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THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
THOUGHTS, 
 OBSERVATIONS, AND EXPERIMENTS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ACTION OF SNAKE VENOM ON THE BLOOD. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX. 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE BRITTON HALFORD, M.D 
 
 essor o/* Physiology in the University of Melbourne. 
 
 STILLWELL AND Co., PRINTERS, 195A COLLINS STRHET. 
 1894 
 
PROCEMIUM. 
 
 The blood is both author and preserver of the body, the 
 primogenial matter and vital spark, the first to live and 
 the last to die, the immediate seat of the vegetative faculty 
 of the animal, and of every other part of the body sub- 
 ordinate or posthumous to the blood. 
 
 HARVEY. 
 
CON T E N T S. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 
 
 Toxic POWER OF SNAKE VENOM . . . . . . 7 
 
 C. J. MARTIN'S OPINIONS . . . . . . . . 8 
 
 ACTION OF THE VENOM ON THE BLOOD . . . . 9 
 
 THE TIME BETWEEN THE BITE AND DEATH, AND SUBSEQUENT 
 
 Loss OF COAGULABILITY BY THE BLOOD . . . . 14 
 
 FLUIDITY OF THE BLOOD AFTER THE BITES OF VENOMOUS SNAKES 16 
 DR. FAYRER'S OPINION OF PROFESSOR HALFORD'S PAPER OF 1867 17 
 MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BLOOD BY DR. FAYRER AND 
 
 DR. MACNAMARA . . . . . . . . 18 
 
 INFLUENCE OF EAPIDITY OF INJECTION OF SNAKE VENOM . . 22 
 
 SEEING AND NOT SEEING THE LARGE CELLS IN THK BLOOD .. 23 
 THE ORIGIN OF THESE CELLS . . . . . . 24 
 
 WHAT is THE POISON ? . . . . . . . . 26 
 
 Is THE POISON A FERMENT ? . . . . . . . . 27 
 
 THE DEFINITION OF A FERMENT .. .. .. ..27 
 
 BRAINARD'S DESCRIPTION OF POISONED BLOOD . . 28 
 
 EXPERIMENTING WITH SHIRES . . . . . . . . 29 
 
 THE INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF THE Toxic POWERS OF SNAKE VENOM 30 
 INFLUENCE OF SPIRIT UPON THE VENOM . . . . . . 31 
 
 Is THERE ANY ANTIDOTE ? . . . . . . . . 32 
 
 Is STRYCHNINE AN ANTIDOTE ? . . . . . . 34 
 
 Is AMMONIA AN ANTIDOTE ? . . . . . . 35 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLAIES I, II, III .. .. .. ..36 
 
 INJECTIONS OF SULPHUROUS ACID .. .. .. ..39 
 
 CARBOLIC ACID .. .. .. .. .. ..41 
 
 OXYGENATING BODIES .. .. .. .. ..43 
 
 ANESTHETICS . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 
 
 OZONIC ^ETHER .. .. .. .. .. ..46 
 
 CHLORAL HYDRATE .. .. .. .. ..47 
 
 VEGETABLE NARCOTIC POISONS .. .. . ..49 
 
 VEGETABLE IRRITANT .. .. .. .. ..59 
 
 INFLUENCE OF AMMONIA ON THE MUSCULAR FIBRES OF THE HEART 61 
 CONCLUSION .. .. .. .. .. ..62 
 
 DR. CALMETTE'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE VENOM OF 
 
 SERPENTS . . . . . . . . . . 63 
 
 PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD SERUM OF ANIMALS WHICH HAVE 
 
 RECEIVED IMMUNITY .. .. .. ..64 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME .. .. .. .. ..65 
 
 TREATMENT BY THE IMMUNITY-SERUM .. .. ..67 
 
 TREATMENT OF A MAN BITTEN BY A VENOMOUS SNAKE .. 69 
 COMMENT .. ,. ,, ., .. ,.70 
 
THOUGHTS, OBSERVATIONS, AND 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE ACTION 
 OF SNAKE VENOM ON THE 
 BLOOD. 
 
 BY GEORGE BRITTON HALFORD, M.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE, 
 VICTORIA. 
 
 In the year 1 867, Sir James Paget communicated to 
 the British Medical Journal two papers written by 
 me one of July 20, the other December 21. Sir James, 
 in forwarding the last communication, wrote " I hope 
 you will deem it right to publish this ; for the facts are 
 very strange so strange, that it may be well for me 
 to add that Professor Halford, writing to me, says, 
 that I may depend on the patience and fear of error 
 with which he has worked at them." 
 
 I had been appointed to my present position by the 
 late lamented Sir Richard Owen and Sir James Paget, 
 I am pleased to say that all I then wrote, and the 
 drawings I sent, are absolutely true ; changing my 
 " germinal matter " to the more generally adopted term 
 " proteid." How comes it that I can demonstrate the 
 
Professor Hal ford. 
 
 cells of the same character and size, as I did twenty-seven 
 years ago ? How conies it that none of the observers 
 in India have seen these large cells ? If they had 
 looked for them at the times after death I indicated, 
 they would have seen them, for they are, as ceils, a 
 post-mortem change, although antecedent changes in 
 the proteids of the blood were going on, probably 
 chemical, not to be detected with the microscope. On 
 this most difficult point, on the interaction of the 
 proteids of the blood, the most remarkable work on 
 " The Chemistry of the Blood," by the late Dr. L. C. 
 Wooldridge, must be carefully studied. 
 
 How comes it that my most urgent thought has been 
 again directed to this subject ? The answer is as 
 follows : 
 
 A few months ago, I heard that Mr. Martin, of 
 Sydney, M.B., B. Sc., of the London TJniversit}-, had 
 said that he thought my ideas of the action of snake 
 venom on the blood were most probably correct. Mr. 
 Martin had been formerly Demonstrator of Physiology 
 at King's College, London, and is now Demonstrator 
 of Physiology in the University of Sydney, and had 
 since devoted himself to the study of the chemical 
 composition of snake venom. I heard that he was 
 coming to see me to study the physiological action 
 on the blood and tissues. He came, and I found in 
 him a most accomplished laboratory worker, possessing 
 a thorough knowledge of present animal chemistry. 
 
 He gave me his papers on the subject, which 
 truthfully record the results of his experiments, his 
 observations, and his previous reading, and which, I 
 think, should be known to all who are concerned in 
 unravelling this difficult subject. The papers are : 
 First, "The Venom of the Australian Black Snake," 
 
The Toxic Power of Snake Venom. 7 
 
 by C. J. Martin and J. McGarvie Smith ; and the 
 second and third, Vol. XV, No. -t, 1893, Journal of 
 Physiology. Of these two papers, that of the Injection 
 of Black Snake Venom is the most important for our 
 present investigation. 
 
 Mr. Martin, a few weeks back, visited me, bringing 
 some black snake venom. He brought also with him 
 a mind at the back of his retina, which is necessary 
 for all optical enquiry. He brought also youth, a 
 valuable adjunct, for he is only 28 years old. In 
 addition to these requisites, we have now microscopes 
 which will show us things clearly which we saw only 
 darkly in those other days. The microscope I used 
 originally was a magnificent Powell and Leland, and 
 my drawings were done with the camera lucida. The 
 glass I now use is Reichert's No. IA, and with the 
 apochromatic lenses and compensating eye-pieces, the 
 coloration of any dye that may be used is absolutely 
 perfect. 
 
 The Toxic Power of Snake Venom. 
 
 It has been, for a long time, the fashion to underrate 
 the power of the poison of Australian snakes, as 
 compared with that of the Indian cobra. In 1873 I 
 wrote " The death of a dog follows as rapidly after 
 the bite of an Australian venomous snake as after the 
 bite of a cobra;" and again, "Dr. J. Macbeth records 
 the deaths of twenty-nine dogs which had been bitten 
 by cobras, and to which no remedy had been applied. 
 The average time between the bite and death in these 
 cases is three hours and twenty-three minutes ; the 
 shortest, eleven minutes. I find that two hours and 
 
 fifteen minutes is the average time between the bite 
 
 B 2 
 
8 Professor Halford. 
 
 of the tiger snake (Hoptocephalus curtus) and death 
 in nineteen dogs ; the shortest interval being seventeen 
 minutes." 
 
 C. J. Martin's Opinions on this Subject. 
 
 " Although the yield of poison from our Australian 
 snakes is so small, we find that the virulence of our 
 black snake (Pseudechis poTphyriacus) compares very 
 favourably with that of the cobra ; that is to say, the 
 minimal fatal dose per pound weight is, in our hands, 
 considerably less than that given for the cobra by the 
 Indian Snake Commission. Some idea of this viru- 
 lence may be gathered from the fact, that ^ grain 
 invariably kills a rabbit of 5lb. weight, when injected 
 into a vein, in about one hundred seconds. 
 
 "The following experiments illustrate the toxic 
 power of the poison : 
 
 " One-tenth grain of dried black snake poison was 
 dissolved in 5 c.cm, of 1 per cent. NaCl. solution, 
 0'05 c.cm. would accordingly equal ^ grain. 
 
 " Four rabbits, each weighing olb were taken, and 
 the poison injected into the median vein of the ear. 
 The first two received Ol c.cm. of the solution, and 
 died in ninety seconds and ninety-one seconds after the 
 withdrawal of the syringe. Two others received 0'05 
 c.cm of the solution ( x ~ grain), and succumbed in 
 ninety-seven and ninety-eight seconds respectively. 
 
 " Similar experiments were performed with a solution 
 of the venom from the tiger snake (Hoplocephalus 
 curtus) prepared in a similar manner, so that 0'05 
 c.cm. equalled ^ grain. The two rabbits which 
 received 0*1 c.cm. (=^ grain) died in ninety-two and 
 one hundred and one seconds, and those which had 
 
The Action of the Venom on the Blood. 9 
 
 0'05 c.crii. (=Jft grain), in one hundred and four and one 
 hundred and five seconds respectively. All four rabbits 
 weighed over 51b. 
 
 " The above experiments show a marked uniformity 
 between the toxic powers of these two venoms." 
 
 The comparative weaker powers of the venom of 
 the Australian snakes having been disproved, I now 
 proceed to the observations I have made. 
 
 The Action of the Venom on the Blood. 
 
 In May 1852, I being then House Surgeon to the 
 Westminster Hospital, a man was brought in at about 
 11 a.m. by two friends, who said he had been bitten by 
 an adder which he had bought at Butler's Covent- 
 Garderi. He looked stupefied ; his face was swollen, 
 the tongue also was greatly swollen, and partly hang- 
 ing oat of his mouth : there was also great oedema of 
 the subrnucous tissues of the mouth and throat. I 
 naturally looked about these parts for the bite, but to 
 my surprise was told he had been bitten on the index 
 ringer of the right hand ; I saw two minute punctures. 
 I sent him to bed. Leeches, fomentations, and purg- 
 ing relieved the oedema, and by the evening he was 
 comparatively well. I have omitted however to say 
 that, soon after his admission he vomited, and felt pain 
 at the pit of the stomach. The next morning, on 
 going round the wards, the nurse told me the man 
 complained of pain and stiffness of the arm, and pain 
 in the axilla. On taking off his nightshirt, I found 
 swollen veins running up to the axilla, and to the 
 corresponding side of the thorax, with evident ecchy- 
 mosis of the whole of these regions. Subsequently, these 
 parts underwent all the successive colour-stages of 
 
10 Professor Bedford. 
 
 bruising. My remarks, at the time, were " What a 
 wonderful effect viper poison must have on the blood- 
 vessels or blood, or on both." 
 
 Next in the order of time, namely October 1852, 
 came the death of the attendant at the Zoological 
 Gardens in London ; he was bitten on the nose by a 
 cobra, and died in ninet}^ minutes. I knew the 
 man. and was in the Gardens the same day. The 
 post-mortem examination was made by Mr. Marshall, 
 and this is what he said: " Externally, there was 
 more ecchymosis than is generally the case, especially 
 in the face and at the back, from the nape of the neck 
 to the calves of the legs ; the purple colour being more 
 uniform and less mottled than usual. On dissecting 
 off a portion of the skin over the angular artery and 
 vein, between the root of the nose and the inner 
 canthus of the eyes, the cellular tissue was found 
 strongly ecchymosed. The blood was altogether dark, 
 alkaline, and fluid, and it emitted a peculiar sour and 
 sickly smell. The effect of this morbid poison seemed 
 to be very much like that produced by the i-ngestion 
 of prussic acid." 
 
