CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE CIRCULAR 30 MARCH. 1929 Elements of Grape Growing in California FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI PUBLISHED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and the United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Dis- tributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. B. H. Crocheron, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRINTING OFFICE BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 1929 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of California, Davis Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofgrapeg30biol ELEMENTS OF GRAPE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA FEEDERIC T. BIOLETTH This circular is intended for inquirers who are interested in grape growinf? but who know little of the subject. It attempts to give some primary facts and opinions that will aid the beginner to avoid com- mon initial errors and introduce him to the foundations of good viticultural practice. It omits questions of tillage, fertilization, and such general subjects, in which viticulture does not differ materially from the culture of most other deciduous fruits in subtropical regions." THE GRAPES OF CALIFORNIA The grapes of the vineyards of California are of the same class as those grown in the countries bordering the Mediterranean and often referred to as 'European' grapes, to distinguish them from the * Amer- ican' grapes grown in the rest of the United States. They are all derived from one wild species, the wild vine of southwestern Asia — Vitis vinifefa. The American grapes are derived from American wild vines principally the northern fox grape — Vitis labrusca — or crosses between these and Y. vinifera. More than 90 per cent of the cultivated vines in the world are pure vinifera. THE CLIMATE OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE The vinifera grape is a typical fruit of the semi-arid subtropical regions. It will not thrive in regions of humid summers, whether temperate or tropical, nor in regions of intense winter cold, nor of short or cool summers. Its essential requirements in this respect are a hot dry summer and a cool wet winter. (Rain may be replaced or supplemented by irrigation.) Temperature. — A mean daily temperature of between 35° and 50° Fahrenheit in winter, gradually rising to between 70° and 85° F in summer, is favorable. A mean winter temperature of below 50° 1 Professor of Viticulture and Viticulturist in the Experiment Station. 2 Eeaclers who desire more detailed information will find it in the publications listed on page 37, which deal more fully with special important topics. A corre- spondence course in grape growing, which covers the subjects more completely, is offered by the College of Agi'iculture. A small fee is charged for the course. An enrollment card can be had upon application to the College. 4 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 30 F for one or two months to keep the vine dormant, and a mean sum- mer temperature of 70° F, or higher, for at least one or two months to promote the growth and maturing of the vine and its crop are near the optimum. An annual sum of the mean daily temperatures above 50° F of between 3,000° F and 5,000° F is favorable. The sum for any section or locality can be found by subtracting 50 from the mean daily temperature of each month,^ multiplying each remainder by 30, and adding the products. The sum of the products thus obtained is the annual effective temperature sum for the locality. In localities with sums less than 3,000°, many varieties will not ripen; if below 2,000° none will. Where the sum exceeds 3,000° the grapes ripen earlier, but when the sum increases much above 4,500° the quality and quan- tity of the crops of many varieties suffer. Bain. — An average yearly rainfall of from 20 to 25 inches is usually sufficient if it is well distributed during the autumn, winter, and spring, and if the soil is deep and retentive enough to hold it. Less than this (12-15 in.) is sometimes sufficient in the cooler regions. Irrigation to supplement or replace rain is a perfect substitute when the water is free from injurious salts. Heavy rainfall may be inju- rious if it comes during the spring and early summer growth. Rains after the grapes begin to ripen are deleterious unless they are light and short. A humid atmosphere during warm weather makes it very difficult to control fungous diseases such as peronospora, black rot, and anthracnose. The complete absence of these diseases is one of the chief advantages of California for grape growing, and their prevalence, the chief reason of the difficulty of growing vinifera grapes in the eastern states. SOILS FOR VINEYARDS The vinifera grape is adapted to a wide range of soil types. Almost any soil that will grow ordinary crops, will grow grapes. It must however, be well drained. Deep soils are preferable, because they give space for the extensive root system of the vine and for the storage of the large volume of water it requires. Good vineyards are growing on soils not more than 3 or 4 feet deep, but these must be fertile, and they require frequent summer irrigations. 3 See ' ' Summary of the Climatologieal Data for the United States, by Sec- tions, ' ' which can be obtained for any section by applying to the Weather Bureau of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 5 While grapes can be grown on relatively poor sandy soils, the crops will not be so large as on fertile soils and a more careful choice of varieties is necessary. Where grafted vines are grown, as in the districts afflicted with phylloxera, a careful choice of the stock variety is necessary to adapt them to soils differing in depth, texture, fertility, and water supply. TYPES OF VINIFERA GRAPES AND THEIR USES Grapes are divided into various types in accordance with the vari- ous purposes for which they are used. The most important of these types are: (1) wine grapes; (2) table grapes; and (3) raisin grapes. Any variety can be fermented into a kind of wine, eaten fresh, or dried into raisins, but each is most suited to one of these purposes and usually unsuited to the others. Wine Grapes. — A wine grape can be defined exactly only as a variety which has been showji after many years of experience to be capable of producing satisfactory wine in some locality. Most good wine grapes are of small or medium size. The best are usually light or moderate bearers. The characters of color, flavor, sweetness, and acid- ity vary with the kind of wine to be made. Red wines require a grape with more or less color in the skin; dry wines require more or less full acidity and moderate sugar contents; sweet wines, high sugar, and low acidity; certain special wines require special flavors such as Riesling, Semillon, and Muscat. These characters depend on both variety and climate. The best dry wine grapes are grown in the cooler districts, the best sweet wine grapes in the warmer. The texture of pulp and skin does not affect the quality of the wine, but if very thick and firm it may increase the difficulty of manufacture, and if thin and watery it may diminish the keeping and shipping qualities. Firmness of skin and pulp are valuable qualities where the grapes have to be shipped long distances. Tahle Grapes. — A variety destined to be consumed fresh must have the qualities desired by the consumer. These are attractive color, form, size, flavor, and texture. The taste of the consumer differs in different markets. Large size, brilliant color, and unusual form, are appreciated in most markets. In the United States a brilliant red color is preferred and the Flame Tokay is the standard. In the older markets, the eating quality is given more emphasis. In England, the round-berried black Hamburg, and in France, the white, compara- tively small Chasselas Dore are given preference on account of the delicacy of their flavor and texture. 6 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. 30 Where table grapes have to be shipped any great distance, or stored for a considerable time, firmness of pulp and thickness and firm adherence of the skin are necessary. The three major table grapes grown in California — Malaga, Tokay, and Emperor — have attained their pre-eminence because they combine attractiveness of appearance, eating quality, and resistance to deterioration in handling and storing better than any other varieties that have been sufficiently tested under the general cultural and marketing conditions of Cali- fornia. Table grapes require good soil and a more or less warm climate to attain the quality of fruit and the quantity of crop neces- sary for success. Very early varieties are most profitable in the warm- est and earliest localities. In the later localities they come into com- petition with the more attractive mid-season varieties from the earlier localities. The particular combination of characters that render a table grape attractive and successful depends not only on the variety but on the soil and climate of the location. For this reason, certain varieties can be grown successfully only in certain areas. These areas are sometimes very limited, as in the case of the Flame Tokay and Emperor. The former gives the best results in the Central Valley north and south of Lodi, the latter on the west side of the Upper San Joaquin Valley. The Malaga has a wider range but requires a high summer temperature. Raisin Grapes. — There are a score or more of wine grapes grown on a considerable commercial scale in California, and about a dozen table grapes shipped in large quantities, with a considerable number of other varieties beginning to find a place in the market. Of raisin grapes, however, two — the Sultanina (Thompson) and the Muscat of Alexandria (Raisin Muscat), constitute the great bulk of the crop, which, with the much smaller product of the 'Seedless Sultana' include nearly 100 per cent of the raisins of California. This restriction of the number of raisin varieties is accounted for by: (1) the narrow range of climatic variations suitable for raisin making, (2) the lack of advantage in producing raisins earlier or later than the average. This makes it possible to confine the produc- tion of raisins to the two or three grapes which give raisins of the highest quality. These grapes, in all raisin-producing districts, are one or more of three varieties, the Muscat of Alexandria, the Sulta- nina, and the Black Corinth. These varieties can be grown success- fully and made into raisins only in districts where they give large crops of good fruit which matures perfectly in the dry season and several weeks before there is much danger of rain. 1929 J Elements of Grape Growing in California VITICULTURAL REGIONS OF CALIFORNIA Grapes can be grown anywhere in California where the soil and water conditions are favorable except at elevations where the tem- perature is too low or near the coast where fog's are too frequent. Different parts, however, are suitable for different kinds of grape growing. These differences are due principally to variations in tem- perature, rainfall, and atmospheric humidity. These factors are influenced by latitude and elevation and by the ocean and ranges of mountains. The temperature tends to decrease as we go north and as we approach the coast and as we reach higher elevations. The coastal influence is greatly modified by the position and height of the coast ranges. The rainfall has a general tendency to decrease as we go