UC-NRLF fx ■' 'Mtm THE U^t. Of SCHOOLS, iiTirs/rsD .1 WELLS'S SCMOUL GRAMMAR-REVISED EDITION. GRAM M A R OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. FOR. THE USE OF SCHOOLS. BY W. H. WELLS, M.A., BUPKRISTENDE-NT OF l»lrt5LIC SOflOOI-S, CHICAGO; AN'D LATE PKISCIPAL Of TUB STATE A'OUilAL SCHOOL, WESTl'IELU, MAljti. TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-FIFTH THOUSAND. CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGGS & CO., 39 & 41 LAIvE ST. NKW YOEK: IVISON, PUI^NEY" .fe 0011l\V:sr. boston; brown, TAIiGAr.O a OIl-VSE. tlilLAUKI.l'llIA : SOWEK, BAESE3- A CO., AND J. B. LIPl'ISCOTT . D., 7th ed., ISmo, Edinburgh; 1841. IMcilan, Mark Anthonv, 12mo, London; 1803. INIcnye, J., 12mo, New York; 1785. Milligan, Rev. George, 2d ed., 18mo, Edinburgh; 1839. INIorgan, Jonathan, A. B., 12mo, Hallowell, Me.; 1814. Morely, Charles, A. B., ISmo, Hartford; 1836. Murray, Lindley, 8vo, Holdgate, England; 1795. —New York; 1814. Nutting, Rufus, A. M.,3d ed., 12mo, Montpelier, Vt.; 1826. Oliver, Edward, D. D., 12mo, London; 1807. Oliver, Samuel, 8vo, London ; 1825. Parker and Fox, 5th ed., 12mo, Boston ; 1837. Parkhurst, John L., ISmo, Andover; 1838. Peirce, Oliver B., 12mo, New York ; 1839. Pcrlcy, Daniel, M. D., ISmo, Andover; 1834. Perry, William, (prefixed to Dictionary), 12mo, Edinburgh ; 180L Picket, A. and J. W., 12mo, Cincinnati ; 1837. Pinnock, W., 12mo, London: 1829. Pond's Murray, 6th ed., 12mo, Worcester; 1835. I'owers, Daniel, A. M., 12mo, West Brookfield. Mass.; 1845. Priestley, Joseph, LL. D., 3d cd., ISmo, London; 1772. Pne, Hugh A., ISmo, Philadelphia; 1841. LIST OF AUTHORS. 1^ Pullen, P. H., 2d ed., 12ino, London ; 1822. Putuam, J. M., 18uio, Concord, N. H.; 1831 Reed, Caleb, A. M., 18mo, Boston ; 1821. Robbins, Manasseh, 12mo, Providence ; 1826. Ross, Robert, 7th ed., 12rao, Hartford; 1782. Russell, J., D. D., 10th ed., ISino, London; 1842. Ru.ssell, William E., 2d ed., ISmo, Hartford; 1819. Sanborn, D. H^ 12mo, Concord.N. H.; 1836. Sinimonite, W. J., 12iiio, London ; 1841. SkiHern, R. S.,A. IM., 2d ed., 12mo, Gloucester, England, 1808. Smart, B. H., 12mo, London; 1841. Smetham, Thomas, 12rao, London; 1774. Smith, Eli, 18mo, Philadelphia ; 1812. Smith, Peter, A. M., 18mo, EdinburLch; 1826. Smith, R. C, stereotype ed., 12mo, Philadelphia; 1845. Snyder, W., 12mo, Winchester; 1834. Spear, M. P., 12mo, Boston ; 1845. Staniford, Daniel, A. M., 2d ed., 18mo, Boston ; 1815. Stearns, George, 4to, Boston ; 1843. St. Quentin, D., A. M., 12mo, London; 1812. Story, Joshua, 3d ed., 12mo, Newcastle, England ; 1783 Sutclitfe, Joseph, A. M., 2d ed., 12mo, Loudon; 1815. Swett, J., A. INI., 2d ed., 12mo, Claremont, N. H.; 1844. Ticken, William, 12mo, Loudon; 1806. Tickuor, Elisha, A. M., 3d ed., 18mo, Boston ; 1794. Todd, Lewis C, 2d ed., 18mo,Fredonia, N. Y.; 1827. Trinder, William M., 12mo, London; 1781. Ussher, G Neville, 12mo, London; 1787. — Exeter, N. H.- ISOt. Waldo, John, 18mo, Philadelphia; 1814. Walker, John, 12mo, London; 1805. Wallis, John, D. D., (in Latin), 6th ed., 8vo, London; 1765. Ward, H., 12mo, Whitehaven, England; 1777. Ward, John, LL. D., 12mo, London; 1758. Ward, William, M. A., 3d ed., 12mo, Northampton, England; '771 Webber, Samuel, 12mo, Cambridge, Mass.; 1832. Webster, Noah, LL. D., 12mo, New Haven; 1831. Weld, A. U., M. A., 12mo, Portland ; 1846. Whiting, Joseph, A. M., 12mo, Detroit; 1845. Wilbur, Josiah, 2d ed., 12mo, Bellows Falls; 1822. Wilcox, A. P., 18mo, New Haven; 1S2S. Willard, Samuel, 18mo, Greenlield, Mass ; 1816. Wilson, George, 18mo, London; 1777. Wilson, J. P., D. D., 8vo, Philadelphia; 1817. Worcester, Samuel, 18mo, Gloucester, Mass.; 1827. Wright, Joseph W., C. E., 12mo, New York; 1838. BrOA-u, Guold, 8vo, New York ; 1851. Barton, Rev. J. G., A.M., ISmo, New Y'ork; 1855. Barnes, William, B. D., 8vo, London ; 1854. Clark, S. W., A. M., 12mo, New York ; 1856. Foivler, William C, 8vo, New York ; 1855. Goodwin, Thomas, A. B., 12mo, Loudon ; 1855. Mulligan, John, A. M., 12mo, Now York; 1852. Pinueo, T. S., M. A., 12mo, Cincinnati ; 1850. ^0/ TO TEACHERS. That portiou of the work wliicli is printed in the largest type, is designed for beginners ; and the corresponding questions are pruited in Roman characters. That whicn is printed in type of the second size, is designed for pupils more advanced ; and the corresponding questions are in Italics. That wluch is printed in the smallest type, is designed for occasional reference. The Exercises which occur in different portions of the work are intended to he modified or extended at the dis- cretion of teachers. ORAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [The following: outline of Oral Instruction is designed to funiir.Ti practical sufrgestions to teachers engaged in impai-ting a linov/ledgi- of the rudiments of English Grammar. By ado]3ting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, it may be rendered highly attractive to young learners ; and the practice of introducing illustrative exercises in composition, will be found to afford gi-eat assistance to pupils in comprehending and retaining the principles presented, while it also leads them to cultivate the habit of expressing their thoughts with facility and accuracy. It is not expected that teachers will confine themselves strictly to any particular system ; but it is hoped that the general features of the sketch here presented will be found to meet the wants of all classes of beginners.] TARTS OF SPEECH. § 1. The classijication of words may be introduced by referring to the different kinds of trees; to the different kinds of animals; or to any other coUection of objects that admit^i of a regular division into distinct classes. Thus, when we go into a forest, we find that the number of trees about us is greater than we can estimate. But we soon observe that a portion of thera have certain striking resemblances, while they differ essentially from all the rest. We also observe that others, which differ materially from these, have similar resemblances to one another. And by extending otir 12 ORAL INSTKTJCTIOK. observation, we find that this countless multitude of trees all belong to a very few simple classes, which are easily distinguished from one an other. Those of one class we associate together, and call them Oak trees : those of another class we call Pine ti-ees ; and in this manner we proceed with all the different kinds. Just so it is vAxh. the words of our lan£fuag;e. Though their num- ber is about eighty thousand, yet we find, on a careful examination, that they all belong to less than a- dozen different classes, called Parts of Speech ; so that we have only to leai-n the 'character of these divisions, and we shall be able to teU the class to which any woi'd in the language belongs. By some such introductory illustration, the curiosity of a class of beginners may be easily excited, and they will thus be prepared to enter with eagerness upon the labor of learning to distinguish the diHerent parts of speech. The teacher should lead his pupils to take an active part in these lessons from the beginning ; not only by proposing frequent ques- tions for them to answer, but also by encouraging them to ask such questions as their own curiosity may suggest. THE NOUN. § 2. Having prepared the way for the consideration of woi tls, the teacher next requests his pupils to mention the names of any objecta that occur to them. As they proceed to give the words book, desk, inkstand, etc., the teacher writes them in a column on the black- board. The teacher now asks a variety of questions, similar to the fol- lowing : — Are all words names ? Can you mention any words that are not names ? Are good and bad, names ? Why not ? Can you think of any object that has not a name ? Do any objects that you cannot see or touch have names ? Is tvise a name ? Is zt'Z5« domf Virtue? Virtuous? Knoidedge? After these questions have been disposed of, the pupils are in formed that the names of all objects, whether material or immate- rial, are called Nouns; and the teacher proceeds at the same time to write this title over the column of names on the board ORAL LNSTRUCTION. 13 One or more sentences are now placed in the hands of the pupils, or written on the board ; and each member of the class proceeds to select all the nouns, and write them in a column on a slate or piece of paper. The teacher should commence with sentences of the simplest construction, and afterwards introduce more difficult forms of expression as the learners advance. Model I.* The earth is a large globe or hcdl. — Virtue is belter than riches. Nouns. Earth Globe Ball Virtae Eiches Exercises of this description should be continued till the pupils are able to point out the nouns of any common sentence with readiness. The teacher next writes several nouns on the black-board, and calls on the class to construct one or more sentences embracing the words which he has placed before them. Model U. Sun, bird, idleness, night. The hawk is a bud of prey. — Idleness often leads to vice. — The sun shines by day, and the moon by night. After going through with several exercises of this kind, the pu- pils may be required to construct a variety of sentences, and write the letter n over all the nouns embraced in them. Model III.f n In winter the ponds and rivers are generally covered with ice. — Eus* n n sia is the largest country in Europe. * See Frazee's Gramuiar. f See Greenleaf 's Grammar. 14 ORAL INSTRUCTION. THE ADJECTIVE. § 3. "When the pupils have become sufficiently acquainted with the nature of nouns, they may be introduced to the class of Adjec- tives in a similar manner. The teacher directs the attention of the pupils to a book, and asks if they can mention any words that ex- press its character or quality. To this they will readily answer, that it is a good book, a large book, an interesting book, etc. The teach- er then calls on them to name as many words as they can, that ex- press the qualities of objects. As they proceed to eniunerate words of this class, the teacher writes them in a column on the board as before. Such expressions as " These books," " A wise man," " Ten days," are next written on the board ; and the learners are requested to point out the words which serve to define or limit the nouns, but do not strictly qualify them. After this is done, they proceed to men- lion others of the same character, which are written under the column of qualifying words already commenced. It is now time to inform them that all words which are used to qualify ov define nouns, belong to the class called Adjectives ; and this title is accord- ingly placed at the head of the column of words on the board. The pupils may also be told in this connection, that the words a or an and the are distinguished from other definitives by the title of Articles. Simple sentences are again placed before the pupils, and they are required to select all the adjectives, writing them in a column as before. They should also distinguish the articles, by underlining them in the column. Model IV. Great men are not always wise. — The dimaie of Egyft is hct in SHJHnur, but deligluful in winter. Adjkctites. Great Wise The Hot Delightful Other Bentences are now givea to the pupils, from which they ORAL INSTEDCTION. li select tlie nouns and adjectives, writing them in separate columns ; and distinguishing the articles as in the previous exercise. Model V. There are very few plants thai iciU grow in all countries. — Ivon/ is a hard solid, and firm substance, of a white color. Nouxs. Adjectives. Plants Few Coantriea All Ivory A Substance tt , Color Hard Sohd Firm A White The teacher next writes a number of adjectives oni the board, and the pupils proceed as before to form the sentences which em- brace them. Model VL Diligent, cold, warm, sweet. Charles is a diligent scholar. — In cold weather we protect ourselves by the use of warm clothing. — The rose is sweet, but it is surrounded with thorns. After this, the pupils write sentences containing adjectives of their own selection. In exercises of this character, the learners should distinguish, by their several abbreviations, all the parts of speech to which they have attended. Model Vil. n _ ar adj n adi n ar Copper is a very useful metal, which is found in almost all parts of the n ^ ar adj n adj n world. It is of ^ red color, and may be drawn out into fine wire, or adj n beaten into thin leaves. THE VERB. § 4. This part of speech may be introduced by a few simple ques- tions and answsrs. 16 ORAL INSTRDCXION. Teacher. "WTiat part of speech Is horse f Pupil. A noun. T. Why? P. Because it is a name. T. Can you think of any words that tell what the horse dots t P. Muns, (calks, etc. T. Are runs and walks nouns ? P. They are not T. Why not? P. Because they are not names. T. Ai-e they adjectives f P. They are not. T. "Why not? P. Because they do not qualify or define any thing. T. Will you name ad many words as you can recollect, that tell what any thing does, or express some kind of action ? P. Speak, read, study, sine/, play, etc. These words are written in a column ou the board, after which the questions are continued. T. In the sentence, " The sea is calm," does the word is express any degree of action ? P. It does not. T. Does It express the ieijig or existence of any thing ? P. It does. T. Can you name any other words that are used to express the being or existence of objects ? P. Am, teas, live, etc. These Avords are placed under the column already conunenced on the boai-d, and the pupils are informed that all words which ex- press actio7i, and those which express heing or existence, are called Verbs. * A number of sentences are next placed before the pupils, from which they select all the verbs, writing them by themselves as In previous exercises. Model VHI. Birds fi^ in the air. — TJie eaiik shook and trembled. — Boston is t/10 OKAL INSTRUCTION. 17 capital of MassnrJnisetts. — ^ / icrote a IdCer to my friend last weeJc^ and re- ceived ail answer this morning. ' Verbs. Fly Shook Trembled Is Wrote Received Other sentences are now given to the learners, from which they select all the nouns, adjectives, and verba ; writing them in separate oolnmns, and distingTiishiiin: the articles. Model IX. Be came in the morning, and went atcay at night. — Truth never fears examination. — Veniis is the brightest of all the planets. It is sometimes visible at mid-day. Nouns. Adjectives. Verbs Morning The Came Nitrht Went Truth The Fears Examination Briffhtest Is Venus All Is Planets The Mid-day tt;„:i,i„ Several verbs are next placed before the learners, and they are required to form sentences which include them. See Models II and VI. After this, the pupils write sentences containing seV'iral verbs of their own choice; and distinguish all the verbs, adjectives, and nouns. Model X. ar nar n v n v n In the spring the farmer ploughs his ground and sows his seed ; in ar n n c n ar n the summer and autumn he gathers his harvest; and in the winter he V n V n cuts his wood and threshes his grain. The teacher should make frequent suggestions and explanations during those exercises. It is highly important that learners become 2* 18 OKAL INSTRUCTION. thoroughly acquainted with the nature of verbs, before advancing to consider the other parts of si^eech. THE PRONOUN. § 5. Teacher. In the sentence, " John is diligent, and he will improve," for what name does the word he stand ? Pupil. John. T. Can you mention any other names for which he is sometimes used ? P. George, Charles, man, loi/,*etc. T. For what nouns does she stand ? P. Jane, Susan, girl, woman, etc. T. What words besides he and she are used in the place of nouns ? P. Him, her, I, toho, etc. These words are written on the board, under the title of Pro- nouns ; and the pupils are informed that this term applies to all words which are used to supply the place of nouns. Sentences are now placed befoi-e the learners, from which they select all the pronouns, writing them in a column by themselves. See IModcls I and IV. Other sentences are also given them, from which they select all the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns, writing them in columns as before. See IModels V and IX. After this, the tencher writes several pronouns on the board, and the pupils form sentences embracing them. See Models II and VI. They then write sentences including a number of pn nouns of their own choice. ]\IODEL XI. ar n f) ar n pvo v When the wind blows violently among the trees, they bend, and almost V pro n V ' 7idj pro v ar break. Though their roots are very strong, they sometimes yield to the n ar n v ar n force of the wind, and fall to the ground. In this manner the pupils secure by frequent repetition what ORAL INSTRUCTION. 19 thej have bufore learned, and also cultivate habits of careful com- parison and discrimination, by examining the dill'erent parts of speech in connection. THE ADVEEB. § 6. Teacher. In the sentence, " The horse runs very rapidly," what word tells how the horse runs ? Pupil, llapidlij. T. "What word, then, does rapidly modify ? P. Runs. T. What part of speech is runs ? P. A verb. T. Wliat word in the sentence modifies rapidly ? P. Very. T. In the sentence, " He is an exceedingly diligent scholar," what word modifies diligent ? P. Exceedingly. T. AVhat part of speech is dlUyent ? P. An adjective. T. The words rapidly, exceedvhv'y^ and very, ^ill belong to the same class, and are called Adverbs. TR^apidly modifies a verb ; ex- ceedingly modifies an adjective ; and I'^^v modifies an adverb. Re- member, then, that all words whicu mo,4ieotives, verbs, pronouns, and adverbs. See Models V and iX. The teacher next writes a number of adverbs on the beaA-4- a-nd the learners form sentences which embrace them. Set Mod^^i* Xf and YI. 20 ORAL INSTRUCTION. After this, chey construct sentences containing adverbs selected bj themselves, and distinguish all the parts of speech to which they have attended, as in former exercises. See Models VII, X, and XI. THE PREPOSITION. § 'i'. Teacher. When I say, " ]\Iy hand is over the table," what word expresses the relation of my hand to the table ? Pupil. Over. T. When I say, " My hand is under the table," what word then expresses the relation between my hand and the table ? P. Under. T. Mention any other words that express the relation of differ, ent things to each other. P. On, between, in, above, etc. These words are written in a column on the board, under the word Prepositions. The pupils are told, at the same time, that every word which is used to express the relation of one word to another belongs to this class. Sentences are now given to the pupils, from which they select the prepositions ; and others, from which they select all the classes of words which they have learned. See Models VTII and IX. They then proceed to construct sentences containing prepositions assigned by the teacher ; and others embracing examples of their own selection. See Models VI and XI. THE CONJUNCTION. § 8. Teacher. In the sentence, " I saw James or his brother," what word connects James and brother ? Pupil. Or. T. What word connects the different parts or clauses of the sentence, " James went to school, but John remained at home ? " P. But. T. Can you think of any other words that are used to connect words, or clauses of a sentence ? P. And, nor, if, etc. ORAL INSTR LOTION. 21 These words are -WTUien on the board in a column, under the word Conjunctions; and the pupils are told that all words used merely as connectives beloncr to this class. They are then required to select all the conjunctions from given sentences ; and afterwards to write sentences containing conjunc- tions, and others embracing all the parts of speech which they have yet learned. See previous Models. THE rXTEKJECTION. § 9. Teacher. In the expression, " Alas ! I am undone," what word is used merely to express strong feeling or emotion ? Pupil. Alas. T. Can you name any other words that are used to express sti'ong or sudden emotion ? P. Oh, ah, ho, etc. These words are written In a column on the board ; and the pu- pUs are told that they form a class called Interjections. They are then directed to write a few sentences containing examples of thia part of speech. GENEKAL EXERCISES ON ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. § 1 0. Ha^-ing considered the several classes of words separately, the learners are now prepared to take up a variety of selections from their reading lessons, and classify the diflerent words as they occur ; writing those of each part of speech in a column by themselves. See Models V and IX. They should also devote several lessons to the wi'iting of sen- tences which embrace copious examples of aU the parts of speech ; placing an abbreviation over each word, to indicate the class to wliich it belongs. See Models X and XI. AU exercises of this kind should be made progressive. From simple sentences, the learners should advance to the construction of those which are more difficult ; from difficult sentences, to short compositions; and from short compositions, to those of greater lenuth. 22 ORAL INSTRUCTIOX. By pursuing the course here described, the pupils will soon be- ctune familiar with the nature of words in common use, and be able to classify them with facility. MORE PARTICULAR EXAI^IINATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. § 11. The subdivisions of the parts of speech, and their most im- portant offices, may now be brought under consideration. Nouns. § 12. The distinction between j^roper and common nouns, and the distinctions of gender, person, Jiumber, and case, may be severally introduced by fiuniliar interrogative exercises, similar to those which have already been given to aid in distinguishing the parts of speech. As soon as the pupils understand the nature of proper and com- mon nouns, they may be required to select all the nouns from given sentences, writing the proper nouns in one column and the com- mon nouns in another. They should then construct sentences which embrace examples of both proper and common nouns. (See pre\-ious Models.) The other distinctions of nouns may be illus- trated and enforced by similar exercises. Adjectives. § 13. The degrees of comparison are now taken up, and made the basis of a familiar oral exercise. The distinction between descrip- tive and definitive adjectives should also receive some farther atten- tion. These distinctions are next exemplified in written exercises. Verbs. § 14. The verb is the most difficult and important of all the parts of speech, and the teacher should make special effort to impart clear and correct -tiews respecting its principal uses. The assertion or affirmation expressed by the verb may now be exjjh'iined to the young learner. The division of verbs into regular and irregular, and into transi- tive and intransitive, with the distinction between the active and the ORAL rXSTKLCTIOX. 23 passive voice, should be introduced and illustrated by practical inductive exercises. The governmeF*; of the objective case by a transitive verb, and the agreement of a verb with its subject or nominative, may be ex- plained in this connection. The writing of illustrative sentences, on the part of the pupils, follows next in oi-der. See previous Models. Il is generally better not to attempt a full exhibition of the modes and tenses, tiU. pupils have advanced farther in the study. They should, however, be taught at this period to distinguish between declaratory, conditional, and interrogative sentences ; and to deter- mine whether the time denoted by a verb is present, past, or future. A general idea of participles, and of auxiliary and compound verbs, may also be communicated at this time. Each of these subjects should be explained in the familiar, con- versjitional manner already described ; and accompanied by prac- tical exercises in the construction of sentences. PiJOXouNS, Pbepositioxs, a>[iance with your father's kind invitation. — I, Thomas Smith, have written this short com- position. Common Nouns. — Friend, return, brother, sister, weeks, days, compli- ance, father's, invitation, composition. Proper Nouns. — Ohio, Boston, Springfield, Tliomas Smith. Noun in the Masculine Gender. — Brother, father's, Thomas Smith. Noun in the Feminine Gender. — Sister. Nouns in the Neuter Gender. — Keturn, Ohio, Boston, weeks, days, Springfield, compliance, invitation, composition. Noun in the Common Gender. — Friend. iVoMH iM the First Person. — Tliomas Smith. Noun in llie Second Person. — Friend. Ahuns in tJie Third Pa;son. — Return, Ohio, brother, sister, Boston, •weeks, days, Springfield, compliance, father's, invitation, composi- tion. Nouns in the Sin/jiUar Nutnber. — Friend, return, Ohio, bioilier, sister, Boston, Springfield, compliance, father's, invitation, Thomas Smith, composition. Nouns in the Plural Number. — AVeeks, days. Nouns in the Nominative Case. — Brother, sister, Thomiis Smith. Noun in the Possessive Case. — Father's. Nou7is in the Objective Case. — Ecturn, Ohio, Boston, weeks, daj-^ Springfield, compliance, invitation, composition. Noun in the Case IndependaU. — Friend. § 17. After the pupils have in this manner exemplified the varioua modifications of all the parts of speech, they should be required to write several compositions of considerable length, and parse each word by itself. Thus, in parsing a noun, the learner should tell why it is a noun ; whether it is proper or common, and why ; its gender, and why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and why. If it is in the nominative case, he should point out the verb of which it is the subject ; if in the possessive, the noun denot- ing the object pos.sessed ; if in the objective, the word which gov- erns it. A similar coui'se should be adopted in parsing all the othei parts of speech. A ENGLISH GRAMMAE. § 18. Grammar is the science wliich treats of the prin- ciples of language. English Grammar teaches the art of speaking and writ- mg the English Language correctly. § 19. Grammar is divided into four parts ; — Orthog- raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters, and the proper method of combining them to form sjllables and words. Etymology treats of the classification of words, their derivation, and their various modifications. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences, accord- ing to the established laws of speech. Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the laws of versification. PART I ORTHOGRAPHY. § 20. Orthography treats of letters, and the proper method of combining them to form syllables and words. LETTERS. § 21. A letter is a mark or character used to represent an elementary sound of the human voice. Ttie wor 1 Utter, like many other terms used in orthography, is often applied to the sound represented, as well as the written cliaracter. The letters of a language, taken collectively, are called its Alpha- ^\^hat is grammar? What does English grammar teach? How is grammar divided? Of what does Orthojjraphy treat? Etymology? Syntax ? Prosody ? What is a letter ? WImI are the letters of a lan- (jVOfje called? 26 ORTHOGRAPHT. bet. The English alphabet consists ©f twenty-sis leHers, wMci) have the following dilferent forms : — Roman. Italic. Old English. Script. Capital. Small. Capital. Small. Capital. SoiaU. Capital. Snjall. Nanies. A a A a a a q4 a A. B b B b B b ^ / Bee, i) c C € (H i ^ a See, D d D d IP \ ^ ^ Dee. E e E e € e ^ i E. F f F f J f 5?- / EfF. G S G g (6 9 ^ / Jee. H h H h C) \) ^ / Aitck [ i I i 1 • ^ * I. J • J J J 1 « 1 / J Jay. K k K h I k a^ i Kay, L 1 L I I I ^ / Ell. M m M rti ill m a& m Em, N n N n N n J? n En. O o © O. P P P V }P P €P A Pee. Q q Q q ^ q ^ ? Knei R r R r K r 0^ e Ar. S' s s s S 3 s^ <> Ess. T t T t % t sr t Tee. U 11 U u H tt (^h u U. V V V V D QJ V Vee. w w W w 111 to Off. tf Double-a X X X X X X &3 as Eks. Y y Y y 13 2 9 y Wv. Z z Z z ^ J Q^ Kb Zee. CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 27 6''and v were formerly considered the same letter, and were used in- discriminately, the one for the other ; as, hone for haue, and chvrch for church. The sounds of i and J were both originally represented by the letter i; as, lames for James. When the diphthongs ce and ce have either of the sounds of e, the let- ters are united in printing. Examples: — iEgis, diaeresis, oesophagus, antoeci. CAPITALS a:nd italics. § 22. The following classes of words should commence (vith capital letters : — 1. The first word of a sentence. 2. The first word of every fine in poetry. 3. The first word of a direct quotation. Examples: — And Nathan said unto David, " Thou art the man."— Remember the ancient maxim, " Know thyself." An indirect quotation may be introduced without the use of a capital. Example: — It is recorded of him who ^^ spake three thousand prov- erbs," that " his songs were a thousand and five." , < Words used as names of the Deity. Examples : — " Our Father, who art in Heaven." — " Kemember now thy Creator, in the days of thy youth." 5. Proper names and titles of honor or distinction. Examples : — The city of Boston ; — The Honorable Daniel Webster ; Sir ifatlhew Hale ; — riiny the Younger. 6. Common nouns personified. Examples : — " If Pain comes into a heart, he is quickly followed by Pleasure ; and if Pleasure enters, you may be sure that Pain is uot far off." — Addison. " And Discipline at length, O'eilooked and unemployed, fell sick and died. Then Studj/ languished. Emulation slept, And Vii-tue fled." — Cowper. What are the several classes of words which rommence with capitals ? m 28 ORTHOGRA.PHT. 7. Every important word in a phrase used as a title or caption. Examples: — " PresroWs History of the Conquest of Mexico." — " Vir- tue the only true Source of Aobiliti/." — '" The Anierican Board of Commissioners for Foreign ilissions." — " The New York Historical Society''' — " The American Revolution." The pronoun I and the interjection should also be written in capitals. Examples: — " Must / endure all this ? " — " Come forth, ye chil- dren of gladness, come !" Most adjectives derived from proper names should commence with capitals. Examples: — "A Grecian education was considered necessary to form the Roman orator, poet, or artist." — Whelpley. "The Copemican system is that which is held to be the true system of the world." — Olmsted. A personal pronoun referring to the Deity is sometimes commenced with a capital. Examples : — " All that we possess is God's, and we are under obliga- tion to use it all as He wills." — Wayland. " "Will He not hear thee "WTio the young ravens heareth from their nest ? Will He not guard thy rest ? " — Hemans. There are also numerous cases in which words may commence either «nth capitals or small lettere, according to the taste of the writer. Short, detached pieces of writing, are often composed entirely of capi- tals. For examples, see title-pages, heads of chapters and sections, mon- umental inscriptions, cards, etc. § 23 . Italic letters are those v.hich stand inclining. (See the Alphabet, p. 26.) This sentence is printed in Italics. When an author wishes to distinguish any particular ■word or phrase, for the sake of emphasis, or for any other purpose, it is generally printed in ItaUcs. [The questions and directions which are printed in Italics, are designed to be omitted by beginners.] Wliat two words of one letter are always written and printed in capi- tals ? What adjectives usually commence with capitals ? What aie Italic letters 1 For what purpose are they employed * CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 29 Etamples: — "If we regard enunciation and pronunciation as the mechanical part of elocution ; inflection, emphasis, and pausing, may be designated as its intellectual part." — Hussell. " To be per- fectly polite, one must have great presence of mind, wth a delicate and quick sense of propriety." — Mrs. Chapone. When a word Is used merely as a toord, it should generally be ,»j mled in Italics. Examples : — " The adjective same is often used as a substitute." — Webster. - " Who is applied to persons, and which to animals and inanimate things." — Murray. NA'ords and phrases introduced into English writings from foreign languages, are generally expressed in Italics. Examples : — " An adjouniment sine die, is an adjournment without fixing the time of resuming business." — Webster''s Diet. " The White Pine is, par excellence, a New England tree." — N. A. Review. Sentences of special importance are often printed entirely in Italics. "When a particular word, phrjise, or sentence, is designed to be made still more conspicuous than it would be if expressed in Italics, it is printed in capitals. Examples : — " Observation and Experi.mext constitute the basis of the science of ^Mechanics." — Olmsted. " To the numerous class of young men in the United States, who are mainly depen- dent on their ot\ti resources for knowledge, or respectability, one of the most important counsels of wisdom which can be addressed, is, Study touk own chaeacteb and prospects." — B. B. Edwards. When a word or phrase, embraced in an Italic sentence, is to be distinguished from the rest, it is generally printed in Roman letteis. If it is particularly important, it should be expressed in /apitals. Examples : — " The grand clew to all syntacticcd parsing is the sense." — G. Broum. " Hydrostatics is that branch of Natural Philosophy which treats of the mechanical properties and agencies c/LiQUiDS." — Olmsted. " To find the surface of a Regular Solid." — Day- Select examples. Specify the several sircumstances which require the use of Italics. How is a word or phrase rendered still vrwre conspiciunis than it wmdd be if expressed in Italics? How is a word or phrase distinguished from the rest, in an Italic senter-^e f 30 ORTHOGRAPHT. In the common EiigHsli version of the Scriptures, Italics are Tised to indicate those words which are not found in the origin;d. Examples : — " After two days was the feast of tlie passovcr ; " — in the original, " After two days was the passover." " Thci'C arc yet four months, and then cometh the harvest;" — in the oriy,inal, " There are yet four montlis, and the harvest cometh." § 24. In writing, it is customary to underline such words as would be italicized in printing. Example. " Q/l cwe voweh and consofiants. A vowel* is a letter which represents a free and unin- terrupted sound of the human voice. The vowels are a, €, i, 0, u, and sometimes zv and ^. A consonantj is a letter which represents a sound that is materially modified by some interruption during its pas- sage through the organs of speech. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, j, Jc, I, m, n, p, q, r, 8, t, V, X, z, and sometimes w and t/. M, which is a sim- ple breathing, is also classed with the consonants. J W^hat is the most general division of letters t What is a vowel 1 Enumerate the vowels. What is a consonant ? Enumerate the con- sonants. * " A vo^-el is an utterance of the voice receiving its peculiar character from the posttio7t of the organs ; and a consonant is an action of the organs of speech, accompanied by breath or voice." — Smart. " A vowel is an elemental sound which may be formed without bringing the articulating organs into contact with any part of the mouth. A conso- nant is an elemental sound which cannot be formed but by some contact between the parts of the mouth." — Day. See also '\Valker'"s Principles of English Pronunciation, Webster's Dictionary, and Wright's Orthography. t A consonant has commonly been defined " a letter which cannot be perfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel ; " but this seems not to be the true" idea of this class of letters. In pronouncing a svllable commenc- ing with a consonant, a distinct sound is always uttered before tlie vowel sound is commenced ; and we have many syllables in which the vowel though written, is not heard at all in pronunciation, as in the words taken, biird^med, which are pronoxmced taJc-n, burd-nd. There are instances, also, in wliich a consonant is sounded as a distinct syllable, without the use even 01 a written vowel, as in the words chus-m, rliyth-m. See Fowler. The etjTuology of the term coyisonant {sowiding u-tth) setms to have misled many grammarians, and thus aided in perpetuating the error here alluded to. X " The claims of h to be regarded as a letter have been denied by many 32 ORTHOGRAPHY. TT is a consonant when it is not preceded by a vowel in the uame syllable ; as in win, swiff, thwart. W is usually considered as a vowel, when it follows another vowel in the same syllable ; as in new, hoiv. y is a consonant when it begins a syllable, and is immediately followed by a vowel in the same syllable ; as in yet, youth. In all other cases, y is a. vowel ; as in very, rhyme, beryl. § 27. Vowel sounds are called open or close, according to the rela- tive size of the opening through which the voice passes in forming them. Thus, a in father, and o in nor, are called open sounds, be- cause they are formed by a wide opening of the organs of s])eech ; while e in me, and u in rule, are called close sounds, because the organs are nearly closed in uttering them. § 28. Two vowels combined in tlie same syllable, are called a diphthong ; as in coil. A diphthong in which both vowels are sounded, is called a proper diphthong ; as in oil, boy. A diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded, is call- ed an improper diphthong, or digraph ; as in rain, eat, believe. § 29. Three vowels combined in the same syllable, are called a triphthong ; as in eye^ awe, lieu, beauty. § 30. Those consonant sounds which are formed by the vocal organs, during the passage of a mere breathing, are called aspirates. They are represented by p in map, t in hut, k in book, f in fine, s in see, th in thin, sh in ash, ch in church, and h in hero. . • , When is w a consonant ? Examples. When a vowel ? Examples When is J a consonant ? Examples. When a vowel. Examples. Exj^lain the terms open and close, as applied to vowels. Define a diphthong. Ex amples. A proper diphthong. Examples. An improper diphthong. Exam- ples. A triphthong. Examples. What consonants are called aspirates f Enumerate them. grammarians ; and certainly, when it is remembered that the sound of this letter is produced by a mere emission of the breath, without any c.onfomi ation of the organs of speech, this opinion woi;ld seem Tteli-fouiided. There are others, however, who insist that there is no feature in the sound or qualities of this letter, which it does not possess in common with some other consonants ; and consequently any attempt to invalidate its claim to *iie distinction, militates equally against them '' — B'J) de'j Eiw-. VOWELS. 33 §31. The cognate or corresponding sounds, which arc respeo- b'vely formed by i similar dit^position of the organs, during the pas- s.ige of the voice, are called vocal consonants. They are represented by b in but, d in did, g in go, v in vain, z h\ zero, th in Oiai, z in azi.re, and j in just. In a natural whisper, these sounds cannot, of themselves, be readily distinguished from tlie corresponding aspi- rates. // has no cognate. rVocal b, d, g, v, z,* th,1[ 2,§ J. Cognates, < :::::::: ( Aspirate p, t, k, f, s, ih,X s7i, ch. § 32. Tlie remaining sounds, 77i in ma7i, n in no, tig in sing, I in look, r in race, lo in tvorld, and y in youth, though produced by the voice, may also be distinctly uttered in a whisper. They are hence called intermediate or neutral consonants. In forming the first three of these, — m, n, and ng, — the voice is made to pass principally through the nose, and they are on this account called nasal con- sonants. WORDS A^D SYLLABLES. § 33. A icord is a letter or combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea ; as, /, mayi, science^ extemporaneous. § 34. A syllable is a word or a part of a word, which ia pronounced bj a single impulse of the voice ; as, art^ ar^ tic-u-la-tion. Most syllables are written with at least one vowel ; but in many words the vowel of the final syllable is sUent, as in sea-son, whis-ile, hap-pened. Wltat are vocal consonants ? Enumerate them. What aspirate is the cognate of hi — o/d? — o/g in go? — o/v? — of z in zero? — of th in that? — ofz in azure? — of j in just? Which of the aspirates has no cognate ? What are intermediate or neutral consonants f Enumerate them. Which are the nasal consonants ? Why so calltd? "Wliat is a word? Examples. What is a sj'llable? Examples. Nam£ a syllable which has no vowel sound f * Z'lu \'.ro. \ Th u tliat. \ Th'm thin. § ^in azxire 2* 34 DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. A word of one syllable is called a monos^yllahle ; one of two syl- lables, a dissyllable ; one of three, a trisyllable ; and one of more than three, sl polysyllable ; as, in, intend, intention, intentionally, §35. Words are dmded into two general classes; — jirimitive And derivative. A primitive or radical word is one that is not derived from any jther word or woi-ds in the language ; as, Mil, tree, kind, consider. A derivative word is one that is formed fi'om some primitive word or words in the language ; as, hillock, kindness, inconsiderate. § 36. Words are also divided into two other classes, called simple and compound. A simple word is one that is not formed by uniting other words ; as, Jiand, fortune. A compound word Is one that is formed by joining two or more simple words, without materiiilly modifying either ; as, hook-seller^ rail-road, comma n-jjlace book. Division of Wo'\U into Syllables. §87. As a general j^rinclple, it may be observed, that the sylla- bles of a word are those divisions which are made in a correct pro- nunciation of it. See § 275, Note. The following are perhaps the only definite rules that can be given on this subject : — 1. Two consonants forming but one sound, as ng, ch, ih, sh, ph, will, are never separated. Thus, we wi*ite church-es, wor-thy, feath- er, ring-ing, a-while. 