THE VULGATE: THE SOURCE 
 OF FALSE DOCTRINES 
 
Works by the same ^Author 
 
 THE SPIRITUAL TEACHING OF 
 CHRIST'S LIFE. 55. net. 
 
 CHRIST, NO PRODUCT OF 
 EVOLUTION, is. 
 
 THE AT-ONE-MENT, OR THE 
 GOSPEL OF RECONCILIATION, is. 
 
 THE ARGUMENT OF 
 ADAPTATION, is. 
 
 THE SPIRITUAL TEACHING 
 OF BIBLE PLANTS, is. 
 
 WILLIAMS AND NORGATE 
 
THE VULGATE 
 
 THE SOURCE OF FALSE 
 DOCTRINES 
 
 BY 
 
 REV. PROF. G. HENSLOW, 
 
 M.A., F.L.S., ! F.G.S., 
 
 AUTHOR OF "EVOLUTION AND RELIGION"; 
 
 ' CHRISTIAN BELIEFS RECONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN THOUGHT 
 
 " PRESENT-DAY RATIONALISM CRITICALLY EXAMINED " J 
 
 "CHRIST, NO PRODUCT OF EVOLUTION"; 
 11 THE AT-ONE-MENT, OR THE GOSPEL OF RECONCILIATION " ; 
 
 " THE SPIRITUAL TEACHING OF CHRIST'S LIFE " J 
 ETC. ETC. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 f UNIVERSITY | 
 
 Of 
 
 LONDON 
 WILLIAMS & NORGATE 
 
 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN 
 1909 
 
PREFACE 
 
 " DOCTRINAL restatement " is in the air ; and it 
 becomes necessary to consider why it is desirable 
 to reconsider our ecclesiastical doctrines and to 
 discover in what, and why, they, any or all, are 
 defective. It is sometimes argued that doctrines 
 are like the discoveries of scientific truths, in that 
 they are said to be " developed," just as scientific 
 hypotheses come in time to be recognised as 
 truths. But with regard to the Church's doctrines, 
 it is not so much a question of development as a 
 recasting that is necessary ; nor, indeed, is this 
 quite correct, when it is added that they must be 
 adapted to modern ideas, for we shall see that they 
 have really arisen from erroneous interpretations 
 of the Greek words. Such occur first in the Latin 
 of the Vulgate, and thence appear in our own 
 tongue ; so that " degradation " would seem to be 
 sometimes a more applicable term than develop- 
 ment ; and what is therefore wanted is a restora- 
 tion to the original meaning of the Greek of the 
 
 189147 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 New Testament, as meant by the authors of the 
 Gospels and Epistles, and understood by their 
 readers. 
 
 My object, therefore, is to show that, since the 
 knowledge of the Bible in the early centuries of 
 our era was based entirely upon the Vulgate, a 
 familiarity with the Greek language being in 
 abeyance, this Latin version supplied nearly all 
 the terms required for ecclesiastical doctrines. 
 
 As the first English Bible, by Wiclif, in 1380, 
 was a translation of the Vulgate, and the several 
 versions of the sixteenth century, as well as the 
 A.V. and R.V., all more or less follow his lead, 
 the influence of the Vulgate is very apparent 
 throughout. The reader will at once perceive 
 this in the mere enumerations of doctrinal terms in 
 common usage. Some refer to Christ (included in 
 Part I.), others to man and his salvation (Part II.). 
 
 I propose considering each term separately, 
 and comparing, or rather contrasting, its meaning 
 with the Greek equivalent ; then it will be dis- 
 covered where the Latin fails to represent the 
 Greek, and how sometimes very disastrous 
 consequences have issued from the error. It 
 need hardly be added that there are false doc- 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 trines, as we believe, taught by the Roman 
 Church, which have been promulgated at different 
 periods, but have no direct origin in the Vulgate : 
 as the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, 
 the infallibility of the Pope, etc. though that 
 Church may try to find texts appropriate in 
 support of them. These I have not considered. 
 
 The editions of the Vulgate in my possession 
 are entitled as follows : 
 
 (1) Biblica Sacra vulgatae editionis Sixti V. 
 Pontificis Maximi jussu recognita et dementis 
 VIII. auctoritate edita. Parisiis, etc. (1844.) 
 
 This edition first appeared in 1590. For a 
 full description of it, as of Jerome's work in revis- 
 ing the older Latin translations, the reader is 
 referred to Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, s.v. 
 " Vulgate." 
 
 (2) Jesu Christi Domini nostri Novum Testa- 
 mentum. Ex interpretatione Theodori Bezae ; 
 impressa Cantabrigiae. A.D. 1642. (1876.) 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I 
 DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO CHRIST 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 1. THE SUPPOSED THEOLOGICAL UNITY BETWEEN 
 
 THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS . . I 
 
 2. THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD ... 7 
 
 3. OBLATION 17 
 
 4. PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION ... 26 
 
 5. SATISFACTION 30 
 
 6. REDEMPTION . . . . . 36 
 
 7. THE ATONEMENT . . . . . . . 45 
 
 8. SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST ... 54 
 
 PART II 
 
 DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO MAN 
 
 9. REPENTANCE . . . . . . 72 
 
 10. PURGATORY 78 
 
 11. CONFESSION 87 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 12. JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION ... 93 
 
 13. REMISSION ....... 98 
 
 14. ABSOLUTION 1OI 
 
 15. RECONCILIATION, REGENERATION; AND "GOOD 
 
 WORKS," OR THE " CHRIST-LIFE " . . I lo 
 
 1 6. PREDESTINATION AND ELECTION . . . 119 
 
 17. SALVATION 123 
 
 1 8. DOCTRINE AND CREED 127 
 
 INDEX . . . . . . . .137 
 
of 
 
 THE VULGATE 
 
 THE SOURCE OF FALSE DOCTRINES 
 PART I 
 
 DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO 
 CHRIST 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE SUPPOSED THEOLOGICAL UNITY BETWEEN 
 THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 THERE is a very general impression that some of 
 the ecclesiastical doctrines taught by the Church, 
 not only the Roman but the Protestant as well, 
 require, to say the least, some restatement, as not 
 being in exact accordance with the teachings of 
 the New Testament when strictly deduced from 
 the Greek text. My object is to show that it is 
 in the Latin Vulgate that we shall discover the 
 
2 THE VULGATE 
 
 original source of most of the still remaining 
 errors. The consequence is that our ecclesiastical 
 doctrinal terms are almost entirely of Latin origin, 
 for the most part being taken direct from the 
 Vulgate ; and as the English Bible grew out of 
 translations of the sixteenth century, all being 
 based on the Vulgate, mistranslations reappear in 
 an English dress; for, although the Hebrew and 
 Greek originals were appealed to by translators 
 and revisers during and since the Reformation, it 
 is easy to see that important words derived from 
 the Latin still remain unchanged, even in our 
 latest revision. 
 
 The consequence is that false doctrines, started 
 in the early centuries and added to or confirmed 
 by later writers as by Anselm in the eleventh 
 being based on the Vulgate, not only still persist 
 in the Roman Church but hold their ground with 
 Protestants, as they can, unfortunately, be sup- 
 ported by our own English translations. 
 
 Now this may seem to be a serious charge against 
 our established theology ; but I shall endeavour 
 to show that the Vulgate is primarily responsible 
 for existing misinterpretations. 
 
 The ecclesiastical terms which I propose con- 
 
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS' UNITY 3 
 
 sidering are, first, those which are associated with 
 Christ, and more especially with His death. 
 Secondly, there are those which are especially 
 applicable to the Christian. 
 
 Before dealing with each term separately, the 
 " theoretical unity," as it might be called, which 
 was supposed to underlie both the Old and New 
 Testaments, must be alluded to, as this was a 
 fundamental error of itself. The Old Testament 
 was regarded, as not only equally important as 
 the New ; but the doctrines framed upon the latter 
 were supposed to be all foreshadowed, and were 
 actually supported, and even regarded as proved 
 to be true, by texts isolated from the context of 
 the Old. This is especially illustrated by the 
 conception of "sacrifice" and its object. The 
 reader need but glance at the headings of many 
 chapters in the Old Testament of the A.V. (1611) 
 to see how this false conception was carried through 
 and over the Reformation into the seventeenth 
 century, and thence onwards until the nineteenth ; 
 all such headings being cancelled in the R.V. 
 (1880). Thus, opening it at random, at the fortieth 
 chapter of Isaiah we read : " i. The promulga- 
 tion of the Gospel. 2. The preaching of John 
 
4 THE VULGATE 
 
 Baptist." These are substituted for the headings 
 in the Genevan Bible, in which occurs : " I. Re- 
 mission of sinnes by Christ. 2. The coming of 
 John Baptist." 
 
 Of the many serious consequences of transferring 
 Old Testament ideas and customs to the New, is 
 what is known as sacerdotalism. Thus, in the 
 INDEX BIBLICUS at the end of the Sixtine Vulgate, 
 ed. 1844, we read, s.v. SACERDOS Sacerdos, non 
 Lex aul Scriptura sola, est judex, qucestionum exori- 
 entium (A priest, not the Law or Scripture only, 
 is a judge of questions as they arise). 
 
 When we remember how the word " priest " 
 arose out of " presbyter " (Greek 7rpe<7/3irre/oo?, an 
 " elder "), who was identical with the eTr/cr/coTro?, 
 "overseer," hence "bishop" eTno-AcoTro? indicating 
 the " function " and Trpecr/Svrepo? the " dignity " 1 
 it certainly seems rather far fetched to select the 
 following texts as proofs of the judicial function of 
 modern priests : z " And it shall be when he [the 
 king] sitteth upon the throne of his kingdom, that 
 he shall write him a copy of this law in a book, 
 out of that which is before the priests the levites. 
 
 1 See Thayer's Lexicon. 
 
 2 Other references as proofs are Deut. xvii. 9, 12 ; Mai. ii. 7. 
 
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS' UNITY 5 
 
 In controversy they [the priests the levites] shall 
 stand to judge ; according to my judgments shall 
 they judge it; and they shall keep my laws and 
 my statutes in all my appointed feasts ; and they 
 shall hallow my sabbaths." 1 " For the priest's 
 lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek 
 the law at his mouth : for he is the messenger of 
 the Lord of hosts." 2 
 
 From these three passages referred to as proofs, 
 it is obvious that all the priests could do was, not 
 to judge of themselves, but simply to pronounce 
 what was God's or Yahweh's judgment, as applic- 
 able to any case in question. 
 
 When we turn to the New Testament, who or 
 what was to be a judge under Christianity ? We 
 do not even read that it is God, the Father. " For 
 neither doth the Father judge any man, but he 
 hath given all judgment unto the Son. . . . Verily, 
 verily, I say unto you, He that heareth my word, 
 and hath faith in [believeth, R.V.] him that sent me, 
 hath eternal life, and cometh not into judgment." 3 
 " He that rejecteth me, and receiveth not my sayings, 
 hath one that judgeth him : the word that I spake, 
 the same shall judge him in the last day." 4 
 
 1 Ezek. xliv. 24. 2 Mai. ii. 7. 3 John v. 22 ff. 4 John xii. 48. 
 
6 THE VULGATE 
 
 A Christian, therefore, requires no priest to tell 
 him that. He can judge himself by the standard 
 of Christ's life ; for he knows whether he is honestly 
 trying to live up to it or " rejecting His sayings " ; 
 and, if so, he is consequently self-condemned. 
 
 Though the word " priest " is etymologically 
 derived from Trpeo-ftvTepos, it seems to be regarded 
 by ecclesiastics as if equivalent to iepcfa, because he 
 is looked upon as the successor of the priesthood 
 under the Mosaic law. Hence the terms and 
 offices of the Aaronic priesthood were regarded 
 as guaranteeing those of the Christian ministry ; 
 and as the priestly duties and authority were 
 exercised under the direct sanction of Yahweh, 
 this conception was then transferred to priests of 
 the Christian dispensation. If, therefore, a priest 
 can claim to give his own judgment, how much 
 more may not a pope ! And such has been the 
 case, for now he is regarded as infallible. 
 
 So that the modern priest is looked upon much 
 more as a lepev?, sacerdos, than a Trpea-fivrepo? or 
 elder. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 
 
 THE terms attributed to Christ with special refer- 
 ence to His death upon the cross may be arranged 
 in the following order, in accordance with the 
 supposed sequence in the effects and results. 
 
 His death, speaking generally, was regarded 
 theologically as a SACRIFICE (sacrificium). This 
 involved His OFFERING or OBLATION (oblatio) of 
 His body upon the cross ; His object being to pro- 
 pitiate God (propitiatid), in order to expiate the 
 sins of humanity (expiatio), and so satisfy God's 
 justice (satisfactio). He thus redeemed man from 
 punishment in hell (redemptio) and reconciled God 
 to man (reconciliatio, or atonement; i.e., at-one- 
 ment, in the sixteenth century). Thus He became 
 our Saviour, and secured man's salvation (salvatio). 
 
 The celebration of the Lord's Supper to-day 
 7 
 
8 THE VULGATE 
 
 consists of our "sacrifice of prayer and praise" 
 (eucharistia)', but into this has been read "the 
 Real Presence" and "transubstantiation" (tran- 
 substantiatio), from misunderstanding the meaning 
 of the words, " This is my Body " and " This is 
 my Blood." 
 
 SACRIFICE (sacrificium). The first question that 
 arises is, Of what nature was Christ's sacrifice? 
 Was it vicarious and involuntary like that of the 
 animals offered up of old, by means of the oblation 
 of which a man's sin was " covered " ; or was it 
 done " on behalf of " and not " instead of " man ? 
 
 In the book of Ezra we read that Cyrus made a 
 decree that the priests should be supplied with 
 animals, "that they may offer sacrifices of sweet 
 savour unto the God of heaven." l St Paul uses a 
 very similar expression in speaking of our Lord, 
 who "loved you, and gave himself up for us, an 
 offering and a sacrifice to God for an odour of 
 a sweet smell." 2 The expression is outwardly 
 identical, but obviously only metaphorical in the 
 case of Christ. The "sweet smell" represents the 
 
 1 Ezra vi. 10. 
 
 2 Eph. v. 2. The Vulgate has Oblationem ; tt hostiatn Deo in 
 odorem suavitatis. So, Phil. iv. 1 8. 
 
THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 9 
 
 free-will or voluntary offering of Himself to death, 
 whereas He might have called down twelve legions 
 of angels to avert it. 1 
 
 This is the fundamental difference between the 
 two Testaments, and it must never be lost sight 
 of. All such " sacrificial " expressions in the New 
 Testament are metaphorical \ the spiritual mean- 
 ing must be read into the material. The old sacri- 
 ficial system of rams, bulls, goats, etc., was utterly 
 abolished by Christ. All His disciples and the 
 Apostles knew this well ; and their converts came 
 to know it at once, too. Hence there could not 
 have been any possibility of a mistake at that 
 time. Moreover, there are no signs of any. 
 
 Subsequently, however, the belief arose that the 
 Old Testament was an authority for the New ; 
 that what was said of Christ was also meant in the 
 Old Testament. This involved a material sacri- 
 fice on His part. Consequently, as sacrifices were 
 offered daily, 2 so it is said : " The sacrifice of 
 the New Testament is called a perpetual sacrifice. 
 It shall be celebrated until the Lord may come." 3 
 
 1 Matt. xxvi. 53. 
 
 2 Exod. xxix. 38 ; Num. xxviii. 3. 
 
 3 Novi Testamenti sacrificium appellatur Juge sacrificium. Cele- 
 brabitur donee venial Dominus (The sacrifice of the New 
 
io THE VULGATE 
 
 This was thought to be corroborated by, " For 
 as often as ye eat of this bread," etc. 1 But it is 
 obvious to the impartial reader that " often " can- 
 not possibly mean " daily." 
 
 The mistake of the Vulgate is twofold : first, in 
 making the Old Testament an interpreter of the 
 New ; and secondly, in regarding the symbolism of 
 the latter as being literally true 2 in the concrete 
 sense. 
 
 With regard to the word " sacrifice " as applied 
 to our Lord, there are thus two ways in which it 
 has been considered. One is the voluntary and 
 purely spiritual surrendering of His will to God, 
 in which all thoughts of self are ignored in His 
 dying upon the cross on "behalf of" 3 Humanity. 
 This might be expressed as, " He saved others, 
 himself he will not save." 
 
 Testament is called a sacrifice in perpetuity. It shall be celebrated 
 until the Lord cometh). Vulg., INDEX BIBLICUS. Cp. Dan. xi. 
 3 1 , xii. 1 1 ; refs. to the cessation of the daily sacrifice. 
 
 1 i Cor. xi. 26. 
 
 2 The following expressions occur in Latin in the INDEX BIB- 
 LICUS to the Vulgate: "The sacrifice of the Mass was predicted 
 and announced before." "The sacrifice of the Mass was signified 
 by means of various figures in the Old Testament." " Nor shall one 
 be wanting to offer the sacrifice." 
 
 3 virep is always used in the New Testament in reference to 
 Christ's death. It is never avrl, ' ' instead of. " 
 
THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 11 
 
 In the other view, materialistic ideas more or 
 less linger, as, e.g., in transubstantiation, consub- 
 stantiation, the Real Presence, etc., in which false 
 dogmas the concrete materials of bread and wine 
 are supposed to be somehow changed into the 
 " essence " of Christ's flesh and blood ; but as no 
 change appreciable to the senses can be recognised 
 in the " accidents," the interchange is imagined to 
 take place between their "substances," meaning 
 what Plato called "the real 1 nature" of any- 
 thing. It will be shown hereafter how that fiction 
 arose, and how modern science proves that there 
 is no evidence of the existence of any " substance," 
 in the old philosophic sense, underlying any con- 
 crete matter whatever. 
 
 The position then is this: (i) The whole of the 
 Jewish and heathen systems of objective sacrifices 
 was abolished for ever, never to be revived. (2) 
 The Apostles, in preaching "Jesus Christ and Him 
 crucified," use what may be called " sacrificial ex- 
 pressions," but solely in a metaphorical sense ; for 
 they knew perfectly well that neither Jew nor 
 
 1 Perhaps this gave rise to the expression "Real Presence." 
 The meaning of "substance," i.e. ovvla, virforaffis, and persona 
 will be explained later. 
 
 THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
12 THE VULGATE 
 
 Gentile could possibly misunderstand them. A few 
 passages will be quite sufficient to illustrate this. 
 
 In writing to the Ephesians St Paul says : " Be 
 ye therefore imitators of God as beloved children ; 
 and walk in love, even as Christ also loved you, 
 and gave himself up for us, 1 an offering and a 
 sacrifice to God for an odour of a sweet smell." 2 
 
 He uses the same expression for the material 
 self-sacrifices made by the Philippians for Paul's 
 sake : " I have all things, and abound : I am 
 filled, having received from Epaphroditus the 
 things that came from you, an odour of a 
 sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable, well-pleasing 
 to God." 3 
 
 St Paul thus applies the term " sacrifice " to him- 
 self: " If I am offered upon the sacrifice and service 
 of your faith, I joy and rejoice with you all." 4 And 
 so he bids the Romans : " I beseech you therefore, 
 brethren, by the mercies of God, to present your 
 bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God." 5 
 
 There is no need to multiply passages : they all 
 breathe the same spirit of self-sacrifice. 
 
 1 vvfp r)fj.cov. 3 Eph. v. I, 2. 
 
 3 Phil. iv. 18. The expression "sweet savour" occurs some 
 forty times in the Old Testament in reference to the sacrifices. 
 
 4 Phil. ii. 17. 5 Rom. xii. I. 
 
THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 13 
 
 What is the "sweet savour" well-pleasing to 
 God? 
 
 The origin of the expression is obvious. It was 
 supposed to appease the Deity. Thus it is said 
 of Noah's sacrifice, " The Lord smelled the sweet 
 savour." 1 In the polytheistic Assyrian flood story, 
 the corresponding passage is : " The gods gathered 
 at the smell, yea, the gods gathered at the savour, 
 like flies they gathered at the sacrifice." 
 
 The "sweet savour" of our Lord's death was 
 therefore a metaphorical expression to indicate 
 His voluntary surrendering Himself, rather than 
 use force as He indeed told Pilate. 2 He re- 
 pudiated all idea of employing force to establish 
 His kingdom at the beginning of His ministry when 
 undergoing the temptation in the wilderness ; 
 and He would not use it to save Himself from 
 death at the close. 
 
 The conclusion is now clear that the Greek 
 words Ovaria and 7rpoV0o/oa for "sacrifice" and 
 "offering," can only be used in the metaphorical 
 sense for self-sacrifice, all concrete and materialistic 
 ideas being totally wanting ; and wherever such are 
 included, as in transubstantiation or the " Real 
 
 1 Gen. viii. 21. 2 Matt. xxvi. 53. 
 
14 THE VULGATE 
 
 Presence," as it is called, there is not a line or a 
 word in the New Testament to support it. 
 
 Though all heathen sacrifices of old had for 
 their object the appeasement of the deity, this 
 notion, as Dr Westcott has so fully explained, 1 is 
 not only quite foreign to the New Testament, but 
 even also to the LXX. It may be observed that 
 such an idea is totally opposed to the words of St 
 Paul : " God was in Christ, reconciling the world 
 unto himself, not reckoning unto them their 
 trespasses." 2 
 
 As forgiveness was believed in olden times to 
 require the sacrifice of some living creature, inas- 
 much as its death represented the " death unto sin " 
 of the offerer, while its blood (i.e. the life) poured 
 on the altar represented the sinner's life now 
 dedicated to God ; so, this idea is carried over to 
 Christianity, but transformed into a metaphor only, 
 and is especially dwelt upon by the author of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, who well shows the change 
 from the concrete to the spiritual in the words : 
 " Sacrifices and offerings and burnt offerings and 
 sacrifices for sin thou wouldest not, neither hadst 
 
 1 The Epistles of St John, pp. 85 ff. 
 
 2 2 Cor. v. 19. 
 
THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 15 
 
 pleasure therein. (But) Lo, / come to do thy will. 
 He taketh away the first that he may establish 
 the second." 1 
 
 But, again, the very essence of Christ's sacrifice 
 is expressed as surrendering His will to God's. It 
 is the loving self-sacrifice, I repeat, which was the 
 sweet savour. 
 
 Now our Liturgy guards against any materialistic 
 view in the words : " We spiritually eat the flesh 
 of Christ and drink His blood " ; that is, we resolve 
 to surrender our will to God's. This is expressed 
 in the words: "Ye that do truly and earnestly 
 repent you of your sins, and are in love and charity 
 with your neighbours, and intend to lead a new 
 life, following the commandments of God and walk- 
 ing from henceforth in his holy ways, etc." This 
 represents the " Christ-life," and that is the result 
 of metaphorically eating Christ's flesh and drinking 
 His blood. 
 
 A point is here worth noticing, viz., that writers 
 often use the word " vicarious " as if it implied any 
 suffering undergone by one person, or even an 
 animal, by which another is benefited. This is 
 not at all the meaning of the word, which is limited 
 
 1 Heb. x. 8, 9. 
 
16 THE VULGATE 
 
 to the sense of suffering "instead of" another, and 
 not on " behalf of" that other. Thus, a man may 
 get terribly burnt in rescuing someone from a fire ; 
 but he does not suffer "instead of" that other. 
 When Dickens, in his Tale of Two Cities, represents 
 a man going to the guillotine to save another's life, 
 he died instead of the other. This alone was a 
 vicarious sacrifice. A parson or vicar stands in 
 the place of, or instead of, Christ when preaching, 
 i.e. he represents Him. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 OBLATION 
 
 OVERLOOKING the spiritual self-sacrifice, the 
 Church regarded the body as constituting the chief 
 material of Christ's sacrifice for man. This is 
 another mistake which arose out of the transfer- 
 ence of an Old Testament command to the New ; 
 for it was insisted that the sacrifice of Christ 
 should be repeated daily, as it is now regarded in 
 the Mass. The ground for this was found in the 
 following passage, as it occurs in the Rhemes 
 translation from the Vulgate : " This is it which 
 thou shalt doe vpon the Altar ; Two lambes of a 
 yeare old (c) euerie day continually ; one lambe in 
 the morning, and an other at euen, the tenth part 
 of flowre tempered with oile beaten, which shal 
 haue in measure to one lambe. And the other 
 lambe thou shalt offer at euen, according to the 
 
 i 2 
 
i8 THE VULGATE 
 
 rite of the morning oblation. ... It is a sacrifice 
 to the Lord, by perpetual oblation vnto your 
 generations." l 
 
 The marginal note (c) runs as follows : " Diuers 
 things were offered at diuers times, and al signified 
 Christ's Sacrifice in his Church. 5. Aug. lib. i. 
 c. 1 8, contr. aduers. Leg. et Prophet^ yet none dailie 
 but a lambe: more particularly signifying the 
 daylie offering of the lambe of God, and perpetual 
 effect thereof. Origen in loan, i." 
 
 In connection with this there is another mis- 
 application in the Vulgate, as being a translation 
 of the LXX, itself being wrong. It will be as well 
 to quote the passage first, as given in our R.V. : 
 
 " Sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not, 
 But a body didst thou prepare for me ; 
 In whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin 
 
 thou hadst no pleasure : 
 Then said I, Lo, I am come 
 (In the roll of the book it is written of me) 
 To do Thy will, O God." 2 
 
 But if we turn to the Fortieth Psalm in the 
 Hebrew Bible, from which the unknown author of 
 
 1 Ex. xxix. 38-42. 2 Heb. x. 5-7. 
 
OBLATION 19 
 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews is quoting, we find no 
 mention of a " body " at all : 
 
 " Sacrifice and offering thou hast no delight in. 
 
 Mine ears hast thou opened." 
 
 What this means we understand from the following 
 verses, viz. : 
 
 " I delight to do thy will, O my God : 
 Yea, thy law is within my heart. 
 I have published righteousness in the great 
 
 congregation : 
 
 Lo, 1 will not refrain my lips, 
 O Lord, thou knowest," etc. 
 
 It is quite clear that David here sees the useless- 
 ness of sacrificing bodies, but that it is the spiritual 
 sacrifice of doing God's will that is the only kind 
 acceptable to Yahweh. 
 
 If we now turn to the LXX, we at once see how 
 the words " A body thou wilt fit for me " are 
 obviously inserted : 
 
 " Sacrifice and offering thou wiliest not, 
 [But a body thou wilt furnish for me] 
 Holocausts also for sin thou askest not for." 
 
 In the Latin version the translator has changed 
 the future tense into the past : Hostiam et obla- 
 
20 THE VULGATE 
 
 tionem noluiste, corpus autem aptasti mihi (A 
 victim and oblation thou hast not wished for, but 
 a body hast thou fitted for me). 
 
 It will be noted how the introduction of the 
 extra line quite destroys the usual parallelism in 
 the sentence of Hebrew poetry. 1 This parallelism 
 is well brought out in Wellhausen's translation : 
 
 " Sacrifice and offering thou dost not desire, 
 Burnt offering and sin-offering thou dost not 
 
 demand. 
 
 Mine ears hast thou opened 
 By means of the book of the law prescribed 
 
 to me ; 
 
 To do thy will, my God, is my delight, 
 And in my heart is thy law." 2 
 
 If we now turn to the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
 we shall find the writer arguing from this inter- 
 calated line the theory of Christ's body being the 
 instrument of sacrifice, by means of which man can 
 become sanctified spiritually, or reconciled, or put 
 "at one" with God. "He taketh away the first, 
 
 1 Jerome's translation is said to have been from the Hebrew, but 
 the above seems to show that this passage is from one of the older 
 Latin versions, from the LXX. 
 
