^ ♦ ^ . . ',-,.. -"'..4o ;i'^ fe; - l/irr -i/tk^; »iC rpHE author, having in great measure rewritten his English -*- Grammar, presents it once more to the consideration of the teachers of the country. The work, as now offered, is the result of long experience in the class-room, and of no little reading and study. The English language and its literature have been for many years the main subjects of the author's inquiry, and he has endeavored in this volume to give the results of his observations in the form which his experience as a teacher has convinced him to be the best adapted to the wants of the learner. The points aimed at have been twofold : First, to give some knowledge of grammar in general. This is the more necessary, as most of those who study English grammar study no other language, and have no other means of studying the laws of language as a means of expressing thought. Secondly, to set forth the forms and laws peculiar to the English language. The English has indeed been called, somewhat irrever- ently, " the grammarless tongue." Its inflections, it must be confessed, are meagre, as compared with those of the Latin and Greek. Such is the condition of almost every modern tongue. Yet our English has its idioms, as every foreigner learns to his cost, and is not entirely without its inflections. An accurate knowledge of these idioms and inflections is of incalculable value to every one who would be at home in the use of the language. There is an opinion widely prevalent among the teachers of classical 811 IV PREFACE. schools, that boys fitting for college have no need to study English grammar. From that opinion the author begs leave respectfully, but most earnestly, to dissent. If he mistakes not, a growing majority of those who are called upon to examine candidates for admission to college will bear him out in his position. The study of Latin and Greek gives indeed a knowledge of the grammar of those languages, and some knowledge of grammar in general, but it does not give a knowledge of English grammar. Does Latin grammar teach a boy our common rules for Spelling, which are a guide to the correct writing of not less than twenty thousand English words ? Does it teach him the origin, form, and uses of the English Possessive? Does it, to take one instance out of hundreds that might be named, teach him the syntax of the phrase "For David thy father's sake"? Does it teach him the rules for the formation of the English Plural ? — the peculiarities of the Past Participle Active? Does it not lead him into grave mistakes in regard to the forms and uses of the Eng- lish verb ? A word as to the method pursued. The author has endeavored to bear in mind that he was writing, not a treatise for the learned, but a text-book for learners. For such a book, — The first and most imperative demand is clearness, — clearness of arrangement, and clearness of expression. Next and hardly less imperative is the demand that the more and the less important should be carefully discriminated, and the difier- ence plainly set forth to the eye. A third imperative demand is that the rules, definitions, and other matter to be committed to memory, should be expressed with the utmost possible conciseness. A fourth requisite is that every rule and definition should be sup- ported and illustrated by a goo'dly array of apt practical examples. These are as necessary in teaching grammar as sums are in teaching arithmetic. How far these things have been secured is for the reader to judge. J. S. H. Princeton, i^T. J., June 26, 1874. PAGE Prsface, iii Introduction, .......... -9 Part L ORTHOGRAPHY. Letters generally, . . . . . . . .11 Vowels, ........... 13 Consonants, .......... 14 Words and Syllables, 15 Rules for Spelling, ......... IG Part II. ETYMOLOGY. Classification of Words, 21 I. Articles. Origin and Use of the Articles, 1* VI CONTENTS. II. Nouns. PAGE Classification of Nouns, . . . . . . ... 25 Attributes of Nouns, ......... 26 1. Gender, . . . . . . . . .27 2. Number, . . . . . . . . .30 3. Person, ......... .35 4. Case, .......... 3G III. Adjectives. True Character of Adjectives, Comparison of Adjectives, IV. Pronouns. True Character of Pronouns, 1. Personal Pronouns, 2. Kelative Pronouns, 3. Adjective Pronouns, V. Verbs True Character of the Verb, I. Attributes of Verbs, . 1. Voice, 2. Mood, . . . . 3. Tense, 4. Participles, 5. Number and Person, IL Classes of Verbs, 1. Transitive and Intransitive, 2. Regular and Irregular, 3. Impersonal, 4. Defective, 5. Auxiliary, . III. Conjugation of Verbs, The Verb To he, The Verb To love. Comparison of Adverbs, Classes of Adverbs, VI. Adverbs. 87 VII. Conjunctions. Character and Uses of Conjunctions, . VIII. Prepositions. Character and Uses of Prepositions, 91 CONTENTS. Vll IX. Interjections. PAOB \^orcl8 used as different Parts of Speech, . . . . . .94 Derivation of Words. 1. Prefixes of Saxon Origin, 96 2. Prefixes of Latin Origin, .97 3. Prefixes of Greek Origin, .98 4. Affixes, 99 Part III SENTENCES. I. Syntax. Order of the Rules in Syntax, ........ 102 1, The Nominative, ....... 103 2. The Verb, 106 8. The Objective Case and the Verb, ..... 112 4. The Objective Case and the Preposition, . . . .115 6. The Possessive Case, . . . . . . .120 6. Apposition, ......... 124 7. Case after the Verb Tobe, . . . . . . 126 8. The Pronoun, ........ 128 9. The Article, . . . . . . . .133 10. The Adjective, . . . . . . . .136 11. The Adjective Pronoun, ...... 139 12. The Participle, ........ 141 13. The Adverb, ........ 144 14. The Infinitive Mood, . . . . . . .147 15. The Conjunction, ....... 149 16. The Interjection, . . . . , . . .153 Miscellaneous Exercises, ........ 153 II. Analysis. L Parts of a Sentence, ........ 161 I. The Subject, . . . ... . . .162 1. Simple Subjects, ........ 163 2. Complex Subjects, ....... 163 8. Compound Subjects, . . . . . . .167 VUl CONTENTS. II. The Predicate, . 1. Simple Predicates, . 2. Complex Predicates, 3. Compound Predicates, II. Kinds op Sentences, . I. Simple Sentences, II. Complex Sentences, III. Compound Sentences, III. Explanation of Terms, I. Phrases, . II. Clauses, III. Members, General Exercises in Analysis, PAGE 168 . 168 . 172 173 . 174 174 . 175 175 . 175 176 . 176 177 PUNCTUATION, I. Comma, II. Semicolon, III. Colon, . IV. Period, V. Interrogation Point, VI. Exclamation Point, VII. Dash, . VIII. Parenthesis, IX. Brackets, X. Quotation, XI. Capitals, 180 190 194 196 199 200 202 207 213 FIGURES. I. Figures of Orthography and Etymology, II. Figures of Syntax, ni. Figures of Khetoric, .... 218 218 219 VERSIFICATION. I. Verses, II. Feet. . 221 22). III. Kinds of Verse, 3>*KC Selections for Analysis and Parsing, 224 English Grammar. Grammar is the science which treats of Language.* Explanations. — We say that Arithmetic is the science which treats of numbers, Botany is the science which treats of plants, Astronomy is the science which treats of the stars. So, Grammar is the science which treats of language.* Knowledge on any subject, arranged in some regular order, is called a Science. The words which a people use in speaking or writing are called a Lan- guage. The object of studying Grammar is to be able to understand, speak, and write a language correctly. Most of the terms used in Grammar are derived from Greek and Latin words. The meaning and derivation of these terms will be given in the notes. The teacher will observe, however, that in many instances the terms are now used in a sense considerably different from the original meaning. Still, the connection between the present use of the word and its original meaning can generally be traced, and the teacher should always so trace it, where practicable. Note. — Grammar takes its name from the Greek word gramma {ypdfi/xa), a letter, or a writing, because it treats particularly of written language.* Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthog- RA.PHY, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. * See Note to Teachers on page 10. 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification. Note. — This fourfold division has been retained here in deference to long established custom. In the present treatise, however, certain changes have been adopted. There is some doubt whether Part first, Orthography, does not belong to the Spelling-Book rather than to the Grammar. But there are so many- things in Orthography which are not taught in the Spelling-Books, which at least the scholar does not ordinarily learn in using them, and which he needs to know before entering upon the study of Grammar, that it seems hardly safe to omit this study altogether from a text-book on the subject. Part third. Sentences, is treated under two distinct heads, Syntax and Analysis. Part fourth. Prosody, belongs so manifestly to Rhetoric, that the treatment of it is comparatively brief, the student who desires more extended informa- tion being referred to the author's work on Composition and Rhetoric, where the subject is treated with some degree of fulness. >>e^.c NOTE TO TEACHERS. The matter in this book is divided into three kinds, indicated by three varieties of type, and it is important that the object of this arrangement should be clearly understood. 1. It is intended that the scholar should first go through the book, learn- ing the matter in the largest type only, with the declensions and conjuga- tions, and with such oral explanations from the teacher, and such portion of the Exercises, as may be found expedient. 2. Having gone over the whole ground once, or perhaps twice, in this way, the scholar will be prepared to take up profitably the remaining por- tion of the Exercises, and the matter in the intermediate type. This in- termediate matter, however, is not intended to be committed to memory verbatim, like the rules and definitions in the largest type. 3. The matter in the smallest type is for the purpose of explaining and defending the positions taken in the text. It is addressed to the teacher rather than to the scholar. The more advanced scholars might be encour- aged — if intelligent and studious they will probably be tempted — of their own accord, and at the proper time, to read this fine print matter. But it should be rarely, if ever, made the subject of examination, and it should in no case be required to be committed to memory. First Part. yi^c ORTHOGRAPHY. The first part of Grammar is called Orthography.* Orthography treats of Letters. Note. — Orthography takes its name from the Greek words orthos [bpddc), correct, and graphe (ypa^r/), writing, because it teaches the correct mode of writing. Orthography treats first of letters taken separately, and then of the mode of forming them into syllables and words, which is called spelling. The treatment of the Points and of the other characters used in writing, embracing the rules of Punctuation, belongs properly to Orthography. But the most important of these rules cannot be understood by the pupil until he is familiar with the principles of Grammar. This topic, therefore, is treated at the close of the book. I. LETTERS TAKEN SEPARATELY. Letters are written characters or signs used to repre- sent certain sounds of the human voice. A letter that is not sounded in speaking is called a ailent letter. ♦See Note to Teachers on page 10. 12 ENGLISH GllAMMAR. The letters of any Language are called its Alphabet. jfote. — Alphabet takes its name from alplm (aAcpa) and beta (fiijTa), the names of the first two letters in the Greek alphabet, corresponding to our a and b. Thus we often call our alphabet the ab c. The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. Consonants are subdivided into Mutes and Semi-vowels. A Vowel may be fully sounded by itself. A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless in con- nection with a vowel. Note. — Vowel takes its name from the Latin vocalis, vocal, because it may be sounded freely and fully by itself, without the aid of any other letters. Consonant takes its name from the Latin words con, with, and sonans, sounding, because sounding with another letter, that is, not capable of being sounded per- fectly by itself.* This division of the letters into Vowels, Semi-vowels, and Consonants began with Aristotle, b. c. 330, and has been accepted by nearly all gram- marians until very recent times. The bewildering nomenclature of Tonics, Subtonics, Atonies, Obstructed, Unobstructed, Simple, Serial, Explodent, Continuant, etc, which has grown up of late years, has originated appar- ently in not distinguishing sufficiently between the letters of a language and its elementary sounds. It is the business of the Elocutionist to analyze and classify the sounds of a language; that of the Grammarian to classify and name its letters ; and no division or nomenclature invented since the days of Aristotle has greater practical convenience, or better expresses the true functions of the letters themselves, in their relations to Grammar, than that suggested by the Greek philosopher twenty-two centuries ago. This classification, as conceived by him, has its foundation in the action of the vocal organs in uttering the letters. When the mouth, throat, and other organs of speech are opened in a par- ticular position, and the voice is allowed to flow out in a continuous and uniform current, without any change in the position of the organs, the sound so formed is called a Vowel. In this manner we may prolong the sound of a indefinitely, or until out of breath. If, while the voice is thus issuing from the mouth, the current of sound is interrupted by a par- tial compression of the organs, the sound becomes a Semi-voweL Thus, ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 while prolonging the sound of a, if we press the tongue upon the upper part of the mouth, but allow the voice still to proceed, the sound becomes that of the letter /, as in the word ale. If this compression becomes so great as actually to close the organs, the sound ceases, and in the very act of ceasing gives rise to a Mute. Thus, in the case just mentioned, if instead of press- ing the tongue upon the roof of the mouth, we press it against the teeth, and entirely stop the passage of the voice, the actual termination of the sound is that indicated by the letter t, as in the word ate. This process may be reversed. The letter t may be formed first and the vowel follow it, as in pronouncing the word tale. In this case the mute is the very begin- ning of sound. A Mute, then, is the mere commencement or termination of the sound, on opening or closing the organs ; a Semi-VOWel is a partial interruption or modification of the sound, caused by changing the position of the organs during utterance; and a Vowel is the very sound itself prolonged without change. Vowels. The Vowels are a, e, z, o, u, and sometimes w and y. All the other letters are Consonants. Note. — \V and y are consonants when they precede a vowel sound in the same syllable ; but are vowels in all other places. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. A Proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded. The Proper diphthongs are two, namely, oi and on, as in loiu, loud. An Improper diphthong is one in which only one vowel is sounded ; as, oa in boat. The Improper diphthongs are numerous, and need not be re- peated. Strictly speaking, they are not diphthongs, but merely single vowel sounds preceded or followed by other vowels that are not sounded. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound; as, ieu in adieu. The triphthongs are three in number, ean, ieu, iew ; as in beauty, lieu- tenant, review. Like the improper diphthongs, they contain only one vowel sound. Note 1. — Z7 after q is never counted as part of a diphthong or of a triphthong. 2 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note 2. — Diphthong and triphthong take their names from the Greek words dis [dig] and iris {rplg), two and three, and phthongos {0oyy6g), sound. Consonants. The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi- vowels. The Mutes and Semi- vowels may be distinguished both by the name and by the sound. In naming the mutes, the accompanying vowel generally follows ; as, pe, he; in naming the semi-vowels, the accompanying vowel precedes; as, ef, el. In sounding the mutes, the voice is stopped short, as in ap ^ in sounding the semi-vowels, the voice may be prolonged, as in al. The mutes are p, b, t, d, h, q, and c and g hard. The semi-vowels are I, m, n,r; c and g soft, and^/ w and y when they are not vowels ; h; /and v ; s and 2/ x. Four of the semi- vowels, /, m, n, r, are also called Liquids. The consonants are sometimes divided according to the part of the vocal organs by which they are formed. The principal divisions of this sort are labials, dentals, palatah, gutturals, nasals, and Unguals. These terms are derived from the Latin : labium, lip ; den8, dent is, tooth; palatum, palate ; guitur, throat ; nasus, nose ; lingua, tongue. Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, Dentals by the teeth. Palatals by the palate, Gutturals by the throat, Nasals by the nose, and Linguals by the tougiie. The Labials are p, h,f, v ; the Dentals t, d, c soft, », z ; the Palatals g soft and/y the Gutturals k, q, and c and g hard; the Nasals m and n ; and the Linguals I and r. Exercises. — In the following words, take each letter, as it stands, and say whether it is a vowel or a consonant; in enumer- ating the vowels, tell which of them, if any, form diphthongs or triphthongs; in enumerating the consonants, say of each whether it is a mute or a semi-vowel: — multitudinous, fre- quently, upheaval, influential, algebra, robbery, lieutenant, gro- tesque, reviewing, ocean, herbaceous, knowledge, slaughter, employer, thievish, joyfully. ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 Note. — For the sounds of the letters, the learner is referred to the Speiling-Book and the Dictionary. II. WORDS AND SYLLABLES. A Word is a collection of letters used together to rep- resent some idea. A few words consist of only one letter each. A Syllable is so much of a word as can be pronounced by one impulse of the voice ; as, con in contain. Spelling is putting letters together correctly so as to form syllables and words. Note. •— Syllable takes its name from the Greek words syl {cvl), together, and labein (Aa/3eZv), to take, because the letters which form a syllable are taken together, in one impulse of the voice. What is meant by syllable and by impulse of the voice can be best ex- plained orally, that is, by the teacher's actually sounding syllables succes- sively in the scholar's hearing, and calling his attention to the manner ia which the sound comes from the mouth. When one syllable is ended and another is about to begin, the parts of the mouth and throat used for making the sound, take a new position, and a sort of jerk, or additional force, is given to the voice. This additional force, is what is meant by impulse. Note. — There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels and diphthongs, not counting those which are silent or unsounded. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; of two, a Dissyllable ; of three, a Trisyllable ; of more than three, a Polysyllable. Example. — Truth is a monosyllable ; truth-ful, a dissyllable; truth -ful-ness, a trisyllable; un-truth-flil-neHS, a polysyllable. Note. —Monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, and polysyll.'i- ble, take their names from the Greek words monos {fidvnc), one, dis {dig), two, iris {rpig), three, and poly [ttoIv), many, combined with syllable. 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. Exercise. — Tell to which class each of the following words belongs : nation, uprightness, incomprehensible, authority, fre- quent, plague, opportunity, horse, element, elementary, robber, vowel, consonant. JBTote. — The teacher may add other examples at will. Rules for Spelling. RULE I.— Y final. Part I. — I^ final, preceded by a consonant, is changed into i on taking a suffix ; as, fano-yy fano-i-fuly (not fanio-y-ful) A suffix is something added to the end of a word. Exception 1. — Before ous, y sometimes becomes e ; as, heaut-y, beaut-e-ous. Exception 2. — Before ing, y is not changed ; as, tarr-y, tarr- y-ing. Part 2. — Y final, preceded by a vowel, is not changed on taking a suffix ; as, play^ play-er. Exceptions. — Ddy, which makes daily ; lay, 'pay, and say, which make laid, paid, and mid, together with various other derivatives and compounds, as mislaid, unpaid, unsaid, etc. Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding ful to mercy, plenty, bounty, duty, pity ; by adding es and ing to cry, pry, try, apply, deny, rely ; by adding er and est to merry, sorry, saucy, holy. Correct any of the following which need correction, and give the Eule for each change : like-ly-hood, handy-craft, quarry-ed, journey-ed, beauty-ful, glory-ous, jnty-ous, pity-ful, melody-es, Tnelody-ous, gay-ety, gay-ly,witty-ly,witty-er, betray-er,journey-ing. Original Exercises. — In addition to the examples in the book, both in the rules and the exercises, bring, written, of your own invention, the following : ' ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 Ten examples of y final changed to i, under Part 1 of the Rule. Five examples of y final becoming e, under Exception 1. Five examples of y final not changed, under Exception 2. Ten examples of y final not changed, under Part 2 of the Rule. RULE II.— E final, silent. Part I. — ^filial, silent, on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel, is dropped ; as, care, car-ing. Exception 1. — le, on taking the suffix ing, is changed into y ; as, die, dy-ing. Exception 2. — Dye (to color), hoe, and shoe do not drop e on taking the suffix ing; as, dye-ing, hoe-ing, shoe-ing. Exception 3. — Singe, swinge, and tinge do not drop e on taking the suffix ing. This is to retain the soft sound of the g, and to distinguish them from the corresponding forms of singy swing, ting. Thus: sing-ing, siving-ing, ting-ing / singe-ing^ awinge-ing, tinge-ing. Exception 4.— Cfe and ge, on taking a suffix beginning with a, 0, or u, do not drop the e. This is to retain the soft sound of the c and g. Thus : service-able, not servic-able; change-ahle, not chang-able. Part 2. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning with a consonant, is not dropped ; as, carey care-ful. Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, argument ; wisdom, nursling ; duly, truly, awful, with some corres- ponding derivatives of due and true, such as duty^ dutiful, truth^ truthful, etc. Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding ing to bite, force, revive ; by adding able to admire, adore, deplore. Form the following compounds, and give the rule for each change : ripe-en, ripe-ness, smoke-ing, lie-ing, sphere-ical, dispute- ant, tire-some, tie-ing, tie-ed, pave-ment, pave-ing, serve-ice-able, defense-ible, defense-less, cure-able, marriage-able, trace-ing, trace- able, fame-ous, courage-ous, re-pulse-ive-ness. 2* B 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own inven- tion : — Ten examples of e final dropped, under Part 1 of the Rule. Five examples of %e changed to y, under Exception 1. Ten examples of e final not dropped, under Part 2 of the Rule. RULE III.— Words ending \r\ll. Words ending in II drop one I on taking a suffix be- ginning with a consonant ; as, Jull^ ful-ness ; also some- times on taking a prefix; as, fully hand-ful; tilly un-til. Note. — Words ending in any other double letter are spelt in composition in the same manner as when alone ; as, stiff, stiff-ness. Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding to all the words though, together ; by combining with and all; by combining arm a.ndfull. Form the following compounds, and give the Rule for each change : full-Jill, tall-er, buzz-ing, all-ways, well-come, use-full, all- most, puff-ing. Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own inven- tion : — Ten examples of I dropped on taking a suffix. Ten examples of I dropped on' taking a prefix. RULE IV.— Doubling the final consonant. In words accented on the last syllable, a final conso- nant, if single, and if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, permity permit-t-ing. Monosyllables, being always accented, come of course under this rule. Note. — Here are four conditions : 1. The last syllable must have the accent ; 2. It must end in a single consonant ; 3. This single consonant must be preceded by a single vowel ; 4. The suffix must begin with a vowel. Examples. — In offer-iug, the first condition is wanting ; in torment-ing, the second condition ; in appeal-ing, the third ; in at;er-ment, the fourth. ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 There are more than sixty words about which there is a disagreement among lexicographers as to whether the final consonant should or should not be doubled. These words, ending chiefly in /, conform to the other three conditions of the rule, but are not accented on the last syllable. Webster and those who accept him as an authority do not double the final consonant in these cases. Worcester and his English predecessors, Richardson, Walker, Johnson and others, do double the final consonant. Worcester writes travel, travelling, traveller ; worship, worshipping, wor- shipper. Webster writes travel, traveling, traveler; worship, worshiping, worshiper. The words in question are the following : worship, kidnap, compromit, bias ; carburet, sulphuret and some other like words in chemistry ; and the following fifty-three in I, namely, apparel, bevel, bowel, embowel, cancel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, hatchel, housel, jewel, kennel, label, laurel^ level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, empanel, parallel, parcel, pencil, peril, imperil, pistol, pommel, quarrel, ravel, unravel, revel, rival,rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, victual. Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding ing and ed to remit, impel; ist to drug, machine, novel, natural; er to revel; ed to fulfil, rub, fail, refer ; ing to squat, sail, gallop, hum ; ant to assist; eni to excel; ine to adamant ; ate to alien, origin; en to red, moist, fright ; ar to consul; er to propel; ous io mountain ; y to mud, meal, sleep ; ee to commit, absent, patent ; ard to slug, drunk. N. B. — In forming each combination, give the Rule applicable to it. Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own inven- tion : — Ten examples of doubling the final consonant under the Rule. Five examples in which thQ first condition only is wanting. Five, in which the second only is wanting. Five, in which the third only is wanting. Five, in which ihQ fourth only is wanting. RULE v.— The terminations eive and ieve. In such words as recdvey relieve, etc., ei is used if the letter c precedes ; as, receive, deceive ; but ie is used if any other letter precedes; as, relieve, believe. Exercise. — Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following words : retreive, perceive^ acheive, concieve. 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Miscellaneous Exercises. Spell the following words, making the necessary corrections, and show in each case the application of the Rule. 1. Live-ing, live-ly-est, all-so, boy-ish, compel-ing, assail-ing, repent-ing, compuls-ory, commit-ed, commit-ment. 2. Happy-ness, art-full, whole-some, smoke-y, trick-y, love- able, love-ly-ness, true-th-full-ness, due-ty-full-ly. 3. Copy-ing, copy-ed, delay-ed, whole-ly, induce-ing, induce- ment, propel-ing, embroil-ing, infer-ing, infer-ence. 4. Refine-er, refine-ment, amaze-ing, amaze-ment, glory-ous, beauty-ous, beauty-full, libel-er, sulphuret-ed, whip-ing. 5. Full-some, awe-full, all-ways, well-fare, abet-ing, consent- ing, recruit-ing, differ-ing, fulfil-ment. H^. Second Part. ETYMOLOGY. The second part of Grammar is called Etymology. Note. — Etymology takes its name from the Greek words ety- mos {lTVfiog)j true [root], and logos {?