south and as we descend the foothills of the Sierra and approach the west side of the great valley and the easterly slopes of the coast ranges. Atmospheric humidity and fogs decrease as we depart from the coast and as we approach the south. The variations in climate caused by various combinations of these factors make it possible to divide the grape-growing area of Cali- fornia into a number of regions which are very distinct at their centers, but intergrade as we pass from one to the other. These regions are the (1) North Coast; (2) South Coast; (3) Sacramento Valley; (4) Central Valley; (5) San Joaquin Valley; and (6) Hot Desert Valley. (See map, fig. 1.) Northern California contains a great interior valley over 400 miles long and from fifty to seventy-five miles wide, stretching from Red- ding to Bakersfield. The northerly part of this great body of agri- cultural land is called the Sacramento Valley, the southerly part, the San Joaquin Valley; the middle part from Sacramento to Modesto is sometimes known as the Central Valley. This great valley with its three parts is protected from the storms and inclemencies of the east by the 10,000 foot rampart of the Sierra, and from the cool summer fogs of the ocean by coast ranges running parallel to the ocean shore. The Central Valley is its coolest part and has a moderate rainfall of from 14 to 20 inches, and a moderate effective temperature summa- tion of about 3,750° F. It owes its relative coolness to the influence of the sea breezes which pass through the gap in the coast ranges north and south of the Golden Gate. It is the great Tokay region. The brilliant red Tokay reaches perfection here and produces large crops on wide areas of contiguous vineyards. Excellent Tokay grapes are produced in limited areas in the foothills and in parts of the coast 8 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. 30 valleys but are usually less profitable owin^ to costs of transporta- tion and lack of packing- facilities. In the San Joaquin Valley and the hotter regions, this variety usually fails to color. The Central Valley also has limited areas of several other commercial table grapes and large areas of heavily producing vineyards of wine grapes. No shading =: area below 1000 feet. Light shading = area between 1000 and 2000 feet. Dark shading = area above 5000 feet. NC = North Coast Region. SC = South Coast Region. SV = Sacramento Valley Region. CV = Central Valley Region. SJV = San Joaquin Valley Region. HD = Hot Desert Region. Fig. 1. — Tlie grape-growing regions of California. As we proceed south through the San Joaquin Valley, the average temperature increases, reaching near its center at Fresno an effective summation of about 4,900° F, and becomes more favorable for varie- ties of grapes that need abundant heat. The annual rainfall, on the other hand, decreases gradually from about 14 inches in Stanislaus 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 9 County until at the southern end it falls to four or five inches. Irri- gation, therefore, is necessary in all parts for the best results. This is the great raisin-producing region where a large part of the world 's crop of raisins is grown. Two types of raisins are most common — the large Muscats made from the Muscat of Alexandria by sun drying, and known generally all over the world as Malaga raisins; and the seedless raisins, which we call Thompsons, but which the rest of the world knows as Sultanas and which are made from the Sultanina grape. The Sultanina does well in suitable soil in all parts of the San Joaquin Valley, and as it ripens early it can be sun dried with little danger from early autumn rains. It succeeds better than most varie- ties in very sandy soil. The Muscat does better as we proceed south, owing to the favor- ing conditions of higher temperature, which promotes early ripening, and lower rainfall, which permits drying later in the season. The Malaga, our principal shipping table grape, is also produced in this region in the largest quantity. It succeeds in all parts of the valley where soil is favorable and irrigation water adequate. The Emperor, our third most important table grape, is also almost confined com- mercially to the San Joaquin Valley and especially to an area on the east side in Fresno and Tulare counties. It is here that this variety most often attains the attractive reddish color that is one of its chief merits. The San Joaquin Valley also produces very large quantities of wine grapes, especially in the Fresno district, which rivals that of Stockton and Lodi in the Central Valley in this respect. In the hotter regions, however, they ripen too early, before the market is prepared to take them freely. North of the Central Valley lies the Sacramento Valley. As we proceed north through this valley, the influence of the sea breezes gradually diminishes and the average seasonal sum temperature in- creases as it does in proceeding south through the San Joaquin reach- ing about 4,800° F at Chico or nearly the same temperature as that of Fresno. Unlike the San Joaquin, however, the rainfall increases also until it reaches about 24 inches at Chico and 36 inches at Redding. Irrigation, though favorable, is not in all cases so necessary as in the San Joaquin Valley. Grape growing in this region has been less developed than further south, except in Sutter County and parts of Yuba where the Sultanina covers a considerable area. Here, owing to more frequent and earlier autumn rains, special methods have to be used to hasten drying. These methods use various dipping solu- tions and lately, in increasing numbers, dehydraters. Here are made 10 Calip^ornia Agricultural Extension Service [Cir- 30 most of the pale amber raisins so much appreciated by certain markets. Around the edge of the Great Valley lie the foothills of the Sierra and of the inner Coast ranges. A zone in these foothills with an elevation of 300 to 1,000 feet is known as the thermal belt. This is practically free from frost during the part of the year that the vine is active. In this region the land suitable for grape growing is large in the aggregate but much cut up with rocks, canyons, and stretches of poor soil. In the best locations some of the finest of our table grapes are grown. Viticulture has not been much developed in this region, however, except in parts of Placer County and in a district near Vacaville. In southern California the main grape-growing region at present lies around the junction of Los Angeles, Riverside, and San Bernar dino counties. Fifty years ago, Orange County and the westerly half of Los Angeles County contained more vines than all the rest of California. Now grapes have been replaced by citrus fruits in most of this area. A few raisin and table grapes are produced in southern California, but the main crop is wine grapes, which are well suited to the region. This region is somewhat open and exposed to the influence of the ocean and might be expected to be cold and foggy. However, its more southerly latitude and the direction of the coast, which faces nearly south, moderate the cold winds and fogs of the ocean. Table grapes are fairly successful in sheltered locations and profitable for the large Los Angeles market and even raisins do well in the warmer locations. The Colorado Desert Region of the Imperial and Coachella valleys is no longer a desert, since the bringing of water from the Colorado River and the installation of wells and pumps. This is the hottest grape-growing area of California and produces the earliest grapes, principally Sultanina and Malaga. Raisins are not made, because the early table grapes ripening in June are more profitable. The high seasonal temperatures, which rarely fall below a daily mean of 50° F, and the almost complete absence of rain at all seasons are shown at the bottom of the chart (fig. 2) which represents the record of a typical location in this region. The last area to be considered is the Coast Region. This consists of the valleys between the coast ranges running parallel to the ocean shore, and the lower slopes of these ranges. The principal vineyards are found in Mendocino, Sonoma, Napa, and Santa Clara counties, but there are also notable areas in all the counties abutting on the Bay of San Francisco. 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 11 re MR ' Dear. i 90 K. 70 ^^ % % '0 WINTER\ SPR/NG I SUMMER \ AUTUMN \wiNTeR 9 7 S 3 1 FMAJ M U ^ A 5 O rv D U *«^*^ ^ — ^ "^ •v^^^ ^ « ^ t^c - 9/Q0 ^a rtt^ 1 1 1 R ' 3P 9 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 IP0 5 30 f (i^ f ^^ *^^ ^ ■ 1 ■ R^ 17.3 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 C ^ SO ^ JO (^ /o 9 7 S 3 ^^^ ■"^V^J ^^^^ 1 tpas {9.S mo.) rr^- ^^-= ^•^■SSii --^ 1 /?= 9.Q 1 1 X 1 I B 1 J V 90 ::! 70 S ^ so ?: 30 ^ 9 7 S 3 / ^^"^"^ ^^^00^ """^s^^ „*^«^ t"^ =saao (/a mo.) ^^^^^ — R ' 2.7 , ■ « . ■ 1 Fig. 2. — Rainfall and temperature of typical grape-growing regions of California. 12 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm- 30 The climate of this region is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than that of the interior valleys and is excellently suited to the growing of wine grapes of the highest quality. Few shipping table grapes are grown and no raisins except a few Greek currants. The coast region of southern California has some of the charac- teristics of the northern region but is warmer and, while less suitable for wine grapes, is somewhat better adapted to raisins and table grapes. PROPAGATION A new vine can be grown from a grape seed or from a piece (cut- ting) of an old vine. The first, called a 'seedling,' is nearly always different from the vine which bore it. There will always be some resemblance but very seldom identity. In other words, it will be a new variety. The second, called a 'rooting,' is always the same as the vine on which the cutting grew — it is the same variety. Hopes of improvement or fears of deterioration of any grape variety by any method of selection of buds or cuttings now practiced are illusory. The occurrence of sports (bud mutations) is rare ]yiit may have been the origin of a few of our varieties. Selection. — If we want to grow a vine or a vineyard of Zinfandel, we must get our cuttings from a Zinfandel vine. We must be sure that the cuttings are well grown, fully mature, and free from disease and uninjured by drying, prolonged soaking, or other unfavorable conditions. We need not concern ourselves whether the Zinfandel vine from which we get our cutting has borne good crops or any crops, whether the grapes it has yielded were small or large, dark colored or light, sweet or sour. Variations in these respects are due to soil, climate, and culture, and the new vine will vary in the same way according to the soil, climate, and culture it finds. There is no such thing as an 'improved strain' or a 'degenerate strain' of Zin- fandel. It is either a Zinfandel or something else. This applies to all varieties of grapes. When the variety is certainly correct, all we need concern ourselves with is to obtain cuttings that are capable of making a good, quick, healthy growth. It is a matter of indiffer- ence what vineyard, what vine, or what part of a vine they are taken from, provided they have the qualities of size, maturity, and health specified. Cuttings. — The best cuttings are made from healthy vines that have borne a moderate crop, that have not been summer pruned. 