 2 The Christian Use of the Psalms, by Dr Cheyne, p. 131. 
 
OBLATION 21 
 
 that he may establish the second. By which will 
 we have been sanctified through the offering of the 
 body of Jesus Christ once for all." l 
 
 In the margin to the Annotations to this chapter 
 in the Rhemes Version we read : " The old 
 Sacrifices obscurely shadowed, but the Sacrifice of 
 the Altar most plainly representeth the Sacrifice 
 on the Crosse." " That Christ should haue a body 
 was necessarie for his Priesthood and Sacrifice." 
 "The body of Christ's is the Sacrifice of the 
 altar." 
 
 The Annotation quotes the words "BVT A 
 BODY THOV HAST FITTED TO ME" in 
 large capitals, to show the basis of the theory of 
 the daily sacrifice of Christ's body in the Mass 
 at the present day. Having shown how Scripture 
 appeared to substantiate the necessity of a body, 
 and texts found to declare such to have been 
 prepared (fitted) for the Messiah, the Church 
 could accept the words "This is my body" as 
 corroborating the fact, and so reduced the sacra- 
 ment of the Lord's Supper to a corporeal or 
 carnal level. The following quotations, presum- 
 ably authenticated by the Roman Church, may 
 
 1 Heb. x. 9, 10. 
 
22 THE VULGATE 
 
 be taken as the grounds for believing in " the Real 
 Presence," these words being in the margin to the 
 following " annotation " : 
 
 " ' This is my body.' l Although sense tel thee it 
 is bread, yet it is the body, according to his 
 wordes, let faith confirme thee, judge not by 
 sense. After the wordes of our Lord let no 
 doubt rise in thy mind (Cyril, mystag. 4). Of 
 the veritie of flesh and bloud there is left no 
 doubt: by the profession of our Lord him self, 
 and by our faith it is flesh and bloud indeed. 
 Is not this truth? To them be it vntrue, which 
 deny IESV CHRIST to be true God (Hilar., 
 li. 8, de Trinity 
 
 It will be seen subsequently that "to be" 
 is the only verb used throughout the Bible to 
 mean "represent" when the subject and predi- 
 cate are nouns referable to the same thing : 
 as, " The white linen is the righteousness of 
 the saints." 2 
 
 Next, to establish the "sacrifice of the Mass," 
 the Church based it on the three words " which is 
 given " ; for thus it is written : " As the former 
 wordes make and proue his body present, so these 
 
 1 Luke xxii. 19. 2 Rev. xix. 8. 
 
OBLATION 23 
 
 wordes plainely signifie, that it is present as giuen, 
 offered, or sacrificed for vs : and being vttered in 
 the present tence (quod datur), it signifieth not 
 only that it should afterward be giuen or offered 
 on the Crosse, but that it was then also in the 
 Sacrament giuen and offered for vs. Whereby it 
 is inuincibly proued that his Body is present as 
 an Host or Sacrifice : and that the making or con- 
 secrating thereof must needes be Sacrificing. And 
 therefore the holy Fathers in this sense cal it a 
 Sacrifice." Numerous references to the Fathers 
 follow the above ; while the margin has in reference 
 to it : " Christ sacrificed his body and bloud in 
 Sacrament at his supper." 
 
 It may be pretty safely said that the disciples 
 saw nothing of all this at the time ; and no one 
 could or would attempt to extract the above 
 meaning had they not a theory of sacrifice to 
 establish somehow. 
 
 But more is required. If the sacrifice of Christ's 
 body and blood has to be offered in perpetuity, 
 then authorised persons are required to do it ; 
 so the Church seized upon the words : " ' Doe this/ 
 In these wordes the holy Sacrament of Order 
 is instituted, because power and commission to 
 
24 THE VULGATE 
 
 doe the principal act and worke of Priesthood, 
 is giuen to the Apostles : that is, to doe that which 
 Christ then did concerning his body : which was, 
 to make and offer his body as a Sacrifice for vs 
 and for al that haue need of Sacrifice, and to 
 giue it to be eaten as Christes body sacri- 
 ficed, to al faithful. For as the Paschal lambe 
 was first sacrificed, and then eaten; so was 
 his body : and thus to doe he here giueth 
 commission and authoritie to the Apostles, and 
 to al Priests which be their successours in this 
 matter." 
 
 In the margin by this paragraph we read : " The 
 Apostles are made Priestes, and the Sacrament of 
 holy Orders instituted." Of course, the disciples 
 did not regard themselves as priests, but the 
 Rhemes Version was made hundreds of years 
 after bishops, priests, and deacons had arisen in 
 the Church, which felt that some support was 
 necessary from Scripture. 
 
 Thus was it that the word oblatio came to be 
 used in the New Testament ; but " oblation " does 
 not occur in our English versions. Oblatio was 
 the word applied to the sacrifices of the bodies 
 of animals in the Old Testament ; and as Christ's 
 
OBLATION 25 
 
 body was considered necessary, so oblatio was 
 applied to Him as well. But our Church has no 
 authority for either term where in our Communion 
 Service it speaks of an " oblation and satisfaction 
 for the sins of the whole world." 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION 
 
 THE two terms mentioned here appear to have 
 arisen in the same way, and apparently by a 
 reaction through the influence of Calvin. Pro- 
 pitiation only occurs thrice. 1 St Paul says, 
 " Whom God set forth to be a propitiation " (R. V.). 
 Wiclif (1380) translated it, "Whom God ordayned 
 forgiver by faith in his blood." Cranmer (1539) 
 has "obteyner of mercy thorow fayth ." The 
 Genevan has " to be a reconciliation," etc. Now 
 the Bishops' Bible first adopted the word " pro- 
 pitiation," and has, "Whom God hath set forth 
 to be a propitiation " ; and adds the marginal in- 
 terpretation, " Which is a pacifying of God's dis- 
 pleasure." The Rhemes, A.V. and R.V. follow 
 
 J Rom. iii. 25 (i\a<rr'fipiov) ; Vulg. propitionem ; I John ii. 2 and 
 iv. 10 (focKT/irfs). 
 
 26 
 
PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION 27 
 
 suit. The verb (iXda-KearOcu) only occurs twice. 1 
 Thus the publican says, " God be merciful to me 
 a sinner": while in the Epistle to the Hebrews 
 it is "to make propitiation for the sins of the 
 people" (R.V.); but A.V. had "to make re- 
 conciliation." 
 
 The above quotations appear to show that from 
 the Bishops' Bible (1568) to the R.V. of to-day 
 there has been a return towards the heathen con- 
 ception of appeasing God in order to reconcile 
 Him to man; and that the R.V. is even more 
 pronounced than the A.V. 
 
 Dr Westcott, however, has pointed out that the 
 constructions in which these three Greek words 
 are used " stand in remarkable contrast with the 
 classical and Hellenic usage. They show that the 
 Scriptural conception of the verb (tXaovce<r0at) is 
 not that of appeasing one who is angry, .... but 
 of altering the character of that which from with- 
 out occasions a necessary alienation, and interposes 
 an inevitable obstacle to fellowship." 2 In fact, 
 it is not God, but man, so to say, who is pro- 
 pitiated. Dr Westcott shows that the prevailing 
 
 1 Luke xviii. 13, and Heb. ii. 17. 
 
 2 Epistles of St John, p. 87. 
 
28 THE VULGATE 
 
 construction of this verb in the LXX nowhere 
 permits the sense of man appeasing God ; hence it 
 would seem that the LXX translators shrank from 
 regarding Yahweh in the same light as that of a 
 heathen deity, who is supposed to be regularly 
 appeased and propitiated by his devotees. 
 
 This reaction can be traced with great probability 
 to Calvin. 1 As propitiatio is the word used in the 
 Vulgate in all the three passages referred to, " pro- 
 pitation " has passed into our Bibles ; and the idea 
 of Christ's propitiating God, like that of expiation, 
 is thus traceable to the Vulgate, and subsequently 
 restored by Calvin. 
 
 The word expiation is of frequent occurrence in 
 the Rhemes Version, but it does not occur in the 
 A.V. Atonement is given as the corresponding 
 word in the Old Testament, but reconciliation in 
 the New. 2 There would seem to be no doubt that 
 the application of this term to Christ was a natural 
 result of regarding His sacrifice as material ; for 
 the word expiation keeps up the idea of a bodily 
 sacrifice required for appeasing the Deity. 
 
 1 For a fuller discussion on the word propitiation^ see an article 
 by the present writer in the Homiletic Review, October 1907. 
 3 Rom. v. ii ; cp. A.V. with R.V. 
 
PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION 29 
 
 In a work on The Design of Christianity, by G. 
 Fowler (1671), the author writes: "As the death 
 of Christ was likewise a Sacrifice for sin, it was in 
 an Eminent manner effectual to this great purpose. 
 In the death of Christ, considered as an Expiatory 
 and Propitiatory Sacrifice, is the offence that God 
 Almighty hath taken against sin, and the hatred 
 He bears to it, as well as His love to us sinners 
 infinitely declared ; in that He would not forgive 
 it to us without the intervention of no meaner an 
 offering than the Blood of His Onely-Begotten 
 Son." 
 
 Where our Bible has to " atone " in the Old 
 Testament, the Vulgate has expiare, placare, pro- 
 pitiare, deprecari, rogare, orare, etc. ; but expiare is 
 by far the most usual term ; so that although 
 reconciliatio is the true and only equivalent of 
 at-one-ment, we see that the Vulgate is after all 
 largely responsible for the modern meaning of 
 atonement, through the intervention of Calvin, as 
 a synonym for expiation. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 SATISFACTION 
 
 THIS word only occurs twice in the A.V., and is 
 replaced by " ransom " in R.V. The LXX has 
 \vrpov. Satisfactio is one of the few ecclesiastical 
 terms which does not occur in the Vulgate, for 
 there is no Greek word equivalent to it. In the 
 INDEX BIBLICUS the reader is referred to pceni- 
 tentia. The classic usage of satisfacere was "to 
 make amends " ; as when one confesses his fault 
 by which another is injured, and asks forgiveness 
 of him. Such was exactly the position of the 
 Prodigal Son, who instantly receives forgiveness 
 in full. 
 
 The early Church used the word in the same 
 sense, as applied to repentance towards God ; but 
 unfortunately introduced the idea of appeasing 
 Him. " They held that God being offended and 
 
 30 
 
SATISFACTION 31 
 
 angered by our sins was, first by confession, then 
 by tears, by sorrow, and by penitence, to be 
 satisfied ; i.e. that His wrath was in this way to 
 be appeased and deprecated." 1 So, too, St 
 Cyprian says : " Hold fast humility and make 
 amends (satisfacere) to the Lord." 2 
 
 It must be noted that there was no idea of 
 anything punitive or of payment to Divine justice. 
 This was a later addition, when the word satisfac- 
 tion came to be transferred to Christ. Perhaps we 
 may see the germ of this in St Cyprian's words : 
 " If He laboured and watched and prayed for us 
 and our offences, how much more ought we to be 
 earnest in prayer, and first pray the Lord Him- 
 self, and then through Him make amends to the 
 Father." 3 In St Cyprian's view, satisfaction and 
 prayer were each equivalent to repentance. The 
 only thing he recognised as appeasing God was 
 alms-deeds, but not lying in sackcloth and ashes, 
 nor fasting, etc. 
 
 As a third part of penitence, satisfaction came 
 
 1 Quoted from Heraldus (Disr. ii. 4) in note K, Tertullian 
 (Library of the Fathers, p. 371). 
 
 2 Loc. cit. 
 
 3 Ep. xi. (8), quoted in loc. cit. , p. 372. 
 
32 THE VULGATE 
 
 to stand for more severe courses. Thus St Augus- 
 tine says: "The third sort of penitence is that 
 to be undergone for the sins contained in the 
 Decalogue, of which the Apostle says, ' They who 
 do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of 
 God.' In this penitence, then, every one ought to 
 exercise on himself a greater severity, that, judged 
 by himself, he be not judged of the Lord," 1 
 
 We can thus trace the progress of the word 
 from its primary meaning of repentance, as when 
 St John Baptist preached the baptism of repent- 
 ance for the remission of sins ; and as he was 
 followed by St Peter, who said : " Repent ye and 
 be baptized every one of you, in the name of 
 Jesus Christ, unto the remission of sins." 2 This 
 free forgiveness following upon sincere repentance 
 suggested St Paul's calling it the "Gospel of 
 Grace." There would be no " grace " at all if the 
 "legal satisfaction" of a vicarious sacrifice were 
 demanded. Christ said nothing about such in 
 His last instructions to His disciples: "Thus it 
 is written that the Christ should suffer, and rise 
 again from the dead the third day; and that 
 
 1 Serm. 351, c. 4, quoted be. fit., p. 376 
 Acts ii. 38. 
 
SATISFACTION 33 
 
 repentance and remission of sins should be 
 preached in his name [not blood] unto all the 
 nations." 1 
 
 Repentance, therefore, being all that was 
 required, was identical with satisfaction or " mak- 
 ing amends " ; but in the third century we found 
 that satisfaction passed over into penance and 
 became the third part of it (contrition, confession 
 and satisfaction). We here see how the grace of 
 forgiveness by God is being overriden by ecclesi- 
 astical interference, till a vicious system was estab- 
 lished of escaping the being obliged to undergo 
 severe treatment as ordered by the Church, who 
 fixed the penances, by the payment of money. 
 
 We now pass on to the time, probably impossible 
 to be actually fixed, when satisfaction passed from 
 the penitent to our Lord Himself. At all events, 
 the idea became crystallised, so to say, by Anselm 
 in the eleventh century in his Cur Deus Homo. 
 He thus wrote: A. "It is plain that God demands 
 proportionate satisfaction." B. " I cannot deny it" 2 
 Again: A. "Thus it is needful that He should 
 complete what He designed in human nature; 
 but, as we said before, He cannot do this except 
 
 Luke xxiv. 46. 47. * Lib. i. 21. 
 
 3 
 
34 THE VULGATE 
 
 through an entire satisfaction for sin, which no 
 sinner can make." 1 Lastly: A. "God alone can 
 make this satisfaction." 2 
 
 It is true as stated, that the actual word satis- 
 factio does not occur in the Vulgate New Testa- 
 ment ; but it is a natural sequence or development 
 of pcenitentia, penance; the Latin word being a 
 totally erroneous rendering of /xerayota, as will be 
 explained below. In demanding acts of penance 
 and satisfaction of penitents, and still more in 
 applying the term satisfaction to Christ, the 
 Church was in fact in direct opposition to the 
 Vulgate, for the Latin equivalent to our English 
 "And their sins and their iniquities will I 
 remember no more. Now where remission of 
 these is, there is no more offering for sin" is as 
 follows : Et peccatorum, et iniquitatum eorum jam 
 non recordabor amplius. Ubi autem horum remissio : 
 jam non est oblatio pro peccato." 3 But the Church 
 has regarded the oblatio as implying satisfactio. 
 
 It will thus be seen that not only is there no 
 Scriptural warrant for the use of the word " satis- 
 faction" in our Communion Office, in the prayer 
 
 1 Lib. ii. 4. 2 Lib. ii. 6. 
 
 3 Heb. x. 17, 18. 
 
SATISFACTION 35 
 
 of consecration of the elements ; but the Church 
 has simply taken it from Anselm, who declared : 
 " Hold thou most firmly, that without satisfaction 
 that is, without the spontaneous payment of the 
 debt neither can God release the sinner un- 
 punished, nor the sinner attain to such bliss as he 
 enjoyed before his sin ; not in that way could man 
 be restored to what he was before sinning. " l 
 
 Anselm completely overlooked the fact that Jesus 
 Christ never asked for more than faith and repent- 
 ance, to which forgiveness follows as a natural 
 result, without punishment, penance, or satisfaction 
 of any kind whatever. 
 
 Thus do we see the far-reaching result of error 
 upon error, all starting from pcenitentia of the 
 Vulgate, upon which more will have to be said. 
 
 1 Op. a'f., lib. i. ch. 19. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 REDEMPTION 
 
 HAVING considered the terms applicable to the 
 process which was supposed necessary to secure 
 man's salvation, the first term dealing with the 
 result is Redemption. 
 
 Redemption is the usual word employed by 
 some theologians of the seventeenth century, who 
 less frequently speak of the " atonement " of Jesus 
 Christ. Literally meaning "to buy back," the 
 Latin verb (redimere) passes over to the idea of 
 " rescuing " : a meaning in the Bible, as in the 
 sentence " God redeemed Israel from Egypt," and 
 the Jews from Babylon ; and again, as they hoped 
 Christ would from the Romans in the first century 
 of our era. 1 
 
 As an example of redeeming property we read 
 
 1 See Luke i. 68, and Acts i. 6. 
 36 
 
REDEMPTION 37 
 
 that the land shall be sold under the condition of 
 redemption. 1 As examples of the meaning "to 
 rescue," the Vulgate has redemit vos de domo servi- 
 tutis, i.e. " rescued you from the house of slavery " ; 2 
 from afflictions ; 3 from the loss of time. 4 
 
 In the Christian sense, the word is, of course, 
 used only metaphorically and spiritually. Thus 
 the Vulgate has nos redimeret ab omni iniquitati, 
 reproduced in our Bible as " might redeem us from 
 all iniquity." 5 Similarly the verb is applied to 
 temptations, 6 to sin, 7 to the curse of the law. 8 
 
 The Greek words translated by redimere are 
 ( l)\vrpovv, (2) egayopdfciv and ayopd^eiv^S) eaipeiv. 
 With regard to the first, Yahweh said to Moses, " I 
 will redeem you with a stretched out arm." 8 The 
 third is a common word in the LXX. Both the 
 first and the third occur in the same verse (R. V.) : 
 " For the Lord hath ransomed (redemit, cXvTpuxraro) 
 Jacob and redeemed (liberavit, e^e/Xaro) him from 
 the hand of him that was stronger than he." 10 
 
 1 Lev. xxv. 24. 
 
 2 Deut. vii. 8; cp. Jer. xxxiv. 13, eduxi eos de terra SEgypti, 
 i.e. " I led them out from the land of Egypt." 
 
 3 Ps. xxv. 22. 4 Eph. v. 16 ; Col. iv. 5. 
 
 6 Tit. ii. 14. 8 2 Pet. ii. 9. 
 
 7 Gal. iv. 5 ; Rom. iii. 24. 8 Gal. iii. 13. 
 
 9 Ex. vi. 6. 10 Jer. xxxi. II (38, LXX). 
 
38 THE VULGATE 
 
 In the INDEX BIBLICUS to the Vulgate, 1 we 
 find the general meaning of redimere expressed by 
 the sentence Redimere novit Deus suos multis 
 modis ex angustia (God knows how to rescue (or 
 extricate) his own people from difficulty). 
 
 This and the above references will be sufficient 
 to show that both the Greek and the Latin words 
 always meant "to rescue" when applied to 
 temporal foes, difficulties, and even sins. 
 
 Analogous to the use of redimere, " to buy back," 
 is emere, u to buy" ; so that " price " is equally meta- 
 phorical in such passages as " Ye are bought with 
 a great price " (Empti enim estis pretio magno)? 
 
 With regard to the metaphorical sense of 
 " redeeming," Dr Westcott observes : " The work of 
 Christ offered the perfect spiritual antitype [to the 
 redemption of Israel from Pharaoh]. This parallel 
 is of importance ; for it will be obvious from the 
 usage of the LXX that the idea of ransom 
 received by the power from which the captive is 
 delivered is practically lost in \vrpovcrOai, etc. It 
 cannot be said that God paid to the Egyptian 
 oppressor any price for the redemption of His 
 people. On the other hand, the idea of the 
 
 1 1592, Ed. 1844. 2 i Cor. vi. 20, vii. 23. 
 
REDEMPTION 39 
 
 exertion of a mighty force, the idea that the 
 'redemption' costs much, is everywhere present." 1 
 As " redemption " in its primary signification is a 
 " price paid," so this imagery is seen in the use of 
 the word ayopafav, " to buy in the market." 
 
 Another unfortunate result of the Vulgate's 
 inaccuracy is in using pro, " for," in the place of 
 inrep and also of aim. This error reappears in 
 English in our Bibles in making no distinction 
 between the meanings of " for." Yet, whenever it 
 is said that our Lord died " for " man, the Greek 
 invariably uses vwep, i.e. " on behalf of" ; never aim, 
 i.e. " instead of." By taking the latter meaning, the 
 doctrine of " substitution " has been erected on this 
 error. 
 
 As a few examples of the use and meaning of 
 aim, we read : " Will he for a fish give him a 
 serpent. " 2 " Her hair is given her for a covering. " 3 
 " For that ye ought to say ' if the Lord will " 4 (avrl 
 TOV \eyeiv). " Esau, who for one mess of meat 
 sold his own birthright." 5 " The Son of man came 
 .... to give his life a ransom for many." 6 
 
 1 Hebrews, p. 296. a Luke xi. n. 3 I Cor. xi. 15. 
 
 4 Jas. iv. 15. 5 Heb. xii. 16. 
 
 5 Matt. xx. 28. This is the only passage (copied from Mk.) where 
 
40 THE VULGATE 
 
 On the other hand, in the sentence " This is my 
 body which is given for you," l and in all, some 
 twenty-six, passages where our Lord is spoken of 
 as dying or suffering for man, the preposition is 
 invariably v-Trep, i.e. "on behalf of" man. 
 
 It is obvious that it becomes a question of vital 
 importance to note this fact in any consideration 
 of what " atonement " or " redemption " means with 
 regard to Christ, as it destroys at once all ground 
 for the idea of " substitution," or that Christ died 
 " instead of" man. 
 
 When we study the usage of these two pre- 
 positions, we find that each can bear the meaning 
 of the other, but such usage is very exceptional. 
 If any act is done by one person instead of its 
 being done by another, it is of course on behalf of 
 him as well, and vice versa. But taking the general 
 meanings and omitting exceptional usages, avri 
 always signifies one thing and virep another. 
 Hence Trench, believing in the theory of " substi- 
 tution," observes : 2 " It must be admitted . . . that, 
 had we in the Scripture only statements to the 
 
 avrl is used with reference to our Lord. St Paul alters it to ayri- 
 \vrpov virep ir<ivT<av (l Tim. ii. 6). 
 
 1 Luke xxii. 19. 2 New Test. Synonyms, 312. 
 
REDEMPTION 41 
 
 effect that Christ died virep fawv that he tasted 
 death virep TTOLVTOS it would be impossible to draw 
 from these any irrefragable proof that His death 
 was vicarious." But it is said that the one ex- 
 ceptional case referred to above l proves that His 
 death was vicarious, 2 and therefore all the twenty- 
 six places where virep is used must yield to that 
 meaning of "instead of" or substitution. 
 
 Let us observe, however, that in the single 
 passage where avrl occurs in reference to our 
 Lord's death, it is associated with the word XJr/ooi/, 
 "a price," and therefore the value of avri turns 
 upon the real signification of this word. It is a 
 word which troubled early interpreters, or rather, 
 the readers of the Vulgate. 3 
 
 The question arose from the meaning of redemp- 
 tio, " a buying back," viz., To whom was the " price " 
 (pretium] paid? As man was regarded as being 
 in the power of Satan, therefore for centuries it 
 was supposed that the price of Christ's blood was 
 paid to him. Later, Satan was in theory replaced 
 
 1 Matt. xx. 28. 
 
 2 See above on a mistaken idea as to the meaning of vicarious 
 (p. 15). 
 
 3 This has detque anintam suam in redemptionis pretium pro 
 multis. 
 
42 THE VULGATE 
 
 by God the Father, whose justice was satisfied by 
 this terrible price. It has now come to be seen 
 that there was no actual price paid at all, and 
 that there was no one to receive it. Instead of 
 translating \vrpov by redemptio, as representing, 
 as it were, an actual concrete price, the metaphori- 
 cal meaning is now regarded as being the only 
 true one, in that it was Christ's own sufferings 
 which were " the price He had to pay " for saving 
 man from his sins, as Dr Westcott has so well 
 explained. Suppose a man (as has been suggested 
 as explaining the word vicarious) nobly risks his 
 life to save that of some one who may be quite 
 unknown to him, from a house on fire. He gets 
 terribly burned, but succeeds in rescuing the 
 man. We say he did a noble, self-sacrificing act, 
 but he " paid a heavy price " in doing it ; meaning, 
 of course, his personal injuries. It is thus, too, 
 that Christ would save the sinner from his own 
 sinful life; and by His gracious self-sacrifice in 
 submitting to the death upon the cross He 
 attracted the admiration and love of sinful man, 
 who surrenders himself to Him. Thus did Christ 
 pay the \vrpov in His own sufferings. The meta- 
 phor is based upon the .expression " the Lord 
 
REDEMPTION 43 
 
 redeemed His people Israel," i.e. from Pharaoh in 
 Egypt ; but it will be at once seen, as Dr Westcott 
 points out, that there was no payment to be made 
 to anyone, and that " redeemed " really signifies 
 "rescued." Man's redemption from sin, therefore, 
 is the same thing as the giving up a sinful life ; 
 such is his "salvation," to be worked out by a 
 man himself. 
 
 Now it may be noticed that in using the word 
 \vrpov the preposition aim is quite compatible ; 
 because, since the wages of sin are suffering and 
 death, and since Christ came to suffer inrep iravros, 
 "on behalf of " everyone, He did pay the price which 
 man would undoubtedly have had to bear as a 
 sinner, though of course in a totally different 
 way ; but this is not what the dogma of substitution 
 means. Christ not only " saves men from their 
 sins," but by forgiveness they are exempt from the 
 price too. 'Ayr/, therefore, is a quite legitimate 
 preposition in conjunction with \vrpov ; but it is 
 obvious, from the otherwise universal use of virep 
 in connection with Christ's mission and death, that 
 "on behalf of " man and not " instead of " is the 
 true reading of Christ's self-sacrifice for us all. 
 
 The conception of a vicarious sacrificial act to 
 
44 THE VULGATE 
 
 appease God has therefore no place whatever in 
 the transaction. He did not die to satisfy God's 
 justice, but to win men to heaven by drawing all 
 men unto Himself on being " lifted up " on the 
 cross. The former idea was based on the false 
 notion that all men being sinners must be punished 
 for their sins, as was so strongly emphasised by 
 Anselm in his Cur Deus Homo. But the New 
 Testament doctrine is that, if a man truly repent, 
 i.e. ''change his mind and disposition," as the Greek 
 word /uLcrdvoia signifies even if it be seventy 
 times seven he is at once forgiven without any 
 punishment at all ; and such is God's grace to man 
 through Jesus Christ our Lord. 
 
 St Paul, in referring to the single passage (for 
 Matthew only quotes St Mark verbatim x ) coins the 
 word avriXvTpov 2 and then supplies the preposition 
 uTrep, as if he himself felt that there might be a 
 possible misconception in the phrase. 
 