 I must now quote from a paper read March 10, 1864, 
 by Dr. George Harley, and published in the " Philo- 
 sophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London," 
 entitled " On the Physical and Chemical Agents upon 
 Blood, with special reference to the mutual action of 
 the Blood and the Respiratory Gases." A dog was 
 twice bitten by an African puff-adder, and died in two 
 and a quarter hours ; the post-mortem appearances are 
 thus described by Dr. Harley : '* The tissues presented 
 a very strange appearance, viz., numerous extravasa- 
 tions of blood throughout the body, some small, some 
 large. For example, in this animal there was an 
 
The Action of the Ven-orn on the Blood. 11 
 
 extravasation of blood into the anterior mediastinum 
 and into the tissues of the pericardium, but no effusion 
 into the pericardium itself. There was extravasation 
 along all the great veins, into the cellular tissue of the 
 pancreas, throughout the diaphragm, beneath the 
 peritoneum, and all over the abdomen. The interior 
 of the latter, indeed, looked exactly as if it had been 
 sprinkled over with blood. A similar condition also 
 existed in the subcutaneous cellular tissue. In fact, 
 had the history of the case not been known, it would 
 have been supposed that the animal had laboured 
 under a severe form of purpura hsemorrhagica. In the 
 neighbourhood of the wounds there was great swell- 
 ing, as well as extravasation of brownish putrid-looking 
 blood. Everything pointed to blood-poisoning." This 
 is the testimony of a most accomplished physician, 
 with whom I was well acquainted. 
 
 The next observation I have to record is, the post- 
 mortem examination of a man who was bitten by a 
 cobra in Melbourne in April 1867. 
 
 Dr. Mousse', then Resident Surgeon at the Melbourne 
 Hospital, at the inquest, deposed: "The deceased 
 was brought to the hospital on Sunday, at half-past 
 four o'clock in the afternoon. He was then dying, 
 and expired soon afterwards. A post-mortem examina- 
 tion showed a puncture on the second finger of the left 
 hand. The head and arms were swollen, and at the 
 seat of the puncture the wound was dark and 
 gangrenous. The cellular tissue of the arm and hands 
 was infiltrated with blood-stained serum. From all the 
 incisions made, dark fluid blood escaped. The blood 
 was very fluid, and had escaped from its vessels into 
 the tissues of the body. The cause of death was 
 poison." 
 
12 Professor Halford. 
 
 In addition to the above, I may state that I was 
 present at the post-mortem examination, and (in 
 addition) my notes tell me that all the subcutaneous 
 tissues of the body were as full as they could hold of 
 bloody serum ; so much so that we had a bucket at 
 each of the four corners of the table to catch the fluid. 
 Examination of the blood showed me a strange 
 condition of the corpuscles. 
 
 The cobra was brought to me alive about 11 p.m. 
 the same night. It was in a light wicker basket tied 
 round with cord. I took him to my laboratory, put 
 pieces of sponge through the openings and poured 
 chloroform in. When I thought him sufficiently 
 quiet, I cut the cords, raised the lid, and inserted 
 him bodily into a glass jar of methylated spirit. I 
 felt sure he would be quiet enough for me to handle 
 in the morning, when I found him to be a spectacled 
 snake (Naja tripudians) five feet four inches in length. 
 
 I obtained from his glands half a teaspoonful of 
 liquid poison, some of which I injected subcutaneously 
 into a dog which died some few hours afterwards with 
 the usual symptoms of snake-poison. The blood was 
 in the same state as that of the man who had died on 
 the previous day. 
 
 I may mention, for the benefit of the non-scientific 
 reader, that this cobra had had his two poison fangs 
 extracted in India, but by the time the unfortunate 
 man met his death in Melbourne, the two next of the 
 reserve fangs had advanced, grown, and become 
 connected to the poison ducts, one on each side. 
 
 Becoming greatly interested, I began experimenting 
 on dogs, and at the same time reading all I could 
 obtain of venomous snakes in India, America, Africa, 
 Martinique, and the Colonies. One thing struck me 
 
The Action of the Venom on the Blood. J3 
 
 as being very important, viz., the coughing or spitting 
 of blood or bloody serum after the bite, owing to 
 exudations through the walls of both capillaries and 
 air vesicles. 
 
 The following case, which I was called to attend, 
 bears upon this point : A gentleman residing in 
 South Yarra, near Melbourne, rang rne up at about 
 midnight in May 1868. He told me he had been 
 bitten by a snake, that he did not want my advice, 
 only that he wished to know if it was a poisonous 
 snake or not. With that, he opened a parcel and let 
 the snake, which had been cut in halves, fall upon the 
 carpet. The fall made it, although dead, wriggle about 
 a little. I saw the punctures on his arm, examined the 
 head of the snake, and found it to be that of a vigorous 
 tiger snake (Hoplocephalus cwrtus). Presently he 
 asked leave to go on the verandah, where I heard 
 him vomiting, and an hour or so afterwards, at his home, 
 he coughed up into his cambric handkerchief, blood- 
 colored sputum. I felt sure he would die, which he 
 did, twelve hours after the bite. His intelligence 
 remained nearly to the last. The devitalised blood 
 (the cause and manner of which I hope to explain 
 further on), was no longer capable of carrying on the 
 processes of life. It was as if one were looking at 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, and seeing it from some mysterious 
 cause tumbling into dust. Such were my thoughts 
 watching the passing away of this fine man. It was 
 the first case of death from snake-poison I had seen. 
 
14 Professor Halford. 
 
 The Time between the Bite and Death, and 
 Subsequent Loss of Coagulability by the 
 Blood. 
 
 There are many cases recorded of death within the 
 hour, but I shall select only two in the human subject, 
 and one of a dog for illustration. 
 
 CASE I. Sir Joseph Fayrer, in his work, "The 
 Thanatophidia of India," says : " A boy, aged 12, was 
 bitten by a cobra (N. tripudians), and died in half-an- 
 hour. The heart contained fluid blood, and the blood 
 (of the body) was fluid." 
 
 CASE IT. A man was bitten in Melbourne, Decem- 
 ber 31, 1861, and died, it was stated, in twenty minutes. 
 The post-mortem examination was made by Mr. Rudall, 
 F.R.C.S. Eng. He states : "The whole blood of the 
 body was in a fluid state, not a single clot was observed, 
 nor did it coagulate when exposed to the atmosphere." 
 
 CASE III. Dr. Weir Mitchell (to whose kindness 
 to me, and to his subsequent scientific researches on the 
 whole subject of snake-poisoning I shall have to refer) 
 states: "A dog was accidentally dropped into my 
 snake-box. He was bitten in a dozen places by as 
 many snakes, arid perished in about eighteen minutes- 
 This was the most rapid alteration of the blood with 
 which I have met." 
 
 It has been almost universally assumed, that such 
 rapid result must be due to a primary action of the 
 venom on the central nervous centres. I have always 
 held, that it is the blood which is primarily affected, 
 and the nervous system secondarily. I am bound to 
 show how this can possibly be in such cases as I have 
 quoted above. 
 
 All my readers may not be physiologists, therefore, 
 I proceed to give them some facts for their consideration. 
 
The Time Setiveen the Bite and Death. 15 
 
 The whole quantit}^ of blood in an adult man is 
 estimated to be 121bs. avoirdupois. The left ventricle 
 of the heart ejects, according to various writers, from 
 6 oz. to 2 oz. at each pulsation. I assume a quantity 
 between these extremes, viz. 3 oz. avoirdupois, and 
 I take the pulsations at 70 per minute, not 72 as in 
 health, but allowing for the probable decline of the 
 pulse after the bite. The question is How long will 
 it take for the whole blood to make one circulation 1 
 
 12 Ibs. avoirdupois 192 oz. 9 
 
 3oz. x 70 pulsations = ~2UToz. ~TO~ ' 
 
 So that in the case of the cobra bite above, the poisoned 
 blood would have circulated at least thirty times, and 
 in the case of the dog eighteen times. No wonder 
 then, that if called to a man, he should show deadly 
 symptoms within a very short time. 
 
 But I must defer the consideration of the time 
 required for the destruction of the coagulability of the 
 blood, until I have to refer to the most remarkable 
 papers by C. J. Martin, M.B., B.Sc. Lond., that, on this 
 subject, I have ever read. In the meantime, I will 
 examine the condition of the blood after death from 
 bites of the viperine and colubrine snakes. I may 
 premise, that I have personally experimented with the 
 poisons of these various snakes. 
 
 (1) The viperine, including the rattle-snake, the 
 adder, the acanthophis of Australia, and the African 
 puff-adder. 
 
 (2) The colubrine, including all Australian snakes, 
 except the acanthophis, which may, so far as a few 
 fangs on the upper maxillary, be regarded as an inter- 
 mediate form, but that is all. 
 
16 Professor Halford. 
 
 The Fluidity of the Blood after the Bites 
 of Venomous Snakes. 
 
 Drs. Weir Mitchell and Reichert in their Researches 
 on the Venoms of Poisonous Serpents (" Smithsonian 
 Contributions to Knowledge, 1 886 ") state that 
 
 (1) " Venom exerts a powerful local effect upon the 
 living tissues, and induces more rapid necrotic changes 
 than any other known organic substance. It causes 
 oedema, swelling, attended with darkening of the parts 
 by infiltration of incoagulable blood, breaking down of 
 the tissues, putrefaction, and sloughing." 
 
 (Compare the effects produced by the littJe English 
 adder, ut supra). 
 
 (2) ' ' When brought in contact with the vascular tissue 
 of a warm blooded animal, it produces such a change 
 in the capilliary blood-vessels that their walls are 
 unable to resist the normal blood pressure, thus allow- 
 the blood corpuscles to escape into the tissues. The 
 lesions are not, however, analogous to those ol 
 inflammation, since in the latter process, it is princi- 
 pally the white blood corpuscles which emigrate from 
 the vessels, and the blood is highly coagulable, while 
 here the blood exudes en masse, and coagulates with 
 difficulty, if at all." 
 
 Dr. C. J. Martin has repeated these experiments 
 with Australian black snake venom, and the results 
 were identical.* 
 
 It is not possible for me to pass over Sir Joseph 
 Fayrer's work, " The Thanatophidia of India." There 
 is much that he says that is entitled to great respect, 
 but there is also much with which I cannot agree. 
 
 * Journal of Physiology, Vol. XV, No. 4, 1893. 
 
Dr. Fayrer's Opinion. 17 
 
 However, it being a notable contribution, I proceed 
 
 to make a few extracts, followed by my own com- 
 ments. 
 
 Dr. Fayrer's Opinion of Professor Halford's Paper 
 of 1867. 
 
 " A very thoughtful and suggestive paper in the 
 British Medical Journal of July 20, 1 867, communicated 
 by Professor Halford, of Melbourne, rendered the 
 investigation more interesting, as it seemed to indicate 
 the nature of the pathological changes induced in the 
 blood by the poison, and to point out a new direction 
 in which to study them, as well as to suggest a rational 
 antidote. It will be seen that the following experi- 
 ments, so far as they go, scarcely confirm Dr. Halford's 
 views. But, even admitting the probability of Dr. 
 Halford's theory of the cause of death, I am inclined 
 to think that it can only be of partial application. It 
 is peculiarly applicable to those cases in which, owing 
 to a smaller quantity, or less potent quality, of the 
 poison having been injected, death takes place slowly, 
 and time is allowed for blood changes to occur. But 
 it can hardly be said to explain the cause of death in 
 those cases where death occurs within a few minutes 
 after the animal is bitten by a powerful snake, and 
 where the fatal event results almost immediately, as 
 if by shock to the nervous centres." 
 
 And he goes on to say : " The blood itself is affected 
 by the poison. I have not been able to detect any cor- 
 puscular changes, such as those described by Professor 
 Halford, nor have I any exact information on the chemi- 
 cal changes it undergoes, or may have undergone, but 
 
18 Professor Halfwd. 
 
 that it is altered, there can be no doubt ; and in poison- 
 ing of the lower animals, at all events, by the viperidse, 
 its coagulability after death is generally destroyed, 
 whilst after death by poisoning by the colubrine 
 snakes, the blood is generally coagulated. It is to 
 be observed, that in most recorded cases of post-mortem 
 examinations of human beings who have died from 
 snake- bite (whether colubrine or viperine), the blood 
 is noted to have remained fluid after death. I cannot 
 reconcile this with the condition of the blood in 
 animals, which is, as I have stated, usually coagulable 
 after death from coin brine poisoning, but fluid after 
 death from viperine poisoning. Further examination 
 is needed." 
 