^6yog), discourse or treatise, because it treats of the true roots and meanings of words. Etymology treats of Words. Words are considered in regard to their Classification, Inflection, and Derivation. By the Classification of words is meant the arrange- ment of them into different classes, according to their signification and use. By the Inflection of words is meant the change of ^ form which they undergo. By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them to their original form and meaning. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. The classes of words in English are nine; namely, Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, 21 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Inter- jections. Note. — These clashes of words are sometimes called the Parts of Speech. I. ARTICLES. An Article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a definite, or in an indefinite sense. Note. — Article takes its name from the Latin word articulus, a joint The Articles are a and the. A is the Indefinite Article, the is the Definite Article. The Article a is written an before a word beginning with a vowel sound ; as, a many an old man, an honest man. Note. — In determining whether to use a, or to use an, we should notice,not the'letter, but the real sound, with which the next word begins. Sometimes a vowel at the beginning of a word lias the sound of a conso- nant. Thus o in one is pronounced as if the word began with the consonant sound oi w ; u in unit is pronounced as if the word began with the conso- nant sound oi y. In such cases the article should be a. On the other hand, the consonant h at the beginning of a word is sometimes not sounded, as in honest (pronounced onest). In that case, the article should be an. The following words, and words derived from them, are some of those which begin with silent h; honor, honest, hour, heir, herb, humble, hostler. A or an means one, and is used only before the singu- lar number; as, a man, an apple. ETYMOLOGY — ARTICLES. 23 The is used before both numbers; as, the man, the men, |]'Qte 1. — A and the may be considered the same as one and that, only abbreviated in form, and unemphatic in meaning. jj'ote 2. — Some nouns in the singular without an article before them are taken in the widest sense for a whole species ; as, man, for mankind. This usage, however, is by no means universal. On the contrary, in many words, the article is used for this very purpose ; as, the horse, for horses in general. A or an was originally ae, atie, or one. In course of time it became ab- breviated into its present form, and by a usage not uncommon in the his- tory of language, the short form acquired a shade of meaning different from the long form, though both were originally precisely the same. The differ- ence is this. One expresses the idea of unity with emphasis. A expresses the same idea, only without emphasis. This will be understood at once by an example. "Can one man carry this weight?" " No, but tico could." "Can a man carry this weight?" "No, but a horse could." The idea of unity is expressed in both of these examples ; but in the former it is em- phatic, in the latter it is not. In the former, one is the leading idea, as distinguished from two or more ; in the latter, man is the leading idea, as distinguished from horse or other animal. A similar remark may be made in regard to the. The word the was origi- nally thaet or that. In course of time it became abbreviated, and the short form acquired, in usage, a shade of meaning different from the original long one. That is demonstrative with emphasis j the is demonstrative without emphasis. That these words have acquired a real difference in meaning as well as in form, is evident. 1. Because a and the cannot stand without a noun, one and that can. Thus, I can say, " Give me one, give me that," but I cannot say, " Give me a, give me the." 2. Because a and the do not neces- sarily contradistinguish from tico and this, as one and that do. 3. Because in many cases they are evidently not interchangeable. "A kingdom for a horse," and " one kingdom for one horse," express different ideas. " The revolution," means, in this country, "the Awjerican" revolution. "That revolution " may or may not mean so. In considering the article as forming a separate part of speech, I have acted in conformity to the immemorial usage of all languages. The proper rank of a seems to be with the indefinite pronouns, and that of the with the demonstrative pronouns. If Grammar were a science to be written anew, very likely both the article and the adjective pronouns would be called, as in their nature they truly are, Adjectives. Even in that case, however, it is to be remarked, not so much would be gained in the way of simplification as some persons have supposed. We should require in that case a subdi- 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. vision of adjectives, corresponding to tlie present subdivision of the adjec- tive pronouns, for these words have differences of meaning and construc- tion, and, in those languages which admit of changes of termination, dif- ferences also of form, that clearly distinguish them, both from ordinary adjectives, and from each other. Exercises. — Name the appropriate indefiuite article to be used before each of the following words : Ewe, yew, eye, ear, watch, one-eyed man, European, Indian, umbrella, use, end, day, opening, engineer, horse, honest, hiatus, human, humble, onion, orchard, usury. Parsing Exercise. — Parse " an " in the sentence " Give me an apple." Model. — "An" is the indefinite article, placed before the noun " apple," to show that it is used in an indefinite sense. Parsing takes its name from the Latin word para, part, because it shows the several parts of speech into which a sentence is divided. Parsing consists in stating the grammatical properties and relations of words, and the rules of syntax which properly belong to them. The pars- ing of a word cannot be complete until the rules of syntax relating to it are understood and applied. But a considerable part of parsing consists in stating the grammatical properties of a word by itself, as shown by ety- mology, and without reference to the other words in the sentence. The stating of these properties in regular order is called Etymological Parsing. Exercises in etymological parsing will be given under each Part of Speech. II. NOUNS. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, hoy, school, book. Note 1. — The word thing in the foregoing definition is used in its widest sense, to signify not merely external objects which may be seen and handled, but whatever may be a subject of thought or discoui-se. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 25 Note 2. — Letters and words used technically are to be consid- ered nouns ; as, " Cis sounded hard before a, o, u, &c. ; " " lb means pound." "J/e is a pronoun." " + is the sign of addition." Note 3. — Noun comes from the Latin nomen, a name. To the Teacher. — If the scholar begins his study of Grammar with this book, instead of first going through some more elementary treatise, the teacher should make him pause here, until, by repeated explanations, and by going over exercises again and again, he has become quite familiar with the nature of nouns, and can promptly distinguish them in going through a sentence. Exercises suitable for this purpose will be found in the au- thor's "Language Lessons for Beginners," pp. 5-13. The noun is the starting-point in teaching a scholar to analyze a sen- tence. L CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. Nouns are divided into two general classes, Pboper and CoxMMON. A Proper noun is a name given to only one of a class of objects ; as, John, London, Delaware, Note. — A Proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. A Common noun is a name given to any one of a class of objects ; as, boy, city, river. Explanation. — There is a class of objects called' " boys." The name "boy" is given to any one of that class. It is common to them all. One particular boy is called "John." That name is given to him only. It is peculiar or pro})er to him. So "city" is a name given m common to any one of another class of objects. But " London " is the name given to one particular city. It belongs peculiarly and 'pro'perly to that city. Any one of a certain other class of objects is called a " river." The name is common to all such objects. But one particular object of this kind is called " Dela- ware." It belongs properly to that particular river. Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are Proper, and which Common? Which should begin with a capital letter? remark, austria, empire, country, holland, queen, victoria, illi- nois, poet, milton. 3 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Original Exercises. — Bring, written, ten Common nouns, and ten Proper nouns, besides those in the foregoing list. FURTHER CLASSIFICATION. Some Common nouns are further classified as Collective, Abstract, Verbal, and Diminutive. A Collective noun is the name of a collection of objects con- sidered as one; as, army, crowd. A Collective noun is also called a noun of Multitude. An Abstract noun is one which denotes the name of a quality apart from the substance to which it belongs ; as, sweetness, beauty. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. A Verbal noun is one derived from a verb ; as, readmg. It is also called a Participial noun. A Diminutive noun is one derived from another noun, and expressing some object of the same kind but smaller ; as, stream, streamlet; leaf, leaflet; hill, hillock; duch, duckling; goose, gosling. Exercises. — To what kind or class does each of the following Common nouns belong? islet, spelling, lambkin, hillock, acute- ness, loyalty, flock, senate. Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own invention, ten Collective nouns; ten Abstract nouns; ten Verbal nouns; three Diminutive nouns. II. ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. Nouns have the attributes of Gender, Number, Per- son, and Case. A noun has the attribute of Gender from its expressing sex; of Number, from its expressing unity and plurality ; of Person, from its expressing the relation of the noun to the speaker; and of Case, from its expressing the relation of the noun to some verb, preposition, or other noun. I. GENDER. Gender is the distinction of nouns and pronouns in regard to Sex. Note. — Gender comes from the Latin genus, meaning birth, or kind by birth. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 27 Nouns have three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. The Masculine denotes objects of the male sex ; as, 6oy, man. The Feminine denotes objects of the female sex ; as, girlj woman. The Neuter denotes objects without sex ; as, book, river. Some object to our speaking of three genders, as though it implied three sexes. The objection arises from qpnfounding gender with sex. Gender is not sex, but a grammatical distinction growing out of sex. In reference to sex, objects are divided into two classes, those with sex, and those with- out sex. Objects with sex are subdivided into such as are male and such as are female. This gives us two sexes, male and female, but three gen- ders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. The English is, perhaps, the most philosophical of all languages in regard to gender. In other languages, things without life are generally masculine, feminine, or neuter, according to their terminations, and without reference to sex or the absence of it. But in English, gender is strictly a distinction of sex, things without sex being invariably neuter. In consequence of this peculiarity, the language is capable of a rhetorical beauty, which is un- known in other languages. Personification (which means considering in- animate objects as persons endowed with life) is, in its ordinary form, one of the boldest figures of rhetoric, and can be used with propriety only in the highest flights of poetry and oratory. There is, however, a lower kind of personification which can be used in English, and frequently with great beauty. When, for instance, it is desirable to raise the style slightly above the tenor of prose composition, it can often be done with the greatest ease, simply by applying " he " and **' she " to neuter nouns. This indirect kind of personification at once enlivens the style, without rendering it passion- ate or overwrought. In this way we say of the earth, " she is fruitful," of the sun, " he has risen in his strength," of time, " Jie flies on rapid wings," etc. When this animated kind of phraseology is used, it is impossible to give any uniform rule for determining what nouns should be considered as mas- culine and what feminine. In general, however, in such cases, nouns be- come masculine which indicate superior strength, energy, or firmness. Those on the contrary are feminine which indicate delicacy, weakness, or timidity, or which are of a passive rather than an active nature. Exam- ples of those which are considered masculine are, sun, time, death, etc. Examples of feminines are, moon, earth, church, nature, etc. In accordance with this, animals are sometimes regarded as masculine or 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. feminine, not from their sex, but from the masculine or feminine qualities of the tribe to which they belong. Thus we say: " The lion meets hia foe boldly." " The hare leaps from her covert." Modes of Distinguishing Sex. There are three ways of distinguishing sex : 1. by the use of different words, as bachelor, maid; 2. by difference of termination, as abbot, abbess ; 3. by prefixing or affixing another word, as he- goat, she-goat ; landlord, landlady. 1. By the use of different words. Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. Bachelor maid King queen Beau belle Lad lass Boar sow Lord '^ lady Boy girl Male female Brother sister Man woman Buck doe Master miss Bull ] Mister Mistress Bullock \ cow or Mr. Mrs. Ox j Milter spawner Steer heifer Nephew niece Cock hen Papa mamma Colt filly Eam ewe Dog bitch Singer songstress Drake duck Sir madam Earl countess Sire [the king) Father mother Sire, a horse dam Friar Monk nun Sloven Son slattern daughter Gander goose Stag hind Hart roe Swain nymph Horse mare Uncle aunt Husband wife Wizard witch. 2. By difference of termination. Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. Abbot abbess Arbiter arbitress Actor actress Author authoress Adulterer adulteress Baron baroness Ambassador ambassadress Benefactor benefactress ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 29 Masculine, Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. Caterer cateress Poet poetess Chanter chantress Priest priestess Conductor conductress Prince princess Count countess Prior prioress Dauphin dauphiness Prophet prophetess Deacon deaconess Protector protectress Director directress Shepherd shepherdess Duke duchess Songster songstress Editor editress Sorcerer sorceress Elector electress Tailor tailoress Emperor empress Tiger tigress Enchanter enchantress Traitor traitress Founder foundress Tutor tutoress Giant giantess Tyrant tyranness God goddess Viscount viscountess Governor governess Votary votaress. Heir heiress - Host hostess Administrator administratrix Hunter huntress Executor executrix Instructor instructress Heritor heritrix Jew Jewess Testator testatrix Lion lioness Hero heroine Marquis marchioness Landgrave landgravine Mayor mayoress Bridegroom bride Monitor monitress Widower widow Negro negress Czar czarina Patron patroness Don donna Peer peeress Sultan sultana. 3. By prefixing or affixing another -word. Ma$culine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. Landlord Isiudlady Man-Servant maic^-servant Gentleman gentlewoman Male-ehiXd female-chWd Archc^M^ archduchess Veacock T^eahen Schoolmaster Bchoolmistress Coc^-sp arrow Ae/i-sparrow j5e-goat she-goat Grandifather grandmother. Note 1. — Some nouns denote objects which may be either male or female ; as, bird, parent. These are said to be of the Common gender. 3* 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note 2. — Many masculines have no corresponding feminines ; as, baker, brewer, etc. A few feminines have no corresponding masculines ; as, laundress, brunette, virago, etc. Note 3. — In some of the words which have both masculine and feminine terminations, the masculine is ordinarily used to denote both sexes, wherever the office or profession is the idea chiefly intended. When, however, it is the intention of the sen- tence to designate the sex of the individual spoken of, the change of termination is to be observed. Thus, " the poets of the age " would be correct when speaking of poets of both sexes ; but the " best poetess of the age " would be used when speaking of female writers only. Note 4. — In speaking of small animals, or of those whose sex is not known, or not regarded, they are often considered as with- out sex : thus, we say of a cat " it is treacherous," of an infant " it is beautiful," of a deer " it was killed." Note 5. — A Collective noun is neuter when it refers, not to the objects separately, but to the collection as one whole. Thus : The class is large ; it must be divided. II. NUMBER. Number is the distinction of nouns in regard to Unity and Plurality. Nouns have two numbers; the Singular and the Plural. The Singular denotes One, the Plural More than ONE. Modes of forming the Plural. 1. Plural in S. Nouns generally are made Plural by adding s to the Singular; as, book^ books. 2. Plural in €S, Nouns ending in ch soft, s, sh, x, and z, are made Plural by adding es ; as, church, churches ; misSy misses ; lash, lashes; box, boxes; topaz, topazes. Note. — Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming the ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 31 plural. Some form the plural by adding es. Among these are calico, cargo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, volcano, etc. Others form the plural by adding simply s. Among these are armadillo, cameo, canto, cento, duodecimo, folio, hah, junto, memento, octavo, piano, portico, proviso, quarto, salvo, sirocco, solo, trio, tyro, virtuoso, zero, etc. Exercise. — Spell the plural of negro, lynx, quiz, radish, patri- arch, peach, mass, rhombus, trio, motto, halo. 8. Plural in ves. Nouns ending in single /, or in /e, are made Plural by changing / or /e into ves ; as, loafy loaves ; life, lives. Note 1. — The following form the plural according to the general rule, viz. : Brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief gulf, hoof, hand- kerchief, kerchief, mischief, proof, reproof, roof, safe, scarf, strife, surf, turf. Note 2. — Nouns in double/ follow the general rule; as, muff, muffs. Exc. Staff, a stick, has staves in the plural ; staff, a body of officers, has staffs. The compounds of staff 2i\\ have staffs in the plural ; as, flagstaffs, tipstaffs, distaffs, etc. Exercise. — Spell the plural of wharf, half, cuflf, leaf, beef, calf, thief, wife. 4. Plural in ies. Nouns ending in y after a consonant are made Plural by changing y into ies; as, lady, ladies. J Note. — Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into ies, but form the plural by the general rule ; as, day, days. Exercise. — Spell the plural of the following: Kay, toy, chim- ney, tray, artery, Monday, February, buoy, boy, attorney, valley, money. 8. Plural in 's. Letters, figures, and other characters, used as nouns, are made Plural by adding the apostrophe and s; as, "Dot your i^s and cross your t^s ; " "the -f 's should be transposed ;'' " Three 6's = two 9's." 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Plural of Proper Nouns. Proper nouns, and other parts of speech used as nouns, are made Plural in the same manner as Common nouns of like endings ; as, the Fompeys and Ciceros of the age ; the ins and outs of office. In words of this kind, ending in y after a consonant, the usage is not uniform. Some simply add s; as. The Marys and Marthas; the whys and wherefores. Some change the y into ies ; as, The two SicilieSj the Allegha- nieSy jive-twenties. Nouns Irregular in the Plural. Singular. Hural. Singular. Plural. Man men Tooth teeth Woman women Goose geese Child children Mouse mice Ox oxen Louse lice. Foot feet Plurals with Different Significations. Singular. Plural. Regular. Brother brothers (0/ same family) Die dies {for coining) Genius geniuses {inen of genius) Index indexes {tables of reference) Penny pennies ^ Pea peas > distinct objects Cow cows J Irregular. brethren {of same society dice {for gaming) genii {spirits) indices {signs in algebra) pence pease the denomination kine )■ the kind of animal. The compounds of man form the plural in the same manner as the simple word ; as, alderman, aldermen. Care should be taken, however, not to confound compounds of the word man with words that accidentally end in those three letters. Thus states- man is really compounded of two words, states and man ; but Turcoman, Mussulman, German, are simple words, like talisman, ottoman (a kind of ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 33 scat), and form the plural regularly, thus : Turcomans, MussxilmanH, Germana, talismans, ottomans. Plural of Compounds. Compounds consisting of a noun and an adjective connected by a hyphen take the sign of the plural upon the noun only ; as, court-martial, courts-martial. Compounds consisting of two or more words connected by a hyphen, are sometimes composed of two nouns, one of which is used in the sense tf au adjective, as man-trap, in which the word man is really an adjective; or of a noun and some combination of words having the force of au adjective, as father-in-law, in which the combination in-law has the force of an adjective, as much so as the word legal. In all these compounds, the sign of the plural is added to that part of the compound which really constitutes the noun, as, man-traps, fathers-in-law. In forming the possessive of such compounds, the rule is different, the sign of the possessive being uniformly added to the end of the compound expression: thus, father-in-laio, -pi. fathers-in-laio, poss. father-in-law's. The compounds of full form the plural regularly ; as, mouth- ful, mouthfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls ; bucketful, bucketfuls. Exercise. — Form the plural of the following: Man-of-war, man-eater, drum-major, major-general, sergeant-at-arms, hen-coop, pin-cushion. Plural of Foreign Words. "Words adopted without change from foreign languages gener- ally retain their original plurals. These words are now very numerous, particularly in works on science and the arts, and not a few are to be found in works of every description. Only a few of the most common can be given here. For the others, the learner should consult a dictionary. Formula formulae Erratum errata Nebula nebulae Gymnasium gymnasia Addendum addenda Stratum strata Arcanum arcana Automaton automata Datum data Criterion criteria Desideratum desiderata Phenomenon phenomena Effluvium effluvia Alumnus C alumni 34 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. Alumna alumnse Axis axes Focus foci Basis bases Fungus fungi Crisis crises Radius radii Ellipsis ellipses Sarcophagus sarcophagi Hypothesis hypotheses Stimulus stimuli Oasis oases Terminus termini Parenthesis parentheses Amanuensis amanuenses Thesis theses Analysis analyses Appendix appendices Antithesis antitheses Vertex vertices. Some foreign words are so far domesticated as to have an English plural as well as a foreign one. Among these are the following : Singular. Foreign Plural. English Flural. Cherub cherubim cherubs Seraph seraphim seraphs Memorandum memoranda memorandums Medium media mediums Bandit banditti bandits Stamen stamina stamens. General Remarks on Number. 1. Some nouns are for the most part not used in the plural. Among these are the names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, abstract qualities, and of things that are either weighed or meas- ured ; as, gold, goodness, idleness, wisdom, fiour, milk. 2. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Among these are annals, antipodes, archives, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, clothes, goods, nuptials, measles, oats, thanks, tidings, victuals, wages ; also the names of things consisting of two parts, as, bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, tweezers, trowsers, etc. 3. Some nouns are alike in both numbers. Among these are deer, sheep, trout, salmon, etc. : also several foreign words, as appa- ratus, series, species, etc. The singular of such words may gener- ally be distinguished by the use of the indefinite article a or an ; as, a series, a deer, a trout, an apparatus, etc. 4. Many nouns are sometimes alike in both numbers, and at ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 35 other times have a regular form for the plural. Among these are head, brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, etc. Thus we say " He bought twenty dozen of them," and " He bought them in dozens." 6. Some nouns are plural in form, but either singular or plural in meaning. Among them are amends, means, news, riches, etc.; also the names of certain sciences, as conies, optics, ethics, math- ematics, etc. 6. Means and amends are singular when they refer to only one object, plural when they refer to more than one. The singular mean is also used to signify strictly the middle between two ex- tremes. News is rarely found with a plural signification. Bic/ies has both a singular and a plural signification. Alms is strictly singular. The 8 at the end of the last two words is not the « of the plural formation, but is a part of the original word. Thus, riches is derived from the French richeaae, and according to its derivation should properly be singular. But usage has given it both a singular and a plural meaning, as stated above. Alma, however, from almesse, retains its original meaning, and is always singular. III. PERSON. Person is the distinction of nouns or pronouns in their relation to the speaker. Nouns have tliree persons, First, Second, and Third. The First person is the Speaker, The Second is THE one spoken TO, the Third is the one spoken of. Note. — Instances of the use of nouns in the First Person are not common, and as no change in the form of the word takes place in consequence of the person, some grammarians omit it altogether in speaking of nouns. The question whether nouns are really ever used in the first person is not a point perhaps of much practical importance. The following sen- tences, however, seem to be examples of nouns in the first person : — " The Elder unto the elect lady and her children, whom /love/' etc. — 2 John 1. " The Elder unto the well-beloved Gains, whom / love," etc. — 3 John 1. " Paul, a servant, etc., to Titus, mine own son," etc. In these examples. 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the pronouns / and wn'ne indicate the person of Elder and Paul, just as clearly, and by just the same kind of evidence, that the pronoun her indi- cates the gender of the word lady. Exercises. — In the following sentences, tell which are nouns ; and say of each whether it is proper or common ; and what is its gender, number, and person. I John saw the holy city, new Jerusalem. Rouse, ye Romans, rouse, ye slaves. I heard a voice, saying unto me, Arise, Peter. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, pro- vide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. * IV. CASE. Case distinguishes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words. The word Case is from the Latin casus, a falling. It has no reference to the meaning of the word, as now used in Grammar, but to the way in which the cases were exhibited in the old Latin Grammars, the Nominative being put at the top of a series, and the other cases being represented as falling away from it and below it. Nouns have three cases, Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. Note. — The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes three ideas, viz. : those of subject, object, and ownership. A noun may be to a verb in the relation of its subject, or that of which the assertion is made, and then it is in the nominative case ; or it may be to a verb or a preposition in the relation of its object, or that on which some action or relation terminates, and then it is in the objective case; or it may have to some other noun the re- lation oi ownership or possession, and then it is in the possessive ca6€. According to this view of the subject. The Nominative Case is that in which a noun is the SUBJECT OF A VEEB. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 87 The Possessive Case is that which denotes owner- ship OR POSSESSION. The Objective Case is that in which the noun is THE OBJECT OF SOME VERB OR PREPOSITION. The Nominative and Objective cases are alike in form. Note. — Pronouns have cases, in the same manner as nouns. How to find the Nominative. — The subject of the verb may be found by putting " who " or " what" before the verb and asking the question. Example: "A man bought a hat." Who bought? Ans. Man. Therefore, " man " is the subject of the verb " bought," and is in the nominative case. How to find the Objective.— The object of a verb or of a preposition may be found by putting " whom " or " what " after the verb or the preposition and asking the question. Examples : " William hurt his sister." Hurt whom ? Ans. Sister. There- fore, "sister" is the object of the verb "hurt." " William went into the street." Into what? Ans. Street. Therefore, " street " is the object of the preposition " into." Exercises. — Find the subject of each verb in the following sentences ; also, the object of each verb and preposition : The teacher of the second division assigned to the first section a lesson in geography. A lesson in geography was assigned to the whole division. Idleness in youth brings misery in old age. Lying leads to other bad habits. Formation of the Possessive. The Possessive Singular is formed from the nomi- native singular, by adding an apostrophe and 8, The Possessive Plural is formed from the nomina- tive plural, by adding an apostrophe only when the plural ends in s, and by adding both the apostrophe and s when the plural does not end in a, A few words here may not be out of place, in regard to the true origin of the English Possessive. In the most ancient form of the language, there were threo distinct 4 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. declensions, each with a different form for the Possessive, or Genitive. The Genitive ending of the First declension was es, that of the Second an, that of the Third e (1. Staef, staefes, a letter; 2. Witega, witegan, a wise man ; 3. Wyln, wylne, a maid-servant). In the changes which took place after the Norman conquest, all the inflectional forms of nouns gave way except some remains of the old Plural formation, and the Genitive or Possessive of the old First declension. This, written sometimes ea, and sometimes is, was in universal use in the time of Chaucer (mannes wit, cherubinnes face, Chaucer; Goddis grace, Cristis vicar, W7/cliffe),snad remained with little change for a full century after Chaucer, as late in fact as A. D. 1500. In Spenser, and in writers for nearly a century after him, say from A. D. 1600 to nearly a. d. 1700, we find three forms in concurrent use; namely, (1) a simply, the e being dropped (fathers kingdom, mothers blood) ; (2) our present form, '*, the apostrophe being used in recognition of the lost e; (3) hia (Pegasus his kind, Spenser ; Marot his song, Fletcher's Purple Island), the form originating apparently in a mistaken notion that the 's was a cor- ruption of his. General Remarks on the Possessive. 1. There was at one time a prevalent notion, which indeed to some extent still prevails, that when the nominative ends in s the possessive is found by adding the apostrophe only. This is true in the plural, but not in the singular. In the possessive singular, the s is added, though the nominative does end in s. The best writers at the present day rarely, if ever, omit this addi- tional s. Thus, Adams's speeches, Dickens's works, James's books. When, by carrying out this rule, too great a combination of hissing sounds is produced, the difficulty may be avoided by using the alternative form. Thus : The sister of Moses, instead of Moses's sister; for the sake of con- science, instead of for conscience's sake. The only exception to this rule that seems thoroughly established is " for Jesus' sake." This probably had its origin in the fact that the name itself, in the old works of devotion, was Jesu, giving regularly Jesu's sake, which sounds exactly like our Jesus' sake. 2. When the nominative ends in a sound with which the apostrophic s cannot combine, the word is pronounced as if es were added. Thus, church's is pronounced exactly like churches. In writing these forms, care should be taken not to be misled by the sound. 3. In like manner, in nouns ending in y after a conso- nant, care should be taken not to confound the possessive sin- gular and the nominative plural, which are pronounced alike, though written diflferently ; as, lady, pos. s. lady's, nom. p. ladies. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS, 39 4. The import of the possessive may generally be expressed by the preposition of ; thus, " mavUs wisdom " means " the wis- dom of man." These two forms of expression, however, do not always mean the same. Thus, "the king's picture" may mean a picture belonging to the king; but "a picture of the king" necessarily means sl portrait of him. 5. The apostrophe and s do not always indicate the pos- sessive case. They are sometimes employed to form the plural of mere letters or characters used as nouns ; as four 3's, ten 6'5, etc. ; also to form the singular of verbs of a similar character; as, " He pro's and con's, and weighs the matter o'er." Declension of Nouns. Singvlar, Plural. Nom. Poss. ObJ. Nona. Poss. ObJ. Friend friend's friend friends friends' friends Man man's man men men's men Church church's church churches churches' churches Lady lady's lady ladies ladies' ladies Jones Jones's Jones Joneses Joneses' Joneses. Exercises in Declension. — Decline fox, farmer, Benjamin, James, city, attorney, lass, miss. Form the possessive case singular of Agnes, Robert Morris, Roger Williams, Martin Van Buren, John Quincy Adams, maid- of-all-worh. Form the possessive case, singular and plural, of baby, colony, landlady, dray, calf, mulatto, ox, ox-cart. Correct the following expressions: Lazarv^ son; The 9s were cast out; There are two ks in kick; James' lesson is hard. 0>KC Parsings Exercises. — Parse John in the sentence, "John went home." Model. — "John " (1.) is a noun, it is the name of a person; (2.) a proper noun, it is a name given to only one of a class; (3.) of the masculine gender, it denotes a male; (4.) in the sin- gular number, it denotes but one; (5.) in the third person, it is spoken of; (6.) in the nominative case, it is the subject of the verb " went." 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note. — The figures inserted in this model are not to be recited. They are put in to show the order in which the several properties of the word are to be given. These six items must be given, and given in this order, in parsing every noun. The scholar in learn- ing, and the teacher in hearing the recitation, may, by following the order of the figures, know that nothing is omitted. Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns and Articles in the following sentences : In a great emergency, Grace Darling helped her father to row a boat during a dreadful storm, and by this means, in the hands of Providence, she prevented sorrow in many mothers' hearts. jl^Kc III. ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a Noun or a Pronoun ; as, a good man, they are wise. To " qualify " means here to limit the meaning of a thing, or to express some of its qualities. An adjective generally denotes some quality belong- ing to an object. It describes the object. It serves to show the diflference between things having the same name, as good boy, bad boy, sweet apple, sour apple, etc. Note 1. — Adjective takes its name from the Latin adjectus, added to, because it is a word added to a noun. Ifote 2. — Nouns become adjectives when they are used to ex- press some quality of another noun ; as, gold ring, sea water. Note 3. — Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and admit of number and case; as, our superiors, his betters, hy fifties, for twenty's sake, etc. Note 4. — Adjectives preceded by the definite article are often used as nouns ; as, " The little that was known of him." When the expression refers to persons, the adjective is always consid- ered plural ; as, " the good," meaning good men. Some grammarians have objected to making adjectives a separate part of speech, and have classed them under the head of nouns, because they often, if not always, denote some substance, quality, or property, just as ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 41 truly as nouns do. Thus, "brazen tube" means "a tube made of trass/' The adjective brazen denotes the same substance that the noun brass does. In like manner, waxen implies the substance wax, golden implies the sub- stance gold, hard the quality hardness. The objection is founded in a mis- taken view of the true nature of the noun. That which, distinguishes the noun from the other parts of speech is not that it expresses an idea of some substance, quality, or thing, and that the others do not. On the con- trary, every part of speech, every word in fact, necessarily expresses this idea, in some form. Thus, "above" and "below" convey the idea of some cir- cumstance, quality, or thing, just as much as do the words "top" and "bottom." In the viords person, personal, personally, personify ; thought, thoughtful, thoughtfully, thinks, etc., we have the same idea of some sub- stance or thing, and this idea running through a whole series of words, each of which is a different part of speech. The noun, then, is distin- guished from the other parts of speech, not from its expressing the idea of some substance, quality, or thing, but from its being the name of that idea. If we speak or think of the name of that idea, we use a noun. If we con- nect that idea with any noun as one of its qualities, accidents, or attributes, but without affirmation, it is an adjective. I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Adjectives which express number are called Numer- als. Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, Cardinal, Ordinal, and Multiplicative. The Cardinal Adjectives denote how many; as, one, two J three, four- J etc. The Ordinal Adjectives denote in what order ; as, Jirstj second, third, fourth, etc. The Multiplicatives denote how many fold ; as, single, double, triple, etc. There are also various compound adjectives into which the numerals enter ; as, one-leaved, two-fold, etc. II. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are varied by Comparison. The Degrees of Comparison are three, Positive, Com- parative, and SuPERLAxrvE. 4* 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Positive expresses the quality ; as, small, wise. The Comparative expresses the quality in a higher or lower degree ; as, smaller , wiser. The Superlative expresses the quality in the highest or lowest degree ; as, smallest, wisest. Adjectives may express qualities in many different degrees besides the three mentioned. Thus, a thing may be not only black, blacker, blackest, but blackish, intensely black, etc. In other words, the degrees of comparison may be-multiplied to almost any extent. Three of these, however, are so much more common than the rest, that the name is restricted to them. Regular Comparison. The Comparative is formed by adding er, and the Superlative by adding est, to the Positive; as, great, greater, greatest. Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally compared by prefixing to the Positive the words more and most, less and least; as, numerous ; more numerous, most numerous; less numerous, least numerous. Note 1. — More and most, less and least may, in these cases, he parsed separately as adverbs, qualifying the adjective ; or the adverb and the adjective may be taken together as the compara- tive or superlative form of the adjective. Note 2. — Some adjectives form the Superlative by adding most to the end of the word ; as, upper, upperwzos^. Dissyllables ending in y or e are generally compared by adding er and est ; as, happy, happier, happiest ; able, abler, ablest. Irregular Comparison. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Good better best Bad worse worst Little less least Much more most Far ( farther \ further r farthest \ furthest. ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. -43 Note. — Bad has also evil and ill in the positive ; and much has also many. Elder and eldest come regularly from eld (now obso- lete). Superlatives ^A/^ith Different Meanings. Near nearer nearest {in place) next^ Lute later latest (in time) last \in order. Fore former foremost {in place) first J Note 1. — Prior, superior, ulterior, exterior, inferior, etc., involve the idea of comparison, like the words previous, preferable, and many others, but are not considered as comparatives, and are not followed by than, as English comparatives usually are. Note 2. — The termination ish makes what is sometimes called a subpositive ; as, bluish, blackish, etc. Some of the ideas expressed by adjectives are fixed and absolute. That is, they refer to things not capable of increase or diminution. Among these may be reckoned those which denote some definite number, shape, or posi- tion ; as, fjoo, three, second, third, circular, triangular, perpeudicular, QiG,; also those which express the substance of which any thing is made, as, golden, flaxen, etc. ; also many such words as whole, tiuiveraal, supreme. All such adjectives are incapable of being comjjared. Exercises in Comparison. — Compare unlucky, lucky, benev- olent, shady, sad, active, abusive, noisy, lazy, gay, fine, irregular, har- monious. Juicy, ill-natured, thoughtless. Give the superlative of hind, inner, outer, top. Parsing Exercises. — Parse "wise" in the sentence, " Solomon was a wise king." Model. — "Wise (1.) is an adjective, it is used to qualify the noun ' king ; ' (2.) it is in the positive degree, compared * wise, wiser, wisest.' " Parse all the Nouns, Articles, and Adjectives in the following sentences : The exterior of the stone wall was perpendicular. It had a thickness of two feet at the top, and was still thicker at the bottom. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. We should not consider our inferiors contemptible, for though they may be our inferiors in rank, they are perhaps our superiors in virtue. The wicked often put off repentance to the eleventh hour. Eain water is less pleasant to the taste than river or spring water is. Though the former may contain less foreign matter, the latter is more acceptable to the thirsty. U '' 5^«^c IV. PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, The man is happy, because he is benevolent." Pronouns are divided into three classes ; Personal, Relative, and Adjective. Note. — Pronoun takes its name from the Latin pro^ for, and nomen^ a name. There is, I believe, some misapprehension in regard to the precise sense in which a pronoun stands instead of a noun. Some writers seem to enter- tain the opinion that a noun and its pronoun are strictly interchangeable words, and that not only is the latter a substitute for the former, but that the former may, in every case, be restored to its supposed original place in the sentence. This mistake originated probably from confining the attention to examples taken from the third person, where the noun may often, though very inelegantly, take the place of the pronoun which represents it. Thus, instead of " The man is happy because he is benevolent," we may say, *' The man is happy, because the man is benevolent." But, when Nathan says to David, "Thou art the man," David cannot be substituted for thou without changing ithe sense. To understand precisely in what sense a pronoun is used instead of a noun, it should be recollected that a noun has, in the first place, a meaning of its own, independently of its connection with the other words in the sentence. Thus, the word "book," as soon aa uttered, conveys to the mind a certain idea. In addition to this idea, thus contained in the word itself, a noun is capable of conveying to the mind, at the same time, certain other ideas in consequence of its offices, as a, possessor, as the subject or object of the verb, as indicating some relation to the speaker, etc. Now, the pronoun discharges this latter class of duties in place of the noun, and often where the noun itself could not be used for the purpose. The pronoun is the subject of the verb, the object of the verb, indicates ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 45 the speaker, the person spoken to, the person spoken of, distinguishes sex, etc., just as the noun would do in its place. At the same time, the noun cannot always, nor even often, replace the pronoun which refers to it. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The Personal Pronouns are five; /, thouj /le, she, it; with their plurals, we^ you, they. They are called Personal Pronouns because they de- note person by tlieraselves, and without reference to any other word. Personal Pronouns have Gender, Number, Person, and Case. The Personal Pronouns express the idea of Person by themselves, and independently of their connection with the other words in a sentence. Thus, /, thou, he, convey the idea of person at once, as soon as uttered. This idea, so far as it is expressed by the relative pronouns, and by nouos, is conveyed, not by anything in the meaning of the words themselves, but by means of their connection with other words. Thus, who, by itself, con- veys no intimation of person; but it becomes personal as soon as it is con- nected with an antecedent, as he who, thou who, man who. Some of the adjective pronouns (the Demonstrative) express indeed the idea of person by their own proper meaning, in the same manner as the personal pronoun, but they also express an additional and more important idea, which suffi- ciently distinguishes them from the former class. Their demonstrative character is the predominating one, and gives them their name. In like manner the Relative pronouns are distinguished from the other classes. Every pronoun, indeed, so far as it is a pronoun at all, necessarily relates to something. But this relation is not the leading and prominent idea in any except the Relative pronouns. In each class, it is the leading and prominent idea which gives name to the class, and not any property which it possesses exclusive of the rest. Thus, the leading idea in the Personal pronouns is the distinction of person; in the Relative pronouns, the rela- tion to the antecedent ; in the Adjective pronouns, the dependence of the word upon some noun in the manner of an adjective. Declension of the Personal Pronouns. First Person — Masc. or Fern. Singular. Plural. Nom. / Nom. we Poss. mi/, or mine Poss. our, or ours Obj. me Obj. us. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Second Person — Masc. or Fem. Singular. Plural. Nom. thou Nom. you Poss. thy, or thine Poss. your, or yours Obj. thee Obj. you. Third Person— Masculine. Singular. Plural. Nom. he Nom. they Poss. his Poss. their, or theirs Obj. him Obj. thejn. Third Person — Feminine. Singular. Plural. Nom. &he Nom. they Poss. her, or hers Poss. their, or theirs Obj. her Obj. ^Aewi. Third Person — Neuter. Singular. Plural. Nom it Nom. they Poss. its Poss. ^AaV, or theirs Obj. it Obj. ^Ae7/i. The fact that in most languages no separate forms have been invented for the masculine and feminine of the First and Second Persons may be ac- counted for perhaps by inquiring into the reason why gender itself was in- vented. Gender seems to be a contrivance to assist in distinguishing more clearly the person or thing that is the subject of discourse. Now in the first and second persons, this is unnecessary. The !=peaker, and the one spoken to, are present to the view, and by that very fact need nothing else to distin- guish them. But the third person, that is, the thing spoken of, is or may be absent, and needs the distinction of gender to designate it more clearly. Remarks on the Personal Pronouns. 1. In the first person, the plural we is often used for the singular /, by Editors, Reviewers, Governors, etc. 2. In the second person, the plural is generally used for the singular. Thus, you is used for thou, your or yours for thy or thine, and you for thee. In prayers to God, however, and on other solemn occasions, we use the singular form, thou, thy or thine, thee. 3. Where a plural pronoun is thus used, while only one person is meant, the verb as well as the pronoun must be plural. Thus : we are, not we is ; you were, not you was. ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 47 4. The second person plural had originally ye in the nomina- tive and you in the objective. The form ye, however, has now become obsolete, and yoa is used both for the nominative and the objective. 5. The Possessives should never be written with an apostrophe, her'Sy it's, our'Sf your's, their's, but always thus: hers^ its, ours, yours, theirs. 6. The adjective own is frequently found connected with the possessive case of the personal pronoun, in order to make the possessive emphatic ; thus, " It is your own fault." Compound Personal Pronouns. Myself, thyself, himself herself and itself with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are called Cora- pound Personal Pronouns. Note. — In the Compound Personal Pronouns, the nominative and objective cases are alike, and the possessive is wanting. No formal declension of them, therefore, is needed. These Compound Personal Pronouns, it is to be noticed, are fonned by adding self in the Singular and selves in the Plural to the simple pronoun. This addition is made, in the first and second persons, to the Possesulve case of the pronoun j in the third person, the addition is made to the Objective. Parsing Exercises. — Parse "he," in the sentence, "When John was at school, he wrote a letter to his father." Model. — "He" is (1.) a personal pronoun, (2.) masculine gender, (3.) singular number, (4.) third person, (5.) nominative case, subject of the verb "wrote." Parse all the Personal Pronouns in the following examples : The wind, when it blows upon my body, making it shiver, tells me that I am mortal, though some persons would only complain that they were obliged to bear its bufFetings. The Queen of Sheba retired from Solomon's presence, con- vinced that his wisdom was greater than any account that had been given to her of it, would have led her to infer. We, the people, watch with jealousy those who are our rulers, that they may not infringe upon our rights, and that the liberties 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. which we possess may be secured to our children when they suc- ceed us. Parse all the Articles, Nouns, and Adjectives in the foregoing sentences. II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The Kelative Pronouns are, who, which, what, and that. These are called Relative Pronouns because they re- late to some word going before, called the antecedent ; as, " J7ie boy who wishes to be learned must be studious." Every pronoun, indeed, necessarily relates to the word which it represents. But this relation is not the leading and prominent idea in any except the Relative pronouns. (See remarks under Personal Pronouns, p. 45.) Wlio is used in speaking of persons; as, "The gentle- man who called," " The lady who called." Which is used ordinarily in speaking of inferior animals, or of things without life ; as, *^ The horse which was bought," " The pencil which was given." Which is often used as an adjective pronoun; as, " Which things are an allegory." JV/iat, as a relative, takes the place of which whenever the antecedent is omitted. " This is [the thing] which I wanted." If we omit the ante- cedent, the which must be changed to what. " This is [ ] what I wanted." No reason can be given for this peculiarity, except that custom has made it so. It is a law of the language. We have a usage somewhat like this in some of the possessive pronouns. *'This is my [book]." If we leave out the noun, the pronoun must he changed. " This is inine [ ]." The pronouns which follow this rule are six, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs. They uniformly take the place of the ordinary form, whenever the noun expressing the thing possessed is omitted, just as wliat takes the place of which whenever the antecedent is omitted. ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 49 The word left out in these cases is usually something so easily supplied, that it seems to exist in the pronoun itself, whereas it really exists only in our own thoughts. What dOes not of itself mean " the thing which," any more than mine of itself means "my hook." In both instances, the noun is at once suggested to the mind, but it is not wrapped up in some myste- rious manner in the pronoun. We have in English other instances which still further strengthen this view of the case. " [He] who steals my purse steals trash." Here tcho does not stand for " he who ; " the antecedent is supplied by the mind. " We speak that [which] we do know." John 3: 10. "I am that [which] lam." Ex. 3: 14. ** Gather the sequel by that [which] went before." — Shakespeare. Here we do not say that that is equivalent to " that which." The " which " is suggested by the mind, not wrapped up in the " that." Wliat always refers to things without life, and therefore is always neuter. It maybe either singular or plural. "What [the thing which] appears to be a fault is only a virtue in dis- guise." " What [the things which] appear to be faults are only virtues in disguise." What is often used as an adjective pronoun ; as, " We lost what books we had." Here lost has for its object some words understood, which the mind readily suggests. But if we insert them, the other part of the construction is immediately changed. " We lost [those books] lohich [ ] wo had." What books is allowable only when the corresponding antecedent words are left out. Thxdy as a relative, takes the place of either who or which. That is used in speaking either of persons or of things ; as, " The best boy that lives," " The same book that was lost," and it is used in both numbers ; as, " The best boys that live," " The same books that were lost." The word that is used in three senses. 1. Sometimes it has the niejining of who or luhich; as, "The best boy that lives;" and tlien it is a Relative Pronoun. 2. Sometimes it points out a noun ; as, that boy ; and then it is an Adjective Pronoun. 