 1 Mark x. 45. 2 i Tim. ii. 6. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE ATONEMENT 
 
 THE most important passage upon which the 
 doctrine of the Atonement was most probably 
 based, is in the Epistle to the Romans. 1 But 
 St Paul, as A. Sabatier observes, was "a disciple 
 of Gamaliel before he became a follower of Christ, 
 and borrowed this fine oratorical amplification from 
 Rabbinical speculation." 2 
 
 The actual facts, however, concerning the " one 
 man " Adam are imaginary. St Paul is en- 
 deavouring to draw out a parallel between physical 
 together with moral death, which he regards as 
 having been brought into the world through the 
 guilt of Adam, and their opposite, viz. spiritual 
 life, a free gift of Christ to mankind. We may 
 
 1 Rom. v. 12 s. 
 
 2 The Doctrine of the Atonement ', etc., p. 16. 
 
46 THE VULGATE 
 
 accept in a general way the conclusion of his 
 argument, though some materials of his logic 
 may be incorrect. There is no want of evidence 
 to show that man has gone astray, but it was not 
 an inevitable consequence of any so-called original 
 sin derived from Adam and Eve. Such appears 
 to have been the origin of the doctrine of the 
 Atonement which lies at the foundation of the, 
 so-called, covenant of grace. 
 
 The word atonement only occurs in the New 
 Testament once, in A.V., 1 but this has been re- 
 placed by " reconciliation " in R. V. The Greek 
 word is KardXXayri, which is rightly translated 
 reconciliatio in the Vulgate. So, too, in writing 
 to the Corinthians St Paul says : " All things are 
 of God, who reconciled us to himself through 
 Christ, and gave unto us the ministry of reconcilia- 
 tion ; to wit, that God was in Christ reconciling 
 the world unto himself, not reckoning unto them 
 their trespasses, and having committed unto us 
 the word of reconciliation." 2 The earlier trans- 
 lators of the Bible in the sixteenth century used 
 the words " attonement " and " reconciliation " as 
 
 1 Rom. v. II. 
 
 2 2 Cor. v. 1 8, 19. See also Eph. ii. 14-16. 
 
THE ATONEMENT 47 
 
 synonyms in the primitive sense as used often 
 by Shakespeare of "at-one-ment." To atone 
 meant to put two who had quarrelled "at one." 
 But the Rhemes Version, following the common 
 use of expiatio in the Vulgate, has generally 
 "expiation" where the R.V. has "atonement." 
 
 Though the change, as will be seen, was prob- 
 ably due to Calvin in the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, the meaning of reconciliation was still 
 held in the seventeenth. Thus, in A Learned 
 and Excellent Treatise, containing all the Principal 
 Grounds of Christian Religion, by Stephen Egerton 
 (1609), the author uses the word " attonement " 
 in the original sense : " Wherein it is to be 
 marked how neere an attonement God hath 
 entred into with us, by Christ." x " It is a 
 spiritual bond : by the which men in a holy 
 attonement are united to God." 2 
 
 In The Whole Duty of Man (1657) and in 
 The Design of Christianity, by G. Fowler (1671), 
 we find that Christ's expiatory and propitiatory 
 sacrifice has become a recognised belief. 3 
 
 1 Op. ?., p. 2. z op. /., p. 16. 
 
 8 See At-one-ment, or the Gospel of Reconciliation, in which are 
 quotations, etc. (Williams & Norgate, is.) 
 
48 THE VULGATE 
 
 In order to show how " atonement," i.e. as at- 
 one-ment or reconciliation, changed its meaning, 
 the following passage will suffice. In Tavener's 
 edition (1551) of Tyndale's version (of 1526) we 
 read : " Thou shalt offre euery daye an oxe for a 
 syn offrynge to reconcyle with. And thou shalt 
 halow the alter, when thou reconcylest it, and shalt 
 annoint it, to sanctifie it. Seuen daies thou shalt 
 reconcyle the alter, and sanctifie it, that it maye be 
 an alter most holye : so that no man may touche it, 
 but they that be consecrate." 1 
 
 In the Genevan Bible (1560) we read: "Thou 
 shalt offer euery day a calfe for a sinne offering, 
 for reconciliation-, and thou shalt dense the altar 
 when thou hast offered vpon it for reconciliation, 
 and shalt anoint it to sancifie it. Seuen dayes 
 shalt thou dense the altar and sanctifie it, so the 
 altar shall be most holy, and whatsoeuer toucheth 
 the altar, shal be holy." 
 
 Here the changes are verbal, as to spelling, etc. ; 
 but in the margin we read, in explanation of the 
 word "reconciliation": "To appease God's wrath 
 that sinne may be pardoned." 
 
 In the Bishops' Bible (1568) the above is re- 
 
 1 Ex. xxix. 36, 37. 
 
THE ATONEMENT 49 
 
 peated with one important alteration : " Thou 
 shalt dense the altar when thou hast offered upon 
 it the sacrifice of expiation? The margin has also 
 the above explanation from the Genevan Version. 
 Who was responsible for the above-quoted 
 marginal note? As Calvin was mainly instru- 
 mental in securing a hospitable reception for the 
 English divines who fled to Geneva during the 
 persecution of Mary's reign, we read in the History 
 of the Troubles of which Whittingham was probably 
 the author : " There is nothinge more requisite to 
 attaine the right and absolute knowledge off the 
 doctrine of saluation, whereby to resist all heresie 
 and falshod, than to haue the texte off the 
 Scriptures faithfully and truly translated, the 
 consideration whereoff moued them with one 
 assent to requeste 2 off their brethern, to witt, 
 Calvin and Beza, essonnes to peruse the same 
 notwithstandinge their former trauells." 1 
 
 In the Rhemes Version (1609) we read: "Thou 
 shalt offer a calfe for sinne euery day for expiation. 
 And thou shalt cleanse the Altar when thou hast 
 offered the hoste of expiation^ and shalt anoynt 
 it vnto sanctification. Seuen dayes shalt thou 
 
 1 Quoted by Mombert, English Versions of the Bible , p. 249. 
 
 4 
 
50 THE VULGATE 
 
 expiate the altar and sanctifie it, and it shall be 
 most Holie, euerie one, that shal touch it, shal be 
 sanctified." 
 
 Lastly, the A.V. and R.V. read as follows: 
 " Every day shalt thou offer the bullock of sin 
 offering for atonement : and thou shalt cleanse the 
 altar, when thou makest atonement for it ; and thou 
 shalt anoint it, to sanctify it. Seven days thou 
 shalt make atonement for the altar, and sanctify 
 it," etc. 
 
 It will be sufficient to quote the following 
 passages from Calvin's Institution of the Christian 
 Religion to show that in all probability he was 
 mainly responsible for substituting the meaning of 
 " expiation " for " reconciliation " or " atonement," 
 i.e. at-one-ment : 
 
 " No man, sith mankinde is in this ruine, can 
 perceiue God to be eyther a father or author of 
 saluation, or in any wise fauourable, vnles Christ 
 come as a meane to pacifie him towarde us .... 
 to embrace the grace of reconciliation offered vs in 
 Christ." 1 
 
 " Christes death had bin to no effect, if he had 
 suffred only a corporal death : but it behoued also 
 
 1 Book i. ch. 2, i. 
 
THE ATONEMENT 51 
 
 that he should feele the rigor of Gods vengeance : 
 that he might both appease his wrath and satisfie 
 his just judgement" l 
 
 " It pleased God by him to reconcile all things 
 to himselfe, appeasing himselfe through the bloud 
 of the Crosse by him." 2 
 
 Explaining St Paul's words : " We rejoice in 
 God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom 
 we have now received the reconciliation " (R.V.), 3 
 Calvin has : " As Paul witnesseth, we are reconciled 
 and have receiued reconciliation by his death. 
 But reconciliation hath no place, but where there 
 went offence before. Therefore the meaning is 
 that God, to whom we were hatefull by reason of 
 sinne, is by the death of his sonne appeased, so 
 that he might be fauourable vnto us." 4 
 
 A remarkable feature appears from the above, 
 in which Calvin has followed the teaching of 
 Anselm in his Cur Deus Homo^ in that reconcilia- 
 tion is by means of, or following on, punishment ; 
 and as man could not satisfy God's justice, so 
 God in Christ came to satisfy Himself! 
 
 1 Book ii. ch. 16, 10. 2 Book ii. ch. 17, 2. 
 
 3 A.V. has "the atonement." This was still a synonym for 
 reconciliation in 1611. 
 
 4 Book ii. ch. 17, 3. 
 
52 THE VULGATE 
 
 But, as we have seen, there is no word in the 
 Greek New Testament for satisfaction, nor is there 
 any conception of punishment as applied to Christ ; 
 consequently Calvin has added to the word for 
 " reconciliation " the notion of " expiation " ; so 
 that at last " expiation " came to be a synonym 
 for " atonement " ; or rather, at-one-ment came 
 to mean "vicarious expiation." Although Calvin 
 says, " It pleased God by him to reconcile all 
 things to himselfe, appeasing himselfe through the 
 bloud of the Crosse by him. . . . Againe, God 
 was in Christ, reconciling the world to himselfe, 
 not imputing to men their sinnes " l ; yet he fails 
 to see how the last words imply complete forgive- 
 ness on repentance, without any appeasement 
 whatever. Consequently the whole theory of a 
 necessary punishment falls to the ground, having 
 arisen out of the word pcenitentia wrongly used to 
 represent yueraj/ota. 
 
 The question now arises, What was the means 
 by which Christ is supposed to have made this 
 appeasing sacrifice? Was it spiritual or carnal? 
 As the Church supported its views of Christ, and 
 more especially of His death, by the Old Testa- 
 
 1 Op. cit., book ii. ch. 17, [ 2. 
 
THE ATONEMENT 53 
 
 ment, it has been seen that great stress was laid 
 upon the necessity of His having a body which 
 could suffer ; and so the whole conception of salva- 
 tion was based on a purely carnal or corporeal 
 offering, comparable, but not identical with that of 
 bulls, goats, and especially lambs. 1 
 
 Attempts are sometimes still made to combine 
 the two ideas of a " vicarious sacrifice " with 
 " reconciliation " in the one word " atonement." 
 The writer from whose book the following is 
 quoted thus, perhaps unconsciously, is following 
 Calvin : 
 
 " Atonement, as commonly used, signifies the 
 result of Christ's atonement, i.e. reconciliation, or 
 the making man at-one with God ; though strictly 
 it denotes the means whereby man is reconciled to 
 God through Christ, who has made an atonement, 
 an amends, to God for us." 2 
 
 This author does not seem aware that "atone- 
 ment " had no other meaning whatever than " at- 
 one-ment," i.e. " reconciliation," in the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 1 See ch. iii. p. 17 ff. 
 
 2 The Catholic Faith, by "Esegar," p. 189. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 
 
 WE have now arrived at the goal, the end and aim 
 of our Lord's life and death upon the cross; 
 namely, the salvation of man. Hence our Lord is 
 called our Saviour. We were told at His birth that 
 "he shall be called Jesus, for he shall save his 
 people from their sins." x Popular theology, how- 
 ever, has long supposed Him to save man from 
 hell. What, then, is the true meaning of "Saviour" 
 as applied to Christ? Here, again, we shall see 
 that the Church has gone wrong by transferring 
 the Old Testament signification to the New. 
 
 The Hebrew word for "to save" is yasha, i.e. 
 " to give safety " or " ease." The great occasion 
 of its uses was when the Lord Yahweh " saved," 
 i.e. rescued, the Israelites fiom the hand of the 
 
 1 Matt. i. 21. 
 54 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 55 
 
 Egyptians under Pharaoh at the Red Sea. 1 This 
 was the typical instance, which is described as the 
 one when Yahweh "redeemed Israel"; so that to 
 save or redeem meant to "rescue." 2 Subsequently 
 Yahweh was called their Saviour. 3 
 
 When the Psalmist said " Create in me a new 
 heart," 4 his inspiration rose to a greater height, 
 and he saw that " saviour " might refer to spiritual 
 things as well as external foes, etc. 
 
 Now it was the old idea of saving from external 
 evils, as human foes, which was carried over into 
 the New Testament ; hence Christ came to be 
 regarded as a saviour from the Romans; so that 
 even after His resurrection His disciples asked : 
 " Lord, dost thou at this time restore the kingdom 
 to Israel?" 5 
 
 It was not till after this that the disciples learnt 
 to know Him as a " Saviour from sins," that is 
 spiritual, not external, foes. 6 
 
 But the old idea of saving from external afflictions 
 still prevailed, and so the Church came to regard 
 
 1 Ex. xiv. 30. a See Isa. xliii. 1-3. 
 
 3 Ps. cvi. 21 ; Isa. xliii. n. 4 Ps. li. 10. 
 
 5 Acts i. 6. 
 
 9 May not this be a reason for inferring that the first two chapters 
 of St Matthew's gospel were later additions ? 
 
56 THE VULGATE 
 
 " salvation " as " safety from hell." This error has 
 prevailed to the present day, whereas salvation 
 from sin means, as the Vulgate indeed translates it, 
 salus, i.e. the spiritual health of the soul, or 
 freedom from the disease of sin. 
 
 The Eucharist (Eucliaristia, the Latin transcript 
 of Evxapurria) is a word used by St Paul for " the 
 giving of thanks " for God's blessings. The word 
 was probably adopted from the institution itself, in 
 which our Lord " gave thanks." The Apostle uses 
 it in alluding to the speaking in unknown tongues : 
 " How shall he that filleth the place of the un- 
 learned say the Amen at thy giving of thanks ? " 1 
 Thanksgiving, however, was an important part of 
 the Eucharist in the early liturgies. Thus in St 
 Clement's, after detailing the sufferings and death 
 of Christ, it is said : " Calling therefore to remem- 
 brance these things which He endured for our 
 sakes, we give thanks unto Thee, O God Almighty, 
 not as we ought, but as we are able, to fulfil His 
 institution." This is followed by the usual prayer 
 for the Holy Spirit : " Send down Thy Holy Spirit, 
 the Witness of the sufferings of the Lord Jesus, on 
 this sacrifice, that He may make the bread the 
 
 1 I Cor. xiv. 1 6. 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 57 
 
 Body of Thy Christ and this cup the Blood of Thy 
 Christ." In this we see transubstantiation es- 
 tablished, and the word Eucharistia actually 
 becomes identified with Christ's body ; for in the 
 INDEX BIBLICUS at the end of the Vulgate there 
 is : Eucharistia sub altera tantum, nimirum pants 
 specie (" The Eucharist [is] without doubt, only 
 bread under another form "), and references are 
 given to the Gospels and Acts. 1 Again, Eucharistia 
 non renianet substantia panis post consecrationem, 
 sed est verum Christi corpus et sanguis (" The 
 Eucharist does not remain the substance of bread 
 after consecration, but is the true body and blood 
 of Christ "). References for proofs are made to the 
 four accounts of the institution. Lastly, it is said : 
 Eucharistiam in publicis supplicationibus circumfer- 
 endam esse pr<z figurataty,. This refers to the Ark 
 being carried about on certain occasions. Lastly, 
 Eucharistia adoranda, the references being to 
 certain psalms and to the man born blind 
 " worshipping Jesus." 
 
 It is quite clear that the idea of transubstantia- 
 tion included under Eucharistia was, from the 
 above, attributable to the word is in " This is 
 
 1 E.g. John vi. 58 ; Luke xxiv. 30 ; Acts ii. 42, xx. 7. 
 
58 THE VULGATE 
 
 my body." Indeed, the whole of the theories of 
 the " Real Presence" have issued out of it. The 
 important question is, What did the disciples under- 
 stand by it? What significance does the word 
 " is " bear when compared with other passages in 
 which it occurs in a similar manner? 
 
 Now when we look for what might be called 
 parallel instances, we soon discover that it was 
 the universal custom to use the verb " to be," 
 where we should adopt "represent" or some 
 equivalent expression. A few examples will soon 
 prove this. In Joseph's interpretation of the 
 dreams of the butler and baker we read that it 
 runs thus : " The three baskets are three days," 
 and " the three branches are three days." So, too, 
 " the seven good kine are seven years," etc. When 
 Aaron made the golden calf he said, " This is thy 
 god, O Israel." Ezekiel said, "These bones are 
 the whole house of Israel." 
 
 Similarly, in the New Testament St John the 
 Baptist disclaimed the idea that he was Elijah, i.e. 
 in the flesh ; but Christ said that he was, i.e. as a 
 spiritual representative of that prophet. Our Lord 
 repeatedly used the same form of expression, as 
 in His interpretation of the parable of the Sower : 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 59 
 
 " The good seed are the children of the kingdom," 
 etc. In describing His own flesh and blood He 
 says metaphorically, " The bread which I will give 
 is my flesh ; . . . my flesh is meat indeed, and my 
 blood is drink indeed," alluding to the Jewish 
 idea that " the blood was the life " ; so that, as 
 Dr Westcott shows, by dying for, i.e. on behalf 
 of, man, His blood was at the disposal of all who 
 would drink it. 
 
 St Paul follows suit ; when he mentioned the old 
 tradition of the rock which was believed to have 
 followed the children of Israel and supplied them 
 with water in the desert, he adds, " And that Rock 
 was Christ." Again, in alluding to the Eucharist 
 he says, " The bread which we break, is it not a 
 communion of the body of Christ [i.e. does not 
 the bread represent the fellowship abiding among 
 all Christians ?], seeing that we who are many are 
 one bread, one body?" This tallies with the 
 instruction given in the Didache or " The Teaching 
 of the Apostles " : " But with regard to the broken 
 bread, ' We give thanks to Thee, our Father, for 
 the life and knowledge which Thou hast made 
 known to us through Thy child Jesus ; to Thee be 
 glory for ever. As this broken bread was scattered 
 
6o THE VULGATE 
 
 upon the mountains and gathered together into 
 one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from 
 the ends of the earth into Thy kingdom, for Thine 
 is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ 
 for ever/" 
 
 These few quotations are enough to prove that 
 the word " is " must have been used and understood 
 to mean " represent." None of the disciples could 
 possibly have supposed that a miracle was per- 
 formed at the Last Supper when Christ spoke these 
 words. They knew nothing of Plato's " substance." 
 
 Starting from this mistaken meaning of the 
 word " is," it became necessary to explain how 
 Christ's body and blood could become identical 
 with the bread and wine. It was in 1551 that 
 the Council of Trent established the present dogma 
 of transubstantiation and supplemented it by an 
 anathema : Si quis dixerit in sacrosancto euchar- 
 isticz Sacramento remanere substantiam panis et vini 
 cum corpore et sanguine Domini nostri Jesu Christi 
 .... valde Anathema sit (" If anyone shall have 
 said that the substance of bread and wine remain 
 in the most holy sacrament of the Eucharist, 
 together with the body and blood of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, .... let him be strongly accursed "), 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 61 
 
 The question now arises, What is this supposed 
 " substance," whether in bread, wine, body, or 
 blood, without which it is obvious that neither tran- 
 substantiation or consubstantiation can exist? 
 
 Substantia represents ova-la, a synonym of 
 which was vTroa-raa-i^ sub-stantia being the Latin 
 equivalent of i/7ro'-o-Ta<n?, finally represented by 
 persona, ie. a "character" or "mask." Plato was 
 the first to use the word ova-la, as signifying 
 "essence" (essentia, from esse, "to be") for the 
 "true nature of a thing" j 1 but Aristotle regarded 
 it much as we do now, viz. the material sub- 
 stance, for he says : ova-Lai &e jmaXia-r elvai SOKOVO-I 
 TO, (rw/xara. 2 
 
 As applied to Deity, it signified spiritual sub- 
 stance or nature ; and although ova-la and VTTOO-- 
 rctcn? were identical in meaning or synonyms at 
 first, the former came to be translated as sub- 
 stantia and the latter persona (literally " a mask "). 
 Ova-la is of course derived from etVat, " to be" ; so 
 that 6 wvf " I AM," represents the underlying idea 
 of a real individual, self-existing Being. This, 
 too, appears to underlie the contention between 
 
 1 Pkado, 78 c. 2 De An., ii. I. 
 
 3 Exod. iii. 14, etc. 
 
62 THE VULGATE 
 
 6/moovario$ and 6/motovariog. One still asks, however, 
 what is this " substance " ? We know nothing of 
 the nature of spiritual incorporeal beings ; names 
 only hide our ignorance of the nature of God. 
 
 Turning to material objects, what is, or where- 
 in lies the ova-la of bread and wine as well 
 as of flesh and blood? Here we are on safer 
 ground, and at once see that modern chemistry 
 has dissipated into nothingness all the ancient 
 ideas of any " essence," substantial, or ova-la " un- 
 derlying" matter of all kinds whatever. 
 
 It was imagined by ancient philosophy that 
 everything had an underlying "essence" or a 
 " real nature," while its changeable properties 
 appreciable to the senses were its "accidents." 
 Perhaps the simplest illustration may be seen in 
 ice, water, and steam, or the solid, liquid, and 
 gaseous condition of the same thing, the imaginary 
 ova-la, while the differences experienced by our 
 senses were the "accidents." Since everything 
 can now be analysed into its constituent elements 
 and their compounds, we find that bread consists 
 of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with 
 some mineral matters ; these being compounded 
 into cellulose, starch, gluten, etc., beyond which 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 63 
 
 there is nothing^ so that unless these undergo 
 some change, nothing can change, for there is no 
 " substance " in the old philosophical sense at all. 
 
 Another point may be noted. When a miracle 
 takes place, as is supposed to in changing water into 
 wine, the proof lay in the change in the accidents 
 or properties perceptible by the senses ; but in 
 transubstantiation, since the senses can detect no 
 difference, it is necessary to locate the changes in 
 the " substance," which cannot be proved. 
 
 What, then, is the obvious result? "Is" really 
 meant " represents " ; and all conception of 
 " substance " is based on the imagination alone. 
 All ideas of change of any kind whatever in 
 the bread and wine is a pure fiction; and any 
 benefit supposed to be derived from the con- 
 sumption of the bread and wine itself by its 
 being, in some mysterious and miraculous way, 
 impregnated by the " Real Presence," is entirely 
 unfounded. 
 
 All such materialistic ideas have no warrant 
 from Scripture ; the pure, unadulterated, spiritual 
 aid to the soul is expressed in the words of our 
 liturgy already referred to. 
 
 As the partaking of the bread and wine is re- 
 
64 THE VULGATE 
 
 garded as eating Christ's flesh and blood, it will 
 be desirable to consider briefly what is understood 
 by our Lord's words. 
 
 In the Acts converts are baptized for the re- 
 mission of their sins ; but nothing is stated as to 
 Christ's blood as guaranteeing that forgiveness. 
 It is dependent upon repentance only. 
 
 There are several expressions in which Christ's 
 blood is mentioned, but they all imply His life, 
 not His death. Thus we are justified, 1 redeemed, 2 
 made nigh, 3 made at peace, 4 cleansed, 5 washed, 6 
 and sanctified 7 by His blood. Substituting "a 
 holy life" for "blood," the true meaning of that 
 word will be at once perceived. 
 
 What is the true meaning of the word Com- 
 munion ? The Vulgate is responsible for a wide- 
 spread or practically a universal error with regard 
 to this word. We designate the Eucharist as " the 
 Holy Communion " ; but we speak of receiving 
 the elements as " communicating," and apply this 
 word individually, so that the priest might ask, 
 " Have you communicated ? " 
 
 1 Rom. v. 9. 2 Eph. i. 7 ; Col. i. 14 (A.V.) ; Rev. v. 9. 
 
 3 Eph. ii. 13. 4 Col. i. 20. 5 Heb. ix. 14, 19, 20. 
 
 6 Rev. i. S (A.V. ; loosed, R.V.). 7 Heb. xiii. 12. 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 65 
 
 The Greek word translated " communion " in our 
 Bibles is rendered communicatio in the Vulgate, 
 while the verb Koivwveoo, communico in Vulgate, 
 means to " share in common " ; so that if a man 
 possessed something of which he gave a part away, 
 he was said xoivooveiv ', and in this sense the verb 
 is used several times by St Paul, meaning a money 
 contribution, either to a church x or to a teacher. 2 
 
 St Paul appears to have introduced the Eucharist 
 in the middle of his remarks upon idolatry, 3 in 
 order to show that the motive for partaking of 
 the bread and wine had nothing in common with 
 that of the sacrificial feasts among the Corinthians. 
 He tells them that they cannot drink of both the 
 cup of the Lord and the cup of devils, nor partake 
 of the table of the Lord and of devils. Now there 
 is nothing to indicate a transubstantiation or a 
 Real Presence in the one case more than the other. 
 No Corinthian thought he was eating the devils. 
 Therefore no Christian imagined that he was eating 
 Christ. St Paul treats it entirely as symbolical. 
 It was not the bread and wine nor the meat which 
 was of any importance ; it was the motive in both 
 
 1 Rom. xii. 13 ; Phil. iv. 15. a Gal. vi. 6. 
 
 3 Cp. Rom. xiv. 14, 20, and 21. 
 
 5 
 
66 THE VULGATE 
 
 cases. The Koivwvla was in one sense a partaking 
 in common of the bread ; but this symbolised the 
 Koivwvia or fellowship of all Christians, who now 
 united like the scattered grains of corn becoming 
 one loaf became the one church. Similarly, 
 drinking the wine representing Christ's blood 
 indicated the determination of all to live the one 
 common life, i.e. the Christ-life. 
 
 St John corroborates this view of St Paul, for 
 he says : " That which we have seen and heard 
 declare we unto you, that ye also may have fellow- 
 ship with us] yea, and our fellowship is with the 
 Father and with his Son Jesus Christ. ... If we 
 say that we have fellowship with him, and walk in 
 darkness, we lie and do not the truth; but if we 
 walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have 
 fellowship one with another, and the blood of Jesus 
 his Son cleanseth us from all sin." 1 
 
 The Rhemes Version was the first to introduce 
 " communication," but the Genevan has " com- 
 munion." This was followed by the A.V. as the 
 translation of Koivuvla, for which the Vulgate has 
 communicatio : " Calix benedictionis, cui benedicimus, 
 nonne communicatio sanguinis Chris ft est ? et panis 
 1 i John i, 3, 6. 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 67 
 
 quern frangimus, no?me participatio corporis Domini 
 est?" 1 
 
 As "communicating" frequently meant else- 
 where, as stated, the giving and receiving of money, 
 the idea of " fellowship " is lost, and the notion of 
 " receiving " Christ's blood takes its place. But as 
 no perceptible changes take place in their so-called 
 "accidents," the fiction was invented that we 
 receive the " substance " of Christ's blood instead. 
 It may be added that the error is retained in the 
 custom of administering the elements to each 
 "communicant" severally; as it destroys the 
 underlying idea of "fellowship" between all 
 present. The old custom of the priest saying the 
 words once only at the altar, and then administering 
 to the whole railful at once, more nearly represented 
 the fundamental idea of a family kneeling before 
 a common Father God. 
 
 It will be advisable to consider a little further the 
 meaning of Koivcovia, or fellowship, as used in the 
 New Testament, and to compare the Latin Vulgate 
 with the Greek and our English versions. The 
 first occasion, subsequent to our Lord's dis- 
 
 1 I Cor. x. 1 6. The Greek has ttoivvvla, both for comnmnicatio 
 and participatio. 
 
68 THE VULGATE 
 
 appearance, is after Peter's exhortation and the 
 baptism of converts had been performed, when 
 3000 souls were added to the Church. 1 The edition 
 of Clement VIII. (1592) has Erant autem persever- 
 antes in doctrina apostolorum, et communication* 
 fractionis paniS) et orationibus. But in the edition 
 of Beza (1642) we find Perdurabant autem in 
 doctrina apostolorum et communications, et fractione 2 
 paniS) et orationibus. 
 
 Now may we not trace the present use of 
 the word "communicating" in the sacrament to 
 the above error of punctuation (note the comma 
 AFTER communicatione in Beza and its absence in 
 the other edition of the Vulgate)? The Koivuvia 
 has nothing to do with the eating the bread. 
 