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 13 pinched, or topped, and have not been hurt severely by autumn frost. They are best made a short time after the leaves have fallen and should be stored in moderately moist sand in a cool place until planted. A cutting of medium size with 4 or 5 internodes (joints) and 10 or 12 inches long is generally best. The bottom cut should be made close below the bottom bud and the upper cut about one inch above the top bud. Bootings. — It is best to root the cuttings for one year in a nursery. The nursery soil should be well subsoiled to a depth of at least 12 or 15 inches. An excellent method is to plow 5 or 6 inches deep, grade for irrigation, pulverize and smooth and then run the subsoiler exactly where the cuttings are to be planted. They can then be planted rapidly and accurately by means of a sheepsfoot dibble and a guide line. Planting in a trench dug by hand may give a little better results in some soils, but is more costly. The cuttings should be planted with one internode (3 or 4 inches) above the surface and then the soil ridged up to the top bud after the first settling irrigation. Later irrigations are made in the spaces between the cutting ridges. The soil should be settled by irrigation soon after planting. Two or three irrigations during spring and early summer are usually necessary. Irrigation should stop in time to allow the rootings to cease new growth during September and October. If the rootings have made a growth of 15 or more inches by the end of August and are still making rapid growth, they usually need no more watering. The best root growth is made after new shoot growth ceases and the work of the mature leaves is concentrated on the roots. In loose, porous soils in the hotter localities later irrigations may be needed. Digging. — Cuttings of the length recommended will have the base not more than 6 to 8 inches below the surface, so that a nursery digger will remove them perfectly if it penetrates 10 or 12 inches, or they may be dug by hand. Care should be taken not to split the rootings nor to tear off roots. When dry they should be sorted into three or four sizes, the smallest being rejected or replanted for another year in the nursery. The sizes should not be mixed in planting. A well grown, eren vineyard can be obtained only by using rootings of fairly even size and vigor. 14 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 30 THE VINEYARD Preparation of the Soil. — Before planting, the vineyard and the land should be freed from trees, stumps, and large rocks, and graded properl}^ for irrigation. It should then be well plowed 8 or 10 inches deep, and unless very loose and sandy, subsoiled as deep and as thoroughly as is practicable. A well prepared soil will usually pro- duce a paying vineyard two or three years earlier than one merely plowed a few inches deep. pian^ — In planning the vineyard, the location of the roads, ave- nues, and irrigation ditches should be determined. The roads and avenues should be wide enough, 16 to 24 feet, to allow the passage of the trucks which it is intended to use. They should be near enough together to obviate long unnecessary hauls or hand carrying, and arranged so that they do not interfere with the irrigating system. This will cut up the area into 'blocks' which are preferably of a width equal to the length of the irrigation furrows, which should usuall}^ be not over 300 feet. If longer, intermediate avenues should be left. The distance between vines will depend on the soil, climate, variety, and methods of pruning and cultivation. In fertile soils and hot climates, where the vines grow very large, each vine should have about 100 square feet or more. For cooler climates or less fertile soils and small-growing vines, about 80 square feet is sufficient. For square planting and vase formed vines 9 by 9 feet or 10 by 10 feet are appropriate distances, with avenues of 18 or 20 feet at convenient places. For avenue planting or trellised vineyards 8 by 10 feet or 8 by 12 feet for vase-formed table grapes and 6 by 12 feet or 7 by 14 feet for raisin grapes or trellises are usual. It is convenient to have the widest space sufficient for the passage of small trucks. This requires in an old vineyard about 14 feet. Supports. — All vines should have support, temporary or perma- nent. For vase-formed vines, a temporary split redwood stake 4 to 6 feet long is sufficient. In from 6 to 10 years, these stakes may be removed, as the vines should then be self-supporting. For trellises, a 6-foot stake in each alternate space between two vines is usually sufficient with two No. 11 or No. 12 galvanized, smooth fencing wires stretched along the row at 30 and 45 inches from the ground. These supports are best put in place before the vineyard is planted, but there are often advantages in economy in delaying this work until 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 15 the winter immediately following the planting. // should not he delayed longer. Planfmg. — The rootings, which have been kept in cool sand, should be taken ont and pruned. The less the roots are pruned, the better the vine will grow, but it is usually necessary to prune them back to 5 or 6 inches. If left longer, they require a very large hole, expensive to dig, or they may be turned up at the ends in planting, which is inadvisable. All the top except the main cane should be removed and this cane cut back to 2 or 3 good buds. If the supports are in place before planting, something is gained by leaving a strong cane with several buds and tying to the stake. The rooting should be carefully protected from drying while removing from the sand bed and planting in the vineyard. Each size grade should be planted in separate blocks or rows. If the stakes are in place before planting, the rooting should be given a slight slant from the bottom of the hole to the stake so that the first growth can be tied to the stake easily. If planted before staking, they should be given a similar slant but always in the same direction so that when stakes are driven the}^ can be placed close to the vine on the side to which it slants, and danger of breaking the vine with the stake can be avoided. Great regularity in planting and lining up of vines and stakes is necessary for the economical and perfect handling of the vineyard later. DEVELOPMENT OF THE VINES The First Year. — During the first year, the main object is to develop a good root system. This is accomplished as in the nursery by promoting an early development of a good supply of leaves and a comparatively early cessation of new shoot growth to divert the food material elaborated in the leaves and direct it into extension of the roots and maturing of the main cane instead of into the continuous production of new top growth. If vigorous top growth continues until frost, most of it will be killed and the roots will start the new year in an undernourished condition and make a comparatively small growth the second year. Cultivation and irrigation should be conducted much as in the case of the nursery already discussed. If the soil is deep and well supplied with water from winter rains or irrigation, all that will be needed is one, two, or three light irrigations, according to the soil and climate, during the late spring and early summer to promote and stimulate the comparatively shallow roots of the young vines. By 16 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. 30 August, the roots should be long enough to utilize the water at greater depths and as the small young vines require much less water than bearing or large vines, there should be sufficient present at the lower levels if weed growth has been properly controlled. Late growth in the autumn is particularly dangerous the first year as it renders the vines liable to injury from early winter frosts which may not only destroy the top growth but even kill the whole vine if it has not become well matured. The Second Year. — At the end of the first season of growth, the vines should possess a large, well nourished root system and a more or less extensive and well matured top growth. The whole of this top growth, except the strongest cane, should be pruned off soon after the fall of the leaves. The reserved cane should then be shortened to two or three well formed buds. Vines which have made an excep- tionally large top growth, as frequently happens in well managed young vineyards in fertile soil in the hotter localities, may be left with a single long cane of the length of the desired trunk of the mature vines — 24 to 36 inches. This should be left only where a cane twice as thick as a lead pencil and with well formed buds and inter- nodes of nearly normal length is found. Such a vine will bear a small crop the second season and should be handled in the way described for the third year. All other vines should be cut back as described to 2 or 3 good buds. The object of the work of the second year is to develop a single strong well matured cane with or without lateral branches from which to form the permanent trunk. This is accomplished by 'disbudding' in such a way as to direct the whole growing capacity of the vine into a single cane. Soon after the buds start, and before any of them have developed into shoots of more than four inches, they should all be rubbed off except one. The reserved shoot should be the strongest that is well placed for growing vertically near the stake. As this shoot grows it should be tied loosely to the stake to maintain it straight and vertical. It is first tied when 8 to 16 inches long and retied once or twice more until it reaches the top of the stake, all other shoots being removed as they commence to develop. When the reserved shoot reaches the top of the stake, its growing tip should be pinched off. This will stay its elongation temporarily and cause the growth of lateral shoots at some or all of the joints. These laterals should not he removed. If any of them on the lowest third of the cane tend to become very vigorous, they should be topped back to three or four leaves. All other laterals should be allowed to 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 17 grow freely. If they grow so rapidly and vigorously as to be in dan- ger of wind breakage, they should be tied to the wire of the trellis or, where this is impossible, 'tipped' by the removal of an inch or two of their growing points. This year also there is much danger of frost injury to late-growing vines, so that the same precautions should be taken to cause maturing of the wood and cessation of new growth before frost, as already described for the nursery and the first year in the vineyard. TJie Third Year. — At the end of this year the vines should be handled with a prospect of a good crop — almost a full crop in the best cases — the following year. Each vine which has made a normal growth will consist of a single large cane reaching to the top of the stake, with or without laterals. This cane should be cut back to a height as nearly equal to that of the desired head of the mature vine as possible. If well matured laterals are present, those on the uppermost third of the cane should be left with one, two, or three buds according to their thickness and the perfection of their buds. All other laterals or other canes should be removed. After pruning, the vines should be securely tied to the supporting stakes as in the previous years. If the vine is on the windward side of the stake, as it should be, the ties will be more lasting. No tie should make a complete turn around the vine or the vine will be choked as it increases in size, and all above the tie will be killed. During the spring and summer, all growth on the lower half of the vine should be prevented by the removal of starting buds or shoots before they make much growth. This year as the vines will bear a good crop they will require more irrigation and, as the crop tends to lessen late growth, late irrigations are less dangerous and often necessary. After the Third Year. — At the end of the third year, the vines should have reached the stage of full bearing. The pruning then con- sists in leaving the number of spurs of 2 or 3 buds needed for the expected crop and to leave these spurs in the best position possible to develop the desired vase form which will finally consist in a ring of 4 or 5 arms, spreading at about 45° from a central point known as the 'head.' This form can be obtained only gradually after several years of skillful pruning. At first, the arms will start at different levels, but they should always be as near the head or top of the trunk as the growth of the particular vine permits. There should be no haste in attempting to obtain the desired form — in fact with most vines it will always be more or less imperfect — but if it is kept in mind 18 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. 