2. Compound words are commonly separated into the simple words of which they are composed ; as, care-less, bee-hive, rail-road. 3. In expressing the past tense and perfect participle of regular verbs, the tennination ed, though not always pronounced separately, is regarded in writing as a distinct syllable ; as, lov-ed, burn-ed. See § 86, Rem. 2. What is a word of one syllable called ? — of two ? — of three ? — of more than three ? Into what two general claNSCs are words divided ? What is a primitive word? Examples. A derivative icord? Examples. A simple word? Examples. A comporind word? Examples. 'H'hal arc the ^i/llahlea cf a uvid? What three rules are qiven respecting the division of w^/rds into tiillablc-ii f PART II. ETYMOLOGY. § 38. Etymology treats of the classification of words, their derivation, and their various modifications. PARTS OF SPEECH. § 39. The diflferent classes into -which words are divided are called Parts of Speech. There are in English eiglit* parts of speech ; namely, the Noun, the Adjective,^ the Pronoun^ the Verh^ the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Inter- jection. A Noun is a word used to express the name of an ob- ject ; as, America, man, hook, ivisdom. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun or pronoun, to qualify or define its meaning ; as, Iwnest men ; ten days ; this book. A Proywun is a word used to supply the place of a Of what docs Etymology treat ? What are the different clasics of words called ? Enumerate the parts of speech. What is a noun 1 Ex amplcs. An adjective ? Examples. A pronoun ? Examples. *"I adopt the usual distribution of words into eight classes, becanso, if »ny number, in a thing so arbitrary, must be fixed upon, this seems to be a.>i compreliensive and distinct as any." — Priestley. The division of words into eight classes is also adopted by Butler, Frazee Swett, Fowle, E. Oliver, Lindsay, Hort, M'CuUoch, Connon, D'Orsey, Wil- lard, Kobbius, S. Barrett, Fowler, Eames, Whiting, Weld, Greene, aud oliiers. t For note respecting liie articles, see p. 53. i p 36 ETYMOLOGY. noun ; as, " When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he turned his arms against his country." A Verb is a word that expresses an assertion or affir- mation; as, I am; I love; I am loved. An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " He is not understood ; " — "A remarkably diligent boy ; " — " She reads very correctlyP A Preposition is a word used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence ; as, " He went from Boston to Al- bany ; " — " Washington was the father of his country." A Conjunction is a word that is used to connect words or sentences ; as, " Seven and five are twelve ; " — " Straws swim on the surface ; hut pearls lie at the hot tom." An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used merely to express some passion or emotion; as, Oh! ah! alas! THE NOUN. § 40. A Noun * is a word used to express the name of an object ; as, America^ man, booh, wisdom. This part of speech not only embraces the names of material objects, as horse, tree, carriage; but it also in eludes the name of every thing that can be conceived to exist, as hope, virtue, strength. What is a verb ? Examples. An adverb ? Examples. A preposi- tion ? Examples. A conjunction ? Examples. An interjection ? Ex- amples. What is a noun ? Examples. What nnmes, besides those of material objects, are embraced under this part of speech ? Examples. * Noun is derived from the Latin word nomeii, which signifies a name. NOUNS 37 § 41. Nouns are of two kinds ; — proper and common. 1. Kp)roper noun is a name used to distinguish an irir dividual object from others of the same class ; as, G-eorge, Boston, Ontario, Vesuvius, January. Eem. — The particular names of nations, ranges of mountains, and groups of Lilands, are generally classed with proper nouns ; as, The Jeivs, The Andes, The Azores. Observation. — The pupil should be careful to discriminate between a proper name used to distinguish an individual object, and the same word used to denote a class or species. Thus, when we SUA', " The Prussians are distinguished for their svstem of irQQ schools," Prussians is a proper noun, because it is used to distin- guish & particular nation from all other nations; but, in the sen- tence, " I saw several Prussians in Paris," the word Prussians be- comes a common noun, because it may be applied in the same sense to any other portion of the whole class of individuals composing the kingdom of Prussia. So also in the expression, " He is the Cicero of his age," the word Cicero is employed to denote a class, and is applicable in this sense to other individuals in common with the celebrated Roman orator. 2. A common noun is a name that may be applied to any one of a whole class of objects ; as, desk, house, totcn, scholar. § 42. Common nouns embrace also the partlculai* classes, termed abstract, participial, and collective. 1. An abstract noun is the name of a quality considered apart from the object to which it belongs ; as, hardness, strength, wisdom, benevolence. Thus, in the phrase, beautifid flower, the quality de- hoted by the word beautiful, when considered as separated from the object ^OMjer, is expressed by the abstract noun beauty. Into what classes arc nouns divided 1 "Wliat is a proper noun ? Ex- amples. Wlial of the particular nainos of nations, groups of islands, ftc. ? E.ramj)lcs. Shoio how the same icord may be eithrr a proper or a common noun. Examples, ■^^^lat is a common noun ? Kxamples. Wliat jiar- licular classes are embraced itnda' common nouns ? Wluit is an uhsiracl inion. "It is unnecessary, in any ian^^uaM, to regard the articles as a distinct part of speech." — Buttr/ianii's Greet- Gram,mar. The articles are also ranked with adjecti'wes bv Priestley, E. Oliver, Beli, Elphinston, il'Culloch, D'Orsey, Lindsay, Joel, Greenwood, Smetham, Dal- ton, King, Hort, Buchanaii, Crane, J. Russell, Frazee, Cutler, Perley, Swett, Day, Goodenow, AVillard, Robbins, Felton, Snyder, Butler, S. Barrett, Ba^gley, Howe, Whiting, Davenport, Fowle, Weld, Greene, aud others. 64 ETYMOLOGY. not indicate any particular Dbject ; as, a book ; that is, and book. 2. The is called the definite article^ because it indicates some particiJar object ; as, the book ; that is, some par- ticular book. Rkm. 1. — Ah used before words beginning mth a consonnn' sound; as, a tree, a house, a union, a ewe, a youth, a eulogy, a one, a world. Obs. — The words union, ewe, and eulog}/, commence wth the consonant sound of y ; and the word one commences with the consonant sound of w. Rem. 2. — An is used before words beginning with a vowel found; as, an eagle, an hour, an outline. Rem. 3. — An is also employed, by most writers, before words be- ginning with h not silent, when the accent falls on the second syl- lable. Examples: — "An historical piece." —/m'ngf. "An historical sub jeet." — Goldsmith. "An hereditary government." — E. Everett " An harmonious whole." — Southey. Rem. 4. — .4 or an is the Saxon word ane or an, signifj-ing one. COMPARISON. § 64. The comparison of adjectives is the variation by which they express different degrees of quality. There are three degrees of comparison ; — the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 1. The positive degree* is that -which expresses the sim pie state of the quality ; as, good, ivise. Which is called the definite article, and why 1 Before what vxrds is a used f Examples. When is an used f Examples. WhcU ntle is observed respecting the form of the article before a word beginning tvith h not silent f Examples. What is the comparison of adjectives 1 What are the differ ent degrees 1 What is the po'sitive degree ? Examples. *It has been objected to the positive form, that, as it denotes the qnality in its simple state, without increase or diminution, it cannot properly be called a degree. It should, however, be considered that all adjectives imply ADJECTIVES. 55 2. The comparative degree denotes ttat one object pos- sesses a higher or lower degree of the quahty than, an- other with which it is compared; as, letter, wiser, less wise. 3. The superlative degree denotes that one of several objects possesses a higher or lower degree of the quality than any of the rest ; as, best, wisest, least ivise. § 65. The comparative of adjectives of one syllable, is commonly formed by adding r or er to the positive ; as, wise, wiser ; great, greater ; and the superlative, by add- ing st or est ; as, wise, wisest ; great, greatest. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are generally compared by prefixing more and most to the positive ; as, generous, more generous, most generous, Dimijiutio7i of quality is expressed by less and least, whether the adjective is of one syllable or more than one ; as, bold, less bold, least bold. Rem. 1. — Dissyllables ending iny or silent e, and tbose accented on the last syllable, are often compared like monosyllables, by er and est; as, happy, happier, happiest; noble, nobler, noblest; pro- found, profounder, profoundesL Rem. 2. — The foregoing principles, respecting the comparison of ad- jectives, are those which conform to the prevailing usage of the lan- What does the comparative degree denote % Examples. The super- lative ■? Examples. How are adjectives of one syllable generally com- pared 1 Examples. How are adjectives of more than one syllable gen erally compared ? Examples. How is diminution of quality expressed • Examples. What classes of dissyllables are often compared by er and est * [ miat is a dissyllable ?] Examples of dissyllables compared by er and est. a general comparison of qualities. Thus, when we say that a man is dis- creet, we obviou.«ly mean that he has more ''.iscretion than the generality of men. So also, when we say a man is tall, it is implied that he is tall Compared with other men. Hence arises the difference between the height of a tall man and that of a tr.ll tree, each beinp compared with others of the same kind. In this sense, therefore, the positive is strictly and properly t iegree of comparison 56 ETTMOLOOY. guage. They are, however, in some cases, disrexarc'cd by the best vrnt. ers ; as, " Objects of our tenderest cares." — E. Ecerett. '• The cor.imonesi material object." — Dana. " The soieres^ ti'Uth." — C/tannhig. Rem. 3. — In all qnalities capable of increase or diminution, the num- ber of degrees from the highest to the lowest is indefinite. Whenever we wish to express any of the different shades of quality which are not de- noted by the three forms of the adjective, we employ various modifying words and phrases ; as, rather, somewhat, sliyhtly, a littk, so, too, very, yreatly, higUy, exceedingly, in a high degree. Examples : — "A very pernicious war ; " — " It is a little discolored ; " — " Too strong to bend, too proud to learn." Rem. 4. — The termination ish is also joined to certain words, to de note a slight degree of quality ; as, black, blackish ; salt, saltisL Rem. 5. — When either of the words more, ynost, less, least, is prefixed to an adjective, it may be considered as forming a part of the adjective. Thus, tlie compound terms inore happy and le^^s lujppy, are regarded as ad- jectives in the comparative degree ; but when the words are considered separately, the pruuxes more, most, etc., are properly adverbs. Kem. 6. — The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — Positive. Good Bad, evil, or ill Far Fore Late Little Much ar many Near Old Comparative. better worse ( farther* ( further former later less more nearer y older I elder Superlative. best worst farthest furthest foremost (in place) first (in time or order) latest (referring to time) last (in order) least most ( nearest (referring to place) \ next (in order) oldest eldest Rem. 7. — Some adjectives in the superladve degree are formed by adding "nost to th'' comparative or to tlie word from which the compara- tive itself is made ; as. hind, hinder, hiiidermost or hindmost ; nether, nether- most ; up, upper, tcppermosl or upmost ; in, in-ner, innermost or inmost. Rem. 8. — Adjectives whose signification does not admit of in- crease or diminution, cannot be compared ; as, square, first, one^ ill, any, wooden, daily, infinite. What adjectives are compared irregularly f lives canned be compared ? Examples. Compare them. What adj-x- * " Further is the genuine Saxon word ; farther takes precedence in mod em use." — Smart's Diet. JS.- ADJECTIYES. 57 Ob9. — The word perfect* and some othersf which are not strictly comparable, are often qualified by more and most^ and by less and least. Examples : — "A more perfect civilization." — B. B. Edwards. " The most perfect society." — E. Everett. " Less perfect imitations." — Macaulay. " The more perfect oneness." — Daiui. $ 6G. Adjectives are sometimes used to perform the office of nouns, ad " Proddence rewards the good;" and nouns to perfoi-m the office of adjectives, as " An iron fence ; " — " Meadow ground." EXERCISES. § 67. Good, this, .seven, round, British, the, those, straight, fortieth, Whitehall, rich, any, Chinese, two, an, virtuous, eigh- teen, destructive, a, some, Alpine, first, many, boiling water, heated iron. Which of the foregoing adjectives are descriptive and which definitive ? Which of them are proper ? Which numeral f Which pronominal f Which participial ? Which are articles 1 Compare the following adjectives : — Strong, robust, sincere, low, swift, grateful, little, bad, stu dious. " This site commands an extensive view of the surround- ing country." — " The rapid current of a large river, the foaming cataract, the vivid flash of forked lightning, 'and the majestic rolling of the mighty ocean, are objects which excite in our minds emotions of grandeur and sublimity." — "Every leaf and every twig teems with life." — " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist." — " Rhode Island ia the smallest state in the Union." — " Numbers are expressed by ten Arabic characters." Point out the adjectives in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are descriptive ? Which definitive ? Which are proper f Which nume- ral ? Which pronominal 1 Which participial ? Which are the articles ? Which of the descriptive adjectives are in the positive degree f Compare them. Which are in the comparative ? Compare them. Which in the superlative ? Compare them. t " Usage has given to ' more and most perfect ' a sanction which we dar« hardly controvert." — Crombie. X " More complete, most complete, less complete, are common expressions." > - Webster. 58 ETYMOLOGY. Wiite sentences containing examples of descriptive and definitive adjectives ; and others containing examples of adjectives in each of the three degrees of comparison. THE PRONOUN. § 68. A Pronoun* is a word used to supply the place of a noun ; as, " When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he turned his army against Ms country." Rem. — The word which is represented by a pronoun usually precedes it, and is hence called its antecedent. § 69. Pronouns may be divided into three general classes ; — personal, relative, and interrogative. PERSONAL PRONOUN. § 70, A personal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses pei'son and number of itself. The personal pronouns are /, thou or you, he, she, and it. I is of the first person ; thou or you is of the second ; and he, she, and it, are of the third. Pronouns, like nouns, have gender, person, number, and case. Rem. 1. — Personal pronouns are varied to distinguish the num- bers and cases ; but variety of form to distinguish the genders, is confined to the third person singular. What is a pronoun 1 Examples. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? Into what general c^.asses are pronouns divided ? What is a personal pronoun 1 Enumerate the personal pronouns, and give the person of each. What modifications have pronouns 1 For what are pergonal pro Houns varied f *The tenn p/onoiai. is derived from two Latin words, /wc» and novun, which signify for a mime. ADJECTIVES. 59 Rem. 2. — As persons speaking or spoken to, are supposed to be pres- ent, and their sex sufficiently obvious, variety of form in the correspond- ing: pronouns, to express distinction of gender, is unnecessary. But per- sons or things spoken of, being considered as absent, it is proper to make fi distinction of gender : and the third person of the pronoun is accord- ingly distinguished by using he for the masculine, she for the feminine, and it for the neuter. DECLENSIOI^ OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. § '71. First Person. Singular. Plural. Nom. I we* Poss. My or mine our Ohj. Me us Ind. Me or I we Rem. I. — 3/?«e and thine wore formerly employed instead of my and thy, before words beginning with the sound of a vowel. This usage ia uow confinevi chiefly to poetry and the solemi. style of prose. Examples: — "I kept myself from mine iniquity." — Ps. 18: 23. " Mine hour is not yet come." — John 2 : 4. " God stay thee in thine agony, my boy." — Willis. Rem. 2. — The fii-st person singular is seldom used in the independent case, except by exclamation. The first person plural, when used inde- pendently, properly takes the same form as the nominative, though the ttbioctive form is sometimes employed. Examples : — " O wretched ice!" — Dryden. " O rare toe!" — Cbw- per. " Ah ! luckless /." — Francis. "Ah me! neglected on the lonesome plain." — Beattie. " 3Te miserable ! which way shall I fly Infinite wi-atli and infinite despair ? " — ililton. § '72. Second Person. — Solemn Style. Singular Plm ral. Nom. Thou ye or you Poss. Thy or thine your Ob). Thee you Ind. Thou ye or you Decline I. Dedine thou. ♦ The plural of pronouns in the first and second persons, does not bear the same relation to the singular as the plural of nouns. Thus the plural vien is equivalent to the repetition of the singular mail. But the plural toe is equivalent to Vlie singuhir J, t02;ether with others in the second or third person, niirl a-'.t to the siiigiilar / repeated. So, also, the plural of thou ia often equivalent to tkou, together with others in the thiird person. 60 ETTKOLOGT. Rkm. 1. — The pronoun thou is employed in addressing the Deitj, in the Sacred Scriptures, and in pcetry. It also occurs in other solemn or impassioned prosaic -writings, and the Society of Friends still use it in common discourse. Rem. 2. — The poets sometimes employ ^"e instead of you for the objec- tive plural ; as, " Brother, sweet sister, peace around ye dwell " — Hemans. " I told ye then he should prevail and speed On his bad errand." — Milton. This usage is generally regarded as inelegant. § 73. Secoxd Person. — Common Style Singular. Plural. Norn. You you Pons. Your }"our Obj. You you Ind. You you Rem. — The wo'-U you * v/as originally plural in signification ; When is thou onployed 9 Ji^uamples. Decline you. What was the origi- ncd use of you ? * No usage of our language is more fully established ttian that which reo ognizes yon as the representative of nouns in the singular number. " In the using of t/oii to one, as well as to 7>wre than one (which is the Language of the Nation, not only spoke by the private persons, but extant in the both private and publick" Writings' of it), we do seem to imitate the French, who, as they have one word, viz. tu for tkoii, and one, viz. vos for ye; so they have one which they use both to o)ie, and to more than one, in- differently; namely, t-'O!", yoic." — Wcdker^s Treatise of English Particles ; London, 1653. Brightland, one of the earliest of our English grammarians, who wrote in 1710, classes yoii with the singular pronouns /, tkon, and he. Greenwood, in his celebrated grammar, which appeared the following year, saj-s, " Thou or you is of the second person singular." This disposition of you was fol- lowed by the author of the British Grammar, and by Farro, Fisher, Bu- chanan, Dilworth, Smetham, Menye, and several other gi-ammatical writers of the last century. Mt. Jlurray's grammar first appeared in 1795. Following the practice of the iiociety of Friends, — the community in which he was educated, — he restri.ited you to the plural number; and such was the influence of his ex- ample that this word was, for a time, very generally excluded from the list of sing liar pronouns. Ther^i has, however, always existed a respectable class of authors, who have treated the pronoun you as singular, when applied to an individual ; and, during the last twsnty-five or thirty years, the numbCx- of this class has yeiy rapi U}' increased. " It is t Itogether absurd to consider yaic as Sicl naively a plursJ pronoun PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 61 but it IS now universally employed in populai- discourse, Ui repre- sent either a singular or a plural noun. § 74. Third Person. Masadine. Feminine. iVei Iter. Sinffidar. Plural, Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural Nom. He they She they It they Poss. His their Her their Its their Obj. Him them Her them It them Ind. He they She they It they Rem. 1. — In the third person, masculine and feminine, the indepen- dent case has usually the nominative form, though the use of the objective is not wholly destitute of authority-* Examples : — " Ah luckless he I " — Skenstcme. " God from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top Shall tremble, he descending, wdll himself Ordain them laws." — Milton. " Miserable lliey, "Wlio, here entangled in the gathering ice, Take their last look of the descending sun." — Thomson. Decline he, she, and it. in the modern English language. It may be a matter of lijston/, that it was originally used as a plural only ; and it may be a matter of theory, tJmt it was first applied to individuals on a principle of flattery; but the /art is, that it is now our second person singular. Wlien applied to an individual, it never excites any idea either of plurality or of adulation ; but exoites, precisely and exactly, the idea that was excited by the use of t/iou, in an earlier stage of the language." — Jeffrey, in the Edinburgh Review. " If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by universal use, the sign of individuality, it must take its place in the singular number. That this is the fact with you, is proved by national usage." — Webster. A hst of additional authorities is subjoined for the gratification of the cu- rious student. The writers here enumerated treat the pronoun you as sin- guLor, when applied to an individual : — Angell, C. Adams, A. Alden, Booth, Bell, Brace, Barnard, Barrie, John Barrett, D. Blair, Cochran, Cutler, Cobb, Davis, Elmore, Emmons, Felton, Fletcher, Fuller, Fowle, Gilbert, Goode- now, Goldsburv, R. W. Green, Gurney, Joel, Judson, Lewis, Morlev, Jl'Cnl loch, PnUen, J. M. Putnam, Picket," Pinnock, Eoss, W. E. Russell, Caleb Reed, Snvder, Swett, R. C. Smith, P. Smith, Steams, Sanborn, Todd Ticken, Wilcox, Wilbur, G. Wilson, J. P. Wilson, Weld, M'Cready, Cooper Powers, Whiting, Beall, J. Ward, Fowler. *" Of the two forms, ^him excejtted'' and '■he excepted^ the former (con trary to the sentiment of the majority of grammarians) is the ^^orrect one.' — PjUham. " This inaccessible high strength, the seat Of deity supreme, us dispos^-^sscd, He trusted to h.ave seized."- M'lt»%, 62 ETYMOLOGY. Rem. 2. — His* was formerly emploj'ed as the possessive of both he and it. Examples : — " Put up acjain thy sword into h's place." — Matt. 26 • 52. " Learning hath his infancy, when it is but beginning, and almost childish." — Bacon. Rem. 3. — My, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their, are sometimes, though improperly, termed pronominal adjectives. § 75. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are possessive pronouns, used in construction either as nominatives or objectives ;f as, " Your pleasures are past, mine are to come." Here the word mine, which is used as a substitute for my pleasures, is the subject of the verb are. Rem. The words hers, its, ours,yours, theirs, are sometimes improperly written her's, ifs, out's, your's, their's This error should be carefully avoided. § 76. The words myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself, with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and thevuelves, are called compound personal pronouns. They are frequently joined to nouns and simple pronouns, to express emphasis ; as, " You yourselves are the contrivers of your own ruin ; " — " The moun- tains themselves decay with years." They are also used when the subject and the' object of the verb both represent the same person or thing. " I blame myself ; " — "He blames me." /and myself here denote the same person, and we use the compound pronoun. What is said of the possessive pronouns, mine, thine, etc. ? Illustrate their use. What are the compound personal pronouns ? When are they employed ? Examples. * " The possessive its does not appear before the seventeenth century." — Booth. " Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint." — G. Bro'wn. t Many grammarians parse m,ine, thine, etc., as prononnain the possessive case, and governed by nouns understood. Thus, in the sentence, " This book is mine," the word mine is said to be governed by hooh. That the word hook is not here understood, is obvious from the fact, that, when it is supplied, the phrase becomes, not "mine book," but " ?ny book," the pro- noun being changed from m,i7ie to my ; so that we are made, by this prac- tice, to parse mine as governed by a word understood, before which it can- not properly be used. The woril mi?ii is here evidently employed as a Bubstitute for the two words, my and book. "That mine, thine, yours, his, hers, theirs, do not constitute a possessivo case, Ls demonstrable; for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs and aa objectives after verbs and prepositions." — Webster. See also Dr. Wilson, Smart, Jenkins, Goorleuow, Jaudou, I''elch, Hazeu, Todd, E. Smith, Cooper^ Cutler, Weld, and Davis. RELATIVE PRONOONS. 63 Rem. — The word sdf, when used alone, is a noun ; as, " The love of adfis predominant" RELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 77. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates directly to some preceding word or phrase, and serves to connect sentences. Rem. 1. — When the antecedent of a relative is in the independent case, the pronoun connects a simple sentence with the independent nonn or pronoun and its adjuncts ; as, " Ye undying and desperate sons of the brave, Who so often your valor have shown." Rem. 2. — The connective office of a relative pronoun should always be pointed out in pawing. Thus, in the compound sen- tence, " Bless them that curse you," the pronoun lliat Is the subject of the verb curse In one of the members ; and it relates to them^ which is the object of the verb hless in the other member. A rela- tive pronoun always relates to some word out of the clause in whicL it stands, and thus joins the two clauses together. § 78. The words used as relative pronouns, are who, ivhich, that, and what. Who is applied to persons, and whieh to irrational ani- mals and things without life ; as, " The man wJw is ac- customed to reflect, finds instruction in every thing ; " — " I have found the book which I had lost." That is used for who or which, and may be applied ei- ther to persons or things ; as, " He that gathereth in sum- mer, is a wise son ; " — "A city that is set on a hill, cannot be hid." What is a relative pronoun ' Ilbtstrate the connective office of relatives. Enumerate the relative pronouns. What are the respective applications of who, which, and that ? ExaiTip'es of each. « 64 ■ ETYMOLOGY. Whu, which, and flat, are thus declined: — Sing, and Pliir. Sing, aixd Pliir. Sinj. a ad Plur. Norn. Who Which That Poss. Who^Q Wliose* Whose Ohj. Whom Which That Ind. Wao Which § 79. The word what is often used as a compound relalive pro noun, equivalent in signification to that which\ or those which ; as, " One man admires tohat [that which'] displeases another." What here sustains the relation of both the nominative and the objective case. As a nominative, it is the subject of the verb displeases ; as an objective, it is the object of admires. Rem. 1. — What sometimes performs, at once, the office of an adjective and a pronoun ; as, " What time remained, was well em- ployed." As an adjective, what here qualifies time ; as a pronoun, it is the subject of the verb remained. Rkji. 2. — Whoever, tohichever, whatever, and tehosoever, whichso- ever, whatsoever, are also-used as compound pronouns, and parsed in Decline the relatives who, which, and that. Hoio is what o/ien used? Examples. Wlmt two parts of speech does what sometimes represent ? Ex- amples. What other words are employed as compound relatives ? Examples. * The possessive of lo-kick is, iti ruany grammars, marked as wanting; but tlie use of whose, as the possessive of both w/io and u'/iich, may now be regarded as fully estabhsiied by the authority of our most eminent writers and spealiers. Examples: — " Cedar groves, whose gigantic branches threw a refresh ing coohiess over the verdure." — Prescott. " At such times, I am apt to seeli the Hall of Justice, whose deep, shadowy arcades extend across the upper end of the Court." — Irving. " Statues, M•/^ose mis- erable and mutilated fragments are the models of modern art." — E. Everett. " Impressions, whose power can scarcely bo calculated." — Cheever. " He wanted learning, whose place no splendor of genius can supply to tne lawyer." — Wirt. "Dramas, whose termination is the total ruin of their heroes." — J. G. Lockhart. " A triangle, or three-sided figure, one of tvhose sides is perpendicular to another." — Brougham. Other examples from the best authorities might be multiplied at pleasure. "I have given xchose as the genitive of which; not only because this usage is sanctioned by classical authority, but likewise because the other form, of which, is frequently awkward and inelegant." — Dr. Cromhie. t Many grammarians erroneously substitute the two eqiiivalent words, that which, and parse them instead of the original word what. This is pars- ing their own language, and not the author's. The word xvhat, 'A'hen com pound, should be p;u-oed as pcrfonuing the office of two nominatives, or two objectives or of both a nominative aud au objective. INTERROGATIVE PROXOCNS. 65 Ihe same manner as the compound tohijt. Thus, in the sentence, ' ^\'^loover disregards the laws of liis being, must suffer tlie penalty," whoever is the subject of the two verbs, disregards and mu^t suffer. IIe3I. 3. — ]Vhoso was formerly used as a compound pronoun, in the sense of whosoever ; as, " Whoso, therefore, shall swear by the altar, swear- eth by it, and by all things thereon." It is now nearly obsolete. Rem. 4. — WJiich and what are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, " For which reason ; " — " What tongue can tell ? " § 80. The distinction between personal and relative pronouns should receive special attention. Each of the personal pronouns is used to represent one of the three persons, and no other. Thus 1 is alwaj's of the first person, and he always of the third. A relative pionoun does not express person of itself, but always depends on its antecedenl for person. Thus, ■we may say, " I who speak ; " " You ioAo sptak ; " " He ii?^o speaks." Who is here employed in each of the three persocs. • ES^TERROGATl VE FllONOUNS. § 81. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used in asking a question ; as, " WJlo is tliis ? " The words used as interrogative pronouns, are ivho^ which, and what. Rem. 1. — Who, used interrogatively, is applied only to persons ; which and tvhat are applied to both persons and things. Rem. 2. — ]Vhfther, siirnifyinL; whicA of the tiro, was formerly used a» an interrogative : as, " Whether of them twain did the will of his father » * In this sense it is now out of use. EXERCISES. § 82. Give the person, number, and case of each of the following pra iwuns : — His, she, its, thee, he, they, our, I, them. Give earampks of which and what, used as adjectives. .Explain and ilhis trate the distinction hetioeen personal and relative pronouns. What is an in terrogative pronoun ? Enumerate the inteiTOgatives. To what are th» interrogatirxs who, which, and what, respectively applied ? •e ETYMOLOGf. What personal pn loitn is in the third person singiudr, mascidine gender, and possessive case ? — in the second person singular, solemn style, and objective case ? — in the third person plural, nominative case ? — in the first person plu- ral objectii'^e case ? — in the first person singidar, possessive case ? — in thy second person plural, nominative case ? — in the third ^person sin/jular, netUet gender, possessive case ? — in the second person singidar, common style, nomina tive case f — in the third person singular, fiminine gender, nominative case t — in the first person plural, possessive case? Give the person, member, and case ofhim ; — me ; — its ; — she ; — them ; — as ; — my ; — thee. " As he was) valiant, I honor him." — " The crime which has been once committed, is committed again with less reluc- tance." — "I charge thee, fling away ambition." — " He that trusteth in his riches, shall fall." — " Virtue is most laudable in that state which makes it most difficult." — " Who wrote the letter ? " — " You wrong yourself." — " O thou that roU- est above, round as the shield of my fathers ! " Point out the pronouns in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are personal 1 Which relative ? Wliich interrogative 1 Give the per Bou, numijer, gender, and case of each, with the reasons. Model. — He (in the first sentence above) is a pronoun, becaiise it is a word used to supply the place of a noun; — personal, because it ex- presses person and number of itself; — in the third person, because it denotes a person spoken of; — in the singular number, because it denotes but one: — in the masculine gender, because it denotes a male; — and in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb uvis. Write sentences containing examples of personal, relative, and inter- rogative pronouns. THE VERB. § 83. A Ve7-b * is a word that ex].resses an assertion 01 affirmation ; f as, I a?»/ I teach ; I am taught. What is a verb ? Examples, * The term verb is derived from the Latin verbum, which sis^ifies a word. ThiL part of speech is so called because the verb is the principal word in a sentence. * The idea of a verb is not easily expressed in a single sentence. The VERBS. 6Y A Verb may also be used to cemmand, exhort, request, and inquire, as " Be silent," " S^are me," " Have jou written the letter ? " and to express an action or state in general and abstract sense, as doing, to obey. \ 84. Verbs are divided into two general classes; — transitive and intransitive* 1. A trayisitive verb is a verb that governs an objective case ; as, " Henry has learned his lesson^ The term transitive signifies passing over. 2. An intransitive verb is a verb that does not govern an objective case; as, " He is;" — " The horse runs.^' Rkm. — There are some verbs which may be used either transi- tively or intransitively, the construction alone determining to which class they belong. § 85, Transitive verbs have two forms, called the ac- ive and i\\Q passive voice.j What other uses have verbs ? Into what general classes are verba divided 1 What is a transitive verb 1 Examples. What is an intransi- tive verb 1 Examples. What two forms have transitive verbs ? iefinition here adopted is based on the most distinguishing characteristic of \his part of speech ; and is substantialU- the same as that of Priestley, Blair, Harris, Beattie, Crombie, Andrews and Stoddard, the British Grammar, Rees's Encyc, Brewster's Encyc, Grant, Sutcliffe, M'CuUoch, Bullions, Fletcher, Cooper, Goklsbury, Frost, Parkhurst, Butler, Hart, aud others. * " The proper division of verbs is into transitive and intransitive ; for this distinction is practical, and has an effect in the formation of sentences, which is not true of the other distinctions." — Goodenow. " This classification of verbs is founded on their use in the construction of sentences." — Frazee. y' The division of words into transitive and intransitive is also adopted in the grammars of Arnold, Webster, M'CuUoch, Hart, Crane, Frost, Butler, Bullions, Counon, R. W. Green, Reed, Perley, Ussher, Fuller, Staniford, Bingham, Locke, Ticknor, Lindsay, Earl, Spear, Storj-, Webber, Nutting, Cobb, and others. t " Active and passive do not denote two different kinds of verb, but on« kind under two different forms, denomnated the active aud passive voice." " — Bullio7is. "It needs no argimieat to prove that 'I am struck' is just as really a modification of to strike, as 'I itave struck'' is ; and yet, under the old clas- sification of active, passive, and neuter, the pupil was taught to consider these forms as two verbs belonging to diflerent classes." — iJart. 68 ETTMOLOGT. 1. The active voice rej)resents the subject or nommative as acting upon some object. 2. The passive voice represents the nominative as being acted upon. Eem. 1. — In the sentence, " Cssar conquered Pompey," the verb conquered represents the nominative Cccsar as acting upon tlie object Pompey. The verb conquered is therefore in the active voice. But in the expression, " Pompey was conquered by Cassar," the verb loas conquered represents the nominative Pomjiey as being acted upon. The verb was conquered is therefore in the passive voice. [When a verb is said to be transitive, and :io mention is made of the voice, it is understood to be in tlie active voice. The passive voice of a transitive verb is often denominated a passive verb.] Rem. 2. — A verb in the passive voice is composed of the per- fect participle of a transitive verb, and one of tlie forms of the verb to be ; * as, are heard, were heard, am heard, to he heard. Rem. 3. — Most intransitive verbs do not admit of the passive form. Thus, instead of saying, " Very great abuses are crejit into tliis entertainment," it would be better to say, " Very great abuses have crept into this entertainment" But the verbs come and go, and perhaps a few others, may, in some cases, properly assume the passive form; as, "The time is come." — Channing. "The sharp touches of the chisel are gone from the rich tracery of the arches." — Irving. Verbs of this description are usually denominated new- ter passive verbs. § 86, Verbs are ,also divided into regular and irreg- ular. / What does the active voice represent 1 The passive voice ? IllustratA Of lohat is a verb in the passive voice composed? Examples, What verb$ do not generally admit the passive form ? Illustrate. What exceptions are there to this principle? Examples. Into what other classes are verbs di- vided •? . 41 * Many respectable grammarians reject the passive voice of the verb al- together ; parsing the participle by itself, and thg verb tii be as a principal verb. See Rees's Cyclopsedia, and the Grammars of Nutting, Crombie, S. Oliver, Ash, Lewis, and Connon. VERBS. 69 1. A regular vo-h is one that forms its past tense and perfect participle bj adding d or ed to the present ; as, present, love; past, loved; perf. part., loved; call, called, called. Kem. 1. — Eegular A-erbs ending in silent e, form their past tense and perfect participle, by the addition of d only ; and those ending in any other letter, by the addition of ed. Rem. 2. — The verbs hear, pay, say, and lay, Mrhich do not end in e, and which add d only for the past tense and perfect participie, are classed with irregular verbs. 2. An irregidar verb is one that does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the pres ent ; as, present, see; past, saw; perf. part., seen; go, went, gone. EXERCISES. § 87. " The tree grows." — " Columbus discovered Amer- ica." — " You were expected." — " Man is mortal." — " We are observed." — " He received an injury."