 On referring to Fayrer, I find the conditions of 
 the blood stated in thirty-eight cases where it was 
 fluid after death. Of these, five were from viperine 
 bites, and thirty- three colubrine. 
 
 In my former experiments on dogs, and in those 
 lately performed with colubrine snakes, viz., black 
 snake, tiger snake, and copperhead, the blood remained 
 fluid, and showed the changes I had previously 
 described. 
 
 Microscopical Examination of the Blood, by Dr. 
 Fayrer and Dr. Macnamara Cobra Poison 
 Pup Inoculated Died in Six Hours. 
 
 "The blood was examined shortly after death with 
 Professor Macnamara's -^ and ^ inch object glass. 
 The red corpuscles were shrivelled and crenate. No 
 indications existed of new cell formations containing 
 
Microscopical Examination of the Blood. 19 
 
 germinal matter, although they were most carefully 
 sought for. The only cells which we could find were 
 the healthy red and white corpuscles. In this case, 
 where death occurred in six hours, and where sufficient 
 time had been given for blood changes, I think that if 
 the changes described by Professor Halford always 
 take place, they ought to have been detected." 
 
 [The large cells, to the best of my belief, were seen 
 b}' Dr. Fayrer and Dr. Macnamara in the blood of a 
 fowl, but riot recognised by them as those so frequently 
 described by me.] 
 
 " A full-grown dog was bitten by a large cobra, died 
 in twenty-six minutes. Blood examined just after 
 death coagulated firmly. 
 
 " A half-grown domestic fowl was inoculated on the 
 inner side of the right thigh with the poison taken 
 from a cobra on the spot. Died in three hours. 
 
 "Necroscopy. In the dog's blood, nothing remarkable 
 was observed. The red corpuscles seemed unaltered, 
 and the white corpuscles were present in the usual 
 proportion. But in the fowl's blood, the appearances 
 were remarkable. In this case, death occurred slowly 
 in three hours ; whereas in the dog, it took place in 
 twenty-six minutes. On carefully examining the 
 fowl's blood with the -fa object glass, and an A eye- 
 piece, the following appearances were observed : 
 The oval red corpuscles were unaltered ; but in the 
 field of the microscope, in addition to the blood 
 corpuscles, a number of large granular bodies were 
 to be seen, which, after careful examination, were 
 discovered to be contained within a distinct cell- 
 wall. The granular bodies were coloured by an 
 amrnoniacal solution of carmine, but neither the cell- 
 wall enclosing them nor the red corpuscles were 
 
20 Professor Halford. 
 
 affected by it. As .many as five or seven of these 
 large nucleated cells were seen at one time in the 
 field of the microscope. The granular nucleus was 
 very distinct, and appeared to be adherent to the 
 inner side of the delicate, though distinct, cell-wall. 
 Although these nucleated cells were numerous, we 
 were unable to detect the circular patches (maculae) 
 depicted by Professor Halford, and which he states 
 were coloured by carmine. 
 
 " Whatever be the result of further investigation, 
 there could be no doubt of the appearances here 
 described, for they were peculiarly obvious. The 
 absence of any such appearance in this dog's blood 
 was equally certain." 
 
 COMMENTS. 
 
 It is a pity that Dr. Fayrer and Dr. Macnamara did 
 not more carefully examine the remarkable appearances 
 they describe, and that they did not take the diameters 
 of the "large cells." I made them on the average 
 -^ inch. Dr. Martin, who has lately made independent 
 measurements, comes to the same conclusion. No one 
 who has ever seen these cells could doubt their identity 
 with those I described. No one, as I stated in 1873, 
 can expect to find them in blood drawn soon after death ; 
 they are a post-mortem fact, increasing in size and 
 apparently in numbers, whilst the red corpuscles are 
 spherical, not bi-concave, and have shed their haemo- 
 globin, which may frequently be seen in the form of 
 crystals in the field. 
 
Microscopical Examination of the Blood. 21 
 
 I now extract from Sir Joseph Fayrer's valuable 
 work some facts which bear upon the fluidity of the 
 blood during life, and the tissues by which the blood 
 escaped : 
 
 BY THE URINE. 
 
 SUBJECT. 
 
 GENUS OF THE SNAKE. 
 
 RESULT. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 Colubrine 
 
 Unknown 
 Viperine 
 
 Eecovered 
 Died 
 Died 
 Eecovered 
 
 FROM OTHER KEGIONS. 
 
 SUBJECT. 
 
 REGION. 
 
 SNAKE. 
 
 RESULT. 
 
 Man 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Colubrine 
 
 Eecovered 
 
 
 Stomach and bowels 
 
 
 Died 
 
 > 
 
 Bowels and urine 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Died 
 
 Boy 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 Died 
 
 Man 
 
 Nostrils, stomach, 
 
 n 
 
 Eecovered 
 
 
 and bowels 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 Nose, mouth, and 
 
 Viperine 
 
 Kecovered 
 
 
 bowels 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eyes, gums, tongue 
 
 Viperine 
 
 Eecovered 
 
 
 nose, vagina, and 
 
 
 
 
 from under the 
 
 
 
 
 nails of both great 
 
 
 
 
 toes and thumbs 
 
 
 
 Man 
 
 Mouth and nostrils 
 
 Colubrine 
 
 Died 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 It was having read of similar cases in the Indian 
 journals, long before the publication of Sir J. Fayrer's 
 work, that made me so anxious when I saw the 
 gentleman who had been bitten, an hour or two 
 previously, by a tiger snake, spitting blood into his 
 handkerchief, and from which bite he died. 
 
 It will be seen that, out of the above eight cases, four 
 recovered. Can it be that in this way the poison had 
 
22 Professor Halford. 
 
 been sufficiently eliminated and the patient saved ? I 
 have often thought that the vomiting, purging, and 
 micturition, usually occurring in the lower animals, 
 were similar efforts on Nature's part, but very few 
 indeed recovered. 
 
 Influence of Rapidity of Injection of Snake 
 Venom. 
 
 The following lucid extract is from Dr. C. J. Martin's 
 paper in the Journal of Physiology already referred to. 
 It tells us of things that were before quite unknown, 
 and which have the most important bearing on the 
 subject under consideration : 
 
 " The variations in effect caused by the alterations 
 in the rapidity of injection are very marked. So 
 much so, that it is impossible to compare the results 
 from different experiments, unless the rate with which 
 the poison is introduced is a constant factor. Intra- 
 vascular clotting is produced most readily if the dose 
 be rapidly thrown into a vein near the heart (e.g., the 
 jugular). On increasing the time of delivery of the 
 poison into the circulation, either by employing diluted 
 solution, or by pressing down the piston of the syringe 
 more slowly, the positive phase (increased coagulability 
 of the blood) is less and less pronounced. If the rate of 
 the injection be still further prolonged, the positive 
 phase, if present, is so rapidly succeeded by the negative 
 variation that this latter appears to be the only result. 
 The negative phase becomes more and more pronounced 
 as larger quantities of the venom are allowed to slowly 
 enter the circulation. For slow injections I have 
 connected a burette containing a very dilute solution 
 
Seeing and Not Seeing the Large Cells. 23 
 
 of venom in - 7 per cent. NaCl. with the canula in the 
 vein, by a piece of rubber tube, the calibre of which 
 was controlled by a screw clamp. With this arrange- 
 ment I have been able to introduce large doses (0'005 
 gramme per kilo), and yet only produce inhibition of 
 the coagulability of the blood. The discovery that the 
 effects on the blood, after slow injections, are vastly 
 different from, in fact exactly opposite to, those follow- 
 ing rapid injection of the venom, explains why, in my 
 earliest experiments, I did not obtain the same fluid 
 condition of the blood as Halford, who used either 
 subcutaneous injection of the venom, or else allowed 
 a snake to bite the dog. By these methods delivery 
 into the circulation would necessarily be slow, and 
 comparable with results obtained by intravenous 
 injection, only in cases in which such injection was 
 very gradual." 
 
 Seeing and Not Seeing the Large Cells in 
 the Blood. 
 
 In 1891, I called on Sir J. Fayrer in London, and 
 told him I wished to show him the cells in the blood. 
 He received me very courteously, but said that he 
 knew little about the microscope, and had trusted to 
 the statements of Drs. Macnamara and Lewis the 
 latter gentleman, the whole medical world knows, from 
 his description of the blood of Hindoos abounding 
 with those remarkable embryos " the filaria sanguinis 
 hominis." Here there could be no doubt as to the 
 capacity of the microscopic observer. 
 
 I then visited my old friend Mr. Bartlett, Superin- 
 tendent of the Zoological Gardens, London, and got 
 
 c 2 
 
24 Professor Halford. 
 
 three rabbits killed one by a cobra, the second by a 
 rattle-snake, and the third by an African puff-adder. 
 I sent one to Professor Burdon-Sanderson, then of 
 University College, one to Professor Klein of St. 
 Bartholomew's, and one to Dr. Stewart, then of 
 St. Thomas', and now of the Royal College of Surgeons, 
 England. 
 
 RESULTS. 
 
 In the blood of the rabbit bitten by the rattle-snake, 
 sent to Dr. Burdon-Sanderson, not a trace of these cells 
 could be seen after the most careful examination. I 
 was there and did not see them. In the blood of the 
 rabbit bitten by the cobra, sent to St. Thomas', the 
 cells were in abundance, and both Dr. Stewart, then 
 President of the Microscopical Society of London, and 
 Dr. Greenfield, then of the Brown Institution, and now 
 Professor of Pathology in the University of Edin- 
 burgh, saw them readily. They were also in 
 abundance in the blood of the rabbit bitten by the puff- 
 adder, sent to St. Bartholomew's. I was very anxious 
 to get Dr. Klein's opinion as to what the cells were ; 
 but he said he could not understand them, arid that he 
 had never seen such appearances in any previous blood 
 that he had examined. He was just starting for 
 Egypt to study cholera. There the matter has rested 
 until the fortunate arrival of Dr. C. J. Martin at 
 Sydney. 
 
 The Origin of these Cells. 
 
 Before beginning to describe what I have myself 
 seen and thought, I must make an extract from the 
 
The Origin of these Cells. 25 
 
 late Dr. L. C. Wooldridge's now celebrated work on 
 " The Chemistry of the Blood," as peculiarly applicable 
 to this part of our subject. Speaking of the possible 
 origin of red blood corpuscles from plasma, he says : 
 " On the one hand the process is evidently allied to 
 crystallization, and the discs might be regarded as a 
 crystalline precipitate ; on the other hand, they may 
 be looked upon as imperfect cells. Omnis cellula e 
 cellula is a dogma. Is it true ? Are blood corpuscles 
 and plasma discs cells, or are they crystals ? Surely, 
 if ever we shall have a borderland between ' vital ' 
 processes and ordinary physical and chemical processes, 
 we shall find it in the blood plasma." 
 
 These cells seem to arise from the molecular or nebu- 
 lous masses (of plasma) lying in the intervals of the red 
 corpuscles. This much is certain, that as they appear, 
 so does the nebulous matter disappear. They are at first 
 extremely transparent, and almost invisible, requiring 
 faith to believe in their presence. Twelve hours after 
 the bite, they may be readily seen. At this time, with- 
 out adding magenta, the macula is a bright particle on 
 the inner wall of the cell (not a pullulation). Twenty- 
 four hours after the bite, they are usually at their 
 greatest size, and the macula is small. When the cells 
 are smaller, the macula is always larger than when the 
 cells are distended. I have lately investigated this 
 point, and find it as it had originally seemed to me. 
 Should now magenta be added, and a 4 mm. apochro- 
 matic objective used, with a compensatory eye-piece, 
 the macula will be seen as a bright ruby-coloured 
 particle. The coloured macula can also be seen with 
 an ordinary achromatic object glass, but, necessarily, 
 its colour will not be so pure. 
 
26 Professor Halford. 
 
 What is the Poison? 
 
 This is a difficult question to answer, but it must be 
 attacked. The most reliable opinions are those of Drs. 
 Weir Mitchell and E. T. Reichert of Philadelphia, and 
 those of Dr. C. J. Martin and Mr. J. MoGarvie Smith 
 of Sydney. Weir Mitchell and Reichert say : 
 
 (1) " Venom bears, in some respects, a strong resem- 
 blance to the saliva of other vertebrates. 
 