30 as an ideal, all the vines can be brought to a form which has all the practical advantages of the ideal. Forms of Vines. — The form of vine in view during the discussion so far is that known as the vase, goblet, or head form. It gives the vine the form of a bush varying in size, according to the vigor of the variety, and consisting of an upright stem, from 18 to 40 inches in height, supplied at the summit with 4 or 5 arms from 6 to 18 inches long arranged somewhat in the form of a goblet. Near the end of each of ^djae {ornv T5i-K!eroLl cordoi\. Fig. 3. — Principal systems of training. these arms are left one or more spurs of one-year-old wood which produce the fruit and most of the foliage each year. This form is that most commonly used, not only in California, but in the world at large. Its main merit is its economy and simplicity. It is com- pletely different from tlie natural sarmentose form of the wild vine spreading with numerous trunks or branches many yards over trees or other supports. Some varieties do not thrive with this excessive interference with their natural habit, and it is highly probable that better results in crop and quality could be obtained from all varieties by methods less at variance with the nature of the vine. Many, per- haps most, varieties, however, give excellent results with this system 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 19 and its economy and simplicity will probably make it always one of the principal or preferred methods. Several other methods, however, are used. Those most used in California are known as cane pruning' (or modified Guyot system) and the unilateral and bi-lateral cordon systems. It would require a large treatise to discuss these various systems completely, but their general nature can be understood by a study of figure 3, which shows some typical vines of these three systems. If the general principles of the formation of headed vines are understood, the methods of formation of other systems can be easily learned. Arbors. — The principles of pruning apply equally to the treat- ment of vines grown on arbors or pergolas. The form given depends on the space to be covered. It consists of a number of long branches arising from a single trunk two or more feet high. These branches are given the arrangement and direction best adapted to cover the space. They should be trained in a regular form, clear from each other, and equally spaced. This is important for ease of pruning and regularity of growth and bearing. Each branch should be treated as a cordon. After the vine has been made to cover the required space by the gradual increase and elongation of branches by the use of canes, spur pruning is preferable. Varieties which require cane prun- ing are troublesome and difficult to maintain in good condition on an arbor. PRUNING Pruning is the removal of any living part of the vine except the fruit. If done while the vine is dormant it is called 'winter pruning,' if while the vine is growing — 'summer pruning.' Functions. — The principal and only essential function of pruning is to keep the vine within the limits and give it the form necessary for economical culture, — for performing such operations as tillage and irrigation, disease and pest control, and harvesting. Other pur- poses, such as prevention of over-bearing, promotion of set of fruit and protection from wind damage, are more perfectly attained by other means. Unfortunately these other means are unavailable in some cases because of their difficulty or high cost. Influence. — Pruning — the removal of living parts of the vine — has two effects : ( 1 ) it concentrates the activities of the vine into the parts left; and (2) it diminishes the total capacity of the vine for action, i.e., growth and fruit bearing. Correct pruning consists in utilizing the first effect to the extent required while avoiding the second effect as much as possible. 20 California Agricultural Extension Service [C^ir- 30 A heavily pruned vine, other things being equal, will produce fewer leaves than one lightly pruned. It will produce its maximum number of leaves and maximum area of foliage surface later, and the total annual work of photosynthesis will, therefore, be less. The con- sequence will be that less carbohydrates — starch, sugar, etc. — will be formed, and the amount available for the nourishment of root, stem, and branch, and of flower and fruit will be less. This effect is usually masked by the fact that the lightly pruned vine produces a very large crop and as, the crop is weakening to an extent similar to that of pruning, the actual performance in the production of wood, foliage, and fruit of the lightly pruned tree, during a series of years, may be no more and even less than that of the heavily pruned. If the crop is restricted with due measure, however, the lightly pruned vine will produce more crop and make more growth than the heavily pruned. These facts should be kept in mind as a controlling principle in all forms of pruning. Spur or Short Pruning. — In short-pruned vines, all the canes which have grown during the summer are removed, at the winter pruning, except half a dozen or so, and these are shortened to 'spurs,' usually of 2 or 3 buds. The buds left produce the leaves, fruit, and canes of the following year. Most vines have so much recuperative power that this treatment, in spite of its weakening effect, can be kept up year after year with satisfactory results in crop. With some varieties, however, the weakening effect on the floral organs is suffi- cient to prevent bearing or to result in straggly bunches and small berries. With such varieties, cane pruning is usually adopted. Cane or Long Fruning. — This method, which can be used with either vase-formed or cordon vines, consists in leaving, in place of some or all of the spurs, canes three or four feet long (fruit canes). As usually practiced, it diminishes the severity of the pruning only slightly and improves bearing chiefly by utilizing buds further re- moved from the base of the canes. These buds are usually better nourished and therefore more fruitful. It is used for varieties which bear little on the lower buds, {e.g., Sultanina). With varieties fruitful at the lower buds {e.g., Muscat) it is dangerous in its usual form and leads to over-bearing, poor quality, and weakness of the vine. It can, however, be used with advantage with all varieties if the precaution is taken to remove all flower clusters in excess of a number which is reasonable for the size and vigor of the vine. These clusters must be removed before the flowers have opened. The number of canes can be increased to any degree that will not interfere with cultural 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 21 operations or increase their cost too much, provided that the reduc- tion of the number of clusters is carried out to a sufficient extent and at the right time. This method has given remarkable results with many varieties in experimental trials. It has been tried with success in a small way in vineyards but has often proved disastrous in the hands of growers who are not fully informed as to the danger of over- hearing and of the ways of avoiding this serious defect. Summer Pruning. — The operations of disbudding or the removal of starting shoots on young vines, the removal of shoots ('water sprouts') from the trunk and head of the vine, and the pinching or topping of growing shoots are the principal forms of summer pruning in use. Summer pruning is even more depressing and weakening than winter pruning and should be practiced only when necessary and limited as much as possible. The removal of swelling buds and growing shoots necessary in forming young vines should take place as early as possible, before the vine has expended energy on the production of undesired growth. If these shoots, however, have been allowed to grow more than 10 inches or so, they should not be removed entirely but simply checked by * pinching' off an inch of the growing tip. This will prevent their growing large at the further expense of the desired shoots and still utilize the few leaves they have formed for the nutrition of the whole vine. The removal of 'water sprouts' growing out of the trunk and arms of mature vines should be treated in the same way. The cutting back 'topping' of the shoots that are required for the formation of the vine and for bearing the crop is always harmful and in most cases unnecessary. It has only one common use, — the protection of the shoot from breaking off by high winds. This is better accomplished by pinching an inch off the growing tip when the shoot is less than 18 inches long. The equalization of the growth of strong and weak shoots in developing or preserving the form of the vine is accomplished in the same way. A pinched shoot will be delayed in its development and thus allow weaker shoots to overtake it. Thinning. — The removal of a part of the flower clusters or of the clusters after the fruit has set, or of a part of the berries after they have formed is called 'thinning.' Like pruning it consists in the removal of living parts of the vine and has one of the effects of prun- ing — the concentration of the activities of the vine into the parts left. In the other respect, however, its effect is exactly the opposite of that of pruning — it strengthens the vine by limiting the crop and increases the capacity of the vine for both growth and future bearing. 