- Point out the verbs in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are regular 7 "Which in-egnlar 1 Which are transitive ? Which intransi- tive 1 Which passive 1 Name three regular verbs ; — three irregular. ' Write sentences containing examples of transitive, intransitive, and passive verbs. MODE. ^ 8S. ^ Mode is a term used to denote the manner in which the verb is employed. Verbs have five modes ; * — the indicative, the sulh What is a regular verb 1 Examples. What is an irregular verb * Examples. What is mode 1 Enumerate the different modes. * The recognition of yotential mode, in so many of our popular gram- mars, aflbrds a striking example of the power of custom. The expressions, "It may rain," "He may go^" "lean ride," etc., are manifestly rfi^c/ara- tive ; and tlie verbs may rain, may go, can ride, etc., are appropriately ranked in the Indicative mode. "I can -walk," expresses quite as distinct 70 ETYMOLOGY. junctive, the imperative, the infinitive, and the vaHi cipial* § 89. The indicative mode is that which indicates oi declares, or asks a question ; as, He can learn ; Does ha learyi ? Can he learn ? Rem. 1. — The common form of the indicative mode is that wliich merely expresses a declaration or an interrogation ; as, " He improves ; " — " Will you go ? " Rem. 2. — Tlie potential form of the indicative is that which ex- presses a declaration or asks a question, and also implies possibility, liberty, power, determination, obligation, necessity, etc. ; as, " He can walk ; " — " We mtist return ; " — " What would they have f " [In speaking of the common form of the indicative, it will generally What is the indicative mode 1 Examples. H IM is the common form of the indicative mode 7 Examples. The potential form ? Examples. a declaration as "I walk." Thus, "I can walk," declares that I have the power to walk ; while " I walli," declares the act of walking. JIo>t authors who recognize a potential mode, still class such expressions as " If I should go," with the subjunctive. But " I should go," asserts or declares the same thing that " If I should go," expresses under a condition; and hence the difference between them is precisely the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive. And since the use of the conjunction if, produces no other effect than to change the sentence from a declarative to a coiitlitional form, it is obvious that all of its potential qualities must still remain; hence the clause, "If I should go," has the same claim to ba ranked with the potential, as "I should go." If, then, this form of the verb is cl.assed with the subjunctive mode when it is used con rhitiov ally, consis- tency would seem to require that it should be classed with the iiidicative, when its use is declaratory. Do the expressions, " He would walk," " Thev should learn," imply v^'l or obligation more clearly than "I will obey." ''^Thou shalt not kill,"' "He night to leani " ? " Tiie mere expressions of will possibility, \ibeity, obligation, etc., belong to the Indicative Mode." — Loivth. " As to the potential mode, it may, I think, in all cases, be resolved into Mther the indicative or the sulyunctive." — Beatti^'s Tlieory of Language. " The forms of expression, lean go, we may ride, lie must obey, are really declaratory, and properly belong to the indicative." — Webster. The potential mode is 'also rejected by Jamieson, H. Ward, Martin, Coote, Cobbett, Lewis. Hazlitt, Hodgso'n, St. Quentin, Bell, ^! rrie, Buchanan, Coar, Trinder, Adam, Arnold, Higginson, Giles, Beall, Pe , Rof;s, Nutting, J. P. Wilson, Wiiiard, Halloek, Dearborn, .J. Flint, D. Adains, Judson, Pixe, Car dell. Cutler, Baich, French, Spencer, and others. * If the participle is properly regarded as a fomi of the verb, it is obvious that it must be cl.. ployed in some mode. In the conjugation of verbs, it j VERBS. 71 oe found I'onvenient to employ raerelv the term indicative mode : and in speaking of the potential form, to designate it as the potential indicative.] Rem. 3. — Were is sometimes used for wonJd he or should be; as, "Ah ! what were man, should Heaven refuse to hear ? " Rem. 4. — Had is also occasionally employed for icoidd have, or shotdd have ; as, " Had thought been all, sweet speech had [would have] been denisd." — Young. § 90. The subjunctive mode is that which implies con- dition, supposition, or uncertainty ; as, "If he had the opportunitj, he would improve rapidly;" — " Take heed, lest any man deceive you." Rem. 1. — Every verb in the subjunctive implies two propositions; the one principal, and the other suhordinate. The subordinate clause is usually preceded by a conjunction, subjoining it to the an- tecedent, or principal clause, on which it depends. Thus, in the sentence, " I will remain if you desire it," the dependent clause, " you desire it," is preceded by the conjunction if, which subjoins it to the principal clause, " I will remain." Rem. 2. — The condition of a verb in the subjunctive is sometimes ex- pressed by transposition, without the aid of a conjunction ; as, " Had he talce)i the counsel of friends, he would have been saved from ruin." IlE^r. 3. — The subjunctive mode, like the indicative, admits of the potential form ; as, " He might improve, If he would make the necessary etfort." See § 89. "WTiat is t!;e subjunctive mode ? Examples. ]Vhat does every subjunc- tive dauseimply ? Illustrate. What modijication in form does the subjunc- tive admit? Examples. unifonnly introduced in connection with the other modes, and tr ated in everv respect as a mode. " 1"he participle is merely a 7?iode of the verb, and it might propwrly be termed the participial mode.'''' — Sanborn. " If modes be tlie manner of reprrscnting the verb, we see no g^od rea- son why patticiplfs should not be reckr"''^ " mode." — Goodenovj. " That the participle is a mere mode oi verb, is manifest, if our defini- tion of a verb be luhnirted." — Lovth. "There are four modes; the Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, and Snt)- junctive, to whicli we may add the Participles, as necessary to be consid- ered together with the verb." — Higgiii.^on. " Mr. Mzrray contends strenuously for the participle, as 'a mo(le of tlie verb,' and yet has not the consistency of assigning it a place airoiig the modes, as it must have, if it be any verb at all." — Willard. The participle is also ranked as a mole of the verb hy Elphinst' r Alltx> and Coniwell, Connell, De Sacj', St. Quentiii, Felch, Fletcher, >/-arner Way, Fpenetr, r"nu o, and othere 2 ETYMOLOGY. § 91. The imperative mode is that wliich commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits ; as, *' Go thou ; " — " Study diligently ; " — " Forgive us our trespasses ; " — " Depart in peace." § 92. The infinitive mode is the root or first form of the verb, used to express an action or state indefinitely •, as, to hear, to speak. It is generally distinguished by the sign to. Rem. — When the particle to is employed in forming the infinitive, it is to be regarded as a part of the verb. JParticiples. § 93. The participle is a mode of the verb, partaking «f the properties of the verb and the adjective ; as, see- ing, seen, having seen, having been seen. Participles may be classed under two general divisions ; — imperfect* and perfect. 1. Am imjierfect participle diQnoiQ^ the continuance of an action or state ; as, calling, seeing, being seen. Rem. — Imperfect participles relate to present, past, or future What is jhe imperative mode ? Examples. The infinitive ? Exam- ples. How is the infinitive generally distinguished 1 What is the par- ticiple ? Exair oles. Into what general classes are participles divided 1 Wha' is an iiiip -.rfect participle 7 Examples. To what time do imperfect participles relate * * " The disti't.g-uishivg characteristic of this participle is, that it denotPS an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion ; it is therefore properly denoniinated the imperfect participle." — G. Brown. " All that is peculiar to the participles is, that the one signifies a perfect, and the other an imperfect action." — Pickbourn's Dissertation on the Eng- lish Verb. " The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make be- tween the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state, denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion ot It." — Murray. See also Grant, Baldwin, Lewis, M'Culloch, Churchill. Connon, Butler and R. \V. Green. VKRB8. 73 time, acconling as they are connected with verbs in the present, past, or future tense. 2. A perfect participle denotes the completion of an action or state ; as, called^ seen, having seen. § 94. Participles are also divided into two other classes, called simple and compound. 1. A simple participle, is a participle that consists of only one word ; as, doing, done. 2. A compound 'participle is a participle that is composed of two or more words ; as, being seen, Tiaviug seen, having been seen. Being teen is a compound imperfect participle ; having seen and having been seen are compound perfect participles. RE>r. 1 . — Participles, like other mot'Ufications of the verb, are either ti ansitive or intransitive. Thus, seeing and having seen are transitive ; being and walking, intransitive. Transitive participles are also distinguished by voices ; as, active, seeing, having seen ; passive, seen, having been seen. Rem. 2. — Participles often lose their verbal character, and become adjectives ; as, " A moving spectacle ; " — "A revised edition." They are then called participial adjectives. Rem. 3. — Partici])lcs are also used to perform the office of nouns ; as, " They could not avoid submitting to this influence." When used in thb manner, they are cdWiid participial nouns. § 9.5. Besides the regular grammatical modes expressed by the verb, it is obvious tliat there must be numerous other distinctions of manner, which can be indicated only by the use of various modifying words and phrases ; as, " The storm beats violently ; " — " The horse sleeps standing " TENSE. § 96. Tense is the distinction of time. Verbs have six tenses ; — the present, the past* the What is a perfect participle ? Examples. A simple participle ? Exam' :iles. A compound participle ? Examples. Name a transitive par* [ciple ; — mtransitive. A participle in the active voice; — in the passive. What is tense ? Enumerate the tenses. * The names of the tenses adopted in this treatise, have the sanction of Connell, Skillorn, Hilcv, Butler, Perley, Goodenow, Fletcher, and Farnum. '4 74 ETYMOLOST. future J the present perfect^ the pait perfect, and the future perfect. 1. The presepJ tense denotes present time ; as, I write ; I am writing. 2. The past (imperfect^ tense denotes indefinite past time ; as, I wrote ; I was writing. 3. Tlha future tense denotes indefinite future time ; as, 1 shall write ; I shall he wnting. 4. The present perfect (^perfect) tense denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the present ; as, I have written ; 1 have been writing. 5. The past perfect {^pluperfects tense denotes past time that precedes some other past time, to which it re- fers ; as, " When he had delivered the message, he took his departure." 6. The future perfect (second future^ tense denotes future time that precedes some other future time, to which it refers ; as, " I shall have finished the letter before he arrives." Rem. — Besides these six grammatical tenses, there are mimerons other distinctions of time, which are expressed by various modifying words and phrases ; as, " I will go immediately ; " — "I will go soon ; '" — "I will go in an hour ;" — " I will go io-tnorrow ;" — " I will go in the course of the iceek.^' What is the present tense ? Examples. The past tense ? Examples. What is the future tense ? Examples. What is the present perfect tense ? Examples. The past perfect tense 1 Examples. The future perfect tense 1 Examples. Similar terms, corresponding with the signification of the tenses, are also employed by Webster, Frazee, Dij, Swett, Felton, Brace, Simmonite, Flower, Barrie, and others. " Several of the old names either convey no idea, or an erroneous one. The imperfect tense does not, in one case of a hundred, signify an imper- fect action ; the perfect tense is not the only one which represents a fin- ished action; and if we speak of first and "second turnre tenses, ^ve with equal proprietj' have first and second present, and first ami past tenses." — Perley. VERBS. 7a NUMBER AND PERSON. § 97. Verbs have t\YO numbers and three persons. The person and number of a verb are always the sam« as the person and number of its subject or nomhiative. Hem. 1. — In the simple form of the present and past indicative, the second person singular of the solemn style ends regularly in st or est, as Thou seest, Thou hearest, Thou saivest, Thou heardest ; and the third per sou singular of the present, iu th or eth, as He saith, Ho loveth. Rem. 2. — In the simple form of the present indicative, the third per- son singular of the common or familiar style, ends in s or cs; as. He sleeps, He rises. Rem. 3. — The first person singular of the solemn style, and the first and second persons singular of the common style, have the same form aa the three persons plural. Rem. 4. — In forming the compound tenses of the verb, the auxil- iaries only are varied. Rexi. 5. — Be and ought, and the auxiliaries shall, loill, may, can, must, are irregular in their modifications to denote person. Rem. 6. — The verb need is often used in the third person singular of jhe indicative present, witliout the personal termination. Examples: — " The truth need not be disguised." — Charming. "It need only be added." — Prescott. " It need not be said." — E. Everett. '■ There was one condition, which need not be mentioned." — Irving. "Nothing need be concealed." — Cooper. "Time need not be wast- ed." — G.B.Emerson. "No other historian of that country wtrd be mentioned." — Ilaltam. " The reader need not be fold." — Paley. " This is a species of inconsistency, of which no m.nn need bo ashamed." — Kdinlmrgh Review. " It need not surprise us." — .7. G Lock-hart. " It need scarcely be said." — X. A. Beview. " Xeed a bewildered traveller wish for more "? " — Wordsuxfrth. Rem. 7. — The subjunctive of all verbs, except he, takes the same form as the indicative. Goocl writers were formerly much accustomed to cb-op the personal termination in the subjunctive present, and -write, " If he have," " If he deny," etc., for " If he Jia-t," " If he denies," etc. ; but this termination is now generally retained, unless an auxiliary is understood.* Thus, " If he hear," How many persons and numbers have verbs ? With what do the per- son and number of a verb correspond ? What is said resvecting thefom ofvabs in the subjunctive mode ? Illustrate. * "T^ie use of the present tense of tlic subjunctive, without the personal terminations, w.as formerly very general. It w.is reserved for the classical 76 ETYMOLOGY. may properly be used for " If he shall hear " or " If he should hear," when the auxiliary shall or should Is manifestly implied ; but when no such ellipsis is obvious, the indicatiYC form, " If he hears " is to be preferred. See § 107, Rem. 2, Examples: — " If tlie dramatist attempts to create a being answering to one of these descriptions, he fails." — Macaulay. " If he takes the tone of invective, it leads him to be uncharitable." — Southey. " If courage intrinsically consists in the defiance of danger and pain, the life of the Indian is a continual exhibition of it."-^Irving. " He must feign, if he does not feel, the spirit and inspiration of the place." — Story. "If any pupil ^ii'/s to reach this point, he is said to fall below the standard." — N. A. Review. Other authorities might be multiplied at pleasure. Rem. 8. — Infinitives and participles have neither number nor person. CONJUGATION. § 98. TkQ conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- nation and arrangement of its several modes, tenses, num- bers, and persons. PRINCIPAL PARTS. § 99. The three principal parts of a verb are the present tense., the past tense, and the perfect participile. These are called the principal or radical parts, because all the other parts are formed from them. AUXILIARIES. ^ 100. An auxiliary verb is one that is used to aid m the conjugation of other verbs. Wl^at propniies are icanting in injinitives and participles ? "What is the conjiiga-on of a verb 1 What are the principal parts of a verb ? Why so called ? A\Tiat is an auxiliary verb 1 writers of the eighteenth century to lay asicle the pedantic forin', if ht go, if it proceed. t//niigh he come, etc., and restore tlie nntive idiom f f the langu-ige.'' — WcSist^:r. VERBS. 77 Hem. — TLe auxiliai-ies are do, he, have, shall, will, may, can, with their Yariat.^ns, and must, which has no variation. Do, he, have, and will, are also used as pnncipid verbs. Thus, in the sen- tence, " I have heard the news," have is used as an auxiliary to the principal verb heard ; but in the sentence, " I have no time to de- vote to trifles," have is employed as a principal verb. Shall and Will. § 101. In affirmative sentences, shall, in the first person, simply foretells: as, "I shall write." In the second and third persons, shall is used potentially, denoting a promise, command, or determina- tion : as, " You shall be rewarded ; " — " Thou shalt not kiU ; " — " He shall be punished." TFi7/, in the first person, is used poten- tially, denoting a promise or determination ; as, " I xcUl go, at all hazards." In the second and third persons, will simply foretells ; as, " You will soon be there ; " — " He tcill expect you." § 102. In interrogative sentences, shall, in the first person, may either be used potentially to inquire the will of the party addressed, as, " Shall I bring you another book ? " or it may simply ask whether a certain event will occur, as, " Shall I arrive in time for the cars ? " "\Mien shall is used interrogatively in the second per- son, it simply denotes fiituritj' ; as, " Shall you be in New York next week ? " Shall, employed interrogatively in the third person, has a potential signification, and is used to inquire the will of the party addressed ; as, " Shall John order the carriage ? " Will, used Interrogatively in the second person, is potential in its signification ; as, " Will you go ? " Will may be used interrogatively in the third pei'son, to denote mere futurity, as, " Will the boat leave to-day ? " or it may have a potential signification, inquiring the will of the party spoken of, as " Will he hazard his life for the safety of his friend ? " § 103. It the subjunctive mode, shall, in all the persons, denotes Enumera.i the a^txiliaries. Which of these are also used as principal verbtf 78 EXrMOLOGT. mere futurity ; as, " If thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault." Will, on the contrary, is potential in ita signification, having respect to the will of the agent or subject; as, " If he unll strive to improve, he shall be duly rewarded." § 104, The following conjugation of shall and will is inserted to give the pupil a more distinct idea of the proi)er use of these auxiliaries : — Shall and Will. Affirmative. • Simple Indicative. Singitlar. Plural. Isl Person, I shall 1. We shall „ , r) ( You will o ( You will 2d Person, j Thou wilt ^' j Ye will 3d Person, He will 8. They will Potential Indicattve. '' Singular. Plural. 1. I will 1. We will _ 5 You shall „ (YoushaU ^' I Thou Shalt ^' I Ye shall S. He shall 8. They shall Interrogative. Simple Indicatiye. Singular. Flurd. 1. Shall I ? 1. Shall we ? . 5 Shall you? ^- 1 Shalt thou? Q ('Shall you? ^' I Shall ye ? 8. Will he ? 3. WiU they ? Which of the verbs in the follounng sentences are simple indicatives, and which have a potential signification f — "I will go ; " — " I shall go ; " — "He shall obey;" — "Will you go?" — "Will they go?" — "You should improve your time." [Other similar questions respecting these auxiliaries, should be added by the teacher j VERBS. t9 Potential Indicativ*. Sitigular. Sliall I ? ( Will you ? I Wilt thou ? Shall or wiU he? 1. 2. 3. Plural. Shall we ? ( Will you ? I Will ye ? Shall or will tbfiv ? Subjunctive. Simple Subjunctive. Singular. If I shall ( If you shall I If thou shalt If he shall Plural. If we shall If you shall If ye shall If they shall Foteutial Subjunctive. Singular. IflwiU you will thou wilt If he will Ik 8. Plural. If we wiQ C If you will "{If ye will If they will Should and "Would Affirmative. Simple Indicative Singular. I. I should _ ( You would ^- jThouwouldst S. He would PluraL We should 5 You would ( Ye would They would Potential Indicative. Singular. I should or would ( You should or would \ Thou shouldst or wouldst He should or would 1. 2. 3. Plural. We should or would f You should or would \ Ye should or would They should or would ETYMOLOGY. Interrogative. Simple Indicative. 1. 2. 3. Singular. Should I ? C Should you ? \ Shouldst thou ? Would he ? Plural 1. Should we ? ^ ( Should you '.' ( Should ye ? 3. Would they ? Potential Indicative, 1. 2. S. Singular. Should or would I ? f Should or would you ? \ Shouldst or wouldst thou ? Should or would he ? 1. 2. 3. Plural. Should or would we ? ( Should or would you ? \ Should or would ye ? Should or would they ? \ 2 3. Subjunctive. Simple Subjunctive. Singular. Plural. If I should 1. If we should ( If you should <> S^ jou should • I If thou shouldst ''• I If ye should If he should 3. If they should 1. 2. 3. Potential Subjunctive. Singular. Plural. If I would 1. If we would ( If you would ( If ye would If they would f If you would ( If thou wouldst uaii If he would 3. Rem. — WiU, used as a principal verb, is conjugated regularly. §105. Correct Examples. " Yes, my son, I wUl point out the way, and my soul shall gaida yours in the ascent; for we tcill take our flight together." — trold- smiih. " The life of a solitary man will certainly be miserable, but not certainly devout." — Johnson. "The man who feels himself ignorant, sAoiiW at least be modest" — Ibid. "He that reould be superior to external influences, must first become superior to his own passions." — Ibid. VEBBS. SI §106. Incorrect Examples. " TMiat we conceive clearly, and feel strongly, we wiU naturally express with clearness and strength." — Blair. "A limb shall swing upon its hinge, or play in its socket, many hundred times in an hour, for sixty years together, without diminution of its agility. — Paley. "We fadve much to say on the subject of this life, and will often find ourselves obliged to dissent from the opinions of the bic^rapher." — Macaula^ . § 107. CONJUGATION OF THE HIIIEGULAR VERB TO BE. PRINCIPAL PAET8. Present, Am. Past, "Was. Perf. ParticipUy Been. IXDICATITE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular, Plural 1st Person, I am 1. We are 2d Person 5 ^ou are „ | You are M ±^erson, | rj,^^^ ^^^ I. j ye are Zd Person, He is 3. They are Bem. 1 . — In the Sacred Scriptures, and in the works of our early wii- terj, be is sometimes used for are ; as, " Wo be true men." PAST TENSB Singular. Plural. 1. I was „ S You were ^' \ Thou wast 8. He was 1. We were n ( You were \ Ye were 8. They were Correct the erroneous examples relating to the use of shall and will, and show why they are erroneous. What are the principal parts of the verb to be? Conjugate this verb in the indicative mode, and present tense ;— past tense 82 ETTMOLOGT. FUTURE TENSE. Singular . Plural. 1. I shall be 1. We shall bo „ ( You will be „ ( You will be ^ ( Thou wilt be ^' \ Ye will be 8. He will be 8. Thej wiU be PKESENT PEBFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been 1. We have been _ J You have been „ ( You have been I Thou hast been " \ Ye have been S. He has been 3. They have been PAST PEKFBCT TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1. 1 had been 1. We had been q ( You had been _ 5 ^^^ ^^^ h^&n ' \ Thou hadst been " ( Ye had been 8. He had been 8. They had been FUTUBE PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. i. I shall have been !• We shall have been „ 5 You will have been „ 5 ^^^ ^^ have been * ( Thou wilt have been ' ( Ye will have been 8. He will have been 2. They will have been CoDJ agate the verb to he, in the indicative mode, future tease; — ^present perfect teuse ; — past perfect tense ; — future perfect tense. VERBS. 83 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. 2. Singular. If I am you are thou art If he is 1 1 (Be you loved Singular, Be loved, or | g^ [^^^ j^^.^^ Plural, Be loved, or | ^^ f^^^^^^ PARTICIPLES. Imperfect, Being loved Perfect, | ^°;^g ^^^^ 1^^^^ §112. Synopsis of To be Loved. INDICATIVE. Present, I am loved Pres. perfect, I have been loved Past, I was loved Past perfect, I had been loved Future, I shall be loved Fut. perfect, I shall have been loved Conjugate this verb in the indicative mode, present perfect ; — past per feet; — future perfect tense. Give the infinitive present; — present per- fect ; — the imperative ; — the participles. Give the synopsis of to 6« loved. 90 ETYMOLOGf. INFINITIVE. t^reseni, To be loved Present perfect^ To have been loved IMPKRATIVE. Present, Be loved, or Be you or thou loved PARTICIPLES. Imperfect, Being loved Perfect, Loved, Having been loved § 113. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB TO SEE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present, See. Past, Saw. Perfect Participle, Seeu. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Sitigular. Plural. 1. I see 1. We see 2. ( You see ( Thou seest 2. (■ You see \ Ye see 8. He sees 3. They see PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I saw 1. We saw . 2. C You saw \ Thou sawest 2. ( You saw 1 Ye saw 8. He saw 8. They saw FCTORE TENSE. Sincpdar. Plural. 1. 1 shall see 1. We shall see ( You will see 1 Thou wilt see 2, f You will see I Ye will see 2. > 3. He will see 8. They will see Conjugate the verb to see, in the indicative mode, present tense; — past tense; — future tense; — p-esent perfect; — past perfect; — future perfect In the infinitive present ; — present perfect In the impeiative. Give thn participles. VERES. 01 PRESENT PEKFECT TENSE. SinrjuJar. Plural. 1. I have seen 1. We have seen 2 i You have seen 2 S ^^^ \i&yQ seen ■ ( Thou hasl seen " ( Ye have seen 3. He has seen 3. They have seen !AST PERFECT TENSE, Singular. Plural. 1. I had seen 1. We had seen n < You had seen „ j You had seen ( Thou hadst seen ' \ Ye had seen 3. He had seen 3. They had seen FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Singular. PluraL 1, I shall have seen 1. We shall have seen 2 \ You will have seen „ \ '^on will have seen ■ ( Thou wilt have seen ' ( Ye will have seen 3. He will have seen 3. They will have seen INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To see Present perfect, To have seen niPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Si,^.Iar. See, o. j |- f™ Plural, See, or 1 1- J- PARTICIPLES. Imperfect, Seeing Perfect, Having seeu "§< 114. Synopsis of To See. INDICATIVE. Present, I see Present perfect, 1 have seeu Past, I saw Past perfect, I had seen Future, 1 shall see Future perfect, I shall have seen INFINITIVE. Presefii^ T; see Pi-esent perfect, To have sef-a IMPERATIVE. Present, See, or See thou or you PARTICIPLES. Imperfect, Seeing Perfect, Having seen Gil e the synopsis of to see. 92 ETYMOLOGY. PROGRESSIVE FORM OP THE VERB. § 115. The J} roffresstve form of a verb is employed to denote the continuance of an action or state. It is com- posed of an imperfect participle and one of the forms of the verb to be; as, "I am loriting a letter;" — "He "5 study ing French." *§. 116. Synopsis of To Write, in the Progressive Form, INDICAXrVE. Pres.j I am writing Pres. perf.^ I have been writing Past, I was writing Past perf., I had been writing Mit., I shall be writing Put. per/., I shall have been writing rNFINITIVE. Present, To be writing Present perfect^ To have been writing IMPERATIVE. Present, Be writing, or Be thou or you writing PARTICIPLES. Imperfect, "Writing Perfect, Having been wxiting POTENTIAL FORM. <§> 117. Synopsis of To H e a r in the Potential Form. Present or Future, I may, can, or must hear Present, Past, or Future, I might, could, would, or should hear Present perfect or Future perfect, I may, can, or must have heard Present perf. or Past perf, I might, could, would, or should have heard Rem. 1. — The potential use of the auxiliaries shall and will, constitutea another form of the potential indicative and potential subjunctive. See § 10^ Rem. 2. — In determining the tense of a verb used potentially, the pupil should generally be governed by the sense of the passage which contains it, without regard to the form of the verb. THE AUXILIARY DO. § 118. In sentences which express emphasis, interrogation, or ne- gation, the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive modes, and the present iinpera,tive, are often formed by the aid of the auxiliary verb do; as, "I cZo know it to be true;" — "iJo you intend to return to-morrow?" — "I do not understand you." What is the progressive form of a verb ? Of what is it Composed ? Give the synopsis of to write, in the progressive form. Give a synopsis of the verb to hear, in the potential form. In what sentences is the auxiliary do employed f Examples. What tenses are often formed by the aid of I ho auxiliary do? VERBS. 03 < tl9. Sgnopsis :f To Hear, with the Auxiliary D o INDICATIVE. Presenl, I do hear Past, I did heal SUBJUNCTIVE. Present, If I do hear Past, If I did hear • IMPERATIVE. Present, Do hear, or Do thou or you hear. K«m' - Do, as a principal verb, is conjugated hJ:e other irregular verbs. INTERROGATIVE FORM. § 12(>. tn interrogative sentences, when the verb has no auxil- iary, the norainative is placed after the verb ; when one auxiliary is used, the nominative is placed between the auxiliary and the principal verb ; and when more auxiliaries than one are employed, the nominative is placed after the first. § 121. Synojjsis of To Hear, used Interrogatively. INDICATIVE. Pres., Hear I ? or Do I hear ? Pres. perf.. Have I heard ? Past, Heard I ? or Did I hear ? Past perf., Had I heard ? Put., Shall I hear? Fut.perf, Shall I have heard ? NEGATIVE FORM. § 122. A verb is conjugated negatively by introducing the ad- verb uot in connection with it; as, / knoio not; I do not know; I shall not have known; I should not have been hioion. EXERCISES. §123. "I was."— "He had been." — "They think." — " "We will return." — " Strive to improve." — " It is found." — "If we shall hear." — " Thou canst see." — " If he had been." — " If he would learn." — " Shall I read H " — " Can it be understood ?" — " Honor thy father and thy mother." Give the synopsis of to hear, icilh the aiixiliari/ do. What is the place of *hc ruminative, in interrogative sentences ? Give the synopsis of the verb to -".ear, itsot/ inleiroatitivcly How is a verb coiijtigaitd neqatively ? Erampler. 94 ETYMOLOGY. Give the mode, tense, number, and person of each of the verbs in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are in the potential Jlrm of the indica- tive mode ? Wliich in the potential form of the subjunctive ? Mention a verb in the third person plural of the past perfect subjunc- tive. One in tlie present imperative. One in the present perfect infini- tive. One in the first person singular of the future perfect indicative. One in the third person singidar of the present or future indicative, and poten- tial forn\. Mention three perfect participles. Three imperfect participles. Mention a verb in the third person singular of the present perfect indica- tive, and passive voice. Give the mode, tense, person, number, and voice of *Jie following verbs : — will write ; — was written ; — began ; — to have been seen; — had heard. [A variety of similar directions should be added by the teacher.] Write sentences containing examples of verbs in the common form of the indicative and subjunctive modes; — in the potential indicative and po- tential subjunctive ; — in the imperative and infinitive modes; — contain- ing examples of both imperfect and perfect participles ; — of verbs in the passive voice ; — containing examples ©/"shall and will, correctly employed. IRREGULAR VERBS. § 124. An irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present; as, see, saw, seen; go, went, gone. § 125. The following list comprises neai-ly all the simple irregu- lar verbs In our lanjinage. Rem. 1. — "WTien more forms than one are used in the past tense or perfect participle, that which stands first is to be preferred. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Present. Past Perf. Part. Abide abode, abided abode, abided Am or be was been Wliat is an irregular verb ? Examples. Give the past tenses and ^ter- fi'ct participle of the va-6 abide; — of the verb am; — of the verb awijce. [The teacher should proceed in this manner through the list, and repeat the exercise till the pupils are able to name with readiness the past tense and perfect participle of all the irregular vcjbs.} "^ERBS. 95 Present. Awake j Bear (to bring forth) I Bear (to sustain) ybr Beat Begin Bend, «n- Bereave Beseech Bid,>r- Bind, un-, re- Bite Bleed Blow Break Breed Bring Build, re-, up Burn Burst Buy Cast Catch Chide Choose j Cleave (to adherej j Cleave (to split) Cling Clothe Come, 6e-, crcer- Cost Creep Crow Cut Daret (to venture) Deal Dig Do, un,- mis-, over- Draw, luith- Dream Drink Drive Past. awoke, awaked bore, bare* bore, bare* beat began bent, bended bereft, bereaved besought bid, bade bound bit bled blew broke, brake* bred brought built, builded burned, burnt burst bought cast caught, catchedt chid chose cleaved, clave* clove, cleft, clave* clung clothed, clad came cost crept crowed, crew cut dared, durst dealt, dealed dug, digged did" drew dreamed, di'eamt drank drove, drave** Perf. part. awaked, awoke born borne beaten, beat begun bent bereft, bereaved besought bidden, bid bound bitten, bit bled blown broken bred brought built, builded bumcd, burnt burst bought cast caught, catched* chidden, chid chosen cleaved cloven, cleft clung clothed, clad come cost crept crowed cut dared dealt, dealed dug, digged done drawn dreamed, dreamt drank, § drunk driven * Obsolete. "f Obsolescent. { Dare, to challenge, is regular. § " From the disagreeable idea excited by the participle dnuik, drank has been long in polite usage adopted instcf.;! of it." — Walker^ the Lpxicusrajilier. " If we mistake not, drank is oftener used by good writers than drunk or inaiken.^^ — Fou'le. Drank is also given as a perfect participle of drink by Sanborn, Webster Goldsbury, Jenkins, Kirkham, Powers, Fletcher, R. W. Green, Fnizee, Parkhurst, Badgley, Jones, Davis, Weld, Day, Wilting, Beall, and others. Exnmples: — " Bats and hideous birds had drank up the oil v,-]iich nour- ished the perpetual Itimp in tlie temple of Odin." — Jidmson. " The cold 00 ) ETYMOLOGY. Pt-eaent. Past. Per/. Part. Dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled Eat ate, eat eaten Fall, be- fell fallen Feed fed fed Feel felt felt Fi^ht fought fought Find found found Flee fled fled Fling flung flung Fly flew flown Forsake forsook forsaken Freeze froze frozen Freiy:ht freighted fraught, freighted Get, be-, for- got, gat* got, gotten Gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt Gird, be-, un-, en girt, girded girt, girded Give, Jbr-, mis- gave given Go, fore-, wider went gone Grave, en- graved graven, graved Grind ground ground Grow grew grown Han^t hung ■ hung • Havo had had Hear, over- heard heard Heai'e heaved, hove heaved, lioven* Hew hewed hewn, hewed Hide hid hidden, hid Hit hit hit Hold, be-, with , up- held tield, holdent Hurt hurt hurt Keep kept kept Kneel kneeled, knelt kneeled, knelt Knit knit, knitted knit, knitted Know, ./ore- knew known Lade§ (to load) laded laden Lay (to place), in- laid laid Lead, mis- led ltd Leave left left Lend lent lent Let let let Lie 11 (to recline) lay lain voter that was drank.'''' — Pres. Hopkins. " The man hnth drank.'''' — kjouthey. " Such a discourse could have emanated only from a mind which had drank deeplv from the fountains of experience, observation, and reflection." — Horace Mann. " It is a sultrjr day ; the sun ha? drauTc The dew that lay upon the morning grass." — Bryant. * Obsolete. t Obsolescent. \ Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular; as, "Judas departed, and went and hanged himself." 4 La-de, to dip, is regular. y Lie, to deceive, is regular. VERBS. y- Present. Past. Perf. Part. Light lighted, lit lighted, lit Load, un-, over- loaded loaded, loadea* Lose lost lost Make made made Mean meant meant Meet met met Mow mowed mown, mowed Pay, re- paid paid Pent (to enclose) penned, pent pent, penned Put put put Quit quit^ quitted quitted, quit Read read read Rend rent rent Rid rid rid Ride rode, rid* rode, ridden, rii* Ring rang, rung rung Rise, a- rose risen Rive rived rivea Run, Old' ran run Saw sawed sawn, sawed Say, un-, gain said said See, fore- saw seen Seek sought sought Seethe seethed, sod seethed, sodden Sell sold sold Send sent sent Set, be- set set Sit (to rest) sat sat Shake shook shaken Shape, mis- shaped sliaped, shapen Shave shaved shaved, shaven Shear sheared shorn, sheared Shed shed shed Shine shone, shined shone, shined Shoe shod shod Shoot, over- shot shot Show or shew showed or shewed shown or shewn Shred shred shred Shrink shrunk, shrank shrunk Shut shut shut Sing sang, sung sung Sink sunk, sank sunk Shty slew slain Sleep slept slept Slide sli(. slidden, slid Sling slung, slang* slung SUnk slunk slunk Slit slit, slitted slit, slitted Smite smote smitten, smit Sow J (to scatter) sowed sown, sowed * Obsolete. t Pf", to write, is resjular. 5 X Sei'-, to stitch, is re^ar. .^8 ETVMOLOU f. Present. Past. Si^eak, bi' spoke, spake* Spoed sped Spell, mis- spelled, sjiel't SpenJ, mis- spent Spill spilt, spilled Spin spun, span* SpitJ spit, spat* Split split Spread, over-, be- spread Spring sprang, sprung Stand, with; wider- stood Steal stole Stick stuck Sting stung Su'idc, be- strode, strid Strike struck String strung Strive strove Strow or Strew, bi strowcd or strewed Swear, for- Sweat Sweep Swell Swim Swing [re-, over- Take, mis-, under-.^be-, Teach, itn,- mis- Tear Tell. /ore- Think, be- Thrive Throw, over- Thrust Tread, re- Wax Wear Weave, un- Weep Wet Whet Win Wind, un- Work Wring Write swore, sware* sweat, sweated swept swelled swam, swura swung took taught tore, tare* told thought throve, tlirived threw thrust trod waxed wore wove wept wet, wetted whetted, whet won wound worked, wi-ought wrung, wringed wrote, writ* Hem. 2. — When the past tense is a monos}- gle vowel, the second person singular of the Per/. Part. spoken, spoke sped spelled, spelt spent spilt, spilled spun spit, spitten.* split spread sprung stood stolen stuck atung stridden, strid struck, stricken* strung striven ( strown, stvowed I strewn, strewed sworn sweat, sweated swept swollen, swelle»S swum swung taken taught torn • told thouglit thriven, thrived thrown thrust trodden, trod waxed, waxen worn woven, wove wept wet, wetted whetted, whet won wound worked, wrought wrung, wringed ' WTitten, writ liable not ending in a sin solemn style is generally * Obsolete. J Spif, to put on a spit, is r B{:iilar. VERISS. . 99 formed by the addition of est ; as, heardest, fleddest, iookest. Hadst, wast, saidst, and didst, ai-e exceptions; and instances frequently occar in which good writers prefer the shorter form of other words; a^^Jiedst for Jieddesi, heardsi for heardest. Rem. 3. — Compound verbs (except ivelcome and behave, which ara regular), are conjugated like the simple verbs from wliich they are formed j as, see, saw, seen; foresee, foresaw, foreseen. DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 126. A defective verb is one that cannot be used in all tne modes and tenses. Thus, we cannot say, " I had could,''^ " I shall ean,''^ etc. The defective verbs are can, could, may, migJil, sliall, should, will, would, must, ought, quoth, and beware. UNIPERSONAL VERBS. § 127. A unipersonal* verb is one that is used only in the third person singular ; as, It hails ; It snoivs ; It hehoves. "Rem. — Methinls is an anomalous word, compounded of me and thiyiks. It is generally ranked with unipersonal verbs. EXERCISES. ^ 128. Write sentences containing examples of irregular verbs ; — of defective verbs; — of unipersonal verbs. How are compoumi verbs conjugated ? What is a defective verb '' Enumerate the defective vtrbs. What is a unipersonal verb ? Examples. * The term impersojial is commonly applied to this class of verbs ; but a word which is always employed in one of the tJu-ee grammatical persons, cannot, witli any degree of propriety, be said to be witliont person. "As to the verbs which some grammarians have called iwpersonal, there Bre, in fact, no such things in the English language." — CuhhM. '• This form is commonly called impersonal; but this denomination is in- coiTect and inadmissible, since these verbs are really in the third person." — De Sacy. Hiley denominates these verbs inonoversonal ; and De Sacy, Sutcliffo, and Morgan, call tliem verbs of the tfdrd person. The term unipersonal is adopted in the Ensjlish granunars of Crane, Clark, Piuneo, and Fowlc, in Bachi's Italian Grammar, and in the French gnunmars of Bolmar and Bu'^ard. 100 ETYMOLOGY. THE ADVERB. § 129, An Adverb* is a word used to modify the sense af a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " He is not understood;" — "He speaks very fluently;" — "A remarkably diligent boy." Rem. I. — Adverbs generally express in one word what would other- wise require two or more. Thus, now is used I'or at this time; there, for in that place. Rem. 2. — A any adverbs are formed by the union of two or more words. Thus, indeed is composed of in and deed; sometimes, oi some and times ; herein, of here and in. § 130. Adverbs may be divided into several classes, of which the following are the most important : — 1. Adverbs of Manner ; as, justly, rapidly. 2. Of Place ; as, here^ there. 3. Of Time ; as, now, soon, lately. 4. Of Degree ; as, more, less, hardly. 5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, certainly, doubtless. 6. Of Negation ; as, not, no. Rem. 1. — Other classes might be enumerated, but they arc less dis- tinctly marked ; and the ditfercnt uses of adverbs are so numerous that a perfect classification is impracticable. Rem. 2. — The words to-day, to-night, to-morroio, and yesterday, though sometimes classed with adverbs, are properly nouns. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. § 131. A conjunctive adverb is one that performs the office of a modifier and also of a connective ; as, " Wheti Crusoe saw the sav- ages, he became greatly alarmed." COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. § 132. Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. What is an adverb ? Examples. Name the principal classes of adverbs, ind give examples of each. What is^a conjunctive adverb ? Examples. * The term adverb is derived from the two Latin words, ad and ve.thiirt, which signify ti a verb. PREPOSITIONS. 101 Most of those ending in bj are compared by more and most ; as, wuieli/, more wisely, ?nosl wisely. A few are compared by adding er and enl ; as, soon, sooner ioonest. The following are compared irregularly : — ■p ( farther, farthest Little, less, least ^''' I further, furthest IMueh, more, most "Well, better, best 111 or badly, worse, worst EXERCISES. § 133. " The tree gi'ows very rapidly." — " Iron is much harder than copper." — " Fortune sometimes favors those whom she afterwards destroys." — " Diligence is seldom un- rewarded." — " Truth never fears examination, however rigid it may be." — "Whatever. is done willingly is done well." Point out the ndverbs in the foregoing sentences. Give the dasr of each. Name three adverbs ending in ly ; — three that do not end in ly. Write sentences containing examples of adverbs which modify Y*«rb9, adjectives, and other adverbs. Write sentences containing adverbs of manner, place, time, degree, affirma tion, and negation. THE PREPOSITION. § 134. A Preposition* is a word used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence ; as, " lie went from Boston to Albany ; " — " Washington was the father of liia country." How are adverbs ending in ly generally comjxired ? Examples. Give ex- amples of adverbs compared by er and est; — of adverbs compared irregularly. What is a preposition ? Examples. * The tenn preposiv'on is dcrivei' ftx)m the Latin vrord propositus, which signifies placed before. 102 ETYMOLOGY, Rkm. — In the foregoins^ examples, /?077i expresses the relation Iie- lw';cn iveiU and Bosto/i ; to, the relation between went and AlUinij ,- and, of, the relation hctvrccn fal/ia' and countnj. §135. The following list of prepositions embraces most of those in common use : — About at by on under ibove atliwart concerning over niulernealh across l)efore down respecting nnril after behind during round UillO against below except since U]) along beneath excepting through upon amid at beside or for throughout with amidst besides from till within among or between in to witlio'it amongst betwixt into towards worth* around beyond of THE CONJUNCTION. 9 136. A Conjunetion^ is a word that is used to con- nect -words or sentences ; as, " Seven a7id five are twelve;" — "Straws swim on the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom." Rem. — The words belonging to this part of speech do not admit of a satisfactory division into classes. J What is a conjunction 1 Examples. * " Worth has the construction of a preposition, as it admits of t!ie objec- tive case after it, without an intervening preposition." — Worcester's Dirt. " The word wortk is often followed by an objective, or a participle which it appears to govern ; as, ' If your argitments produce no conviction, they are worth nothing to me.' — ^ This is life indeed, life u-orth preserving!' It is not easy to determine to what part of speech icorth here belongs. Dr. Johnson calls it an adjective, but says nothing of the oi/ec/tve after it, which some suppose to be governed by of understood. In this supposition, it is gratuitously assnra ed, that tcor'th is equivalent to worthy, alter which of should be expressed ; as, ' WTiatsoever is worthy o/their love, is ivorth their anger.' But, as worth appears to have no certain characteristic of an adjec- tive, some call it a iwun, and suppose a double ellipsis ; as, ' The book is [of the] worth [of] a dollar.' This is still less satisfactory; and, as the whole appears to be mere guess-work, we see no good reason why worth is not a preposition, governing the noun or participle." — G. Brown'. Worth is also classed with prepositions by Davis, Everest, Jenkins, Todd, Badgley, and others. ^ t The term conjunction is derived from the Latin word conjungo, which isfuifies to join togetlier. t " The old distinction of conjunctions into copulative and disjunctivey INTERJECTIONS. 103 ij 137. The following is a list of the words most fre(iu ently empioj' IS conjunctions : — And but neither - thap. though aUliough eiiliex" nor that unless as for notwithstandii^g then wherefore because if or therefore yet both lest since THE INTERJECTION. § 138. An Interjection* is an exclamatory word, uaed merely to express some pa&sion or emotion. The following list of interjections includes most of those which are in general use : — Ah! alas! fie! ha! hallo! indeed! lo ! 0! ch! pshaw! ho! welcome 1 Rem. — Other parts of speech are frequently used to perforin the of- fceof interjections; as, hark! surprising! mercy! EXERCISES. § 139. "Of what use are riches without happiness?" — " Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." — " The sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending power." — " Righteousness ejsalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach to any people." — " Whence are thy beams, sun ! " What is an interjection ? Examples. was founded in error, and is, happily, going into disuse in our grammars." — Frazee. " Conjunctions are generally divided into copulative and disjunctive ; ba4 more confusion than practical advantage seems to be derived from the divis- ion." — Goodenoiv. " I shall not take up time, and confuse the understanding of the learner, by dividing the words considered as conjunctions, into cojndative disjtmc five, concessive, etc." — Leivis. " The common division of the words termed conjunctions, into copulative, as and ; disjunctive, as either, or, neither, nor, etc. ; concessive, as though, although, yet ; adversative, as hut, however ; causal, as for, because, since; ii/ativ'!. as therefore, wherefore, then ; conditional, as if; exceptive, as wn less ; deserves little consideration" — Grant. * The term interjection is derived from the Latin word intery edits, which BlKiiiSes thrown, bttwccn. 104 ETYMOLOGY. « Point out the prepositions, conjunctions, and iuterjeclious, in the fore going sentences. Write sentences containing examples of preposition:), conjunctions, and interjections. DERIVATION.* § 140. Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats of the origin and primary signification of words. Rem. — Tlie ■words of every cultivated language may be re- duced to groups or families, each of which is composed of ■words related to each other by identity of origiii and similarity of signifi- cation. Thus, the vrords Justice, justify, justification, justly, adjust, readjust, unjust, injustice, etc., are all kindred ■words, connected ■with the common parent just. So also, the words terrace, terra- queous, terrene, terrestrial, terrier, territory, inter, interment, disin- ter, Mediterranean, subterranean, etc., are all connected with their parent terra, the earth. § 141. Words are di\aded into two general classes : — primitive and derivative. A primitive word is one that is not derived from any other word or words in the language ; as, man^ obey. A derivative word is one that is formed from soma primitive word or words ; as, manly, disobey. ORIGIN OF ENGLISH WORDS. § 142. The basis of the English language is the Anglo- Saxon, which was introduced into England from Germany about the middle of the fifth century. Rem. — This original stock, besides being greatly motlified by use, has received large additions from other languages. The inva What is derivation ? To what may the icords of every atltivated lanffiiagt le redttced? Examples. Into ■what two general clfisses are words divi;led 1 What is a primitive word ■? Examples. A derivative word ■? Examples What is the basis of our language 1 * For a full and weil-diijested system of Derivation, the learner is re- ferred to McElligott's " Analytical Manual." * PREFIXES AXC SUFiXXES. 10£ siOD of the Danes and Normans introduced many Danish and Noiman-French -words ; and a great number of Latin and Greek words have been since incorporated. We are also indebted for some of our words to the French, Italian, Spanish, Gei'man, and other languages. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. § 143. Most of the derivative words of our language, are formed by the aid of prefixes and suffixes. A prefij: is a letter, syllable, or word, joined to the beginning of a word ; as, aloft, rebuild, overcome. A suffix is a letter or syllable, joined to the end of a word ; as, stormy, proudZ_?/, lawless. Rem. 1. — Most of the suffixes do not admit of precise and accurate definitions. - Eem. 2. — Two or more prefixes or suffixes are sometimes employed in the same word ; as, rediscoycr, power/!(-/(y. Rediscover contains two prefixes, re and dis ; and powerfuUy, two suffixes, /i/i and 7^. Rem. 3. — Many of the roots or essential p.arts of the words before which prefixes are placed, are not used as distinct words in our language. Rem. 4. — When a prefix ends in a sound that will not readily unite with the sound of the word before which it is placed, the final letter of the prefix is oflened changed or omitted ; as, ignoble, for innohle ; coexist^ for conexist. English or Saxon Prefixes. § 144. The following are the prefixes of English or Saxon origin, with their significations : — 1. A signifies on, in, or at ; as, oshore, on ihore ; asleep, in sleep, 2. Be signifies upon, over, about, etc. ; as, icspeidi, bedew, be^ sprinkle. 3. For signifies from or against ; as, forbear, forbid. 4. Fore signifies before; as, foresee, ybretell. W7iai changes has our htu/uage undergone since the period of the Anglo Saxons ? How are most English derivatives formed 1 What is a prefix ! Examples. Wha; is a suffix? Examples. What is sometimes done rvi^ thtjinal letter of a prefix f 5* 106 ETYMOLOGT. ^ 5. Mis signifies wrong, erroneous, or defective; as, 7«isconduct, 7 155. Government is the power which one word has over another, in determining its state. EXERCISES. ^ 156. " Philosophers have often mistaken the true source of happiness." — "Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall." — " Children are sup- ported by their parents." — " Phocion was always poor, though he might have been very rich." — "Dryden knew more of man in his general nature ; Pope in his local man- ners." — " He will go by and by." — "In a word, the time for action has come." Wliai ere the principal parts of a sentence in which the verb is intransi- live f Examples. What is a phrase ? Examples. What is an adjunct f Exwnples. What is an idiom f Examples. "WTiat is agreement? What 8 government ? 110 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS Winch of the foj egoing sentences ai'e simple ? "WTiieh compound f Point out the principal parts of each simple sentence. Which of the simple sentences have three principal parts? Which have only two? Point out one or more phrases. Point out the adjuncts in each simple sentence. What idioms occur ? Write a simple sentence ; — a compound sentence ; — a simple sentence having three principal parts ; — one having only two. Write a seixtence having a phrase connected with it ; — one containing an idiom. ANALYSIS.* ^ 157. The analysis of a sentence consists in resolving it into its constituent parts, and pointing out their several relations, connections, and dependences. Every simple sentence consists essentially of two parts ; — a subject and a predicate. The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; and the jnedicatc is that which is affirmed of the subject. § 158. The subject and predicate may be distinguished as either grammatical or logical. The grammatical subject is a noun, or some word, phrase, or sentence, used as a noun. Examples: — "No man was ever great by imitation." — Johnson. " To tell our own secrets, is generally folly." — Ihid. " Who can understand his errors." — Ps. 19 : 12. " That you have wronged me, doth appear in this." — Shah. The logical subject includes all the words that are em- ployed to express the whole idea of the subject. Ejoampiles: — "Xo man was ever great by imitation." — " To tell our own secrets, is generally folly." — " The desire of being pleased, is universal." In what does the analysis of a sentence consist ? Of what does every simple sentence consist? Define the subject and the predicate. "What is the grammatical subject? Examples. Wlat is the logical subject? Examples. * Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, Kiihner's Latin and Greek Grammars, Crosby's Greek Grammar, De Sacy's General Grammar, Crane's Eutrlish Grammar, and Mulligan's Grammatical Structure o^' the English Language. ANALYSIS. Ill The grammatical jiredicate is a finite verb.* Ejcami^les : — " iSTo genius was ever Masted by the breath of critics." — Johnson. " Malice often hears dowii truth." — Ibid. " We dwdl \sath pious fondness on the characters and virtues of the departed." — Story. The logical predicate includes all the words that are e mployed to express the whole idea of the predicate. Examples: — "No genius was ever blasted by the breath of critics." — "Malice often hears down truth." — "The discriminating power of conscience is improved by reflecting upon the moral character of 159. " His agreeable manners have made him a uni- versal favorite." — "We often remember things vrithout an J voluntary effort." In the first of these sentences, the grammatical subject is manners ; the logical subject, his agreeable manners. The grammatical predicate is fiave made ; the logical predicate, have made him a universal favorite. Jn the second sentence, we is both the grammatical and the logical Bubject. The grammatical predicate is remeiriber ; the logical predicate, often reraember things without any voluntary effort. " The island of Borneo is traversed bj the equator." — " True hope is based on energy -of character." — " The day dawns." — " To seek to govern men by their fears and their wants, is an unworthy purpose." — " Anger is a short madness." — "The vice of covetousness enters deepest into the soul." — " Kature is unlimited in her operations." — " The meaning of many English words has changed dur- ing the last century." — " Extreme selfishness is often the cause of its own disappointment." — "The love of life is deeply implanted in the human heart." — "Solon gave laws to the Athenians." — " Valuable knowledge always leads to some practical results." — "Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate." Point out the grammatical and the logical suDject in each of the fore- going sentences; — the grammatical and the logical 'predicate. Explain the use of the ' terms complex and modified, as applied in tfi« subject or predicate. SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES. 113 Simple and Compound Subjects and Predicates. § 160. The subject and the predicate maj be either simple or compound. A sim_ple subject is a single noun, or a "woi'd or phrase used as a noun, either standing bj itself or accompanied by modifying adjuncts; as, " The pride of wit has kept ages busy in the discussion of useless questions." — John- son. In this sentence, the simple grammatical subject is pi'ide^ and the simple logical subject is the pride of wit. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects ; as, '' Wild beasts and savage Indians lurked in the ravines." The compound grammatical subject, in this sentence, consists of the words beasts and Indians. The compound logical subject embraces the phrases loild beasts and savage Indians. A simple predicate is a single verb, either standing alone or accompanied by modifying adjuncts; as, "No genius tvas ever blasted by the breath of critics.' ' The simple grammatical predicate, in this senten^ is tvas blasted, and the simple logical predicate is \oas ever blasted hy the breath of critics. A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates; as, "Men overpowered by distress, eagerly listen to the Jirst offers of relief , close with every scheme, and*believe every promise.'' ' — Jolinson. In this sentence, the compound grammatical pi'edicate embraces the words listen, close, and believe. The compound logical predicate embraces all the words that are expressed in Italics. "What is a simple subject ? Examples. L compound subject ? Ex- amples. A simple predicate? Examples. A compomiJ predicate? Examples. 114 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. EXERCISES. § 161. "Anger and haste hinder good counsel." — " Pharaoh and his host were drowned in the Red Sea." — " The Roman empire fell bj its own corruptions." — " The Htj was besieged and taken." — "The violence of the storm and the darkness of the night, ^revesLted all approach to the ship, and rendered our situation trulj alarming."" — " Few things are impracticable in themselves." — "Tem- perance and exercise are the best means of preserving health." — " Friendship eases and unloads the mind, clears and improves the understanding, animates virtue and good relations, and finds employment for our most vacant hours." Point out the simple subjects in the foregoing sentences ; — the com- pound subjects ; — ^the simple predicates ; — the compound predicates. "Write a sentence containing a simple subject ; — one containing a com- pound subject ; — a simple predicate ; — a compound predicate. § 162. The principal words employed to modify the grammatical subject and predicate, may themselves be modified by other words, and these^gain by others still. Thus, in the sentence, " The dis- criminatidH^ower of conscience is improved by reflecting upon the moral character of our actions," hy reflecting is an adjunct of is im- proved; v^on character is an adjunct of reflecting ; character is mod- ified by the moral, and of actions; and #tor modifies actions. § 163. The adjuncts of the subject and predicate are distinguished as either grammatical or logical. Those -words which refer directly to the grammatical subject, are called grammatical adjuncts of the subject. The grammatical ad- juncts and their various modifiers form the logical adjuncts of the subject In the sentence, " The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, gUde smoothly and gently along," the grammat- Hrw may the principal words used to Tnodify Hie grammatical subject ami predicate be themselves affected? Illustrate. Explain the application of the terms grammatical and logical io the adjuncts of Uie subject and pre- dicate. Examples. EXERCISES. 115 ical subject members is modified directly by the^ of period, and con- nected. These words ai'e, therefore, called the direct or grammatical adjuncts of the subject. The logical adjuncts are the, of a period, and connected hy proper copulatives. Those words in the predicate wliich refer directly to the verb, are called gramriatical adjuncts of the predicate. The grammatical ad- juncts and their various modifiers form the logical adjuncts of the pre- dicate* In the sentence, " Endeavor always to have noble sentiments," tlie direct or grammatical adjuncts of the predicate are always and to have. The logical adjuncts are always and to have nohle sentir.ients. § 164. AU the different adjuncts of a sentence admit of gram- matical and logical distinctions. Thus in the sentence, "We are inclined to believe those who have never deceived us," the gram- matical object of to believe is those, and the logical object is tho^Mvho have never deceived us. So also, in the sentence, " Neither ^^bs nor practice will always supply a hasty writer with the most proper diction," the grammatical object of with is diction, and the logical object is the most proper diction. IIe5I. — In the analysis of senteuces, the predicate sometimes embraces a word, which in common parsing belongs properly to the subject or nominative. Thus, in analyzing the sentence, " The fields are green," the word green is considered a part of the predicate ; but in parsing the same sentence, the word green is said to belong to the nominative Jields. Green is here a quality predicated of the nominative fields. See Rule 8, Rem. 13. EXERCISES. ■ V Model. '\» § 165. " Some of Miltoi^ most pathetic passages are due to his loss of sight." The grammatical subject, in this sentence, is some. The grammatical adjunct of some is of passages; the logical adjunct, of Milton's most pa- thetic passages. The grammatical object of the preposition of is passages ; tlio logical object, Milton's most pathetic passages. The grammaticiil ad- juncts of passages are Milton's and pathetic ; its logical adjuncts are Mil- ton'' s and most ptathetic. The grammatical predicate is are. The grammatical adjunct of are is dxie; the logical adjunct, due to his loss of sight. The grammatical object of to is loss; the logical object, his loss of sight. His and of sight are both -grammatical and logical adjuncts of toss. " Habits formed in youth, accompany us through life." — " Men 116 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. in the highest stations have the least hberty." — "True greatenss consists in the exercise of the benevolent virtues." — " The honors due to learning, have been justly distributed by posteiity." — ''The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different tones of the voice." — " The principles of true philosopliic taste are uu- chano-eable." — " Lien tear themselves from their families in search of things rare and new." — " The habit of using words accurately begets the habit of thinking accurately." In the foregoing sentences, point out the grammatical and the logical ad- juncts of the grammatical subjects ; of the grammatical predicates. Point out the grammatical and logical distinctions in all tlie different adjuncts, as in the model above. Modifications of the Grammatical Subject. "- V'"'. A grammatical subject may be modified in the following I : ways: — 1. By an apposition noun, either alone or in connection with its modifying adjuncts; as, "Romulus, the founder of Rome, slew his brother." Rem. — As the grammatical subject and predicate may be used eitiier with or without modifying adjuncts, so also a word emploj-ed to modiiy the grammatical su))ject or predicate may itself be used either with or without modification by other words. Thus, in the sentence, " Romulus, the founder of Rome, slew his brother," the v^ovA founder, which is in ap- position v!]^^^onudus, is itself modified by the adjuncts the and of Rome. But in the^entence, " Good men are esteemed," the word good, whic'i modifies men, is jjeelf unmodified. 2. By a preposition and its object, taken by themselves or with modifying adjuncts; as, "One of tis mftt remain;" — "The report of this unfortunate occurrence soon reachu'd our ears." Obs. — In the above example, of zis is both the grammatical and the logical modifier of the subject, one. The grammatical modifier of rq)ort is of occurrence ; and the logical modifier is of this unfortunate occurrence. 3. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; as, '■'■His departure was delayed." 4. By an adjective or participle, taken alone or with its adjuncts ; as, "TFise men lay up knowledge;" — "■Retiring from pvhlic life, he devoted the remainder of his days to study and. meditation." What are tlte different ways in which a grammatical subject may be modified f G-ive an example of each class. MODIFIED PREDICATE. llY Obs. — m the above examples, wise h both the grammatical and the lot^ical mc'llier of the subject, men; the grammatical adjunct of he ia retiring ; tu 'ogical adjunct, retiring from puMic life. 5. By a verb in the infinitive, taken alone or -with its adjuncts; ^ as, "His desire to improve was greatly strengthened j" — "His eflbrta io acquire knowledge were not unrewarded." 6. By an entire clause; as, "The man ivho feels himsdf ignorant, should at least be modest." ModiJicatio7is of the Grammatical Predicate. § 167. A grammatical predicate may be modified in the following difierent ways : — 1. By a noun or pronoun in the same case as the subject, taken either alone or with its adjuncts ; as, " She walks a queen." 2. By the object of the verb, taken alone or with its adjuncts; as, " No man forgets his oi'iginal trade" 3. By an adverb, taken alone or with its adjuncts ; as, " He is very seldom.seen." 4. By a verb in the infinitive, i^ken alone or with its adjuncts ; as, " He desires to study French." 5. By an adjective or participle referring to the subject, taken alone or with its adjuncts; as, "He y^&s faithful to his employers ;'* — " The ball was left suspended by a thread." 6. By a preposition and its object, taken by themseb^es or with modifyiag adjuncts; as, "He has returned to his fi-iends." 7. By an entire clause ; as, " I am informed that he is about to leave usr ■ EXERCISES. § 168. " Every person's safety requires that he should submit to be governed." — " The desire to see and hear what is new is uni- versal." — " The relations between man and man cease not with life." — " He tliat getteth wisdom, loveth his own soul." — " Every blade of grass is a representative of nature." — " How easQy are men diverted from a good object." — " Richard lost no time in giving the sanction of a coronation to his title." — " The finest hair casts a shadow." — "Pull many a flower is born to blush unSeen." — la what ways may a grammatical pre iicate he modified ? Give an ex ample of each doss. 118 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. " But he, our gracious Master,, kind and just. Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." Let the pupil point out the grammatical subjects and the grammatical predicates, in the foregoing sentences, and tell how each is modified. "Write a sentence containing a grammatical subject modified by an ap- position noun; — one containing a grammatical subject modified by a preposition and its object ; — modified by a noun or pronoun in the pos- sessive; — modified by an adjective; — by a participle; — by a verb in the iulinitive; — by an entire clause. "Write a sentence containing a grammatical predicate modified by a noun ii' the same case as the subject; — one containing a grammaticial predicate modified by the object of the verb; — by an adverb; — by a verb in the infinitive; — by an adjective referring to the subject; — by a prep- osition and its object; — ^by an entire clause. Classification of Seniences. § 169. ■'The clauses of a compound sentence are either dependent or independent. An independent clause is one that makes complete sense of itself; as, " The trees wave, the birds sing, and all is life." Each of the three clauses in this sentence is independent. A dependent clause is one tliat makes complete sense only in con- nection with another clause ; as, " He will fall a victim to lais habits, unless he 7-^forms." In this sentence, the fh-st clause is independent and the second is dependent. § 170. A coordinate compound sentence consists of two or more clauses so combined that each of them is complete and independent of itself; as, "It was night and the moon shone brightly ;" — "A prince may grant titles, or wealth may purchase them ; but virtue alone ennobles man." The members of a coordinate sentence are called coordinate clauses.* Into tvhat two classes are clauses divided? What is an independent clause ? Examples. A dependent ckmse. Examples. Define a coordinate sc'idence. Example. Wfiat are the mefnhers of a coordinate sentence called? * The followin.g subdivision of coordinate sentences is introdnced by Kiihner in both his Latin and his Greek Grammar; and it has also been employed, wil.)) some im.difications, by othrr ai>thors. It embraces distino- EXEttCISES. 119 § 171. A complex sentence* consists of two or more clauses so combined that one of them is dependent upon another ; as, " He will be pardoned, if he repents." That member of a complex sentence on which the others depend, is called the principal or leading clause^ and dependent members are called subordinate clauses. In the following examples of complex sentences, the principal clauses are printed in Koman letters, and the subordinate clauses in Italics : — " It cannot be questioned, thai Icnowhdge confers power ;" — " The Britons, with whom CcBsar con- tended^ defended their country bravely;" — " Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also." Remark. — Suim-dinaie members of a complex senteace are often coordinate in respect to each other; as, "He has gone whet-e friends are never false and disappointment is unknown." The last two clauses in this sentence are subordinate to the first clause, and coordinate to each other. Note. — ^Wlule most compound sentences may be readily distinguished as either coordinate or complex, there are others in vvhlch this distinction is not well marked. They seem to occupy middle ground between these two classes. The following is an example : — " Employ the present wisely, for the future is uncertain." Sentences of this description are usually re- garded as coordinate ; but the clause in Italics is obviously as distinct from clauses strictly indeperulent and coordinate, as it is from many clausi^a that are called subordinate.]; In analyzing a sentence in which the sub- joined clause sustains a relation that is not strictly either coordinate or subordinate, it is sufficient to explain the relation of the clauses to each other, without attempting to make a distinction that does not properly exist. In the example cited above, the clause, for the future is unc&rtain, is subjouied to the leading clause to assign a reason why the present should be wisely improved. What is a complex sentence ? Example. How are the rnemhers of a complex sentence divided? Examples. tious which are often difficult to decide, and which are in many cases of little practical utility. The relation of coordinate clanses is, — 1. Copulative, which is expressed by and, both and, also,flr$t, second, etc. 2. Adversative, which is expressed by but, yet, jievertheless, hut yet, etc. 3. Disjunctive, which is expressed by or, either or, else, etc. 4. Causal, which is expressed hj/or, n-iimely, to wit, surely, etc * See pe Sacy, Greene, Fowfer, and Clark. t Sec Mnllignn, p. 4)0. 120 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. EXERCISES. § 172. " There are many peculiarities in plants, which excite tho greatest interest." — " Hear instruction and be wise." — " The shrill whistle again sounded, when a blast from a bugle roused every soul in an instant." — " The night was dark, the storm raged furiously, and the shipwrecked mariners were in despair." — "If the world were to see our real motives, we should be ashamed of some of our best actions." — " Many of the young Athenians, who observed tho confusion and difficulty of the old man, made signs that they would accommodate him, if he came where they sat." "Which of the foregoing compound senteuces are coordinate ? "Which are complex ? Point out all the independent clauses ; — all the dependent clauses. Point out the leading clause in each of the complex sentences. Write a compound sentence containing two coordinate clauses ; — one containing three coordinate clauses ; — a complex sentence containing one principal and one subordinate clause ; — a complex sentence containing one principal and two subordinate clauses. Classification of Subordinate Clauses. § 173. Most of the clauses that are regarded as subordinate may be reduced to three general classes: — substantive, adjective, and ad^ verbial* A suhstantive clause is one that performs the office of a noun ; as, " He knows that you were the cause of his defeat." The clause in ItaUcs is here used as the object of the transitive verb knows. An adjective clause is one that performs the office of an adjective ; as, " He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." The clause, that hath knowledge, is used as an adjective, Umiting he. An adverhial clause is one that performs the office of an adverb ; as, " An honest man speaks as he thinks." The clause, as he thinks, is employed in the sense of an adverb, modifying the verb speaks. Eow are subordinate clauses divided? What is a substantive clause? •Example. An adjective clause f Example. An adverbial clause f Ex- ample. What other application is made of the terms substantive, adjective, and adverbial ? * This division of subordinate clauses is borrowed from the German grammarians, apd was first introduced into the grammar of our o^vn lan- guage by George Crane, of London. The mosf thorough and elaborate expansion of this system of ckissification is contained in Mulligan's Gram- matical Structure of' the English Language. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES. 121 §■ 174. Phrases, like clauses, may be distinguished as substantive, adjective^ or adverhiul. In the sentence '■'•Doing noiliing is \borious," doing nothing is a btihstantive phrase, used as the subject J)f w. In the sentence, " This is a scheme cfhis own d(vinng" the phrase m Italics limits scheme, and is called an adjective phrase. In the sentence, '•'■Eg attending to these directions, we shall save ourselves much trouble," the phrase in Italics modifies the predicate, ailv3 is called an adverbial phrase. EXERCISES. § 175. "We cannot reap, where we have not sown." — "Tho man Avho instructs me, is my friend." — "That we should love our enemies, is a divine command." — " By these means, he was enabled to escape." — " To write well, is difficult." — " A man of cultivated intellect possesses the power of innumerable enjoyments, of which the rude and illiterate are wholly deprived." Point out the suhstantive clauses in the foregoing sentences ; — th ' adjective clauses ; — the adverbial clauses. Point out one or more suhstantive phrases; — one or more adjective phrases ; — one or more adverJ}ial phrases. Write a sentence containing a sulstantive clause ; — one containing an ad- jeclive clause; — one containing an adverbial clause. Write a sentence con- taining a substantive phrase; — one containing an adjective phrase; — o^ie containing an adverbial phrase. § 176. Illustrative Examples of Complex Sentences. [Tho most abstruse aud difficult principles in the science of grammar are involved in the disposition of subordinate clauses. Tho following examples emljraee a considerable number of the practical difficulties that arise in analyzing complex sentences ; and tlie explanations accompany- ing them will bo more useful to the learner than a series of abstract rules. Beginners should not attempt to point out any but the plainer and more obvious distinctions of clauses: obscure and intricate -examples will re- quire the best efforts of the most disciplined minds.] Subordinate Substantive Clauses. § 177. '■^Tliat the earth is spherical, may be clearly demonstrated." '-»" He heard that the enemy had fled." The subordinate clause, thai the earth is spherical, is here employed as the subject of the principal verb, may be demonstrated ; and the subordinate clause, that the enemy had fled, is the object or" the verb heard. These are Give an example of each class. 6 122 . ' SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS examples of a large class of nominative and objective clauses intro duced by that. § 178. "It may be clearly demonstrated, tliat the earth is spheri- cal.'^ This is a different form of the sentence given above. The word it is here used as an inceptive substitute for the clause, that iha ea-rth is spherical, -which is stiU to be regarded as the subject of the principal verb. Tliis idiom presents an example of pleonai^m, but not of apposition.* § ] 79. " Who plotted the coiispiracy, has never been discovered." — " I have forgotten ivhose portrait it was." The first example con- tains a nominative clause, and the second an objective clause. Sen- tences like these must not be confounded with those in which the antecedent of the pronoun is understood. W%o and whose are here used absolutely, and have properly no antecedents, either expressed or implied. But in the example, " TT7io steals my purse, steals trash," the pronoun who relates to he understood. § 180. " His decision was, that thegarrkon should be swi-endered." The suborduiate clause in tliis sentence is used as a predicate nom- inative. § 181. " The plea, that he was ignorant of the law, did not vindi- cate his conduct." That he was ignorant of the law, is a substantive clause, in apposition with plea. Siihordincite Adjective Clauses. § 182. " The time luhen Enner lived, is not certainly known."— " He enrolled such as pi^esented themselves." — " The consciousness that ive are responsible agents, should govern all our actions." In ihe foregoing sentences, the adjective clauses qualify respectively the words time, such, and consciousness. In the last example, the subordinate clause is in apposition with consciousness ; but words in apposition are always used to limit the meaning of nouns or pro- nouns. In the analysis of sentences, both nouns in apposition and apposition clauses are regarded as performing the office of adjectives. § 183. " The dread of censure ought not to prevail over what is * See Snle V., Kem. 1, Obs. " It is not, as we tliint, perfectly con-ect to say, that either a proposition or a word is in apposition witli that wliicli really serves as its representa- tive. Such extension of the term apposition is not to be defended." — 3ful- ligan. EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS. 123 right." The word what here performs the office of both antecedent and relative. As relative it i- used in connection with is rigid to form the adjective clause, what is right; and this clause qualifieg what, used as antecedent. See § 79. § 1S4. " The colonist leaves a garden where he found a luilderness." The adverbial clause in this sentence denotes place, and modifiea the predicate, leaves a garden. § 185. " Tou "write so illegibly, that no one can read yonr letters" The adverbi-al clause here denotes manner. It is employed to give intensity to the meaning o^ illegibly. § 186. " We must spare in youth, that ive may not ivant in age.^ — " Eeprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee."- In each of these sen- tences, the adverbial clause expresses a motive or end, and indicates the origin or source of the assertion in the principal clause. Note. — ^Examples frequently occur in ^vhich a subjoined clause does not properly modify an}- particular word or phrase in the leading clause.* In such cases, the proper mode of analyzing the sentence is to point out the true relation and ofBce of the clause, without attempting to distin- guish it as either substantive, adjective, or adverbial. Change of Constmctmi. — Equivalent Expressions.^ § 187. A single word or a phrase is often employed as an equiv- alent for an entii-e clause. Examples: — "A man devoid of gratitude, is unworthy of pity;" "A man wlio is devoid of gratitude, is unworthy of pity." — "The fear of offending, prevented a renQwal of liis application;" "The fear that he might offend, prevented a renewal of his application." — "The faithful steward deserves commendation;" "TIio steward w/io is faithful deserves commendation.":): — "T/ie work being fin- What cUfferent forms of speech are often employed to express the same idea ? Give several examples. * See Mulligan, p. 4V4. t See Crane, passim, De Sacy, Kiiluier, iind iTullisrau. " Sentences in every language must consist, of the same members, tliough oflea ditterently expressed : it is in a great m.easure upon the inode of their expression that the genius of a language depends, and it is the faculty of anprceiating these i)eculiaritie3 promptly and accurately that constitutes the grammarian." — Crane. % Wcsiu-peat that the adjective modification is a refinement on the ad^- Jeefloe accesnonj modification — a mere al:)breviation of tlie acces' ory, alwaj-a iinplyhig a suppressed predication." — Mulligan. 124 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. ished, we all returnee! home;" "Wlien the work was ji%ishcd, we all returned home." — "The king, extending Ms hand, smiled gi'a- ciously, and raised the suppliant;" "The king extended his hand, smiled graciously, and raised the suppliant." — "I know him to be wise;" "I know that he is wise." — "This discovery was made by K'eM'ton, the greatest philosopher of his age;" "This discovery was made by-Xewton, who was the greatest philosopher of his age." Rem. — The learner will find it a useful employment to select different examples, and exercise his judgment and ta.ste in deciding whether the abridged or the expanded form of expression is to be preferred. When both are equally elegant, it is generally better to employ the abridged form. * EXERCISES. § 188. " Tlie clouds having dispersed, the travellers departed." — '' I know thee to be expert." — " A man wlio is honest, can be safely trusted." — " Wolsey, the son of a butcher at Ipswich, became a car- dinal." — " And Barnabas determined to take with them John, whose surname was Mark." — "When different forms of expression are equally elegant, it is generally best to employ the shortest." — " The object is so high that it is invisible." Change the form of each of the foregoing sentences, substituting a clause for an abridged expression, or an abridged expression for a clause, and ex- plain the change. Write three sentences containing abridged expressions, and three equivalent sentences in which these ab7-idged forms are expanded into clauses. § 189. Besides the examples that occur of clauses equivalent to words or phrases, or of words or phrases equivalent to clauses, there are numerous other instances in which a Avord, phrase, or sentence may be modified in form without materially affecting the sense ; ag, "James heard the sound;" "The sound was heard by James;" — • " The stranger was without a penny ;" " The stranger was pennHesx." Two or more simple sentences, standing disconnected from one another, may often be united in one compound sentence ; or a com- Name other examples in which equivalent forms of expression may be used. What equivalent may ive employ for two or more simjile sentences, standing disconnected from one another? * " In defitiincr a substantive, the genius of our language leans to the brsvity of the verbal subst-antive or tlie infinitive, rather than to the inore formal method of an entire sentence." — Grane. EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS. 125 pound sentence may be resolved into two Dr more simple and dis- connected sentences. Example: — "Man is a rational being. He is endowed with the highest capacity for happiness. He sometimes mistakes his Dost interests. He sometimes pursues trifles with all his energies. He sometimes considers them the principal objects of desire in this fleeting world."