 (2) "The active principles are contained in the 
 liquid parts only. 
 
 (3) " Venoms may be dried and preserved indefinitely 
 in this condition, but with a very slight impairment 
 of their toxicity. In solution of glycerine, they will 
 also probably keep for any length of time. 
 
 (4) " There probably exist in all venoms representa- 
 tives of two classes of proteids, globulins and peptones, 
 which constitute their toxic elements ; the former may 
 be represented by one or more distinct principles." 
 
 Drs. C. J. Martin and McGarvie Smith thus sum up 
 their results on investigating the venom of the Austra- 
 lian black snake : " The products of the secretion of 
 the epithelial cell of the gland are hetero-, proto-, and 
 deutero-albumoses, and no ferment." " Our conception 
 of the formation of these albumoses in the venom-gland 
 of the snake is the following : The cell, by a vital 
 process, directly exercises a hydrating influence on the 
 albumins supplied to it by the blood, the results of 
 which influence are the albumoses, which we find in 
 venom. The difference between this process and the 
 digestion by pepsin or by anthrax bacilli is, that in the 
 case of the gland cells of the venom gland, the hydra- 
 tiori stops short at the albumose stage, and is not 
 continued so as to form peptone, as is the case with the 
 others (stomach and pancreas) mentioned. That the 
 
The Definition of a Ferment. 27 
 
 protoplasm of gland epithelium is capable of exercising 
 such a hydrating influence, we will instance the con- 
 version of glycogen into sugar by the liver." 
 
 "It must be borne in mind, that although the 
 proto-albumose, hetero-albumose, and deutero-albumose, 
 which are formed by these various agencies, have so 
 far not been chemically differentiated, they are not 
 identical, and when submitted to that infinitely more 
 sensitive test the physiological one produce vastly 
 different results." 
 
 Is the Poison a Ferment P 
 
 Dr. C. J. Martin says not ; because, unlike pepsin 
 and trypsin, its action is not destroyed by boiling, but 
 it is by prolonged boiling. 
 
 The Definition of a Ferment. 
 
 I extract the following from Waller's " Human 
 Physiology, 1891": 
 
 " The essential constituent of each digestive fluid is 
 a ferment ptyalin in saliva, pepsin in gastric juice, 
 trypsin in pancreatic juices, invertin in intestinal 
 juice. These and other ferments are the specific 
 agents by which the digestive transformations of the 
 food are effected. They are the occult agents of modern 
 physiology, inasmuch as they have never been isolated 
 as definite bodies, and are recognised to be present 
 only by the effects they produce" The italics are mine 
 (G.B.H.) 
 
 I claim therefore for snake venom the rank of a 
 powerful ferment. For, in addition to the difficulty 
 
28 Professor Halford. 
 
 with which it can be destroyed, its action is far more 
 prolonged. My belief is, that the living blood and 
 tissues resist the action of the poison, but that at last 
 they fail to maintain their preservative power ; that 
 the venom, once introduced into the circulation, 
 continues its action after the temperature of the body 
 has fallen, and continues till what should have been in 
 normal blood (fibrin), is destroyed, its place being 
 taken up by the large white cells I have described. 
 This, on my part, is purely hypothetical, but it is 
 the best I can say now. Doubtless it will be in the 
 power of future investigators to confirm or destroy 
 these fancies, and it will be a great result to our know- 
 ledge when something definite has been arrived at. I 
 have the greatest hopes in Dr. C. J. Martin's future 
 investigations. 
 
 Brainard's Description of Poisoned Blood. 
 
 Not being able to refer to " The Smithsonian 
 Reports " of 1854, I extract the following from Nysten's 
 " Dictionaire de Medicine/' Paris 1858, which being 
 translated, reads as follows: "Dr. Brainard, of the 
 State of Illinois, in causing pigeons to be bitten by 
 rattle snakes, found : 
 
 (1) " Change of form of the red corpuscles, by their 
 assuming a spherical condition. 
 
 (2) " Abundance of white corpuscles grouped to- 
 gether in aggregated masses. 
 
 (3) " Fluidity of the blood in the cavities of the 
 heart, resulting from the non-coagulability of the 
 fibrin. 
 
Experiments with Shires. 29 
 
 (4) " In mammals, haemorrhages from the mucous 
 membranes, and petechial discoloration of the skin." 
 
 The above observations agree with what I have 
 recorded, and it is interesting to remark, that they were 
 made thirteen years before my own microscopical 
 examinations of the blood. 
 
 Experiments with Shires. 
 
 This man apparently cared nothing for venomous 
 snakes ; he would put his bare arm and hand into a 
 box containing fifty snakes and pull out one, just as a 
 fisherman would an eel from a bag of eels. 
 
 One morning, before commencing experiments with his 
 antidote on twenty dogs, he said he would try an experi- 
 ment on himself with some snakes from Gippsland, veno- 
 mous without doubt. There were several gentlemen 
 present, some of whom are still in Victoria. I told him I 
 would not permit such a thing, but, as he insisted, I was 
 foolish enough (I did not think till afterwards how 
 foolish !) to tell him, to guard against deception, to pick 
 out a certain tiger snake, one out of many that I had 
 received the evening before from Dr. Gummow, of 
 Swan Hill. The snake bit him on the left forearm, 
 three inches above the wrist, and held on. He applied 
 his remedy, and I watched him throughout the day, 
 and certainly no symptoms of snake-poisoning super- 
 vened. Had he died, where should I have been ? 
 How could this immunity be accounted for, for nine- 
 teen out of the twenty dogs died ? I was aware that 
 he had been several times previously bitten, and once or 
 twice nearly dead. It occurred to me, could previous 
 inoculation have saved him? as we know now 
 
30 Professor Halford. 
 
 that previous inoculations save, or greatly modify, 
 the effects of other organic poisons. This brings us to 
 a remarkable statement by C. J. Martin* which is : 
 " A previous injection of small doses of black snake 
 venom confers an immunity, so far as in tra- vascular 
 clotting is concerned, against further injections of the 
 venom. This immunity is very speedily produced ; 
 how long it may last 1 am at present not in a position 
 to say." 
 
 I have introduced these facts stated by Dr. C. J. 
 Martin, as they may be considered side by side with 
 the facts I have recorded about Shires. 
 
 The Indestructibility of the Toxic Powers of 
 Snake Venom. 
 
 Dr. Weir Mitchell, in 1860, speaking of the poison 
 of the rattle snake, says : " Freezing has no effect ; 
 boiling has no effect ; strong nitric acid, strong muriatic 
 acid, strong sulphuric acid each of these strong acids, 
 after mixing with the venom arid acting upon it for 
 twelve minutes, was neutralised with liquor potassse 
 each mixture, when injected into the subcutaneous 
 tissue, produced death. When mixed with ammonia, 
 chlorine water, iodine, soda, potash, and each mixture 
 injected, no effect was found to have been produced on 
 its virulence." 
 
 I repeated all these experiments with the poison, of 
 the Australian tiger snake, and found the results 
 actually similar. 
 
 * Journal of Physiology, Vol. XV, No. 4, 1893. 
 
Methylated Spirit on Tiger Snake Venom. 81 
 
 Influences of Long Continued Action of Methy- 
 lated Spirit on the Venom of the Tiger 
 Snake (Hoplocephalus curtus). 
 
 Copy of letter to Dr. C. J. Martin, of Sydney : 
 
 "21st May, 1894. 
 
 " MY DEAR MARTIN, Having some snakes' heads which 
 had been in spirit for the last twenty-five years (the spirit 
 had been occasionally changed), I got Mr. Price to dissect out 
 four large glands, and gradually dry them. (All the tissues 
 surrounding the glands were hardened, and the lenses were 
 opaque, while the cornese were still clear and transparent). 
 Two days afterwards the glands were opened, and a fine 
 yellowish-brown powder obtained. I was unable to dissolve 
 this powder in warm water, and therefore could not use a 
 hypodermic syringe. I then took an ordinary glass syringe, 
 and injected the whole (one grain) into the cellular tissue of 
 the abdomen of a dog. No bad results followed. The next 
 day the wound was perfectly healed, and I removed the two 
 stitches. This was three weeks ago, and he is still well. 
 Subsequently, Mr. Price dissolved some of the dried poison 
 in 25 c.c. of 1 per cent. KHO, filtered and then neutralised 
 with weak HC1. A large precipitate was obtained, suffi- 
 ciently free from particles to permit of its passing through 
 the ordinary hypodermic syringe. The whole was gradually 
 injected into the subcutaneous tissue of a rabbit. No 
 injurious effect followed, and the little thing is as lively as 
 ever. 
 
 " I now send you the following mixture, hoping that with 
 your greater experience, you may be able to reproduce the 
 power of the venom : 
 
 " Dried snake poison - 1 gr. 
 
 "KHO 1 per cent. - 15 c.c. 
 
 " KHO 10 per cent. - 2 min. 
 
 " This was raised once only to boiling point. 
 
 "GEORGE B. HALFORD." 
 
32 Professor Halford. 
 
 Dr. Martin replied as follows : 
 
 " University of Sydney, 
 
 "25th June, 1894. 
 
 " DEAR PROFESSOR HALFORD, I made an experiment 
 last week with your solution which, to my mind, proves 
 conclusively that, whatever it contains, it possesses none of 
 the toxic properties of the venom. The most delicate test 
 I know is its effect, direct or indirect, upon the heart of 
 mammals. I think I am not exaggerating when I say that, 
 by this means, I could detect the 1 ^ i) grain of the venom. 
 
 " I neutralised your solution with HC1, and then injected 
 the whole of it into a rabbit, meanwhile taking a tracing of 
 the blood-pressure in the carotid artery. It produced 
 absolutely no effect except a temporary rise in pressure, due 
 to the addition of more fluid to the vascular system. I then 
 injected the ^ grain of pure venom in the same manner to 
 the same rabbit. In about thirty seconds the circulation 
 stopped, dyspnoeic convulsions consequently occurred, and 
 the whole venous system and pulmonary artery and right 
 heart were entirely thrombosed. I am sending you the 
 curves, which will be obvious to you." 
 
 I received these curves, which are most beautifully 
 executed. The result seems then, that such prolonged 
 maceration in spirit had extracted the toxic properties 
 of the venom. This is in harmony with the conclusion 
 of Dr. Lauder Brunton, on the activity of the alcoholic 
 extract of cobra poison, viz : " The alcoholic extract 
 resembles the poison itself in its activity, and in the 
 symptoms it produces." 
 
 Is there any Antidote to the Venom P 
 
 The answer is, I think, No. Let us see what we 
 have to contend with. The bones of the skull of a 
 venomous snake, including both upper and lower jaws, 
 
Is there any Antidote to the Venom ? 33 
 
 are so modified and articulated as to suit the muscular 
 action necessary for the instantaneous erection of the 
 poison fang, and to cause it to penetrate beneath the 
 skin of the victim' at the same time that the poison 
 gland is compressed and its contents ejected. Examin- 
 ing the fang, it will be seen that our modern hypodermic 
 syringe is a rough copy of the original in these serpents. 
 No venom must be lost, the apex of the fangs must 
 first penetrate, and subsequently, the poison be thrown 
 in. The whole mechanism is adapted to kill. We can 
 now ask How comes this about, and who has designed 
 it ? My answer is Some Omnipotent Power with 
 infinite Will, to which our own finite wills are remotely 
 allied. To those who study Nature, God is present 
 everywhere, and I recognise Him here. Can I, or any 
 other mortal being thwart the designs of Nature ? 
 Fable, or no fable, the following words are substanti- 
 ally as true to-day as they were when uttered thousands 
 of years ago :-- 
 
 " And the Lord God said unto the serpent, Because 
 thou hast done this, thou art cursed above all cattle, 
 and above every beast of the field ; upon thy belly 
 shalt thou go, and dust shalt thou eat all the days of 
 thy life : And I will put enmity between thee and the 
 woman, and between thy seed and her seed : it shall 
 bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel." 
 
 But surely some one will say There may be some 
 remedy discovered. Certainly, that I sincerely hope 
 may be ; but as yet we have none. 
 