3. Sometimes it shows the dependence of one verb upon another; as. He wished that he had done it ; and then it is a Conjunction. 5 D 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, What and that are indeclinable. Who and which are alike in both numbers, and are thus declined : Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. Nom. who Poss. whose Obj. whom. Nom. which Poss. whose Obj. which. Compound Relatives. The Compound Relatives are six, namely, whoever, who- soever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. They are formed by adding ever and soever to the rel- atives who, which, and what. These Compounds are sometimes separated by an intervening noun ; as, " Into whose house soever ye enter." Whosoever is regularly declined like who ; thus, Sing, and Plur. Nom. whosoever Poss. whosesoever Obj. whomsoever. The other Compound Relatives are indeclinable. Like the relative ivhat, the Compound Relatives are for the most part used when the related noun or pronoun is omitted ; as, " Whosoever committeth sin [he] is the servant of sin," " Whatever is evil [it] should be avoided." Sometimes, however, for greater emphasis, especially in ancient writings, the related noun or pronoun is expressed ; as, " Blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me," "Whosoever will, let him take of the water of life." Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever are also used as adjective pronouns ; as, " Whichever side you choose, you are sure to win." Whether (meaning which one of the two) is now obsolete, which being used in its place. Whether (a Conjunction) is still in use. ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 51 Whoso, formerly iised for whoever, or whosoever, is also now ob- solete. Interrogatives and Responsives. In ashing questions, who, which, and what are called Interrogatives, In answering questions, who, which, and what are called Eesponsives. As Interrogatives, who, which, and what have no antecedent, but relate to a word subsequent, contained in the answer. Thus, " WIio did it? John." As responsives, who, which, and what seem to relate to no word, either antecedent or subsequent. Thus, in the response, " I do not know who wrote it," supplying an antecedent changes the meaning. *•' I do not know the person who wrote it," means, I am not acquainted with him, which is quite a diflferent idea. Which and what, when used as Interrogatives, or Responsives, or when joined with ever and soever, apply to persons as well as things; as. Which of them did it? John. What is he? A lawyer. The Responsive used in answering a question must be the same as the one used in asking it ; thus, Wio wrote the book ? I do not know who wrote it. Which of the gentlemen was it? I do not know which of them it was. ^Vhat is he ? I do not know what he is. In asking about persons, who inquires for the name ; as, " Who wrote the book? Mr. Webster;" which asks for the particular individual, where there are several persons of the same name ; as, " Which of the Websters wrote it? Noah Webster;" what asks for the person's character or occupation; as, " What was Mr. Webster? A lexicographer." Note. — A Relative Pronoun is always of the same gender, number, and person as its antecedent. Models for Parsing. — "John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father." " Who" (1.) is a relative pronoun, relating to "John" for its antecedent; (2.) it is in the masculine gender, 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (3.) singular number, (4.) and third person, to agree with "John ;" and (5.) it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb " was." "Give me what I want." "What" (1.) is a relative pronoun, relating to "that" or some other like antecedent omitted; (2.) it is in the neuter gender, (3.) singular number, (4.) and third person, to agree with the omitted antecedent; and (5.) it is in the objective case, object of the verb " want." " We lost what books we had." " What " is a relative, used as an adjective pronoun, and as such qualifies " books." " Wlhoever hopes to win the prize, must labor hard." " Who- ever" (1.) is a compound relative pronoun, composed of who and ever ; (2.) it relates to "person" or some other like word omitted, which omitted word is the subject of the verb " must labor ; " (3.) "whoever" is in the common gender, (4.) singular number, (5.) third person, to agree with the omitted antecedent; and (6.) it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb "hopes." "TT%o wrote the letter? John." "Who" is an interrogative pronoun, relating to the subsequent word "John ; " it is in the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, to agree with "John ;" and is in the nominative case, subject of the verb " wrote." " Who wrote the letter ? " " Who" is an interrogative pronoun, relating to some noun contained in the answer, and not yet given ; its gender, number, and person, therefore, cannot be determined ; it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb " wrote." " I do not know who wrote it." " Who," is a responsive pro- noun, not relating to any word, either antecedent or subsequent ; its gender, number, and person, cannot be determined ; it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb " wrote." Parsing Exercises. — Parse all the pronouns, Eelative, Com- pound Relative, Interrogative, and Responsive, in the following sentences : In this country in which we live, every one that is a citizen can enjoy what in other countries is enjoyed by only a favored few. The President whom we have just chosen to rule over us is a living example of what the poorest man may achieve. Whoever has the ability to rise, is in no way checked by a gov- ernment which affords equal protection to all. By what slow degrees the little acorn becomes the mighty oak I ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 53 Whatever skill I have in composition, is due to the manner in which I was trained. In the haste and confusion, I could not see by whom it was that he was struck. What happened to you and your sister on your way to school ? Parse each of the Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, and Personal Pronouns in the foregoing sentences. III. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. The Adjective Pronouns are so called because they qualify or limit a noun, as an adjective does. The proper rank of the class of words hero called Adjective Pronouns is a matter about which there is a good deal of difiference of opinion. They have the construction of adjectives, being always connected with a noun, expressed or understood. At the same time, they are used without the noun, and instead of it, in such a way, and to so much greater extent than ordinary adjectives, as to give them decidedly a Pronominal character. They seem in fact to hold a sort of middle position between adjectives and pronouns. Hence, they are called by some, Pronominal Adjectives j by others, Adjective Pronouns. I adhere to the latter name, because it has been admitted into the grammars of almost all languages, ancient and modern, and because I deem any change of established nomenclature a serious evil, not to be incurred unless for the most urgent reasons. In this case, no substantial error seems likely to arise from classing these words under either head. The principal point for the learner is to know which the words are, and to have some tolerably accurate name by which to call them. The Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into three kinds or classes ; viz. Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. Note. — My, thij, his, hei', its, our, your, and their (which have been given as personal pronouns in the possessive case) are some- times called Possessive Adjective Pronouns. I. DISTRIBUTIVES. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are eachy every, either y neither. 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. These are called Distributives, because they refer separately and singly to each person or thing of a number of persons or things. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns, therefore, are all in the singular number. Each is used when speaking of two or more. Example : ^'Each of you must go directly home." This will be correct whether it is addressed to two persons, or to more than two. Every is never used except when speaking of more than two. Example: '^ Every one of you must go directly home." This would not be correct if addressed to only two persons. Each and every mean all that make up the number, although taken separately. Either means one or the other, but not both. It is used, there- fore, when speaking of but two persons or things. Neither means not ieither. II. DEMONSTRATIVES. The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are this and thaty with their plurals, these and those. They are called Demonstratives, because they point out in a definite manner the objects to which they relate; as, "This hoy recited well, but that boy did not; " " These men are ofiicers, but those men are privates. " The Demonstratives this and these, are applied to near objects ; that and those to objects that are distant. In contrast, that refers to the first mentioned, this to the last; as, "Wealth and poverty are both temptations; that [wealth] tends to excite pride, this [poverty] to discontent." III. INDEFINITES. The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are any, ally suchy somey bothy one, none, other, another. They are called Indefinites, because they point out in an indefinite manner the objects to which they relate. One, other, another are sometimes used as nouns. When thus used, they are declined. Thus : ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 55 ( Nom. One r Nom. Other Sing. < Poss. One's Sing. < Poss. Other's lobj. One lobj. Other rNom. Ones rNom. Others Plur. } Poss. Ones' Flur. \ Poss. Others' (Obj. Ones. I Obj. Others. Another is merely the article an and other, and is used only in the singular number, Nom. Another, Poss. Another's, Obj. Another. Parsing Exercises. — Parse **this," in the sentence, "John wrote this letter." Model. — "This" (1.) is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, (2.) singular number, (3.) and belongs to or limits the nouu " letter." Parse the Pronouns, Personal, Relative, and Adjective, in the following sentences : Tliat class of society in which only those who are wealthy are members, and in which each individual possesses no other merit, may be respected, but it has not the highest. claims to respecta- bility. All wise and good men, of any class, or of whatever rank, or of either of the two grades which the world has made, — the rich and the poor, — are worthy of respect. Such men receive the respect of all. V. VERBS. A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm ; as " John strikes tlie table." Note. — Verb takes its name from the Latin verbum, a word. Affirmation is true of no other part of speech, and may bo considcreQ the diftinguifhing characteristic of the verb. The general idea, which in a verb is expressed in the form of an assertion, may bo conceived of in various other forms, and so become successively difTcrent parts of speech. Thus, for instance, take the general idea of sleeping. If wo think or speak of the name of this idea, it is a Noun, as, sleep. If the idea is connected with any subject as one of its accidents, qualities, or attributes, but without 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. any aflSrmation, it is an Adjective, as, the sleepy boy. If the idea is afiBrmed or predicated of the subject of discourse, it is a verb, as, the boy sleeps. The idea may be introduced as a modification of some other quality or attribute, and then it is an Adverb, as, the boy acts sleepily. In all these instances, the same general idea exists as a common substratum, or groundwork. That which distinguishes one part of speech from another, is not that one expresses some idea of an act or a substance and another does not (which is not true) ; but that an idea, when conceived and spoken of as the subject of discourse, is a Noun ; when conceived and spoken of as an attribute or quality of some subject, is an Adjective; when affirmed or predicated, is a Verb. The fol- lowing, from the Latin, is a good example of the same general idea being conceived of under different forms and becoming successively different parts of speech: ^' Docere docilem facile est, ut docilitatis suae edat documentumj celeri apprehensione doctrinse, fiatque vir doctus, et sentiat docte." The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost sight of. See remarks upon the Adjective, pp. 40, 41. I. ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. Verbs have the attributes of Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. Certain parts of the verb also are called Participles. I. VOICE. Voice is that attribute of the verb which denotes whether the subject or nominative of the verb acts, or is acted upon. Verbs have two voices, the Active, and the Passive. The Active Voice is that form of the verb which denotes that the subject or nominative acts, or does the thing mentioned ; as, " John strikes the table." The Passive Voice is that form of the verb which denotes that the subject or nominative is acted upon ; as, " The table is struch by John." Explanation. — Take the sentence, " John strikes the table." The sub- ject or nominative of the verb is John, who performs the action. It is of him that the assertion is made. But suppose the same action to be ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 67 expressed thus : " The table is struck by John." Here, the subject or nom- inative of the verb is changed. It is of the table that the assertion is now made. In the first form of the sentence, the subject of the verb acta ; in the second form, the subject is acted upon. That attribute of a verb by which it thus denotes whether the subject of the affirmation acts, or is acted upon, is called Voice. II. MOOD. Mood is that attribute of a verb by which it denotes the manner or way in which the assertion is expressed. Note. — Mood is only another form of the word " mode," and signifies manner, or way. Verbs have five Moods, the Indicative, the Subjunc- tive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. It is the office of the verb to assert or affirm something. If this asser- tion or affirmation is limited to some subject or nominative, the verb is said to he finite. The assertion may be connected with the subject in four dif- ferent ways, giving rise to the four finite modes or moods. 1. The asser- tion may be expressed directly and without limitation, and then it is in the Indicative mood; as, "The boy sleeps." 2. It may be expressed as an un- certainty, and then it is in the Subjunctive mood; as, "If the boy sleep." 3. It may bo expressed as a possibility, etc., and then it is in the Potential mood ; as, " The boy may sleep." 4. It may be expressed as a command, etc., and then it is in the Imperative mood ; as, " Sleep, boy." Sometimes the assertion is not limited to any particular subject, and then it is said to be in the Infinitive, that is, the unlimited mood; as, " To sleep." The Indicative Mood is that form of the verb in which the assertion is expressed directly and without limitation; as. He writes. Note. — The Indicative mood is also used in asking direct questions; as, Does the sun shine? Does my mother love me? This is sometimes called the Interrogative form. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb in which the assertion is expressed as an uncertainty; as, If he write. 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Subjunctive mood is generally preceded by a conjunction, such as if, though, although, unless, except, whether, lest. Sometimes, in the Past Tense, by transposing the words and putting the verb or a part of it before the nominative, the verb becomes Subjunctive without the use of a preceding conjunction. Thus : " Had I a book> I would study the lesson," "Were I sure of the fact, I would consent." These expressions mean, "Ifl had a book," "//I were sure of the fact," etc. The Subjunctive mood is always accompanied by another verb in some other mood. Without this it cannot make complete sense. Thus, " If he write carefully, he will succeed." The Potential Mood is that form of the verb which expresses possibility, liberty, power, willingness, or ob- ligation ; as, he can zvrite ; he may write ; he must write. Note. — The Potential mood is also used in asking questions; as, May I write ? Must I write ? etc. The Imperative Mood is that form of the verb which is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit ; as. Write the copy according to the directions; Father, forgive us; go, if you desire it. The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which is not limited to a subject, or which has no subject; as, To write. Note. — The word Infinitive is from the Latin in, not, and Jinis, end or limit. "ill. TENSE. Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it ex- presses distinctions of Time. Note. — The word Tense is from the Latin tempus, time. There are six Tenses, the Present, the Past, and the ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 69 Future; the Present- Perfect, the Past-Perfect, and the Future-Perfect. The Present, Past, and Future are called Primary Tenses ; The Present-Perfect, Past-Perfect, and Future- Perfect are called Secondary Tenses. The names originally given to the Tenses, in works on English Gram- mar, were taken from the Latin Grammar, and were as follows : Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First Future, Second Future. Two of these terms, namely, Imperfect and Perfect, which answered well enough for the Latin, have been found inconvenient and confusing, as applied to the English, and are now pretty generally abandoned. The Latin Imperfect expressed an idea for which our only English repre- sentative is a compound, known as the Progressive Form, while the Latin Perfect expressed the two ideas which in English were called Imperfect and Perfect. Thus, the Latin Imperfect, scribebam, meant what we express by the Progressive form, I toaa writing. This Progressive form in English is not limited, as it is in the Latin, to a single tense, but runs through the whole verb : I am writing, I was writing, I shall be writing, etc. Again, the Latin Perfect, ecripai, expressed two distinct ideas, I wrote, and F have written, which in the old English grammars were called respectively the Im- perfect and the Perfect teuses. Inevitable confusion was the result of this nomenclature. In adapting the nomenclature of the Tenses in English to the actual forms and meanings, we observe that there are three natural and primary divisions of time, the Present, the Past, and the Future, giving rise to the three primary Tenses, as represented by I write, I wrote, I shall write; and to each of these is joined a secondary Tense, represented severally by I have written, I had written, I shall have written, and each expressing, in addition to the time of its primary tense, the idea of completed action. The Present Tense is that form of the verb which denotes simply present time ; as, I write. Note 1. — The Present Tense often expresses what is habitual, universal, or permanent, as, " The sun gives light by day, the moon by night ; " " Charity thinketh no evil." Note 2. — When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as, when, after, as soon as, etc., the Present Tense sometimes conveys the idea of that which is yet future ; as, " He will go as soon as he is ready." 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Past Tense is that form of the verb which de- notes simply past time ; as, I wrote. Note. — This Tense was formerly called the Imperfect Tense. The Future Tense is that form of the verb which denotes simply future time; as, I shall write. The Present-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which denotes what is past and finished, but which is con- nected also with the present time ; as, I have written. The Present- Perfect expresses what continues to the present time in its consequences, although we know that the period of the action was completed long ago ; as, " Cicero has written orations." We cannot in like manner say, ** Cicero has written poems." His poems are lost, his orations still ex- ist. Cicero, thepoet, perished long since, but Cicero, the orator, is still ex- tant, and may be conceived as existing and acting in a period extending down to the present moment. For the same reason, we cannot say, '' The Druids have claimed great powers," for they were long since extinct, and they have left no writing or other instrument in which such claim can be conceived as now set forth. We may, however, say, " Mahomet has claimed great powers," for the claim still exists in the Koran. An author is uni- versally considered as living while his writings live. Hence he may be considered as having done a thing in a period of time not yet expired. Note. — When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as when, after, as soon as, etc., the Present-Perfect Tense, like the Present, often denotes something yet to come; as, "When I have finished my letter, I will attend to your request." The Past-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which denotes what was past and finished, before some other event which is also past; as, I had written the letter, before it Avas called for. The Future-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which denotes a future time prior to some other time which is itself future ; as, I sh'all ham written the letter before it will be called for. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 61 Remarks on the Moods and Tenses. 1. The Number of the Tenses in the Different Moods. — The In- dicative Mood has all six of the tenses; the Subjunctive has two, the Present and the Past; the Potential has four, the Present, the Past, the Present- Perfect, and the Past-Perfect; the Imperative has only the Present; and the Infinitive has the Present and the Present-Perfect. 2. The Tense, Person, and Number of the Imperative Mood. — A command, an exhortation, or an entreaty, is necessarily a present act. The Imperative mood, therefore, is always in the Present Tense, The command, exhortation, or entreaty, being spoken to some party, is necessarily in the Second Person. It will be Singular or Plural according to circumstances, as its nominative is usually either thou, or you, understood. Thus, "Sit still," if addressed to one person, is Singular, and means, " Sit thou still ;" if addressed to more than one, it is Plural, and means, " Sit you still." Whether the nominative to the Imperative mood is thou understood, or you, must be learned, in each particular case, from other words in the sentence. "Brethren, pray for us." Here, the word ** brethren" shows that more than one are addressed. Therefore, the verb is plural, and its nominative is " you " understood. " Father, forgive them." Here, the word " Father " shows that only one is addressed. The verb, therefore, is singular, and its nominative is *' thou " understood. Formerly, the nominative of the Imperative mood was sometimes ex- pressed; as, "Sit ye here, while I go and pray yonder;" "Sit thou on my right hand." 3. The Tenses of the Potential and Subjunctive Moods. — The Ten- ses in the Subjunctive and Potential moods are used with less precision than in the Indicative. This arises in part from the meaning of some of the auxiliaries and conjunctions, which modify the time expressed in the affirnvition ; and in part from mere usage, of which no other account can be given, than that the particular form docs in fact convey a certain idea of time. Still, in very many cases, the tenses of the Subjunctive and Po- tential moods express the same distinctions of time as the tenses of the same name in the Indicative. It has not been thought expedient, there- fore, to change the names of the tenses, or to invent new names, to suit every change of meaning produced by custom or by particular combination of words, but to name the tense in every case by its form. Thus, in the sentence, " If he continue impenitent, he will perish," the accompanying words show that the meaning of "continue" is future, although its form is that of the present. It is probably only an abbrevia- tion for "shall continue." So, also, in the sentence, "If I had the money, I would pay you," had undoubtedly expresses present time, not past; still, it has the form of the past, and should be called accordingly. Thus, also, the auxiliaries might, could, would, and should, arc often used as expressing the primary meaning of these words, that is, simply possibility, liberty, 6 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. willingness, or obligation, without distinguishing the time, or, rather, leaving the time to be determined by the other words in the sentence. They may therefore be used with equal propriety, whether the meaning is present, past, or future. Thus, " He could do it now, if he would " (Pres- ent) ; " He could not do it yesterday, because his father would not let him " (Past) ; " He could do it to-morrow, if his father would let him " (Future). 4. Peculiar use of the Verbs To Have and To Be. — There is a peculiar usage of to have and to be that needs to bo noted. Were is often used with a potential meaning, or in the sense of loould be ; thus, "I were an idiot, thus to speak," that is, " I would be an idiot," etc. In like man- ner, had is used in the sense of woidd have; thus, "It had been good for that man if he had never been born," that is, " It would have been good," etc. There is another use of had still more remarkable. It is where had bears the meaning simply of woidd; as, " I had as lief not be, as live to be," etc. IV. PARTICIPLES. A Participle is that form of the verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb and of an adjective. Note. — The word Participle is from the Latin particeps, par- taker of. Nature of tlie Participles. — The Participles contain an aflBrmation in the form of a supposition, or in a kind of incomplete or suspended state. Thus, " The man having finished his letter will carry it to the post-office." Here, the participle " having finished " contains precisely the same meaning that would have been conveyed by the expression, "when he has finished." It is the affirmation of the verb subject to some limitation, or in a state of suspense. The participles also express distinctions of time, which is another of the peculiar properties of the verb. Hence they are, by almost common consent, considered parts df the verb. They partake also of the nature of the adjective, inasmuch as they are joined to a noun in construction, in the same manner as an adjective is. The Participles are three, the Present, the Past or Perfect, and the Compound-Perfect. The Present Participle denotes that which is now in progress; as, goings being j livingy working j etc. The Present participles all end in ing. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 63 The Past or Perfect Participle denotes that which is complete or finished; as, written^ stolen, added. The Compound -Perfect Participle denotes that which is finished before something else mentioned ; as, having written j having stolen , having added. Many-mistakes have arisen from supposing the English participles to cor- respond, more nearly than they in truth do, to the Latin participles. In Latin, excepting in deponent verbs, the Present participle is always active, the Past always passive. Hence, some grammarians assume the same to bo always true in English. They take for granted that the participle in ing is essentially and necessarily active, and that the participle in ed is essen- tially and necessarily passive. Neither of these is true. The Past participle is extensively used in making the compound forms of the active voice. When we analyze one of these compound expressions, as for instance, he had concealed, we call had the auxiliary, and con- cealed the past participle. But the force of the participle in this combina- tion is different from what it is when found in the passive voice, or when standing alone. Thus, in the sentence, " He had a dagger concealed under his cloak," concealed is passive, signifying being concealed ; but in the former combination, it goes to make up a form the force of which is active. This is obvious the moment we attempt to translate the two expressions into any language where the difference is distinguished by a difference of termination. Thus, in Latin, "He had concealed the dagger," would be "pugionem ahdi~ derat ; " but, " He had the dagger concealed," would be " pugionem ahditnm hahnit." It should bo remarked, however, that this participle in the active is found only in combination. Whenever it stands alone, to be parsed as a participle, it is passive. A usage similar in some respects prevails in regard to the Present parti- ciple in iug. When it stands by itself, as a participle, it is invariably active. But in combination, in making what is called the Progressive Form of the verb, it is not invariably active; as, in the phrase, " The house is building." I know the correctness of this mode of expression has lately been very much assailed, and an attempt, to some extent successful, has been made to intro- duce the form " is being built." But, in the first place, the old mode of ex- pression is a well established usage of the language, being found in our best and most correct writers. Secondly, the same reasoning which has led to the expression " is being built," would lead equally to such cumbersome forms as "was being built," "has been being built," "had been being built," "shall be being built," "shall have been being built," "might have been being built," etc. Thirdly, the same mode of proceeding, which requires us in this case to deny any force to usage, and to consider the termination ing always active, because it is generally so, would lead, if carried out, to still wider con- 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. sequences. For instance, when we say, " The house is building," the advocates of the new theory ask, " building what ? " We might ask in turn, when you say, " Wheat sells well," sells what ? If usage allows us to say, " Wheat soils at a dollar," in a sense that is not active, why may it not also allow us to say, "Wheat is selling at a dollar," in a sense that is not active ? V. NUMBER AND PERSON. Verbs have variations of form, to correspond with the number and person of their subject. These variations are called the Numbers and Persons of the verb. Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural ; and three Persons, First, Second, and Third. Thus : Singular. Plural. First Person. I am. I First Person. We are. /Second Person. Thou art. Second Person. You are. 2%ird Person. He is. Third Person. They are. II. CLASSES OF VERBS. Verbs are divided into the following classes : Trans- itive and Intransitive ; Regular and Irregular ; Impersonal, Defective, and Auxiliary. I. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. A Transitive Verb is one which requires an objective case to complete the meaning ; as, James writes a letter. An Intransitive Verb is one which does not require an objective case to complete the meaning; as, John sleeps. Explanation. — In the sentences, "James touched Pefer," " James touched him" if the object is left out, and we say simply " James touched ," the meaning is incomplete. Note. — The word Transitive is from the Latin trans, across, over to, and ire, itum, to go. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 65 Remarks on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 1. Many verbs are used either transitively or intransitively ; as, " He reads well," " He reads a book." 2. Intransitive verbs are not used in the Passive Voice : thus, we may say to laugh, but not to be laughed. 3. When verbs usually intransitive are followed by certain prep- ositions, the verb and preposition sometimes form a kind of com- pound verb, which is transitive, and admits of a passive voice: thus, we say to laugh at a person (Act.); to be laughed at by him, (Pass.) 4. Verbs usually intransitive sometimes take after them an ob- jective of kindred signification. In that case they are transitive, and admit of a passive voice ; as, " I run a race," " A race is run." 5. Transitive verbs in English are sometimes used without an objective case, in a sense between the active and passive voices ; as, / taste the apple ; the apple is tasted by me ; the apple tastes sweet. There are two classes of verbs perfectly distinct from each other, viz. : Those which do, and those which do not, require an objective case in order to complete the meaning. The terms active and neuter, formerly used to express this distinction, are now generally abandoned. A strong objection to them was, that, in many verbs which require an objective case, it is at least doubtful whether any action, in the ordinary sense of that term, takes place ; while, on the contrary, a large proportion of the verbs called neuter, and which, by the definition, ought to express no action, do yet in fact express action in the highest degree, as, to run, to walk, to sioim, etc. An- other and still stronger objection was that the terms active and neuter, as applied to verbs, produced confusion and doubt about the distinctions of active and passive, as applied to Voice. It needs no argument to prove that / am struck is just as really a modification of to strike, as / haife struck is ; and yet, under the old classification of active, passive, and neuter, the pupil was taught to consider these forms as two verbs belonging to different classes. / have struck, for instance, was called an active verb ; / am struck, a passive verb ; and I walk, a neuter verb. Under the present arrangement, the terms Active and Passive express a distinction, not of verbs, but o^: Voice. The active voice of a verb is distinguished from its passive voice, just as one of its moods or tenses is distinguished from any other mood or tense. There would seem to be no more reason for dividing verbs into active and passive verbs, than for dividing them into present verbs, past verbs, indicative verbs, potential verbs, etc. 6* E 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Verbs may indeed be divided into those whicb express action, and those •which do not express action. But the number of the latter will be very small, including the verbs to be, to exist, and some few others ; and the dis- tinction, when conceded, will be of no available use for any of the prac- tical purposes of grammar. Some verbs will be found requiring an objec- tive case, in which it is difficult to perceive any action, while others express- ing intense activity will be found without an objective case. The terms Transitive and Intransitive have been used, because in very many, perhaps a majority, of the verbs which take an objective case, some action may be conceived as passing from the agent to the object; as, James strikes the table. Here, the act of striking passes from the agent, James, to the object, which is the table. There are many cases, however, in which such a transition cannot readily be traced ; as, he enjoys repose. Still, the terms seem the least objectionable that have yet been proposed, especially if limited by their definition to the classification really meant, viz. : to VERBS WHICH DO, AND THOSE WHICH DO NOT, REQUIRE AN OBJECTIVE CASE. II. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Tense and Past Participle by the addition of ed to its present tense ; as, Present, love; Past, loved; Past Participle, loved. Note. — In the case of Regular Verbs ending in e, the e final of the verb is dropped on taking the suSix ed. (See Rule II, Part I, page 17.) An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its Past Tense and Past Participle by the addition of ed to its present tense ; as, Present, write ; Past, wrote ; Past Par- ticiple, written. The Verbs now called Irregular are in fact the remains of the original and oldest form of the English verb, that known as the Strong Conjugation. It was formed mainly by internal changes in the stem of the word, as drive drove, sing sang, steal stole, rather than by a suffix. In like manner, the few nouns said to be irregular, as man men, tooth teeth, etc., are the remains of the earliest mode of forming the plural. Some of the verbs called Irregular are really parts of different defective verbs, put together to make one whole. Thus, go and gone are the Present and Participle of a verb whose Past tense has become obsolete, while went is the Past tense of another verb of like meaning. In like manner, am, was, been, are severally parts of three distinct verbs, each wanting its other parts, and each expressing the common idea of existence. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 67 The Irregular Verbs. PrtMmt. Past. Past Pari. Abide, abode. abode. Am, was. been. Arise, arose. arisen. Awake, awoke, awaked, awaked. Bear [to bring forth ),bore, bare. born. Bear (^0 carry), bore. borne. Beat, beat. beat, beaten. Begin, began. begun. Bend, bended, bent. bended, bent. Bereave, bereaved, bereft. bereaved, bereft. Beseech, besought, besought. Bestride, bestrid, bestrode, bestrid, bestridden, Betide, betid, betided. betid. Bid, bid, bade. bid, bidden. Bind, bound. bound. Bite, bit. bitten, bit. Bleed, bled. bled. Blow, blew. blown. Break, broke. broken. Breed, bred. bred. Bring, brought. brought. Build, built, builded, built, builded. Burn, burned, burnt, burned, burnt. Burst, burst, burst. Buy, bought. bought. Cast, cast, cast. Catch, caught, catched. caught, catched. Chide, chid. chid, chidden. Choose, chose, chosen, chose. Cleave [to split), cleft, clove. cleft, cloven. Cling, clung, clung. Clothe, clothed, clad, clothed, clad. Come, came. come. Cost, cost, cost. Creep, crept. crept. Crow, crew, crowed. crowed. Cut, cut, cut. Dare [to venture), dared, durst. dared. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PresetU. Fast. Past Part. Deal, dealed, dealt. dealed, dealt. r>ig, dug, digged, dug, digged. Do, did. done. Draw, drew. drawn. Dream, dreamed , dreamt. dreamed, dreamt. Drink, drank, drunk. Drive, drove, driven. Dwell, dwelled. dwelt. dwelled, dwelt. ' Eat, eat, ate. eat, eaten. Fall, fell. fallen. Feed, fed. fed. Feel, felt. felt. Fight. fought. fought. Find, found. found. Flee, fled, fled. Fling, flung, flung. Fly, flew. flown. Forsake, forsook. forsaken. Freeze, froze, frozen. Get, got, got, gotten. Gild, gilded, gilt. gilded, gilt. Gird, girded, girt. girded, girt. Give, gave. given. Go, went. gone. Grave, graved. graven, graved. Grind, ground. ground. Grow, grew, grown. Hang, hanged, hung. hanged, hung. Have, had, had. Hear, heard. heard. Heave, heaved, '. hove, heaved. Hew, hewed. hewed, hewn. Hide, hid. hid, hidden. Hit, hit, hit. Hold, held. held. Hurt, . hurt. hurt. Keep, kept, kept. Kneel, kneeled. knelt. kneeled, knelt. Knit, knit, knitted, knit, knitted. ETYMOLOGY- -VERBS. Present. But. Past Part. Know, knew. known. Lade, laded, laded, laden. Lay, laid, laid. Lead, led. led. Leave, left. left. Lend, lent. lent. Let, let. let. Lie [to recline), lay, lain. Light, lighted, lit, lighted, lit. Lose, lost, lost. Make, made, made. Mean, meant. meant. Meet, met. met. Mow, mowed. mowed, mown. Pay, paid. paid. Pen [to coop), penned, pent, penned, pent. Put, put, put. Quit, quit, quitted. quit, quitted. Read, read. read. Rend, rent, rent. Rid, rid, ridded. rid, ridded. Ride, rode. ridden. Ring, rang, rung, rung. Rise, rose, risen. Rive, rived, rived, riven. Run, ran, run. run. Say, said. said. Saw, sawed. sawed, sawn. See, saw, seen. Seek, sought, sought. Seethe, seethed, seethed, sodden. Sell, sold. sold. Send, sent, sent. Set, set, set. Shake, shook. shaken. Shape, shaped. shaped, shapen. Shave, shaved, shaved, shaven. Shear, sheared. sheared, shorn. Shed, shed. shed. Shine, shone, shined. shone, shined. 69 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Present. Past. Past Part. Shoe, shod. shod. Shoot, shot, shot. Show, showed. shown, showed. Shred, shred, shred. Shrink, shrunk. shrunk. Shut, shut, shut. Sing, sung, sang. sung. Sink, sunk, sank. sunk. Sit, sat, sat. Slay, slew. slain. Sleep, slept. slept. Slide, slid, slid, slidden. Sling, slung, slung. Slink, slunk, slunk. Slit, slit, slitted, slit, slitted. Smell, smelled, smelt. smelled, smelt. Smite, smote, smitten, smit. Sow, sowed, sowed, sown. Speak, spoke, spake. spoken. Speed, sped, speeded. sped, speeded. Spell, spelled, spelt. spelled, spelt. Spend, spent. spent. Spill, spilled, spilt, spilled, spilt. Spin, spun. spun. Spit, spit, spat. spit. Split, split, splitted. split, splitted. Spoil, spoiled, spoilt. spoiled, spoilt. Spread, spread, spread. Spring, sprung, sprang. sprung. Stand, stood, stood. Stave, staved, stove. staved, stove. Stay, stayed, staid. stayed, staid. Steal, stole. stolen. Stick, stuck. stuck. Sting, stung, stung. Stink, stunk. stunk. Strew, strewed, strewed, strewn, Stride, strid, strode. strid, stridden. Strike, struck. struck, stricken. String, strung. strung. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 71 Pretent. FiuL Peut Part. Strive, strove, striven. Swear, swore, sworn. Sweat, sweat, sweated. sweat,' sweated. Sweep, swept. swept. Swell, swelled. swelled, swollen. Swim, swam, swum. swum. Swing, swung, swung. Take, took, taken. Teach, taught. taught. Tear, tore. torn. Tell, told. told. Think, thought, thought. Thrive, thrived. thrived, thriven. Throw, threw. thrown. Thrust, thrust. thrust. Tread, trod, trod, trodden. Wax, waxed. waxed, waxen. Wear, wore, worn. Weave, wove. woven, wove. Weep, wept. wept. Wet, wet, wetted. wet, wetted. Win, won. won. Wind, wound, wound. Work, worked, wrought. worked, wrought. Wring, wrung. wrung. Write, wrote. written. III. IMPERSONAL VERBS. An Impersonal Verb is one which is never used ex- c^t with the pronoun it for its subject ; as, " It snows J^ Note. — We never say, "I snow," "Thou snowest," "He snows," etc. In the earlier forms of the English, Impersonal verbs were of very fre- quent occurrence, as much so as in Latin, and the construction was precisely like that of the Latin Irapersonals, the verb having no subject, and the noun or pronoun representing the subject being in the dative. Of the once extensive array of words in this form, all that now remain in English are the two compounds, me-aeems and me- thinks. In both these, the me was originally a separate word, and was in the dative case, meaning to me. The 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. thinJcs, of the second compound, is not, as it seems to be, from the word signifying to think, which was thencan, but from thincan, which meant to seem. The two compounds, therefore, meant originally precisely the same, namely, to-me-aeema, or, transposing, seems to vie; and the exact, literal equivalent of each, in the Latin, is mihi videtur. The forms in modern English, which are called Impersonal, such as it snores, it rains, etc., are not, strictly speaking, Impersonal, as each has an indefinite subject it. The only strictly Impersonal verbs that we now havo are the two compounds, me-seems and me-thinks, already noticed. IV. DEFECTIVE VERBS. A Defective Verb is one that is not used in all the Moods and Tenses ; as, must, ought, quoth, etc. V. AUXILIARY VERBS. An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the Moods and Tenses of other verbs. The auxiliary verbs are, shall, may, can, must, be, do, have, and will. Remarks on the Auxiliary Verbs. - 1. Th§se are called Auxiliary, or helping verbs, because by their help the other verbs form most of their moods and tenses. 2. Be, do, have, and sometimes will, are also used as principal verbs; as, they may be here; they do nothing; they have nothing; they will it to be so. As principal verbs, they have all the moods and tenses which other verbs have. 3. Be, as an Auxiliary, is used in all its moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, in forming the passive voice of other verbs ; as, I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved, etc. 4. Have, do, will, shall, may, can, as Auxiliaries, are used in only two forms, and must in only one form, viz. : Present. Have, do, will, shall, can, may, must. Fast. Had, did, would, should, could, might. 5. These forms taken by themselves may be considered as the Present and Past, but they do not always form the present and past when in combination with the other Auxiliaries or with the principal verb. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 73 6. Shall, may, can, and must are defective, having only the tenses given above, and are never used except as Auxiliaries. It would be a mistake to suppose, as is sometimes done, that the Auxil- iaries are mere inventions, introduced into the language for the purpose of making out the necessary forms. There is abundant evidence that the aux- iliaries were originally independent verbs, and that the verbs following tho auxiliaries were in the infinitive mood, to being omitted. " To," indeed, as a sign of the infinitive, was introduced into the language only in the later stages of its history. Originally, " to " was never found in connection with the infinitive. Even now it is not so found after some verbs; as, "I bade him follow." Here, "follow" is recognized as being in tho infinitive, just as much as "to follow" is in the sentence, "I told him to follow." So also "I saw him (to) follow" "They need not (to) follow," etc, Tho auxiliary "shall," meant, originally, "to be obliged." " I shall (to) write," meant, " I am obliged to write." So long as " shall " retained its original meaning and force, it was quite proper to parse "write" as being in the infinitive mood, as wo do the verb " follow " in the previous examples. In like man- ner, all the compound tenses may be analyzed. This analysis, and the study of tho proper force of the auxiliaries by themselves, are important as affording the best clue to tho true meaning and use of the various moods and tenses. It would be an equal mistake, on the other hand, because these compound forms may be thus analyzed and traced to original independent elements in the language, to deny their present existence as compounds, and to assert, as some recent grammarians have done, that there are in English but two tenses, the present and the past. As in chemistry, an alkali and an acid, when combined, form a compound with properties not found in either of the ingredients, so in language, particular combinations of words acquire by use new meanings not possessed by the words taken singly. The phrase "I shall be" meant, originally, "I am obliged to be," and the connection between these two ideas may be very ingeniously and truly traced. But the phrase now expresses simply and absolutely the idea oi futurity, with- out any sort of obligation. Tho man who says, " I shall he in New York to- morrow," conveys by the words shall he precisely what he would by the Latin ero. The former is just as much the future tense of the verb to he as the latter is of tho verb esse. To parse shall as a verb in the present tense, and he in the infinitive, would be just as erroneous as to deny Person to the Hebrew verb, because the forms of the persons may be analyzed, and the personal pronouns clearly detected in the terminations, and separated, if need be, from the rest of the verb. The same reasoning will apply to the proposed analysis of the other compound forms, do love, did love, have loved, have been, etc. The object aimed at is simplification. Tho writers in question seem, at first sight, to 7 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. accomplish their end, for they apparently despatch the whole verb, moods, tenses, and all, in a single sweeping paragraph. But in the end, the learner finds he has quite as much to learn in detached and unconnected parcels, as he had before under a systematic and orderly arrangement. III. CONJUGATION. The Conjugation of a verb is the orderly arrange- ment of its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. Note. — The verb " To Be " is irregular and intransitive, and has no voice. Conjugation of the verb To Be, INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am. 1. We are. 2. Thou art. 2. You are. 3. He is. 3. They are. Fast Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I was. 1. We were. 2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 3. He was. 3. They were. Future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 2. Thou wilt be. 2. You will be. 3. He will be. 3. They will be. Fresent- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 2. Thou hast been.* 2. You have been. 3. He has been. 3. They have been. Fast- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. 3. They had been. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 76 Future- Perfect Tense. Singtdar. Plural. 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I be. 1. If we be. 2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 3. If he be. 3. If they be. Past Tense. Plural. 1. If we were. 2. If you were. 3. If they were. 1. If I were. 2. If thou wert. 3. If he were. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. 1. I may be. 2. Thou mayst be. 3. He may be. Singular. 1. I might be. 2. Thou mightst be. 8. He might be. Plural. 1. We may be. 2. You may be. 3. They may be. Past Tense. Plural. 1. We might be. 2. You might be. 3. They might be. Present-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. Past-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IMPEEATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, ar be you. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present To be. Present-Perfect. To have been. PARTICIPLES. Present. Being. Past or Perfect, Been. Compound-Perfect. Having been. Remarks on the Conjugation. 1. In the formation of the Futures, we have two Auxiliaries, shall and will. For the expression of simple futurity, we use shall in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third Per- sons, as given in the table. On the other hand, by using will in the First Person, and shall in the Second and Third Persons, we express the various ideas of promise, command, obligation, etc. Thus : " I will be there " expresses a promise. " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God " is a command. " He shall do it " [i. e. I will make him) expresses obligation or necessity. 2. The singular form, thou art, etc., is now used only in acts of worship, or on other solemn occasions. In ordinary discourse, in addressing one person, we say you are, you were^ etc., the meaning being singular, but the form plural. 3. In the third person, the nominative of the verb may be any of the personal pronouns, he, she, it, any of the relative pronouns, who, which, what, that, etc., or any noun. For conve- nience of recitation, one nominative only is inserted. 4. In the Potential mood the auxiliary may be. In the Present tense, may, can, or must ; In the Past tense, might, could, would, or should; In the Present-Perfect tense, may have, can have, or must have; In the Past-Perfect tense, might have, could have, would have^ or should have. 5. In conjugating the Subjunctive mood, the conjunction be- fore the verb may be if, though, although, unless, except, whether, lesty etc. For convenience in recitation, one conjunction only is ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 77 used. It may also be conjugated in the Past tense by omitting the conjunction and transposing the nominative and verb. Thus: were I, wert thou, were he ; were we, were you, were they. By putting before a verb any conjunction expressing doubt or contin- gency, a form may be created which by some is called the Subjunctive mood. Such a form, requiring merely the prefixing of the conjunction, and involv- ing no change in the verb itself, may be continued through all the tenses of the Indicative, and even through the tenses of the Potential ; Thus : Jnd. If I am, if I was, if I shall be, if I have been, if I had been, if I shall have been ; Pot. If I may be, if I might be, if I may have been, if I might have been. This form, for the tenses at least of the Indicative, is by some called the Subjunctive mood. The propriety of this term is questionable. It seems best to limit the mood to those two tenses, the Present and the Past, in which there is some difference of form in the verb itself. It may be said, indeed, that the form if I am, cannot be Indicative, because it expresses doubt or contingency, instead of merely indicating or declaring. But it should be noticed, the doubt or contingency is expressed not by the verb, I am, but by the conjunction if. The definition of the Indicative refers solely to the " form of the verb " itself, not to any of the circumstances that may be thrown around it by the interposition of other words. Exercises. — Conjugate the verb " to be " through the Indica- tive mood, using "she" in the third person singular. Conjugate the verb through the Indicative mood, using " it " in the third person singular. Conjugate the verb through the Indicative mood, using " the man" for the subject in the singular, and "the men" for the subject in the plural. Conjugate the verb through the Subjunctive mood, using "though "instead of "if." Conjugate it in like manner, using any of the other conjunc- tions named. Conjugate it in the Potential mood. Present tense, using " can " instead of " may." Conjugate it, using " must." Conjugate it in the Past tense, using " could ; " using " would ; " using "should." Conjugate it in the Present- Perfect tense, using " can have ; " using " must have." Conjugate it in the Past-Perfect tense, using "could have;" using " would have ; " using " should have." 7* 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Singular. 1. I love. 2. Thou lovest. 3. He loves. Conjugation of the verb To Love. I. ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Plural. 1. We love. 2. You love. 3. They love. Singular. 1. I loved. 2. Thou lovedst. 3. He loved. Past Tense. Plural. 1. We loved. 2. You loved. 3. They loved. Singular. 1. I shall love. 2. Thou wilt love. 3. He will love. Future Tense. Plural. 1. We shall love. 2. You will love. 3. They will love. Present-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. Past-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. Future- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS, 79 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 1. 2. 3. Singtdar. If I love. If thou love. If he love. Plural. 1. If we love. 2. If you love. ■3. If they love. Past Tense. 1. 2. 3. Sinjular. If I loved. If thou loved, If he loved. Plural 1. If we loved. 2. If you loved. 3. If they loved. Singtilar. 1. I may love. 2. Thou mayst love. 3. He may love. Singular. 1. I might love. 2. Thou mightst love. 3. He might love. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. 1. Plural. We may love. 2. You may love. 3. They may love. Past Tense. Plural 1. We might love. 2. You might love. 8. They might love. Present- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. Singular. 1. I might have loved. 2. Thou mightst have loved 3. He might have loved. Past-Perfect Tense. Plural 1. We might have loved. 