— ^" ilan, who is a rational being, endowed >vith the higliest capacity for happiness, somethnes mistakes his best interests, and pursues trifles with aU his energies, considering them the principal object of desire in this fleeting world." Five simple sentences are here united in on." ,orapound sentence, •which contains only three clauses. Who and and are introduced as connectives, and participial phrases^re employed instead of the second and fifth of the simple sentences. Note. — We cauuot write a single paragraph without being required to choose between tlifl'ereut forms of expression that are neai'ly equivalent ui meaning. One of the last sentences above was fij'st written, " Five simple sentences are here united in one compound sentence, cordaining only three clauses," and afterwards changed to the form in which it now stands. The success of tlie learner in choosing the best words and the best forms that may bo given them when combined in sentences and phrases, is the measure of his attainment in tlie art of sjieaking and writ- ing. This power must bo acquired mainly by familiarity with good speakers and writers, and by frequent practice of the art itself. EXERCISES. § 190. " This piece was Avritten in 1820, at which time Southey was poet laureate." — " The wolf was devomed by the lamb." — " The danger could not be avoided." — " In his manners he was free from affectation." — " When do you intend to leave?" Change the form of each of the foregoing sentences, preserving the meaning unaltered, " A bear was pained by the sting of a bee. The bear ran quite mad into the bee-garden. The bear overturned all the hives." " We are come to a very important period in our course. The strength of our political system is beginning to be tried. The ten- dencies of our institu.* Dns are becoming apparent." — B. B. Ed- wards. 126 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. Change each of the two foregomg series of simple sentences into a single compound sentence. "Alexandria, one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity, and formerly the residence of the kings of Egypt, is situated on the shores of the Mediterranean." — " The art of writing, -which contrib- utes much to the convenience and necessity of mankind, was not invented all at once." — " Sugar, which is a nutritious article of food, and is obtained in Europe from the beet-root, is a staple production of the West Indies, where it is produced from the sugar-cane, which is extensively cultivated." Resolve each of the foregoing compound sentences into simple discon- nected sentences. ORDER OF A^^U.YSI3. § 191. In analyzing a simple sentence, the pupil slioukl first resolve it into its logical subject and logical predicate. In analyzing the logical subject, the gi'ammatical subject should fii'st be pointed out, and then its various modifying ad- juncts. These adjuncts themselves should also be analyzed, and the office of each word particularly explained. The logical predicate should be disposed of in a similar manner. If the sentence to be analyzed is compound, the pupil should fii-st distinguish the different clauses, point out the connectives, tell which of the clauses are independent and which dependent, and explain their relation to one another. Members that are used as substantive, adjective, or adverbial clauses, should also be pointed out. The different clauses or simple sentences may then be analyzed in the manner already described. Note. — It is not always easy to decide whether a clause is independent or dependent In dou'>tful cases, it is generally sufficient to explain the seuss of the passage and the relation of the clauses to one another. Pupils slioiild frequently be required to change words or phrases to equivalent clauses, and clauses to equivalent words or phrases; and to point out other chmges in forms and modes of exj)r6ssiou that may be «iade without materially afifecting the sense. MODELS OF AXALYSIS. . 127 MODELS OF ANALYSIS. [The Models here given illustrate very fully the foregoing principlea, and should receive the special attcntiou of the learner.] § 192. "To avenge au injuiy, places us on a level with our enemy." This is a sLniple sentence. The logical subject is to avenge an injury; acd places is on a level with our enemy is the logical predicate. The grammatical subject is to avenge, which here performs the office of botn noun and verb. An injury is the logical object of to avenge, and injury 13 the grammatical object Injury is modified by the article an. The grammatical predicate is places. The adjuncts of places are lis and on a levd with our enemy. Us is the object of places ; level is the object of on, which relates it to places ; and a modifies level. With our etvemy is the logical adjunct of levd. Enemy is the object of wUh, which relates it to level; and our modifies eneiny. The form of this sentence may be changed by converting the infinitive phrase into a participial phrase : — " By avenging an injury, we place our-- Bclves on a level with our enemy." § 193. "Established custom is not easily broken, till some great event shakes the whole system of things." — Johnson. This is. a compound sentence, embracing two clauses, which are con- uected by the conjunction tiU. First clause : — Established custom is not easily broken. Second clause : — Some great event shakes the wlwle system of tilings. The first clause is independent. The second is an adverbial claxise, modifying the first and depending upon it. Analysis of the jirst clause : — ^The logical subject is established custom : and is not easily broken is the logical predicate. The grammatical subject is custom, which is modified by the participial adjective established. The grammatical predicate is is broken, which is modified by the adverbs not and easily. Analysis of the second clause : — The logical subject is some great event, and the logical predicate is shakes the whole system of things. The gram- matical subject is event, which is modified by the adjectives some and great. The grammatical predicate is sJiakes, which is modified by its logical ob- ject, the whole system of things. The grammatical object of shakes is sys- tem, which is modified by the adjuncts the, whole, and of Odngs. Of showa Hie relation between system and things. The form of this sentence may be changed by converting the word 128 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. established into a relative clause : — "Custom that is established is nol easUy broken," etc. This change is not an improvement. § 194. "Reverence for our own moral nature, on wliicli we have now insisted, needs earnest and perpetual inculcation." This is a compound sentence, embracing tvk'o clauses. The principal cause is rtver&ace. for our own moral nature needs earnest and perpetual inculcation. The dependent or subordinate clause is on which we have now insisted. The subordinate clause is connected to the principal clause by the relative which. Which is the object of on, which relates it to have in- sisted in the subordinate clause ; and it relates to reverence, which is the subject of the verb in the leading clause. The logical subject of the principal sentence is reverence for owr own moral nature; and the logical predicate is needs earnest and peiyetucd in- culcation. The grammatical subject is reverence. This is modified by the phrase, for our own moral nature. Our, own, and moral modify nature, and na- ture is the object of /or, which relates it to reverence. The grammatical predicate is needs, which is modified by its logical object, earnest and 'perpetual inculcation. The grammatical object of n&^ds is inculcation, which is modified by the adjectives earnest and perpetvul. The conjunction and connects the two adjectives. In the subordinate clause, on which we have now insisted, we is both the grammatical and the logical subject. The logical predicate embraces have now insisted and on which. The grammatical predicate is Jiave insisted, which is modified by rww and on which. On and which have tdready been disposed o£ § 195. "He that is faithful will be rewarded." This is a compound sentence, in winch the subordinate clause, that is faithful, is used to modify he, which is the subject in tlie jrincipal sen- tence, he will be rewarded. The relative pronoun thai is the cormective. TJiat is thf subject of ts m the subordinate clause, and it relates to he, which is the subject of ±e principal verb, will be rewarded. The logical subject of the principal sentence is he that is faithful; and wiU be rewarded is both the grammatical and the logical predicate. The grammatical subject is he, which is modified by the clauso, that is faithful. Tliat is faithful is an adjective clause, qualiiyiug he. That is both tha \ MODELS OF ANALYSIS, 129 grammatical and the logical subject. The logical predicate is isfaith/ul The grammatical predicate la is, which is modilied by faithful. XoTE. — The learner will observe a marked distinction betAvcen the relative clause in this sectio i and that in § 194. In this example, the relative clause .is essential to the completeness of the principal subject It is not he, but ?ie thai is faithful, who will be rewarded. In the previous example, on uhich we have now itisisted is not a restric- tive clause, but a clause added incidentally ; and the sentence would be complete without it : — Etverence for our own moral nature needs earnsst and perpetual inculcation. Or, we might change the construction and con\ ert the i elative clause into an independent clause : — We have now insisttd on revereme for our own moral 'nature, and iJiis reverence needs earliest and perpetual inculcation. So also in the sentence, " Tlie consciousness that we are responsible agents, should govern all our actions," the subordiuate clause is re.-^trictive, and nmst be taken in connection with the logical subject of the principal sentence. But in the sentence, "Tiie boy had neglected his lesson, _/or which he was severely censured,''^ the subordinate clause is not restrictive, and should not be taken with the logical subject of the principal sen- tence.* When a subordinate clause is employed as an essential modifier of the principal sentence, it is called an incorporate clause. § 196. " Praise, said the sago, with a sigh, is to au old man an empty sound." The relation of the two clauses in this compound sentence is peculiar * " Subordinate propositions maybe di%ided into two dasses — determin ative and explanaiory. " A determinative subordinate is added to another proposition, to deter- *mine or limit the sense of the term which it qualifies, or to express some indispensable quality respecting it; so that the determinative subordinate cannot be removed from the sentence without iillectiug or destroying the sense of the proposition wliic'a it qualifies. " 'The messeugers who brout'ht the news of the army's defeat were im- mediately seized and imprisoned by order of the magistrates.' " In this sentence, the proposition, ivho brought the news of tJie arm>/^» defeat., is a determinative subordinate, the removal of which would eutireiy alter the meaning of the sentence. " The office of the expl.inatory subordinate proposition in a sentence is merely to explain more fuUy, or express some circumstance belonging to the term to which it relates; so that it is very possible to suppress thcex- Slanatory subordinate proposition without destroying, or even in the least egree injuring the sense of the sentence. " ' Shakspeure, who lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the greatest of all t'.e tnglish poets.' "Here, the proposition, w/to lived in the reiijn of Queen Elizabetli, is an explanatory subordinate ; and it is evident that its removal will not in the shghtest degree atfect the sense of the remaining proposition, which w'U . then stand, Shahipeare was the greatest of all the English poets,''' — Graham on £nglisJi Composition. 130 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. The principal clause is said the sage, with a sigh. The subordiuatc clause, praise is to an old man an empty sound, is connected to the principal clause by standing as the object of the principal verb said. The subor- dinate clause here performs the office of a noun, and is henct called a substantive clause^ The simple sentences are analyzed as in previous ex- amples. § 197. " Whatever is done willingly is done well." This is a compound sentence in which the subordinate clause is re- strictive. The connective is whatever, a compound pronoun, including ■■>oth antecedent and relative. The subordinate clause is whatever (used as relative) is done willingly. The logical subject of the principal sentence is whatever is done willingly. The ioo-ical predicate is is done well. The grammatical subject is what- ever (that,) used as antecedent. It is modified by the adjective clause, whatever (which) is done willingly. The grammatical predicate is is done, which is modified by well In the suljordinate clause, whatever (which) is both the grammatical and the logical subject. The logical predicate is is done willingly. The gram- matical predicate is is done, which is modified by wiUinglg. See § 195, Note. § 198. "We heard that the foe had retreated." lu this sentence, the subordinate clause, that the foe- had retreated, is the logical object of the principal verb heard. This is another example of an incorporated clause. See § 195, Note. The connective is that. We is both the grammatical and the logical subject iu the principal sentence. The logical predicate is heard tluit the foe had retreated. The grammatical predicate is heard, which is modified by the substantive clause, tliat the foe had retreated. The subordinate clause is analyzed as in previous examples. Note. — The most ditlieult and important part of Aualysis consists in resolving compound sentences into simple ones, and explaining the con- nections and dependences of the different members. As soon as pupils become familiar with the analysis of simple sentences, they should have frequent exercises in resolving compound sentences into clauses, and pointing out the connectives and explaining the relation of the clauses to one another. By attending to the office of the several clauses in general discourse, and omitting for the time the analysis of simple sentences, the learner will secure most of the substantial l^euefits of ftnalyzhig a jiage in the time that would otherwise hd consumed oij MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 131 half a dozen lines.* In the Models that foUow, attention is directed chiefly to the resolution of compound sentences. § 199. "Rowing is a healthful exercise, but it is not always free from danorer." o This is a compound sentence, containing two independent clauses, which are conntcted by but. § 200. " As your fathers did, so do ye." The principal clause in this compound sentence is so do ye, and the Bubordinate clause is as your fathers did. The connective is as, which coiTesponds with so. The subordinate clause is adverbial, and the whole sentence expresses a comparison of equality. § 201. "The Romans and Albaus being on the eve of a battle, an agreement was made between them, that three cham- pions should be chosen on each side, by whom the victory should be determined." This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent phrase, the Romans and Albans being on the eve of a battle, and three clauses: — 1. An agreement was made between them. 2. That three champions should be cJiosen on each side, 3. By whom the victory should be determined. The connectives are that and whom. The first clause is independent ; the second is subordinate to the first ; and the tliird is subordinate to the second The second is an adjective clause, modifying agreement in the fiist ; and the third clause is explanatory of the second. Analysis of tlie independeni phrase : — Romans and Albans are used ab- solutely, with the participle being. They are connected by and and limited by the. Being is modified by the phrase, on tJie eve of a baitie. The logi- cal object of on is the eve of a battle. The grammatical object is eve, which is modified by the and of a battle. The logical object of <^ is a battle, and the grammatical object is battle. Battle is limited by a. This independent phrase may be expanded into a clause: — " When the Romans and Albans were on the eve of a battle, an agTeement was made." etc. § 2U2. •' My sentence is for open war : of wiles, More unexpert, I boast not : them let those Cuntrive who need, or when they need, not now : * .See Mulligan, p. 409. 132 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. For while they sit coiitii\dng, shall the rest, Millions that stand in arms and longing wait The signal to ascend, sit lingering here, Heaven's fugitives, and for their dwelling-place Accept this dark opprobrious den of shame, The prison of his tyranny who reigns By our delay ?" Miltok. This passage embraces twelve clauses :— 1. My serdence is for ope» war. 2. Of wiles, more untxjjert, I locuit not. 3. Them let those contrive. 4. Who need. 5. Or [let them contrive them] jwt now. 6. When iliey need. 1. For, shall the rest, millions, sit lingering here, HeaverCs fugitives. 8. T}iat stand in arms. 9. And longing wait tlie signal to ascend. 10. While tJtey sit contriving. 11. And for ilieir dwelling-place accept this dark opprohriovs den of shame, the prison of his tyranny. 12. Who reigns by our delay. The first, second, third, fifth, seventh, and eleventh clauses are inde- pendent ; and the fourth, sixth, eighth, ninth, tenth, and twelfth, are de- pendent. The first, second, and thu-d clauses have no grammatical connection. The fourth is an adjective clause, qualifying those in the third clause. It is to be taken as a part of the logical object of the principal verb let. The connective is who. Or connects the fifth clause to the third, . The sixth is an adverbial clause, subordinate to the fifth, and modifying the verb contrive, understood. The connective is when. The tliird and fifth clauses, with their subordinates, are connected to the seventh hjfor. The eighth and ninth are adjective clauses, quaUfying millions. They are connected to the seventh clause by thai, and to each other by and The tenth clause is adverbial, modifying the predicate of the seventh. The connective is while. The eleventh clause is connected to the seventh bv and. jt MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 133 The twelfth is an adjective clause, subordinate to the eleventh, and modifying the word his. The connective is who. [Let the pupil analyze each of the following extracts, according to the directions and illustrations aheady given.] § 203. Leonidas and his tliree hundred Spartans fought bravely at ThermopyliB, against the whole Persian army." — "In ancient times, the benefactors of mankind were deemed worthy of immortal honors." — " Misfortunes make men more thought- ful." — " ]!^uma Pompilius, the most fortunate of the Roman kings, is said to have liv'ed above eighty years." — " Industry and ap- plication will make amends for the want of a quick and ready wit." — " A new order of cultivated intellect is greatly needed." — " Those who attain any excellence, commonly spend life in one pursuit." — " Neither genius nor practice will always supply a hasty writer with the most proper diction." " The consciousness that we have done our duty, will console us, even if our efforts are unsuccessful."* — '' He who assists us when we are in need, is a true friend." — " What thou bidd'st, unargued, I obey." — " That the government of our desires is essential to the enjoyment of true liberty, is a truth never to b«3 forgotten by the citizens of a free state." " Men of great and stirring powers, who are destined to mould the age in which they are born, must first mould themselves upon it. — Coleridge. " War will never cease, while the field of battle is the field of glory, and the most luxuriant laurels grow from a root nourished with blood." — Channing. " The earth was made so various, that the mind Of desultory man, studious of change, , And pleased with novelty, might be indulged. Prospects, however lovely, may be seen Tin half their beauties fade ; the weary sight, Too well acquainted with their smile, slides off Fastidious, seeking less familiar scenes." — Coioper. •* One independent cla^ioe and two subo» iinate clauses. 134 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 204. GRAMMATICAL CONNECTION OP WORDS. ' [Of the various exercises tliat have been employed as collateral aids to syntactical analysis and parsing, no one has proved more useful or im- portant than that of tracing the grammatical connections and relations of the diflerent words in a sentence. The method here presented rehevca entirely the monotony of common parsing, and carries the pupil at once to the true nature and office of the different words. It has the advantage of combining the essential principles of both analysis and parsing, and of presenting them in a condensed and sj-noptical form. If this method was generally adopted in schools, it would render the study of Grammar more intellectual, and save much valuable' time. It should never take the place of either parsing or analysis, but be employed as an auxihary to both. It will be found specially useful in conducting reviews.*] EXERCISES. Models. § 205. " There is one Being to wliom we can look, with a perfect conviction of finding that security which nothijig about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away." — Greenwood. Point out the simple sentences or clauses in the foregoing passage, and their connection with one another. — The period embraces four clauses: — Tliere is one being ; to whom we can look with a 'perfect conviction of finding thai security; which nothing about us can give; which nothing about us can take away. The second clause is cormected to the first by the relative whom; and the third and fourth are connected to the second by the rel- atives which and which. The third and fourth clauses are also connected to each other by and. Trace the chain of connection between the words away and is: — Away •modifies can take; which is governed by can take, and relates to security ; security is the object oi finding, which is related by of to conviction; con- viction ia the object of with, which relates it to can look; to expresses the relation between wJwni and can look, and whom relates to Bei7ig, which is the si^bject of is. Trace the connection between that and we: — That defines security, which is the object of finding; finding is related by of to conviction; con- viction is related by with to caji look, which agrees with we. * For the principal features of this system, the author takes pleasure in acknowledging liimself indebted to his firsfc instructor in English Grammar. T. L. Wright, Esq., of Eeloit, Wlr- , foimjrly Principal of the Harlford Grammar School, Harlford, Conn., and our; of the ablest teachers that our" couL.try has produced. \ GRAMMATICAL CONNECTION. 136 § 206. But hoary Winter, unadorned and bare, Dwells in the dire retreat, and freezes there ; There he assembles all his blackest storms, And the rude hail in rattling tempests forms." Addison. . Point out the clauses in the foregoing passage, and their connection with one another. — The number of clauses is four. The first commences w ith hoai-y and ends with retreat; the second is freezes there; the third embraces all the words in the third line ; the fourth, all the words in the last line, except and. The first and second clauses are connected to each other by and, in the second line ; and the third and fourth are connected by arid, in the last Une. Between the first two clauses and the last two, there is no direct grammatical connection. Trace the chain of connection between dire and hare. — Dire qualifies retreat; retreat is the object of in, which relates it to dwells ; dwells agrees ^•ith Winter, and Winter is qualified by hare. Trace the grammatical connection between (here, in the second line, and dwells. — There modifies freezes; and connects the two clauses, of which freezes and dwells are the verbs. Trace the connection between h,is and assembles. — Sis possfoses storms, and sionns is the object of assembles. Trace the connection fi-om ratUing to blackest. — Rattling qualifies tem" pests ; tempests is the object of in, which relates it to forms ; and connects the clauses, of which /onns and assembles are the verbs ; assembles go vera" sionrts, and blackest qualifies sto^-ms. § 207. " Our cemeteries, rigLnly selected and properly ar ranged, may be made subseiTicnt to some of the highest pm poses of religion and human duty." — Story. In the foregoing sentence, let the pupil trace the grammatical connec- tion fi-om selected to the verb ; — fi-om properly to the verb ; — ^firom highest to subservient; — from duty to subservient. § 208. " lie who would advance in any department of knowl- edge, must know what others have done before him." — £. B. Edwards. Trace the connection, in the foregoing sentence, firom the verb would advance to the verb must know; — ^from viust know to /ww done; — fi-om knowledge to would tdvance ; — trom him to otii&ts. 136 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 209. "The &ulti of a writer of acknowledired excellence are more dangeroiLs, because the influence of his example is more extensive ; and the interest of learning requires that they should be discovered and stigmatized, before they have the sanction of antiquity bestowed upon them, and become prece- dents of indisputable authoiity." — Johnson. Point out the clauses in this sentence, and their connection with one another. Trace the grammatical connection between acknowledged and are; — ^between his and is; — more extensive and are; — stigmatized and learning ; — them and have; — iudiiputdbU and become. Trace the chain of grammatical connection from authority to faults. §210. " There is a power Unseen that niles th' illimitable world. That guides its motions, from the brightest star To the least dust of this sin-tainted mould ; While man, who madly deems himself the lord Of all, is nought but weakness and dependence. This sacred truth, by sure expeiience taught. Thou must have learnt, when wandering all alone. Each, bird, each insect, flitting through the skv, Has more sufficient for itself than thou." — Thomson. Point out the clauses in the foregoing extract, and their connection with one another. Trace the connection between unseen and rules ; — be tween guides, in the third Une, and is in the first ; — sin-tainted and guides; — aU and deems; — dependence, in the sixth Lne, and^oz/^er, in the first ; — swe, in the seventh line, and learnt; — vjandtring and learnt; — skij and Jias ; — itself and has; — thou, in the last line, and truth, in the Eeveuth. § 211. RULES OF SYNTxVX. Rule I. — ^Nomixatives. The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case; as, "The moon shines with borro-wed light;" — '■'•Thou shalt not steal." What is the rule respecting nominatives ? Examples RULES. 137 Rule II. — Apposition. A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain another noun or pronoun, is put, bj apposition, in the same case ; as, "The salutation of me, Paul f — " Xenophon, the soldier and historian, was a disciple of Socrates." EULE III. POSSESSIVES. The possessive case is governed by the noun which de- notes the thing possessed; as, "The swi^s rays;" — "il/// native land." Rule IY. — Indepexdext Case. When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely, having no dependence on any other word, it is put in the independent case ; as, "These are thy glorious works, Parent of good ;" — "JEZe that hath ears to hear, let him hear." Rule V. — Pronouns. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, in gender, number, and person ; as, " On the seventh day, God ended his work which he had made;" — " Every tree is known by its fruit." Rule YI. — Pronouns. "When two or more words denoting different objects are taken conjointly, forming one common antecedent, the pronoun agreeing with them must be in the plural num- ber ; as, " Virtue and good breeding render their posses- sors truly amiable." Rule YII. — Pronouns. When two or more outecedenta in the sino-ular, are so _ •_ . ^ 5 "What is the rule respecting apposition ? Examples. Respectiug pos- sessiTes? Examples, llespecting the independent case? J'^xamples. Respecting the agreement of pronouns? Examples. Respecting the agreement of a pronoun with two or more words denotirg diflbrent ol> jects, taken conjointly? Examples. 138 SYJJTAX. connected that the pronoun agrees with each term separ- ately, or with one of them exclusivelj, the pronoun should be in the singular number. Examples : — " Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which moves merely as it is moved;" — "He, and no one else, was allowed to follow his inclinations;" — "Every good act and every good pm-- pose wiU receive its reward." EuLE VIII. — Adjectives. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or define ; as, "yl (jood man;" — '■'•These things." Rule IX. — Verbs. — Agreement. A verb must agree with its nominative, in number and person ; as, " I ^o ;" — " Thou scest ;" — " He hearsT Eule X. — Verbs. — Agreement, When two or more nominatives denoting different objects are taken conjointly, forming one common subject, the verb agreeing with them should be in the plural number ; as, "Socrates and Plato ?z?ere eminent philosophers;" — " The air, the earth, the water, teem with delighted ex- istence." Rule XI. — Verds. — Agreement. When two or more singular nominatives are so con- nected that the verb agrees with each subject separately, or with one of them to the exclusion of the others, the verb should be in the singular number. "WTiat is the rule respecting the agreement of a pronoun with each of two or more antecedents taken separately, or with one of them exclu- eively ? Examples. What is the general rule for adjectivee? Examples. The rule_ respecting the agreement of verbs? Examples. Eespecting the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives denoting diflereut objects taken conjointly ? Examples. What is the rule respecting two or more singular nominatives so connected that the verb agrees with each separately, or with one to the exclusion of the others? RULES. 139 Examples: — "Duty, and not interest, was his constant rule of action;" — "Nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, breaks the serene of heaven;" — "Neither astrologj, nor alchemy, deserves the name of a science;" — " In every tribe, superstition, or gratitude, or fortune, has exalted a particular family;" — "Caesar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for bis eloquence;" — "Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." " Every tongue and every eye Does homage to the passer-by." EuLE XII. — Veres. — Government. Transitive verbs, in the active voice, govern the objec- tive case ; as, " I have heard him ;" — '■^ Honor ihj father and thj mot her. '^ Rule XIII. — Predicate NoiiiNATivE. Intransitive and passive verbs have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to the same person or thing : as, ^^ Society is the true sphere of human virtue ;" — " Thej wished him to be their /ci7}(/ ;" — "//e soon became the leader of his party ;" — "i/e was chosen librarian;" — ^^ Homer has been stjled the jjrince of poets." EuLE XIV. — Government of the Infinitive. The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, a noun, or an adjective; as, ''^Strive to improve;'^ — "I am in haste to return f — "The ship was ready to sail." Rule XV. — Tenses. In the use of verbs, those tenses should be employed which express correctly the sense intended. Examples. What is the rule respecting transitive verbs ? Examples. Rtspectiug the same case? Examples. What is the rule respecting the government of infinitives? Examples. What is the rule respecting tenses ? 140 SYNTAX. EuLE XVI. — Participles. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns; as, " He stood leaning on his spade, and (jazing at the brightness in the west." EuLE XVII. — Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, '■^ Islan frequently contend for trifles;" — '"It was very thankfully received." EuLE XVIII. COXJUXCTIOXS. Conjunctions connect words or sentences ; as, " Idleness and ignorance are the parents of many vices;" — "He fled because he was afraid." ECLR XIX.Tr-PREPOSITIOXS. EeLATION. Prepositions connect words, and show the relation be- tween them. Exampks: — "Ho travelled for pleasure;" — " They were destitute of food ;" — " This is an age OP improvement ;" — " Ambassadors were sent previovsly to the declaration." Eule XX. — Prepositions. — Government. Prepositions govern the objective case; as, " They came io us in the spb'it of kindness ;^^ — ^^From him that is needy, turn not away." Rule XXI. — ^Interjections. Interjections hare no grammatical relation to the other words of a sentence; as, "These were delightful days, but, alas! they are no more." "What is the rule respecting participles ? Examplea "What is the role respecting adverbs ? Examples. Respecting conjmictions ? Examples. Respecting the relation expressed by prepositions ? Examples. "What do prepositions govern. Examples. "What is the rule respecting inter- jections ? Examples. PARSIXO. 14] Rule XXIT. — Gtenerai, Eitle. The different parts of a sentence should be made to har- monize with one another ; and the several clauses should be so constructed and arranged as to express clearlj the various relations, connections, and dependences intended, according to the best usages of the language. § 212. PARSING. [Tt ■^vill often be found expedient, in parsiusr, to omit the etymological modilications of a word, and give only its syntax or constructive office in the sentence. Advanced classes sliould attend less to the common Ord<:r of Parsing, and more to the Analysis of language ; but learners should be required to parse many of the more dilBcult and important words, at all stages of their progress. It is hoped that teachers will take special pains to render the exercises in jDarsing as intellectual as possible. Pupils should be taught that correct j^arsing always requires correct thinking ; and that it is indispensably necessary for tliem to understand thoroughly the sense of any piece of writing before they attempt to parse it. They should be .equired to explain the more difficult passages, by transposing the order of the words, or by expressing the sense in their own language ; but the words employed by the author should be preserved unaltered in parsing.] § 213. Parsing is an explanation of the properties and offices of words, according to the principles of grammar. ORDER OF PARSING. A Noun, and why ? — Common or Proper, and why ? — Gen- der, and why ? — Person, and why ? — Number, and why ? — Case, and why ? — Disposal, and Rule. An Adjective, and why ? — Class, and why ? — If a descriptive adjective, give the Degree of Comparison, with the reason,^ Compare it. — Disposal, and Rule. In parsing an Article, the pupil should tell whether it is Definite or Indefinite, and why ; to what it belongs ; and as- sign the Rule. See Models for Pardng, under Rule VIIL A Pronoun, and why ?— Class, and why ? — Gender, Number, a:.d Person, and why? — [If a Relative Pronouu, point out its antecedent, and teli what clauses are connected by it.] — Case, and why? — Decline it, if declinable. — Disposal, and Rule, "Wh-at is the general rule of syntax? What is parsing? Give the order of •parsing the different pnrt^^ of pppoch. 142 SYNTAX. A Verb, and wliy ? — Regulai-, or Irregular, and why ? — Prin- cipal parts. — Transitive or Intransitive, and why ? — [If tran- sitive, tell whether it is in the Active or Passive Voice.] — Mode, and why ? — Tense, and why ? — Person and Numher, and why ? — Disposal, and Rule. In parsing a Particij^le, the foi. owing order should be ob- served : — A Participle, and why ? — Principal Parts of the verb. --Perfect or Imperfect, and wh}' ? — Transitive or Intransitive, and why? — [If Transitive, tell whether it is in the Active or Passive Voice.] — Disposal, and Rule. An Adverb, and why ? — Class, and why ? — Disposal, and Rule. A Preposition, and why ? — Relation expressed, and Rule. A Conjunction, and why ? — Connection, and Rule. An Interjection, and why? — Rule. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Rule I. — ^Nominatives. "§> 214. The suliJGct of a finite verb must be in tbe nom- inative case ; as, " The moo7i shines with borrowed light ;" — " Thou shalt not steal." Remark 1. — A verb in the infinitive mode, a sentence, or a phrase, sometimes performs the office of a noun or pronoun in the nomin- ative; as, ":Zb err is human;" — "T^mt one man should he punished for the crimes of another, is unjust." Eem. 2. — In poetry, the nominative is sometimes omitted ; as, " Livea there wlio loves his ^Dain?" When tlie verb is in the imperative mode, the nominative is frequently omitted, both in prose and poetry; as, "TbAe care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves." Rem. 3. — ^In declaratory and conditional sentences, the nominative usually precedes the verb ; but hi interrogative and imperative sen- ter'>3S,- the nominative most commonly follows either tlie prin .^'pal verb or an auxiliary. " ^ What is the rule respecting nominatives ? Examples. W/iat is some limss ixscr? .o sii-pply the place of a noun or pivnouJi in the nominah ve ? Ex- amph' What position does the nominative usually take in declaratory and conddional sentences ? In interrogative and imperative sentences f KGUNS AND PRONOUNS.^ r.ULE II, 143 Observation 1. — The noramative is also placed after the verb: — 1. When a seutence is introduced by the expletive adverb there; as, " Tlwre are many good pieces in this collection." 2. AVlien a supposition is expressed without the use of the conjunction if; as, " Were there no difference, there would be no choice." 3. When a sentence is introduced by neither or nor, not used as a correspondent to another conjunction ; as, " The eye which saw hira shall see him no more, neither shall his place any more behold him." Obs. 2. — When ivho, which, or what, is used as the subject of the verb in an interrogative sentence, and also when which or what is used as an adjective belonging to the subject, the nominative precedes the verb ; as, " Who is there to oppose himi" — "What object will be accomplished ' " Obs. 3. — Besides the cases here enumerated, there are many others in which the nominative may either precede or follow the verb, and for whicb no definite rules can be given. B,0LE n. — Apposition. § 215. A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain another noun or pronoun, is put, bj apposition, in the same case; as, "The salutation of me, Paul;^'' — " Xenophon, the soldier and Jiistoiian, ^va3 a disciple of Socrates." Kem. 1. — Ap]X)sition signifies adding to, and denotes that another name is added for the same person or thing. Rem. 2. — A noun 13 sometimes put in apposition with a sentence or phrase ; a.s, " He permitted me to mal^e free use of his valuable librarj' ; — a kindness which I shall always remember with grat- itude." Rem. 3. — A noun denoting a -whole is sometimes followed by two or more words in apposition with it, denoting the parts of which it is composed ; as, " They travelled in company, some on horseback, some in carriages, and others on foot." Rem. 4. — A distributive term in the singular number, or a word in the singular modified by a distributive, is often put in apposition with a noun or pronoun in the plural ; as, " Tliey have fallen, each in his field of glory." — Cowper. " They fled, every man into his tent."