 In St Paul's account of the institution, 3 the Vul- 
 gate (1592) has communicatio sanguinis and par- 
 ticipatio corporis ; but communio occurs in both 
 sentences in the later edition (1642). The R.V t 
 has " communion," following this edition of the 
 Vulgate. 
 
 The question arises whether Jerome did not 
 
 1 Acts ii. 42. 
 
 Greek eiu TTJ Kotvcaviq, rrf K\&<rei rov &prov, referring to the 
 Agapai or Love Feasts. 
 3 i Cor. x. 1 6. 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 69 
 
 misunderstand St Paul's usage of the word 
 i.e. the " fellowship of the saints," by supposing him 
 to mean the actual eating the bread and drinking 
 the wine? That the Apostle had the "human 
 fellowship" in his mind is clear from the words 
 immediately following, by which he seems to refer 
 to the symbolical meaning of the "one loaf of 
 many grains." 
 
 Whereas Jerome and subsequent translators 
 have made the word imply the eating and drinking 
 Christ's body and blood, having in their minds 
 our Lord's own symbolical term, by so doing 
 the emphasis ever since has been on the supposed 
 importance of " communicating," as it is now called, 
 i.e. partaking of the actual bread and wine. The 
 spiritual meaning of the human fellowship having 
 been thrown into the background, it has almost, 
 if not quite, become lost sight of by ordinary 
 " communicants." 
 
 Turning to Wiclif's version (1380), the passage 
 runs as follows: " And weren lastynge stable in 
 the techynge of the Apostlis and in comynyng 
 of the brekinge of breed and in prefers," following 
 the Vulgate closely; whereas Tyndale (1534) has, 
 " fellowshippe, and in breaking of breed," being 
 
70 THE VULGATE 
 
 followed by later translations, as in our R.V. On 
 the other hand, the Roman Catholic version of 
 Rhemes (1582) follows Wiclif and the Sixtine : 
 " And they were perseuering in the doctrine of the 
 Apostles, and in the communication of the breaking 
 of bread, and praiers." 
 
 Similarly, in St Paul's account, Rhemes has : 
 " The chalice of benediction which we do blesse : 
 is it not the communication of the bloud of Christ ? 
 And the bread which we breake, is it not the 
 participation of the body of our Lord ? " 
 
 It seems quite clear from the preceding refer- 
 ences, etc., that the Apostles understood the Lord's 
 Supper to be representative of a bond of fellowship 
 between Himself and His Church, and between 
 all Christians one with another. Therefore it 
 is natural to find that the converts were firm in 
 fellowship, and in breaking of bread at the Agapai, 
 the outward and visible sign of the common 
 spiritual nature of all who joined the Christian 
 society. 
 
 There is not a word or a hint of the earliest 
 Church regarding the bread and wine as transformed 
 into Christ's body and blood. The accepted idea 
 was totally different, viz., as shown by KOIVWVIO. or 
 
SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 71 
 
 fellowship of love between the members. To 
 translate the word by "communion" or "communi- 
 cation " of Christ's body and blood, i.e. as supposed 
 to be carnally eaten and drunk, is a totally false 
 exegesis. They stand for the spiritual character of 
 Agape, which the partakers of the elements there- 
 by outwardly profess to cultivate, and so assimilate 
 the spirit of the Master. 
 
 I would here strongly recommend the reader 
 to study the fifteenth chapter, on THE LORD'S 
 SUPPER, in Sir J. Seeley's Ecce Homo. 
 
PART II 
 
 DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO MAN 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 REPENTANCE 
 
 THE ecclesiastical or doctrinal terms, which the 
 Church established referring to man's religious 
 career, from his conversion to Christianity to his 
 acquired salvation, were as follows : The Jew and 
 Gentile of old were, and any sinner of to-day is, 
 called upon to show REPENTANCE (p&nitentia) 
 and make CONFESSION (confessio) of his sins. 
 FAITH (fides) is required of him, and OBEDIENCE 
 (pbedientid) to Christ's and the Church's com- 
 mands. If the preceding be genuine and from 
 the heart, he has his JUSTIFICATION (justificatio). 
 His CONVERSION (conversid) is described as PRE- 
 DESTINATION (predestinatio) and ELECTION (electio). 
 
 He receives REMISSION (remissio) of sins and 
 
 72 
 
REPENTANCE 73 
 
 ABSOLUTION (absolutio), after due penance and 
 SATISFACTION (satisfactio) has been made. The 
 result is his RECONCILIATION (reconciliatio) or 
 " at-one-ment " (sixteenth century). Then follows 
 his growth in grace or SANCTIFICATION (sanctifi- 
 catio], and the perfect result is SALVATION 
 (salvatio, salus, or salutare) or spiritual " health." 
 
 To these terms observations will be added upon 
 Doctrina and Credo. 
 
 Repentance is the English translation of pceni- 
 tentia in the Vulgate ; both are connected with 
 pcena, a penalty, being allied to punire, to punish. 
 Hence the word " penance " finds its place in the 
 Rhemes Version, as in " Doe penance for the 
 Kingdom of Heaven is at hand" 1 ; the " Annota- 
 tion "on which runs as follows: "He preacheth 
 Satisfaction by doing worthy fruits or workes of 
 penance, which are fasting, praying, almes and 
 the like." The Greek word is fj.eravoia\ but the 
 Latin word comes nearer to yueTa/Ae'Xem, just as 
 /merajULeXei agrees with p&nitet me ; but that noun 
 does not occur in the New Testament. MeraWa 
 is a much stronger term, and signifies a " change 
 of mind or understanding " leading to a new life, 
 
 1 Matt. iii. 2, 8. 
 
74 THE VULGATE 
 
 i.e. an inward, spiritual change ; whereas ptzni- 
 tentia led to outward forms of penance only, which 
 do not afford any necessary guarantee of heart- 
 felt repentance and sorrow, which may or may not 
 accompany them. Consequently, by representing 
 /xeraVofa by pcenitentia and translating this by 
 " penance," the whole force of the Greek word has 
 become inverted', and this has issued in the most 
 disastrous consequences imaginable. The absolute 
 necessity of punishment has replaced the free 
 pardon of grace offered to all who repent of 
 their iniquities. True Christianity has no system 
 of external punishments or of rewards. 
 
 What has been the consequence of this wrong 
 translation by the Vulgate of jmerdvoia? It gave 
 rise to the whole penitential system of Church 
 discipline. It began in the Greek Church, and 
 was followed by the North African and Roman, in 
 which it was dignified as a sacrament. Let us 
 read Tertullian's description of its several elements : 
 " ' Exomologesis ' is the discipline of prostrate 
 humiliation, enjoining such a course as may move 
 Divine pity: the substitution of sackcloth and 
 ashes for a man's usual habit and regimen; the 
 defilement of the body with dust and dirt; the 
 
REPENTANCE 75 
 
 abasement of the spirit with grief; the alteration 
 of every particular sin by afflictive treatment. 
 And besides this, the use of the simplest food and 
 drink, eating not to pamper the appetite but to 
 maintain life. Especially to feed up prayer with 
 fasting. To sigh, to weep, to groan whole days 
 and nights before the Lord God ; to prostrate 
 one's self before the presbyters and kneel before 
 the altars of God; to bid the brethren to take 
 upon them the mediation of intercession." 1 
 
 On the other hand, how would /xercwota apply 
 to the Greek and Roman converts ? They had 
 paid due respect to the gods and worshipped 
 according to their light, though their lives might 
 have been grossly immoral from the Christian 
 point of view. St Paul therefore calls upon them 
 to abandon such worship and turn to the living 
 God, who regarded a pure life as part of religion, 
 and would "overlook" the past. But if, when 
 Christians, they sinned against God, then ^erai/ota 
 would mean " repentance " in the ordinary sense. 2 
 The Prodigal Son came to see the error of his 
 ways and "repented." What was the conse- 
 quence ? He was received with open arms by his 
 
 1 De Pctnitentict) 9. a See I Cor. v. and 2 Cor. vii. 
 
76 THE VULGATE 
 
 father, who in the parable represents God. This 
 parable assures us that true repentance guarantees 
 forgiveness. "Punishments," like "rewards," do 
 not exist under Christianity as outward effects 
 of conduct; they stand for the natural results 
 i.e. by natural laws of character and conduct. 
 
 Penance may enhance the power and authority 
 of ecclesiasticism ; but it is at the expense of 
 ignoring the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 Thus, then, do we see how the Vulgate, by intro- 
 ducing poenitentia, has opened the way to an 
 intolerant system of outward observances of 
 penance, and elevated this false dogma into a 
 sacrament. 
 
 To show how an evil may grow, we see a good 
 example in penance. Blunt tells us : " In later 
 times corporal austerities were largely introduced, 
 and menial offices to break down the proud spirit 
 of rebellion ; solitude and silence, the endurance 
 of heat and cold, hair-shirts and bodily chastise- 
 ment. These, however, were commutable for a 
 money payment, although this rule could not apply 
 to the poor. Penance was made so painful 
 [intentionally?] as to drive penitents to this 
 easier method of satisfaction. . . . Such money 
 
REPENTANCE 77 
 
 payments after the Reformation were directed to 
 be applied to the use of the poor." 
 
 Penance, as established by the Church, included 
 contrition, confession, and satisfaction; prayer 
 always formed a main element of satisfaction due 
 to God. Fasting also was added, and the restitution 
 to man for wrongs done to him, etc. This last is, 
 of course, a true Christian duty ; but all external 
 acts, including mere fasting, are not supported by 
 any New Testament authority referable to Christ's 
 teaching. It has already been shown that satis- 
 faction was never applied to Christ nor to anyone 
 else in the New Testament ; nor is it a translation 
 of any Greek word. In the INDEX BlBLICUS of the 
 Vulgate, the reader is referred s.v. Satisfactio to 
 Poenitentia, to which there are plenty of references. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 PURGATORY 
 
 ANOTHER erroneous consequence of poenitentia is 
 the theory of purgatory, the history of which is 
 briefly as follows. Nothing is known of it in the 
 first two centuries. In the third, Tertullian had 
 joined the Montanists, and refers to Dives and 
 Lazarus as a proof of future punishments and 
 rewards in an intermediate state ; but this gave 
 no inference as to purgatorial necessities. He 
 seems to have interpreted the words, "Thou 
 shalt by no means come out thence, till thou 
 have paid the last farthing," 1 as signifying that 
 offences are expiated by delay of the resurrec- 
 tion ; but he derived this conception from the 
 Montanists. 
 
 Origen considered that all the pains of the 
 
 1 Matt. v. 26. 
 78 
 
PURGATORY 79 
 
 damned were purgatorial and would be expiated 
 by fire, 1 basing this view on St Paul's teaching. 2 
 
 But this idea that the soul itself shall be subjected 
 to a future, purgatorial fire, continued even in the 
 popular theology of to-day, arises out of a mis- 
 conception of this passage. St Paul compares 
 different preachers' work to gold, silver, and 
 precious stones, which can resist the action of fire, 
 as well as to hay and stubble, which will be burnt. 
 Fire is obviously a metaphor for whatever shall 
 test a man's preaching, represented by the above 
 things. 
 
 With regard to the preacher himself, if his work, 
 i.e. preaching, be proved faulty, he will necessarily 
 suffer ; " but he himself shall be saved [assuming 
 he was honest and preached what he believed to 
 be true], yet so as by fire." 3 That is, he shall 
 suffer mentally in some way, but certainly not 
 by actual flames of fire. 
 
 This clearly proves that St Paul never regarded 
 Christ's expression of hell-fire or fire of Gehenna, 
 etc., to be other than metaphorical. Fire is used 
 
 1 De Principiis, lib. i . cap. 10, n. 5. 
 
 2 I Cor. iii. 13-15. 
 
 3 Greek, ofrrwy 8 &s 5ii xvpts. Vulgate, sic tamen quasi ptr 
 ignem. 
 
8o THE VULGATE 
 
 in two senses either as purgatorial or as penal. 
 St John Baptist employs both. "He shall 
 baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire." 
 Here it stands for a purifying enthusiasm for 
 holiness. But he adds : " The chaff He will burn 
 up with unquenchable fire " 1 ; that is, as penal. 
 
 It may be worth while here to notice some of 
 the references to fire in the Bible. The first 
 mention in connection with the Deity is when 
 the angel of the Lord appeared unto Moses in 
 a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush. 2 Here, 
 as on Sinai, when " the glory of the Lord was like 
 a devouring fire on the top of the mount," 3 it 
 appears to be a symbol of purity and holiness. 
 On the other hand, Moses speaks of Yahweh : " the 
 Lord thy God is a devouring fire, a jealous God." 
 Fire there stands for the punishment of the 
 wicked, represented symbolically. 4 
 
 Fire is also used as a metaphor for whatever 
 purifies, as in the phrase "saved as by fire." 
 
 1 Matt. iii. II, 12. A parallel passage occurs in Isa. iv. 4: 
 "When the Lord .... shall have purged the blood of Jerusalem 
 from the midst thereof, by the spirit of judgment and by the spirit 
 of burning." 
 
 2 Exod. iii. 2. 3 Exod. xxiv. 17. 
 4 Deut. iv. 24. See Ezek. xxxvi. 5 and Ps. 1. 3. 
 
PURGATORY 81 
 
 So God is " like a refiner's fire. . . . He shall sit 
 as a refiner and purifier of silver." 1 
 
 Besides these metaphorical uses of fire, the 
 actual results of nature's physical fires were 
 familiar to all ; such as the account of the destruc- 
 tion of Sodom and Gomorrah by "brimstone 
 and fire." 2 Our Lord uses this as an illustration : 
 " The same day that Lot went out of Sodom, it 
 rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and 
 destroyed them all. Even thus shall it be in 
 the day when the Son of man is revealed." He 
 thus uses a concrete instance as a figure of what 
 will spiritually happen to the impenitent, just as 
 He did when speaking of the tower of Siloam. 8 
 
 In Isaiah we first read of Tophet in the valley 
 of Hinnom, just outside Jerusalem. It was a 
 place where Manasseh had offered human sacri- 
 fices, 4 and where refuse was burnt. 
 
 Now if the reader will compare the passages 
 given in the notes with St John's Revelation, 5 
 it will be pretty evident that he was familiar with 
 
 1 Mai. iii. 2, 3. See Isa. i. 25 ; Ezek. xxii. 18 ; I Pet. i. 7. 
 
 2 Luke xvii. 29. Cp. Deut. xxix. 23; Job xviii. 15 ; Ps. xi. 6; 
 Isa. xxxiv. 8-10. 
 
 3 Luke xiii. 4. 4 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6 ; Isa. xxx. 33. 
 8 Rev. xiv. 8-1 1. 
 
82 THE VULGATE 
 
 them, and is using the terms " fire and brimstone " 
 in a similarly metaphorical or symbolical manner. 
 
 Note, too, the source of the brimstone. At 
 first and afterwards it is described as coming 
 from heaven. As a physical fact, we may not 
 be far wrong in recognising lightning as repre- 
 senting this supposed source of it. Secondly, it 
 is the "dust on the ground." Such we know to 
 be the highly inflammable bitumen which abounds 
 in the regions of the cities of the plain by the 
 Dead Sea. The streams are next said to be 
 turned into pitch. This is scarcely to be doubted 
 as a description of the liquid bitumen or petroleum 
 which constituted the "slime pits" of the vale 
 of Siddim. 1 Lastly, in the Revelation we find 
 the place of destruction, not a " plain " nor " valley," 
 but a "lake" of brimstone. This last term is 
 equally suggestive of a localisation near to Rome ; 
 where was the Lake Avernus, the crater of a 
 volcano and the mythical descent to the lower 
 regions; so that St John uses a "lake" as the 
 crater of an active volcano a familiar object by 
 the Mediterranean Sea wherewith to describe 
 in graphic metaphorical language the fiery 
 
 1 Gen. xiv. 10. 
 
PURGATORY 83 
 
 indignation of the Lord God upon the heathen 
 world, and upon Babylon, i.e. Rome, in particular. 
 
 Having thus acquired the erroneous idea of a 
 material instead of a metaphorical meaning of fire 
 and brimstone, we find Pope Gregory I. giving 
 it out as a positive fact : " There is a purgatorial 
 fire before the Judgment for lighter faults." 1 
 
 Having fixed this error as an article of belief, 
 the Church followed it up by establishing pardons 
 and indulgences, etc., to enable souls to escape 
 the punishments of purgatory. 
 
 The relaxation of penances had existed in the 
 primitive Church, which had been enforced for 
 acts which had incurred the censure of the Church ; 
 and the intercession of martyrs had great weight. 
 In process of time liberal alms-giving was accepted 
 in lieu of or mitigation of penance. "The sub- 
 sequent sale of indulgences easily rose out of the 
 permission to substitute charity to the poor or to 
 the Church for mortification and humiliation before 
 God." 2 
 
 These exemptions are a wholly different thing 
 
 1 De quibusdam levibus culpis esse ante judicium purgatorius 
 ignis credendus est (Dial., lib. iv. cap. 39). 
 
 2 Browne on The Articles, p. 503. I have italicised four words 
 for a purpose, as will be seen. 
 
84 THE VULGATE 
 
 from the modern doctrine of indulgences, i.e. 
 " exemptions from the temporal punishment of sins" 
 This includes not only Church censures, but the 
 pains of purgatory ; and it is held that the Bishop 
 of Rome has a store or treasure of the merits of 
 Christ and of the saints, which, for sufficient 
 reasons, he can dispense, either by himself or his 
 agents, to mitigate or shorten the sufferings of 
 penitents whether in this world or the world to 
 come. Dr Harold Browne adds that "before the 
 end of the twelfth century it is hardly possible to 
 discover any traces of them. . . . The first jubilee, 
 or year of general indulgence, is said to have been 
 kept in the pontificate of Boniface VIII., thirteen 
 hundred years after Christ. ... It reached its 
 greatest height of corruption in the pontificate 
 of Leo X., when Tetzel, the agent of that 
 pope, openly selling indulgences in Germany, 
 roused the spirit of Luther and so hastened the 
 Reformation." 
 
 Present-day Roman Catholics say that it is not 
 the sin, but \.\\z punishment, which is removed by the 
 indulgence, and that venia peccatorum and remissio 
 peccatorum are " technical expressions " referring to 
 the punishment but not the guilt. " An indulgence 
 
PURGATORY 85 
 
 is rightly described as a remission of temporal 
 punishment due for sins already remitted as to their 
 guilt." One naturally asks wherein is there any 
 justice in continuing the punishment if the guilt 
 or sin is already pardoned or remitted ? 
 
 The payment of money for the indulgence is 
 explained as a "fee" for the document received, 
 like that for a title-deed ; but when the prices of 
 different sins are said to be publicly seen in Italy, 
 and a Maltese friend told me that the priests in 
 Malta "could not live without purgatory," one 
 cannot set much value upon the excuses of the 
 author of the book referred to. 1 
 
 But this interpretation of an indulgence not 
 referring to sins is contradicted by other authorities. 
 Thus, in a form of absolution by Anthony Egane, 
 B.D., Confessor-General of the Kingdom of Ire- 
 land, in his Book of Rates, there are the words: 
 " I restore thee to that innocency in which thou 
 wast at the time of baptism. I absolve thee from 
 all thy sins, and from all torments due to thee in 
 purgatory for thy sins and transgressions," etc. 
 
 1 Indulgences ; Sacramental Absolutions and the lax-Tables of the 
 Roman Chancery and Penitentiary, considered in reply to the Charge 
 of Venality, by Rev. T. L. Green, D.D. (1872). 
 
86 THE VULGATE 
 
 The following are the prices of absolutions and 
 dispensations : l 
 
 A layman having murdered a priest 
 
 shall be pardoned for . . . 6 2 o 
 He that kills a bishop, . . 36 6 o 
 
 For murdering a layman, . .324 
 A general absolution for all sins, . 8 19 o 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 1 Quoted by P. W. Crowther's Christian Manual, compiled from 
 the Enchiridion Militis Christiani of Erasmus (1516). 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 CONFESSION 
 
 THE Vulgate, as standing between the original 
 Greek and the English Bible, has been the cause 
 of some confusion as to the meanings of the Greek 
 word oytioXoy/a. The verb "to confess," as sins, 
 or when St John said " I am not the Christ," is 
 o/xoXoye'o>; but when it is used with /, as "whoso- 
 ever shall confess me," l o/xoXoy^o-et eV e/xo/, /c.r.X., 
 it means " profess." The middle voice with prefix 
 * o/u.o\oyovfjLcu, is also used in both senses, as 
 at St John's baptism in Jordan the converts " con- 
 fessed " their sins. On the other hand, " Every 
 tongue shall confess to God " 2 ; margin " give 
 praise " (R.V.) : this implies " profession " rather 
 than "confession." 
 
 The noun 6/zoXoy/a is used in two senses also ; 
 
 1 Matt. x. 32. 2 Rom. xiv. II. 
 
 87 
 
88 THE VULGATE 
 
 and the A.V., recognising the inadequacy of " con- 
 fession " in certain passages, has " profession." 1 
 The Vulgate has always confessio^ and the R.V. 
 uniformly restores " profession " to " confession." 
 
 With regard to the Latin terms, Cicero strongly 
 contrasts confiteor with profiteer: Professio fidei, 
 Confessio peccatorum ; 2 so that a distinction might 
 have been made in the Vulgate in accordance with 
 the sense of the passages ; but as confessio alone 
 was used, so confession appears in our Bible ; and 
 although the A.V. did draw the distinction, the 
 R.V. has destroyed it! 
 
 A typical passage occurs in St Paul's Epistle to 
 the Romans. The following is the R.V. : " If 
 thou shalt confess with thy mouth Jesus as Lord, 
 and shalt believe in thy heart that God raised him 
 from the dead, thou shalt be saved : for with the 
 heart man believeth unto righteousness ; and with 
 the mouth confession is made unto salvation." 3 
 
 The Greek for the words italicised is 6yUoXoy>i(r^9 
 ev TU> (TTO/maTi TTKTTeva-fls ev Tfl KapSla 6/aoAoye*- 
 TCU el ? 
 
 1 See, e.g., 2 Cor. ix. 13; i Tim. vi. 12; Heb. iii. I, iv. 14, 
 x. 23. 
 
 2 Cic., Pro Sest., 51, 109. 3 Rom. x. 9, 10. 
 
CONFESSION 89 
 
 The Vulgate has "Si confitearis in ore tuo 
 Dominum Jesum, et in corde tuo credideris .... 
 salvus eris. Corde enim creditur ad justitiam : ore 
 autem confessio fit ad salutem" 
 
 Here " confess " stands for " profess," and 
 " believe " for " have faith." It is the " profession 
 of faith," not a " confession," which the Christian 
 holds. Similarly, St Paul writes to Timothy : 
 "Fight the good fight of the faith, lay hold on 
 the life eternal, whereunto thou wast called, and 
 didst confess the [hast professed a, A.V.] good 
 confession in [profession, A.V.] the sight of many 
 witnesses." 1 It is curious that in the next verse 
 o/AoXoy/a in reference to Christ is translated 
 " confession " in A.V., following the Vulgate : Qui 
 testimonium reddidit sub Pontio Pilato bonam 
 confessionem. 
 
 Though the Vulgate is right in using confiteor 
 and confessio in connection with sin, it is un- 
 fortunately wrong wherever the Greek means 
 " profession." The doctrinal errors connected with 
 the word arose much later in the history of the 
 Church. The duty of confessing sins openly was 
 always considered a necessary part of repent- 
 
 1 i Tim. vi. 12. 
 
90 THE VULGATE 
 
 ance. 1 It might perhaps be regarded as equivalent 
 to the oath of a witness ; because the Law was 
 both divine and politic with the Jews, religion not 
 being differentiated from the State requirements. 
 On the other hand, we find the oath already the 
 necessary adjunct to civil law in the code of 
 Hammurabi, king of Babylon (B.C. 2285); e.g. t 
 " The witnesses of a theft shall say out before God 
 what they know" (9). A public asseveration or 
 confession by the Jew was therefore a testimony 
 to Yahweh on the part of the repentant sinner. 2 
 It was an outward and audible sign of repentance; 
 the confession being regarded as honest, being 
 uttered before the multitude and before Yahweh. 
 
 Similarly, when St John Baptist called upon 
 the Jews " to repent," we read that they confessed 
 their sins (e^o/xoXoyoiVeyo*). 3 
 
 In the early centuries, public confession was 
 found to lead to irregularities, and private confes- 
 sion became more customary ; but it was not until 
 A.D. 1215 that Pope Innocent III. promulgated the 
 2ist Canon, Omnis utriusque sexus, which enjoins 
 
 1 See Hooker, EccL /*<?/., VI. iv. 4, where the whole subject is 
 discussed in detail. 
 
 3 As by the priest over the scape-goat. Jer. xvi. 21 ; Neh. ix. 2. 
 3 Matt. iii. 6. 
 
CONFESSION 91 
 
 all the faithful who have arrived at years of dis- 
 cretion to confess their sins once a year at least 
 to their own parish priest. Penalties for dis- 
 obedience were subsequently added ; then some 
 time before the Reformation it was taught that 
 confession was part of the sacrament of penance, 
 which is necessary to salvation. 1 
 
 It need hardly be added that a true Christian 
 who feels a true repentance need not go to any 
 fallible person, but confess to God privately if he 
 deem it right so to do ; as St John says : " If we 
 confess our sins, he is faithful and righteous to 
 forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all 
 unrighteousness." 2 
 
 With regard to the use of o/moXoyia in the LXX, 
 the first occasion is in Leviticus, 3 where Kara Trda-av 
 o/uLoXdytav avrwv occurs. The Vulgate has vota 
 solvens, " for all his vows " ; but while R. V. translates 
 " any of their vows," the A. V. has " all his vows," 
 apparently following LXX. 'O/moXoyla elsewhere 
 corresponds to "vow" in our Bible. 4 
 
 'QjuioXoyla is very rarely used in the canonical 
 
 1 Blunt's Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology, s.v. 
 CONFESSION. 
 
 3 i John i. 9. 3 Lev. xxii. 18. 
 
 4 Deut. xii. 6, 17 ; Jer. xliv. 25. 
 
92 THE VULGATE 
 
 books, but occurs in Job: o/moXoytfcrto cm SvvctTat Y\ 
 Segla arov o-wo-a^ 1 The Vulgate has confitebar quod 
 salvare te possit dextera tua a literal translation. 
 
 It need hardly be necessary to add that to 
 confess one's sins voluntarily one to another 
 affords no foundation for any system of compul- 
 sory auricular confession. The INDEX BIBLICUS 
 can only refer to Matthew v. 6, James v. 16, and 
 i John i. 8, 9, which are all irrelevant. 
 
 1 Jobxl. 9 ( 14 in A. V.). 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION 
 
 THE first is derived from Justus and facere, i.e. , 
 etymologically, " to make righteous " ; but used 
 to mean " to act justly towards one," and is the 
 translation of SIKCUOW. Justificatio does not appear 
 to be known in classical Latin, but was appar- 
 ently invented for the Vulgate, and only occurs 
 elsewhere in ecclesiastical Latin of a later date ; 
 but the above derivation has given rise to the 
 whole of the Roman Catholic theory of the 
 "infusion of righteousness." 
 