22 California Agricultural Extension Service [C^ir- 30 The general effects of thinning- are (1) better nutrition of the flower clusters left and a consequent better 'set' of berries; (2) in- crease of size, color, and general good quality of the fruit; (3) promo- tion of the maturity of the crop. It is particularly useful for table grapes subject to coulure (dropping of the blossoms) and miller andage (production of small abortive berries — 'shot' berries). Flower cluster thinning is an indispensable accompaniment of the generous use of fruit canes. The amount of thinning necessary can be determined only by experience with each variety in each vineyard. It usually reaches or surpasses half of the flower clusters on the vine or half of the berries in a cluster. With varieties subject to coulure, cluster thin- ning is preferable ; with varieties that usually have compact bunches, thinning the berries before they are one-third grown is usually best. Some varieties when long-pruned require both flower-cluster thinning before blooming to reduce the number of clusters and berry thinning after setting to reduce the compaetness of the fruit clusters. Ringing. — This operation, called also 'girdling' and 'cincturing,' consists in the removal of a ring of bark about Vs inch wide (0.1 to 0.15 in.) from the trunk near the surface of the soil or from an arm or a cane below the fruit which it is intended to affect. The smaller the part operated on, the narrower the ring. The effect is to cause the carbohydrates elaborated in the leaves to accumulate in the parts above the wound, including the clusters of blossoms and fruit. The result is that the berries grow larger and usually ripen earlier. If done before blossoming, it promotes setting and thus increases the number of berries. In some cases, this latter effect may increase the number of berries and weight of the cluster so much, that the fruit is neither larger nor earlier. In such cases, the girdling should be fol- lowed by berry thinning. Girdling is a form of summer pruning and is weakening, in some eases greatly so. Only very vigorous vines can withstand its yearly repetition. It is of much less general application than the other methods mentioned and in general should not be resorted to until as much improvement as possible has been obtained by the other methods. Clearing the Clusters. — Many fine clusters of grapes are injured or completely spoiled at harvesting in the endeavor to disentangle them from each other or from shoots around which they have formed. This can be avoided by disentangling them while the berries are still small and the clusters loose. This is easily and quickly done, and any slight injury at that time is repaired by the time the grapes are ripe. 1929] Elements op Grape Growing in California GRAFTING Vines are grafted for two purposes: (1) to change the variety: (2) to place the vines on roots resistant to phylloxera. For the first purpose the ordinary cleft graft is generally used. It is made 4 to 6 inches below the surface of the soil. No wax or other covering except moist well pulverized soil is used and no tying except with vines less than IV2 inches in diameter. A two-bud scion is generally used and the whole graft completely covered with loose soil until the top bud swells, when the starting bud should be uncovered. In grafting resistant vines, special methods are used. The best in use are bench grafting and field yema grafting. In the finst, a one-bud scion of the fruiting variety is grafted on a 10 or 12-inch cutting of the resistant variety, and the graft thus made united and rooted in a nursery for one year and planted in the vineyard the next. In the second method, the resistant cutting is rooted for one year in a nurserj^ and planted in the vineyard early the next spring. About September of the year of planting, a scion bud is placed in the resistant stock about one inch above the surface of the ground and well covered with loose soil. This bud unites the same year, but re- mains dormant until the following spring, when it is started by the removal of the resistant top above the scion bud. The methods used in both cases are special and not usually understood by general nurserymen. DISEASES AND PESTS California is free from most of the serious fungus diseases and insect pests which trouble the grape growers of other regions. There are, however, several present which must be controlled if the fidl profit of a vineyard is to be obtained. Oidium. — A fungus disease known as powdery mildew or Oidium exists in every grape-growing region in California. It attacks all green parts of the vine, leaves, shoots, and unripe grapes.. If neglected it causes curling and withering of the leaves in spring, the dropping, discoloration or splitting of the berries, and the blackening and imper- fect maturing of the canes. It is controlled by dusting with very finely powdered or sublimed sulfur. This is applied either by knapsack blowers or by powerful machine dusters. The best of the latter do excellent work. The vines must usually be dusted at least three times not later than: first when the shoots are 10-15 inches long; .second, 24 ' California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir- 30 just before blossoming ; third, when the berries have set and grown to about one-half or one-quarter of their full diameter. In some districts a fourth or fifth sulfuring is often necessary either when the berries are half grown (in the coast regions) or just before the ripening of the grapes (late varieties in irrigated regions). Esca. — Vines over 7 or 8 years old are sometimes attacked by a wood-destroying fungus which obtains entrance through pruning wounds and destroys the old wood in the trunk or large arms. The vine shows little effect until the decay reaches the new wood, when the growth weakens, the leaves become yellow in patches, the grapes spotted or completely dry, and finally the vine dies, often suddenly. This disease can be controlled when the first symptoms appear by the use of an arsenic spray. The spray most generally used consists of 2 lbs. of sodium arsenite dissolved in 50 gallons of water. A spray containing 50 per cent more arsenite (3 lbs.) has also been used suc- cessfully, but cases of injury to the vine have been reported where this stronger spray has been used. The specific symptom of this disease is the dry rotten wood (punk) in the middle of the trunk or large arms. All the other symptoms mentioned may be found with other diseases which are not controlled by this spray. Vine Hopper. — This is a small whitish insect that injures the leaves by sucking out their juices. It is found as a greenish nymph about one-tenth of an inch long on the underside of the leaves and as a whitish flying adult all over the vine. It causes minute round yel- lowish spots on the leaves and when abundant causes the leaves to drop prematurely. There are several broods during the year. The earlier broods may prevent the ripening of the fruit and the later broods injure the quality by the black specks of their droppings. Their numbers may be diminished by cleaning up all weeds in the vineyard two or three weeks before the start of the buds. The over-wintering adult hoppers must then leave the vineyard to find food or die of starvation. When the shoots start, those which live return, settle on the outer rows and attack the growing leaves. This is the main advantage of winter cleaning; it tends to concentrate the hoppers on the outside row where they and their brood can be more effectively and cheaply destroyed. Here they can be caught in a hopperdozer or in some cases killed by calcium cyanide or nicotine sulfur dust. These remedies, however, have not been generally used. The best known method of control is to spray the first brood which hatches from the eggs laid by the overwintering insects. A nicotine spray is generally used and consists of one pint of 'black leaf 40' 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 25 (nicotine sulfate) dissolved in 50 gallons of water, together with a pound of casein or other cheap spreader. If the water is hard, a ponnd of washing soda improves it. This spray is applied when the first winged insects appear, as by this time all or most of the eggs have hatched. Calcium cyanide dust is also being used successfully. This must be applied in calm, dry weather — if the leaves are wet the vine may be injured. It is most effective when most of the insects have developed wings — a little later than the nicotine spray. Grape-root Worm. — This is the grub of a beetle which eats narrow channels in the leaves, usually during May. The beetle itself does little damage but it lays eggs on the vine from which grubs hatch, drop to the ground, and finding their way to the root do much damage by eating the small roots and the outer layers of the large roots. The injury is sometimes serious and similar to that due to phylloxera. This pest is controlled by spraying the vines in May with an arsenic spray which kills the leaf -eating beetles before they lay their eggs. Erinose. — This appears as small or large patches of white hairs on the underside of the leaves and corresponding bulges on the upper side. It is caused by a microscopic mite which causes the leaf hairs of the vine to grow abnormally large. It seldom does serious harm except to alarm the grower. It is easily controlled by the method of dry-sulfur dusting used for Oidium. Phylloxera. — This small insect, related to the scales and aphids, is the most serious pest of the vine in California with perhaps the excep- tion of the vine hopper. It attacks the roots of the vine, and when a vineyard becomes infected there is usually no remedy. Protection is possible and satisfactory, however, by the use of resistant root stocks, which are little injured by the pest. Large areas of vineyards have been destroyed or are infested in the northern coast counties and in the Sacramento, Central, and San Joaquin valleys. Only a few small infested areas are known in south- ern California. It occurs principally in clay and loam soils. Very sandy soils are nearly or quite immune. In planting a vineyard in an uninfested area, all necessary precau- tions should be taken to avoid introducing the insect. As it lives only on the roots of the vine, the main danger is the use of rootings grown in areas already infested. It is best to disinfect all rootings by immer- sion in hot water (130° F) for 5 minutes before planting. The insect may also be introduced in grape boxes, farming implements, or other materials which have been used in an infested vineyard. 26 California Agricultural Extension Service [<^ir- 30 Where water is cheap and abundant and the land level, the insect can be controlled by flooding. If the vineyard is kept submerged to a depth of 6 inches or more for 3 or 4 weeks in December or January all or most of the insects will be drowned. This treatment may have to be repeated every three or four years. Resistant Vines. — The only permanent and o-enerally effective method of protection is the use of resislant root stocks. The principal stock used in California is the Kupestris St. George. This does well in deep soils but fails or is unsatisfactory wherever there is hard pan, high water level, or shallow soil. Stocks which have been found by the California Experiment Station to be superior to the St. George in these soils are the hybrids Chasselas x Berlandieri 41-B, Berlan- dieri x Riparia 420-A, and Riparia x Rupestris 3309 and 3306. These are not only adapted to a wider range of soil conditions, but promote the bearing and quality of the crop better than St. George. The first two are a little difficult to root but are well worth the extra trouble or expense. The last two are somewhat sensitive to alkali. There are no vines sufficiently resistant to phylloxera that have fruit of any cultural value in California. Resistant vines are useful, therefore, only as root stocks and must be grafted with vinifera varieties. THE GRAPE VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA In the vineyards, gardens, and collections of California there are growing, probably five hundred or more varieties of vinifera grapes. Of this horde, a very small number, not much exceeding a score, are grown in sufficient quantities to be shipped in carload lots. A similar number are marketed in small quantities locally or as occasional express consignments. The rest are varieties that have been super- seded by varieties more suited to present market conditions or vari- eties which are being grown for curiosity or experimentally with the hope of finding something superior to those now grown largely. Each of the principal grapes owes its preeminance to the fact that it fills some market requirement better than any other now known or sufficiently tested. In the list given below, an attempt has been made to include the principal varieties now being shipped. Each of these may be considered a 'type' and the qualities to which it owes \its preference are given, together with its defects. Each type is then followed by the varieties which promise to be equal or superior to the type for the same or some similar purpose. 