— 1 Sam. A: 10. What is the rule respecting apposition ? Examples. With zchat be- sideti a norm or pronoun is a noun sometimes in apposition ? Examples. What remark is made respecting words denoting the several pniis of a tchole. ? Examples. What is the remark respecting a distributive term in the siirgular sncnber, or a tcord in the singular modified by a di.'ttributii'e ?. Examples 1 44 .SYNTAX. Efm. 5. — In the phrases one another and each other, tne word. one and each have a construction similar to that described in the last Remark ; as, " They confide in each other ; " — " Bear ye one anothefs burdens." In the former of these sentences, each is in apposition with they, and other is governed by the preposition in. [n the hitter, one is in apjDosition with ye, and another's is governed by burdens. Rem. 6. — Two or more proper names, appHed to the same in- dividual, may be regarded as forming one complex noun ; as, ^ Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States." Rem. 7. — Anomalous cxpwssions sometimes occur, in which a noun n&ed without the sign of possession, is put in apposition with a noun or p)"oroun in the possessive case;* as, "This did not prevent Jo/i?i'.s being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." — Henry's Hist, of Brit. " His eminence as a judge was great and undeniable." — Brow/ham. See Rule 18, Rem. 10. Rule in. — Possessives. §216. The possessive case is governed by the noun which denotes the thing possessed; as, "The suti's rays;" — " 3Ii/ native land." See § 55, Rem. 5. Rem. 1. — When the governing word is rendered obvious hy the use of the possessive, it is frequently omitted ; as, " I called at the booksdl- er^s;" that is, " at the bookseller's store." Rem. 2. — "Wlien the thing possessed belongs to two or more possessors conjointly, the sign is annexed to the last only of the possessive nouns ; as, " Mason and Dixon's line ; " — " Andrews and Stoddard's Grammar ; " — " Allen, Morrill, and WardweU's store." But when different things of the same name belong severally to Explain and illustrate the construction of the phrases, each other and one another ? What is said of two or more proper names, applied to the sarm individual ? Examples. What is the rule respecting possessives 1 Ex- amples. What use is made of the sign when the thing possessed belongs to two or more possessors conjointly ? Examples. What, when different things the following sentence, the infinitive verhs may he regarded as independent or absolute hi/ pleonasm : — " To be inurdered, to be tortured, to be robbed, to be sold into slavery, to be exposed to the outrages of gangs of foreign ban ditti calling themselves patriots, — these are evidently evils from which men of every religion and men of no rehgion wish to be protected." — Macaiday. (4) A\nien a noun or pronoun is used to express an exclamation ; as, " ( )h, the miseries of war ! " This is the case independent by ixclamation. (5) When a noun, having no dependence on any other word, is Gsed to express a name or title, as, " The Sketch Book," " Day's Algebra ; " or to denote time, measure, distance, direction, or place, as, " He left the country ten years ago," " The tree was found to be eighty /eei in height," "He walked twelve miles." This is the ca.se independent hy ellipsis. 0ns. — This class of words in the independent case is not intended to include those nouns before which a preposition is properly understood. In all such examples the preposition should be sujjplied in jiarsing, and the noun made to depend upon it in the objective case. There are, how- ever, instances in which the noun is not ])roperly dependent on a prepo- sition either expressed or implied ; and examples of this class should be put in the independent case.* Rem. 2. — A noun is sometimes used indefinitely after an infinitive or participle ; as. " To be the slave of passion is of all slavery the most wretched." The word dave, in this sentence, may be parsed by Kule 4, in the independent case. See Rule 8, Rem. 14. S 218. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. fit is hoped that teachers will not fall to insist on a thorough ]ierform ance of these exercises. Rules may be recited very fluently without be- ing understood; but an application of them in the construction of sea- * " In expressing distance or duration, either in time or »pace, we use tlio nonn absolutely; as, 'He walked ten miles ;' — ' He stood three hours.' " — Lntkam. " Xonns signifying the time when, and ti7ne how long, wergM, measure, xnd distance, are put in the objective case absolute." — Ainsivorth. ",Lowtb, followed by the whole tribe of writers on this subject, alleges iorae prepositions to be understood before these expressions of time ; but this is a palpable error, arising from preconceived notions of the necessity 3!" .sv.i.-h words. The fact is othcrAvise. All these peculiar phrases are i7i books." Rem. 3. — When two or more personal pronouns in the second person, are employed in the same connection, they should be made to correspond in style. (§§ 72, 73.) The foUomng passage la therefore inaccurate : — "Enjoy your dear wit, and gay rhetoric That hath so well been taui^ht her dazzling fence ; Thou art not fit to hear thyself convinced." — Milton. Your should be thij, to correspond with thou and thyself. False Syntax. " Ere you remark another's sin, Bid thy own conscience look within." — Gay. " ^Nliat strange events carl strike with more surprise Than those which lately struck thy wondering eyes ? Yet, taught by these, confess th' Almighty just, And where you can't unriddle, learn to trust." — Parnell. Rem. 4. — Tlie use of different relatives in the same sentence referring to the same antecedent, should generally be avoided. The following sen- tence is faulty in this resjiect: — " I have amused myself with remarking some of the motley characters that have thus usurped the ancient abode of royalty, and who seem as if placed licre to give a farcical termination to tiie dr;una of human pride." — Irving. Who should be changed to tluit. to correspond with that in the preceding clause. Rem. 5. — Monarchs and editors of periodical publications often employ the plural form of a pronoun in the first -jierson, instead of the singular ; as, " We, taking into our royal consideration the vari- ous disorders and abuses," etc. — " We charge you, on allegiance to ourself;" — " We cheerfully admit the following communication What, inifyrpper use is sometimes made of the pronoun them ? lUttstrnti Wliat rule shmdd be observed, when tivo or more persixnal pronouns in the second person an employed in the same connection ? CoiTect (he false syntax, and show why it is false. What form of expression is peculiar to sovereiyns arid editors of ycriodical piihlications ? Examples, 150 SYNTAX. into oui columns, but do not hold ourself responsible for the senti- ments which it embodies." Rem. G. — The relative ivho is applied to persons, and which tc irrational animals and inanimate thin-^s ; as, " Homer, ivho wrote the Iliad ; " — " The man ivhom we saw ; " — " The horse which Alexander rode ; " — " The rain which fell." Obs. — The prononn who should not be used to represent a name which is taken as a word merely. Thus, " The court of queen Elizaheih, who was but another name for prudence and economy," should !>e, '" The court of queen Elizabeth, whose name was but another word lor prudence and economy." Rem. 7. — The pronoun that is applied either to persons or things ; as, " He that hath knowledge, spareth his words ; " — " The bird that Sting so sweetly ; " — " The house that was built la^t year." Obs. 1. — That should be employed in preference to wlio or which, — (1) AVhen its use ■will prevent an unpleasant repetition of either of these pronouns ; as, " "Who that is not blinded by prejudice will believe this report ? " (2) "WTien persons form a part only of the antecedent ; as, " The men and things that he saw." (3) After a collective noun denoting a body of persons; as, " The army that was defeated was composed of veteran soldiers." Obs. 2. — There are other cases in which that maybe employed or not, according to the taste of the wTiter; as, "He that formed the eye, shall he not see 1 " — Ps. 94 : 9. " He wfio plants an oak, looks forward to future ages, and plants for posterity." — Irving. " There is a serene and settled majesty in woodland scenery, that enters into the soul, and dilates and elevates it, and fills it wi«h noble inchnations." — Ibid. Rem. 8. — The possessive whose is applied to both persons and things ; as, " Franklin, whose name will ever be remembered ; " — " Virtue, ichose reward is lasting ; " — " Frowning rocks, whose lofty sunmiits." See § 78, Note. "What distinction is observed in the use of who and which f Select several examples of each from other works. To what is the pronoun that applied ? Examples. When is that employed in preference to who or which % Examples of each class. To wliat is the possessivt whose applied f £r vnples. PROXOL'NS. RULE V. 151 Rem. 9. — When two or more pronouns, oi* nouns and pronouns, of different persons, are closely united in the same coustruetion, the "word which is in the second person shoukl generally be placed first, and that in the first person, last; as, "You and Charles, and I, were engaged in the same transaction ; " — " You and your fiiend were absent ; " — " IMy brother and I were detained." Rem. 10. — The word what sliould not be used for the conjunction that, nor that for the compound relative what. Tlie foilowing sentences are faulty in tliis respect : — " They would not believe but what he v/as guil- tj- ; " — " We speak tlioi we do know, and testify that we have seen." Rem. 11. — Relatives should be so placed as to prevent all ambi- guity in regard to the words which they are intended to represent. The following sentence is therefore objectionable: — "He is un- worthy the confidence of a fellow-being that disregards the laws of his Llaker." Corrected : — " He that disregards the laws of his ^laker, is unworthy of the confidence of a fellow-being." Obs. — " I am the man who command you." This sentence is ambig- uous, and may be corrected in two ditforeut ways. If who is intended to refer to /, we should say, ' I who command you, am the man." But if tdio is intended to refer to man, then we should say, " I am the man who commands you." Rem. 12. — In femiliar language, the relative is sometimes improperly omitted. Thus, " He is a man I greatly esteem," should be, " He is a man tvhom I greatly esteem." So also, " I am dissatisfied with the man- ner I have spent my time," should be, " I am dissatisfied with the manner ill which I have spent my time." Rem. is. — Wluiteivr is sometimes employed merely for the purpose of rendering a word or phrase emphatic ; as, " No condition whatever." Rem. 14. — What is sometimes used adverbially, in the sense of partli/, or in part ; as, " What with ' wooding ' at two or three places, and what v/itli the excitement of the day, we were too fatigued to give more than a glance and a passing note of admiration to the beauty of tlie scene."- - milis. Rp:m. 15. — A prono.un is frequently employed to represent a sentence or phrase ; as, " Josephus •eceived a liberal education among the Pharisees, after which he went to Rome, where he culti- vated his talents to great advantage." Which here represents the whole clause, " received a liberal education among the Pharisees." What is the rule respecting tivo or more pronouns, or itcntns andpronouns^ of different persons 1 Examples. What is the rule respecting the position of relatives ? lUiislrate. Wliat besidei nowas are often empluycd as the ar.teo iltMts of pronouns ? Examples. 152 SYNTAX. Rem. 16. — A pronoun sometimes relates to an aJjective for its anteoe dent; but this usage is inelegant, and should generally be avoided.* Rem. 17. — A pronoun sometimes relates to a verb for its antecedent but this usage is also objectionable.f Rule VL — Pronouns. ^ 220. When two or more words, denoting different ob- jects, are taken conjointly, forming one common antece- dent, the pronoun agreeing with them must be in the plu- ral number ; as, " Virtue and good breeding render their possessor truly amiable." Rem. — When the antecedents are of different persons, the phi- ral pronoun referring to them should be of the first person, if either of the antecedents is of the first ; but if neither of the antecedents is of the first person, the pronoun should be of the second person ; as, " James and I have finished our lessons ; " — " You and Henry shared it between you." Rule VII. — Pronouns. § 221. When two or more antecedents in the singular are so connected that the pronoun agrees with each term separately, or with one of them exclusively, the pronoun should be in the singular number ; as, " Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which moves merely as it is moved;" — "He, and no one else, was allowed to follow Azs inclinations;" — "Every good act and every good purpose will receive its reward." What is the rule respecting the agreement of a pronoun with two or more words denoting different objects taken conjointly ? Examples. What is the rule respecting the agreement of a plural pronoun irith anteccdenti of different persons ? Examples. What is the rule respecting the agree- ment of a pronoun with each of two or more antecedents taken separate- ly, or with one of them exclusively ? Examples. * " If this enumeration is complete, which, of coarse, we would rot affinr it to be." — JV. A. Review. t "Nor is it less pleased -nith its first successful endeavors to walk, oi rather to run, whifk precedes walking." — Fakjj. PliONOUNS. Kl'LE VJi. 153 Rem — AYlien a singular and plural antecedent are joined by the connective or or vor, the pronoun agreeing with them should be in the plural number ; as, " Neither he nor his friends have In terested themselves in this subject." EXERCISES EST COMPOSITION. § 222. Write sentences containing examples which illustrate the agreement of pronouns with their auteeedents ; — one or more ex- amples of it, used to represent a word in the plural; — of it, repre- sintin(^ a noun in the tnasculine or ft^dnine ; — containing exam- ples of tcho, which, and that, correctly employed; — of whose, referring to persons ; — of whose, r&f erring io irrational anhnals, and things zvi^out life ; — two or viore pronouns^ or nour^ and pro- nouns, of different persons, joined in the same conscruciion ; — ex- amjiles illustrating Rule 6th ; — a plural pronoun referring to ante- cedents of different jjersons ; — exam})le3 illastriDng B-U-le 7th; — a pronoun agreeing with a singular and a jJturoZ anircedent con- nected by or or nor. § 223. EXERCISES IX PAP.cIr'G. [The words which are desisned to be parsed, ave print/^d in Ilalica. The sentences following the dividing line, rcquir: f,n application of the Remarks and Observations, and may be omitted by beginners.] • Model '^Mis task is accomplislied." His is a pronoun, because it is a word used to supply the place of a noun ; — personal, because it expresses person and number of itself; — in the masculine gender, because it denotes a male : — !r>. th? third per- son, because it repiesents a person spoken of; — in ths singtjiar num- ber, because it implies but one object ; — in tlie possessive case, because it denotes possession. Koin. Ae; Poss. Aw; Obj. A»n; Ind. he. — It is governed by task- The possessive case is governed by the nonn which denotes the thing possessed. 7i.«i is a noun, because it is used to express the name of an object ;--- coamon, because it may be applied to any one of a whole class ; — "'ii the reuter gender, because it denciea an object winch -s neither male nor female ; — in the third jiei-son, because it denotes an object spoken c,f; — in the smgu'sr number, beciuss it irnplieiJ bnt Dre ; and in thn n:.:ninati"i e case, b-icause it is the eabject of ihe verb ij c/:cofn2:lish:^d The cu-jcct of a finite psrb must be ?.a the ?3cni).ns,iiv-3 ease. What is the rule reipecting apron&iin agreeing unth a sinmlar cu^ i pi'-rai . See also Angus's Grammar and Campbell's Philosophy of Rheto:io. ADJECTIVES. K JLE VIII. 157 Correct Examples . — " An aristocracy is, of all forms of govern- ment, tte most tenacious of life, and X^^t least flexible in its pur- poeefi." — Bancroft. " Time ought, above all other kinds of prop- erty, to be free from invasion." — Johnson. " Transcribing -was, of all occupations, that which Cowper disliked the most." — Southey. False Syntax : — " The high reputation which he afterwards ob- tained, came too late to gladden the heart which, of all others, would have most rejoiced in it." — Southey. " This kind of wit ia that which abounds in Cowley, more than in any author that ever wrote."' — Addison. " Breathing with ease, is a blessing of every moment ; yet, of all others, it is that which we possess with the least consciousness." — Paley. " In the age of EUzabeth, England was more distinguished for pati-iotism than any nation in civilized Europe." — N. A. Review. Kem. 11. — Double comparatives and superlatives, as worser, most straitest, should be carefully avoided. Obs. — The word lesser is, however, sometimes employed by gooi^ writers ; as, " The lesser incidents." — iV. Y. Review. " Lessa- sympathies." — Dana. "Of lesser note." — Goldsmith. "Fifty lesser angels." — Prof Wilson. " Z^sser graces." — Blair. "Like /esser streams." — Coleridge. Rem. 12. — An adjective is sometimes used to perform the office of ar adverb ; as, " Soft sighed the flute." — Thomson. This usage is most] / confined to the poets. Rem. 13. — An adjective maybe used to express an attribute or quahty which results from the action of the verb with which it is connected. Adjectives of this description relate both to the verb and the noun or pronoun, and may be called adverbial adjectives. Examples: — "The door was painted green." — "Heaven opened u-ide her evev-during gates." — Milton. " The exiles of a year had grown familiar with the favorite amusement of the Indians." — Bancroft. " Children just let loose from school." — Goldsmith. Rem. 14. — An adjective is sometimes used absolutely, having no direct reference to any noun or pronoun expressed or implied ; as, " The desire of being happy reigns in all hearts;" — " To be wise and good is to ba ^eat and noble." See Rule 4, Rem. 2. Rem. 15. — Xouns are sometimes used to perform the office of adjectives, as, " A stone cistern," " A gold watch ; " and adjectives to perform the office of nouns, as " The great and good of all ages." Correct the false syntax, and show why it is false. What of double com- paratives and superlatives? What is an adverbial adjective? Examples Give examples of nouns used to supply the place vf adjectives and adjectives used to supply the place oj nouns. 158 SYNTAX. ARTICLES. Rem. 16. — The article a ox an belon;j;s to nouns of the singular number onlj, or to nouns denoting a plurality of objects in one aggregate; as, "J. house;" — '•'' An eagle ; " — '■'■ A million." Rem. 17 — The article the belongs to nouns either in the singular or plural number ; as, " The President ; " — " The Europeans." Rem. 18. — Articles are sometimes used to modify tlie sense of other adjectives; as, " ^ /ew days;" — "-4 thousand years;' — *' So much the stronger proved he." xIem. 19. — The article the is sometimes used to modify the sense of an adverb; as, " T7ie longer you delay, the more your difficulties will increase." Rem. 20. — When the article a or an is plnccd before the words fiu. aiid Utile, it generally changes their meaning from negative to positive Thus, when we say, " Tiiere were few persons present," the word fnu is used in a negative sense, in distinction from iriani/, to denote the smalhiess of the number. But when we say, "There were a few persons present," the word few is used in a positive sense, in distinction from none, to denote that there were some persons present. The expressions, " He needs little aid," and " He needs a little aid," serve also to illustrate this remark. Rem. 21. — When two nouns following a compai-ative refer to differ- ent persons or things, the article should be repeated before the second noun ; but when the two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the ar- ticle should not be repeated. Thus, in the sentence, " He is a better so) dicr than a scholar," the terms soldiei- and scholar relate properly to differ ent individuals, and it is implied that he is a better soldier than a scholar would be. But, in the sentence, " He is a better soldier than scholai-," the terms soldier and scholar are limited to one individual, and it is im- plied that he is better in the capacity of a soldier thas in that of a scholar. Rem. 22. — When two or more adjectives standing in connec- tion are used to describe different objects of the same name, the article should generally be placed before each of them ; as, " A red and a white flag ; " that is, two flags, one red and the other white. What is the rule for the agreement of the article a or an? Examples. Of the article the ? Examples. WJiat besides nouns, do articles sometimes modify ? Examples of each class What is the general rule respecting the article, when two or more adjectives standing in connection describe different objects of the siuiui tuune ? Examj^les. ADJECTIVES. — RULE VIII. 159 But wlien no ambiguity is likely to arise from the omission of the article, its repetition is not essential. Thus we may say with equal propriety, " The fourteenth and the fitleenth century," or " The fourteenth and Meenth centuries." Kem. 23. — When two or more adjectives are used to describf the same object, the article should generally be employed before the first only ; as, " A red and white flag ; " that is, one flag, both red and white. But when we wish to give particular prominence to «ach adjective, the article may be inserted before each, if no am- biguity would arise ; as, " The learned, the eloquent, the patriotic Chatham." Rem. 24. — A noun taken in its widest and most general sense, is commonly used without an article ; as, " 3fan is mortal ; " — " Vice is odious ; " — " Iron is the most useful of the metals ; " — " He was called Master." Obs. — Sometimes, however, the article the is used with a singular noun to denote the whole species, or an indefinite portion of the species ; as, " The horse is a noble animal." Rem. 25. — The article is generally omitted before proper names, and such other nouns as are of themselves sufficiently definite in their signifi- cation; as, "George Washington Avas born in the year 1732." — "To- day is yesterday returned." — Young. There are, however, some cases, in which the use of the article before proper names, is admissible ; as, " The Pyrenees ; " — " The French ; " — " The Earth ; " — " The illustrious Franklin ;" — "A Mr. William Jones addressed the meeting." Rem. 26. — The letter a is sometimes employed by mercantile men in the sense of the preposition to;* as, " BaUimore flour sold at $4.50 a $4.58;" that is, "Baltimore flour sold at prices varying from $i.50 to $4.58." Obs. — A appears also to have the force of a preposition in the follow- ing and other similar examples: — "He set the public a reading." — Blackwood^ s Magazine. " There is some ill a brewing." — Shalspcare. In such expressions as, " Thomas a Becket," " Thomas a Kempis," a is employed in the sense of the preposition of. Rem. 27. — A is sometimes employed as a mere expletive prefix ; as, " I begin to be a-iveary of thee." — Shakspeare. " Poor Tom 's a-cold." — Ibid. What exception to this ride ? Examples. What is the general rule when t!VO or more adjectives describe the same object ? Examples. What excep- tion ? Examples. Wltat of a noun taken in its widest sense ? Examples. * " This I take to be a relic of the Norman French, which was once the law and mei-cantile hmguage of England ; for, in French, a, with an accent, Ripaus lo or at." — Cubittt, 160 SYNTAX. Rem. 28. — An was formerly used as a conjunction, in t]ie sense of if as, " Fortune is to be honored and respected, an it be but for her daugh ters, Coufidence and Reputation." — Bacon. POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. Rem. 29. — Adjectives should be so placed as to show cleaily which nouns they are intended to qualify. Thus, instead of say ing, " This disconsolate soldier's widow," we should say, " Thia soldier's disconsolate widow." Ob.9. 1. — TVTien an adjective is used to qualify another adjective and a noun, taken jointly, it should not be placed between tho other adjective and the noun. Thus, in the expression, " An ami- able young man," the word amiable qualifies the phrase young man ; it would therefore be improper to say, " A young amiable man." Ous. 2. — Tlic adjective generally precedes the noun to wliicli it ba- long.s ; as, " A patriotic citizen." But in the following cases the adjective most commonly follows the noun: — 1. When some word or jjlirase is dependent on the adjective ; as, " The knowledge requisite for a states- man : " — "A river twenty yards u-ide." 2. Wlien the adjective i.s used a-satitle: as, "Alfred the G'reoi;" — " George the /oi/r^A." 3. Wlienthe quality expressed by the adjective is dependent on the action of a transi- tive verb ; as, " Vanity often renders man contemptible." Obs. 3. — When an adjective is qualified by an adverb it is sometimes placed before the noun, and sometimes after it ; as, " A very (/ood man ; " — "A man conscientiously exact." Obs. 4. — When a verb comes between an adjective and its noun, the adjective may either precede or follow the noun ; as, " Great is our God ;" ~ " Gaming is ruirwus." " How vain the ardor of the crowd. How low, how little are the proud. How indigent the great." — Gray. Obs. 5. — When several adjectives belong to one noun, they m:iv either precede or follow the noun: a,s, " A Icam/'d, irise, and ainialile man." or "A man learned, wise, and amiable." The longest adjective is usually placed last. Obs. 6. — An adjective relating to a pronoun is generally i>]aced after the pronoun : as, " He is faithful and kind." 0i5S. 7. — When a noun is preceded by an article in connection wiih one or more otlier adjectives, the article is generally pl.aeed first ; ii.s, " A great and good man." But when the words many, such, both, all, and what, are employed, they generally precede the article: as, ^'- Many a What rule is to be observed respecting the position of adjectives ? IlUis trate What rule is to be observed respecting an adjective used to gualify, unollier adjcdive and a noun 1 Illustrate. ADJECTIVES. — -RULE VIIT. 101 day ; " — " Siirk a favor ; " — " Both the trees." The article is also plated after adjectives which are modified by as, so, how, and hoLoever ; as, " Hom great a work." Obs. 8. — Some grammariaus object to the use of the nu'merals, two, three, four, etc., before the adjectives Jirst and last. There seems, however, to be no good reason for the objection,* and the expressions two first, three last, etc., are fully sanctioned by good usage. Examples: — " My two last letters." — Addison. " The two frsl lines are uncommonly beautiful." — Blair. "At the two /««< schools." — Johnson. " The three first generations." — E. Everett. " T!ie two first years." — Bancroft. "The two first day a." — Irving "The two first cmiiosP ^- A. II. Everett. " The four first centu- ries." — Preseott. " The two last productions." — ^V. A. Ih-view. " The four first are altogether and ujiequivocally poetical." — Cheever. " The three first of his longer poems." — Southcij. Obs. 9. — The expressions _;?rei three, last two, etc., are also iu good use, and, in some cases, are to be preferred. Examples: — "The first eir/hteen years." — N. A. Reriew. " T!ie history of the world for the last fiftij years." — E. Everett. " IJur ing the last seven or eight years." — Brougham. What is said of the use of numerals before the adjectives first and last 7 Examples. ]Vhat other form is also employed ? Examples. * " It lias been fashionable of late to write the Jirst three, and so on, iu- Btcad of the three Jirst. People write in this way to avoid the seeming ab- surdity of implj-ing that more than o?ie thing can be the Jirst.; but it "is, at least, equally absurd to talk about the Jirst Jh/tr, wlien (as oHen happens) there is no second four." — Arnold. "Surely, if there can be only ,'o?;e last,' '■one first,' there can be onlv 'a last one,' '■•x first one.' I need only observe, that usage is decidodlj' in fa- vor of the former phraseology." — Grant. The following remarks respecting this qiiestion, are extracted from a p.a- perread by Dr. Murdock before the Now Haven Academy of Sciences: — " The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor of substi- tuting _;?(.<;«< wo, so far as 1 can recollect, is this. In the nature of things, there can be only 07ie first and one last, in any series of things. But is' it true that there can never be more than oite first and one last ? If it be so, then the adjectives first and last must always be of the singidar number, and can never agree with nouns in the plural. We are told that the first years of a lawyer's practice are seldom very lucrative. The poet tells us, ♦hat his first essays were severely handled by the critics, but b.is last efforts hare been well received. Examjiles like these might be produced wi'tliout iiTunber. They occur everywhere iu all our standard writers. * * When a numeral adjective and a qualifying epithet both refer to the same noun, the general nde. o^ the English language is to place the numeral first, then the qualifying epithet, and afterwards the noun. Thus we say, ' the two wise men,' ' the troo tall men ; ' and not, ' the ivise two men,' ' the tall turn men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives. We say, 'the two njisest men,' ' the two tallest men ; ' and not ' the wisest ttvo men,' ' the tallest two men.' Now if this be admitted to be the general rule of the English laa- 1G2 SYNTAX. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. § 226. Write sentences containing ex^nples of descriptive anJ definitive adjectives ; — containing an adjective that qualifies a sen- tence or jyhrase ; — an adjective tJiat qualifies a noun and another adjective, taken as one compound term; — an adjective expressing a comparison between two objects only; — one expressing a compari- son between more than two objects ; — an adverbial adjective ; — a noun used to perform the office of an adjective, and an adjectice used to jierforni the office of a noun ; — examples of the articles ; — one or more examijles illustrating Rem. 22nd; — Ee7n. 23rd; — Rem. 24.th. EXEKCISES IN PARSING. Model. § 227. "7%e country abounds in excellent fruit." The is an article. This title is applied to the definite adjectives a or an, nnd the. — It is definite, because it indicates some particular ob- ject; — and belongs to country. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or define. Excellent is an adjective, because it is joined to a noun to qualify or de fine its meaning; — descriptive, because it expresses some quahty of tlie noun fruit ; — m the positive degree, because it expresses the isim])lc state of the quality. Positive, excellent ; comparative, nwre excdlent ; superlative, most excellent. — It belongs to fruit. Adjec- tives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or define. " Wise men." — "A virtuous life." — " Rural scenery is always interesting." — " Are these things so ? " — " The noblest spirits some- times grow up in the obscurest spheres," — " 3Iore agreeable conver- sation." — " An able statesman." — " The rose is sioeet." — " Our highest interests." — " All hope was lost." — " Ti?ne is so swift of foot that none can overtake it." — " Modesty is one of the greatest ornaments of youth." — " Our good or bad fortune depends greatlj on the choice we make of our friends." § 228. "Men grew old in camps, and acquired the highest renown by their warlike achievements, without being once required to face serious danger." — Maeaulay. " Any one can conquer his passions guage, then it follows, that generally we should say, ' the two first ' ' the two tast,^ etc., rather than ' the Jirsi tiro,^ the ' last two,'' etc. This I say Bhonld generally be the order of thp words. Yet there are some cases in whi^ it seems preferable tl say, 'the first iwo,'' ' the fust three^ etc." VERBS, RULE IX. 163 vJho calls in the aid of religion." — Crabb. " Every nine days must have its wonder, no matter of what kind." ^ Irving. " We havo the rather availed ourselves of this testimony of a foreign critic in behalf of Shakspeare, because our own countryman, Dr. Johnson^ has not been so favorable to him." — Hazlitt. " I made the greater pro- gress." — Franklin. " A century is a. period of a hundred years." — " " Rectitude in all its branches, is the supreme good." — Clianning. " The purest clay is that which burns white." — " The door was red hot." — Dickens. " That mind and body often sympathize, is plain." — Jenyns. " The two last qualities are indeed so common in all the poetry of his nation, that we need scarcely enlarge upon the phrase as belonging peculiarly to him." — /. G. Lockhart. " Without fru- gality none can be rich ; and with it, very fexo would be poor." — Johnson. " Man often clouds with vain or fancied ills, His narrow span, when Nature's stainless hght Dispenses only happiness, and fills The world with things so beautifid and bright. Her plains, her mountains, and her valleys teem With living verdure in the fairest dress ; And ocean, river, lake, and singing stream. Combine to harmonize her loveliness." — W. C Lodge Rule IX. — Verbs. — Agreement. § 229. A verb must agree with its nominative in num- ber and person ; as, ^'1 go ; " — " Thou seest ; " — " He hears." False Syntax : — " The singular admixture of serious faults which call for severe criticism, with great merits which excite our warmest admiration, render our task one of unusud perplexity." — West- minster Review. " He was forced to account for it by one of the most absurd, unplillosophical notions that was ever started." — Ad- iison. " They dwelt with a contented fondness on the scenes amidst which they had been born aad nurtured with a purity and exulta- What is the rule respecting the agreement of verbs "* Examples Vdrrecl the false syntax, and show why it is false. 164 SYNTAX. tion of feoHng whicli powerfully captivates the heart."— ZV. A lieoiew. "A few brief summer daj-s, and thou* No more amid these haunts shall glide." — Bernard Bwton. " AVhat art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, "While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ? " — Pope, Ri;m. 1. — When a verb is placed between two nominatives of dilVcrent numbers or persons, it should generally be made to agroo with that which precedes it ; as, " His meat was locusts and wild hont'v ; " — " Thou art the man." But when the verb is followed by the direct and principal subject, it should be made to agree with the latter nominative ; as, " 'Who art thou V" — " "What are we ? " COLLECTIVE NOUNS. Re-m. 2. — The singiithr form of a collective noun, may have a verb agreeing with it either in the singular or plural number ; as, " The nation is powerful ; " — " The assembly were divided in their opinions." Obs. — No definite rule can be given to decide, in all cases, which number should be employed to agree with a collective noun. U'^hen the noun most naturally suggests the idea of unlti/, the verb should be singular ; but when the noun conveys the idea of plurality, the verb should be plural. In modern usage, the plural form is most frequently employed. Rem. 3. — The transitive verbs need and xoant are sometimes employed in a trencral sense, without a nominative expressed or implied.* Examples: — "There needed a ncAV di.'^pensation of reiipion for the moral reform of society." — Caleb Citshing. " There ■netf/s no better picture of liis destitute and piteous situation, than that furnislied by the homely pen of the chronicler." — Irving. "Wheresoever the case of the opinions came in agitation, there wanted not patrons to stand up to plead for them." — Sparks's Am. Biog. " Nor did there iva?it, Cornice or frieze, with bossy sculptures graven." — Milton. Rem. 4. — A verb in the imperative is sometimes used absoliiteli/, What of a verb placed between ttvo nominatives of different numbers or pt^- sons ? Examples. What is said respecting the agreement of a verb with a wUcdive nouni Examjiles. How are we to he governed in deciding u Inch number should be employed to agree ivith a collective noun ? * See Webster, Perley, and Ingersoll. VERBS. KULE X. 1G5 liavinp no direct reference to any particular subject expressed ir im- plied.* Examvlfs: — "And God said, 'Lit tliere be light;' and thcie was Uixht." — Ge7t. I : 3. " ' I 've lost a day,' — the prince who nobly cried, Had been an emperor without his crown. — Of Rome '? — sai/, rather, lord of human race." — Young. Rule X. — Verbs. — Agreement. § 230. When two or more n/"'s Murray. 8 110 SYNTAX. in the council,"' it would be preferable to say, " A seat in the council waa offered [to] liim." Eem. 5. — The passive voice of a verb is sometimes used in connec- tion with a preposition, forming a compound passive verb. Examples : — " lie teas listened to without a raurn.ur." — A. H. Everett "Nor is this enterprise to he scoffed at J' — Charming. "This is b tendency to be guarded against." — Palcy. " A bitter persecution vxis carried on." — Hallam. Eem. 6. — Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which a noun ir the objective is iireccded by a passive verb, aiid followed by a prepcei tiou used adverbially. Exampks : — " Vocal and instrumental music icere made use of:* — Addison. " The third, fourth, and fifth, icere taken possession of at half past c\ghl."^-Southey. "The F'mta was soon lost sigM cf in the darkness of the night." — Irving. " It ought never to be lost sight of' — N. A. Review. Obb. — Tliis idiom is anomalous; but it lias the sanction of many good writers, and is therefore shielded from the unqualified condemna- tion of the critic. It would, however, generally be better to avoid it. Rem. 7. — There are some verbs which maybe used either transitively oi" intransitively ; as, " He mil return in a few davs ; " '' He will return the louk ; "— '• The wind blows violently ; " " The wind blotvs the chajf." Rem. 8. — Tlie verb Zearw is often improjierly used for teach; as, " It is of little utility to learn scholars that certain wcitls are signs of certain modes and tenses." Insert teach iu the place of learn. Rem. 9. — The verbs lai/ and set should not be ;onfoundcd with lie and sit. Lay is properly transitive ; lie, intransitive. Set, is either transitive or intransitive ; sit, always intransitive. See the principal parts of these verbs, in the list of irregular vei-bs, p}\ 96, 1)7. Correct Examples : — " He fjisted and lay in sackcloth." — 1 Kings 21: 27. "He laid his robe from him." — Jonah 3: 6. " I have sat for hours at my window." — hinng. " Thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over." — Ps. 104: 9. " They have forsaken my law which I set before them." — Jer. 9:13. " We say, a thing lies by us until we bring it into use; we lay it by for some future purpose ; we lie down in order to repose om-selves ; we lai^ money down by way of deposit." — Crahh. False Syntax : — " My old friend sat himself down iu the chair-'» — Addison. " The mate of a Briti.sh vessel then laying at anchor in Boston harbor." — Sparks's Am. Biug. What of the verbs lay a?id set ^ Correct the false syntax, and show whj ii is false. VERBS. RULE Xll. iTl " Even now, -where Alpine solitudes ascend, I sit me down a pensive Lour to spend." — Goldsmith. " For him through hostile camps I bend my -wav, For him thus prostrate at thy feet I lay." — Pope. Rem. 10. — A verb in the infinitive is often preceded by a noun ok pronoun in the objective, which has no direct dependence on any other word.* Examples: — " One error is that of concluding the things in question to be alike." — Whateky. " Columbus ordered a strong /(Wtrc^s of wood and plaster to be erected." — Irving. " Its favors here should make us tremble." — Young. Rem. 11. — Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur, in which the ac- tive form of a transitive verb is used in a sense nearly allied to the passive ; as, " The goods sell rapidly ; " _ " The cloth tears ; " — " Mahog- any planes smooth ; " — " These lines read well." Rem. 12. — The Imperfect participle of a transitive verb Is some- times employed in a passive sense.f Examples : — " The spot where this new and strange tragedy was acting." — E Everett. "An attempt is making in the English Par- liament to provide by law for the education of the poor." — Daniel Webster. "The fortress was building." — Irving. "We must pass to a rapid notice of the magniticeut church, now erecting in the city of New York." — N. A. Review. "While this necessary movement was making.''''