 With regard to SIKCUOW, Thayer (Greek Lexicon) 
 observes that as the word Sov\6c means " to 
 make a man a slave," so this might mean " to make 
 a man righteous " ; but this meaning is extremely 
 rare, if not altogether doubtful, and he gives no 
 example. The true meaning is " to declare one to 
 
 93 
 
94 THE VULGATE 
 
 be righteous," just as agiow never means " to make 
 worthy " but " to judge worthy." l A*/cato'a> means 
 " to declare righteous," or, in a forensic sense, 
 " to acquit." It therefore implies that the sinner's 
 sin, or the heathen convert's past life, is forgiven. 
 Christianity has no system of punishments for the 
 obliteration of the past, as forgiveness follows 
 repentance by a natural law. Then, repentance 
 is followed by faith, which carries justification 
 with it. Finally, faith is proved by means of 
 " good works," i.e. the Christ -life. 
 
 Hooker has a long paragraph on the theory of 
 infused or imputed righteousness or justification, 
 according to the Roman Catholic Church ; from 
 which the following sentences are extracted, being 
 the answer to the hypothetical question to a 
 Roman Catholic, " What is the righteousness 
 whereby a Christian is justified ? " " It is a divine 
 spiritual quality; which quality, received into the 
 soul, doth first make it to be one of them who are 
 born of God ; and secondly, endue it with power 
 
 1 It may be observed that, as ar as possible, our criminal laws 
 follow the Christian method. For, when a convict has completed 
 his sentence, it is expressly laid down that he leaves the prison with- 
 out a stain upon him, and is free to start afresh a new life as a 
 "justified " man. 
 
JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION 95 
 
 to bring forth such works as they do that are 
 born of Him. ... It maketh the soul gracious and 
 amiable in the sight of God, in regard whereof 
 it is termed grace; that it purgeth, purifieth, 
 washeth out, all the stains and pollutions of 
 sin. . . . This grace will have to be applied by 
 infusion . . . and is made capable of increase . . . 
 so the soul may be more and more justified 
 according as grace shall be augmented, the aug- 
 mentation whereof is merited by good works, as 
 good works are made meritorious by it." 1 
 
 Hooker then follows this supposed answer ot 
 a Roman Catholic, of which there is much more 
 than is given above, by quotations from the 
 Apostles, showing its disagreement from their 
 teaching. Thus he points out how St Paul deter- 
 mined "to win Christ" for himself. 2 Hooker adds 
 that God, " beholding the truly repentant sinner 
 with a gracious eye, putteth away his sin by not 
 imputing 3 it, taketh quite away the punishment 
 due thereunto, by pardoning it : and accepting 
 him in Jesus Christ, as perfectly righteous, as if 
 
 1 A Learned Discourse of Justification, etc. The Works or 
 Mr R. Hooker, arranged by Rev. J. Keble, vol. iii. p. 487. 
 3 Phil. iii. 8, 9. * a Cor. v. 19. 
 
96 THE VULGATE 
 
 he had fulfilled all that is commanded him in the 
 law." i 
 
 What is deducible from the preceding? It is 
 that, if the Roman Church be correct, man must 
 be a mere machine; for the being made good is 
 due to an infusion from without^ not to his own 
 free-will within. His righteousness would be the 
 result of a sort of spiritual mechanism ; while 
 "good works" are merely the wheels of the 
 machine which grinds out salvation. 
 
 True repentance carries the obliteration of the 
 sin ; so that the sinner is " acquitted," i.e. t forensi- 
 cally, "justified." He then has to "work out his 
 own salvation," i.e. to live the Christ-life. " In- 
 fusion," therefore, would destroy his free-will. 
 
 The words italicised in the quotations from 
 Hooker point to the mechanical action of the 
 notion of " infusion " upon the man. 
 
 Conversion (conversio, eTna-rpotyrj) only occurs 
 once in allusion to the conversion of the Gentiles 
 to Christianity. 2 The verb convertere, irt<TTpe<j>n> t 
 " to turn to," e.g. the worship of the true God, is 
 frequent. It implies " a change of conduct." 3 
 
 1 Op. cit., p. 490. 2 Acts xv. 3. 
 
 3 In the Jews, Mark iv. 12 ; in Peter, Luke xxii. 32 ; etc. 
 
JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION 97 
 
 It is parallel to /merdvoLa, " a change of mind," 
 which precedes it. 1 
 
 The modern abuse of the term is due to the 
 Methodists, followed by Revivalists of the last 
 century in the English Church. They regarded 
 a " sudden conversion " as all-important, and if 
 once anyone has been got to say " I believe," he 
 would be safe for ever ; overlooking the fact that 
 though a sinner may be convinced of his sin by a 
 preacher, and come to the " stool of repentance " 
 in contrition, his salvation is a life-long process 
 to be slowly worked out by himself. 
 
 1 See Liike xvii. 4. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 REMISSION 
 
 Remissio in the Vulgate stands both for a< 
 and Tra/oeov?. The former signifies "sending 
 away" or "releasing," as from bondage, as in 
 Isaiah 1 and Jeremiah, 2 who spoke of the release 
 or liberty of captives; but a^eo-t? is not used in 
 the LXX for sins. It occurs for "Jubilee" in 
 Leviticus. In the New Testament it occurs nine 
 times in the sense of remission of sins ; but always 
 in connection with Jews, 3 or when spoken to the 
 Jews 4 or by our Lord to His disciples. 5 When St 
 Paul is speaking to heathens or to the Romans he 
 uses the word Trct/oeo-/?, " a passing over," 6 or, as to 
 the Greeks, he uses the verb \nrepeiSw, "to overlook." 7 
 
 1 Isa. Ixi. i. 2 Jer. xxxiv. 8. 
 
 3 Acts ii. 38, v. 31. 4 Mark i. 4. 
 
 5 Matt. xxvi. 28 ; Luke xxiv. 47. 6 Rom. iii. 25. 
 7 Acts xvii. 30. 
 
 98 
 
REMISSION 99 
 
 The reason for this difference is obvious. The 
 Jews had Moses and the prophets, and had they 
 listened to them, St John Baptist would have had 
 less to complain of in their conduct. To repent, 
 with them, not only meant " a change of under- 
 standing " but a change of heart as well. On the 
 other hand, the Greeks and Romans had no such 
 sources of information as the prophets. They 
 had acted up to their religious ideas, although 
 they were mistaken. Hence, it had been a time 
 which God would " overlook " or pass over, if they 
 would now " change their mind and understanding " 
 and accept the teaching of Paul. 
 
 But to all who accept Christ, but fall again into 
 sin, there is the promise of forgiveness or remis- 
 sion of sins, though the Christian fall seventy times 
 seven, but as often honestly and truly repent. Not 
 that he may sin that grace may abound ; if he do 
 that, he is wilfully crucifying the Son of God 
 afresh, and may accept the consequences. 1 
 
 According to the Vulgate, the first necessity after 
 repentance, as we have seen, is to do penance, or 
 rather the two are identical ; that is to say, the 
 repentant person must undergo punishment of 
 
 1 Luke xvii. 4, 5 ; Heb. vi. 6. 
 
ioo THE VULGATE 
 
 some sort before he can be reinstated in the 
 Church. 1 
 
 There is nothing of this required in the gospels. 
 The prodigal son was brought to himself by a 
 natural law. As long as he had money to spend, 
 he had no reason or wish to go home ; but poverty 
 made him take a different view. It " changed his 
 mind " ; he humbled himself and returned. That 
 was enough ; the father asked for no more. He 
 imposed no penance upon him, but received his 
 son back with open arms. That father represents 
 God. God's grace demands no punishment, only 
 repentance. If a man will not repent, he punishes 
 himself. 
 
 1 Of course this is the fundamental error of Anselm, and under- 
 lies his Cur Deus Homo. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 ABSOLUTION 
 
 THOUGH this word does not occur in our Bible, it 
 corresponds in meaning with the Latin remissio 
 and the Greek a^eo-f?, a " sending away " ; but the 
 doctrine of priestly absolution is presumably based 
 on the words first said to Peter and then to all the 
 disciples collectively : " I will give unto thee the 
 keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever 
 thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven ; 
 and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be 
 loosed in heaven." * Similar words were uttered 
 to all the disciples collectively : " Whose soever sins 
 ye forgive, they are forgiven unto them ; whose 
 soever sins ye retain, they are retained." 2 A third 
 passage corroborates this, for we read : " In that 
 hour came the disciples unto Jesus/' 3 From 
 
 1 Matt. xvi. 19. 2 John xx. 23. 3 Matt, xviii. I ff. 
 
 101 
 
102 THE VULGATE 
 
 among them he called a little child and set 
 him in the midst of them, etc. He then gives 
 instructions l for the establishment of a little court 
 of justice 2 for the future Church; and secondly, 
 if that be ineffectual, then the whole Church must 
 resolve itself into a higher court. 3 If this fail to 
 bring the sinner to repentance, then the offending 
 brother is to be excommunicated; because he 
 persists in being impenitent. 4 Then follows the 
 promise : " Verily I say unto you, what things 
 soever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in 
 heaven ; and what things soever ye shall loose on 
 earth shall be loosed in heaven." The plural "ye" 
 shows that the injunction was not confined to 
 Peter alone. 
 
 In the INDEX BIBLICUS it is said: Peccatum solus 
 Deus propria auctoritate r emitter e potest ("God 
 alone can remit a sin by His own authority"). 
 Peccatum remittitur per Christum; peccatum 
 sacerdos remittit auctoritate divina (" A sin is 
 remitted through Christ ; a priest remits a sin by 
 divine authority"); and Matt, xviii. 1 8, John xx. 23, 
 are referred to in support. 
 
 1 Matt, xviii. 15-20. 2 Matt, xviii. 16. 
 
 3 Matt, xviii. 17. 4 Matt, xviii. 17. 
 
ABSOLUTION 103 
 
 We read of an occasion when our Lord's in- 
 structions thus given to his disciples ought to 
 have been followed ; for St Paul l rebukes the 
 Corinthian Christians for going to law before the 
 unbelievers, instead of before the Church. As 
 actual cases of binding and loosing, perhaps 
 that of Ananias and the one mentioned in 
 his First Epistle to the Corinthians would 
 apply. 2 
 
 With regard to the " power of the keys," accord- 
 ing to Jewish metaphors this merely signified the 
 right to teach: "Woe unto you lawyers, for ye 
 took away the key of knowledge : ye entered not 
 in yourselves, and them that were entering in ye 
 hindered." 3 But the key was also used to indicate 
 authority and power. Thus Christ says : " I am 
 alive for evermore, and I have the keys of death 
 and of Hades." 4 Again: " He that hath an ear let 
 him hear what the Spirit saith to the churches. 
 And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia 
 write : These things saith he that is holy, he that 
 is true, he that hath the key of David, 5 he that 
 
 1 i Cor. vi i ff. 2 i Cor. v. i ff. 
 
 3 Luke xi. 52. 4 Rev. i. 17, 18. 
 
 5 Rev. iii. 6, 7 (from Isa. xxii. 22). 
 
104 THE VULGATE 
 
 openeth and none shall shut, and that shutteth and 
 none openeth." 
 
 The key to the abyss is also referred to. 1 
 
 It would almost seem as if the Church based its 
 assumed " power of the keys " on these passages 
 rather than on the true meaning as applying to 
 Peter and the rest of the Church ; and that the 
 Pope delegated to princes the power to rule seems 
 implied in their custom, according to Gregory, of 
 sending a golden key to them, wherein they 
 enclosed a little of the filings of St Peter's 
 chain. This key was worn in the bosom of the 
 prince who received it, probably as a charm. 
 
 That the Apostles themselves laid no claim what- 
 ever to any delegated authority to forgive sins, 
 but only to preach forgiveness by Christ, is obvious 
 if we read the following passages together: 
 
 " Peter said unto them, ' Repent ye, and be 
 baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus 
 Christ unto the remission of your sins; and ye 
 shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost ' " 2 
 
 " As they spake unto the people, the priests and 
 
 1 Rev. ix. i, xx. i. 
 
 2 Acts ii. 38. Would Peter have thus spoken had he known the 
 words, " To baptize in the name of the Father and of the Son and of 
 the Holy Ghost" (Matt, xxviii. 19)? 
 
ABSOLUTION 105 
 
 the captain of the temple and the Sadducees 
 came upon them, being sore troubled because 
 they taught the people, and proclaimed in Jesus 
 the resurrection from the dead." 1 
 
 "Be it known unto you therefore, brethren, 
 that through this man is proclaimed unto you 
 remission of sins/' 2 
 
 Similarly, St John says : "If we confess our sins, 
 he is faithful and righteous to forgive us our sins, 
 and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness." 3 
 
 "To 'remit,' like the 'retain,'" writes Dr 
 Farrar, 4 "is referred, not to individuals but to 
 classes ; and, as even Peter Lombard teaches in the 
 SententicE, is not a power solvendi et legandi but 
 ostendendi solutos vel legates (lib. iv. 14-20). The 
 absolution,' he says, 'is not judicial, but the 
 declaration of God's decree ; just as the Jewish 
 priest did not cleanse lepers, but declared them 
 clean.' The sinner (quoting Cassiodorus) is for- 
 given by God as soon as he repents, and is not, 
 therefore, liberated by the priest from God's anger, 
 from which his repentance set him free. . . . 
 There is not a trace of the form absolve te before 
 
 1 Acts iv. 1,2. 2 Acts xiii. 38. 3 i John i. 9. 
 
 4 The Bible, its Meaning and Supremacy ', p. 21, note. 
 
io6 THE VULGATE 
 
 the thirteenth century. . . . Scripture only teaches 
 us to confess to God." 
 
 In the form of absolution of Anthony Egane, 
 formerly Confessor-General of Ireland, we read as 
 follows : 
 
 "Our Lord Jesus Christ absolve thee; and by 
 virtue of His authority with which I am charged 
 I do absolve thee ; first, from all the bonds of 
 excommunication, whether great or small. ... I 
 also absolve thee from all thy sins and from all 
 torments due to thee in purgatory for thy sins and 
 transgressions, etc." The claim to absolve or 
 forgive sins is here perfectly clear. 
 
 With regard to the terms "binding" and 
 "loosing," Dr Edersheim 1 observes: "Our first 
 inquiry must be, what it [this saying of Christ to 
 Peter] would convey to the person to whom the 
 promise was addressed. And here we recall, that 
 no other terms were in more constant use in 
 Rabbinic Canon-Law than those of ' binding ' and 
 'loosing.' The words are the literal translation 
 of the Hebrew equivalents Asar, which means 
 ' to bind/ in the sense of prohibiting ; and Hittir, 
 which means ' to loose,' in the sense of permitting. 
 
 1 The Life and Times ofjesus, vol. ii. p. 85. 
 
ABSOLUTION 107 
 
 . . . ' Binding ' and * loosing ' referred simply to 
 things or acts, prohibiting or else permitting them, 
 declaring them lawful or unlawful. This was one 
 of the powers claimed by the Rabbis. As regards 
 their laws (not decisions as to things or acts), it 
 was a principle, that while in Scripture there were 
 some that bound and some that loosed, all the 
 laws of the Rabbis were in reference to ' binding.' 
 If this, then, represented the legislative, another 
 pretension of the Rabbis, that of declaring * free ' 
 or else ' liable/ i.e. guilty, expressed their claim 
 to the judicial power. By the first of these they 
 ' bound ' or ' loosed ' acts or things ; by the second 
 they ' remitted ' or ' retained/ declared a person free 
 from, or liable to punishment, to compensation, or 
 to sacrifice. These two powers the legislative and 
 the judicial which belonged to the Rabbinic office, 
 Christ now transferred, and that not in their pre- 
 tension, but in their reality, to His Apostles : the 
 first here 1 to Peter as their representative; the 
 second, after His resurrection, to the Church." 2 
 
 The very expression " bound and loosed in 
 heaven " was rabbinic ; as Dr Edersheim continues : 
 " In the view of the Rabbis, heaven was like earth, 
 
 1 Matt. xvi. 19. 2 John xx. 23. 
 
io8 THE VULGATE 
 
 and questions were discussed and settled by a 
 heavenly Sanhedrin. Now in regard to some of 
 their earthly decrees, they were wont to say that 
 1 the Sanhedrin above ' confirmed what * the 
 Sanhedrin beneath' had done." 
 
 Our Lord, however, while thus adopting phrase- 
 ology familiar to the Jew, elevates His promise into 
 a spiritual sphere, just as He added: " Where two 
 or three are gathered together in my name, there 
 am I in the midst of them." 1 
 
 But there is another sense or application of the 
 terms. As the " sins " refer to character on the part 
 of the offender, so tt\z judgment lies in the character 
 of the Christian. Just as the mere presence of a 
 holy man or woman or even of an innocent child 
 unconsciously condemns the man who is impure 
 of heart, so was this the reason why the disciples 
 were likened to a candle that all might see, and 
 enjoined, as well as ourselves now, to let their 
 light so shine before men that they might see their 
 good works and glorify God likewise. Thus would 
 the disciples be figuratively set on thrones 
 judging the twelve tribes of Israel. 
 
 These texts, therefore, do not mean that only 
 
 1 Matt, xxviii. 20. 
 
ABSOLUTION 109 
 
 the twelve apostles had some miraculous power 
 transmitted to them for the purpose of absolving 
 a penitent, much less that it should be passed on 
 through them to an English priest of to-day. Nor, 
 on the other hand, was the " retaining " a presum- 
 ably refusing to absolve a sinner according to their 
 own imperfect judgment ; for a modern priest has 
 no proof that he can judge aright, even supposing 
 the Apostles to have some miraculous gift of 
 insight by the Spirit, endowing them with an 
 infallible power of detecting duplicity or of 
 recognising honesty. The quotations, therefore, 
 mean that Christ would have all His disciples truly 
 spiritual and Christ-like. And just as St Paul in 
 his large heart, always ready to cover a multitude 
 of sins in others, addressed his converts as 
 "saints" indiscriminately, so Jesus would wish 
 to look at all His faithful disciples as so many 
 " Christs," or at least His " vicars " on earth, and 
 " perfect " as their Heavenly Father is perfect ; so 
 that no one who was not yet a Christian could 
 look at the disciples or hear their preaching with- 
 out being convicted of their errors and convinced 
 of the truth. This, by creating repentance, brings 
 true absolution or remission of sins with it. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 RECONCILIATION, REGENERATION ; AND " GOOD 
 WORKS," OR THE " CHRIST-LIFE " 
 
 THE only passage (A.V.) where "atonement" 
 occurs in the New Testament, it will be re- 
 membered, is now altered to " reconciliation " 
 (R.V.), 1 which is a synonym for " at-one-ment." 
 The Vulgate has therefore correctly translated 
 /caraXXay/} by reconciliatio. The error which 
 came to be involved in the use of this word followed, 
 as we have seen, on the false conception of our 
 Lord dying as an expiatory sacrifice to appease 
 God, and so it came to be said that " He reconciled 
 God to man." The true result of Christ's life and 
 death was the " reconciling man to God," i.e. the 
 making the two, man and God, to be " at one," i.e. 
 He " atoned " them, to use the word in its sixteenth 
 
 1 Rom. v. ii. 
 
 1 10 
 
THE "CHRIST-LIFE" in 
 
 century meaning. A few passages will be enough 
 to show that this is the true and only meaning in 
 the New Testament. 
 
 "For if, while we were enemies, we were 
 reconciled to God through the death of his Son, 
 much more, being reconciled, shall we be saved by 
 his/^"; 1 i.e., living His life is our salvation. It 
 may be added that St Paul is here alluding to the 
 imagery of sacrifice ; for the death of the victim 
 implied the death to sin in the guilty person ; but 
 Christ's blood being the life, is now offered to 
 him to drink and so acquire salvation, i.e. a pure, 
 Christ-like character and conduct. 
 
 So he writes to the Corinthians : " God recon- 
 ciled us to himself through Jesus Christ, and gave 
 unto us the ministry of reconciliation." 2 
 
 Lastly, he wrote in a similar strain to the 
 Colossians : " You, being in time past alienated 
 and enemies in your mind in your evil works, yet 
 now hath he reconciled in the body of his flesh 
 through death, to present you holy and un- 
 reprovable." 3 
 
 REGENERATION. This is the exact rendering 
 of the Greek 7raA*yyeyr/a. It is often alluded to 
 
 1 Rom. v. 10. 2 2 Cor. v. 18. s Col. i. 21, 22. 
 
112 THE VULGATE 
 
 both in the Gospejis and the Epistles, and always 
 means a change of character and conduct, as 
 represented by a new, i.e. spiritual, birth. It 
 follows on repentance, or, as the Greek word 
 //ercu/oia means, a "change of understanding," 
 i.e. on learning what the Christian character and 
 conduct must be. There was always an outward 
 and visible sign required as a public witness to the 
 genuineness of the spiritual change within. For 
 adult converts our Lord insisted upon a public 
 baptism as a proof to all that the baptized person 
 intended to forgo his past life, probably well 
 known to all who were present at his public pro- 
 fession of faith in Jesus. Baptism thus was 
 required to follow, not precede, conversion. 
 The new convert had already, as it is described, 
 "received the Holy Ghost," or, as we might say, 
 a religious inspiration. It did not come as an 
 accompaniment to baptism. 
 
 But the tendency of the human mind is to 
 materialise spiritual conceptions; hence, when 
 idols were made, the deity was supposed to enter 
 them. Similarly, when the bread and wine were 
 consecrated, the Holy Spirit was besought in our 
 ancient liturgies to perform the miracle of infusing 
 
THE "CHRIST-LIFE" 113 
 
 them with the substance of Jesus Christ ; l conse- 
 quently the dogma of transubstantiation was framed 
 upon it. Similarly, in the baptism of infants who 
 can know nothing of character and conduct 
 regeneration was supposed to apply equally with 
 them as to adults, as stated in our own Liturgy. 
 With the new, i.e. spiritual, birth of adults, their 
 outward sign of baptism was only the preliminary 
 one. Other signs were the subsequent "works 
 of faith," i.e. their whole character and conduct, 
 namely, the "Christ-life" spent on earth. This 
 alone proves their faith to be genuine. 
 
 Another outward sign is the " laying on of hands," 
 whether in infancy, at confirmation, ordinations, 
 etc. The hand can convey nothing. It is the spirit 
 alone in the man's mind which the hand bears 
 witness to. It is a dedication only. 
 
 GOOD WORKS AND WORKS OF SUPEREROGA- 
 TION. The idea that good works are meritorious 
 and receive rewards, as if presented to the doer by 
 God, as well as the word "merit" itself (which 
 does not occur in our Bible), are due to the 
 Vulgate. In the INDEX BlBLlCUS texts are given 
 
 1 The question naturally arises, Why was not the prayer made to 
 Jesus Christ Himself \u come down and enter the bread and wine? 
 
 8 
 
114 THE VULGATE 
 
 referring to Operum merita et retributio seu merces 
 (" The merits of works, and recompense or reward "), 
 Ps. 112, 1 1 8, etc. Opera mala Deo displicent, et 
 pcenam merentur (" Evil works displease God, 
 and deserve punishment"). In the first sentence 
 retributio (i.e. recompense) and merces (reward) are 
 the rewards of good works; the words propter 
 retributionem occurring after the following, Inclinavi 
 cor meum ad faciendas justificationes tuas, in the 
 Psalm mentioned, correspond to Si' avraiJiei'^siv 
 in the LXX, a word which does not occur else- 
 where, and means literally " an exchanging." * 
 
 Another verse quoted is, Majores divitias cestimans 
 thesauro ^Egyptiorum^ improperium Christi ; aspicie- 
 bat enim in remunerationem? Several passages are 
 quoted from the New Testament, 3 but the point 
 overlooked is that under the old dispensation 
 temporal rewards and punishments were believed 
 to come direct from Yahweh on obedience or dis- 
 
 1 "To requite or punish" is the meaning of the verb 
 
 (Lidd. and Scott). This shows that the Vulgate was translated from 
 the LXX : for these two words are not represented in our Hebrew 
 text. Moreover, the number of the Psalm, 1 18, is that of the LXX, 
 but is 1 19 in our version. 
 
 2 Heb. xi. 26. 
 
 3 E.g.) Matt. v. 12 ; Rom. ii. 6. 
 
THE "CHRIST-LIFE" 115 
 
 obedience to His statutes; whereas in the New 
 Testament the word "reward," whether for good 
 or bad deeds, is metaphorical only, there being no 
 word to express the fact that they are the results 
 of God's natural law in the spiritual world. The 
 so-called " reward " of " a good conscience towards 
 God " comes spontaneously to the true Christian ; 
 but if he do wickedness, knowing it to be such, 
 then he brings his own condemnation on his own 
 head. 
 
 A Christian is told to be " perfect as our heavenly 
 Father is perfect." 1 St Paul strove to " apprehend 
 Christ" ; his converts are told "to put on Christ," 
 to strive for the " crown of glory." Whatever the 
 symbol may be, it is to make Christ the absolute, 
 perfect, ideal type to be imitated. This no man 
 has ever yet attained. It is practically impossible 
 to acquire " the measure of the stature of Christ." 2 
 This being so, it is obvious that no man, however 
 saint-like, can have done more good works than 
 were necessary for his salvation. So that " works 
 of supererogation," as far as man is concerned, are 
 impossible. 
 
 A man-made moral law expresses what a man 
 
 1 Matt. v. 48. 2 Eph. iv. 13. 
 
ii6 THE VULGATE 
 
 ought to be. A natural moral law stands for what 
 always is ; and if all men would live the Christ- 
 life, then all character and conduct among 
 Christians would be the universal result of a 
 natural law in the heart of man. Man would be- 
 come what St John calls "begotten of God," 
 and then he cannot sin. " Whosoever abideth in 
 him sinneth not. . . . Whosoever is begotten of 
 God doeth no sin, because his seed abideth in 
 him ; and he cannot sin, because he is begotten 
 of God." 1 But the Church went further, and con- 
 sidered that a man's good works might be more 
 than what God required of him, notwithstanding 
 the words of our Lord : " When ye shall have 
 done all the things that are commanded you, say, 
 We are unprofitable servants, we have done that 
 which was our duty to do " 2 ; for that " scholastic " 
 spirit was still retained by the Church, her 
 punishments being "penance," and her reward 
 " absolution." 
 
 Of course the Church appealed to Scripture to 
 support this idea of "supererogation," as it was 
 called. Thus St Paul says : " For if I preach the 
 gospel, I have nothing to glory of; for necessity 
 
 1 i John iii. 6, 9. 2 Luke xvii. 10. 
 
THE "CHRIST-LIFE" 117 
 
 is laid upon me ; for woe is unto me, if I preach 
 not the gospel, etc." ; 1 but he would not be paid 
 for preaching, and asks, " What is my reward ? 
 That, when I preach the gospel, I may make the 
 gospel without charge, so as not to use to the full 
 my right in the gospel." In the " Annotations " 
 on this passage in the Rhemes (R.C.) Version we 
 find it expressed, " I shal haue my reward of 
 God, yea and a reward of supererogation, which is 
 given to them that of aboundant charitie doe more 
 in the seruice of God than they be commanded, 
 as S. Augustin expoundeth it. De op. Mon. y c. 5." 
 We may safely say, that if St Paul could sub- 
 sequently write, in this very same chapter, " I 
 buffet my body .... lest by any means, after that 
 I have preached to others I myself should be 
 rejected," he would be the last person to think 
 that he had been better than he needed! It is 
 obvious, as Dr Harold Browne says, " that, whereas 
 he, as an Apostle, had a right to be chargeable 
 to the Church, he had refused to be so, that he 
 might have the more influence for good over those 
 among whom he ministered." 2 
 
 1 i Cor. ix. 1 6 ff. 
 