34 Professor Halford. 
 
 Is Strychnine an Antidote P 
 
 I must refer to Dr. A. Mueller's work* on this subject, 
 since he is both a scientific and enthusiastic inquirer. 
 The following is from his book : " The writer published 
 his theory of the action of snake poison in May 1888, 
 after having practised the strychnine treatment for 
 some years, and thoroughly satisfied himself of its 
 efficacy. In the latter part of 1888, accounts of 
 Feoktistow's researches reached this country. His 
 final conclusions, to the effect that snake poison is 
 solely a nerve poison, that it does not destroy proto- 
 plasm, and has no effect whatever on the blood to 
 which its destructive potency on animal lite may be 
 ascribed, were in complete harmony with the writer's 
 views, in fact, a re-statement of his theory." 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 The whole of the evidence gathered together in this 
 little book tends to show that snake venom is primarily 
 a blood poison, and that secondarily, the nervous 
 system becomes implicated. I am not going to deny 
 the facts of recovery stated in Dr. Mueller's book. J 
 take them as true ; but as regards the antidote, a few 
 words must be said. 
 
 Let us suppose snake venom to be injected, and 
 subsequently, as soon as possible, a solution of strych- 
 nine ; then my experience tells me that, in spite of the 
 spinal convulsions produced by strychnia, the venom 
 will prevail. I do not say, don't try it ; but as the 
 instructions are given to medical men to go on and 
 increase the dose till symptoms of stiychnine poisoning 
 result, I believe there are few medical men who 
 
 * " On Snake Poison : Its Action and Antidote," 1893. 
 
Is Ammonia an Antidote? 35 
 
 would persist so far. For strychnine can have no 
 effect on the action of the poison. This is not to deter 
 others from using the remedy, but simply as a record 
 of my own thoughts and experience on this subject. 
 
 Is Ammonia an Antidote ? 
 
 No ! It was never published as such by me. But 
 we may look to the physiological effect of injecting 
 it into the veins. 
 
 Almost instantaneously the heart increases its con- 
 tractions, more especially as regards its power ; at the 
 same time, the voluntary muscles are thrown into 
 rapid contractions, so much so, if the dose be large, 
 that they become for a short space tetanic. The 
 circulation is necessarily increased, and the livid lips 
 resume their wonted colour. Frequently, consciousness 
 is restored. With all this muscular action going on, 
 there must be a great yielding up of carbonic acid 
 to the blood, and its subsequent removal from the 
 pulmonary capillaries. 
 
 This is all undeniably true, and in many cases the 
 results have been satisfactory, and in many others 
 there have been failures. I am forced now to say, 
 that the application of this restorative has not had 
 the success I formerly hoped for it. The operation of 
 injecting solely into a vein, and not into the surround- 
 ing tissues, is an extremely delicate one for ordinary 
 medical practitioners. This, unfortunately, has been 
 proved ; but it should no longer be so. Here, then, 
 is another instance of failure where success was 
 expected. 
 
36 Professor Halford. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Magnified 440 diameters, making them from ^ to -^ 
 of an inch. 
 
 The large cells, as they are seen in the blood before 
 the addition of magenta solution. It will be observed-, 
 that the whole cell consists of granular matter, with a 
 large granular nucleus. 
 
 It is, to me, evident that these cells are the same as 
 those alluded to by Brainard, thus : " Abondance de 
 corpuscles blancs se groupant en masses mamelonneV' 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 The same cells after the addition of the following 
 solution : 
 
 Magenta (or fuchsin) O'l gramme. 
 Absolute alcohol 2 c.c. 
 
 Distilled water - 98 c.c. 
 
 This is mixed on the slide with a drop of the blood, 
 and, after a few minutes, a thin cover-glass gently put 
 on. 
 
 The cells have lost all their granular contents, except 
 the granular nucleus and a small portion of proteid 
 matter adhering to the inner side of the cell-wall. 
 Both are deeply stained by the magenta, and the 
 latter is what I have called " the macula," for it is 
 not a " pullulation." 
 
PLATE I 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
PLATE III. 
 
Description of Plates. 37 
 
 PLATE III. 
 Magnified 175 diameters. 
 
 Description of the microscopic structure of the poison 
 gland of tiger snake (Hoplocephalus curtus). 
 
 This is similar to that of a parotid gland. The 
 epithelium of the alveoli is tessellated ; the cells are 
 polyhedral, with comparatively large nuclei ; the nuclei 
 are granular. The coagulated contents of the alveoli 
 consist of ddbris of cells, nuclei, &c. 
 
 The tubules are distinctly lined with columnar epi- 
 thelium, the nuclei being situated near the periphery 
 of the tubule. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 In the year 1869, I commenced experiments on the 
 effects of injecting certain so-called antiseptics and dis- 
 infectants into the circulation of dogs, believing from 
 the researches of Koch and others that we had to deal 
 with bacteria, or the poisons they generate, in the 
 lymph spaces and sub-mucous tissues external to the 
 capillaries. I thought intra-venous injection the best 
 way to get at these organisms and their products. I 
 further commenced to inject poisons into the blood 
 with very strange results. I have thought it right to 
 include these as an appendix to what I have said about 
 snake poison. 
 
 We all know how, from scattered observations 
 pieced together by subsequent workers, great results 
 have been obtained, notably in the science of Elec- 
 tricity, without which we should, in the present day, 
 be comparatively in both physical and intellectual 
 darkness. The beginnings of electrical science were 
 solely from observations, and led to experiments. It is 
 in the hope that the rough experiments I am about to 
 record may set some of my juniors thinking, and 
 possibly lead to a more improved system of applying 
 the facts recorded to medical science. I have not, now, 
 the requisite eye-sight to differentiate between the very 
 minute organic forms, constituting bacteria. 
 
Injections of Sulphurous Acid. 39 
 
 Injections of Sulphurous Acid. 
 
 The acid used was a saturated solution of S0 2 , 
 made expressly for me by the late Professor J. B. 
 Kirkland. 
 
 October 11, 1869. Injected into the left external 
 jugular vein twenty-five minims. 
 
 Result. Breathing slightly hurried. 
 
 A quarter of an hour after, another twenty-five 
 minims were injected. 
 
 Result. Nothing but slightly accelerated breath- 
 ing. 
 
 Between three and four hours afterwards, I injected 
 into the same do^, using both external jugulars, more 
 than half an ounce of the same sulphurous acid. 
 
 Result. None other than recorded above, the dog 
 remaining quite well and lively. 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 I was naturally surprised at these results, and 
 doubted the strength of my solution. 1 therefore 
 took half a teaspoonful, and placed it in my mouth. I 
 became nearly suffocated, the fumes arising closing my 
 glottis, and going wherever it suited them. This is 
 an instance of the value of practical work, for I shall 
 never do such a foolish thing again. 
 
 In September 1875, I re-commenced these experi- 
 ments under the control of our Professor of Chemistry, 
 the late J. D. Kirkland (a tablet regretting his death, 
 and showing his worth, may still be seen in the 
 
 vestibule of our Medical School). 
 
 D 2 
 
40 Professor Halfm^d. 
 
 Septembers, 1875. At 11.50 a.m., I threw in at 
 one injection into the left jugular vein of a full sized 
 sheep-dog, one ounce of the saturated solution of 
 S0 2 . 
 
 Result. The dog, on being .placed on his legs, 
 staggered a little, but soon became quiet and lay 
 down. A quarter of an hour after this he got up, and 
 became as lively as before the experiments. 
 
 October 12, 1875. Half an ounce of sulphurous acid 
 of the recognised strength was thrown into the femoral 
 vein of a small dog. 
 
 Result. Before the whole quantity was injected, 
 the dog suffered as if from choking, and the breathing 
 was much oppressed. Shortly "afterwards, he quite 
 recovered. In order to ascertain whether the acid had 
 been oxidised in the pulmonary circulation, or had 
 travelled on to the tissues, the following observations 
 were made : 
 
 Four test-tubes were taken and marked Nos. 1, 2, 
 3,4. 
 
 Into No. 1, blood was taken from the ear before the 
 acid was injected. 
 
 Into No. 2, blood was placed three minutes after the 
 injection. 
 
 Into No. 3, blood was placed ten minutes after 
 injecting. 
 
 Into No. 4, blood again twenty minutes after 
 injecting. 
 
 In each test-tube was added a fragment of zinc, and 
 then a little hydrochloric acid, at the same time a cap 
 of paper, moistened with acetate of lead, was placed 
 over the mouth of the test-tube. The result would be, 
 if sulphites were present in the blood, a blackish 
 sulphide of lead would be formed on each paper cap. 
 
Carbolic Acid. 41 
 
 Results obtained after standing eighteen hours : 
 No. 1. Only a very slight discoloration. 
 No. 2. Dark brown deposit. 
 No. 3. Still darker discoloration. 
 No. 4. Black deposit. 
 
 Other similar experiments were made on two other 
 dogs, with precisely the same results, which seem to 
 show that the sulphurous acid is not all, by any means, 
 used up in the pulmonary circuit. 
 
 Carbolic Acid. 
 
 At this time, carbolic acid was largely used as an 
 antiseptic and disinfectant. It was further stated, that 
 it destroyed parasites, both animal and vegetable, and 
 that it arrested fermentation. I therefore (October 14, 
 1869) made the following solution : 
 
 Pure solid carbolic acid (Calvert's) 3 parts. 
 Distilled water - 1 
 
 Glycerine - 12 ,, 
 
 So that m. xxv equalled 47 grains of carbolic acid. 
 
 EXPERIMENT I. 
 
 I injected into the femoral vein of a small dog 
 m. xxv. 
 
 Result. Within a few minutes, a tremor com- 
 menced in all the muscles, which passed into clonic 
 spasms all over the body, from the eye-lids to the tail. 
 The dog remained quite sensible, and in five minutes 
 the spasms ceased. Five minutes afterwards, another 
 
42 Professor Halford. 
 
 equal quantity was injected. This was followed by 
 exactly the same symptoms, only a little more violent. 
 In another five minutes the dog micturated, the urine 
 smelling strongly of the acid, and shortly afterwards, 
 ran about as usual. 
 
 EXPERIMENT II. 
 
 October 15. A very small dog was taken, in order 
 to see whether the symptoms described yesterday were 
 due to the carbolic acid or to the glycerine. Twenty- 
 five (xxv) minims of pure glycerine were injected. No 
 effect whatever produced. Ten minutes after this, I 
 injected another m. xx of the carbolic solution into the 
 same vein. The same cionic spasms returned in exactly 
 the same time, and of the same character as those 
 of the dog experimented upon yesterday, and passed 
 away as rapidly. There could be no doubt that the 
 symptoms were due to the injection of the acid into 
 the blood. 
 
 EXPERIMENT III. 
 
 October 16, 1869. The same small .dog as yesterday 
 was injected with m. xx of the following mixture : 
 
 Carbolic Acid - 3 parts. 
 
 Water - 1 
 
 Glycerine - - 4 
 
 So that m. xx equalled 7*5 grains of pure carbolic 
 acid. 
 
 Result, Within a second or two, the same cionic 
 spasms commenced and continued without intermission 
 for a quarter of an hour, after which they gradually 
 
Oxygenating Bodies. 43 
 
 declined, and ceased completely in half an hour. The 
 dose seemed very severe ; the pupils being, at first, 
 widely dilated, and afterwards relaxing. All the 
 muscles of the body, the heart included, participated 
 in the action, but he soon completely recovered. 
 
 Effects of the Stronger Solution on the Muscular 
 and Mucous Surfaces and on Albumen 
 
 (1) A drop or two was let tall upon the exposed 
 surface of the rectus abdominis muscle. It became 
 immediately bleached in the track of the acid. 
 
 (2) A little placed 011 the tongue was too severe for 
 any of my students or myself to bear. 
 
 (3) A small quantity added to a prepared solution 
 of white of egg immediately coagulated the albumen. 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 It will be seen that, as with liq. ammoniae and 
 sulphurous acid, very large quantities can be intro- 
 duced directly into the blood which cannot possibly 
 be administered either by the stomach or lungs. 
 
 OXYGENATING BODIES. 
 
 Bromides and Iodides. 
 EXPERIMENT I. 
 
 One hundred grains of bromide of ammonium, 
 dissolved in distilled water, were injected into the 
 jugular vein of a dog within twenty-five minutes. 
 
44 Professor Halford. 
 
 Result. No bad effects. Half a fluid drachm was 
 thrown in directly into the right ventricle of the heart. 
 No injurious results. But when blood was taken from 
 an artery, it seemed of a brighter scarlet, and certainly 
 coagulated more firmly and rapidly than usual. 
 
 EXPERIMENT II. 
 
 One thousand grains of iodide of ammonium, dis- 
 solved in two ounces of distilled water, were gradually, 
 during twenty-five minutes, thrown into the external 
 jugular vein of another dog. 
 