. — Cooper. "While these things were transacting in England." — Bancroft. What peculiar use is sometimes made of the impeifect participle of a transitive verb f Examples. * " The infinitive has sometimes a subject in the objective case ; as, ' I believe Mm to be an honest man ;' — ' He commanded the horiie to be sad- dled;'— ' I confess w^i^-// to be in fault;'— 'Let Mm be punished.' Ilim, in the first sentence quoted, is not the object of the verb believe, but the subject of to be. In the second sentence, Jwrse is not the object of c^mmiand ; ■ — it is not meaut that a command was given to the horse.'' — B idler. " The agent to a verb in the infinitive mode must be in the objective case." — Nutt'ing. . See also Nixon's English Parser. •* Difl'erent opinions have long existed among critics respecting this pas sive use of the imperfect participle. Many respectable writers substitute the compound passive participle ; as, " The liouse is be'ing built ; " " The book is being jn-iiiled:' But the prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form ; as, " The house is buikling." "The propriety of these imperfect passive tenses has been doubted by almost all our graanmarians ; though 1 believe but few of them have written many pao-es without coudescendina; to make use of them. Dr. Beattiesays, 'One of the sreatest defects of the'^English tongue, with regard to the verb, seems to be the want of an imperfect passive participle.' And yet he uses the imperfect participle in a passive sense as often as most writers. " — Pickboimi's Dissertation on the English Verb. " Several other expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the 1^72 SYNTAX. EuLE XIII. — Predicate Nominative. § 236. Intransitive and passive verbs have the sarne case after them as before them, when both words refer to the same person or thing; as, ^'■Society is the true sj)here of human virtue;" — "They wished him to be their king f — '•'■He soon became the leader oi his party;" — '^i/e was chosen librarian f — "iiib^ner has been styled the 2^rince of poets." Rem. 1. — In some instances the words so agreeing in case are both placed either before or after the verb; as, "Are they friends V — ''Friends they cannot be." Reii. 2. — When the nominative after a verb forms a part of the predi- cate, it is called the predicate nominative. The nominative employed as t).6 subject of a verb, is called the subject nominative. Rule XIV. — Government of the Infinitive. & 237. The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, a noun, or an adjective;* as, ''■'■ Strive to imi^rove ;"" — "I am m haste to return;'' — "The ship was ready to sail." Rem. 1. — The infinitive is often governed by than or as. The following are examples : — " An object so high as to be invisible ;" What is the rule respecting the same case ? Examples. Respecting the government of the infinitive? Examples. Wluit conjunctions are frequently employed to govern the infinitive ? Examples. new-faneled and most uncouth solecism, ' is being done,' for the good old English idiomatic expression is doins,' — an absurd periphrasis, driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the English language."— iV. A. Revieiv. * Several respectable graminarians treat the infinitive particle to as a preposition, governing the verb. See Comly, G. Brown, Bell, Snyder, and Fowle. " If to is here a preposition, it differs at least m one respect, f rorn every other Englisla prei)Osition, and from the same word in other situations, in giving entire generality to the verb, — an effect which no preposition, as such,"^ ever has, either on the verb, or any other part of speech. That it should assume this pecnliarity in this particular connection only, is remark able ; and that it should do this and at the same time retain the usual pro perties of a preposition, seems very improbable." — Everest. TENSES. RULE XV. 1V3 ~- " It la sometimes better to submit to injustice, than to resort ta judi<;x3J pj'ocee dings." Rem. 2. — The infinitive is sometimes governed by an adverb; as, " The shipmen were about to/tee." Kem. 3. — The infinitive is sometimes governed by a phrase or a sen- tence ; as, " loo ncahj ever to have leisure for attempting to execute an_\r great and wortliy dcstgn." — Southcy. " Jn age, in infancy, _/)w?i others] aid Is all our hope, to teach us to be kind." — Young. liKM. 4. — The iiifinitive is sometimes used absolutely, having no dependence on any other word ; as, "It was, so to speak, a branch of the Executive Power." — N. Y. Review. Rem. 5. — A verb in the infinitive usually relates to some noun or proi.oun.* Thus, in the sentence, " He desires to improve," the verb to improve relates to the pronoun he while it is governed by desires. Eem. 6. — When the mfinitive follows the active voice of the verbs bid., dare, feel, see, let, make, need, and 'hear, the sign to is usually omitted; as, ^^1 felt my strength return ; " -^ " Nothing need be said ; " — " We heard the thunder roll ; " — " Pride guides his steps, and bids hiin shun the great." Kem. 7. — The sign of the infinitive is also omitted, in some instances, After the verbs hare, behold, perceive, know, and help; as, " Would they Aa!7e us reject such an offer 1 " Rule XV. — Tenses. § 238. In the vise of verbs, those tenses should be em- ployed wliich express correctly the sense intended. What of infinitives having no dependence on other ivords ? Examples. To what do infinitives relate ? Examples. After what verbs is the sign of the infinitive usually omitted ? Examples. Give the rule for the employ- ment of the tenses. Illustrate its application. * Some teachers pav little attention to the ^ofer7;.?«i?7i< of the infinitive, wliile thev .lirect their'pupils to point out in all cases the noun or pronoun to which it retaU?. Others require their pupils to designate both government and rehitioii. See Sanborn's Grammar, p. 144. "An infinitive refers to the noun ^vllich is the agent or subject of the action exi)ressed bv the iiifiiiitive. The reference is precisely of the same nature as that of a oarticiple to its substantive, or of a finite verb to its nominative." — Furl, urst. 174 VERES. Rkm i. — This rile is somewh.u indefinite, but wlien taken in connection with the definitions and illustrations of'ihe tenses oriven under Etymology, it will, in most cases, be a sufficient guide to die learner. It is violated in the following example : — "I exrected fo hane seen you." The verb to have seen cannot here relate to a L'lne prior to that denoted by the verb expected. It should not thercforo bo in the past perfect tense. Corrected : — "I expected to see yon." Fahe Syntax : — " When I was in France, I have often observed, that a great man has grown so insensibly heated by the court which was paid him on all sides, that he has been quite distracted." — Steele. " Columbus had fondly hoped, at one time, to have rendered the natives civilized, industrious, and tributary subjects of the crown." — Irving. " As Dr. Wallis hath long ago observed." — Lowth. " They continue with me now three days." — Malt. 15 : 32. Rem. 2. — The present tense is often employed in expressions that relate to the future ; as, " The world to come ; " — " He leaves in half an hour ; " — "I am about to write." Obs. — When a finite verb in the present tense, occurs in a sentence denoting futurity, it is generally preceded by before, as soon as, when, till, or after; or accompanied by an adverb or modifying phrase denoting future time; as, " When the mail arrives, the letters will be delivered;" — " Bold you the watch to-night ? " " We do my lord ; " — '■ Ring the bell, rd a quarter before eight." Rem. 3. — When the infinitive present is connected with another verb, it generally relates to the same time as the verb with which it is joined ; as, " He began to write ; " — " He "svill begin to write." In the first of these examples to write corresponds in time with began, and is therefore past in respect to the time of speaking. In the other example, it relates to the same time that is expressed by will begin. . Obs. — Sometimes, however, the infinitive denotes time subsequent to that expressed by the verb with which it is connected ; as, " He is to engage in teaching ; " — " JEneas went in search of an empire which xcoi one day to command the world." Rem. 4. — In animated narrations, the present tense is occasionally used for the past ; as, " After the lapse of eight precious days, they again Correct the false syntax, and shoiv tchy it is false. Give examples of verbs in the present tense, used in expressions that relate to the futurL What of the in/initive present, used in connection with other verbs ? Illustrate. TENSES.-^RULE XV. 1Y5 tof'itih anclior ; tlie coast of Eng-land recedes ; already they are nnfiirling llieir sails on the hioad ocean, when the captain of the Speedwell, with his company, dismayed at thfi dangers of the enterpiize, once more pmtends that his ship is too weak for the service." — Bancroft.. T\EM. 5. — The future tense is frequently employed for the future per- fect ; as, '• I shall Jinish my letter before the mail closes." Eem. 6. — When a verb in the present perfect tense is preceded by before^ as soon as, when, till, or after, it usually performs the office of the future perfect; as, " When he has Jinished his engagement, ke shall be rewai:dcd." Rem. 7. — The hypothetical form of the verb to be is used to express either present or indctinite time; as, "If he were present, he would con- vince you of your error.'' See p. 84. Obs. — The past subjunctive of other verbs is often, employed in a similar manner ; as, " If he ree/ardcd his own interest, he would be more faithful to his employer." TJem. S. — The past perfect subjunctive is often employed to express Indefinite past time; as, "I should have walked out if it had not rained^ Rem. 9. — la expressing general propositions wliich have no direct relation to time, the present tense of the verb should be em- ployed ; as, " The passion for power and superiority is universal." — Channincj. Rem. 10. — The perfect participle of an irregular verb should not be used for the past tense, nor the past tense for the perfect partici- ple. The following expressions are therefore incorrect : — " The storm hegun to subside ; " — "I done it in great haste ; " — " He was displeased to receive a letter wrote with so little care." Corrected : — "The storm legan to subside ; " — "I did it in great haste ; " — *' He was displeased to receive a letter written with so little care." This rule is also violated when the past tense of an irregular verb ig used with an auxiliary. Thus, instead of saying " The sun has roue" we should say, " The sun has risen." False Syntax : — " We are not condemned to toil through half a folio, to be convinced that the writer has broke his promise." -^ Johnson. " The champions having just began their career, the king stopped the combat." — Goldsmith. " Rapt into future times, the bard begun." — Pope. What tense is cnploj/'cd in general propositions, havinq no direct relatior to time 1 Examples. What is said rcspectinf/ the use of the perfect participle and the past tense of an irrrcjitlar verb ? Illustrate. Correct the false syniaZf and show ichij it. is fcdse. 176 VERBS. Rule XVI. — Paeticiples. § 239. Participles relate to Bouns or pronouns ; as, *' He stood leaning on his spade, and gazing at the brii^ht- ness in the west." Rem. 1. — When the participle is pi-eceded by the negative j)ar- ticle WW, it becomes an adjective, unless the verb fi-om which it is formed admits the same prefix. The words unthing, unsought, un- seen, and unknown, are examples of this class of adjectives. But the words unbinding, unfolded, undone, etc., when used in the verbal sense, are to be regarded as participles, since they are formed regularly from the verbs unbind, unfold, undo, etc. Rem. 2. — Participles are often used in the sense of nouns ; as, •* There was again the smacking of whips, the clattering of hoofs, and the gdttering of harness." — Irving. Rem. a. — Participles often perform, at the same time, the office ot a noun and a verb ; as, " I could not avoid expressing my concern for the sti'anger.^ As a noun, expressing is in the objective case and governed by avoid. As a transitive verb, it governs the word concern. Rem. 4. — A participle is sometimes used ahsolutehj, hiwrng no dependence on any other word ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance ; " — " This conduct, viewing it in the most favorable hght, reflects discredit on his character." Kem. 5. — A participle sometimes relates to a sentence or phrase; as, " He had been strictly secured and guarded, owing to liis former escape." — WoLter Scott. " To do aught good never will be our task, But ever to do ill our sole delight, As being the contrarv' t6 his hjgh will Whom we resist." — Milton. Rem. 6. — There are certain adjectives which are derived directly from verbs, and supply the place of passive participles. Their use is mostly confined to poetry. Examples : — " Regions consecrate to oldest time." — Wordsworth. '"Tis dedicate to ruin." — Coleridge. Give the rule for the agreement of participles. Examples. Pai-tidplea preceded by the negative particle un. Examples of each class. Give examples yf participial nouns. \Miat double office do participles of&i perform ? Ex- amples. Give examples of participles used ahsolutclg. VERBS. RULE XV:. 17V " To save liiir.sclf and liousehold from amidst A world devote to universal wreck." — Miltvn. [Foi one of the uses of the imperfect participle, see Rule 12, Rem, 12.] EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. § 240. Write exercises containing objectives governed by transi- tive verbs; — intransitive verbs governing objectives of kindred signi- fication ; — verbs having the same case after them as beibre them ; — verbs in the infinitive governed by verbs, nouns, and aloycd without reference to place, for the phrase in which; as, " They framed a protestation, where [in which] they repeated all their former claims." ■Rem. 9. — The adverb there is often used for the sake of euphony, without any reference to place; as, " There is an hour of peaceful rest." -W. B. Tappan. " There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin." — Campbell. When used in this sense, there is called an expletive adverb. "Rkm. 10. — The v.-ord all is frequently used as an adverb, in the sense w/ wholly ; as, " Yet our great enemy. All incorruptible, would on his throne Sit unpolluted."— .iW/oH. What of the adverbs yen, yes, nay, no, and amen ? Examples. What pati 9f speech are adverbs sometimes used to represent? Examples. Which of ihji different forms of erpressimi named are aiUhorizcd, and ivhich are objec lionabk ? 180 SYNTAX. Rem. 1 1 . - - a negation is properly expressed by the use uf one negative only. The following sentence is therefore erroneous : — " I never did repent for doing good, JVor shall 7iot now." — Shakspeare. Obs. 1. — Two ncgat/ves in the same clause are generally equivalent to an affirmative, and are sometimes elegantly employed to express a positive assertion ; as, " The pilot was Jiot wnacquaiuted witli the coast " — " Nor did he pass ttnmoved the gentle scene." " Nor did they not j)erceive the evil plight In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel." — Milton. The intervention of ouhj, or some other word of kindred meaning preserves the negation ; as, " He was not only i'/Iiberal, but covetous." Obs. 2. — A repetition of the same negative renders the negatioi more emphatic ; as, " I would never lay down my arms ; — never — nc'vet — never." — Pitt. Rem. 12. — The adverb ho is sometimes improperly used for not; as. " Whether he will or no, he must be a man of the nineteenth century.' — Macaulay. Kem. 13. — Two or more words are sometimes used in connec- tion, as a compound adverb, or adverbial phrase. Examples: — " TVe will see about this matter hy and by." — Irving "Ishmael went forth to meet them, weeping aW alonr/ as he went." — Jer. 41 : 6. "If we hope for what we are not likely to possess, ■we act and think in vain." — Addison. Rem. i4. — Adverbs should be placed in that situation which con- tributes most to the harmony and clearness of the sentence, and which accords best with the usage of the language. This rule is violated in the sentence, " Thoughts are 07ily criminal, when they are first cho- sen and then voluntarily continued." As it stands, the adverb only properly qualifies criminal, whereas the author intended to have it qualify that portion of the sentence which follows the comma. Corrected : — " Thoughts are criminal, only when they are first cho- sen and then voluntarily continued." False Syntax : — "In following the trail of his enemies through the forest, the American Indian exhibits a degree of sagacity, which almost appears miraculous." — Alison. " There are certain miseries in idleness, which the idle can only conceive." — Johnson. " It not only has form but life." — N. A. Review. Hoio is a negation properly expressed? Give examples of tlie violation of this rule. What is an adt'o-bial phrase ? Examples. What nde should be observed respecti-M] the position of adverbs ? Illustrate. Correct the- false syn- tax, and show why it is false. CO.N'JUXCnONS. RLLE XVIII. 181 OiJS. 1. — An advtirb should not be placed immediately after the infinitive particle to.* This rule is violated in the following sen- tence : — " Teach scholars to carefully scrutinize the sentiments ad- vanced in all the books they read." False Syntax : — "To make this sentence perspicuous it Avould be necessary to entirely remodel it" — Newman's Rhetoric. "It costs the pupil more to simply state the examples in such a foi'm, than it does to perform them without any statement at all." — N. A. Reoiew. Obs. 2. — The adverb enough is placed after the adjective which it modifies, and both the adjective and the adverb are jilaced after the noun ; as, '■ A house large enough for all." Rem. 15. — The words howsoever, ichichsoever, and whatsoever, are some- times divided by the intervention of another word ; as, " But surely this division, how long soever it lias been received, is inadequate and falla- cious.'' — Johnsot},. " By what manner soever." — Wayland. \ Rule X^TU. Conjunctions. § 244. Conjunctions connect words or sentences ; as, " Idleness and Ignorance are the parents of many vices ; " — " He fled because he was afraid." Rem. 1. — Relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs are also employed to perform the office of connectives. Obs. 1. — In the compound sentence, "He who expects much, "will often be disappointed," the relative who is the subject of the verb expects in one clause, and relates to the pronoun he, which is the subject of will be disappointed in the other clause. The con- nection expressed by who in this example, and by relative pronouns generally, is quite as close as that expressed by conjunctions. See § 77, Rem. 2. Obs. 2. — Many conjunctive adverbs modify the two verbs em- braced in the difierent clauses which they connect ; as, " When he Wltat cf the position of adverbs modifyiiig infinitives ? Correct the falsa syntax, and show ichy it is false. Give the rule respecting conjunctions. Examples. ' What other classes of icords are also employed as connectives f Illustrate the connective office of a relative pronoun. Twofold modifying power of many conjunctive adverbs. Examples. * See Davis, Parkhurst, Perlej', and Kennion. 182 STXTAX. had delivered Ms message Le departed ; " — " Fame may give praise, wh'de it withholds esteem." Oes. 3. — A conjunctive adverb used to supply the place of a preposition and a relative pronoun, is called a relative adverb ; as, " The shepherd leaves his mossy cottage, where \in whichi he dwells in peace ; " — " The colonies had now reached that stage in their growth, ivhen the difficult problem of colonial government must be solved." Rem. 2. — There are certain idiomatic forms of expression in which the coTinection between dilFerent clauses is implied in the relation which they bear to each other in sense; as, " In this last case, thcmore apt and strik- inver, ctcins oria'^e to h.i.ve dcciJed almost utii 'ersally in favor :>{ than." — i>, , flfunbL'. * See Burns's Grammar. CONJUNCIIONS. RULE XVIII. 185 been idle fnr the pb.ilolbpher to form conjectures, as to the direction which the kindling genius of the age was to assume." — E. Everett. " As for the rest of those who have written against me, they deser%-e not the least notice." — Dryden. 4'. To connect nouns and pronouns v/hich are in apposition ; as " Nor ought we, as* citizens, to acquiesce in an injurious act." — Charming. See also Rule 2, Eem. 7. 3. To connect adjectives and participles with the nouns or pro- nouns to which they belong ; as, " The infantry was regarded as comparatively worthless." — Macaulay. " Their presence was of great moment, as giving consideration to the enter- prise." — Prescolt. Rem. 11. — The conjunction that is"T)ften employed to introduce a sen- tence or clause, which is used as a noun in the nominative or objective case ; as, " That the idea of rjlonj should he associated strongly with military exploits, ought not to be wondered at." — Chaniiing. Rem. 12. — The conjunction so is occasionally used in the sense of if, or provided that ; as, "It signifies little wH^ther it be very well executed or not, so it be reasonably well done, and without any glaring omissions or errors." — Brouyhaia. Rem. 13. — The word than was formerly employed as a preposition, and still retains this character in the pln-ase than ivhom ;\ as, " There sat a patriot sage, than whom the English language does not possess a better writer." — E. Everett. " Which, when Beiilzcbub perceived, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat, with grave Aspect he rose." — Milton. " Felon unwhipp'd ! than ivhom in yonder cells Full many a groaning wretch less guilty dwells." — Spragw. Qjjg. — The jjhrase than which is also sometimes used in a similar man- ner; as, " A work, than which the age has certainly produced none more sure of bequeathing its author's name to the admiration of future times." — J. G. Palfrey. Rem. 14. — The word both sliould not be used with reference to more than two objects or classes of objects. The following example is therefore erroneous : — " He paid his contributions to literary un- dertakings, and assisted both the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian." ~- J \7ison. Both should be omitted. What care should be obsg •ed in the use of the icord both 1 Ilhtstrats. * Several respectable grammarians entertain the opinion that as in this and similar examples is a preposition, governing the following noun. l5o3 Fuller, J. M. Putnam, Sanborn, Cobb, and Einmons. t " The comparative aijreeth to the parts compared, by adding this pre- jiosition, thaji." — Ben ^JoJinsoii ; London, IGIO. See also Crombie, Priestley, Wm. Ward, Bickuell, Meiian, aad Luidsay. 186 SYNTAX. Rem. 15. — The conjunctions thaft and as are fi'cqucntly followed by an ellipsis of one or more T.'ords required to complete the con- Btruction ; as, " INIore than one [ ] of his plays are devoted exclu- sively to its illustration." — Prescott. " He was the father of all such as \_ ] handle the har|) and organ." — Gen. 4 : 21. Ob9. — Examples sometimes occur in which it is impossible to supply the ellipsis satisfactorily, -^-hile the sense is rlearly conveyed by the ex- pression in its abridged form. In parsing such examples, it v.-oukl be better for the pupil to refer to the foregioing remark, and not attempt to supply words wliich are altogether rejected by the idiom of the language. Thus, in the first example above, the word one may be parsed as the sub- ject of a verb understood, without naming any particular word to complete the construction. But in the second example, the ellipsis is more readily supplied. "He was the father of all such as [those who] handle the hai-p and organ." In parsing examples of this class, it is better to supply the elhpsis. See § 300. Rule XIX. — Prepositions — Eelation. § 245. Prepositions .^lonnect words and show the rela- tion between them. S.EJI. 1 . — In parsing a preposition, both terms of the relation expressed by it should be pointed out. One of these terms is always the object of the preposition ; the other may be a verb, an adjective, a noun, or an adverb. In the sentence, "He travelled for pleasure," yb?- shows the relation between joZeaswre and the verb travelled. In the sentence, " They were destitute o/ food," q/ shows the relation between food and the adjective destitute. In the sen- tence, " This is an age of improvement," q/" shows the relation be- tween improvement and the noun age. In the sentence, "Amb.assa- dors were sent previously to the declaration," to shows the relation between declaration and the adverb previously. Obs. — There are certain elliptical forms of speech in which the ante- cedent term of relation is omitted ; as, " O for the voice and fire of seraphim. To sing thy glories with devotion due ! " — Beattie. Rem 2. — A preposition and its object should be so placed as to leave no ambiguity in regard to the words which the preposition is intended to connect. The following sentence is faulty in this res- E;.; what are the conjunctions than and us freqiienth/ folloivcd? Examples. Give the rule for the relation expressed by prepositions. Illustrate. Whit nde is given respecting the post ion of a preposition and its object^ PREPOSITlOyS. KULE XIX. 18? pect : — " The message was communicated by an agent, vrho liad never before discharged any important ofBce of trust, in compliance with the instructions of the executi%-e." In is here intended to show the relation between was communicated and compliance ; whereas the present arrangement indicates that it expresses the relation between had discharged and compliance. Corrected : — " The message was communicated in compliance with the instructions of the executive, by an agent who had never before discharged any important office of trust" Rem. 3. — The use of two prepositions before a single noun, though inelegant, often contributes to perspicuity and brevity, and has the sanc- tion of many good writers. Examples: — "ilen's passions and interests mix t«V^, and are ex- pressed in, the decisions of the intellect." — Cliannitvj. " They were never revealed to, nor confronted with, the prisoner." — Prescott. " "We have never uttered a word in this Journal, either in advocacy of, or in opposition to, anj' particular religious sect, or political party amongst us." — Horace Mann. Obs. — The same remark applies also to the use both of a preposition and a transitive verb before a single object. Examples: — " It was created to influence, and not solely to be influ- enced by, the opinions of the community." — N. A. Review. "And may readily associate u-ith, and promote either." — Dr. Hopkins. " We are so made as to be capable, not only of perceiving, but also of being pleased with, or pained by, the various objects by which we are suiTOunded." — Wayland. Rem. 4. — Two or more words are sometimes used together as a compound preposition ; &3, ^^ From between the arcades, the eye glances up to a bit of blue sky, or a passing cloud." — Irving. " Ovei against this church stands a large hospital." — Addison. Rem. 5. — Care should be taken to employ such prepositions as express clearly and precisely the relations intended. Correct Examples : — " He went to New York ;" — " He arrived at Liverpool ;" — " He rode into the country ;" — " He resides in r,ondon ;" — " He walks with a staff by moonh'ght ;" — " The mind 13 sure to revolt from the humiliation of being thus moulded and fashioned, in respect to its feelings, at the pleasure of another." — WhaKjj. False Syntax : — " We differ entirely with Lord Brougham." — ■ A''. Y. Review. " Tlie posthimious volumes appeared in considerable Illustrate. Give examples of compound prepositions. TVhal care should 6« ohseiTed in the choice of prepositions? Corred. the false syntax, and shoto wny it is false. 188 SYNTAX. intervals." — Hallam. " It was not evident what deity or what foiTn of worship they had substituted to the gods and temples of an- tiquity." — Gibbon. EULE XX. — PkEPOSITIOXS. — Go VERXMENT. § 246. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " Thej came to us in the spirit of kindness ; '' — '•'■From him that is needy, turn not away." Ke.m. 1. — A preposition sliould never be introduced to govern a word wliiok is properly the oliject of a transitive verb. Tiius, instead of say- ing, " We delight to contemplate on the wonders of creation," we should say, " We delight to contemplate the wonders of creation." Rem. 2. — Respecting the ellipsis o( prepositions, no definite rule can be given. Care should be taken to conform to the usage of good writers. In the following sentence the preposition is imjjroperly omitted: — " Chemistry and Botany will be studied the S|)ring term." — ^Corrected : — " Chemistry and Botany v/ill be studied durino the Spring term." The following is also objectionable : — "It is worthy the consideration of all." — N. A. Review. 0/ should be inserted after worthy. See § 293. Ee3I. 3. — A noun or pronoun following like, unlike, near, or viyh, is often governed by a preposition understood ; * as " Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like [to] one of these ;" — " The house stands neat [to] a river." Reji. 4. — The word save is frequently used to peiform the office of a preposition ; as, " And all desisted, all save him alone." — Wordsworth. Rem. 5. — But\ is sometimes employed as a preposition, in the sense What do prepositions govern 1 Examples. No.ms and pronouns following th/ words like, unlike, and nigh. Examples. The word save. Examples. * Like, unlike, near and nigh, are classed by some grammarians with prepositions. " \Ve have not placed them with the prepositions, for four reasons ; (1.) because they are sometimes comjtared; (2.) because they sometimes Lave advirhs evidently relating to tliem ; (3.) because the preposition to or u.xto is Bonietimes expressed after them ; and, (4.) because the words which nsually stand for tliem in the learned languages, are clearly adjectivRs." -^ G. Brown. t The use of hut as a preposition is discountenanced by G. Brown, San- bom, ilurray, S. Oliver, and several other grammarians. ' See also an able article in the Massachusetts Cftnmon School Journal, vol. ii., p. 19. The use of but as a preposition is approved by J. E. AVorcester, John Walker, R. C. Smith, Pickett, Hiley, Angus, Lynde, Hull, Powers, Spear, l-'arnuni. Kowle, Goldsbury. Perley, Cobb, Badgley, Cooper, Jones, Davis, Beall. llendriek, Hazen, Goodenow, Weld, Pinneo, Spencer, and others. " It is a preposition where we say, ' I saw no one but him .•' yet we may by an ellipsis still explain it as a conjunction, — 'I saw no one' but [I saw] liim ;' — or, by another ellipsis, as an adverb, — 'I saw no one [I saw] but him, that is, otdi/ ' him.' The simplest explanation, or that which dispense? with the contrived ellipsis, is the best." — ' Smart. IXTEUJECTIOXS. RULE XXI. 18!) of except; as, "No one can appreciate the beauty and majesty of the lieavens, hul him who has been shut out from every other prospect for days and weeks tofrether." — Graham's Macjazine. " The boy stood on the burninfr deck, Whence all but him had fled." — Remans. Rem. 6. — " O^doch" is an elliptical expression, contracted from "Of the clock."* Rule XXI. — LsfXERjECTiONS. §247. Interjections have no grammatical relation t~> the other words of a sentence ; as, " These were delight- ful days ; but, alas! thej are no more." EXERCISES ra COMPOSITION. § 248. Write exercises containing examples of adverbs ; — con- junctions ; — conjunctive adverhs modifying verbs in two different clauses ; — a relative adverb ; — several examples of corresponding conjunctions ; — examples of prepositions and interjections. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Model. § 249. " He came in haste, and soon returned. In is a preposition, expressing the relation of the noun haste to the verb came. Prepositions connect words and show the relation be tween them. • And is a conjunction, connecting the two clauses. He came and [Ae] re- turned. Conjunctions connect words or sentences. Soon is an adverb, modifying the sense of the verb retwned. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. " He is vertj cautious." — " Health and plenty cheer the laboring swain." — " The weakest kind of fruit drops soonest to the ground." — "ShaJcspeare. '' If men see our faults, they ivill talk among them^ selves, tJiough we refuse to let them talk to us." — " Wai- is to be ranked among the inost dreadful calamities wJiich fiiU on a guilty world" — Channing. " Solitude ! where are the charms TTiat sages Tiave seen in thy /ace ?" — Cowper. Wliat is the rule respecting interjections 1 Examples. ■* " At seven of the clock:'' —'Spectator. " By five of \he thcl:' ■— Shaks- peare. 190 SYNTAX. § 250. "/^ is not true, tliat the state of public morals arrd virtue u as elevated as that of the individuals iclio compose a communitv." — B. B. Edwards, i' When a great principle is at stake, we must learn ■ to dismiss a//minordiirerences." — Ibid. " iYo(o Moses kept the ^ocl of Jelhro, his father-in-law." — Exodus 3 : 1. '■'■How little opportu- nity for mental improvement do evert* they possess ! " — E. Everett. " He did not, like a leader, get up on an eminence, nadfro^n thenct survey ihc ?,\xh]Qci in all its hearings." — Brougham. "Their road lay through the beautifiil land where they had been so long lingering. — Prescott. " The sanctity of private property M;as recognized, a» the surest guaranty of order and abundance." — Bancroft. " Doth he come from where the swords iiashed high ? " — Hemans. " We took our seats By many a cottage-hearth, where he received The welcome of an inmate come from far." — Wordsworth *' Nor pride nor poverty dares come Within that refuge-house, the tomb." — Croly. " Liberty, as icell as religion, has too deep an interest in the change which is to be effected." — Prof C. Dewey. '^As to the question of abstract right, I should hardly undertake its discussion at this time." — Dana. "I have all along gone on the ground of the mutual influence of the private upon the public, and the 2)ublic upon the private relation." — Ibid. " Nor is this enterprise to be scoffed at as hopeless." — Channing. ^'^ It yv3.s my good fortune to meet in a dinner party, with more 7nen of celebrity in science or polite literature, than are commonly /ou/itZ collected round the saiiie table." — Coleridge. Rule XXII. — Gtenkral Rule. § 2-51. The different parts of a sentence should Lo made to harmonize v>ith one another ; and the several clauses should be so constructed and arranged as to express clearly the various relations, connections, and dependences intended, according to the best u='ages of th« language. Repeat the general rule of Syntax. ' ' ' — ■ — ■ • ■ * ■ ■ ■ ' »J» * See Kule 17, ReraT 3, Obd. GENERAL RULE.— 1/ CLE XXII. 191 I?.EM. 1. — Tliis rale is sufEciently comprehensive to eml)rac3 all the different forms of construction in the h'.ngiutge. It is, how-zver, too general to afford special guidance to learners, and should bb applied only in cases for which no deftnile rule is given. Rem. 2. — The abvcrbs rather and 6rf<«- are often used in coouection "with the auxiliary had; as, "I had rather remain:" — "He /►airit of knhjlu-errantry might lead us to undervalue hia talents a,s a general* and to regard himf merelj in the light of a lucky adventurer." — Ibid. " There leviathan, Ilugest of living creatures, on the deep Stretched like a promontory, sleeps or swims, And seems a moving land." — Milton. *• But now the door is opened soft and slow:' — Prof. Wilson. " AVe all of us feel, that virtue is not something adopted from ne- cessity." — Channiiig. " Sir William Berkley was elected governor." — Bancroft. "I have little doubt, but that the contempt ivith wliich a plough- man would look down upon me for not knowing oats from barley, would transcend thai of an astronomer at my not being able to dis' tinguish between Cassiopeia and Ursa Major." — Prof Wilson. " No farther steps for procuring his release wore taken at this time ; either because the means for defraying the legal expenses could not be raised ; or, lohich is quite as probable, because it was certaiti that Bun}an, thinking himself in conscience bound to preach in defiance of the law, would soon have made his case worse than it tJien was."— Soulhey. " This court Avas composed of three officers, than %vliom none are more distinguished in our naval service." — N. A. Revieio. " Of what immense benefit had it been to England in all subse- quent ages, if her Elizabethan era had been a Christian era; if the gi-eat men who then toiled in the fields of knowledge, had all been Boyles and Miltons:' — B. B. Edwards. " If Christianity may be said to have given a permanent elevation to iconian as an Intellectual and moral being ; it is as true, that the prcjent age, above all others, has given play to her genius, and taught us to reverence its influence." — Story. " The private wars of the nobles ivith each other, ivere this, first cir- * See Rule 2, Kem. 7 t Cortes. 9 194 SYNTAX. cumslance wlilch renewed tlie coura<2;e and ievived the t-ncrfv oi the feudal barons." — Alison. " To be <\. foreigner* was always in England a rciison of dislike.' — Johnson. " The mind courses to and fro through the past, and casts ilsdj into the future." — Am. Quart. Review. " The rill is tuneless to his ear toho feels No hai-mony within ; the south wind steals As silent as unseen, amongst the leaves. Who has no inward beauty, none perceives, Though all around is beautiful." — Dana. ''• Nii-e times the space that measures day and night To mortal men, he with his horrid crew Lay vanauished'^ — Milton. * See Kule 4, Eem. 2. j'CNCTCATION, 195 PUNCTUATION. § 253. Punctuation treats of the points or marks in- serted in written composition, for tiie purpose of showing more clearly the sense uitended to be convejed, and the pauses required in reading. § 254. The principal points or marks employed in punc- tuation, are the comma ( , ), the semicolon ( ; ), the colon ( : ), the period ( . ), the note of interrogation ( ? ), the note of exclamation ( ! ), and the dash ( — ). Rem. I. — Tlie comma requires a momeutaiy pause ; the semico- •on, a pause somewhat longer than the comma; the colon, a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon ; and the period, a full stop The note of intewogation, or the note of exclamation, may take the place of any of these, and accordingly requires a pause of the same iength as the point for which it is substituted. Rkm. 2. — The duration of these pauses depends on the character of the composition ; the grave style requiring much longer intervals thaa the lively or impassioned. § 255. The sense of a passage often requires a pause in reading, where usage does not allow the insertion of a point in writing ; as, " He woke | to die ; " — " Our schemes of thought in childhood J are lost in those of youth." On the other hand, points are some- times inserted merely to indicate the syntactical construction, with- out refjtiiring the suspension of the voice in reading ; as in the phrase, " No, Sir." §256. — The Comma. Rule 1. — "\Mien a relative and its antecedent are separated from each other by one or more words, a coumia should generally be inserted before the relative ; as, " Think not 77ian was made in vain, who has such an eternity reserved for him." — Spectator. Of what does punctuation treat f Wliat are the marks chiefly employ- ed in punctuation ? ]VhiU pauses do they severally r&juire ? What de- parture from the grammatical pmtctualion of a sentence is often required in readily ? Examples. 196 SYNTAX. ♦ TliPre is a pleasure in poetic pains, Which only poets know." — Coivper. Rule 2. — "V\Tien two or more words come between the adjective and its noun, a comma is placed after the intervening words ; as, " To dispel these errors, and to give a scope to navigation, equal to the grandeur of his designs. Prince Henry called in the aid of sci- ence." — Irving. KuLE 3. — When the subject of a sentence consists of several nominatives, or of a single nominative followed by an adjunct con- sisting of several words, a comma should be inserted before the fol- lowing verb. Examples : — " The effect of this uuiversrl diffusion of gay and splcn did light, was to render the preponderating deep green moro solemn." — Dwight. " The golden sun, The planets, all the infinite host of heaven, Are shinirig on the sad abodes of death." Rule 4. — When a sentence or clause is used as the nominative to a preceding or following verb, it should be separated from tlie verb by a comma ; as, " how dearly it remembered the parent island, is told by the English names of its towns." — Bancroft. Rule 5. — Two successive words in the same construction, with out a conjunction expressed, are generally separated by a comma •, its,, " An aged^ venerable man." " Has Nature, in her calm, majestic march, Faltered with age at last? " — Bryant. Rem. 1. — An apparent exception to this rule often occurs in the case of two successive adjectives ; as in the expression, " A veneiahle old man." But the two adjectives, in this example, are not in the same con- struction, since old qualifies man, while venerable qualifies the phrase old man. Rem. 2. — A comma may also be inserted before a conjunction ex- pressed, if either of the words connected is followed by an adjunct consist- ing of several words; as, "Intemperance destroys the vigorof our bodies, and the strengh of om- minds." Rule 6. — Three or more distinct, successive words in the same [The teacher may repeat an example under each of the rules for the use of the several points, and require the pupil to give the rule that applies to it. Pupils should also be required to select examples from other works, illustrating all the rules of punctuation.] PUNCTUATION. 