 2 Exposition of the' Thirty-nine Articles, pp. 336 ff. 
 
ii8 THE VULGATE 
 
 "But the most cogent argument from Scripture, 
 in favour of works of supererogation, is drawn 
 from the passages in which our Lord and St Paul, 
 whilst highly honouring marriage, yet give the 
 preference to a life of celibacy." 1 But our Lord is 
 not alluding to merits of celibacy, but to physical 
 conditions which may require it ; while St Paul is 
 alluding to the anticipation of Christ's early 
 return. 2 
 
 1 Op. cit., p. 340. 2 i Cor. vii. 29. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PREDESTINATION AND ELECTION 
 
 THESE terms, derived from the Vulgate, are usually 
 combined to express the title of a dogma so 
 rigidly condemned in our Seventeenth Article. 
 It arose from a very common mistake in inter- 
 preting the Bible, namely of regarding as a direct 
 and immediate act of God what is really the 
 result of natural law. It is akin to the Mahom- 
 medan " Kismet," that everything that happens is 
 the will of Allah. The Jews of old thought Job 
 must have been a wicked man to be so directly 
 afflicted by Yahweh: an idea which our Lord 
 once and for ever refuted. 1 So, too, this theory 
 of predestination and election places God's sup- 
 posed and arbitrary act on another but analogous 
 footing, viz. that while his condemnation and 
 
 1 Luke xiii. 4. 
 119 
 
120 THE VULGATE 
 
 salvation are regarded as quite irrespective of a 
 man's free-will, or of his wickedness or goodness 
 they are solely due to God's " selecting " him for 
 either hell or heaven. It is a worse violation of 
 justice than was the Jewish conception. 
 
 Now when it is said that the Christian conyerts 
 were all " elected " 1 or " saints " 2 without exception, 
 as St Paul calls the members of his churches, the 
 question arises, Who elected them? The dogma 
 says, God ; but the true answer is the convert 
 elected himself, or, as we use the word now, he 
 " elected " to follow Jesus. The " calling," typified 
 by Christ's " fan," was to test all who will follow 
 Him, i.e. those who had faith enough to do so. 
 But all who will not prove themselves " fitted to 
 survive," i.e. to become saints, under this spiritual 
 natural selection, are self -excluded or self- 
 condemned. 
 
 The " chosen of God," 3 therefore, does not mean 
 chosen by God, but only that they now " belong 
 to," or are, as St John says, "begotten" of God. 
 "Chosen" means the "choice" ones, the "select" 
 or " elect " of God. They become e/cAe/cro/ by their 
 
 1 i Pet. i. i, 2, Electis .... secundum prascientiam Dei, etc. 
 
 2 Rom. i. 7, etc. 3 i Cor. i. 27, 28. 
 
PREDESTINATION AND ELECTION 121 
 
 own willing and faithful obedience. So Christ was 
 called 6 e/cXe/cro? TOV Oeov, but the Messiah was not 
 chosen or selected out of candidates. 
 
 Connected with the foregoing theory is the 
 mistaken sense of " saved," viz. the Old Testament 
 meaning of "salvation," *. "safe," whereas the 
 Christian meaning is "health." Instead of "saved 
 from hell," salvation now means the perfect char- 
 acter void of sin. 
 
 The Scriptural apparent support of this strange 
 dogma is to be found in the ninth chapter of 
 St Paul's Epistle to the Romans. It is clear, 
 however, that the Apostle was labouring under 
 the difficulty of explaining how if man be 
 responsible for his own wickedness, as stated or 
 implied everywhere in his epistles God could also 
 determine that some men and some nations only 
 should become Christian ; while others would 
 remain unchristianised. He could not express 
 himself in modern scientific language, but only in 
 the phraseology of the day, in which God was 
 believed to do everything; but all he means to 
 imply really is the " calling " and the letting men 
 or people who hear the Gospel for the first time, 
 " elect " to become Christians of their own free-will. 
 
122 THE VULGATE 
 
 As an old example of the way men spoke, we 
 find it said in Proverbs, 1 " The Lord hath made 
 everything for its own end ; yea, even the wicked 
 for the day of evil " ; so it is said God raised up 
 Pharaoh in order to show His power, etc. 2 But, as 
 if to avoid his words being misunderstood, St Paul 
 gives the reason why " Israel did not arrive at the 
 law of righteousness," 3 i.e. to become Christian, 
 because " they sought it not by faith, but as it were 
 by works. ... He that believeth [i.e. hath faith] 
 on him shall not be put to shame." The result, 
 therefore, of not being adopted into the family of 
 God is entirely due to Israel's own perversity, not 
 to God. 
 
 1 Prov. xvi. 4. 2 Exod. ix. 16, and cp. Job xxi. 30. 
 
 3 Rom. ix. 20. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 SALVATION 
 
 THIS word, which is now recognised as the funda- 
 mental term in Christian theology, had a very 
 insignificant origin ; for salvatio only occurs three 
 times in the Vulgate. Thus in a psalm of David 
 we read, " He is a strong hold of salvation to his 
 anointed." x David had previously called Him 
 " his strength and shield," and concludes, " Save 
 thy people, and bless thine inheritance." 
 
 Joel has the sentence, In Jerusalem erit salvatio ; 
 corresponding to which the R.V. has," In Jerusalem 
 there shall be those that escape." 2 
 
 Lastly, Habakkuk says in a metrical prayer : 
 " Thou didst ride upon thine horses, 
 
 Upon thy chariots of salvation. 
 
 Thy bow was made quite bare." 3 
 He thus represents Yahweh as a warrior. 
 
 1 Ps. xxviii. 7-9. 2 Joel ii. 32. 3 Hab. iii. 8. 
 
 123 
 
124 THE VULGATE 
 
 " Saviour " and " salvation " often occur in the 
 English Bible in the Old Testament, but almost 
 invariably refer to safety from enemies, afflictions, 
 etc. The LXX has (rwTqp, crwTtjpia, and the n. adj. 
 crwTijpiov. These correspond to salvator, salus^ and 
 salutare in the Vulgate. 
 
 In the Gospels and Acts the old idea is often 
 retained, meaning "safety." Hence we see its 
 applicability in the song of Zacharias : " He hath 
 raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house 
 of his servant David, .... salvation from our 
 enemies, and from the hand of all that hate us." 
 It represents the implicit trust felt in a great 
 general, just as in Habakkuk's prayer. 
 
 In the Epistles the meaning of salus, translated 
 " salvation," meant " health of the soul," equivalent 
 to a holy life. This is what Christ secures for us ; 
 it is not "safety from hell" which is meant, for 
 " He came to save His people from their sins" 
 
 The Church, however, by regarding Christ as a 
 saviour from hell, places " salvation " as the result 
 of the concrete sacrifice of His body and blood. 
 The work of salvation is thus supposed to have 
 been wrought entirely by our Lord "instead of" 
 man. 
 
SALVATION 125 
 
 This doctrine is strongly emphasised by Anselm 
 in his Cur Deus Homo. He often uses the words 
 salus, salvus^ salvare, and salvari. Thus in bk. ii. 
 ch. v., Boso asks the question, " How shall we 
 impute our salvation to His free grace if He saves 
 us of necessity ? " 
 
 The word " salvation " came into use about the 
 twelfth century (just after the time of Anselm), and 
 had then both meanings : " safety," and " salvation " 
 or " health " of the soul. " Salvation " frequently 
 occurs in Chaucer (fourteenth century), as in the 
 oath " by my savacion " l in the Manciple's Prologue 
 in the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 Tracing the later history of the word " salvation," 
 it appears that in the Anglo-Saxon and in Wiclifs 
 Bible it does not occur; the word "health," a 
 meaning of salus ^ uniformly represents the Greek 
 
 Tyndale (1534) is the first writer to insert 
 "salvation," in one passage only. 2 We thus see 
 the source of the word " salvation," being first used 
 in the sixteenth century. 
 
 1 Savacion and salvation were the French spellings in the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 2 John iv. 22. 
 
126 THE VULGATE 
 
 Myles Coverdale followed him (1535). He, too, 
 adopts it in this same text, but adds two more in 
 the Gospels, 1 and replaces the word " health " by 
 "salvation" in the Epistles. Henceforth all the 
 subsequent versions of the Bible followed suit ; and 
 so salvation has passed into our A.V. and R.V., 
 and has become the most important term of 
 Christianity itself. 2 
 
 1 Luke i. 69 and 77. 
 
 2 The above is partly taken from my book, The Spiritual 
 Teaching of Christ's Life, pp. 32 ff. (Williams & Norgate). 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 DOCTRINE AND CREED 
 
 DOCTRINE, in its Latin form doctrina, means "teach- 
 ing," and is used in the Vulgate for tiiSacricaXia (the 
 substance of teaching) and &<5a%r; (the act of 
 teaching) ; not at all what we now understand by 
 ecclesiastical "doctrines" or "dogmas." When 
 St Paul determined not to know anything among 
 the Corinthians but "Jesus Christ and him 
 crucified," he did not call upon them to believe 
 doctrines about our Lord, but \htfacts of His life 
 and death and their effects upon man. Doctrines, 
 in the modern sense of the word, did not exist in 
 the first century. 
 
 In the INDEX BIBLICUS to the Vulgate, s.v. 
 Doctrina, we find a number of texts referred to in 
 the Gospels and Epistles ; but they all refer to what 
 
 may be called teachings and exhortations to 
 
 127 
 
128 THE VULGATE 
 
 Christian conduct, i.e. a pure and Christ-like life, 
 etc., which is the sum and substance of the preach- 
 ing and teaching of St Paul and the other Apostles. 
 
 This change of meaning grew up with another, 
 viz. that of Trionrewo, to the false rendering of 
 credo, " I believe." For, since the Scriptures 
 emphasise the fact that there is no " salvation " in 
 the Christian sense without " faith " i.e. a heartfelt 
 loyalty to Christ's person and teaching, with an 
 outward and visible witness to faith in a Christ-life, 
 or life of character and conduct so when 7no-rei;a> 
 came to be represented as credo, doctrina followed 
 suit, and to believe in doctrines came to be regarded 
 as the sole necessity of eternal salvation. 1 
 
 Probably no word has brought more disasters in 
 its train than the Latin word credo, the translation 
 in the Vulgate of -THOTWO). This Greek word has 
 two senses : to believe with the head, as in saying, 
 "If any man shall say unto you, ' Lo, here is the 
 Christ,' or ' Here ' ; believe it not " 2 ; but by far the 
 oftener it signifies to " have faith " in the Lord 
 Jesus Christ, 3 especially in St John's Gospel. 
 Fortunately Wort? is always represented \>y fides, 
 
 *iAs emphasised in the Athanasian Creed. 
 
 2 Matt. xxiv. 23. 3 Actsxvi. 31. 
 
DOCTRINE AND CREED 129 
 
 hence our " faith." The only word which 
 approaches Trio-revoo is fido, a late Latin word 
 derived from, or of the same etymology as, 
 -jreiOcDy translated by "believe" in the only three 
 passages where this word occurs. 1 Fido has 
 given us "con-fide," or trust, in anyone. 
 
 Credo had the following meanings : " to loan," 
 hence our " creditor " and " credit " ; " to entrust " ; 
 " to confide " in a person ; to give " credence " to an 
 assertion, or to believe ; to " admit as true,'" or to 
 " be of an opinion." Hence credulitas, " credulity " 
 and " credulous," etc. The word is thus seen to be 
 quite devoid of all religious significance, and so 
 came to mean the mere believing dogmas to be 
 true. 
 
 Faith, on the other hand, is a loyalty to Christ's 
 Person, as He is the Way, the Truth, and the Life, 
 coupled with the determination to live the Christ- 
 life on earth. It involves the emotion of love. 
 
 What has been the consequence ? The Church 
 has emphasised the importance of accepting or 
 believing whatever has been promulgated as 
 " doctrine," so that we are told whoever does not 
 believe the "Catholic faith," by which is meant 
 
 1 Acts xvii. 4, xxvii. n, xxviii. 24. 
 
130 THE VULGATE 
 
 " doctrine," of the Trinity will perish everlast- 
 ingly. Moreover, all the horrible iniquities of the 
 Inquisition have followed upon the one word 
 Credit* ! 
 
 If the reader will substitute " have faith in" 
 wherever he reads "believe in Jesus," he will 
 discover not only a new, but the true, meaning of 
 Scripture. 
 
 Let us take for an example the words of St Paul 
 to the jailer at Philippi. The words in the Bible 
 are, " Believe on the Lord Jesus, and thou shalt 
 be saved." l We turn to the Vulgate and find it 
 rendered, Crede in Dominum Jesum, et salvus eris 
 tu et domus tua. 
 
 We see, therefore, that our Bible is a literal 
 translation from the Vulgate, whereas the Greek is 
 Tllcrrcvarov e-TTi TOV KJ/otov 'Iqcrovv Xpurrov, ic.T.X. 
 What our Lord invariably demanded of His hearers 
 was not " belief," butfaM. 
 
 The Church, however, constructing its dogmas 
 from the Vulgate, exalted " belief" to a position of 
 all-importance to which it had no sort of title ; 
 and by enforcing the acceptance of dogmas, 
 converted "belief" into mere "credulity." The 
 
 1 Acts xvi. 31. 
 
DOCTRINE AND CREED 131 
 
 Protestant Church has similarly suffered; so that 
 the cry of the revivalists of the middle of the last 
 century was, " Believe or be damned ! " and they 
 interpreted the above words of St Paul as meaning, 
 " Believe in Jesus, that He died instead of you, and 
 you will be safe for ever." Three errors are here 
 involved: believe should be "have faith"; instead 
 of you for "on behalf of you"; and safe instead 
 of "you must work out your own salvation," i.e. 
 spiritual health. 
 
 If we turn to the Hebrew of the Old Testament, 
 the Hebrew verb aman, rendered in English " to 
 believe," primarily means "to support" or "to 
 sustain " ; and as " salvation " in the Old Testa- 
 ment was primarily the " rescuing " from an enemy 
 or from afflictions of any kind by Yahweh, thus 
 securing safety and peace, so trust in Yahweh 
 was based upon the belief that He would sustain 
 His own people Israel. 
 
 This Hebrew word aman is specially used for 
 " supporting with the arm," as in carrying a child. 1 
 Hence, intransitively, it came to be used as 
 signifying "to be stayed up" or "to be firm"; 
 hence, metaphorically, " to be faithful " ; and the 
 
 1 Num. xi. 12 ; Isa. Ix. 4. 
 
132 THE VULGATE 
 
 noun emunah is consequently rendered by " faith- 
 fulness" (R.V.) as an alternative to "truth" (A.V.). 
 
 The first occasion where belief in God is 
 mentioned is where it is said of Abram : " He 
 believed (amari) in the Lord ; and he counted it to 
 him for righteousness." * 
 
 In the Epistle to the Hebrews, Abraham is said 
 to have had faith? There was no "sign" from 
 God, but simply Abram's heartfelt trust in God. 
 
 On the other hand, the children of Israel are 
 said to have "believed the Lord and his servant 
 Moses " because of the signs. 3 
 
 Similarly, the Lord said unto Moses, " Lo, I 
 come unto thee in a thick cloud, that the people 
 may hear when I speak with thee, and may also 
 believe thee for ever. " 4 
 
 So our Lord said to the nobleman, " Unless ye 
 see signs and wonders, ye will not believe." 5 
 
 Whereas he said of Abraham that he " rejoiced 
 to see my day." 6 May not this mean that 
 Abraham's faith was based on a firm conviction 
 in the truth of Yahweh's character, and not based 
 on merely outward proof by signs, etc. ? For this 
 
 1 Gen. xv. 6. * Heb. xi. 8. Ex. xiv. 31. 
 
 4 Ex. xix. 9. John ir. 48. John viii. 56. 
 
DOCTRINE AND CREED 133 
 
 is exactly what our Lord insisted upon as proof 
 that He Himself was one with God, namely, His 
 Personality, that He was the Way, the Truth, and 
 the Life. 
 
 Christ elsewhere said the God of Abraham 
 was not the God of the dead but of the " living " ; 
 hence he could see or know that Christ had come 
 into the world, and advocating that kind of faith 
 of which he had been so conspicuous an example. 1 
 
 But the word "faith" is not prominent in the 
 Old Testament, and is replaced by its more 
 appropriate meaning of "faithfulness." This is 
 rendered by WO-T*? in the LXX, as in the ex- 
 pression, " The just shall live by his faithfulness" ; 
 such is better than "by his faith" (A.V.). 2 
 
 In the Apocrypha TrtWi? generally means " faith- 
 fulness," but is sometimes translated by other 
 words, as : " Whoso discovereth secrets loseth his 
 credit" \* "A wise man shall inherit glory among 
 his people " ; * " True dealing shall endure for ever." 5 
 
 If we turn to ancient Greek writers, irurreveiv 
 first meant simply " to believe " anything, as a 
 
 1 St Paul declares a Christian's faith is the same as that of 
 Abraham (Rom. iv. 16). 
 
 Hab. ii. 4. * Ecclus. xxvii. 16. 
 
 4 Ecclus. xxxvii. 26. Ecclus. xl. 12. 
 
134 THE VULGATE 
 
 man's word, etc. So we read, " It is hard to be- 
 lieve " so and so. 1 Euripides has " Believe my 
 word " ; he uses the verb in the sense " to feel 
 sure " or " confident " that anything is, was, or 
 will be. Herodotus, as far as is known, was the 
 first writer to use the verb as relying on a person?' 
 It is thus equivalent to the Hebrew aman. 
 
 The primary meaning of Trio-reva) is " to believe 
 a thing to be true," " to place confidence in one's 
 words"; but this verb acquired a special moral 
 and religious sense in Christianity. It is an 
 absolute trust in Jesus, seen in perfect loyalty to 
 Him as our great Master, first seen in a firm faith 
 in His miraculous powers, as by the woman in 
 the crowd, who touched the hem of His garment. 
 
 But most especially is the faith in Jesus as 
 the Messiah, the author of the means of salvation 
 in the kingdom of heaven. This conception was 
 not that of the Jews in general, but the elevated 
 type of religious faith depicted in the Old Testa- 
 ment, of the servant of Yahweh, the true Israelite, 
 which found its ideal in Jesus Christ alone. ILWi? 
 in the New Testament carries this same meaning 
 as Triarrevew. And as faith in Jesus holds possession 
 
 1 Thuc., i. 20. 2 Herod., i. 24, etc. 
 
DOCTRINE AND CREED 135 
 
 of the soul it necessarily leads to obedience ; hence 
 a man with pure faith in Christ is said viraKoveiv TQ 
 Tritrrei. And so "faith without works is dead." 
 Faith and works together constitute Christian 
 righteousness, 1 or " faith working through love " 2 ; 
 and, as Paul said to the Thessalonians : " Remem- 
 bering without ceasing your work of faith and 
 labour of love." 3 
 
 In St James's epistle we see the effort to dis- 
 tinguish " faith " from " belief." As faith with works 
 is true faith, faith without works is false faith, or, 
 as now, distinguished as belief. " The devils," he 
 says, " believe and tremble " ; but we could not now 
 say that they have faith. St James has only 
 7r/(TT9 and TTujTeveiv for both. 
 
 CONCLUSION. As stated at the commencement, 
 several dogmas of the Church are not referred to, 
 as being later " developments," for which it would 
 be hard to find any support, either from the Greek 
 or Latin versions of the New Testament. But 
 those I have dealt with seem to me to be the 
 most important as far as our own Protestant 
 Church is concerned. 
 
 1 Rom. ix. 30 ; PhiL iii. 9, etc. 2 Gal. v. 6. 
 
 3 I Thess. i. 3. 
 
 Sit* 
 
136 THE VULGATE 
 
 I trust these descriptions of the doctrinal terms 
 will have made it clear to any minds, in which the 
 mediaeval and erroneous ideas are still retained un- 
 consciously, that their want is Scriptural authority. 
 By clearing the mind of these false influences, the 
 true teaching (not doctrine or dogma) of Jesus 
 Christ and His Apostles will be found to be all 
 one requires, viz. faith and works, i.e. loyalty to His 
 person and teaching proved by living His life. 
 Such only is salvation. 
 
INDEX 
 
 ENGLISH TERMS 
 
 ABRAHAM, faith of, 132 ff. 
 
 Absolution, 101 ; Apostles' view 
 of, 104 ; of A. Egane, 106 ; 
 prices of, 86. 
 
 "Accidents," II. 
 
 Anselm, on satisfaction, 33, on 
 punishment, 44. 
 
 Apostles falsely regarded as 
 priests, 24. 
 
 Appeasement, false idea of, in 
 Christianity, 14. 
 
 Atonement, meaning "At-one- I 
 ment," 7 ; St Paul on, 45 ; 
 for Reconciliation, 46; for Ex- 
 piation (Rh ernes), 47, 52 ; 
 seventeenth - century writers 
 on, 47 ; history of, in Bible, 
 48 ; change of meaning, 48 
 ff. ; Calvin's influence on, 49. 
 
 BAPTISM necessary for converts, 
 
 112. 
 
 Baptist, St John, on the mean- 
 ing of fire, 80. 
 
 Begotten of God, meaning of, 
 120. 
 
 Believe, to, 128 ; meaning in 
 O.T., 131 ; in classics, 134. 
 
 Binding and loosing, Dr Eders- 
 heim on, 106 ff. 
 
 Blood, meaning of, 64 ff. 
 
 Body, mistaken origin of, in the 
 sacrament, 18 ff. 
 
 Brimstone, actual and meta- 
 phorical meanings, 83. 
 
 CALVIN responsible for "Ex- 
 piation," 49 ff. 
 
 Chosen, not by God, 120 ; 
 "choice" ones, 120; self- 
 elected, 120. 
 
 Christ, doctrinal terms concern- 
 ing, 7 ff.; to put on, 115. 
 
 Christ-life, the, 15, iioff. 
 
 Communicate, to, St John on, 
 66, meaning of, 67 ; false 
 interpretation of, 71. 
 
 Communication, 64 ff.; Rhemes, 
 first used by, 66 ; meaning of, 
 67 ; origin of error, 68. 
 
 Communion, meaning of, 65 ff. 
 
 Confession, 87 ff. ; explained, 
 89 ; and repentance, 90 ; 
 only to God, 91. 
 
 Consubstantiation, n. 
 
 Conversion, 93, 96 ff., 1 12. 
 
 Credulity, 129. 
 
 Creed, origin of term, 127. 
 
 Crown of glory, 115. 
 
 Cur Deus Homo, on satisfaction, 
 33 ff. ; on necessity of punish- 
 ment, 99, ioo (note). 
 
 '37 
 
138 
 
 INDEX 
 
 DOCTRINAL TERMS applicable 
 
 to man, 72 ff. 
 Doctrine, meaning of, in N.T., 
 
 127. 
 
 EDERSHEIM, Dr, on binding 
 and loosing, 106. 
 
 Election, 119 ff.; not selection, 
 120; St Paul on, 121 ; in 
 O.T., means self-elected, 121, 
 St Paul on, 121, 122. 
 
 Eucharist, origin of term, 56 ; 
 used for Christ's body, 57 ; 
 St Paul on, 65. 
 
 Expiation, wrong use of, for 
 Reconciliation, 26 ff., 28 ; Cal- 
 vin responsible for use of, 49 
 ff. ; in O.T. used for atone- 
 ment, 50. 
 
 FAITH, of Abraham, 132 ff.; in 
 N.T., 134 ff. ; to have, 128; 
 described, 129 ; meanings of, 
 in Apocrypha, 133 ; without 
 works, 135. 
 
 Faithfulness, 133. 
 
 Farrar, Dr, on "remit" and 
 "retain," 105; errors of re- 
 vivalists on, 131. 
 
 Fellowship, St Paul on, 65 ; St 
 John on, 66. 
 
 Fire, purified or tried as by, 
 79 ; of hell, 79 ; metaphorical 
 meanings of, 80 ff.; physical, 
 in nature, 81, 82. 
 
 " For," two meanings of, IO 
 (note), 39 ff. 
 
 Forgiveness, 101 ff.; Apostles 
 laid no claim to, 104. 
 
 GEHENNA, 79. 
 
 Good works, iioff., 113. 
 
 HEALTH, real meaning of salva- 
 tion, 121. 
 
 Hell, hell-fire, 79 ; evolution of 
 the idea of, 81 ff.; salvation, 
 not from, 124. 
 
 Holy Spirit, as consecrating the 
 bread and wine, 112. 
 
 Hooker on Justification, 94. 
 
 INDULGENCES, 83 ff. 
 "Is," i.e. represents, 58 ff. 
 
 JOHN, St, on fellowship, 66. 
 Judge, the Word as, 5. 
 Judgment, 108. 
 
 Justification, meaning of, 93 ff. ; 
 not imputed, 94. 
 
 KEYS, power of, meaning of, 
 103 ff. 
 
 LAW, moral and natural, 115 ff. 
 Laying on of hands, 113. 
 Loosed, meaning of, 101 ff.; 
 
 Farrar on, 105 ; Edersheim 
 
 on, 1 06. 
 
 MASS, supposed support of, in 
 
 O.T., 10, and note. 
 Merit, 113. 
 
 OATH, early use of, 90. 
 
 Oblation, 17 ff. 
 
 Offering, 13. 
 
 Old and New Testaments, funda- 
 mental difference between, in 
 meaning of sacrifice, 9. 
 
 Old Testament, two mistakes 
 about, 10. 
 
 PAUL, St, on Eucharist, 65. 
 
 Penance, satisfaction of, 31 ff. ; 
 origin of, 73; works of, 73; 
 developments of, 76, 77 ; alms- 
 giving instead of, 83 ; sale of 
 indulgences, 83. 
 
 Perfect, to be, 115. 
 
 Predestination, 1196. 
 
INDEX 
 
 139 
 
 Price, metaphorical meaning of, 
 38, 42. 
 
 Priests, their duty to pronounce 
 Yahweh's judgments, 4 if. ; 
 not required by Christians, 6. 
 
 Profession, 87 ff. 
 
 Propitiation, meaning of, 26 ff. 
 
 Punishment, supposed necessary, 
 74 ; none external in Christi- 
 anity, 76. 
 
 Purgatory, 78 ff. ; as a means of 
 income to the Church, 85 ff. 
 
 REAL PRESENCE, the, n, 13; 
 Rhemes on, 21 ff. ; a fiction, 
 23 ; origin of, 58, 66. 
 
 Recompense, 114. 
 
 Reconciliation, as used in six- 
 teenth-century versions, 48 ; 
 meaning of, no ff. 
 
 Redemption, meanings of, 36 ff. ; 
 the Christian sense, metaphor- 
 ical, 37 ; Dr Westcott on, 38. 
 
 Regeneration, meaning of, no 
 ff. ; inapplicable to infants, 
 113. 
 
 Remission, meaning of, 98. 
 
 "Remit" and ''retain," Dr 
 Farrar on, 105. 
 
 Repentance and satisfaction, 33, 
 73 ; how applied to the 
 heathens, 75; true, guarantees 
 forgiveness, 76 ; and confes- 
 sion, 90. 
 
 Revivalists, 97, 131. 
 
 Rewards, none external in Chris- 
 tianity, 76; O.T. and N.T. 
 meanings of, 114; mean 
 results due to natural laws, 
 115 ff. ; what St Paul looked 
 for, 117. 
 
 Righteousness not imputed, 94. 
 
 SACERDOTALISM, origin of, 4. 
 Sacrifice, of Christ, 8 ff., 52, 53 ; 
 meaning in O.T., 8 ff. ; N.T. 
 