 Result. Dog perfectly unaffected. 
 
 ANESTHETICS. 
 
 Chloroform. 
 
 Twenty-five minims were thrown into the external 
 jugular vein of a large dog. 
 
 Result Almost immediate insensibility, with greatly 
 dilated pupils ; but in one minute, consciousness was 
 returning. Three minutes afterwards, I injected 
 another twenty-five minims. 
 
 Result. Immediate insensibility, with dilated pupils. 
 I at once amputated a leg, but whilst I was sewing 
 together the flaps, consciousness was returning, as 
 evinced by expressions of pain. 
 
Anaesthetics. 45 
 
 COMMENTS. 
 
 Two things are here dearly shown : 
 
 Firstly, that the effects of this direct injection are 
 too evanescent, and that the ordinary inhalation is 
 infinitely preferable. 
 
 Secondly, and this is important, that chloroform 
 vapour will escape from the blood if it can, and that 
 so long as respiration goes on, there is a great chance 
 of a person apparently dead from chloroform being 
 resuscitated. This I have repeatedly proved by 
 experiments on dogs in our laboratory, by using 
 the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Co.'s artificial 
 respiration pump. 
 
 -flSther. 
 EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Twenty-five minims were injected into the femoral 
 vein of a small noisy dog. 
 
 Result. The dog became quite quiet, but not 
 insensible. I then, almost immediately, injected 
 xv m. more.* 
 
 Result. In two seconds, he became insensible ; 
 pupils dilated. I cut off the dog's leg. He soon 
 recovered; but the whole surface of his body and 
 limbs remained perfectly anaesthetic for some time 
 afterwards, not taking any notice of cutting or 
 pinching. 
 
 * The two doses represent, approximately, half a litre of the vapour 
 of ether at the ordinary temperature, 15'5 C., or 60 Fahr. 
 
46 Professor Halford. 
 
 COMMENTS. 
 
 This obeyed the same physical law as the chloroform, 
 becoming almost as rapidly exhaled from the lungs as 
 it was thrown in. 
 
 Ozonic jEther. 
 EXPERIMENT I. 
 
 Two fluid drachms were injected into the femoral 
 vein of a dog. 
 
 Result No insensibility ; rather seemed happier. 
 
 About this time (1874), I had begun using the 
 micro-spectroscope, and the year before Dr. John Day, 
 of Geelong, had contributed several valuable papers to 
 the Medical Society of Victoria, on the Oxidising 
 Properties of Ozonic ^Ether, or Peroxide of Hydrogen. 
 
 EXPERIMENT II. 
 
 I placed some diluted venous blood in the little 
 tube supplied with the micro-spectroscope, and at once 
 obtained the spectrum of reduced haemoglobin. I 
 then removed the little cork, and added a drop or two 
 of the ozonic aether. I then inverted the tube, so as 
 to allow of the fluids to mix ivithout shaking. 
 
 Result The broad dark venous band gradually dis- 
 appeared, its place being taken by the two characteristic 
 bands of the oxyhaemoglobin spectrum. 
 
 I have for the last twenty years yearly repeated the 
 experiment for the benefit of my students. I com- 
 
Anaesthetics 47 
 
 municated this to Dr. Day, and now publish his 
 answer, the reason will be obvious : 
 
 LETTER FROM DR. JOHN DAY. 
 
 " YARRA STREET, GEELONG, 
 
 " September 14, 1874. 
 " MY DEA.R DR. HALFORD, 
 
 " Many thanks for your communication regarding 
 the spectroscopic appearance of venous blood after the addi- 
 tion of peroxide of hydrogen. 
 
 " I congratulate you on having made the discovery, and 
 consider it to be one of very great importance, whether 
 regarded from a chemical or physiological point of view. 
 
 " I have often noticed on adding peroxide of hydrogen to 
 a solution of blood, that it has given it a bright scarlet colour, 
 but beyond that I have not gone. 
 
 " As you know, Schonbein's theory was, that the colour- 
 ing matter of the blood possessed the property of trans- 
 forming ordinary atmospheric oxygen into ozone. More 
 modern chemists would perhaps say, that the colouring 
 matter of the blood reduces peroxide of hydrogen, and 
 converts it into common oxygen and water, but assuming 
 this to be the case, the oxygen is in a nascent, and con- 
 sequently in an active state. 
 
 " I hope you will bring the matter before the Medical 
 Society, or some other learned body. 
 
 " Yours faithfully, 
 
 "JOHN DAY." 
 
 Chloral Hydrate. 
 
 In May 1871, I began experimenting with chloral 
 hydrate. 
 
 EXPERIMENT. 
 
 Injected slowly forty grains dissolved in warm water 
 into the jugular vein of a lively middle-sized dog. 
 
48 Professor Halford. 
 
 Result. In twenty minutes he became quite insen- 
 sible, the limbs were flaccid, and the pupils widely 
 dilated. Respiration slow and deep. Circulation most 
 feeble. Thinking he might die, I injected m. xxv of 
 liquor ammonias into a vein. 
 
 . Result. Almost immediately the heart's action was 
 quicker and more forcible. The limbs and tail became 
 extended. The pupils contracted, and reflex acts 
 followed touching the eyelids. Respiration soon be- 
 came re-established, and the dog completely recovered. 
 
 Thinking it better to introduce the chloral more 
 gradually, I proceeded as follows : 
 
 EXPERIMENT. 
 
 One drachm was dissolved in one ounce of warm 
 distilled water, and injected into the peritoneal cavity 
 of another dog. 
 
 Result In three minutes he lay down, and in six 
 minutes was quite insensible, so that I amputated 
 both hind limbs, before he woke up, which he soon did 
 completely. 
 
 I repeated this last experiment, and was struck by 
 the .fact that this dog also became affected in three 
 minutes, and insensible in six minutes. 
 
 This gave me some idea of the time required for the 
 solution to be absorbed through the peritoneal mem- 
 brane, and to produce its narcotic effect on the brain. 
 
 EXPERIMENT. 
 
 Six other dogs were similarly treated, and each lay 
 down in three minutes, and became insensible in six. 
 
Vegetable Narcotic Poisons. 49 
 
 One of these dogs I opened in his sleep, and found a 
 greater redness in the tissues than usual, such how- 
 ever as I had previously seen in the human body after 
 poisoning by chloroform. 
 
 Liebreich said, chloral hydrate injected beneath 
 the skin yields nascent chloroform by action of the 
 alkali of the blood, and produces narcotic effects. 
 
 These experiments go a long way to confirm his 
 view. 
 
 VEGETABLE NARCOTIC POISONS. 
 
 Acetate of Morphia. 
 
 The following mixture was made : 
 
 Forty grains of acetate of morphia. 
 
 Acetic acid, q. s. 
 
 Warm water to 2 fluid ounces. 
 
 This was carefully neutralised with liq. potassse. 
 
 EXPERIMENT I. 
 
 October 2, 1869, at 11.30. Four grains of acetate of 
 morphia were injected. 
 
 11.35. Dog comatose, pupils much contracted. 
 
 11.40. Injected m. xxv of liq. ammonise into the 
 vein, followed by universal muscular spasms. 
 
 J 1.50. Pupils dilating ; answering to light. 
 
 12. Dog quite sensible, and lying down. 
 
 12.10. Dog running about ; a little dragging of the 
 hind legs. 
 
 Result. Perfect recovery. 
 
50 Professor Hal ford. 
 
 EXPERIMENT IL 
 
 October 3, at 12 o'clock. Two grains of acetate of 
 morphia were injected into the external jugular vein. 
 
 12.3. Pupils contracting. 
 
 12.4J. The dog suddenly jumped up and began 
 running about, and apparently frightened at us. 
 
 12.15. Injected another two grains. 
 
 12.23. Dog much excited, whining whenever he is 
 disturbed, and dragging the hind legs a little. 
 
 1 2.34. Two more grains injected. 
 
 12.37.- -Running about excitedly. 
 
 Result. No coma was induced, and he gradually 
 recovered. 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 I did not inject ammonia in this case, as I wanted 
 to get him comatose first ; failing this, I allowed him 
 to recover. 
 
 EXPERIMENT III. 
 
 Sixteen grains of acetate of morphia were injected 
 into the peritoneal cavity of a dog. 
 
 Result. Soon became comatose. 
 
 I then injected liq. ammonise into a vein. 
 
 Result. He quickly became conscious, and soon 
 recovered perfectly. 
 
 EXPERIMENT IV. 
 
 I now determined to leave the ammonia alone, and 
 see how much morphia a dog could stand without any 
 remedy at all : 
 
 2J grains injected into the jugular. 
 12 grains subcutaneously. 
 30 grains given by the mouth. 
 
 grains within an hour and a halt 
 
Vegetable Narcotic Poisons. 51 
 
 Result. No narcotism was produced at any stage, 
 and the dog recovered perfectly. 
 
 (From the verbatim notes of Dr. Neild, 
 March 25, 1869.,) 
 
 A solution was made of one grain of m. acet. in ten 
 minims of distilled water. 
 
 EXPERIMENT I. 
 
 10.58. Twenty-five minims of the solution were 
 injected into the right jugular vein of a pup. 
 
 11.1. He lies quite still; pupils dilated. Placed 
 on the floor, he lies quiet and his head droops. Easily 
 roused and made to walk. 
 
 11.4. Slight loss of power in the hind limbs. 
 
 1 1 . 6. Rapid breathing. 
 
 11.8. Still easily roused, and pupils dilated. 
 
 11.16. Barks as if in a dream. 
 
 11.20. Slight contraction of the pupil. Drags his 
 hind legs more. 
 
 11.23. Two drachms of the solution, equalling 
 twelve grains of the acetate, were injected beneath 
 the skin. 
 
 11.25. Still runs about, but is restless and whines. 
 
 11.57. Half a drachm of acetate of morphia was 
 given by the mouth. 
 
 12.50. No narcotism, and the dog recovered. 
 
 EXPERIMENT II. 
 
 A solution was made of one grain of the acetate to 
 fifteen minims of distilled water. 
 
52 Professor Hal ford. 
 
 11.8. Twenty-five minims were injected into the 
 right jugular vein of a full-sized dog. 
 
 11.11. Pupils alternately dilating and contracting. 
 Dog very quiet, and walks steadily. 
 
 11.15. Twenty minims more were injected into the 
 same vein. 
 
 11.17. Slight stertor ; pupils contracting ; lies quite 
 still. 
 
 11.24. Pupils more contracted; eyes sensible to 
 touch ; he lies tranquil, but not unconscious. 
 
 12.35. Dog remains quiet, but is perfectly conscious 
 and sensible. 
 
 EXPERIMENT III. 
 
 11.30. Twenty minims of the same solution as 
 used yesterday were injected into the right jugular 
 vein of a full-grown dog. 
 
 11.32. Staggers a little, and then sits down. 
 
 11.84. Lies prone ; pupils contracting. 
 
 11.36. Tries to get up ; breathing steady. 
 
 11.37. Quite conscious. 
 
 Noon. Partial paraplegia. 
 
 12.4. Twenty minims of liq. ammonias were injected 
 into the right jugulai- vein. 
 
 12.8. More lively ; does not drag his legs so much. 
 
 12.17. Runs about, with but little appearance of 
 paraplegia. 
 
 Result. Recovered. 
 
 EXPERIMENT IV. 
 
 11.55. Half an ounce of the same solution of ace- 
 tate of morphia, equalling twelve grains of the acetate, 
 were injected into the peritoneal cavity of a dog. 
 
Vegetable Narcotic Poisons. 53 
 
 Noon. Panting, and the pupils contracting and 
 expanding. 
 
 12.17. Cannot walk ; great paraplegia. 
 
 12.21. Twenty minims of the liq. ammonise were 
 injected into the left jugular vein. 
 
 Result. The heart's action was immediately in- 
 creased. 
 
 12.24. Pricked his ears and looked more lively. 
 
 12.26. Walked, and tried to run. 
 
 12.35. Runs about and jumps. He recovered per- 
 fectly. 
 
 Similar experiments, with the assistance of Dr. O. V. 
 Lawrence, with even larger doses, were performed, and 
 always with the same result as before described. 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 As this Appendix has been written to record facts 
 really ascertained, I think it very profitable to make 
 the following extract from Dr. A. W. Blyth's work on 
 
 " Poisons," London, 1884 : 
 
 " ACTION OF MORPHINE ACETATE ON DOGS. 
 