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 27 The principal grai)es of California can be divided into three large classes : Class I. For drying. Raisin grapes. Class II. For eating fresh. Table grapes. Class III. For manufacturing purposes. Juice and wine grapes. RAISIN GRAPES Muscat of Alexandria. — Berries large, white, oval, pulpy, with a strong Muscat flavor. It is the variety from which the finest, and indeed most, of the raisins of Spain — Moscatels, Malagas, etc. — are made. It has no rival for quality as a 'cluster' or dessert raisin. Occa- sionally other varieties are dried to produce a similar raisin, but they are always much inferior. In California, the so-called Malaga (Pause de Rocquevaire), our principal table grape, and the Feher Szagos, of unknown origin, a large, heavy bearing, inferior white wine gTape, are sometimes used for this purpose, but the product is hard, tasteless, and used only for cooking. The Gordo Blanco of Spain and the Huasco of Chile, and the Zibbibo of northern Africa, seem to be iden- tical with this variety. Sultanina. — Berry small, oval or cylindroidal, yellow, seedless. From this grape the Sultana raisins, grown principally in Smyrna, are made. It is called oval Kishinish in the Levant, Sultana in Aus- tralia, and Thompson in California. It is at present the most largely grown raisin grape in California. A pink form is grown but has no special merit except as a local table grape in the coast counties. Sultana. — This grape resembles the last, but has smaller and spherical or oblate berries, and produces a raisin of lower quality. It succeeds in poorer soils and with less care than the Sultanina. It is the grape known as the round Kishmish in the Levant. Monukka. — Berry cylindroidal, purplish, seedless, a little larger than the Sultanina. It originated in Persia and was planted in Cali- fornia first as a table grape, but it does not ship well. It is now used for raisins sold in local markets. The raisins are much liked by some, but do not enter the general market. Black Corinth. — Berry very small, nearly spherical, black or dark purple, seedless. It is from this grape the 'currants' of Greece are made. It succeeds well in California when girdled and given the requisite special care, but has not generally been found profitable. The White Corinth is a distinct variety which bears well without girdling. Its raisins resemble those of Sultana, but are smaller. Their quality is inferior to that of the Black Corinth. 28 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cni. 30 TABLE GRAPES Malaga. — Berry large, short, oval, white. This grape is grown more largely than any other table grape in California. Its origin or correct name is not known. It is grown in France on a small scale in a number of localities under different names. Over 8,000 carloads were shipped from California in 1927, but 1,600 of these as wine grapes, which shows that it has been overplanted, since it is very poorly suited to the purpose. It succeeds only in the warmer localities and fails to attain its size or quality as a table grape in the cooler parts. A similar variety, the Kurtelaska, has been tried successfully, but seems to have little or no superiority. Battier. — Berry resembles that of the Malaga in color and texture but is cylindroidal and more elongated. It is earlier and is grown for the early market principally in the Imperial region. The Dizmar, a similar grape, is of equal quality and very early but is not much grown because of its irregular bearing. Ohanez. — Usually called the Almeria, is the grape shipped from Spain in cork dust. It is of fair quality when well grown and ripe but its chief value lies in its keeping qualities. It has been grown for many years in California on a small scale with indifferent success, both in quality and productiveness. By trellising, longer pruning and cross pollination, its behavior has been much improved in both respects, plantings have increased and a considerable number of car- loads are shipped packed in sawdust. Bisli Baha. — This is a Persian grape ; one of several varieties of white grapes which are often referred to as ' Ladyfingers. ' It is of very attractive appearance, long, spindle-shaped, and of pleasing flavor and texture. It requires skillful packing to carry well and is produced by only a few growers. It is superior to the Pizzutello, a similar Italian grape formerly grown. Olivette Blanche. — This is another of the so-called ladyfingers' and seems to be the Spanish grape, Santa Paula. It bears well and ships better than the Rish Baba but its quality is not quite equal to that of the latter. Tokay. — Berry large, irregularly short oval, obliquely flattened at the apex. Its most valuable quality is its brilliant red color, which it attains, however, only in limited localities, of which the principal are in the central part of the great interior valley. In the cooler regions its ripening is late and irregular and in the hotter regions it 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in Calib^ornia 29 fails to color sufficiently even when ripe. This variety appears to have orig-inated in Kabylia, a prc^vince of Algeria, where it is known by the Arab name of Ahmar abu Ahmar (Red father of Red). It is grown also in southern Europe, under various names; e.g., Angelino, Culo de Horza. It was our principal shipping" g^rape until surpassed by the Malaga. It appears to be regaining ground, for in 1927 slightly more Tokay than Malagas were shipped as table grapes. Molinera. — Berry large, spherical, deep red. This is the only red table grape except the Tokay w^hich has been shipped in any large quantity from California. In 1927, the shipments reached 116 car- loads. It is about equal to the Tokay in eating quality and is a little easier to pack and ship. It has a very attractive red color, but does not equal the brilliant red of the Tokay. Its main advantages are that it can be grown successfully in localities unsuited to the Tokay and it is a little earlier. This variety is grown and shipped under various incorrect names such as Red Malaga, Marvel of Malaga, and Mara- viglia de Malaga. It is used in Almeria to pollinate the Ohanez. Among" other promising red varieties which are being tested, are Henab, Rose Damascus, and Paykani. These are all excellent varieties but too delicate to ship far with our present methods. Emperor. — Berry large, long-oval, dark purple or red. This is the third of the three varieties that constitute 95 per cent of all our table grapes, if we except the Sultanina and Muscat, which are some- times shipped in fairly large quantities for the same purpose. This variety, like the Tokay, has a limited range wherein it is successful. In both cases it is a matter of attaining a desired color. The Tokay is profitable only where it attains in perfection its normal brilliant red color. The Emperor, which is normally dark purple or almost black is most profitable in localities where it fails to attain this nor- mal color and reaches only a light purplish red which the market finds attractive. The principal Emperor region is near the Sierra foothills along the east side of the San Joaquin Valley in Fresno and Tulare counties. The Black Ferrara, which the 'red' Emperor replaced, is a good shipper and is beginning to be planted again. Hunisa. — Berry large, cylindroidal, dull red, of very attractive appearance and good eating qualities. Its keeping and shipping qualities are equal to those of the Emperor. Unfortunately it usually sets badly and forms many abortive 'shot' berries. If this defect can be overcome, as appears probable from tests made at Davis, it would seem to be equal or superior in all respects to the Emperor. It is of Armenian origin. 30 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cir. 30 Cornichon. — Berry large, elongated, ellipsoidal, black, often some- what flattened on one side, but not gherkin shaped as its name indi- cates. This is one of our finest table grapes, and the most largely grown of the table grapes after the three main varieties. Its irregu- larity of bearing with ordinary methods of pruning restrict its extension. The Golden Jubilee is a grape of somewhat similar appearance but of higher quality. It bears well at Davis, with ordinary pruning. It is of more delicate texture than the Cornichon and has a thinner skin and would probably be more difficult to ship. It is, however, well worth trying experimentally. Black Prince. — Berry medium-large, spherical, brownish purple. The Rose of Peru is considered a synonym of this variety. It is lighter in color, but this difference is considered to be due to difference of climate. This variety is of good quality and much liked in some mar- kets. It is the best of the early black table grapes we grow largely and bears well with ordinary methods of management. That 78 per cent of the 214 cars of this variety shipped in 1927 went as 'juice stock' indicates that our present plantings are quite sufficient, for it is not a good wine grape. The Angulata is not yet grown commer- cially, but it seems in some ways to be superior to the Blanck Prince and has similar qualities. It is earlier but remains on the vines in good condition for a longer time. There are several varieties of this type which have been planted lately, and are proving more attractive to the market. These are the Alphonse Lavalee, the Gros Colman, and the Gros Guillaimie (Dan- ugue). Alphonse Lavallee. — Berry very large, spherical, black. This grape was first propagated by a nurseryman at Orleans, France, and was brought to California from a French nursery by the California Experi- ment Station in 1904 under the erroneous label of Gros Ribier. It is now being grown and shipped under the name of Ribier, which be- longs to a very different oval grape. Another difficulty has arisen from the confusion of this variety with two similar varieties, the Gros Colman and the Gros Guillaume, and their mixing in many vineyards. These are also large, black, spherical grapes and difficult, except for the expert, to distinguish by the fruit alone. As the Al- phonse promises to be an excellent addition to our grape varieties, superior in most cases to the two with which it has been confused, the main marks by which they can be distinguished will be given. The Gros Maroc is a promising variet}^ which also might be confused with 1929 Elements of Grape Growing in California ■n these if it g-ets into the vineyards. The Black Morocco, one of our oldest introductions, sparingly grown, might also be confused. These two are, therefore, also included. The Alphonse is distinguished from all the other four varieties mentioned by the fact that many of the berries are flattened at the apex (end away from the stalklet) and the pulp is thicker (less crisp and juicy). Its clusters are usually of medium size, loose or well- filled, but not dense or compact. Its leaves are rounded, with short but acute teeth, and the sinuses (spaces between the lobes) extend half way to the end of the petiole (leaf stalk). The growing tips are somewhat hairy and the leaves fairly so. The u})]ier surface is smooth G«X5 MA»OC Fig. 4. — Varieties often confused. and dull. The main distinguishing points of the other varieties are : (1) the Gros Guillaume has no hairiness on tips or leaves, the leaves are shiny, the teeth are longer, and the clusters are very large. (2) The Gros Colman is very densely woolly on tips and leaves, the leaves are a dark green and wrinkled with a rough but shiny surface and they have fewer and shallower lobes. (3) The Gros Maroc has woolly growing ti])s but the mature leaves are nearly free from woolliness, they are niucJi contorted and the surface rough, the sinuses are few and shallow, the teeth are obtuse, and the clusters are small and com- pact. (4) The Black Morocco is a much more slender grower than any of the others and produces regidarly large second and third crops. The leaves are small and quite smooth, have five lobes with deep and often closed sinuses. The most striking differences are indicated by italics. 