197 construcfjon, with or witLout a conjunction expressed, should be separated by commas ; as, " Beside the bed. where parting life was laid, And sorrow, guilt, and pain, by turns dismayed. The reverend champion stood." — Goldsmith. " How poor, how rich, bow abject, how august, How complicate, how wonderful, is man! " — Young. Rem. — The same ajiparent exception occurs in this rule as m the la.vt. In the expression, "A light bluish green tint," bluish modifies g^-een, and light modifies the plirase bluish green; while the three words liglit Uu ish green, taken together, qualify tint. Rule 7; — Successive pairs of words should be separated from each other by commas, as, " The authority of Plato and Aristotle, of Zeiio and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools." Rule 8. — When the different members of a compound sentence contain distinct propositions, they are generally separated from each other by commas. Examples : — " They shrunk from no dangers, and they feared no hardships." — Story. "And thus their physical science became magic, their astronomy became astrology, the study of the com- position of bodies became alchemy, mathematics became the con- templation of the spiritual relations of number and figure, and philosophy became theosophy." — W/iewell. Rule 9. — When the different members of a sentence express a mutual comparison, contra.st, or opposition, they should generally be separated from each other by commas. Examples: — "The more I reflected upon it, themoreimportant.it appeared." — Goldsmith. " The quaker revered principles, not men; truth, not power." — Bancroft. " As the heart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee." — Ps. 42: 1. Rule 10. — To prevent ambiguity in cases of elflpsis, a comma 13 sometfmes inserted In the place of the woru or phrase omitted. Example : — "As a companion, he was severe and satirical ; as a friend, cajnious and dangerous ; in his domestic sphere, harsh, jeal ous, and irascible." Rule 11. — "When two or more successive clauses end with words sustaining a common relation to some word in the following clause, a comma should generally be Inserted after each. Examples: — " The truest mode of enlarging our benevolence, is not to quicken our sensibility towards great masses, or wide-spread evils, but to approach, comprehend, sympathize with, and act upon, a continually increasing number of individuals." — Channing. " Such compulsion is not merely incompatible %nth, but impossible in. a free or elective government." — H. Mann. 198 SYNTAX. Hem. — When, Lowever, the woiii in the following clause, is not ac- companied by several words, the comma before it is often omitted ; as, " We may, and often do employ these means." Rule 12. — When several -words intervene between the verb of a principal clause and the commencement of a subordinate clause, the clauses should be separated from each other by a conmia ; as " Had we stopped here, it might have done well enough." — " He was nineteen years of age, when he bade adieu to bis native shores." — PrescoU. Rule 13. — Wben the connection of a sentence is interrupted by one or more words, not closely related in construction to what precedes, a conuna should generally be inserted both before and after the word or words introduced ; as, " lie, like the world, his ready '^'isit pays Where fortune smiles." — Yming. Rule 14. — The independent case, and the infinitive absolute, with their adjuncts, should be separated from the rest of the sen- tence by commas. Examples : — " To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish re. ligious peace, — these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore during his long supremacy." — Bancroft. " The ])la_vwriters, where are they 1 and the poets, are their tires extinguished "? " — II. More. " Wept o'er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done, Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won." Goldsmith. ** Rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells !" — Shukspe-ire. Rule 15. — W'hen either of two words in apposition is accom- panied by an adjunct, the latter of them, with the words dej»ending upon it, should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " The following is a dialogue between Socrates, the great Athe- nian philosopher, and one Glaucon, a private man." Rule 16. — "WTien a word or phi-ase is repeated for the sake of emphasis, a comma should be inserted both before and sifler it ; as, " Here, and here only, lies the democratic character of the revolu- tion." — Bancroft. " Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and stood, Tn brighter light, and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood !" — Bryant. Note. — When the word or words to be set off according to the three preceding rules, stand at the beginning or end of a sentence, one of the commas is of course unnecessary. punctuation. 199 § 257. — The Semicolon. Ktjl^ 1, — TVLen a sentence which is complete in construction, IS followed by a clause containing a reason, an explanation, an in- ference, or a contrast, the latter clause should generally be pre- ceded by a semicolon ; as, " The past seems to promise it; but the fulfilment depends on the fiiture." — " To the latter it is a double advantage ; for It diminishes their pain here, and rewards them with heavenly bliss hereafter." — Goldsmith. B.ULE 2. — "When several successive clauses have a common con- nection with a preceding or following clause, a semicolon is general- ly inserted after each. Examples : — " Children, as they gamboled on the beach ; reapers, as they gathered the harvest; iriowers, as they rested upon the scythe ; mothers, as they busied themselves about the household ; — were victims to an enemy who disappeared the moment a blow was struck, and who was ever present where a garrison or a family ceased its vigilance." — Banaoft. '• Reason as we may, it is im- possible not to read, in such a fate, much that we know not how to interpret; much of provocation to cruel deeds and deep resent- ment; much of apology for wrong and pei-fidy; much of doubt and misgiving as to the past; much of painful recollections; much of dark forebodings." — Story. Rule 3. — When several particulars are enumerated in a sen- tence, some of which are expressed in several words, they are often separated from each other by semicolons; as, " The Aragonese cor- tes was composed of four branches or arms ; the ricos hovibres, or great barons ; the lesser nobles, comprehending the knights ; the clergy ; and the commons." — Prescott. EuLE 4. — Two or more successive short sentences having no cnnamon dependence, are often separated by semicolons instead of periods. Example : — " As we have already noticed, its bruised leaves afforded a paste from which paper was manufactured ; its juice was formed into an intoxicating beverage, pulque, of which the natives to this dav, are excessively fond ; its leaves supplied an impenetrable thatch for the more humble dwellings ; thread of which coarse stuffs were made, and strong cords, were drawn from its tough and twisted fibres ; pins and needles were made of the thorns at the extremity of its leaves ; and the root, when properly cooked, was converted into a palatable and nutritous food." — PiescoU. The Colon. § 258. The colon is at present much less used than formerly \ 200 SYNTAX. its place being often supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the dash. There are, however, many cases in which no other point can with propriety be substituted. The following examples will give an idea of the circumstances under which the colon is most frequently employed : — " The grant was absoluto and eKclusive : it conceded the land and islands ; the rivers and the harbors ; the mines and the fisheries." — Ban- croft. " There is only one cause for the want of great men in any period- nature does not think fit to produce tliem." — Ilallam. " Johnson puts the case thus : The Historian tells either what is false or what is true. In the former case lie is no historian. In the latter, lie has no ojiportunity for displaying his abilities." — Macau/ay. " The following are the names of the survivors, four of whom were seated on the platform from which this address was spoken : — Dr. Jo- seph Fiske, Messrs. Daniel Alason, Benjamin Locke, William Munroe," etc. — £. Everett. " In Num. 14 : 33, it is predicted, that Israel shall wander in the wilder ness forty years." — Biblical Rejmsitory. " The works of Wm. E. Channing, D.D., with an Introduction. Boa ton: James Munroe and Company." The Period. § 259. The period is placed at the end of a complete sentence. Rem. — A period is sometimes inserted between two complete senten- ces, which are connected by a conjunction ; as, " By degrees the confi- dence of the natives was exhausted ; tliey had welcomed powerful guests, who had promised to become their benefactors, and who now robbed their humble granaries. But the worst evil in the new settlement was the character of the emigrants." — Bancroft. The period should be used after all abbreviations ; as, " Mass.," " N. Y.," " M. D.," " Aug.," " Esq.," " [Mrs.," " Mr." Such expres- slons as 1st, 3d, lOih, i's, 9's, 4to, Svo, 12??io, do not require the period after them", since they are not strictly abbreviations, the figures suppl}ing the place of the first letters of the words. The Dash. § 260. Th3 dash Is used where a sentence is left unfinished, where there is a sudden turn, or an abrupt transition ; and where a significant pause is required. Examples: — "Let the government do this — the people will do lie rest." — Maaxulay. " Ah. that maternalsmile ! it answers — Yes." — Cowpet. PLSCTUATION. i»01 " He SI vffered, — ^but his pangs are o'er ; Enjoyed, — but his delights are fled ; Had friends, — his friends arc now no more ; And foes, — his foes are dead." — Montijoinery. Rem —Modern writers often employ dashes in place of the parentheeia The Note of Interrogation. § 2G1. The note of interrogation is placed at the end of a sen- tence in whicii a question is asked ; as, " What is to be done ?" The ISTote of Exclasl\tion. § 262. The note of exclamation is used after expressions of sud- den emotion or passion, and after solemn invocations and addresses ; " Liberty I Freedom I Tyranny is dead : Eun hence, procUum, cry it about the streets f — Sftxxhspeare. "Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven fii-st-bornl" — Milton. Rem —When the interjection Oh is used, the point is generally placed uumedji^tely after it; but when is employed, the pomt is placed alter one or more intervening words ; as, " Oh I my offence is rank, it smells to heaven !" — Shakspeare. " But thou, Hope ! with eyes so fair, — What was thy delighted measure?" — Collins. The following characters are also employed in Comiiosition .•- § 263. The parenthesis ( ) generally includes a word, phiase, or remark, which is merely incidental or explanatory, and which might be omitted without injury to the grammatical construction ; as, " The tuneful Nine (so sacred legends tell) Fu-st waked their heavenly lyre these scenes to tell!" — CampbeU. " Kbov/ then this truth, (enough for man to know,) Yirtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. B,BM. — The parenthesis is now employed less freiiuently tlirui formerly ; commas or dashes bemg used to supply ils place; as, "The colonists:— Buch is hunau natm-e — deshed to bm'u the town in which they had been so wretched." — Bancroft. §264. Brachets [] are used to enclose a word. I'uiuc :< re- . mark, which is introduced for the purpose of explanation or coiTec- tion; as "Putting oflf the courtier, he [the king] now puts on the philosopher." Rem. — The parenthesis is often used to supply the place of brackets, aad brackets are occasionally used to supply the pl ace of the parenthesis The paieiitltesis. Examples. Brackets. Examples. 202 SYNTAX. § 265. The apostrophe ('^ is used to denote the omission of one oi more letters; a;?, oVr, tho". It is likewise the sign of the possessive case, being used instead of a letter which was formerly inserted in its place; as, juaii's for manes or manis. § 26G. Marks of quotation (" ") are used to indicate that the ex- act words of another a);e introduced ; as, " In my lii-st parliament," said James, " I was a novice." Rem. — When a quotation is introduced within a quotation, it is usually distini^uished by siu^jle inverted commas ; as, " I w;is not only a ship-boy on the ' high and giddy mast,' but also in the cabin where every menial office fell to my lot." If both quotations commence or terminate togeth- er, this commeuceraeut or termination is indicated by the use of three commas ; as, " In the course of this polite attention, he pointed in a cer- tiiin direction and exclaimed, 'That is Mr. Sherman of Connecticut; a man who never said a foolish thing in his life.' " When a point i-s inserted immediately after a quotation, it should be placed within the quotation marks. § 267. A small dash (") is sometimes placed over a vowel to de- note that it is long ; as, noble. A breve ("), placed over a vowel, shows that it is short ; as, respite. § 268. A mark of accent (') is sometimes placed over a syllable to de- note that it requhes particular stress in pronunciation ; as, ddbig. § 269. A diceresis (") is sometimes placed over the latter of two successive vowels to show that they do not form a dijjhthong ; as, co- operate. § 270. The cedilla (,) is a mark which is sometimes placed under the letter c to show that it has the sound of s ; as in " fa9ade." § 271. The asterisk (^), the obelisk (f),the double ddtjger (X)i hviii parallels (||), as well as letters and figures, are employed in re- ferring to notes in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. § 272. The ellipsis (* * *) or ( ) is used to denote the omis- sion of some letters or words ; as, " H * * * y M * * * * * 1," " C s K g." See also an example in the note on p. 151. o orro T'l- 7 ( is used to connect words which have a coni- S 27.3. The brace 4 ,. .. •> ^ nion application. The- apostrophe. Examples. Maries of quotation- Examples. How art tang vowels distmiuished ? — short vowels? Tlie diaresis. The asterisk, tlielisk, etc. ^larks of ellipsis. Examples. The brace. Examples, PDNCTUATION. 203 § '2li. The caret (a) is employed in wiiting, to show that some word or letter has been omitted ; as, " Washingtoa uuilbrmly treat- aiid ed Mr. Shei-mau with grea' nispect a attention. " § 27d. The hyphen (-) is used after a part of a word at the end of a line, to show that the remainder is at the beginning of the next line ; and to connect the simple parts of a compound word, as, aU-absorhlng. Note. — In dividing a word at the end of a line, the break should alwaj's be made between two syllables, and not between diiferent letters of the same syllable. See § 37. § 27 G. The mdex (1^) refers to some remarkable passage. § 277. The section (§) is used to distinguish the parts into which a work or a portion of a work is divided. § 278. Tha paragraph (^) is used in the Old and New Testa- ments to denote the beginning of a new subject. In other books paragraphs are distinguished by commencing a new line farther from the margin than tlie beginning of the other lines. This ia called indenting. [For exercises in punctuation, the teacher may write on a blackboard some portion of a well pointed book or other piece of wTiting, omitting all tlie points ; and then require the pupil to transcribe and punctuate it. Wiicn this is done, the several copies may be compared and corrected. The teacher may also read one or more paragraphs aloud, and require the pupils to write and punctuate what is read, without seeing the printed copy. Exercises of this description should be repeated till the pupils be- come ftimiliar with all the common principles of punctuation. Pupils should also be required to devote careful attention to this subject, in con nection with their ordinary exercises in composition.] The card. Examples. The hyphen. Examples. Dioisixm of a tvord at the end of a line. The index. Examples. The section. ExamjUst. Tha paroffrajih, Exampki. PART IV. PROSODY. § 279. Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the laws of versification,* § 280. Accent is the stress which is laid on one or more syllables of a word, in pronunciation ; as, re2;erberate, undertake. The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on mono- syllabic words ; as, " Content is wealth, the riches of the mind." — Dryden. § 281. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in its pronunciation. A syllable may be long in quantity, as fate ; or short, as let. The Greeks and Romans based their poetry on the quantity of syllables ; but modern versification depends chiefly upon accent, the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded. § 282. A pause is a brief suspension of the voice in reading or speaking. There are two pauses which are peculiar to poetry ; — the ccesural and the Jinal. The ccesui'a is a pause which is introduced into a line to render the versification more melodious ; as, " Not half so swift | the ti-embling doves can fly." " Thrones and imperial jx)wers, | offsjDring of heaven." Rem. 1. — The caesmal pause generally occurs after the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable ; but it occasionally takes place after the third or the seventh. Rem. 2. — When the cresura occurs after the fourth syllable, the verse ie lively and spirited ; as, " Her lively looks | a sprightly mind disclose, ^ Quick as her eyes | and as unfixed as those." Of what does prosody treat ? What is accent ? Examples. Wliat is laid of quantity ? What is a pause? What pauses are peculiar to poetry f Crive an account of each. Examples. * Emphasis, Tone, Fitch, and Inflection, which are often treated of vmdei the head of Prosody, belong more properly to Elocution. VKRSIFICATION. 205 RiiM. 3. — When the cossura occurs aher the Jifth syllable, the verse loses its brisk and lively air, and becomes more smooth, gentle, and flow- ing; as, " Eternal sunshine | of tlie spotless mind. Each prayer accepted ] and each wish resigned." Rem. 4. — When the csesura occurs after the sixth syllable, the verse becomes more solemn and its measure more stately ; as, " The wrath of Peleus' son, | the direful spring Of all the Grecian woes, j Goddess, sing." The final pause is tl^t which occurs- at the end of a line. In reading poetry, careful attention should be given to the final and caBsural pauses. VERSIFICATION. § 283. Versification is a measured arrangement of words, in which the accent is made to recur at certain regidar-intervals. Rem. — This definition applies only to modern verse. In Greek and Latin poetry, it is the regular recurrence of long syllables, according to settled laws', which constitutes verse. § 28-i. — There are two kinds of verse ; — rhyme and blank verse. Rhyme is the correspondence of sounds in the last words or sylla- bles of verses ; * as, " Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride. And even his failings leaned to virtue's side." — Goldsmith. Rem. 1. — For two svllables to form a full and perfect rhyme, it is ne cessary that the vowel be the same in both ; that the parts following the vowel 'be the same ; that the parts preceding the vowel be difierent ; and that the syllables be accented.! Blank verse is verse -without rhyme ; as, ^ " So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To that mysterious realm, where each shall take His chamber in the silent balls of death. Thou go not, like the quarry-slave, at night. Scourged to liis dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave. Like one that draws the drapery of his conch • About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." — Bryant. What care should be observed in reading poetry ? What is vtfsification f What di^fferent kinds of verse are there? Define rhyme. Examples. Defint blank verse. Examples. * The lines of poetry are properly called verses. t Latham. 206 PROSODY. Rem. 2. — Blank verse possesses, in many respects, important advan- tages over rhyme. It allows the lines to run into one another wiih ])('r- feet freedom, and is hence adapted to subjecls of dignity and force, which demand more free and manly numbers than can be commanded in rhyme Eliyme, on the other hand, is undoubtedly the most Jmportant oniaiuent of English versification. Rem. 3. — Blank verse is always written in lines of ten syllables Rhymed verses may consist of any number of syllables. § 285. Afoot is a rhytlimical division of a verse ; as, " Our thoughts | as-bound ] less, and | our souls [ as free." § 286. A couplet, or distich, consists of two verses making com- plete sense ; as, " Indulge the true ambition to excel In that best art, — the art of living well." § 287. A triplet consists of three verses which rhyme together ; as, " Of many things, some few I shall explain, Teach thee to shun the dangers of the main, And how at length the promised land to gain." — Drydm § 288. Alliteration is the frequent recurrence of the same let ter ; as, " The Zord?y lion leaves his lonely /air." " FFeave the warp and wenve the wooV § 289. A stanza is a combination of several lines, or verses, con Btituting a regular division of a poem. Rem. — In popular language, stanzas are frequently called verses. § 290. Scanning is the resolving of verses into the several feet of which they are composed.. § 291. The principal feet used in English poetry are, — 1. The /amJus, which consists of two syllables; the first unac cented, and the second accented ; as, con-tend. 2. The Trochee, which consists of two syllables ; the first accented, and the second unaccented ; as, 7i6-hle. . 3. The AnaiJest, which consists of three syllables ; the first two unaccented, and the last accented ; as, in-ter-cede. § 292. The following feet are employed less frequently: — fl.) The spondee, which consists of two accented syllables ; (2.) the pyrrhic, which consists of two unaccented syllables ; (3.") the dactijle, consisting of three W}iai is afoot ? Examples. What is a couplet ? Examples. Wliat is a triplet f Examples. What is alliteratim ? Examples. Define a stanza. What is scanning 1 What kind of feet are principally used in English poetry ? Exa>.nples of each. IAMBIC VEESE. 207 syllables, of which the first onlv is accented; (4.) the amphibrach, consist- ing of three syllables, of which the second only is accented; (5.) the tri- brach, consistiiig of three unaccented syllables. lainbic Verse. § 293. Iambic verse is composed of iambic feet, and has the accent on the even syllables. The most common forms are the fol- lowing : — 1. Four iambuses, or eight syllables in a line ; as, " And may | at last | my wea | 17 age Find oiit I the peace | "f ul her | mit^e." Rem. 1. —This measure is sometimes varied, to adapt it to light sub- jects, by taking an additional unaccented syllable ; as, " Or if I it be I thy will | and ple'as .| vre, Dhect 1 my plough | to find ] a tre'as \ ure." Eem. 2. — In some cases, a syllable is cut off from the first foot ; as, "Praise \ to God, ] immdr | tal prtiise, For I the love | that crowns | our days." 2. Five iambuses, or ten syllables in a line ; as, " For me' | your trib | uta | ry stores | combijae." Eem. 1. — This is usual! v called the heroic measure, and is the most ele- vated and dignified kind of English verse. It frequently admits of some varietv, particularly at the beginning or end of a line. A trochee is sometimes emijloyed instead of an iambus, and an unaccented syllable ia occasionally attached to the last foot ; as, " His house she enters ; there to be a light Shining within, when all without is night ; — A guar I dian-an | gel, o'er | his life | presid | ing. Doubling | his pleas | ures, and ] his cares divid | ing." — Rogers. Rem. 2. — A verse of six feet, or twelve syllables, called an Alejcandrine, is occasionally introduced into heroic poetry, especially at the close of a passage ; as, " Time wiites no wrinkle on thine azure brow : — Such as I Crea | tion's dawn ] beheld, | thou roll | est now." Rem. 3. — Heroic vei-se may be written either vnth or without rhyme. Milton's Paradise Lost, Thouison's Seasons, Cowper's Task, and Pope's Translation of Homer, are examples of heroic verse. Rem. 4. — The four lined stanzas of Psalmody often consist of alternate verses of four and three feet ; as, " Thou didst, I O might | y God ! | exist Ere time | began | its race ; Before | the am | pie el | ements Fill'd up I the void | of space." What is iambic verse? WhM are the priiicijjal form of iambic vene 1 Examples of each. 208 pKDSODr. Rem. 5. — A single syllable is sometimes added at the end of a line. for the sake of variety ; as, " Waft, waft, I ye winds, | his sto | ry ; And you, ye waters roll, Till like | a sea | of glo | ry, It spreads from pole to pole." § 204. The following forms of iambic verse are also occasionally employed : — (1.) One iambus, -svith an additional syllable ; as, " Consent | ing, Repent | j'n^." (2.) Two iambuses, with or without an additional syllable ; as, " What place | is here ! What scenes | appear ! " " Upon I a raoun | tuin, Beside 1 a foun | to»i." (3.) Three iambuses, with or without an additional syllable ; as, " A charge | to keep | I have, A God I to glo I rify." " Our heaits | no long | er Ian | yuisli." Trochaic Verse. §295. Trochaic verse is composed of trochaic feet, and has the accent on the odd syllables. The principal forms of Trochaic verse are the folloTOng : — 1. Three trochees in a line; or three ti-ochees and an 'tdlltional syllable; as, " Wd is I me', Al | h^ma." " Haste thee, | Nymph, and | bring with | thee Jest, and | youthful | JoUi | ty." — Milton. 2. Four trochees ; as, " Round us I roars the | tempest | loudqr." 3. Six trochees ; as, " On a I mountain | stretch'd be | neath a | hoary | willow The following forms are sometimes employed : — (1.) One trochee, with an additional syllable ; as, "Tumult I cease. Sink to I peace." What are the pincipalfonns of trochaic verse ? Examples of each. ANAPESTIC VERSE. 209 » (2.) Two trochees ; or two tvodiees, with an adilltional sylLiblc , as. " Wishes 1 rising, Tlioiiglits sur I prising." " Give the ] vengeance | due To the I valiant \ crew." (3 ) Five trochees ; as, " Virtue's 1 bright'ning ] ray shall | beam for ] ever." Anapestic Verse. § 290. Anapestic verse has the accent on every third syllable. The following are the principal forms : — 1. Two anapestic feet; or two anapests and an unaccented sylla- able; as, " They renew | all my joys." " For no arts ] could avail | him." 2. Three anapestic feet ; as, " I am out I of human | itv's reach, I must fin I ish my jour ] ney alone." — Cowper. 3. Four anapestic feet ; or four anapests and an additional sylla- ble; as, " For afield | of the dead ] rushes red | on my sight; And the clans | of Cullo ] den are scat | ter'd in fight." — Campbell. " On the cold | cheek of death, | smiles and ro | ses are blend | ing." — Beattie. Heji. — Iambic, trochaic, and anapestic feet, admit of occasional inter- mixture. Trochaic and Tamhic * Tyrant \ and slave, | those names | of hate ] and fe'ar." Tamhic and Anapestic. " Ml/ i6r I rows I then | might assuage." : POBTIC LICENSE. § 297. Custom has given sanction to certain modes of expression in poetrv, which are not conformable to the ordinary rules of gram- mar. The foUo^ning are the most important of these peculiar- ities : — \\~ at are the principal forms of anapestic verse ? Examples of each. What peculiarities of expression are allowed in poetry. Examples of each class. ^10 PKOSODT, 1. Poetry admits of many antiquated expressions and irregular forms of construct] m ; as, " Let each, as likes him best, his hours employ." " Long were to tell what I have seen." " He knew to sing and huild the lofty rhj-me." 2. Many words sometimes undergo changes in spelling, that the number of syllables may be made greater or less ; as, 'gan, for !)&■ gan ; e'er, for ever. 3. The arrangement of words frequently departs from the ordi nary requirements of sjTitactical rules ; as, " In saffron robe \vith taper clear." — Milton. " No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." — Gray. " A transient calm the happy scenes bestow." — Ibid. " When first thy sire to send on earth Virtue, his darling child, designed." — Ibid. " Heaven trembles, roar the mountains, thunders all tho / ground." " Thee, chantress, oft the vx)ods a/nmig, I woo, to hear thy even song." — Milton. 4. Adjectives are often used for nouns or adverbs ; as, " Gradual sinks the breeze into a perfect calm." 6. The conjunction nor is often used for neither, and or for either; as, " To them nor stores nor granaries belong." " He riches gave, he intellectual strength, To few, and therefore none commands to be Or rich, or learned." — Pollok. 9. Intransitive verbs are often used transitively , as, " He mourned no recreant friend." " Yet not for thy advice or threats, J fly These wicked tents devoted." — Milton. 7. Poetry admits of a great variety of elliptical expressions ; as, " The brink of [a] haunted stream." " For is there aught in sleep [which] can charm the wise 1 " " To whom thus Adam " [spake.] [He] " Wlio does the best his circumstance allows, Does well, acts nobly, — angels could [do] no more." — Young. APPENDIX. FIGURES OF SPEECH. § 208. A FIGURE of speech is a departure from the ordinary form of words, from their regular cojistruction, or from their htcniJ signijication. Departures from the usual form of words are called ^(7«res of Etymologij. Departures from the regular consti uction of words are called fg* ures of Syntax. Departures from the literd signification of words are called fig- ures of Rhetoric. Figures of Etymology. § 299. The figures of Etj-mology are AphcEresis, Syncope, Ap^ cope, Prosthesis, Paragdge, Synoeresis, IHceresis, and Tmesis. 1. Aphceresis is the taking of a letter or syllable from the begin- ninf' of a word ; as, 'neath, for beneath , 'gainst for against. " But his courage 'yan fail, For no arts could avail. " 2. Syncope is the ehslon of one or nore letters from the middle of a word ; as, lingering, for lingering ; lov'd for loved. 3. Apocope Is the elision of one or more letters from the end of a word ; as, thro' for through ; th' for the. 4. Prosthesis is the addition of one or more letters to the begin nine of a word; as, beloved, for loved ; enchiin for chain. Define a fiyiire of speech. Wat are figures of Etymoloyy 1 — of Syntax ?— of EJietoric ? Define Apha^esis. Examples. Syncope. Examples. Apocope Examples. Prosthesis. Eramples . 212 ATl'KNDTX. 5. Paragoge is i\\i addi lion of one or more lettei-s to the end of a woitl ; as, awaLe?!, for awake ; hounden. for hound. 6. Synccres'ix is the contraction of two syllables into one; as, alienate, for alienate, learned, for learn-ed. 7. Diceresis is the separation of two vowels standing together, so as to connect them with diiferent syllables ; as, cooperate, aerial. 8. Tmesis is the separation of a compound word into two pnrts, by introducing another word between them ; as, " Thy thoughts wliich are to us ward," for " Thy thoughts which are toward us;" — " IIoxc high soever," for '■'■ Hoivsoever high." Figures of Syntax. § 800. The principal figures of Syntax, are Ellipsis, Pleonasm^ Endllage, and Ilyperhaton. 1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words which are n«>'?e3- sary to complete the grammatical construction. The following ex- amples will serve to illustrate this figure : — (1) Nouns; as, " St Paul's" [church] ; « The twelve " [apostles]. (2) Adjectives ; as, " Every day and [every] hour ;" " A gentle- man and [a] lady." (3) Pronouns ; as, "I am monarch of aU [which] I survey;" — " He left in tlje morning, and [he] returned the same day." (4) Verbs ; as, " to whom the angel " [spoke] ; — [Let] " No man eat fruit of thee." (5) Adcerhs; as, "He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." (6) Prepositions ; as, " He was banished [from] England ; " — " He lived like [to] a prince." (7) Conjunctions ; as, "I came, [and] I saw, [and] I conquered." (8) Phrases and entire clauses ; as, " The day has been consid- ered as an image of (he year, and a year [has been considered] as the representation of life." — Johnson. Paragoge. Examples. Synoiresis. Examples. Diceresis. Examples. Tmesis. Examples. WJiat are the priucifxu Jig^ires of Syntax? Define Ellipsis. Examples of the omission of nouns ; — adjectives ; — pronouns ; — verbs : — adverbs ; — prepositions ; — conjunctions. Give examples ofthemiiis non of phrases and clauses. , rJGL'ltL-e OF KIIKTOKIC. 213 2. Pleonasm is the iL^e of more words tx) express ideas, tJian are necessary ; as, " AVhat we have seen with our eyes, and heard with our ears." Rem. — The repetition of a conjunction is termed Polysyndeton ; as, " We have ships and men and moncj' and stores." 3. Enalluge is the use of one part of sjjeeeh for another ; as^ " Slow rises worth by poverty depressed." 4. Hypej'haton in the ti'anspositicn of words ; as, " All price be yond," for " Beyond all price." Fifjures cf Rhetoric. § 301. The principal figures of Rhetoric are Simile, Me'taphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Ilyperhole, Irony, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Per- sonification, Ajjostrophe, Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, and Climax. 1. A Simile is a direct and formal comparison ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." "As, down in the sunless retreats of the ocean, Sweet tlowrets are springing, no mortal can see ; So, deep in my bosom, the praySr of devotion. Unheard by the worhl, rises silent to thee." — Moore. 2. A Afctaphor is an implied comparison ; as, " What are the sor- rows of the young ? Their growing luinds soon close above the WO o o wound." 3. An Allegory is a continued metaphor. In the following beauti- ful exiimple found in the 80th Psalm, the people of Israel are rej>- resented under the symbol of a vine : — " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it tilled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedary. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. "VVhy hast thou then broken dowTi her hedges, so that all they wliich pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the tield doth devour it." 4. An Antithesis is an expression denoting opposition or contrast; 83, " The Avicked flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous ai-e bold as a lion." " Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull." 2)efi,ne Pleonasm. Examples. Enallage. Examples. Ilyperbatmi. Ex a>nples. Simile. Examples. Metaphor. Examples Alkgory Exam^^es. J-ttithf.vs. Examples. 2U API'EXDIX. 5. An Hyjierbole is an exaggeration in the use of language, rep- resenting objects as greater or less, better or woi"se, than they really are. Thus, David, spejiking of Saul and Jonathan, says, " They are swifter than eagles ; they were sti"onger than lions." 6. Irony is a mode of speech expressing a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer intends to convey. The prophet Elijah employed this figure when he said to the priests of Baal : " Cry aloud, for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleejjeth, and must be awaked." 7. Metonymy is a figure by which one thing is put for another ; as, " I have been reading M'dlon ; that is, his poems or works.— " Gray hairs [old a^e] should be respected." 8. Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; as, " Man returneth to dust ; " that is, his body. — " This roof \Jiouse'\ shall,be his protection." 9. Personification or Prosopopeia, is a figure by which we attrib- ute life and action to inanimate objects ; or ascribe to irrational an- imals and objects without life, the actions and qualities of rational beings ; as, " The ground thirsts for rain." " See, Winter comes, to rule the varied year, Sidletx and sad\ with all his rising train." — Thomson. 10. Apostrophe is a figure by which a speaker or writer turns from the party to which his discourse is mainly directed, and ad- dresses himself to some person or thing present, or absent ; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory. Death ! where is thy sting f grave ! ichere is thy victory f " — .1 Cor. 15 : 54, 55. Rem. — In modern usage, the tenn Apostrophe is applied to any address made to an inanimate object, an uTational animal, or an at sent person ; as, "Hail, holy light, oft'spring of Heaven, first-bom!" — Milton. " Sail on, thou lone, imperial bird, Of quenchless eye and tireless wing." — Mellen. "Alas ! my noble boy! that thou shouldst die ! Thou, who wert made so beautifully fair ! That death should settle in thy glorious eye, And leave his stillness in this clustering hair ! How could he mark thee for the silent tomb ! My proud boy, Absalom." — Willis. Hyperbole. Examples. Irony. Examples. Metonymy. Examples. Synec docke. Examples. Personification. Examples. Apostrophe. Examj\les. riGURES OF RHETORIC. 215 11. Iiiterroyation is a figure by -whicli a question is asked for the purpose of expressing an assertion more strongly ; as, " Do we mean to submit to the measures of ParHament, Boston Port Bill and all ? Do we mean to submit, and consent that we ourselves shall be ground to powder, and our countrj' and its rights trodden down in the dust ? I know we do not mean to submit ^Vn never shall sub- mit" — Websler. 12. Exclamaiion is a figure employed to express some strong emo- tion ; as, " O wretched state ! bosom, black as death ! " — Sliakspeare. "All ! how unjust to nature and himself, Is thoughtless, thankless, inconsistent man ! " — Youmj. 13. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which past or future events are represented as passing before our eyes. The following is a beautiful example of this figure : — " Methinks I see it now, that one solitary, adventurous vessel, the May- flower of a forlorn hope, freighted with the" prospects of a future state, and bound across the unknown sea. I behold it pursuing, wiih a thousand misgivings, the uncertain, the tedious voyage. Suns rise and set, and weeks and months pass, and the winter surprises them on the deep, but brings them not the sight of the T\ished-for shore. I see them now scantily supplied with provisions, crowded almost to suffocation in their ill-stored prison, delaved by calms, pursuing a circuitous route ; — and now driven in furv before the raging tempest, on the high and giddy waves. The awfulvoice of the storm howls through the rigging. The laboring masts Bcem straining froni^ their base; — the dismal sound of the pumps is heard ; — the ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow to billow; — the ocean breaks, and settles with engulfing floods over the floating deck, and beats with deadening weight against the staggered vessel." — E. Everett. 14. Climax is a figure in which the ideas lise or sink in regular gradation ; as, "'Giving aU diligence, add to your faith, Tirtue ; and to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to tem- perance patience ; and to patience, godhness ; and to godliness, brotherly kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity." — 2 Pet 1:5 — 7. " AMiat a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason .• how infinite in faculties ! in form and moving, how express and ad- mirable ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a god ! " — Shakspeare. m ^^ Dejin^ InterrogaVon. Examples. Exclamaiion. Examples, i'ision Examples. Climax. Examples. INDEX. A, peculiar uses of this letter, 159. Abstract nouns, 37. Accent, 202, 204 Adjectives, 14, 22, 51, 154. Adverbs, 19, 100, 178. Adverbial phrases, 180. Adjuncts, 109. Agreement, 109, 163. All, 155, 179. Allegory, 213. Alliteration, 206. Alphabet, 26. Am.en, 179. Analysis, 110. Anapestie verse, 206, 209. Antithesis, 213. Aphagresis, 211. Apocope, 211. Apostrophe, 202, 214. Apposition, 143, 184. Articles, 14, 53, 158. As, 184, 186. Asterisk, obelisk, etc., 202. Auxilistfj' verbs, 76. Blank verse, 205. Both, 185. Brace, 203. Brackets, 201. But, 188. Capital letters, 27. Caret, 20, Case, 47. Catalogue of grammars, 6. Cedilla, 202. Clauses, classificatim o^ 120 Climax, 215. Close vowels, 32. Cognate sounds, 33. Collective nouns, 38, 164 Colon, 199. Comma, 195. Common and proper nouns, 3Y. Comparison of adjectives, 54. Comparison of adverbs, 100. Composition, exercises in, passvn. Compound coujunctions, 182. Compound prepositions, 187. Compound words, 34. Conjugation of verbs, 76, 93. Conjunctions, 20, 23, 102, 181. Conjunctive adverbs, 100, 181. Connection, 63, 100, 134, 181-186. Consonants, 31 Corresponding conjunctions, 182. Couplet, 206. Dash, 200. Declension of nouns, 50. Declension of pronouns, 69-61, 64. INDEX. ^'ecdoche, 214. SyntsiX, 108. Tenses, 73, ITS. Than, 183-186. Than wJwm, 185. ITiat, 63, 64i 150, 182, 185. The7-e, 179. TTiis and that, 155. Thither, 179 Thou, 60. Tmesis, 212. To be, 81. To-day, io-nighf, etc., 100. Triphthongs, 32. Triplet, 206. Trochaic verse, 206, 208. Unipersonal (impersonal) verbs, 99. Verba, 15, 22, 66, 163. Tersification, 205. Vision, 215. . Voice of verbs, 67, 68. Vowels, 31. We, applied to one person, 143. What, 64, 65, 151. Where, 179. Which, 63-65. Whither, 179. Who, 63, 64, 150. Whose, possessive of which, 64, 150t With, used as a~coimective, 165 Words, 33. . Worth, 102. Yes and no, 179. 7ou, sometimes singular, 60. / A. m 36506 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY • f^ A COMPLETE CO IJ RS E PROGRESSIVA rEXT-BOOKS. FROM THE IXITI AI^ S'' llC't > i . I , THE lIIGHEb MAXUAl 1 FCrRM PRINCiPLEfc!, ANi. 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