for fever. Give Quinine (as much as will go on a six-pence) 3 or 4 times a day. Foment the side, or apply the hot sand as above. If a strong or newly arrived European, apply 1 or 2 dozen leeches. Live low, and carefully avoid all strong drink, Wine, Beer, &c." {Dr, Elliott) Snake Bites. Pinch up the skin between the finger and thumb, and cut out a piece about the size of a shilling. Be sure you cut out the scratch made by both fangs of the snake. If j^ou cannot pinch up the skin, stick a pin or anything else to lift it up, but in any way cut or dig out the piece. Any knife whether pen or table-knife will answer. Have no fear of the consequences of your cut; there is no artery near the surface that you need be apprehensive of pening. A bandage will therefore stop any bleeding which may follow. Cut, however late, and cut bloody, for life often depends on your doing so. Dr, Elliott. Another and curious remedy, much recommended of late years, is as follows : — Run the blade of a pen-knife or lancet through the part bitten, in two cuts transversely, and im- mediately rub into the wound thus made, some Ipecacuanha powder. A red hot iron immediately applied to the part, is a safe and expeditious cure ; it is more quickly done than using the knife, to which the patient will frequently make much resistance. If the bite is on the hand or foot, tie a ligature round 207 the limb above the part as lightly as possible, to prevent the circulation of the venom. A glass of Brandy will be of use to stimulate the system to resist the action of the poison. Cuts and Wounds. ** Wash out any dirt, and bind up but not too tightly, and after a day or two begin to wet with cold water. Dress afterwards with folded cloth, kept wet with cold water, or water with a little sugar of lead in it, laying over all a plan- tain or other large leaf, to keep the part moist. " Keep well covered to prevent flies from getting in and breeding maggots, as they so do in this country. If the wound becomes painful, the probability is, there are maggots in it ; in which case, put in calomel, which will kill them, without irritating the wound. If you have no calomel, use tobacco and Datura Stramonium pounded together. The Datura is called, in Singhalese '* Atthenna/' and in Tamil " Woomoothoo," and grows almost every where." Dr, Elliott. When much inflammation appears in the neighbourhood of the wound, and the cold water and sugar of lead appears insufficient, to reduce it, lay on it a cloth kept wet with Brandy, one part ; vinegar, two parts ; cold water, four parts. For gunpowder wounds, where the flesh is much torn and burnt, bathe the part, for a short time in warm water, and then wash it carefully with the same ; then apply a warm poultice of oatmeal porridge as often as necessary for a few days. Then make a lotion of sweet oil, and chunam well mixed together to the consistency of custard, and apply to the part with a feather, or a piece of muslin laid on and a light bandage over it. 208 Feactuhes and Dislocations. Put the limb into the easiest position, and send for sur- gical assistance. Keep down inflammation with cold '^vater applied to the part, or brandy, vinegar and cold water, as above recommended. If the patient be likely to faint or become exhausted, give a little brandy and a few grains of quinine. Sores. Coolies are very liable to bad sores, principally on the legs, produced by festered scratches, &c. If the sore be large, foul, and unhealthy, wash carefully with warm water and soap, then apply soft warm poultices for a few days, lititil its appearance becomes more clean and active. After this a lotion, composed of bluestone, 2 drachms, or sulphate of zinc, 2 drachms, to a wine bottleful of cold water may be applied on a clean piece of thin, old linen, to be kept con- tinually wet. When the '* proud flesh" has become diminished, and the sore shews symptoms of drying up. Turner's Cerate used on lint, a fresh dressing every morning and evening. FINIS. V6 X.dT77 «r«