32 California Agricultural Extension Service [CiR. 30 WINE GRAPES Since the passage of the Prohibition amendment, the business of the wineries has been much reduced and the marketing of wine grapes has undergone a great change. Formerly practically the whole crop of wine grapes was sold to local wineries. Now most of them are shipped out of the state as fresh grapes. The result has been an almost complete reversal of the order of prices for the various varieties. For- merly such grapes as the Cabernet Sauvignon, the Semillon, and the Riesling received a considerable premium. They were considered of the highest quality and therefore brought the highest prices. Now they are almost valueless, because their delicacy of texture makes it impossible to ship them in good condition by present methods. They are also unknown to most of the present buyers and would, until they became known, find few purchasers even if we could get them to the market in good order. The varieties which are most profitable at present are those which have deep color and are sufficiently firm and tough skinned to get to New York without spoiling. The present marketing status of these varieties is indicated by the number of carloads of each sold and the average price per lug in 1927, shown in the accompanying table.* COMPAEATIVE VaI^UE OF JUICE* GrAPES Variety Carloads Price per lug Qualityt Colort Carry ingt Zinfandel 9,548 9,205 3,347 1,275 893 876 433 225 166 14,604 1,634 $1.30 1 59 1.32 1.06 1 35 1.30 3 5 3 4 2 4 3 4 6 4 1 3 5 2 3 4 3 5 3 AH. Bouschet Carignane 1 1 1 Petite Sirah CDuriff) 2 1 Grenache 2 Malvoisie (Cinsaut) 2 1 Muscat 1 02 1 19 3-4 Malaga 1 * This includes the wine grapes and some table and raisin grapes sometimes shipped for the same purpose. t The numbers in the last three columns indicate rank, 1 being best. The price at which any of these varieties is taken by the pres- ent markets depends on: (a) depth of color, (5) familiarity of the purchasers with the name, (c) condition in which it reaches the mar- 4 Stillwell, E. W., and W. F. Cox. Marketing California grapes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 44:1-26. 1928. 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in California 33 ket. The quantity taken depends upon these factors to some degree, but principally on the extent of the offerings and the consequent price. The quality of the variety has little influence at present, but this influence tends to increase as the consumers become better ac- quainted with the final results. The influence of abundant offerings and familiarity of name, unaccompanied by any of the qualities desired in this class, is shown by the record of the Muscat. More Muscats were shipped than any other variety and this variety lacks more than any other for this purpose the factors of color, quality, and mainte- nance of condition. The consequence was in 1927 that more carloads of this variety were sold than of any other grape and at a lower price, with consequent disappointment to the consumers and disaster to the producers. Zinfandel. — This is the best known and the most largely planted of the California wine grapes. It is of fair quality but rather light in color. It is suited best to the cooler districts as it is much subject to sunburn and black mold {Aspergillus) in hot districts. It is a rather small grower but bears well and is easy to cultivate. It has compact bunches and the skin is thin and easily broken so that it is difficult to ship in good condition. Carignane. — This variety is equal in quality to the Zinfandel, has a little deeper color, and ships well. It bears well in all grape-growing regions and is very vigorous. It is perhaps the best of our bulk wine grapes, and is largely planted. It is Yevy subject to Oidium and requires careful sulfuring. It should not be planted in situations much subject to summer fogs. Mataro. — The fruit of this variety is similar to that of the Carig- nane. It is less subject to mildew but requires a somewhat hotter climate. In the cooler regions it lacks quality. It starts its buds late and is therefore valuable for situations subject to spring frosts. Grenache. — This variety also resembles the Carignane, but is of somewhat higher quality especially for sweet wine. It is a little lighter in color but bears and ships almost as well. These last three varieties are often confused by the shippers. Their principal point of difference are : the Mataro has very upright canes, leaves of medium size, dark green above and white woolly below, and ripens later than the other two ; the Carignane has large irregular or somewhat contorted leaves with sparser and less white woolliness below and longer and more spreading canes than the Mataro ; the Grenache has smaller and more yellowish leaves; no woolliness on the leaves and smaller seeds than either of the others. 34 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm. 30 Bouschet Hi)]) rids. — About seventy years ago, Louis Bouschet and his son Henri Bouschet, crossed several of the common large, vigorous, fertile, wine grapes of southern France with the small, weak Teintu- rier^ a variety remarkable for the intense color of its fruit. The object was to unite the good qualities of the common grapes with the intense color of the Teinturier — (The Dyer). The attempt was successful and now three of them, Petit Bouschet, the Alicante Henri Bouschet, and the Grand Noir de la Calmette, are widely grown in France, Algeria, and other regions where ordinary wines are produced on a large scale. The first is a cross between Aramon and Teinturier ; the second and third between Alicante (Grenache) and Petit Bouschet. Only the second is grown largely in California. Alicante Henri Bouschet. — This name is usually contracted to Alicante Bouschet in California. This is not confusing because, while several crosses of the same parentage exist, this, if we except the Grand Noir, is the only one of importance. The contraction to Alicante used by shippers may, however, lead to misunderstanding, because this name is a synonym of Grenache, which we also ship largely. The Petit Bouschet is seldom found growing alone in California but occurs frequently as an unintentional mixture with the Alicante Bouschet. The Grand Noir is usually found unmixed but is grown in but a few vineyards, though the number tends to increase. All three are good bearers and deeply colored. The Alicante Bouschet is the firmest and withstands shipping best. In the cooler districts, however, it often fails to reach the required degree of sugar and becomes moldy quickly after rains. It is best suited to warm locations in the coast valleys and especially on sloping well-drained land. For richer and deeper soil, especially in locations where ripen- ing is retarded, the Grand Noir is to be preferred because it ripens a little earlier and is less liable to molding. The Petit Bouschet is also a little earlier but generally does not stand shipping so well as the Grand Noir. The three Bouschets are easily distinguished in the vineyard by the leaves. The Alicante Bouschet has three-lobed leaves with shallow sinuses, the petiolar sinus usually open and V-shaped, and the margin of the leaf is curved down (inverted saucer shape). The Petit Bouschet is five-lohed ivith well-marked sinuses, the petiolar sinus open U-shaped. The leaves of the Grand Noir are nsnally three- lohed, of heavier texture than the others, of rougher surface, and more persistantly woolly below. 1929] Elements of Grape Growing in Calip^ornia 35 By the fruit characters alone, the Alicante Bouschet may be dis- ting-uished from the others by its short, heavily-shouldered, and com- pact clusters, its firmer pulj), and the deeper red of its juice, especially before the grapes are perfectly ripe. There are two or three other grapes with red juice grown in Cali- fornia which are sometimes confused with the Bouschets but are easily distinguished. These are all American hybrids and differ from any of the Bouschets by the small size of their berries and usually of their Fig. 5. — I^eaves of Bouschet varieties. clusters. The Lenoir is the most grown, but tends to decrease. None of them have any advantage over vinifera varieties for California and most of them are very inferior in quality and yield. Mission. — This is the first grape introduced by the Spanish mis- sionaries into Peru and Mexico and finally into Argentina, Chile, and California. Until the early '70s it was the principal variety grown in California. From that period it has gradually been displaced in all the older grape districts of the coast regions. During the last 15 or 20 years there has been a tendency to increased plantings in the interior regions, where it has been valuable as a sweet wine grape and lately as a juice grape for eastern shipments. It is a large vigorous vine and a heavy bearer when given room to develop. If crowded or kept low, its bearing tends to be irregular. It ships well but lacks the color and acidity the present juice market requires. 36 California Agricultural Extension Service [Cm.. 30 Petite Sirah. — When the Petite Sirah was introduced into Cali- fornia, its bearing was disappointing. Certain vines in the planta- tions, however, were noted as good bearers. These were selected as the source of cuttings for new vineyards and finally good yielding vineyards were obtained. This has been used by advocates of 'pedi- greed trees' as an illustration of the improvement of the bearing of a variety by selection on the basis of 'performance records.' Unfor- tunately for the theory it has been found that the Petite Sirah was not improved but eliminated. All that was done was to select cuttings from another variety of similar appearance which had been mixed with the Sirah. This variety is the Duriff and is well known in France, where it is grown in the same district as the Sirah. Our so-called Petite Sirah is therefore the Duriff. Black Malvoisie. — This is another misnomer. The variety grown in California under this name appears to be the French Cinsaut, grown in South Africa under the name of Hermitage, equally a mis- nomer, as the variety of the famous Hermitage vineyards on the Rhone is the true Petite Sirah. The Cinsaut combines the qualities desired in a table grape with those desired in a wine grape perhaps as well as any variety. More detailed information may be obtained from the publications listed on page 37 ; many of these are out of print but can be consulted in most county and city libraries in California. Those which are still available can be had by applying to the College of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. A list of publications available will be sent upon request. 