 * ' sacrificial " terms meta- 
 phorical only, 9, 13 ff. ; 
 Apostles' view of, 12; materi- 
 alistic view of, 13 ff . ; the 
 daily, origin of, 9 (note), 17; 
 Christ's, as expiatory, !in seven- 
 teenth century, 47. 
 
 Safety from hell, a misuse of the 
 term, 56. 
 
 Salvation, 123 ; two meanings 
 of, 121 ff. ; origin of the term, 
 123 ff. ; history of, 125. 
 
 Satan, the ' ' price " supposed to 
 be paid to, 42. 
 
 Satisfaction, 30 ff. ; Anselm on, 
 33 ; applied to Christ, 33 ; no 
 warrant for, 33. 
 
 Save, to, two meanings of, 54 
 ff., 121. 
 
 Saviour, two meanings of, 54 
 ff. 
 
 Self-election, 120. 
 
 Substance, n, 61 ; non-existent, 
 62 ff. 
 
 Supererogation, 84, 113; con- 
 trary to Scripture, 116; 
 imaginary support of, 116, 
 117. 
 
 Sweet savour, meaning of, 8, 
 
 13 ff- 
 
 " To BE " signifies ' ' represent," 
 
 22, 58 ff. 
 Transubstantiation, n, 57, 60 ; 
 
 non-existent, 65. 
 
 UNITY, supposed, between Old 
 and New Testaments, I ff. 
 
 VICARIOUS, meaning ' ' instead 
 of "only, 15, 1 6, 32. 
 
 WESTCOTT, Dr, on appease- 
 ment, 14 ; on price, 38 ; on 
 i\daKt<rdai, 27. 
 
 Word, the, as judge, 5. 
 
140 
 
 INDEX 
 
 LATIN WORDS 
 
 ABSOLUTIO, 73, 101. 
 
 COMMUNICATIO, 6$. 
 Communio, 65. 
 Confessio, 88 ff. 
 Confiteor, 88 ff. 
 Conversio, 96. 
 Convertere, 96. 
 Credo, 128 ff. 
 Credulitas, 129. 
 Cur Deus Homo, 33, 44, 51. 
 
 DEPRECARI, 29, 
 Doctrina, 127. 
 
 ELECTIO, 119. 
 Emere, 38. 
 Essentia, 61. 
 Eucharistia, 8, 56 ff. 
 Expiare, 29. 
 Expiatio, 7, 28, 47. 
 
 FIDES, 128. 
 Fido, 129. 
 
 HOSTIA, 19. 
 
 JUSTIFICATIO, 93. 
 LlBERARE, 37. 
 
 MERGES, 114. 
 
 OBLATIO, 7, 19, 24, 34. 
 Opera mala, 114. 
 Operum merita, 114. 
 Orare, 29. 
 
 PERSONA, n (note), 61. 
 
 Placare, 29. 
 
 Poena, 73. 
 
 Poenitentia, 30, 34, 35, 52, 72, 
 
 73 ff- 
 
 Poemtet me, 73. 
 Predestinatio, 119 ff. 
 Pretium, 38 ff. 
 Professio, 88 ff. 
 Profiteer, 88 ff. 
 Propitiare, 29. 
 Propitiatio, 7, 26 (note), aS 
 
 (note). 
 Punire, 73. 
 
 RECONCILIATIO, 7, 29, 46, no. 
 Redemptio, 7, 41. 
 Redimere, 36 ff. 
 Regeneratio, 73, in. 
 Remissio, 98. 
 Retributio, 114. 
 Rogare, 29. 
 
 SACERDOS, 4. 
 
 Sacrificium, 8. 
 
 Salus, 125. 
 
 Salutare, 124. 
 
 Salvare, salvari, 125. 
 
 Salvatio, 7 ; meaning of in O.T., 
 
 123. 
 
 Satisfacere, 30, 31. 
 Satisfactio, 7, 30, 34. 
 Substantia, 61. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATIO, 8. 
 
INDEX 
 
 141 
 
 GREEK WORDS 
 
 37, 39- 
 }, 114 (note). 
 
 114. 
 i, 10 (note), 39 ff. 
 
 /, 44. 
 94. 
 
 "A0(TIS, 98, 101. 
 
 127. 
 
 , 59, 127. 
 93. 
 
 , 120. 
 37. 
 ^v, 37- 
 
 37- 
 
 , 87. 
 , 4. 
 t', 9^ 
 , 96. 
 
 13. 
 
 , 6. 
 
 27. 
 'I\aa><k, 26 (note). 
 
 , 26 (note). 
 
 , 46, I IO. 
 
 , 65. 
 66-71. 
 
 Aurpov, 30, 42. 
 , 37. 
 
 Mera/xeAeta, 73* 
 Mertii/om, 34, 73 
 
 66>, 87. 
 
 S, 62. 
 
 'O/ioAo7ta, 87, 91. 
 'O^oouo-tos, 62. 
 Quo-fa, U (note), 61 ff. 
 
 IlaAi776j/o-fa, III. 
 
 Tldpeois, 9^- 
 Ilefflw, 129. 
 ni<rTvw, 128 fF. 
 
 IT/OTIS, 128 ft 
 
 npeo-/3uTepos, 4, 6. 
 ripo(r<popa, 13. 
 
 124. 
 
 2wT7jpta, 124 ff. 
 V, 124. 
 
 'Tirep, 10, 12 (note), 39 ff. 
 
 , 98. 
 
 s, II (note), 61. 
 
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INDEX UNDER AUTHORS & TITLES 
 
 Abhidhanaratnamala. Aufrecht, 33. 
 Acland, Sir C. T. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 Acts of the Apostles. Adolf Harnack, 12. 
 Addis, W. E. Hebrew Religion, n. 
 ^Eneidea. James Henry, 56. 
 African Tick Fever, 50. 
 Agricultural Chemical Analysis. Wiley, 54. 
 Alcyonium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Allin, Rev. Thos. Universalism Asserted, 14. 
 Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Contemporary 
 
 Evolution of Religious Thought, 14. 
 Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Idea of God, 13. 
 Americans, The. Hugo Munsterberg, 22. 
 Analysis of Ores. F. C. Phillips, 51. 
 Analysis of Theology. E. G. Figg, 17. 
 Ancient Arabian Poetry. C. J. Lyall, 34. 
 Ancient Assyria, Religion of. Sayce, 14. 
 Ancient World, Wall Maps of the, 57. 
 Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 
 Annett, H. E. Malarial Expedition, Nigeria,4g. 
 Annotated Catechism, 14. 
 Annotated Texts. Goethe, 39. 
 Antedon. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Anthems. Rev. R. Crompton Jones, 20. 
 Anti-Malaria Measures. Rubert Boyce, 44. 
 Antiqua Mater. Edwin Johnson, 20. 
 Anurida. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Apocalypse. Bleek, 7, 
 
 Apologetic of the New Test. E. F. Scott, 12. 
 Apostle Paul, the, Lectures on. Pfleiderer, 13. 
 Apostolic Age, The. Carl von Weizsacker, 6. 
 Arabian Poetry, Ancient, 34. 
 Arenicola. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Argument of Adaptation. Rev. G. Henslow, 18. 
 Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of, 29. 
 Army Series of French and German Novels, 38. 
 Ascidia. Johnstone, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 47. 
 Ashworth, J. H. Arenicola, 48. 
 Assyrian Dictionary. Norris, 35. 
 Assyrian Language, A Concise Dictionary of. 
 
 W. Muss-Arnolt, 35. 
 
 Assyriology, Essay on. George Evans, 34. 
 Astigmatic Letters. Dr. Pray, 51. 
 Alhanasius of Alexandria, Canons of, 37. 
 Atlas Antiquus, Kiepert's, 57. 
 Atonement, Doctrine of the. Sabatier, 10. 
 At-one-ment, The. Rev. G. Henslow, 18. 
 Aufrecht, Dr. T. Abhidhanaratnamala, 33. 
 Auf Verlornem Posten. Dewall, 38. 
 Autobiography. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
 Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times, 55. 
 Avesti, Pahlavi. Persian Studies, 33. 
 
 Babel and Bible. Friedrich Delitzsch, 9. 
 Bacon, Roger, The " Opus Majus" of, 28. 
 Bad Air and Bad Health. Herbert and Wager, 
 
 56. 
 
 Ball, Sir Robert S. Cunningham Memoir, 45. 
 Ballads. F. von Schiller, 41. 
 Bases of Religious Belief. C. B. Upton, 14, 26. 
 Bastian, H. C. Studies in Heterogenesis, 44. 
 Baur. Church History, 7 ; Paul, 7. 
 Bayldon, Rev. G. Icelandic Grammar, 38. 
 Beard, Rev. Dr. C. Universal Christ, 15 ; 
 
 Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 13. 
 Beeby, Rev. C. E. Doctrine and Principles, 15. 
 
 Beet, Prof. J. A. Child and Religion, 10. 
 
 Beginnings of Christianity. Paul Wernle, 4. 
 
 Beliefs about the Bible. M. J. Savage, 24. 
 
 Benedict, F. E. Organic Analysis, 44. 
 
 Bergey, D. G. Practical Hygiene, 44. 
 
 Bernstein and Kirsch . Syriac Chrestomathy, 33. 
 
 Bible. Translated by Samuel Sharpe, 15. 
 
 Bible, Beliefs about, Savage, 24 ; Bible Plants, 
 Henslow, 18 ; Bible Problems, Prof. T. K. 
 Cheyne, 10 ; How to Teach the, Rev. A. F. 
 Mitchell, 21. 
 
 Biblical Hebrew, Introduction to. Rev. Jas. 
 Kennedy, 20, 34. 
 
 Biltz, Henry. Methods of Determining Mole- 
 cular Weights, 44. 
 
 Biology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
 
 Blackburn, Helen. Women's Suffrage, 55. 
 
 Bleek. Apocalypse, 7. 
 
 Boielle, Jas. French Composition, 40 ; Hugo, 
 Les Miserables, 39 ; Notre Dame, 40. 
 
 Bolton. History of the Thermometer, 44. 
 
 Book of Prayer. Crompton Jones, 20. 
 
 Books of the New Testament. Von Soden, 1 1. 
 
 Bousset, Wilhelm. Jesus, n. 
 
 Boyce, Rubert. Anti-Malarial Measures, 49; 
 Yellow Fever Prophylaxis, 44, 50 ; Sanita- 
 tion at Bathurst, Conakry and Freetown, 49. 
 
 Breinl, A. Animal Reactions of the Spiro- 
 chaeta of Tick Fever, 50; Specific Nature 
 of the Spirochaeta of Tick Fever, 50. 
 
 Bremond, Henri. Mystery of Newman, 15. 
 
 Brewster, H. B. The Prison, 28; The Statu- 
 ette and the Background, 28; Anarchy and 
 Law, 28. 
 
 British Fisheries. J. Johnstone, 47. 
 
 Broadbent, Rev. T. B. Sermons, 15. 
 
 Brown, Robert. Semitic Influence, Origin of 
 the Primitive Constellations, 55 ; Gladstone 
 as I Knew Him, 55. 
 
 Bruce, Alex. Topographical Atlas of the 
 Spinal Cord, 44. 
 
 Buddha. Prof. H. Oldenberg, 35. 
 Burkitt, Prof. F. C. Anglican Lib 
 
 iberalism, 12. 
 
 Calculus, Differential and Integral. Harnack, 
 
 46. 
 
 Caldecott, Dr. A. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 Campbell, Rev. Canon Colin. First Three 
 
 Gospels in Greek, 15. 
 Cancer. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Cancer and other Tumours. Chas. Creighton,44. 
 Canonical Books of the Old Testament, 2. 
 Cape Dutch. J. F. Van Oordt, 41. 
 Cape Dutch, Werner's Elementary Lessons in, 
 
 42. 
 
 Cardium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Carlyle, Rev. A. J. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 Casey, John. Cunningham Memoirs, 45. 
 Catalogue of the London Library, 56. 
 Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn. E. Hogan, 39. 
 Celtic Heathendom. Prof. J. Rhys, 14. 
 Celtic Studies. Sullivan, 41. 
 Centenary History of South Place Society. 
 
 Moncure D. Conway, 16. 
 Chadwick, Antedon, 48 ; Echinus, 48. 
 Chaldee Language, Manual of. Turpie, 37. 
 
62 
 
 INDEX-Continued. 
 
 Channing's Complete Works, 15. 
 
 Chants and Anthems, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and 
 Canticles. Crompton Jones, 20. 
 
 Character of the Fourth Gospel. Rev. John 
 James Tayler, 25. 
 
 Chemical Dynamics, Studies in. J. H. Van't 
 Hoff, 4 6. 
 
 Chemistry for Beginners. Edward Hart, 46. 
 
 Chemistry of Pottery. Langenbeck, 47. 
 
 Cheyne, Prof. T. K. Bible Problems, 10. 
 
 Child and Religion, The, 10. 
 
 Chondrus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 
 Christ no Product of Evolution. Rev. G. 
 Henslow, 19. 
 
 Christian Creed, Our, 15. 
 
 Christian Life, Ethics of the, 2. 
 
 Christian Life in the Primitive Church. Dob- 
 schutz, 3. 
 
 Christian Religion, Fundamental Truths of 
 the. R. Seeberg, 12. 
 
 Christianity, Beginnings of. Wernle, 4. 
 
 Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. R. 
 Travers Her ford, IQ. 
 
 Christianity? What is. Adolf Harnack, 5. 
 
 Chromium, Production of. Max Leblanc, 47. 
 
 Church History. Baur, 7. Schubert, 3. 
 
 Clark, H. H. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath- 
 urst, 44. 
 
 Closet Prayers. Dr. Sadler, 24. 
 
 Codium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 
 Coit, Dr. Stanton. Idealism and State Church, 
 16 ; Book of Common Prayer, 16. 
 
 Cole, Frank J. Pleuronectes, 48. 
 
 Collins, F. H. Epitome of Synthetic Philo- 
 sophy, 28. 
 
 Coming Church. Dr. John Hunter, 19. 
 
 Commentary on the Book of Job. Ewald, 7 ; 
 Commentary on the Book of Job. Wright 
 and Hirsch, 27 ; Commentary on the Old 
 Testament. Ewald, 7 ; Commentary on the 
 Psalms. Ewald, 7 ; Protestant, 8,_ 24. 
 
 Common Prayer for Christian Worship, 16. 
 
 Communion with God. Herrmann, 5, n. 
 
 Conductivity of Liquids, 54. 
 
 Confessions of St. Augustine. Harnack, 17. 
 
 Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought. 
 Count Goblet D'Alviella, 14. 
 
 Contes Militaires. Daudet, 38. 
 
 Conway, Moncure D. Centenary History, 16. 
 
 Cornill, Carl. Introduction to the Old Testa- 
 
 Cosmology of the Rigveda. H. W. Wallis, 37- 
 Creighton, Chas. Cancer and other Tumours, 
 
 44 ; Tuberculosis, 45. 
 Crucifixion Mystery. J. Vickers, 26. 
 Cuneiform Inscriptions, The. Schrader, 8. 
 Cunningham Memoirs, 45. 
 Cunningham, D. J., M.D. Lumbar Curve in 
 
 Man and the Apes, 45; Surface Anatomy 
 
 of the Cerebral Hemispheres. Cunningham 
 
 Memoir, 45. 
 Cussans, Margaret. Gammarus, 48. 
 
 Daniel and its Critics; Daniel and his Pro- 
 phecies. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27. 
 Darbishire, Otto V. Chondrus, 48. 
 Daudet, A. Contes Militaires, 38. 
 
 Davids, T. W. Rhys. Indian Buddhism, 13. 
 Davis, J. R. Ainsworth. Patella, 48. 
 Dawning Faith. H. Rix, 23. 
 Delbos, L. Nautical Terms, 39. 
 Delectus Veterum. Theodor Noldeke, 35. 
 Delitzsch, Friedrich. Babel and Bible, 9; 
 
 Hebrew Language, 33. 
 
 Democracy and Character. Canon Stephen, 25. 
 Denmark in the Early Iron Age. C. Engel- 
 
 hardt, 56. 
 
 De Profundis Clamavi. Dr. John Hunter, 19. 
 Descriptive Sociology. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 Development of the Periodic Law. Venable, 54. 
 Dewall, Johannes v., Auf Verlornem Posten 
 
 and Nazzarena Danti, 38. 
 Dietrichson, L. Monumenta Orcadica, 56. 
 Differential and Integral Calculus, The. Axel 
 
 Harnack, 46. 
 
 Dillmann, A. Ethiopic Grammar, 33. 
 Dipavamsa, The. Edited by Oldenberg, 33. 
 Dirge of Coheleth. Rev. C. Taylor, 25. 
 Dobschiitz, Ernst von. Christian Life in the 
 
 Primitive Church, 3, 16. 
 
 Doctrine and Principles. Rev. C. E. Beeby, 15. 
 Dogma, History of. Harnack, 18. 
 Drey, S. A Theory of Life, 32. 
 Driver, S. R. Mosheh ben Shesheth, 16. 
 Drummond, Dr. Jas. Character and Author- 
 ship of the Fourth Gospel, 16 ; Philo Judaeus, 
 
 28 ; Via, Veritas, Vita, 13. 
 Durham, H. E. Yellow Fever Expedition to 
 
 Para, 49. 
 Duiham, J. E., and Myers, Walter. Report 
 
 of the Yellow Fever Expedition to Para, 45. 
 Dutton, J. E. Vide Memoirs of Liverpool 
 
 School of Tropical Medicine, 49, 50. 
 Dutton, J., and Todd. Vide Memoirs of Liver- 
 
 pool School of Tropical Medicine, 45, 49, 50. 
 
 Early Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 10. 
 Early Christian Conception. Pfleiderer, 10. 
 Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland. Rev. 
 
 P. H. Wicksteed, 26. 
 Echinus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Echoes of Holy Thoughts, 17. 
 Education. Spencer, 31 ; Lodge, School 
 
 Reform, 40. 
 
 Egyptian Grammar, Erman's, 33. 
 Electric Furnace. H. Moisson, 50. 
 Electrolysis of Water. V. Engelhardt, 46. 
 Electrolytic Laboratories. Nissenson, 50. 
 ElementaryOrganic Analysis. F.E.Benedict,44. 
 Engelhardt, C. Denmark in Iron Age, 56. 
 Engelhardt, V. Electrolysis of Water, 46. 
 Engineering Chemistry. T. B. Stillman, 53. 
 England and Germany. Erich Marcks, 58. 
 English Culture, Rise of. E. Johnson, 57. 
 English-Danish Dictionary. S. Rosing, 41. 
 English-Icelandic Dictionary. Zoega, 43. 
 Enoch, Book of. C. Gill, 17. 
 Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy. Collins, 28. 
 Epizootic Lymphangitis. Capt. Pallin, 51. 
 Erman's Egyptian Grammar, 33. 
 Erzahlungen. Hofer, 38. 
 Espin, Rev. T., M.A. The Red Stars, 45. 
 Essays on the Social Gospel. Harnack and 
 
 Herrmann, n. 
 
INDEX-Continued. 
 
 Essays. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 Ethica. Prof. Simon Laurie, 28. 
 Ethical Import of Darwinism. Schurman, 29. 
 Ethics, Data of. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 Ethics, Early Christian. Prof. Scullard, 24. 
 Ethics, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
 Ethiopic Grammar. A. Dillmann, 33. 
 Eucken, Prof. Life of the Spirit, 12. 
 Eugene's Grammar of French Language, 39. 
 Evans, A. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath- 
 
 urst, etc., 44. 
 
 Evans, George. Essay on Assyriology, 34. 
 Evolution, A New Aspect of. Formby, 17. 
 Evolution, Christ no Product of, 19. 
 Evolution of Christianity. C. Gill, 17. 
 Evolution of Knowledge. R. S. Perrin, 22. 
 Evolution of Religion, The. L. R. Farnell, u. 
 Evrald. Commentary on Job, 7 ; Commentary 
 
 on the Old Testament, 7 ; Commentary on 
 
 the Psalms, 7. 
 
 Facts and Comments. Herbrt Spencer, 31. 
 
 Faith and Morals. W. Herrmann, 10. 
 
 Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, B.D. A Moslem 
 Present ; Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry, 34. 
 
 Farnell, L. R. The Evolution of Religion, n. 
 
 Fertilizers. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 
 54 
 
 Figg, E. G. Analysii of Theology, 17. 
 
 First Principles. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
 
 First Three Gospels in Greek. Rev. Canon 
 Colin Campbell, 15. 
 
 Flinders Petne Papyri. Cunn. Memoirs, 34. 
 
 Formby, Rev. C. W. Re-Creation, 17. 
 
 Four Gospels as Historical Records, 17. 
 
 Fourth Gospel, Character and Authorship of, 16. 
 
 Frankfurter, Dr. O. Handbook of Pali, 34. 
 
 Free Catholic Church. Rev. J. M. Thomas, 26. 
 
 Freezing Point, The, Jones, 47. 
 
 French Composition. Jas. Boielle, 39. 
 
 French History, First Steps in. F. F. Roget, 41. 
 
 French Language, Grammar of. Eugene, 39. 
 
 Fuerst, Dr. Jul. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexi- 
 con, 34. 
 
 Gammarus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 
 Gardner, Prof. Percy. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 
 General Language of the Incas of Peru, 40. 
 
 Genesis, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. 
 H. H. Wright, 27. 
 
 Genesis, Hebrew Text, 34. 
 
 Geometry, Analytical, Elements of. Hardy, 46. 
 
 German Idioms, Short Guide to. Weiss, 42. 
 
 German Literature, A Short Sketch of. V. 
 Phillipps, B.A., 41. 
 
 German, Systematic Conversational Exercises 
 in. T. H. Weiss, 42. 
 
 Gibson, R. J. Harvey. Codium, 48. 
 
 Giles, Lt.-Col. Anti-Malarial Measures in 
 Sekondi, etc., 49. 
 
 Gill, C. Book of Enoch ; Evolution of Chris- 
 tianity, 17. 
 
 Gladstone as I Knew Him. Robert Brown, 55. 
 
 Glimpses of Tennyson. A. G. Weld, 59. 
 
 Goethe, W. v. Annotated Texts, 39. 
 
 Goldammer, H. The Kindergarten, 56. 
 
 Gospels in Greek, First Three, 15. 
 
 Greek Ideas, Lectures on. Rev. Dr. Hatch, 13. 
 Greek, Modern, A Course of. Zompolides, 43. 
 Greek New Testament, 6. 
 Green, Rev. A. A. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Gulistan, The (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi ol 
 
 Shiraz, 36. 
 Gymnastics, Medical Indoor. Dr. Schreber, 52. 
 
 Haddon, A. C. Decorative Art of British 
 Guinea, Cunningham Memoir, 45. 
 
 Hagmann, J. G., Ph.D. Reform in Primary 
 Education, 39. 
 
 Handley, Rev. H. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 
 Hantzsch, A. Elements of Stereochemistry, 46. 
 
 Hardy. Elements of Analytical Geometry, 46 ; 
 Infinitesimals and Limits, 46. 
 
 Harnack, Adolf. Acts of the Apostles, 12 ; 
 History of Dogma, 4 ; Letter to the " Preus- 
 sische jahrbucher," 18 ; Luke the Physician, 
 12 ; Mission and Expansion of Christianity, 
 3; Monasticism, 17; The Sayings of Jesus, 
 12 ; What is Christianity? 5, 10. 
 
 Harnack, Adolf, and Herrmann, W. Essays 
 on the Social Gospel, n. 
 
 Harnack and his Oxford Critics. Saunders, 24. 
 
 Harnack, Axel. Differential and Integral 
 Calculus, 46. 
 
 Harrison, A. Women's Industries, 56. 
 
 Hart, Edward, Ph.D. Chemistry for Begin- 
 ners, 46 ; Second Year Chemistry, 46. 
 
 Hatch, Rev. Dr. Lectures on Greek Ideas, 13. 
 
 Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M.A., M.D. New 
 Researches on Sun-Heat, 45. 
 
 Hausrath. History of the New Test. Times, 7. 
 
 Head, Sir Edmund, translated by. Viga 
 Glums Saga, 42. 
 
 Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. Dr. Fuerst, 34. 
 
 Hebrew Language, The. F. Delitzsch, 33. 
 
 Hebrew, New School of Poets, 35. 
 
 Hebrew Religion. W. E. Addis, n. 
 
 Hebrew Story. Peters, 10. 
 
 Hebrew Texts, 18. 
 
 Henry, Jas. ^Eneidea, 56. 
 
 Henslow, Rev. G. The Argument of Adapta- 
 tion, 18 ; The At-pne-ment, 18 ; Christ no 
 Product of Evolution, 19 ; Spiritual Teach- 
 ings of Bible Plants, 18 ; Spiritual Teaching 
 of Christ's Life, 19 ; The Vulgate, 10. 
 
 Henson, Rev. Canon Hensley. Child and 
 Religion, 10. 
 
 Herbert, Hon. A. Sacrifice of Education, 56. 
 
 Herbert, Hon. A., and Wager, H. Bad Air 
 and Bad Health, 56. 
 
 Herdman, Prof. W. A. Ascidia, 47. 
 
 Herford, R. Travers, B.A. Christianity in 
 Talmud and Midrash, 19. 
 
 Herrmann, W. Communion, 5, n ; Faith and 
 Morals, 10. 
 
 Herrmann and Harnack. Essays on the Social 
 Gospel, ii. 
 
 Heterogenesis, Studies in. H. Bastian, 44. 
 
 Hewitt, C. Gordon. Ligia, 48. 
 
 Hibbert Journal, The, 19. 
 
 Hibbert, Lectures, The, 13, 14. 
 
 Hickson, Sydney J. Alcyonium, 48. 
 
 Hill, Rev. Dr. G. Child and Religion, 10. 
 
 Hindu Chemistry. Prof. P. C. Ray, 51. 
 
INDEX Continued. 
 
 Hirsch, Dr. S. A., and W. Aldis Wright, 
 
 edited by. Commentary on Job, 27. 
 History of the Church. Hans von Schubert, 3. 
 History of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, 4. 
 History of Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7. 
 History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel, 5. 
 History of the Literature of theO.T. Kautzsch, 
 
 20. 
 
 History of the New Test. Times. Hausrath, 7. 
 Hodgson, S. H. Philosophy and Experience, 
 
 28 ; Reorganisation of Philosophy, 28. 
 Hoerning, Dr. R. The Karaite MSS., 19. 
 Hofer, E. Erzahlungen, 38. 
 Hoff, J. H. Van't. Chemical Dynamics, 46. 
 Hogan, E. Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn, 39 ; 
 
 Latin Lives, 39 ; Irish Nennius, 39. 
 Homer, G. Statutes, The, of the Apostles, 36. 
 Horse, Life-Size Models of. J.T.ShareJones,4 7 ; 
 
 the, Surgical Anatomy of, 47. 
 Horton, Dr. R. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Howe, J. L. Inorganic Chemistry, 46. 
 How to Teach the Bible. Mitchell, 21. 
 Hugo, Victor. Les Mise'rables, 39; Notre 
 
 Dame, 40. 
 
 Human Sternum, The. A. M. Paterson, 51. 
 Human Tick Fever, Nature of. J. E. Dutton 
 
 and J. L. Todd, 46. 
 Hunter, Dr. John. De Profundis Clamavi, 19; 
 
 The Coming Church, 19. 
 Hygiene, Handbook of. Bergey, 44. 
 Hymns of Duty and Faith. Jones, 20. 
 