 " From 1 J to 7*5 grains injected into the circulation of a 
 dog, shows its effect almost immediately. The dog becomes 
 uneasy, and moves its jaws and tongue as if some peculiar 
 taste were experienced. It may bark or utter a whine, and 
 then in a minute or two falls into a profound sleep, which is 
 often so deep that while it lasts usually several hours an 
 operation may be performed. In whatever attitude the limbs 
 are placed, they remain. The respiration is rapid and stertor- 
 ous, and most reflex actions are extinguished. Towards the 
 end of the sleep, any sudden noise may startle the animal, 
 and when he wakes, his faculties are evidently confused. A 
 partial paralysis of the hind legs has often been noticed, and 
 then the dog, with his tail and pelvis low, has something the 
 
54 Professor Hal ford. 
 
 attitude of the hyena. If the dose is larger than from 31 to 
 46 grains, the symptoms are not dissimilar, save that they 
 terminate in death, which is generally preceded by 
 convulsions." 
 
 There is a great similarity of symptoms described in 
 the extract to those resulting from my own experiments. 
 But, strange to say, the main difference is, that after 
 injecting 44 J grains, I could not produce any coma, 
 neither were there any death-like symptoms or any- 
 thing approaching thereunto. 
 
 In man, as we all know, no such quantities as stated 
 above can be injected, and we also know that the 
 action of morphia on individuals is different. A small 
 dose in one will produce a sound sleep ; in another, 
 restlessness, and not a wink of sleep all ni^ht. These 
 are the idiosyncrasies which are so multiple in the 
 human race. The higher the mental development, the 
 more varied are the characteristics of the individual. 
 The lower we go down, the more do these individual 
 attributes disappear, till at last there is not much 
 difference between one frog and another, or between 
 one wasp and another. 
 
 But there are good tempered dogs and bad tempered 
 dogs; intelligent dogs and stupid dogs. The fidelity 
 of the dog is proverbial. Now, this fidelity is the 
 result of mental organisation inherited, and of ante- 
 cedent cerebral organisation. 
 
 A few words, therefore, are necessary to explain, if 
 possible, the difference of the action of vegetable 
 poisons, such as morphia and belladonna, on dogs 
 and man. 
 
 (1) There is very little difference between the 
 ganglia at the base of the brain, or their connections 
 with other parts, or with the organs of special sense 
 
Vegetable Narcotic Poisons. 55 
 
 in man and dog. But when we compare their cerebral 
 hemispheres, the difference is great indeed. In man, 
 the sulci are very deep between the convolutions, for 
 extension of the grey matter and the corresponding 
 increase of blood supply. The following extract 
 from Chaveau's "Comparative Anatomy" will be 
 interesting before I proceed further with this 
 seemingly difficult subject: 
 
 EXTRACT. 
 
 " It has been attempted to establish in the predominance 
 of the encephalon the cause of the development of the 
 intelligence, and that the best measure of this predominance 
 is really the relation of the spinal axis to the encephalic 
 mass. The relations differ notably in each of the following 
 species : In the dog 1 : 5-14, cat 1 : 3-75, sheep 1 : 2-60, ass 
 1 : 2-40, pig 1 : 2-30, horse 1 : 2-27, ox 1 : 2-18." 
 
 According to Quain's " Human Anatomy," the 
 relation of the spinal cord to the encephalon in 
 man is as 1 : 38. 
 
 We have these further facts to help us on. 
 
 I conceive, therefore, that in man the cerebrum is 
 more deeply irrigated with poisoned blood than can be 
 the case in the dog, and consequently, its myriads of 
 cells must suffer from more intimate and prolonged 
 action of the poison than in the dog ; hence, probably, 
 the more overwhelming annihilation of function, 
 resulting in death. 
 
 This attempted explanation applies also to the action 
 of belladonna and atropine, which next follow : 
 
 EXPERIMENT V. 
 
 March 26, 1869. This experiment was devised to 
 see accurately what was the effect of the injection of 
 
 ammonia had upon the Heart itself. 
 
 E 2 
 
56 Professor Halford. 
 
 The assistants in this were Dr. Neild and Dr. 
 Wooldridge. 
 
 It will be seen that, at that time, I had no Cam- 
 bridge Artificial Respirary Pump ; but had to rely upon 
 an ordinary pair of bellows, into which, when needed, 
 I could pour chloroform, so as to produce insensibility 
 in the dog. 
 
 To a fine large dog, chloroform was administered, 
 and when under its influence, the anterior part of the 
 sternum, and some portions of the cartilaginous ends 
 of the ribs, were removed to show the contents of the 
 thorax. Artificial respiration was kept up by Dr. 
 Wooldridge. Half a drachm of the liquor ammonite 
 was injected by myself into the left external jugular 
 vein. 
 
 Result. In not less than ten seconds, the heart's 
 action became more forcible and rapid. 
 
 Ten minutes afterwards, injected the same quantity 
 into the external jugular vein. 
 
 Result. Same effects, and none other. 
 
 After waiting fifteen minutes, the same quantity 
 was injected into the right ventricle of the heart. 
 
 Result. More instantaneous, but the same results 
 as before ; the dog becoming conscious, more chloro- 
 form was put into the bellows. 
 
 Fifteen minutes afterwards, the same amount was 
 thrown into the left ventricle of the heart. 
 
 Result. Instantaneously, the muscles of the ex- 
 tremities were extended ; respiratory efforts were 
 forcibly made. After this, he perfectly recovered. 
 But I went further, and injected into the left ventricle 
 twice the amount of the solution of ammonia, and 
 
Vegetable Narcotic Poisons. 57 
 
 each injection was followed by exactly the same 
 symptoms. The thorax and abdomen had been 
 exposed for one hour and twenty minutes, and the 
 heart began gradually to fail, and the dog was allowed 
 to die. 
 
 The details of this experiment gives an opportunity 
 of recording my sincere thanks to Dr. Wooldridge, 
 formerly of South Yarra, and who now, I hope and 
 believe, is still well at an advanced age, in the Isle of 
 Wight. He was the first gentleman in our profession 
 whom I called upon, on the night when that unfortu- 
 nate man visited me, and whose case I have briefly 
 recorded (page 13). He willingly came with me, and 
 attended poor Mr. Drummond till his death. Since 
 that night we have ever been fast friends, greatly to 
 my benefit. And now, strange to say, I have to deplore, 
 with all physiologists, the death of his nephew, Charles 
 Leonard, whose works I have alluded to in the part of 
 this little essay on snake poisoning. 
 
 Belladonna and Atropine. 
 
 (From Dr. 0. V. Lawrence's Notes.) 
 
 2 p.m. One fluid ounce of tincture of belladonna 
 was given to a dog. 
 
 Result Twenty minutes afterwards, the pupils 
 were dilated, and ten minutes later they were fully 
 dilated. There was curling of the upper lip, but no 
 other symptoms. 
 
 2.55. Two ounces of the tincture were then given. 
 
58 Professor Halford. 
 
 Result. No effect. 
 
 3.10. One drachm of extract of belladonna was then 
 given. 
 
 Result. The dog seemed to relish it. 
 
 4. Dog drowsy ; staggers when walking ; began to 
 vomit ; afterwards, barking at objects supposed to be 
 on the walls, evidently delirium, as happens with man 
 after taking large doses of belladonna. 
 
 5. The dog now remaining perfectly non-comatose ; 
 but with greatly dilated pupils, and still barking at 
 imaginary objects. I then gave him 15 grains of atro- 
 pine by the mouth, and, it producing no further effect, 
 injected another 15 grains beneath his skin, 
 
 Result. No death, but perfect recovery 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 I thought if I proceeded further I should not be able 
 to afford it. The atropine in Melbourne then cost 
 1 Is. a drachm, and the tincture and extract were 
 proportionately dear ; so I let the hardened sinner go 
 till another day, but in the meantime forgave him 
 and kept him. 
 
Vegetable Irritant. 59 
 
 VEGETABLE IRRITANT. 
 
 Ergot of Rye. 
 
 It has long been known that this fungus, adminis- 
 tered to the females of the lower animals, or to women, 
 produces contractions of the involuntary muscular 
 fibres of the uterus ; and also of the involuntary fibres 
 of the bladder, of the intestinal canal, of the smallest 
 bronchial tubes, and, probably, of the muscular coats 
 of the blood-vessels. Hence, it has been administered 
 with great benefit in cases of lingering labour, when 
 the cause has been only inertia of the uterus. Also, 
 it has been useful in haemorrhage from the uterus, 
 more particularly in post-parfcum haemorrhage. In 
 bleeding from the lungs, its beneficial effects have 
 been recorded. 
 
 From the records of medical science there is no doubt 
 that, in the hands of a skilful practitioner, this is a very 
 valuable aid to "obviate the tendency to death;" but at 
 the same time, in the hands of an unskilled practitioner, 
 it is a very dangerous agent. 
 
 I thought that, possibly, cases might occur in which 
 an instantaneous action of the drug might be necessary. 
 I therefore injected a solution of the drug with the 
 following results : 
 
 EXPERIMENT. 
 (From Dr. 0. V. Lawrence's Notes.) 
 
 September 7, 1875, at 11.10a.m. Two fluid drachms 
 of the extractum ergotse liquidum were injected into 
 
60 Professor Halford. 
 
 the right jugular vein of a middle-sized bitch, heavy 
 in pup. 
 
 Result. Immediately after the injection she mic- 
 turated, and about eight minutes after, she had an 
 evacuation. 
 
 11.30. An additional four drachms of the ex. erg. 
 liquid, were thrown into the left jugular vein. 
 
 Result. Immediately on being placed on her legs, 
 she began to stagger; this continued for some time. 
 She then lay down ; some spasms of the abdominal 
 muscles were noticed, which soon passed off. Kespira- 
 tion easy, but quick. Heart's action quiet, but 
 irregular. 
 
 Noon. Bitch quiet, lying down. Respiration more 
 regular. 
 
 1 p.m. Still quiet, but no specific effect of the 
 ergot. 
 
 2.0. Very sick ; but in about an hour got much 
 better. 
 
 7.0. Lively, and running about. 
 
 September 8. Some time in the night the bitch 
 had pupped, passing five, all dead. 
 
 7 a.m. Another pup was passed. 
 
 9.0. Another pup. Bitch very lively, and takes 
 her food. 
 
 The pups appear about five or six weeks old. No 
 sign of hair on the skin, and the claws were not fully 
 formed. 
 
The Influence of Ammonia. 61 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OP AMMONIA ON THE 
 MUSCULAR FIBRES OF THE HEART. 
 
 It has been universally acknowledged by physiolo- 
 gists, that irritation of a nerve by ammonia vapour 
 does not cause the muscle which it supplies to contract ; 
 but abundance of evidence has come forward to show 
 that the application of ammonia to the muscle itself 
 gives rise to immediate contraction, more or less pro- 
 longed. 
 
 The following experiment was recently made by 
 Mr. Price : 
 
 A rabbit was injected with ^ grain of tiger-snake 
 poison into the external jugular vein. Death took 
 place within one minute. On opening the chest, the 
 heart and arterial vessels were found filled with clots. 
 The movements of the ventricles were insufficient to 
 get rid of their burden. The movements getting slower 
 and slower, the apex was cut off, and a drop or two of 
 a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia let fall into 
 the opened ventricles. Immediately increased contrac- 
 tions of the ventricles took place. 
 
 This is in harmon}^ with what Dr. Sydney Ringer 
 has stated of the influence of ammonia on the muscles 
 themselves, rather than on the nerves ; arid, therefore, 
 this experiment agrees with what I have previously 
 said on the effects of the intra- venous injection of 
 ammonia. 
 
62 . Professor Halford. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 I have first to thank Dr. 0. V. Lawrence for having 
 so constantly assisted me in the examination of the 
 blood after snake poisoning, and for noticing the time 
 of the appearance of the corpuscles shown thereon, and 
 ascertaining their magnitudes ; also, as the Appendix 
 shows, his records of many experiments I made of 
 injecting poisons, &c., into the circulation. To Dr. 
 Neild I have also to give my sincere thanks for assist- 
 ance in experiments with chloroform, morphia, ammonia, 
 &c. To Mr. Charles Price, also, I am indebted for great 
 and willing assistance in the experiments I have recently 
 made. 
 