1929 J Elements of Grape Growing in California 37 SELECTED LIST OF STATION PUBLICATIONS BULLETINS 134. Dying Vines in Santa Clara Valley 1901 136. Erinose of the Vine 1901 ]46. New Methods of Grafting, etc 1902 180. Eesistant Vineyards, etc 1906 186. Oidium of the Vine 1907 192. Insects Injurious to the Vine in California 1907 195. The California Root-Worm 1908 197. Grape Culture in California, etc 1908 198. The Grape Leaf-Hopper. 1908 210. Imperial Valley Manual (Grapes) 1911 241. Vine Pruning in California, Part 1 1914 246. Vine Pruning in California, Part II 1914 296. Topping and Pinching of Vines ....1918 303. Grape Syrup 1919 321. Commercial Grape Syrup 1919 322. The Evaporation of Grapes 1919 331. Phylloxera Resistant Stocks 1921 358. Black Measles, Water Berries, etc 1923 388. Principle and Practice of Sun Drying Fruit 1925 390. Harvesting and Packing Grapes in California 1925 429. Economic Status of the Grape Industry 1926 CIRCULARS 76. Hot-room Callusing 1911 108. Grape Juice 1912 115. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards 1914 126. Spraying for Grape Leaf-Hopper 1915 134. Control of Raisin Insects 1915 144. Oidium of the Vine 1915 225. Propagation of Vines 1921 231. The Home Vineyard 1921 245. The Vine Pruning Systems 1922 248. Some Common Errors in Vine Pruning 1922 249. Replacing Missing Vines 1922 252. Supports for Vines 1922 253. Vineyard Plans 1922 277. Head, Cane, and Cordon Pruning 1924 288. Phylloxera Resistant Vineyards 1925 293. The Basis of Grape Standardization 1925 303. A Promising Remedy for Black Measles of the Vine HILGARDIA Vol. 1, No. 6. The Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide in the Marketing of Grapes. Vol. 1, No. 20, Some Responses of Vitis Vinifera to Pruning. Vol. 2, No. 1. Selection of Planting Stock for Vineyards. Vol. 2, No. 5. Infl. Prun. on the Germin. of Pollen and the Set of Berries. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION No. 253. 262. 263. 268. 277. 278. 279. 283. .'504. 310. 313. 3 335. 343. 344. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 354. 357. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367. 368. 369. 370. 371. 373. 377. 380. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. BULLETINS No. 397. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba 398. Compared with those of California. 400. Size Grades for Ripe Olives. 402. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. 405. Sudan Grass. 406. Grain Sorghums. 407. Irrigation of Rice in California. The Olive Insects of California. A Study of the Effects of Freezes on 408. Citrus in California. 409, Plum Pollination. Pruning Young Deciduous Fruit Trees. rune Growing in California. 410. hylloxera-resistant Stocks, Cocoanut Meal as a Feed for Dairy Cows and Other Livestock. 411. Cheese Pests and Their Control. Cold Storage as an Aid to the Mar- 412. keting of Plums, a Progress Report. Almond Pollination. The Control of Red Spiders in Decid- 414. nous Orchards. Pruning Young Olive Trees. 415. A Study of Sidedraft and Tractor 416. Hitches. Agriculture in Cut-Over Redwood 418. Lands. Results of Rice Experiments in 1922. 419. A Self-Mixing Dusting Machine for Applying Dry Insecticides and Fun- 420. gicides. Preliminary Yield Tables for Second- 421. Growth Redwood. 423. Dust and the Tractor Engine. The Pruning of Citrus Trees in Cali- 424. fornia. Fungicidal Dusts for the Control of 425. Bunt. 426. Avocado Culture in California. Turkish Tobacco Culture, Curing, 427. and Marketing. Methods of Harvesting and Irrigation 428. in Relation to Moldy Walnuts. Bacterial Decomposition of Olives During Pickling. 429. Comparison of Woods for Butter 430. Boxes. 431. Factors Influencing the Development of Internal Browning of the Yellow 432. Newton Apple. The Relative Cost of Yarding Small 433. and Large Timber. Pear Pollination. 434, The Cold Storage of Pears. Growth of Eucalyptus in California 435. Plantations. Pollination of the Sweet Cherry. Pruning Bearing Deciduous Fruit Trees. 436. Fig Smut. The Principles and Practice of Sun- 438. Drying Fruit. Berseem or Egyptian Clover. 439. Harvesting and Packing Grapes in California. Machines for Coating Seed Wheat with Copper Carbonate Dust. Fruit Juice Concentrates. 440. Crop Sequences at Davis, I, Cereal Hay Production in Cali- fornia. II. Feeding Trials with 442. Cereal Hays. 443. Bark Diseases of Citrus Trees in Cali- fornia. 444. The Mat Bean, Phaseolus Aconitifo- lius. 445. Manufacture of Roquefort Type Cheese from Goat's Milk. Orchard Heating in California. The Utilization of Surplus Plums. The Codling Moth in Walnuts. Citrus Culture in Central California. Stationary Spray Plants in California. Yield, Stand, and Volume Tables for White Fir in the California Pine Region. Alternaria Rot of Lemons. The Digestibility of Certain Fruit By- Products as Determined for Rumi- nants. Part I. Dried Orange Pulp and Raisin Pulp. Factors Influencing the Quality of Fresh Asparagus after it is Har- vested. Paradichlorobenzene as a Soil Fumi- gant. A Study of the Relative Value of Cer- tain Root Crops and Salmon Oil as Sources of Vitamin A for Poultry. Planting and Thinning Distances for Deciduous Fruit Trees. The Tractor on California Farms. Culture of the Oriental Persimmon in California. A Study of Various Rations for Fin- ishing Range Calves as Baby Beeves. Economic Aspects of the Cantaloupe Industry. Rice and Rice By-Products as Feeds for Fattening Swine. Beef Cattle Feeding Trials, 1921-24. Apricots (Series on California Crops and Prices). The Relation of Rate of Maturity to Egg Production. Apple Growing in California. Apple Pollination Studies in Cali- fornia. The Value of Orange Pulp for Milk Production. The Relation of Maturity of Cali- fornia Plums to Shipping and Dessert Quality. Economic Status of the Grape Industry. Range Grasses of California. Raisin By-Products and Bean Screen- ings as Feeds for Fattening Lambs. Some Economic Problems Involved in the Pooling of Fruit. Power Requirements of Electrically Driven Manufacturing Equipment. Investigations on the Use of Fruits in Ice Cream and Ices. The Problem of Securing Closer Relationship Between Agricultural Development and Irrigation Con- struction. I. The Kadota Fig. II. Kadota Fig Products. Grafting Affinities with Special Refer- ence to Plums. The Digestibility of Certain Fruit By- Products as Determined for Rumi- nants. Part II. Dried Pineapple Pulp, Dried Lemon Pulp, and Dried Olive Pulp. The Feeding Value of Raisins and Dairy By-Products for Growing and Fattening Swine. Laboratory Tests of Orchard Heaters. Standardization and Improvement of California Butter. Series on California Crops and Prices : Beans. Economic Aspects of the Apple In- dustry. No. 446. 447. 448. 449. 450. 451. 452. 453. 454. No. 87. 115. 117. 127. 129. 164. 166. 178. 202. 203. 209. 212. 215. 232. 238. 239. 240. 241. 243. 244. 245. 248. 249. 250. 252. 253. 255. 257. 258, 259. 261. 2 6 -2, 2 6.1 265 BULLETINS- The Asparagus ludustry in California. The Method of Determining the Clean "Weights of Individual Fleeces of Wool. Farmers' Purchase Agreement for Deep Well Pumps. Economic Aspects of the Watermelon Industry. Irrigation Investigations with Field Crops at Davis, and at Delhi, Cali- fornia. Studies Preliminary to the Establish- ment of a Series of Fertilizer Trials in a Bearing Citrus Grove. Economic Aspects of the Pear In- dustry. Series on California Crops and Prices: Almonds. Rice Experiments in Sacramento Val- ley, 1922-1927. (Go)itinupd) No. 455 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. 462, 463. 464. Keclamation of tlic Fresno Type of Black-Alkali Soil. Yield, Stand and Volume Tables for Red Fir in California. Series on California Crops and Prices: Oranges. Factors Influencing Percentage Calf Crop in Range Herds. Economic Aspects of the Fresh Plum Industry. Series on California Crops and Prices: Lemons. Series on California Crops and Prices : Economic Aspects of the Beef Cattle Industry. Prune Supply and Price Sitiiation. Series on California Crops and Prices: Grapefruit. Drainage in the Sacramento Rice Fields. #>' CIRCULARS No. 266. Alfalfa. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards. The selection and Cost of a Small 267. Pumping Plant. House Fumigation. 269. The control of Citrus Insects. 270. Small Fruit Culture in California. 273. The County Farm Bureau. 276. The Packing of Apples in California. 277. County Organization for Rural Fire Control. , 278. Peat as a Manure Substitute. The Function of the Farm Bureau. 279. Salvaging Rain-Damaged Prunes. Feeding Dairy Cows in California. 282. Harvesting and Handling California Cherries for Eastern Shipment. 284. The Apricot in California. 287. Harvesting and Handling Apricots 288. and Plums for Eastern Shipment. 289. Harvesting and Handling California 290. Pears for Eastern Shipment. 292. Harvesting and Handling California 293. Peaches for Eastern Shipment. 294, Marmalade Juice and Jelly Juice 295. from Citrus Fruits. 296. Central Wire Bracing for Fruit Trees. Vine Pruning Systems. 298. Some Common Errors in Vine Prun- ing and Their Remedies. 300. Replacing Missing Vines. 301. Measurement of Irrigation Water on 302. the Farm. 304. Support for Vines. 305. Vineyard Plans. 307. Leguminous Plants as Organic Fer- 308. tilizers in California Agriculture. 309. The Small-Seeded Horse Bean (Vicia 310. faba var. minor). Thinning Deciduous Fruits. 311. Pear By-Products. 312. Sewing Grain Sacks. Cabbage Production in California. Tomato Production in California. 313. Plant Disease and Pest Control. The publications listed above may be had by addressing College of Agriculture, University of California, Berkeley, California. Analyzing the Citrus Orchard by Means of Simple Tree Records. The Tendency of Tractors to Rise in Front; Causes and Remedies. An Orchard Brush Burner. A Farm Septic Tank. Saving the Gophered Citrus Tree. Home Canning. Head, Cane and Cordon Pruning of Vines. Olive Pickling in Mediterranean Countries. The Preparation and Refining of Olive Oil in Southern Europe. Prevention of Insect Attack on Stored Grain. The Almond in California. Potato Production in California. Phylloxera Resistant Vineyards. Oak Fungus in Orchard Trees. The Tangier Pea. Alkali Soils. The Basis of Grape Standardization. Propagation of Deciduous Fruits. Growing Head Lettuce in California. Control of the California Ground Squirrel. Possibilities and Limitations of Coop- erative Marketing. Coccidiosis of Chickens. Buckeye Poisoning of the Honey Bee. The Sugar Beet in California. Drainage on the Farm. Liming the Soil. American Foulbrood and Its Control. Cantaloupe Production in California. Fruit Tree and Orchard Judging. The Operation of the Bacteriological Laboratory for Dairy Plants. The Improvement of Quality in Figs. Principles Governing the Choice, Op- eration and Care of Small Irrigation Pumping Plants. Fruit Juices and Fruit Juic^ Beverages. 15m-3,'29