 Icelandic Grammar. Rev. G. Bayldon, 38. 
 Idea of God. Alviella, Count Goblet D'~, 13. 
 Imms, A. D. Anurida, 48. 
 Incarnate Purpose, The. Percival, 22. 
 Indian Buddhism. Rhys Davids, 13. 
 Individualism and Collectivism. Dr. C. W. 
 
 Saleeby, 29. 
 
 Indoor Gymnastics, Medical, 52. 
 Industrial Remuneration, Methods of. D. F. 
 
 Schloss, 58. 
 
 Infinitesimals and Limits. Hardy, 46. 
 Inflammation Idea. W. H. Ransom, 51. 
 Influence of Rome on Christianity. Renan, 13. 
 Inorganic Chemistry. J. L. Howe, 46. 
 Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 
 
 Leavenworth, 47. 
 
 Introduction to the Greek New Test. Nestle, 6. 
 Introduction to the Old Test. Cornill, 2. 
 Irish Nennius, The. E. Hogan, 39. 
 Isaiah, Hebrew Text, 34. 
 Ismailia, Malarial Measures at. Boyce, 49. 
 
 esus of Nazara. Keim, 7. 
 
 esus. Wilhelm Bousset, n. 
 
 esus, Sayings of. Harnack, 18. 
 
 esus, The Real. Vickers, 26. 
 
 ob, Book of. G. H. Bateson Wright, 27. 
 
 ob, Book of. Rabbinic Commentary on, 37. 
 
 ob. Hebrew Text, 34. 
 
 ohnson, Edwin, M.A. Antiqua Mater, 20; 
 
 English Culture, 20 ; Rise of Christendom, 19. 
 Johnstone, J. British Fisheries, 47 ; Cardium, 
 
 48. 
 
 Jones, Prof. Henry. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Jones, Rev. J. C. Child and Religion, 10. 
 
 Jones, Rev. R. Crompton. Hymns of Duty 
 
 and Faith, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and Canticles, 
 
 20 ; Anthems, 20 ; The Chants and Anthems, 
 
 20 ; A Book of Prayer, 20. 
 Jones, J. T. Share. Life-Size Models of the 
 
 Horse, 47 ; Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, 
 
 47- 
 
 Jones. The Freezing Point, 47. 
 Journal of the Federated Malay States, 60. 
 Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany and 
 
 Zoology, 47, 60 
 Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, 
 
 47, 60. 
 Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 
 
 47. 6o - 
 Justice. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 
 Kantian Ethics. J. G. Schurman, 29. 
 
 Karaite MSS. Dr. R. Hoerning, 19. 
 
 Kautzsch, E. History of the Literature of the 
 Old Testament, 20. 
 
 Keim. History of Jesus of Nazara, 7. 
 
 Kennedy, Rev. Jas. Introduction to Biblical 
 Hebrew, 34 ; Hebrew Synonyms, 34. 
 
 Kiepert's New Atlas Antiquus, 57. 
 
 Kiepert's Wall-Maps of the Ancient World, 57. 
 
 Kindergarten, The. H. Goldammer, 56. 
 
 Kittel, R. History of the Hebrews, 5. 
 
 Knight, edited by. Essays on Spinoza, 32. 
 
 Knowledge, Evolution of. Perrin, 22. 
 
 Kuenen, Dr. A. National Religions and Uni- 
 versal Religion, 13 ; Religion of Israel, 8. 
 
 Laboratory Experiments. Noyes and Mulli- 
 
 ken, 51. 
 
 Ladd, Prof. G. T. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Lake, Kirsopp. Resurrection, 12. 
 Landolt, Hans. Optical Rotating Power, 47. 
 Langenbeck. The Chemistry of Pottery, 47. 
 Latin Lives of the Saints. E. Hogan, 39. 
 Laurie, Prof. Simon. Ethica, 28 ; Meta- 
 
 physica Nova et Vetusta, 28. 
 Lea, Henry Chas. Sacerdotal Celibacy, 21. 
 Leabhar Breac, 40. 
 Leabhar Na H-Uidhri, 40. 
 Leavenworth, Prof. W. S. Inorganic Quali- 
 tative Chemical Analysis, 47. 
 Leblanc, Dr. Max. The Production of 
 
 Chromium, 47. 
 
 Le Coup de Pistolet. Merimee, 38. 
 Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. Vide L.M.B.C. 
 
 Memoirs, 48. 
 Letter to the " Preussische Jahrbucher." 
 
 Adolf Harnack, 18. 
 Lettsom, W. N., trans, by. Nibelungenlied, 
 
 40. 
 
 Liberal Christianity. Jean R^ville, 10. 
 Life and Matter. Sir O. Lodge, 21. 
 Life of the Spirit, The. Eucken, 12. 
 Lilja. Edited by E. Magnusson, 40. _ 
 Lilley, Rev. A. L. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 Lineus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 Linnean Society of London, Journals of, 60. 
 Liverpool, A History of. Muir, 58. 
 Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, 
 
 I.-XVI., 47- 
 
INDEX Continued. 
 
 Liverpool, Municipal Government in. Muir 
 
 and Platt, 58. 
 Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine 
 
 Memoirs, 49. 
 
 Lobstein, Paul. Virgin Birth of Christ, 9. 
 Lodge, Sir O. Life and Matter, 21 ; School 
 
 Teaching and School Reform, 40. 
 Logarithmic Tables. Sang, 52 ; Schroen, 53. 
 London Library, Catalogue of, 56. 
 Long, J. H. A Text-book of Urine Analysis, 
 
 48. 
 
 Luke the Physician. Adolf Harnack, 12. 
 Lyall, C. J., M.A. Ancient Arabian Poetry, 
 
 34- 
 
 Macan, R. W. The Resurrection of Jesus 
 
 Christ, 21. 
 
 Machberoth Ithiel. Thos. Chenery, 35. 
 Mackay, R. W. Rise and Progress of Chris- 
 tianity, 21. 
 Mackenzie, Malcolm. Social and Political 
 
 Dynamics, 28. 
 
 Magnusson, edited by. Lilja, 40. 
 Mahabharata, Index to. S. Sorensen, 36. 
 Mahaffy, J. P., D.D. Flinders Petrie Papyri. 
 
 Cunningham Memoirs, 45. 
 Malaria Expedition to Nigeria, Report of. 
 
 Annett, Button, and Elliott, 44. 
 Man versus the State. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 Maori, Lessons in. Right Rev. W. L. 
 
 Williams, 43. 
 
 Maori, New and Complete Manual of, 40. 
 Marchant, James. Theories of the Resurrec- 
 tion, 21. 
 
 Marcks, Erich. England and Germany, 58. 
 Markham, Sir Clements, K.C.B. Vocabularies 
 
 of the Incas of Peru, 40. 
 Martineau, Rev. Dr. James. Modern 
 
 Materialism, 21 ; Relation between Ethics 
 
 and Religion, 21. 
 Mason, Prof. W. P. Notes on Qualitative 
 
 Analysis, 48. 
 
 Massoretic Text. Rev. Dr. J. Taylor, 25. 
 Masterman, C. F. G. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Meade, R. K., Portland Cement, 48. 
 Mediaeval Thought, History of. R. Lane 
 
 Poole, 22. 
 Memoirs of the Liverpool School of Tropical 
 
 Medicine, 49, 50. 
 
 Menegoz, E. Religion and Theology, 21. 
 Mercer, Right Rev. J. Edward, D.D. Soul 
 
 of Progress, 21. 
 
 Merimee, Prosper. Le Coup de Pistolet, 38. 
 Metallic Objects, Production of. Dr. W. 
 
 Pfanhauser, 51. 
 Metallurgy. Wysor, 54. 
 Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta. Prof. Simon 
 
 Laurie, 28. 
 
 Midrash, Christianity in. Herford, 19. 
 Milanda Panho, The. Edited by V. 
 
 Trenckner. 35. 
 Mission and Expansion of Christianity. Adolf 
 
 Harnack, 3. 
 Mitchell, Rev. A. F. How to Teach the 
 
 Bible, 21. 
 Modern Materialism. Rev. Dr. James 
 
 Martineau, 21. 
 
 Moisson, Henri. Electric Furnace, 50. 
 Molecular Weights, Methods of Determining. 
 
 Henry Biltz, 44. 
 
 Monasticism. Adolf Harnack, 17. 
 Montefiore, C. G. Religion of the Ancient 
 
 Hebrews, 13. 
 
 Monumenta Orcadica. L. Dietrichson, 56. 
 Moorhouse Lectures. Vide Mercer's Soul of 
 
 Progress, 21 ; Stephen, Democracy and 
 
 Character, 25. 
 
 Morrison, Dr. W. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 Mosheh ben Shesheth. S. R. Driver. Edited 
 
 by, 16. 
 Moslem Present. Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, 
 
 B.D., 34. 
 Muir and Platt. History of Municipal 
 
 Government in Liverpool, 58. 
 Muir, Prof. Ramsay. History of Liverpool, 58. 
 Miinsterberg, Hugo. The Americans, 22. 
 Muss-Arnolt, W. A Concise Dictionary of 
 
 the Assyrian Language, 35. 
 My Struggle for Light. R. Wimmer, 9. 
 Mystery of Newman. Henri Bremond, 15. 
 
 National Idealism and State Church, 16 ; and 
 
 the Book of Common Prayer, 16. 
 National Religions and Universal Religion. 
 
 Dr. A. Kuenen, 13. 
 Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Dr. A. 
 
 Reville, 14. 
 Naturalism and Religion. Dr. Rudolf Otto, 
 
 22. 
 
 Nautical Terms. L. Delbos, 39. 
 Nestle. Introduction to the Greek New Test., 6. 
 New Hebrew School of Poets. Edited by H. 
 
 Brody and K. Albrecht, 35. 
 Newstead, R. Another New Dermanyssid 
 
 Acarid, 50; Newstead, R., and J L. Todd. 
 
 A New Dermanyssid Acarid, 50. 
 New Zealand Language, Dictionary of. Rt. 
 
 Rev. W. L. Williams, 42. 
 Nibelungenlied. Trans. W. L. Lettsom, 40. 
 Nissenson. Arrangements of Electrolytic 
 
 Laboratories, 50. 
 Noldeke, Theodor. Delectus Veterum, 35 ; 
 
 Syriac Grammar, 35. 
 Norris, E. Assyrian Dictionary, 35. 
 Norseman in the Orkneys. Dietrichson, 56. 
 Noyes, A. A. Organic Chemistry, 51. 
 Noyes, A. A., and Milliken, Samuel. Labora- 
 tory Experiments, 51. 
 
 O'Grady. Standish, H. Silva Gadelica, 41. 
 Old and New Certainty of the Gospel. Alex. 
 
 Robinson, 23. 
 Oldenberg, Dr. H., edited by. Dipavamsa, 
 
 The, 33 ; Vinaya Pitakam, 37. 
 Old French, Introduction to. F. F. Roget, 41. 
 Oordt, J. F. Van, B.A. Cape Dutch, 41. 
 Ophthalmic Test Types. Snellen's, 53. 
 Optical Rotating Power. Hans Landolt, 47. 
 " Opus Majus " of Roger Bacon, 28. 
 Organic Chemistry. A. A. Noyes, 51. 
 Otia Merseiana, 58. 
 
 Otto, Rudolf. Naturalism and Religion, n. 
 Outlines of Church History. Von Schubert, 3. 
 Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, 32. 
 
66 
 
 INDEX Continued. 
 
 Pali, Handbook of. Dr. O. Frankfurter, 34. 
 
 Pali Miscellany. V. Trenckner, 35 
 
 Pallin, Capt. W. A. A Treatise on Epizootic 
 Lymphangitis, 51. 
 
 Parker, W. K., F.R.S. Morphology of the 
 Duck Tribe and the Auk Tribe, 45. 
 
 Patella. FzV/f L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 
 Paterson, A. M. The Human Sternum, 51. 
 
 Paul. Baur, 7 ; Pfleiderer, 13 ; Weinel, 3. 
 
 Paulinism. Pfleiderer, 8. 
 
 Pearson, Joseph. Cancer, 48. 
 
 Peddie, R. A. Printing at Brescia, 58. 
 
 Percival, G. H. The Incarnate Purpose, 22. 
 
 Perrin, R. S. Evolution of Knowledge, 22. 
 
 Persian Language, A Grammar of. J. T. 
 Plaits, 36. 
 
 Peters, Dr. John P. Early Hebrew Story, 10. 
 
 Pfanhauser, Dr. W. Production of Metallic 
 Objects, 51. 
 
 Pfleiderer, Otto. Early Christian Conception, 
 10 ; Lectures on Apostle Paul, 13 ; Paulinism, 
 8 ; Philosophy of Religion, 8 ; Primitive 
 Christianity, 2. 
 
 Phillips, F. C. Analysis of Ores, 51. 
 
 Phillipps, V., B.A. Short Sketch of German 
 Literature, 41. 
 
 Philo Judaeus. Dr. Drummond, 16. 
 
 Philosophy and Experience. Hodgson, 28. 
 
 Philosophy of Religion. Pfleiderer, 8. 
 
 Piddington, H. Sailors' Horn Book, 51. 
 
 Pikler, Jul. Psychology of the Belief in 
 Objective Existence, 29. 
 
 Platts, J. T. A Grammar of the Persian 
 Language, 36. 
 
 Pleuronectes. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
 
 Pocket Flora of Edinburgh. C. O. Sonntag, 53. 
 
 Poole, Reg. Lane. History of Mediaeval 
 Thought, 22. 
 
 Portland Cement. Meade, 48. 
 
 Pray, Dr. Astigmatic Letters, 51. 
 
 Prayers for Christian Worship. Sadler, 24. 
 
 Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury, 55. 
 
 Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry. Shaikh Faizul- 
 lah-Bhai, B.D., 34. 
 
 Primitive Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 2. 
 
 Primitive Constellations, Origin of. Robt. 
 Brown, 55. 
 
 Printing at Brescia. R. A. Peddie, 58. 
 
 Prison, The. H. B. Brewster, 28. 
 
 Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 29. 
 
 Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 51. 
 
 Prolegomena. Reville, 8. 
 
 Protestant Commentary on the New Testa- 
 ment, 8, 23. 
 
 Psalms, Hebrew Text, 34. 
 
 Psychology of the Belief in Objective Exist- 
 ence. Jul. Pikler, 29. 
 
 Psychology, Principles of, Spencer, 30 ; Out- 
 lines of, Wundt, 32. 
 
 Punnett, R. C. Lineus, 48. 
 
 Qualitative Analysis, Notes on. Prof. W. P. 
 
 Mason, 48. 
 
 Ransom, W. H. The Inflammation Idea, 51. 
 Rapport sur 1'Expedition au Congo. Dutton 
 and Todd, 45. 
 
 Rashdall, Dr. Hastings. Anglican Liberalism, 
 
 12. 
 
 Ray, Prof. P. C. Hindu Chemistry, . 
 
 Real Jesus, The. J. Vickers, 26. 
 
 Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of 
 
 M. Comte. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 Re-Creation. Rev. C. W. Formby, 17. 
 Reform in Primary Education. J. G. Hag- 
 
 mann, 39. 
 Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Rev. 
 
 Dr. C. Beard, 15. 
 Rejoinder to Prof. Weismann, 31. 
 Relation between Ethics and Religion. Rev. 
 
 Dr. James Martineau, 21. 
 Religion and Modern Culture. Sabatier, 10. 
 Religion and Theology. E. Menegoz, 21. 
 Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf, 14. 
 Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. C. G. 
 
 Montefiore, 13. 
 
 Religion of Israel. Kuenen, 8. 
 Religions of Ancient Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
 Prof. A. H. Sayce, 36. 
 Religions of Authority and the Spirit. Auguste 
 
 Sabatier, 3. 
 Renan, E. Influence of Rome on Christianity, 
 
 !3- 
 
 Renouf, P. L. Religion of Ancient Egypt, 
 
 14. 
 
 Reorganisation of Philosophy. Hodgson, 28. 
 Report of Malarial Expedition to Nigeria, 44. 
 Report of the Yellow Fever Expedition to 
 
 Para, 1900. Durham and Myers, 49. 
 Reports on the Sanitation and Anti- Malarial 
 
 Measures at Bathurst, 44. 
 Reports of Thompson-Yates Laboratories, 52. 
 Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Lake, 20 ; 
 
 R. W. Macan, 21 ; Marchant, 21. 
 Reville, Dr. A. Native Religions of Mexico 
 
 and Peru, 14. 
 Reville. Prolegomena, 8. 
 Reville, Jean. Liberal Christianity, 10. 
 Rhys, Prof. J. Celtic Heathendom, 14. 
 Rise and Progress of Christianity. R. W. 
 
 Mackay, 21. 
 
 Rise of Christendom. Edwin Johnson, 19. 
 Rise of English Culture. Edwin Johnson, 20. 
 Rix, Herbert. Dawning Faith, 22 ; Tent and 
 
 Testament, 22. 
 Robinson, Alex. Old and New Certainty of 
 
 the Gospel, 23 ; Study of the Saviour, 23. 
 Roget, F. F. First Steps in French History, 
 
 41 ; Introduction to Old French, 41. 
 Rosing, S. English-Danish Dictionary, 41. 
 Ross, R. Campaign against Mosquitos in 
 
 Sierra Leone, 49 ; Malaria at Ismailia and 
 
 Suez, 49 ; Malarial Expedition to Sierra 
 
 Leone, 49 ; Malarial Fever, 49. 
 Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs and 
 
 Monthly Notices, 60. 
 Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and 
 
 Proceedings, 60. 
 Royal Irish Academy. Transactions and 
 
 Proceedings, 60. 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions 
 
 of, 60. 
 Runcorn Research Laboratories. Parasite of 
 
 Tick Fever, 50. 
 
INDEX-Continued. 
 
 67 
 
 Runes, The. Geo. Stephens, 58. 
 
 Runic Monuments, Old Northern. Geo. 
 
 Stephens, 58. 
 Ruth, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. H. 
 
 H. Wright, 27. 
 
 Sabatier, Auguste. Doctrine of the Atone- 
 ment, 10 ; Religions of Authority and the 
 Spirit, 3. 
 
 Sacerdotal Celibacy. Henry Chas. Lea, 21. 
 
 Sacrifice of Education. Hon. A. Herbert, 56. 
 
 Sadi. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik 
 Sadi of Shiraz, 36. 
 
 Sadler, Rev. Dr. Closet Prayers, 24 ; Prayers 
 for Christian Worship, 24. 
 
 Sailors' Horn Book. H. Piddington, 51. 
 
 Saleeby, C. W. Individualism and Collec- 
 tivism, 29. 
 
 Sang's Logarithms, 52. 
 
 Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast Town. 
 Taylor, M. L., 49. 
 
 Sanitation and Anti - Malarial Measures. 
 Lt.-Col. Giles, 46. 
 
 Saunders, T. B. Harnack and hib Critics, 24. 
 
 Savage, M. J. Beliefs about the Bible, 24. 
 
 Sayce, Prof. A. H. Religion of Ancient 
 Assyria, 14. 
 
 Sayings of Jesus, The. Adolf Harnack, 12. 
 
 Schiller. Ballads, 41. 
 
 Schloss, D. F. Methods of Industrial Re- 
 muneration, 58. 
 
 School Teaching and School Reform. Sir O. 
 Lodge, 40. 
 
 Schrader. The Cuneiform Inscriptions, 8. 
 
 Schreber, D. G. M. Medical Indoor Gym- 
 nastics, 52. 
 
 Schroen, L. Seven- Figure Logarithms, 53. 
 
 Schubert, Hansvon. History of the Church, 3. 
 
 Schurman, J. Gould. Ethical Import of 
 Darwinism, 29 ; Kantian Ethics, 29. 
 
 Scott, Andrew. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea, 
 48. 
 
 Scott, E. F. Apologetic of the New Test., 12. 
 
 Scripture, Edward W., Ph.D. Studies from 
 the Yale Psychological Laboratory, 29. 
 
 Second Year Chemistry. Edward Hart, 46. 
 
 Seeberg, R. Fundamental Truths of the 
 Christian Religion, 12. 
 
 Seger. Collected Writings, 53. 
 
 Semitic Influence. Robt. Brown, 55. 
 
 Seven-Figure Logarithms. L. Schroen, 53. 
 
 Severus, Patriarch of Antioch. Letters of, 25. 
 
 Sharpe, Samuel. Bible, translated by, 15. 
 
 Shearman, A. T. Symbolic Logic, 29. 
 
 Shihab Al Din. Futuh Al-Habashah. Ed. 
 by S. Strong, 36. 
 
 Short History of the Hebrew Text. T. H. 
 Weir, 16. 
 
 Sierra Leone, Campaign against Mosquitoes in. 
 Ross and Taylor, 49. 
 
 Sierra Leone, The Malarial Expedition to, 
 1899. Ross, Annett, and Austen, 49. 
 
 Silva Gadelica. Standish H. O'Grady, 41. 
 
 Sleeping Sickness, Distribution and Spread 
 of, 50. 
 
 Smith, Martin R. What I Have Taught My 
 Children, 25. 
 
 Snellen's Ophthalmic Test Types, 53. 
 Snyder, Harry. Soils and Fertilisers, 53. 
 Social and Political Dynamics. Malcolm 
 
 Mackenzie, 28. 
 
 Social Gospel, Essays on the, IT. 
 Social Statics. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 Sociology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
 Sociology, Study of. Herbert Spencer, 31, 
 
 Soden, H. von, D.D. Books of the New 
 Testament, n. 
 
 Soils and Fertilisers. Snyder, 53. 
 
 Soils. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 54. 
 
 Sonntag, C. O. A Pocket Flora of Edin- 
 burgh, 53. 
 
 Sorensen, S. Index to the Mahabharata, 36. 
 
 Soul of Progress. Bishop Mercer, 21. 
 
 Spanish Dictionary, Larger. Velasquez, 42. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert. Drey on Herbert Spencer's 
 Theory of Religion and Morality, 32. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert. An Autobiography, 30 ; 
 A System of Synthetic Philosophy, 30; De- 
 scriptive Sociology, Nps. 1-8, 31 ; Works by, 
 30-32 ; Theory of Religion and Morality, 32. 
 
 Spinal Cord, Topographical Atlas of. Alex. 
 Bruce, M.A., etc., 44. 
 
 Spinoza. Edited by Prof. Knight, 32. 
 
 Spiritual Teaching of Christ's Life, Henslow, 18. 
 
 Statuette, The, and the Background. H. B. 
 Brewster, 28. 
 
 Statutes, The, of the Apostles. G. Homer, 
 2 5> 36. 
 
 Stephen, Canon. Democracy and Character. 25. 
 
 Stephens, Geo. Bugge's Studies on Northern 
 Mythology Examined, 58 ; Old Northern 
 Runic Monuments, 58 ; The Runes, 58. 
 
 Stephens, J. W. W. Study of Malaria, 53. 
 
 Stephens, Thos., B.A., Editor. The Child 
 and Religion, 10. 
 
 Stephens and R. Newstead. Anatomy of the 
 Proboscis of Biting Flies, 50. 
 
 Stereochemistry, Elements of. Hantzsch, 46. 
 
 Stewart, Rev. C. R. S. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
 
 Stillman, T. B. Engineering Chemistry, 53. 
 
 Storms. Piddington, 51. 
 
 Strong, S. Arthur, ed. by. Shihab Al Din, 36. 
 
 Study of the Saviour. Alex. Robinson, 23. 
 
 Studies on Northern Mythology. Geo. 
 Stephens, 58. 
 
 Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory. 
 Edward W. Scripture, Ph.D., 29. 
 
 Sullivan, W. K. Celtic Studies, 41. 
 
 Surgical Anatomy of the Horse. J. T. Share 
 Jones, 47. 
 
 Symbolic Logic. A. T. Shearman, 29. 
 
 Synthetic Philosophy, Epitome of. F. H. 
 Collins, 32. 
 
 Syriac Chrestomathy. Bernstein and Kirsch, 
 
 Syriac Grammar. Theodor Noldeke, 35. 
 System of Synthetic Philosophy. Herbert 
 Spencer, 30. 
 
 Tayler, Rev. John James. Character of the 
 
 Fourth Gospel, 25. 
 
 Taylor, Rev. C. Dirge of Coheleth, The, 25. 
 Taylor, Rev. Dr. J. Massoretic Text, 25. 
 
68 
 
 INDEX Continued. 
 
 Taylor. Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast 
 
 Town, 49. 
 
 Ten Services and Psalms and Canticles, 25. 
 Ten Services of Public Prayer, 25-26. 
 Tennant, Rev. F. R. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Tent and Testament. Herbert Rix, 23. 
 Testament, Old. Canonical Books of, 2 ; Re- 
 
 ligions of, n ; Cuneiform Inscriptions, 24; 
 
 Hebrew Text, Weir, 26 ; Literature, 20. 
 Testament, The New, Critical Notes on. C. 
 
 Tischendorf, 26, 27. 
 Testament Times, New. Acts of the Apostles, 
 
 12; Apologetic of, 12; Books of the, n ; 
 
 Commentary, Protestant, 8 ; History of, 7 ; 
 
 Luke the Physician, 1 2 ; Textual Criticism, 6 ; 
 Test Types. Pray, 51 ; Snellen, 53. 
 Text and Translation Society, Works by, 36. 
 Theories of Anarchy and of Law. H. B. 
 
 Brewster, 28. 
 Theories of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. 
 
 James Marchant, 21. 
 
 Thermometer, History of the. Bolton, 44. 
 Thomas, Rev. J. M. L. A Free Catholic 
 
 Church, 26. 
 Thomas and Breinl. Trypanosomiasis and 
 
 Sleeping Sickness, 50. 
 
 Thornton, Rev. J. J. Child and Religion, 10. 
 Tischendorf, C. The New Testament, 26. 
 Todd Lectures Series, 41, 42. 
 Tower, O. F. Conductivity of Liquids, 54. 
 Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 54. 
 Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 54. 
 Transactions of the Royal Societyof Edinburgh, 
 
 54- 
 
 Trenckner, V. Pali Miscellany, 35. 
 Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia. 
 
 J. E. Button and J. L. Todd, 45, 49. 
 Turpie, Dr. D. M'C. Manual of the Chaldee 
 
 Language, 37. 
 
 Universal Christ. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 15. 
 Universalism Asserted. Rev. Thos. Allin, 14. 
 Upton, Rev. C. B. Bases of Religious Belief, 14. 
 Urine Analysis, A Text-Book of. Long, 48. 
 
 Vaillante, Vincent, 38. 
 
 Various Fragments. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
 
 Vega. Logarithmic Tables, 54. 
 eiled 
 
 ry, 
 Venable, T. C. Development of the Periodic 
 
 Veiled Figure, The, 59. 
 
 Velasquez. Larger Spanish Dictionary, 42. 
 
 Law, 54; Study of Atom, 54 
 
 Via, Veritas, Vita. Dr. Drummond, 13. 
 
 Vickers, J. The Real Jesus, 26; The Cruci- 
 fixion Mystery, 26. 
 
 Viga Glums Saga. Sir E. Head, 42. 
 
 Vinaya Pitakam. Dr. Oldenberg, 37. 
 
 .Vincent, Jacques- Vaillante, 38. 
 
 Virgin Birth of Christ. Paul Lobstein, 9. 
 Vulgate, The. Henslow, 19. 
 Vynne and Blackburn. Women under the 
 Factory Acts, 59. 
 
 Wallis, H. W. Cosmology of the Rigveda, 37. 
 
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