Study of the Venom of Serpents. 63 
 
 Since finishing the Appendix, I have received the 
 last number of the " Annales de 1' Institut Pasteur," 
 containing 
 
 CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE 
 VENOM OF SERPENTS: IMMUNITY OF 
 ANIMALS AND TREATMENT OF THE 
 BITE. 
 
 By Dr. A. CALMETTE. 
 
 From the Laboratory of M. Koux, of the Pasteur Institute. 
 
 The paper is so important, that I have thought it 
 necessary to make several extracts, in order to bring 
 the subject up to date. 
 
 The snakes used were the Cobra of India and 
 Cochin China ; the Tiger snake ; the Black snake of 
 Australia ; and the Viper of France. 
 
 " Immunity against a dose of venom, usually mortal 
 to fresh animals, can be obtained in the following 
 manner: If we inoculate under the skin of a rabbit 
 2 milligrammes of cobra poison, a dose capable of kill- 
 ing in less than two hours ; and if, twenty minutes 
 afterwards, we inject chloride of lime diluted to -^ 
 around the poison wound, and in various parts of the 
 body, the rabbit thus treated resists the action of 
 the poison, after a transient illness. It falls away at 
 once, and continues to do so during the following 
 six or eight days, and then completely re-establishes 
 itself. 
 
 " If, after a fortnight's rest, J milligramme of the 
 venom is injected, it does not succumb. This rabbit is 
 thenceforth vaccinated against this dose of J milli- 
 
64 Professor Halford. 
 
 gramme, which kills within eight or twelve hours all 
 the other non-vaccinated rabbits. 
 
 " Finally, certain substances, such as hypochlorite of 
 lime and chloride of lime, ^uithout mixing with venom, 
 injected in small quantities for four or five consecutive 
 days under the skin of rabbits, produce without fail 
 the refractory state. The animals thus treated can, 
 after six days, resist a mortal dose. 
 
 "Thus I have given immunity to rabbits, guinea- 
 pigs, and to one dog. Operating with precaution, and 
 weighing regularly the animals so as to let those who 
 fall in condition rest, it is easy to succeed in making 
 them support truly colossal quantities of pure venom. 
 I have rabbits, and have had them for the last eight 
 months, which have each received from 30 to 35 milli- 
 grammes of cobra poison, and are now in perfect 
 health." 
 
 Properties of the Blood Serum of Animals which 
 have received Immunity. 
 
 " The serum of animals which have received im 
 munity against the venom by either of the preceding 
 methods, possesses similar properties to those which 
 MM. Behring and Kitasato, Roux and Vaillard, have 
 established for the serum of animals against the poisons 
 of tetanus and diphtheria. 
 
 " The serum of a rabbit which has been rendered 
 proof against the venom of the cobra or the viper, 
 acts exactly in the same way with the venoms of the 
 Australian snakes" 
 
Bleaching Powder. 65 
 
 Chloride of Lime.* 
 EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 "The solution used is in the proportion of 1 to 12. 
 At the time of injecting, 5 c.c. are further diluted with 
 45 c.c. of water. 
 
 First Series. 
 
 " (1) A control experiment. A rabbit, weighing 
 1-940 kilogramme, was inoculated with 1 milligramme 
 oi cobra venom under the skin of the right hind foot 
 at 11 a.m. Died at 2.45 p.m. 
 
 " (2) A rabbit, weighing 1775 k., was inoculated 
 with the same amount of venom, and in the same part. 
 Fifteen minutes afterwards, 8 c.c. of the diluted 
 chloride of lime solution were injected in four places 
 around the bitten part, and in the right thigh. 
 Cured. 
 
 " (3) Rabbit weighing 1'640 k. Same treatment as 
 No. 2. Cured. 
 
 " (4) Rabbit weighing 1-900 k. One milligramme 
 into the foot of the right hind limb. Half an hour 
 afterwards was treated with 8 c.c. of the solution. 
 Died eight days after the inoculation ; wasting away, 
 with paralysis of the hind limbs, and diarrhoea. No 
 specific lesion found at the autopsy. 
 
 * The ordinary bleaching powder, a compound of hypochlorite and 
 chloride of lime will suffice. G-. B. H. 
 
 " Hypochlorous acid yields fourteen-fifteenths of its chlorine in the 
 form of chlorine gas one of the most efficient of known disinfec- 
 tants." ATTFIELD. 
 
66 Professor Halford. 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 " (1) A control experiment. A rabbit, 1-800 k. 
 Two milligrammes of cobra poison into the muscles of 
 the right thigh at 11 a.m. Died at 3.50 p.m. 
 
 " (2) Rabbit, 1770k. Two milligrammes injected 
 into the intra-muscular tissue of the right thigh. 
 Twenty minutes afterwards, 8 c.c. of the chloride of 
 lime solution were injected into eight different places 
 in the right thigh and flank. Cured. 
 
 " (3) Rabbit, 1'SOO k. The same inoculation at 
 11.12 a.m. Treated twenty-five minutes afterwards 
 with 8 c.c. of the diluted solution. Died the following 
 night. 
 
 "(4) Rabbit, 1720 k. The same inoculation at 
 11.18 a.m. Treated thirty minutes afterwards with 
 10 c.c. of the solution. Died during the following 
 night. 
 
 " (5) Rabbit, V820 k. Same inoculation at 11.20 a.m. 
 Treated thirty minutes afterwards with 12 c.c. of the 
 solution. Cured. 
 
 Third Series. 
 
 " (1) Rabbit weighing 1\920 k. Inoculated with 
 2 milligrammes of venom. Ten minutes after, 1 centi- 
 gramme of morphine was injected under the skin of 
 the belly. Half an hour after this, 8 c.c. of the lime 
 solution were injected. Cured. 
 
 "(2) Rabbit, weighing 1*680 k. Inoculated as the 
 last with 2 milligrammes of poison. Ten minutes after, 
 1 centigramme of morphine injected under the skin. 
 
Treatment by the Immunity-Serum. 67 
 
 Forty minutes after this, 10 c.c. of the lime solution 
 were injected. Cured. 
 
 Treatment by the Immunity- Serum. 
 
 " The serum used was obtained from five rabbits, 
 which had been rendered proof against the action of 
 from 20 to 26 milligrammes of cobra venom. 
 
 " (1) Rabbit, weighing ]'870 k. Inoculated in the 
 left foot with 1 milligramme of venom. Half an hour 
 afterwards, a subcutaneous injection of 6 c.c. of the 
 immunity-serurn under the skin of the abdomen. 
 Cured. 
 
 "(2) Rabbit, weighing 1 -780 k. Inoculated with I 
 milligramme of venom. One hour after, 6 c.c. of the 
 serum injected, half under skin and half into the peri- 
 toneal cavity. Cured. 
 
 " (3) Rabbit, weighing 1-830 k. One milligramme 
 of venom injected. One hour and a quarter afterwards, 
 6 c.c. of the serum under the skin. Cured. 
 
 " (4) Rabbit, weighing 1 '550 k. One milligramme 
 ot venom injected. One hour and twenty minutes 
 afterwards, 6 c.c. of the serum injected under the skin. 
 Dead after eight hours. 
 
 " (5) Rabbit, weighing 1*900 k. One milligramme 
 of venom. One hour and thirty-one minutes after, 8 c.c. 
 of the serum. Cured. 
 
 " (6) Rabbit, weighing 2-220 k. One milligramme 
 of venom injected. Treated one hour and seventeen 
 minutes afterwards by an injection of only 2 c.c. of 
 serum from a rabbit which had received in all 26 milli- 
 grammes of cobra venom. Cured. 
 
68 Professor Halford. 
 
 " Half a c.c. of this serum, added to 1 milligramme of 
 cobra venom, renders the latter harmless. 
 
 " (7) A control experiment. A rabbit, weighing 2 
 kilos, receiving at the same time as the others 1 milli- 
 gramme of the cobra venom, but without any treatment, 
 was dead in less than three hours. 
 
 " (8) A guinea-pig, weighing \ kilo, was inoculated, 
 under the skin of the right thigh, with 1 milligramme 
 of the venom of the European viper. Five minutes 
 afterwards, 2 c.c. of the serum of the rabbit were 
 injected into the peritoneal cavity. Cured." 
 
 Elsewhere Dr. Calmette says : 
 
 " Since this therapeutical serum is capable of destroy- 
 ing the toxic property of venom, in such extremely 
 sensitive animals as the rabbit and the guinea-pig, may 
 we not be justified in thinking that it would be 
 efficacious in man ? 
 
 " It is necessary, therefore, to make experiments as 
 soon as possible, to enlighten us as to the practical 
 value of this method. The only difficulty that presents 
 itself is, to procure a considerable quantity of divers 
 venoms, so as to render immunity to large animals, as 
 is now done readily with diphtheria and tetanus. This 
 difficulty passes away in countries were venomous 
 snakes abound, as in Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and above all in India, where, according to the statistics 
 of the British Government, more than twenty-two 
 thousand people succumb annually to the bite of these 
 reptiles. 
 
 " A preventative and therapeutical serum against the 
 venom of the cobra or tiger snake, will be equally 
 effective against the venoms of the viper and black 
 snake. 
 
Treatment of Man Bitten by Vtnomous Snake. 69 
 
 " In order that I may make experiments on a larger- 
 scale, I appeal to my fellow- workers who might be able 
 to procure me these venoms, either dry or preserved in 
 pure glycerine. Having thus prepared a large quantity 
 of therapeutical serum, I will gladly place it at the 
 disposition of medical practitioners in the Colonies 
 liable to use it." 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 1 had already asked my friends in the country to 
 get, during the coming summer, all the snakes' heads 
 they possibly could; and now I ask the readers of these 
 pages to request all their country friends to do the same, 
 with these precautions don't go and look for the 
 snakes, you will find them on your road ; then having 
 rendered the snake hors de combat, cut through his 
 neck about an inch or so behind his head ; put the head 
 in a parcel, and send it by post to me at the University. 
 I will extract all the poison (pure) from the glands, 
 and send it on to Dr. Calrnette. By these means, a 
 great reciprocal work will be commenced between India 
 and Australia. I now pass to what he says as 
 regards- 
 
 The Treatment of a Man Bitten by a Veno- 
 mous Snake. 
 
 " (I) Place, if possible, an elastic ligature moderately 
 tight between the bite and the root of the limb, so as 
 to prevent absorption of the poison. 
 
70 Professor Halford. 
 
 " (2) Inject, at once, into the wound, and all round 
 about, 20 to 30 c.c. (1 oz. or more) of a recently made 
 solution of the bleaching powder.* 
 
 " (3) Remove the ligature as soon as the injections 
 have been made. Wash the wound with an abundance 
 of the concentrated solution of the bleaching powder. 
 
 " It will be advantageous to sustain the heart's 
 action, by injecting a feeble dose of morphia (about 
 \ grain) or caffein subcutaneousry. 
 
 " There is no inconvenience produced by injecting 
 the diluted solution, either into the cellular tissue, or 
 amongst the muscles. These injections are never pain- 
 ful, and never produce sloughing. The injections of 
 immunity-serum will be more preferable. They should 
 be, in the future, the veritable treatment of snake-bite. 
 This is the practical result which we have always had 
 in view, and hope we have attained." 
 
 COMMENT. 
 
 I asked, on page 27, of snake venom Does it contain 
 a ferment ? 
 
 Dr. Calmette says : *' That 3 drops of a solution of 
 the chloride of lime powder (bleaching powder) are 
 sufficient to destroy, in a test-tube, the activity of 
 1 milligramme of cobra venom, or of 10 milligrammes 
 of viper venom, dissolved in 1 c.c. of water." 
 
 This is a very extraordinary statement, and points, 
 probably, to the existence of a ferment in snake poison ; 
 
 * 1 in 12 of water. When required, dilute 5 c.c. of this with 45 c.c. 
 of water. 
 
Treatment of Man Bitten by Venomous Snake. 71 
 
 for a few drops of the solution immediately arrests the 
 action of ptyalin. 
 
 As regards its action on pepsin, plus the necessary 
 amount of l^drochloric acid, it at first hinders the 
 digestion of fibrin, but soon fails in the presence of the 
 acid, which is the necessary accompaniment to the 
 ferment. It is further astonishing, that so small an 
 amount of free chlorine should have so powerful an 
 effect, whereas, as stated by Weir Mitchell, the strong- 
 est acids, nitric, &c., cannot destroy the activity of 
 rattle-snake venom ; neither have they any destructive 
 power, as I have myself seen, over the venom of the 
 tiger snake. 
 
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