2. You might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 80 ENGLISH GH'AMMAR. IMPEKATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. Love, or love thou. Love, or love you. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. To love. Present- Perfect. To have loved. PAETICIPLES. Present. Loving. Past or Perfect. Loved. Compound- Perfect. Having loved. II. PASSIVE VOICE. Note. — The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by placing before its Past Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, and persons of the verb To be. Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. - Future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 2. Thou wilt be loved. 2. You will be loved. 3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 81 Present- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. Pad-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. Future- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 2. 4f thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 2. If thou wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 82 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 3. He might be loved. 8. They might be loved. Present- Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. Past-Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. To be loved. Present- Perfect. To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. Present. Being loved. Past or Perfect. Loved. Compound- Perfect. Having been loved. III. PROGRESSIVE FORM. The Progressive Form of a verb is that which repre- sents the action as in progress, or incomplete. Note. — This is called sometimes the Progressive form, because it represents the action as still in progress; sometimes, the Im- perfect form, because action in progress is necessarily incomplete; and sometimes the Definite form, because it marks the time of the action in every case with perfect definiteness and precision. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 83 The Progressive form of any verb is made by placing before its Present Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, and per- sons of the verb to be. Thus: I am writing, I was writing, I shall be writing, etc. It has not been thought necessary to cum- ber the text-book by inserting these forms in full. Any pupil can form them at will who has learned the conjugation of the verb to be. Exercises in the Progressive Form. Conjugate the verb "sing" through all the tenses of the In- dicative mood, in the Progressive form. Conjugate " know " through the Subjunctive mood, Progressive form. Conjugate " write " through the Potential mood, Progressive form. Conjugate "stand" through the Imperative and Infinitive moods, Progressive form. Remark. — A verb in the Progressive form is always in the Active voice. IV. EMPHATIC FORM. The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in which the assertion is expressed with emphasis. The Emphatic Form of a verb is made by placing before it the verb cfo as an auxiliary. The Emphatic Form is used only in the Present and Past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods. Active voice, and in the Imperative mood, both Active and Passive. Conjugation of the verb To Love, in the Emphatic Form. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. /Singular. Plural. 1. I do love. 1. We do love. 2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 3. He does love, 3. They do lov& 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. Fast Tense. Singular. Plural 1. I did love. 1. We did love. 2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 3. He did love. 3. They did love. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 2. If thou do love. 2. If you do love. 3. If he do love. 3. If they do love. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I did love. 1. If we did love. 2. If thou did love. 2. If you did love. 3. If he did love. 3. If they did love. IMPERATIVE. Active — Present Tense. Singular. Do (thou) love. Plural. Do (you) love. Passive — Present Tense. Singular. Do (thou) be loved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — "James writes a letter." Parse " writes." Model. — " Writes " (1.) is a verb, it contains an assertion ; (2.) transitive, it requires an objective case after it; (3.) irregular, it does not form its past tense and past participle by the addition of o? or ed (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Past P. written) ; (4.) active voice, it denotes that the nominative " James" acts or does the thing men- tioned; (5.) indicative mood, the assertion is expressed directly and without limitation ; (6. ) present tense, it denotes present time ; (7.) singular number, third person (I write, thou writest, he writes, or James writes) ; (8.) and has for its subject the noun James. Abbreviated Model. — "Writes" is (1.) a verb, (2.) transi- tive, (3.) irregular (write, wrote, written), (4.) active voice, (5.) indicative mood, (6.) present tense, (7.) singular number, third person, (8.) and has for its subject the noun James. ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 85 Exercises. — Parse all the Verbs in the following sentences : A witty punster may aflford amusement to persons, but amuse- ment is not the business of life, though it tends ever so much to relieve the mind. Therefore, do not consider him a model worthy of imitation. My son, wert thou a father, thou couldst understand the feelings of him who now mourns over the wrong which thou hast com- mitted. Had I been thy son, I think I would not only have been grieved on account of that which I had done, but also would have regretted that I had caused sorrow in the breast of him who loved me so tenderly. The miser will will his property to those who will perhaps use it for sinful purposes. Had he had less avarice, his happiness would have been increased. Do not do as he does, lest thou, like him, become a wretched man, and have to say, " I have been heaping up riches all my life, but I have not been increasing my happiness. Had I been adding to the happiness of others, and laying up treasures where moth and rust do not corrupt, I would have been employing myself better and saving my soul." If he acquire riches, they will corrupt his mind. Though he is high, he hath respect to the lowly. Despise not any condition, lest it happen to be thine own. •VI. ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word used to qualify a Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb; as, He writes rapidly. Examples. — Come here instantly and answer me more respect' fully, or you will receive a very severe correction. " Here " qualifies the verb " come," it tells where you are to come. " Instantly " also qualifies " come," it tells ivhen you are to come. " Respectfully " qualifies the verb " answer," it tells in what manner you are to answer. " More " qualifies the adverb "respectfully," it te^lls how respect- fully you are to answer. " Very " qualifies the adjective " severe," \l tells how severe the punishment will be. 8 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Remarks on Adverbs. 1. The word adverb is from the Latin ad, to, and verbum, a word or verb, because the adverb is regarded mainly as a word added to the verb. 2. Adverbs are not necessary parts of speech, as their mean- ing can always be expressed by other parts of speech. They generally express in one word what would otherwise require sev- eral words. Here, for instance, means " in this place." 3. Some of the adverbs appear to be formed by the combi- nation of two or more w^ords, which have gradually coalesced into one. Thus, bravely is an abbreviation of brave-^iZre, wisely of wise-^i^-e, happily of happy-^iX-e, etc. Others again are com- posed of nouns, and the letter a used for at, on, etc. ; as, aside, ahead, abroad, ashore, aground, afloat. 4. Sometimes several words are taken together and called an adverbial phrase ; as, at length, in vain, etc. These ex- pressions are elliptical, and the ellipsis can almost always be supplied. Whenever this can be done, the words should be parsed separately. 5. Some adverbs perform at the same time the office of adverbs and of conjunctions; as, "They will come when they are ready." Here, " when " both declares the time of the action, and so is an adverb ; and also connects the two verbs, and so is a con- junction. These are called, by some grammarians, conjunctive adverbs; by others, adverbial conjunctions. The most common of them are, when, where, whither, whenever, wherever, then, etc. 6. The adverb there is often used as a mere expletive, with- out apparently any signification of its own, as in this sentence, " There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 7. Some words are used sometimes as adverbs, and some- times as adjectives. Among these are the following : little, less, least, better, best, much, more, most, no, only, well, ill, still, first. If any of these words qualifies a noun, it is an adjective ; but, if it qualifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, then it is an adverb. ' Comparison of Adverbs. Many Adverbs are compared. Some Adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the Positive ; as, sooUj sooner y soonest. ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS 87 Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing more and mosty less and least; as, happily, more happily, most happily ; less happily, least happily. Irregular Comparison. Posilive. Comparative. Superlative. Well better best 111 worse worst Badly worse worst Much more most Far farther farthest, Classes of Adverbs. Adverbs are divided into classes, according to their significa- tion. The most important of these classes are 1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality ; as, well, ill, swiftly^ smoothly, truly, with a great many others formed from adjectives by adding the termination ly. This is by far the most numerous class of adverbs. 2. Adverbs of Place; as, here, there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, somewhere, nowhere, etc. 3. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, then, when, ever, never, soon, often, seldom, lately, etc. 4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, much, little, sufficiently, enough, scarcely, etc. 5. Adverbs of Direction ; as, downward, upward, forward, backward, homeward, heavenward, hitherward, thitherward, etc. 6. Adverbs of Number, Order, etc. (including all those formed from the Numeral Adjectives) ; bls, first, secondly, thirdly, etc. ; once, twice, thrice, etc. ; singly, doubly, triply. 7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation ; as, yes, no, verily, indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless, etc. 8. Adverbs of Interrogation; as, how, why, when, where, whither, whence, etc. 9. Adverbs of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, least, better, best, very, exceedingly, nearly, almost, etc. 10. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; as, perchance, perhaps, perad- vciiture. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note. — Adverbs are very numerous. The above is not in- tended as a complete list of them, nor even a complete classifica- tion. Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — "John wrote the letter hastily.^^ Model. — "Hastily" (1.) is an adverb, it qualifies the verb "wrote;" (2.) it is an adverb of manner, it tells the manner in which he wrote; (3.) it is compared, hastily, more hastily, most hastily. Note. — When the adverb does not admit of comparison, the third thing to say of it will be, " not compared." Exercises. —Parse all the Adverbs in the following sentences: There was no orator who spoke more fluently. Thrice was he applauded. Turn your eye whither you would, you might see persons attentively listening. Seldom was such an attentive multitude assembled in our much too quiet village. When the water was hot enough, he boiled the herbs in it thoroughly and made the tea sufficiently strong. This idle boy was the least attentive of the scholars, and studied least. He therefore received the least amount of benefit. Better boys will behave better and reap a better reward. Parse all the Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 3>04C VII. CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- tences, and parts of sentences ; as, John and James study ; John writes and James reads. The following are the principal Conjunctions; also, although, and, as, because, both, but, either, for, if, lest, neither, nor, or, since, than, that, then, therefore, though, unless, wherefore, whether, yet, etc. ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 89 The word Conjunction is from the Latin con, together, and ywnc^MS, joined, because it joins together. Some conjunctions are used in pairs, and are to be taken to- gether in parsing. Such conjunctions are called Correlatives. The principal Correlative Conjunctions are as — so, although — yet, both— and, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or, if — then, though — yet. Some conjunctions, not Correlatives, are yet to be parsed together, because the connection of the words or sentences is made, not by any one of these conjunctions, but by the two or more taken together. Such collections of words are called Com- plex Conjunctions. The principal Complex Conjunctions are as if, as well as, but that, except that, forasmuch as, inasmuch as, even though, etc. It is a mistake to suppose that the conjunctions and prepositions serve merely to connect the other parts of a sentence without any significancy of their own. These words were all originally other parts of speech, viz. : verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Most of them may be distinctly traced, und the meaning of the original recognized in the modern abbreviations. Thus, if is the imperative of the Saxou gifan, to give. " If it is fair to-morrow, I will go out," means "give (grant) it to be fair to-morrow," etc. Still, as the original words from which the conjunctions and prepositions are de- rived are mostly obsolete, these words are to be now regarded in reference to their present use, and not to their original character. Thus, to require a child to parse if as the imperative of the verb gifan, to give, and unless as the imperative of the verb onlesan, to dismiss, would only serve to perplex and embarrass. Where, however, the words are still in current use in the language, the case is different, and it becomes extremely doubtful whether they ought to be considered as prepositions and conjunctions, or whether they ought not to be classed among other parts of speech according to their obvious meaning. Examples of this sort are, except, excepting, regarding, touching, respecting, notwithstanding, etc. Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — " John a7id James are brothers." First Model. — "And" is a conjunction, it connects the noun "John" with the noun "James." Note. — When conjunctions connect words, those words will be the same parts of speech, that is a verb and a verb, an adjective 8* 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. and an adjective, etc., except that nouns and pronouns may be connected by a conjunction. Second Model. — "John studies his lesson carefully, but James is very negligent of his lesson." " But " is a conjunction, it connects the sentence " John studies his lesson carefully," with the sentence " James is very negligent of his lesson." Third Model. — "iVaYAer man nor beast could endure the fatigue." " Neither " and " nor " are Correlative Conjunctions, used to connect the nouns " man " and " beast." Exercises. — Parse each of the Conjunctions in the following sentences : Unless a man lacks virtue, whether he is humble in rank or poor in purse, he is worthy of respect and esteem. Yet there are some who, notwithstanding their wealth and the advantages of fortune, are deemed respectable, though their vicious habits should subject them to contempt. These shun the virtuous poor, lest they might degrade themselves in their own estimation. But they forget that they might be improved by intercourse with their virtuous but poor brethren. Insert proper conjunctions in the following sentences: I shall need an umbrella, it rain to-morrow ; it be a clear day, I shall not need it, I never use it to protect me from the sun the snow. The colonel remained at his post, he was near fainting from the loss of blood the pain of his wounds. He declared no one else should stand by the flag ; he would protect it, while he had life strength left. Faithfully heroically he kept his word. Review Exercise. — Parse each of the Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, and Adverbs in the foregoing sentences. VIII. PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word ; as, I write with a pen. ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 91 Note 1. — The word preposition takes its name from prod^ before, and positus, placed, because it is placed before a noun. Note 2. — Prepositions and conjunctions are intimately related, both being connecting words. But conjunctions connect things of the same kind, and connect them as equals, an adjective with an adjective, a noun with a noun, a verb with a verb, a sentence with a sentence, etc. A preposition connects dif- ferently. It ties on, as it were, one word to another, as a sort of addition. Moreover, the word thus tied on by a preposition is always either a noun or a pronoun, while almost any part of speech may follow a conjunction. The preposition also connects the noun following it, not only to another noun, but to other parts of speech, as a verb, an adjective, etc. Examples : " I write with a pen." " With " connects " pen " (a noun) with "write" (a verb). It connects the act with the instrument, and shows the relation between them. "The man in the next room." "In" connects "room" with "man," shows a relation between the two. " Taller by an inch." " By " connects its dependent noun "inch" with "taller" (an adjective). " Dying of fever." The dependent noun is connected by its preposition "of" to "dying," a participle. Note 3. — Some of the Prepositions are original and uncom- pounded words. These are the most important, and should be thoroughly committed to memory. Nearly all of them refer in some way to place or position. Simple Prepositions. The Simple Prepositions are nineteen : viz., at, after, by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, till, to, under, up, with. Note. — After is supposed to be the comparative of aft. Doubts have been raised in regard to the true character of past. Compound Prepositions. The following Compound Prepositions are formed by prefixing a to some other word : above, about, across, against, along, amid or amidst, am^ng or amongst, around, athwart. 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The prefix a, which occurs in these and so many other English com- pounds, represents a variety of small words, such as at, of, in, on, to, etc. In the compound prepositions it generally represents on or in. The other part of the compound is some noun, adjective, adverb, or other preposition. The following Compound Prepositions are formed by prefixing be (by) to some other words: before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond. The following Compound Prepositions are formed by uniting without change two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb : upon, toward, towards, unto, into, within, without, throughout, under- neath. Note 1. — According to, instead of, and out of, are sometimes inserted among the compound prepositions. But there is no necessity of such a course. The words are written separately, and may all be parsed separately. According is an adjective or a participle, and always belongs to some noun expressed or understood. Instead is simply in stead. Out is either an adverb or an adjective, according to circumstances. Note 2. — Bating, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting, touching, though participles, strictly speaking, frequently have the con- struction of prepositions, and may be so parsed. Note 3. — There is no more reason for considering near and nigh prepo- sitions than for considering like a preposition. The preposition to is un- derstood in all such cases; thus, "like (to) a man," "near (to) the city," "nigh (to) the river." An ellipsis o^ from after the adverb off has in like manner caused the latter word sometimes to be inserted incorrectly among the prepositions. Ex. " ojff (from) his horse." Parsing Exercises. — Model. — "John walks on the roof." "On" is a preposition, it is placed before the noun "roof;" and it shows a relation between " roof," and " walks," it tells on what he walks. Parse each of the Prepositions in the following sentences : In the morning of a sunny Sabbath day, the village children, with happy faces, were on their way to the house of God. The sun that looked down from above upon them, the blue sky over them, and the flowery earth beneath their ieet, were not more brilliant than the glance of their eyes. Hand in hand they went along the path leading to the church, with praise upon their tongues, and gratitude reigning within their hearts. ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 93 Review Exercise.— Parse each of the Nouna, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, and Conjunctions in the foregoing sentences. IX. INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is a word used in making sudden exclamations ; as, ah 1 oh I Note. — Interjection takes its name from the Latin inter, between, and^'aao, to throw. The principal Interjections are, adieu, ah, aha, alack, alas, begone, ha, hail, halloo, hark, he, hist, ho, hum, hush, huzza, lo, 0^ oh, pshaw, see, etc. Some of the words usually called interjections are other parts of speech, and may bo parsed accordingly; as, behold, a verb in the imperative; strange / an ellipsis for it h stranrje, etc. When the words are not resolv- able in this way, but are mere exclamations (and these are the only true interjections), it seems doubtful whether they ought to be considered as a part of speech, any more than the barking of a dog or the mere noise of any other animal. GENERAL PARSING EXERCISE. Parse each of the words in the following sentences : Benjamin West's aptitude for drawing, exhibited in his boy- hood, was extraordinary. No restraint could check it. When, in later years, he was painting Death on the Pale Horse, Gar- rick the actor asked him " if he should die for him," meaning, "Shall I imitate a dying man?" "O! no," replied West, think- ing apparently that Garrick wished to do him a great service, or intended to show a great affection for him or a great admiration of his genius, by actually dying. n^ 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. As, meaning because, or since, is a Conjunction. Ex. As the wind was favorable, we set sail. It is also a part of the Correlative Conjunction as — so, and of several Complex Conjunctions, as well as, etc. As, in all other cases, is an Adverb. Befobe, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions. Ex. : Come before dinner. Come after dinner. Wait till midnight. Wait until your turn. Before, After, Till, and Until, when not followed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, are Adverbs. Ex. : Come before I have dined. Come after I have dined. Wait till I have dined. Wait until I have dined. Both is an Adjective, when it means the two. Ex. Both shoea need mending. Both is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. I both love and respect him. But is a Preposition, when it means except, Ex. He lost all his books but (except) his dictionary. But is an Adverb, when it means only. Ex. I but (only) touched him and he cried. But is a Conjunction in all other instances. Either is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means one of the two. Ex. Either of the boys may do it. Either is a Conjunction in all other cases. Neither is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means not one of the two. Neither is a Conjunction in all other cases. For is a Conjunction, when it means because, and is used in giv- ing a reason. Ex. I obey him, /or he is my father, that is, because He is my father. For is a Preposition in all other cases. ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 95 Since, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction. Ex. Since it is your wish, I will certainly do it. Since, when placed before a noun denoting a period of time, is a Preposition. Ex. I have had no food since Monday. Since, in other cases, is an Adverb. Then, meaning in that case, or therefore, is a Conjunction. Ex. If all this be so, then I am right. Then, in all other instances, is an Adverb. That is a Kelative Pronoun, when who, whom, or which may be used in its place. Ex. He is the wisest man that lives in our village. That is a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun, when the may be used instead of it. Ex. " That house which I see," means " the house which I see." That is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. He wears warm clothes that he may not catch cold. Here, who, whom, which, or the, could not be used for that. What is a Relative Pronoun, when that which or those which can be used in its stead. Ex. Eat what is set before you. That is, Eat that which is set before you. What is an Interrogative Pronoun, when used to ask a question. Ex. What do you see ? What is an Adjective Pronoun, when joined with a noun, but not asking a question. Ex. What wonders he performed. He gave what money he had to the poor. What, when uttered as a mere exclamation, and to denote surprise, is an Interjection. Ex. What/ abuse your mother ! While, meaning to pass or spend (time), is a Verb. Ex. They managed to while away the hour very pleasantly. While, meaning a portion of time, is a Noun. Ex. Let us sing a white. While, meaning during the time that, is an Adverb. Ex. The act was done while I was absent. Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunction. Ex, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. Yet, meaning up to a certain time, or over and above, is an Adverb. Ex. Has the boy come yet f I will give you yet one more reason. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. DERIVATION OF WORDS. By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them to their original form and meaning. This part of Etymology has assumed so much importance as to become a separate branch of study, and several excellent works on the subject have been prepared. In like manner, the Spelling-Book and the Dictionary may be considered as having grown out of a particular branch of Orthography. In consequence of the existence of separate works on these points, they are passed over in Grammar more cursorily than they would otherwise be. Still it is not deemed expedient to pass them over altogether. As a few of the most important rules for Spelling were given, so a very brief summary will be presented of some of the most essential principles of Derivation. A Primitive word is a word in its original form ; as, good. A Derivative word is a word formed from another by some change in its termination, or by the addition of some letters at the beginning or end of the word; as, goodness. When the additional letters make by themselves an entire word, the word formed is generally called a compound ; as, landlord. A letter or a syllable placed at the beginning of a word is called a prefix. A letter or a syllable placed at the end of a word is called an affix or suffix. The Prefixes are generally prepositions, and belong to three principal classes, viz., the Saxon, the Latin, and the Greek. I. PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. A signifies on or in ; as, ashore, that is, on shore. Be signifies about ; as, bestir, that is, stir about ; also, for or before ; as, bespeak, that is, to speak for or before. It has also several other meanings. For denies; as, bid,/orbid (bid not to do a thing). Fore signifies before ; as, see,/oresee. Mi8 signifies defect or error ; as, take, mstake (take in a wrong way). Over denotes superiority or excess ; as, done, overdone (done to excess). Out signifies excess or superiority ; as, run, ow^run. Un before an adjective signifies not; as, worthy, wwworthy; ETYMOLOGY — DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97 before a verb it signifies the undoing of the act expressed by the verb ; as, tie, untie. Up denotes motion upward; as, start, wpstart; and also subver- sion ; as, set, upset. With signifies against, from ; as, stand, t^tVAstand ; draw, with- draw. II. PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. A [ab or abs) signifies /row or away ; as, abstract, to draw away. ^c? signifies to, at; as, adjoin, to join to {Ad assumes diflferent forms according to the first letter of the root to which it is pre- fixed; as, ascend, accede, a/fect, a^rgrieve, etc.). Ambi from ambo, both, signifies double ; as, ambiguous (having two meanings). Ante signifies before ; thus, antediluvian, before the flood. Bene signifies good, well; as, benevolent, well disposed. Bi or bis means two or twice; as, bisect, to cut into two parts. Circum signifies round, about; as, circumnavigate, to sail round. Cis signifies on this side; as, cis-alpine, on this side the Alps. Con [com, co, or col) signifies together; as, convoke, to call to- gether. Contra (counter, contro) signifies against; as, contradict, to speak against ; counteract, to act against. De signifies of, from, or down; as, dethrone, to drive from the throne. Di {dis, dif) signifies asunder; as, distract, to draw asunder. It also signifies negation or undoing ; as, disobey, not to obey. E {ex) signifies out of; as, elect, to choose out of. Equi signifies equal; as, equidistant, at an equal distance. Extra signifies out of, beyond; as, extraordinary, beyond the ordinary course. In, before an adjective, serves as a negative ; as, active, inac- tive; before a verb, in signifies in or into; as, include, to close in. Inter signifies between; as, intervene, to come between. Intro signifies to, within; as, introduce, to lead in. Juxta signifies nigh to; as. Juxtaposition, placed near to. Mai or male (from malus, bad) signifies ill or bad; as, malprac- tice, bad practice. Manu (from manus, a hand) signifies with or by the hand; as, manuscript, anything written by the hand. 9 G 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ; Multi signifies many ; as, multiform, having many forms. Ob [oc, of, 0, op) signifies opposition; as, obstacle, something standing in opposition. Omni signifies all; as, omnipotent, all powerful. Per signifies through or thoroughly; d.^, perfect, thoroughly done, finished. Post signifies after ; as, postscript, written after. PrcB or pre signifies before ; as, prepaid, paid before. Pro signifies /or^A or forwards ; 2^^, promote, to move forwards. Prceier oy preter signifies joos^ or beyond; 2iQ, preternatural, \)Q' yond the course of nature. Re signifies again or back ; as, regain, to gain back. Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, going backwards. Se signifies apart or without ; as, secrete, to hide, to put aside. Sine signifies without ; as, sinecure, without care or labor. Sub signifies wider ; as, submarine, under the sea. Super signifies above or over ; as, superscribe, to write above or over. Trans signifies over, from one place to another ; as, transport, to carry over. III. PREFIXES OF GREEK ORIGIN. A or an s>\gm^e^ privation or without; as, anonymous, without a name. Amphi signifies both or the two ; as, amphibious, having two lives, or capable of living both on land and in water. Ana signifies through or up ; as, anatomy (literally), a cutting up. Anti [ant) signifies against; as, antichristian, against Christian- ity; antarctic, opposite the arctic. Apo [ap) signifies from ; as, apogee, from the earth ; aphelion, from the sun. JDia signifies through ; as, diameter, a measure through. Epi signifies upon ; as, epidemic, upon or among the people. Hyper signifies over, above; as, hypercritical, over critical, too critical. Hypo signifies under, implying concealment; as, hypocrite, a person concealing his real character. Meta signifies change, transmutation ; as, metamorphosis, a change of shape. ETYMOLOGY — DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99 Mono signifies single ; as, monosyllable, a word of one syllable. Para signifies beyond, on one side; as, paradox, an opinion be- yond or contrary to the general opinion. Peri signifies round or about; an, perimeter, a measure round. Poly signifies many ; as, polysyllable, a word of many syllables. Semi {demi, hemi) signifies half; as, semicircle, half of a circle ; hemisphere, half of a sphere. Syn {sy, syl, sym) signifies with, together ; as, sympathy, feeling with. IV. AFFIXES. The Affixes are very numerous, and cannot always be traced satisfactorily to their origin. They are generally classified ac- cording to their signification. The following are the principal classes. 1. Afl&xes denoting the agent or doer: an, as in guardian. ent, as in adherent. ant, assistant. er, baker. ar, beggar. «rf, conform^/. ard, dotard ive, operative. ary, adversary. or, inspector. eer, . charioteer. liter, punster. 2. Aflixes denoting the person acted upon : ate, as in potentate. ite, as in favorite, ee, assignee. 3. AflSxes denoting being or state of being : acy, as in piracy. ment, as in achievewei age. bonda^re. mony. SLcrimony, ance, repentance. ness. Sicuteness. ancy, flagrancy. ry, rivalry. ence, adherence. ship. friends/ii/>. ency, emergency. tk. depth. hood, boyhood. tude. aptitude. ion, exhaustion. iy. loyally. ism. despotmn. ure. discloswre. 4. Afl[ixes denoting jurisdiction : dom, ! as in kingc/owi. ric, as in bishopric. 5. Affixes denoting diminution : cle, as in corpusc^. ling, as in L duckling. kin. lamb^'n. ock, hillock. let. stream/e<. 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6. Affixes denoting of or pertaining to : ac, as in elegiac. ic, as in angehc. al, autumna/. ical. canonical. aw, republica?^. He, infanti7e. ar, consular. ine, adamantine. ary, momentary. ory, expiatory. en, woode?!. 7. Affixes denoting /w^^ of: ate, as in affectionate. OILS, as in hazardoMS. ful, hope/w/. some , gladsome. 056, globose. y» pithy. 8. Affixes denoting capacity : ive, as in coramunicatzw. ible. as in contemptt6/e, able, i^ro^table. 9. Affixes denoting to make : ate, as in alienage. ize, as in epitomise. en, briglite?i. ize. methodi2e. fy, justi/y. 10 . Miscellaneous affixes : like signifies likeness, as in saint/i^e. ly ^ maidenly. ish " small degree of anything, as in black^sA. less " negation, " artless. ward " in the direction ofj " hom&ward. Third Part. >J»Ic The third part of Grammar treats of Sentences. It is divided into two parts, Syntax and Analysis. Syntax treats of putting words together into sentences. Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence into the parts which compose it. I. SYNTAX. General Observations. A Sentence is a number of words put together so as to make complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. The principal parts of a sentence are the Subject (or nominative) and the Predicate (or verb). A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- ing, but not containing a finite verb, and not making by themselves complete sense. A Clause is a number of words, connected in mean- ing, and containing a verb with its subject, and so making by themselves complete sense, but not independent, being used to modify some other word. 9* 101 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. A Simple sentence is one which contains but one subject and one finite verb ; as, Life is short. A Complex sentence is one which contains a simple sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its subject or its verb; as, A life which is spent in doing good cannot he a failure, A Compound sentence is one which contains two or more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected by one or more conjunctions; as. Life is shorty butar't is long. The sentences which compose a compound sentence are called its Members. For a fuller Analysis of the English Sentence, see the Chapter with this title at the close of Syntax. Order of the Rules in Syntax. In the old grammars, Syntax was divided into Concord and Government. By Concord was meant the agreement of one word with another in gender, number, case, or person. By Government was meant the power which one word had of determining the mood, tense, or case of another. The rules of Syntax were then classified and arranged according to this division. To adhere to such a division, however, occasions many serious inconveniences. Subjects intimately connected in every other respect are often widely sun- dered because of their difference in this one unimportant particular. By the same arbitrary arrangement, rules of essential importance, which the pupil must know before he can make any progress in parsing, are thrown far forward in the book, quite beyond his reach, except by wading through a mass of rules which he is not yet qualified to comprehend. The more recent grammarians, therefore, very wisely cease to insist upon this distribution, and practically adopt that which arises naturally from the analysis of a simple sentence. The agreement of the verb with its sub- ject, and the government of the objective case demand the immediate attention of the pupil, at the very threshold of syntax. As soon as he has learned to resolve simp'le sentences, he is prepared for those which are more complex. This complexity arises either from the combination of several simple sentences into one, or from connecting various adjuncts with the principal parts of a sentence. Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, etc. In this manner, the various leading rules arise nearly in the order in which they are wanted by the pupil, while under each leading rule are given all the exceptions and subsidiary rules naturally connected with the subject. EULE I. — THE NOMINATIVE. 103 RULE I. • The Subject of a Verb must be in the Nomina- tive Case. Explanation. — The subject of the verb is that of which the assertion is made. " The book is in the desk." The subject of the assertion here is " book." It is that which is asserted to be in the desk. " John and I went home." Here there are two sub- jects, " John " and " I." It is of both these we say that they " went home." Now, the subject of the verb, that of which any- thing is asserted, must be in the nominative case. It would be contrary to the Kule, therefore, to say, " John and me went home," because "me," one of the subjects, is not in the nominative case. NOTES. 1. Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles Henry Grant, etc., should be taken together in parsing, as if they were one word. Thus, we would say, " Charles Henry Grant " is a noun, etc. 2. The subject of the verb may be an infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, taken as a noun ; as, " To behave properly will gain for us a good name," " Thou shalt not kill, is the sixth command- ment." In the former of these examples, " To behave " is the sub- ject of the verb, just as " behavior" would be, if the sentence were written, " Proper behavior will gain for us a good name." 3. A noun or a pronoun addressed, and not the subject of any verb, is in the Nominative Case Independent ; as, " Father, for- give them." In many languages, this construction forms a dis- tinct case, called the Vocative. 4. A noun or a pronoun put before a participle as its subject, and not being the subject of any verb, is in the Nominative Case Absolute ; as, " My father dying, I was left an orphan." 5. In the construction called the Case Absolute, the noun or pronoun is the subject of the participle; and the two words taken together form a dependent clause equivalent to a subject and a verb, preceded by a conjunction and an adverb. Thus, " Whose grey top shall tremble, he descending;" that is, ^^when he descends." 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. Tho case absolute, in al^aost all languages except the English, is some other than the nominative. Thus, in the Saxon it is the dative, in the Latin it is the ablative, in the Greek, and in most of the Oriental languages, it is the genitive. 6. The noun or pronoun in absolute clauses is often omitted. Thus, in the sentence, " Generally speaking, labor is not without its reward," " speaking " is put absolutely with we, men, or some other word of the kind, understood. 7. The rule for the construction of absolute clauses is violated by putting the subject of the participle in any other case than the nominative. As the nominative and objective cases of nouns are alike, no false syntax can occur under this rule except in pronouns. " //m (he) dying, I was left an orphan." 8. Every nominative case, except the case independent, the case absolute, the case of apposition, and the nominative after an intransitive verb, should be the subject of some verb expressed or understood. 9. A noun and its pronoun should not be put as subjects to the same verb ; as, " The day, it is clear." Models for Parsing and Correcting. "James writes a letter." "James " is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, in the singular number, third person, and nominative case, subject of the verb " writes," according to Kule I., which says, "The subject of the verb must be in the nomina- tive case." "He will write a letter." "He" is a personal pronoun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and nom. case, subject of the verb " will write," according to Eule I. (Quote.) N. B. — In parsing pronouns, certain other things are to be said, which will be learned under Rule VIII. The parsing in the model is complete, so far as it can be given now. " To behave properly will gain for us a good name." " To behave " is a verb in the infinitive mood, used as a noun, and is the subject of the verb " will gain," according to Note 2, Rule I. (Quote the Note.) " Father, forgive them." " Father " is a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 2d p., and in the nominative case independent, accord- ing to Note 3, Rule I. (Quote Note.) RULE I. — THE NOMINATIVE. 105 "The sash falling suddenly, his finger was crushed." "Sash " is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the nominative case absolute before the participle "falling," according to Note 4, Kule I. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, " Him and her are of the same age." Ans. Him and her are here in the objective case. They should be in the nominative, because they are the subjects of the verb are^ and should read he and she, according to Rule I. (Quote.) Correct the sentence, " Solomon was the wisest of men, him only excepted who spake as never man spake I " " Him " is here in the objective case. It should be in the nominative, because it is placed absolutely with " excepted," and should read " he only excepted," according to Note 4, Rule I. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, " The man, he is rich." He is super- fluous, because it is not needed as the subject of any verb. The sentence should read, " The man is rich," according to Note 9, Rule I. (Quote Note.) Exercises. Parse all the Subjects in the following sentences, correcting wherever necessary : Virtue ennobleb the mind, vice debases it. London is on the Thames. A good conscience fears nothing. Him and I could not agree. They and us agreed to do it. You and them had a long dispute. Thomas and me learned the lesson together. To see the sun is pleasant. To cultivate the ground gives pleasant occupation. Whence and what art thou, execrable shape? Show pity, Lord ; O, Lord, forgive. Oh what a fall was there, my countrymen ! His disease being thoroughly cured, and the busy season having commenced, he should have been at his post. Napoleon being banished, peace was restored to Europe. Napoleon, paving raised a large army, crossed the Alps. His character, viewing it in the most charitable manner, is full of blemishes. 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. Them descending, the ladder fell. Whom being dead, the hostility ceased. Him excepted, John was the worst of the party. This truth, if it had been attended to, the parties would have escaped a great deal of trouble. »€*ic RULE II. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Number AND Person. ISrOTES. 1. Rule II. is violated by putting the verb in any other num- ber or person than its subject ; as, " They was present." 2. In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential moods, every verb should have a subject expressed, except where two or more verbs are connected in the same construction. 3. A verb in the Infinitive mood has no subject or nominative. In this respect the English differs from the classical and many other languages, in which the infinitive very commonly has a subject like the other moods, but is distinguished by this peculiarity, that the subject is not in the nominative, but in the accusative or objective. 4. In the Imperative mood, the subject or nominative is gener- ally omitted, thou or you being understood. 5. When the subject or nominative of the verb is an infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, the verb should be singular; as, "To seethe sun is pleasant," "Thou shalt not kill, is a divine command." But if there are two or more infinitives, or clauses, making distinct subjects, then the verb should be plural; as, "To skate and to play cricket are healthful amusements," "Thou shalt not kill, and Thou shalt not steal, are divine commands," 6. When a verb has for its subject a collective noun in the singular, expressing unity of idea, the verb should be sin- gular; as, "The class is large." But, whenever such subject EULE II. — THE VERB. 107 expresses plurality of idea, the verb should be plural ; as, " The muhitnde pursue pleasure as their chief good." 7. Some nouns, which are not considered nouns of multitude, are frequently used in the singular form, with a plural meaning; as, " Ten sail of the line were seen oflf the coast." In such cases the verb should be plural. 8. " It," used indefinitely before a verb which has a nomina- tive case after it, is the subject of that verb, and the verb agrees with it, and not with the other nominative ; thus, " It is I," not " It am I ;" " It is they," not " It are they." 9. Two or more subjects connected by and, expressed or under- stood, require a verb in the plural ; as, " Socrates and Plato were wise." The verb in such cases should be plural, because the assertion is made of all the subjects. For the same reason, all the nouns and pronouns, representing such subjects should be plural ; as, " Filthiness and bad food are sources of disease," not " a source," etc. 10. Two or more subjects, connected by and, if used to express only one person or thing, require a verb in the singular; as, " That eminent statesman and orator is dead." 11. When singular subjects, though connected by and, belong to separate propositions,' they have a singular verb; as, "The wine, and not the bottle, was used." Subjects connected by and belong to separate propositions, when accompanied by each, every, no, not, or some other disuniting word ; as, "Every house, every grove was burnt," " Good order, and not mean savings, produces profits." In the former sentence, the meaning is, " Every house was burnt, and every grove was burnt." In the latter, " Good order produces profits, and mean savings do not." 12. Two or more subjects in the singular, connected by or or nx)r, require a verb in the singular ; as, " Ignorance or prejudice has caused the mistake." The verb in such cases should be singular, because the assertion is true of only one of these sub- jects. For the same reason, all the nouns or pronouns, repre- senting such subjects, should be singular. 13. If any one of several subjects connected by or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural ; as, " Either he or they were mistaken." 14. When a verb has subjects of different persons, connected by and, the verb agrees with the first person rather than the 108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. second, and with the second rather than the third ; as, " He and I shared the peach between ws." "Shared," here, should be parsed as in the first person. 15. When a verb has subjects of different persons, connected by or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the subject nearest to it ; as, " Either thou or I am mistaken." Models for Parsing and Correcting. "James writes a letter." "' Writes " is a transitive verb, irreg- ular (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Past P. written), active voice, in- dicative mood, present tense, and is in the singular number, third person, to agree with its subject "James," according to Kule II. (Quote the Rule.) " To play in the mud soils the clothes." " Soils " is a trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 8d p., and in the sing, n., to agree with the verb " to play " in the infinitive mood used as a noun, according to Note 5, Rule II. (Quote Note.) "Thou shalt not steal, is the eighth commandment." " Is " is an int. v., irr., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., sing, n., to agree with its subject, " Thou shalt not steal," a part of a sentence used as a noun, according to Note 5, Rule II. (Quote Note. ) " The class recite well." " Recite " is an intrans. verb., reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., to agree with its subject "class," a collective noun expressing a plural idea, according to Note 6, Rule II. (Quote Note.) " Socrates and Plato were wise." " Were " is an intrans. verb, irr., ind. m., past t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., because it has two subjects, "Socrates" and "Plato," connected by "and," ac- cording to Note 9, Rule II. (Quote Note.)- " If that skilful painter and glazier is in town, be sure to em- ploy him." " Is " is an intrans. verb, irr., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., because its two subjects, "painter" and " glazier," express only one person, according to Note 10, Rule II. (Quote Note.) " Ignorance or predjudice has caused the mistake." " Has caused " is a trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres.-p. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., because its two subjects, " ignorance " and " prejudice," are in the singular, connected by or, according to Note 12, Rule II. (Quote Note.) RULE II. — THE VERB. 109 "He and I shared the peach between us." "Shared" is a trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., past t., in the pi. n., according to Note 9, Rule II. (quote Note), and in the 1st p., according to Note 14, Rule II. (Quote Note. ) Correct the sentence, " I loves study." Ans. " Loves " is in the third person. It should be in the first person, to agree with its subject, " I," and should read, " I love study," according to Rule II. (Quote.) Correct the sentence, " The days of man is but as grass." Ans. "Is" is singular. It should be plural, because its subject, " days," is plural. The sentence should read, " The days of man are but as grass," according to Rule II. (Quote Rule.) Correct the sentence, " Dear Sir: Have just received your let- ter." Ans. "Have received" is a verb in the indicative mood, without any subject expressed. It should read, "/ have re- ceived," according to Note 2, under Rule II. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, "To play in the mud, and to walk through the wet grass, soils the clothes." Ans. "Soils " is^ingu- lar. It should be plural, and should read "soil," because it has for its subject two infinitives, "to play " and "to walk," making two distinct subjects, according to Note 5, Rule II. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, " The people has no opinion of their own." Ans. " Has " is singular. It should be plural, because it has for its subject "people," a collective noun expressing plurality of idea, and it sliould read, " The people have no opin- ion," according to Note 6, Rule II. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, " Life and death is in the power of the tongue." Ans. " Is " is singular. It should be plural, because it has two subjects connected by " and," and should read, " Life and death are" etc., according to Note 9, Rule II. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, " That distinguished poet, orator, and scholar are dead." Ans. "Are " is plural. It should be " is " (singular), because the subjects "poet," "orator," and "scholar," though connected by " and," express only one person, and should read, "w dead," according to Note 10, Rule II. (Quote Note.) Correct the sentence, " Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible as example." Ans. "Are" is plural. It should be singular, because it has two singular subjects connected by nor, and should read, " Neither precept nor discipline is" etc., accord- ing to Note 12, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 10 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. Correct the sentence, " Either I or thou am greatly mistaken." Ans. "Am " is first person. It should be second person, to agree with the nearest subject "thou," and should read, "Either I or thou art greatly mistaken," according to Note 15, Rule II. (Quote Note.) Exercises. Parse the Verbs and Subjects in the following sentences, correcting where necessary : A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. A soft answer turn away wrath. Our most sanguine prospects has often been blasted. The number of our days are with thee. A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. Constant perseverance in the path of virtue will gain respect. There was no memoranda kept of the sales. The number of the inhabitants amount to one million. Have a sufficient quantity of oats been given to the horse ? Sufficient data was not given, and the solution of the problems were impossible. Between grammar and logic there exists many connections. Many means was employed, but no one means were found efficient. Trout was found in abundance. "Oats" are a common noun, of the neuter gender, plural number, and are governed by the preposition " of." His clothes is torn. Dear Sir : — Have just received your letter of yesterday. Am sorry to hear that the stereotype plates are sold. Hope to have better luck next time. On the whole, think have not quite lost all chances of them yet. Very truly yours, etc. To encourage virtuous actions are praiseworthy. To love God and keep his commandments, are the whole duty of man. To eat with unwashed hands, to drink wine, and to eat the flesh of certain animals, is forbidden by the Koran. Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, is the first and great com- mandment. Send the multitude away, that it may go and buy itself bread. RULE II. — THE VERB. Ill Some people is busy and yet does very little. Cavalry is not furnished with knapsacks. The gang contain all the idle and vicious boys of the village. Congress have adjourned. The youth of this country is well educated. The Board of Health have forbidden the vessel to enter the port. It is the boys of whom I complain. The sacred Scriptures should be read by all. The smiles of the mob is easily gained. Four pair of ducks was brought into the market. Twenty head of sheep was grazing on the hill. The time and the place for the conference was agreed upon. Idleness and ignorance brings sorrow. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. Prosperity and adversity is sent to us for wise purposes. The abuse of wine, not its use, make it a curse. My brother with two friends have arrived. Nothing but the flag and flagstaff was visible. A strong argument, and not a loud voice, bring conviction. Food, and no water, are not sufficient to support life. There was a man and a woman found dead, who were natives of England. Every city, town, and village were depopulated. There seems to be war, famine, and disease at this time on the earth. On the tomb is this inscription: "Here lies a statesman and philosopher." Our parlor and sitting-room were the front room in the second story. His bread and butter depends upon his exertions. The house in which I was born, my boyhood's happy home, and the abode of all those whom I hold dear, are now crumbling to dust. The flute or the piano, when skilfully played, produce delight- ful music ; but the sound of a drum, or the squeaking of the fife, are discordant. Neither the secretaries nor the president was to be blamed. To read or to write were equally difficult to him. Out of his mouth come neither profanity nor obscenity. 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. Neither the laws nor the Constitution is suflacient to insure perfect order in the community. Neither the captain, nor the passengers, nor any of the crew was saved. In him were found neither deceit, nor any other vice. Here no longer does my wife or children sit at evening. Neither my house, nor she who was its chief attraction, have been spared by the destroyer, time. Has not his ignorance or bad manners made him the scorn of everybody ? Di«JAio Model. — " The desire of the aspiring boy to receive in his youth a suitable education was natural." In this sentence, 1. The simple subject is desire ("desire was natural"). 2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this subject are the following: {a) The article the (" the desire "). (6) The preposition and its object, of boy, (" the desire of boy.") (c) The infinitive to receive (" The desire of boy to receive"). 3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, as follows : (a) The adjunct of boy is modified by the article the and the adjective aspiring ("of the aspiring boy"). (6) The adjunct to receive is modified by the object education and the preposition and its object, in youth ("to re- ceive in youth education "). (c) The adjunct in youth is modified by the possessive pro- noun his ("in his youth"). [d) The adjunct education is modified by the article a and the adjective suitable ("a suitable education"). 4. The whole complex subject is, The desire of the aspiring boy to receive in his youth a suitable education. ANALYSIS. 167 Exercises. —Give, (1.) The simple subject, (2.) Its adjuncts or modifiers, (3.) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4.) The whole com- plex subject, in each of the following sentences : 1. The earnest conviction of Christopher Columbus that he would reach land by sailing westward led to the discovery of the new world. 2. Paul, the apostle of the gentiles, rejoicing steadfastly in the hope set before him, suffered martyrdom. 3. The birds with their bright" feathers, sailing through the air, gladden the heart of man. 4. Careless of fame, the youth pursues the even tenor of his way. 5. In the centre was a vast hollow square filled with innumer- able flowering plants. Ifote. — The Subject is often transposed and placed after the predicate, as in this last example. III. COMPOUND SUBJECTS. A Compound Subject is one which consists of two or more subjects, whether simple or complex, connected by one or more conjunctions. NOTES. 1. Sometimes the separate subjects which form the Compound subject may make separate sentences, by repeating the predicate. Example. — " Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." This may be separated into two sentences, thus : " Lakes are large bodies of water," " Oceans are large bodies of water." 2. Sometimes the several subjects cannot be thus separated, because the predicate does not admit of it. Example. — "The Raritan river, the Delaware river, and the connectinj; canal, form a continuous line of inland navigation between New York and Philadelphia." Here the predicate is true of the compound subject as a whole, but not of any one of the single subjects taken by itself. 3. This separation into distinct sentences may be made when- ever the predicate is true of each subject taken by itself, but cannot be made when the predicate is true of the different sub- jects only when taken together as a whole. 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. Each of the separate subjects which form a compound sub- ject may be complex, and as such may be modified by adjuncts in all the different ways already described under the head of Complex Subjects. It is not necessary to give separate examples. 11. THE PREDICATE. Distinction of Grammatical Predicate and Logi- cal Predicate. The Grammatical Predicate is simply the finite verb to which the noun or pronoun forming the grammatical subject is nominative. Examples. — " The man lives." " The man has at length reached home safely." " Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul." The grammatical predicates here are the verbs lives, has reached, and was. The Logical Predicate is not simply the verb to which the noun or pronoun is nominative, but includes also all the attendant words which modify in any way the meaning of the verb. In the second example above, the Logical predicate is, has at length reached home safely ; in the third example it is, was the conqueror of Gaul. The Logical Predicate, then, includes all the words which, taken together, tell what is said or affirmed of the subject. The Logical Predicate is the one treated of in Analysis. The Predicate is of three kinds, Simple, Complex, and Compound. I. SIMPLE PREDICATES. A Simple Predicate is a single finite verb, having some noun or pronoun for its nominative. The Logical Predicate and the Grammatical Predicate here are the same. Examples.— "The sun has risen." ''The illustrious general, who had been victorious in a hundred fights, icas defeated." ANALYSIS. 169 II. COMPLEX PREDICATES. A Complex Predicate is one in which the predicate verb is accompanied by some other word or words which in some way limit or modify its meaning. Example. — " The life of such a man toill at length come to an end in the midat of shame and sorrow." Here the predicate is the verb "will come" with all the other accompanying words in italics. These accompanying words modify or limit the verb *' will come." They all, taken together, form the affirmation which is made in regard to " the life of such a man." Adjuncts to the Predicate. Adjuncts are the accompanying words which make a Predicate complex. The Adjuncts of the Predicate are of three kinds, namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. The following are examples of each of these three kinds of adjuncts : 1. Single Words. — "The old man went back slowly." Here "back" and "slowly" are single words modifying or qualifying the predicate "went." 2. Phrases. — " The old man went to his home in great wrath." Here the phrases, " to his home," and " in great wrath," modify the predicate ** went." 3. Clauses. — " The man lived in the house tchich was upon the hill-side." Here the clause, " which was upon the hill-side," is one of the modifiers of the predicate " lived." Ways in ^Arhieh Adjuncts modify the Predicate. The Predicate is modified by Adjuncts, as follows: 1. By an adjective belonging to the subject- nominative; as, "Good men are few." The adjective in this case is called the adjective-predicate, and is parsed as belonging to the noun or pronoun which is nominative to the verb. 2. By a participle belonging to the subject-nominative ; as, " He sat watching." 3. By a noun or pronoun in the nominative after the verb ; as, 15 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. "The men have become drunkards,'^ "It is I" The noun or pronoun in this case is called the nominative-predicate. Note 1. — The nominative-predicate after a verb is sometimes introduced by the conjunction as. " He was regarded as a scholar," Note 2. — A noun or pronoun can be nominative-predicate only after in- transitive verbs and after the passive voice of transitive verbs ; as, " He was called a villain." Note 3. — A noun -predicate after an infinitive may be in the objective, if the word which it represents is in the objective; as, "We allowed them to become drunkai'ds." t 4. By a noun or pronoun which is the object of the verb ; as, " We saw him," " We heard noises." IJ"ote. — An objective-predicate can occur only after a transitive verb in the active voice, or after an intransitive verb having the same meaning as the object; as, "He runs a race." 5. By a preposition with its object ; as, " The man has gone to town." 6. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, " He continued to move." 7. By an adverb ; as, " He writes rapidly." 8. By a clause ; as, " He asked that the time might be extended." :>>9ic Model. — " No man can truly say that he is without sin." In this sentence, 1. The simple predicate is can say. 2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the adverb truly, and the clause, thai he is without sin. 3. The whole complex predicate is, can truly say that he is with- out sin. Exercises. — Give, (1.) The simple predicate, (2.) The adjuncts or modifiers of the simple predicate, (3.) The whole complex predicate, in each of the following sentences : 1. Wealth begets desire for wealth. 2. Men of learning have often been unwise. 3. The lark rises toward heaven singing. ANALYSIS. 171 4. Fishes glide rapidly through water by swimming. 5. Christopher Columbus believed after study that the earth was round. Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Predicate are modified by other Adjuncts. Adjuncts of the predicate may themselves be modified by other words. The several parts of speech, when used as adjuncts to the pre- dicate, are modified in the same manner as the same words are when used as adjuncts to the subject. It is not necessary, there- fore, to enumerate them in detail. 3>»iC Model. — " The wrestler found at length a young man willing to compete with him." In this sentence, 1. The simple predicate is the verh found ("wrestler found"). 2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this predicate are the follow- ing: (a) The noun man, object of the verb ("wrestler found man"). [b) The preposition and its object, at length (" The wrestler found at length man"). 3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, as follows : [a) The adjunct man is modified by the article a and the ad- jectives young and willing ("a young man willing"). (6) The adjunct willing is itself modified by the infinitive to compete, and that again by the preposition and object with him ("willing to compete with him"). 4. The whole complex predicate is, found at length a young man willing to compete with him. Exercises. — Give, (1.) The simple predicate, (2.) Its adjuncts or modifiers, (3.) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4.) The whole complex predicate, in each of the following sentences : 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value the whole of the European and Asiatic mines. 2. The distance from the earth to the sun is, in round numbers, one hundred millions of miles. 3. The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of immense importance, presupposing in the mind to which they are applied an active co-operation. 4. The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in vehement reaction against the prevailing tendencies of an exceedingly corrupt civilization. 5. The genius for disorder, which shows itself in some young persons, is not a hopeful sign for their future comfort in life. Review Exercises. — Give, (1.) The simple subject, (2.) Its adjuncts, (3.) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4.) The whole com- plex subject, in each of the foregoing sentences. III. COMPOUND PREDICATES. A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two or more predicates, whether simple or complex, united by one or more conjunctions. NOTES. 1. The several predicates which form the compound predicate," may generally make separate sentences, by repeating the subject. Examples. — " The Atlantic ocean is the large body of water lying between Europe and America, and is traversed continually by steamers and sailing Vessels." This may be separated into two distinct sentences, thus : *' The Atlantic ocean is the large body of water lying between Europe and America." " The Atlantic ocean is traversed continually by steamers and sailing vessels." " Drunkenness enslaves and debases a man." This may be separated into the two sentences, " Drunkenness enslaves a man," " Drunkenness de- bases a man." 2. Each of the separate predicates which form a compound predicate may be complex, and as such may be modified by ad- juncts, in all the different ways described under the head of Com- plex Predicates. It is not necessary to give separate examples. ANALYSIS. 173 II. KINDS OF SENTENCES. Two Ways of Classifying Sentences. Sentences are divided into classes or kinds, first in reference to their use, secondly in reference to their structure. I. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into three kinds, namely, Declarative, Interrogative, and Impera- tive. A Declarative Sentence is one which is used simply to declare or deny. A Declarative sentence must always contain a verb in the Indicatire or the Potential mood; as, "He has not failed," "A life spent in doing good could not be a failure." Note. — In the preceding part of this chapter, explaining the Part* of a Sentence, all the examples given have been Declarative Sentences. For the purposes of illustration, they are more convenient than examples of the other kinds of sentences. An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask a question. • An Interrogative sentence must always contain a verb in the Indicativo or the Potential mood; as, " Has he failed ? " " Could a life spent ia doing good bo a failure ? " An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit. An Imperative sentence must always contain a verb in the Imperatfvo mood; as, "Write the copy according to your directions," " Father, fb-rgive us," " Go, if you desire it." II. Sentences, as to their structure, are divided into three kinds. Simple, Complex, and Compound. This second division of sentences requires a more distinct coik- sideration. 15* 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. L SIMPLE SENTENCES. A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one subject and one predicate. The subject and the predicate may have any kind and degree of complexity, except that arising from the introduction of a clause, and yet the sentence be simple. " The Delaware, the Raritan, and the connecting canal form a continuous line of navigation." This is a simple sentence, because, although three things are named, they constitute but one inseparable subject. The propo- sition would not be true, if made of any one of them separately. "Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." This is not simple, be- cause it may be resolved into the two sentences, " Lakes are large bodies of water," "Oceans are large bodies of water." "A canoe which is made of bark is easily broken." This is not simple, because the subject is modified by a clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, is made, and ia hrohen. " The man learned that the canoe was made of bark." This is not simple, because the predicate is modified by a clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, learned, and was made. " The foolish young man, in the flush of a momentary excitement, rush- ing into the surging stream, at the time of high water, in a frail canoe made of bark, was rapidly whirled by the impetuosity of the descending current into the yawning abyss below." Here, both the subject and the predicate are very complex, yet the sentence is simple. It has but oner subject and one predicate. II. COMPLEX SENTENCES. A Complex Sentence is one which contains a simple sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its subject or its predicate. "A life which is spent in doing good cannot be a failure." This is a complex sentence, because the subject is modified by the clause, tohich is spent in doing good. The sentence thus has two predicates. " He was at the station when the train arrived." This is complex, be- cause the predicate is modified by the clause, when the train arrived. The sentence thus has two predicates. ANALYSIS. 175 III. COMPOUND SENTENCES. A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected by one or more conjunctions. " Ho left home in good season, and was at the station when the train arrived." This is a compound sentence, containing the simple sentence, He left home in good season, and the complex sentence, [He] was at the station when the train arrived, the two being connected by the conjunction and. The seutences which compose a Compound Sentence are called its Members. 3i*:c III. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. The terms Phrase, Clause, and Member frequently occur in speaking of Sentences. These terms have been already defined, but some additional illustration seems desirable. I. PHRASES. A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- ing, but not containing a predicate- verb, and not making by themselves complete sense. The principal Phrases are the following : 1. The Appositional Phrase; as, "June, the month of roses, has come at length." 2. The Prepositional Phrase ; as, " The cause of all this misery was bad temper." 3. The Adjective Phrase; as, "Youth, full of expectation, is ever san- guine." 4. The Participial Phrase; as, "Living on vegetables, he was not strong." 5. The Infinitive Phrase; as, "He determined to live on vegetables only." 6. The Subject Phrase. This is where a Participial Phrase or an Infinitive Phrase is used as the subject to the verb ; as, " Living on vegetables only is not conducive to strength," "'fo live on vegetables only is not conducive to strength." 176 ENGLISH GIIAMMAR. 7. The Absolute Phrase ; as, " The king being dead, his oldest son suc- ceeds to the throne." 8. The Independent Phrase. This includes all mere exclamations, and all words addressed to persons or things, and not grammatically dependent upon the other parts of the sentence ; as, " Out upon the villain ! he deserves the halter," ^'Detestable villain, j'ou deserve the halter." These exclama- tions and addresses often consist of a single word; as " Villain, leave the house." II. CLAUSES. A Clause is a number of words, connected in mean- ing, and containing a verb with its subject, and so making by themselves complete sense, but not independent, being used to modify some other word. The principal Clauses are the following : 1. The Relative Clause ; as, " The man who is faithful to duty is to be honored." 2. The Appositional Clause ; as, " The maxim. Put not off till to-morrow what can be done to-day, has much wisdom." 3. The Subject Clause; as, " That life is tmcertain is known to all." 4. The Object Clause ; as, " They knew that the man was a villain." 5. The Adverbial Clause ; as, " He remained at the station until the train left." 6. The Conjunctional Clause ; as, " He will meet you at the station, */ you come in time." III. MEMBERS. A Member is a sentence, complete and independent in itself, and not used to modify any word or clause, yet united by a conjunction with some other sentence to form a compound sentence. The difference between Members and Clauses is this : Members are parts of compound sentences; Clauses, of complex sentences. A Member of a sentence can stand alone as an independent sentence; a Clause, though containing a subject and predicate, is yet always dependent upon something outside of itself. ANALYSIS. 177 "The sun, when it had risen, scorched the grass." "When it had risen" cannot stand alone. It is a clause, dependent upon " sun." " The sun had risen, and the grass was scorched." Here are two sen- tences, each complete and independent in itself, but both united to form a Compound sentence. These two sentences, taken separately, are called the Members of the Compound sentence. GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. Model. — " The esteem of wise and good men is the greatest of all temporal encouragements to virtue ; and it is the mark of an abandoned spirit to have no regard to it." 1. This is a declarative sentence, compound, and contains two members connected by the conjunction and. 2. The first member, " The esteem of wise and good men is the greatest of all temporal encouragements to virtue," is a simple sentence. 3. The subject, " The esteem of wise and good men," is com- plex. Analyze it according to the model on p. 166. 4. The predicate, " is the greatest of all encouragements to virtue," is complex. Analyze it according to the model on p. 171. 5. The second member, " it is the mark of an abandoned spirit to have no regard to it," is a simple sentence. 6. Its subject, " it," is simple. 7. Its predicate, " is the mark of an abandoned spirit to have no regard to it," is complex. Analyze it according to model, p. 171. Model. — " Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens above us, mere decorations of the night, or suns and centres of planetary systems ? " 1. This is an interrogative sentence, compound, and contains two members connected by the conjunction or. 2. The first member, " Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens above us, mere decorations of the night," is a complex sentence, containing a relative clause. 3. The subject, " the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens above us," is complex. Analyze, first, the subject and predicate M 178 ENG1.ISH GRAMMAK. of the clause, and secondly, the whole complex subject, according to the models, pp. 166 and 171. 4. The predicate, " are mere decorations of the night," is com- plex. Analyze it according to model, p, 171. 5. The second member, supplying the ellipsis, " [are they] suns and centres of planetary systems," is a simple sentence. Analyze its subject and predicate according to the models already given. Exercises. — Analyze in the same manner the following sen- tences : 1. The wind and rain are over; calm is the noon of day; the clouds are divided in heaven ; and over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 2. The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a perpetual smile; and eyes, through which shines the light of other worlds, are often dimmed with tears. 3. Books are standing counsellors and preachers, always at hand, and always disinterested ; having this advantage over oral instructors, that they are ready to repeat their lesson as often as we please. 4. Can we imagine that God's highest gifts of intelligence, imagination, and moral power, were intended to provide only for animal wants? 5. Do the voice of the wise, and the arm of the brave, and the blood of the patriot go for nothing, in the wild conflict that is desolating the earth? 6. Wordsworth, in his poetry, works out wisdom as it comes from the common heart of man, and appeals to that heart in turn ; causing us to recognize the truth, that there is something in humanity which deserves alike our love and reverence. 7. Give me a larger eye, and I will reveal to you another rank of worlds marshalled behind those whose shining hosts you now behold. 8. Macpherson, who has given us some highly original images, spoils half his work by forgetting that his bard was a Gaul. 9. The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid, whose works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathemati- cians of modern times. 10. Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence; but be not blind to the defects of your country, because you were bom in it. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse into sections by means of points, for the purpose of show- ing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the sense more obvious. Capitals are used for a like purpose, and, therefore, they may with propriety be treated of at the same time with the Points. NOTES. 1. For a fuller illustration of this subject, the student is referred to the author's work on Composition and Rhetoric. 2. The word Punctuation is from the Latin punctum, a point. The points now used in writing were unknown to the ancients. Aristophanes, a gram- marian of Alexandria, about two and a half centuries before the Christian era, introduced some of the marks now used in punctuation. But the points did not come into common use until the time of Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, who reduced the matter to a system about the year 1500, and, by the extreme beauty and accuracy of his editions, gave it general currency. 3. The word Capital is from the Latin caput, a head. The letters of the word or words forming the caput, heading, or title of a discourse, are called head-letters, or capitals. 4. The capital letters were those first invented, and were in use many cen- turies before the invention of the small letters. The oldest manuscripts now in existence, some of which date as far back as the third century, are writ- ten entirely in capitals, and are likewise almost without points, and without spacing between the words. The small letters were first introduced about the seventh century; but, for some time after the introduction of the small letters, the capitals continued to be used much more than they are now. The principal grammatical points are five ; namely, 1. The Comma, , 2. The Semicolon, ; 3. The Colon, : 4. The Period, 6. The Interrogation, ? 179 (( yy 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. These points have various degrees of disjunctive force, in separating the parts of a sentence from each other. This force may be expressed briefly, as follows : The Period, except when used for an abbreviation, marks the greatest separation of all, the parts between which it is placed being thereby rendered grammatically entirely independent of each other; the Colon marks a separation somewhat less than that of the Period; the Semicolon, less than that of the Colon ; and the Comma, less than that of the Semicolon. The Interrogation, though usually counted as equivalent to a period, may be equivalent to a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a period, according to circumstances. Besides the five points already named, several other characters are used for similar purposes. The most com- mon of these are the following : The Exclamation, ! The Dash, — The Parenthesis, ( ) The Bracket, [ ] The Quotation, The Apostrophe, 3i»^< L THE COMMA. The Comma marks the smallest of the grammatical divisions of discourse that require a point. The word Comma (Greek KOfjifta, from Kdima, to cut) denotes something cut off, a section. It was used originally to denote, not the mark, but the por- tion of the sentence thus set off. The same is true of the words semicolon and colon. They meant originally portions of discourse, not, as now, the marks by which those portions are set off. Period, Interrogation, Paren- thesis, and some other like words, are used in both senses ; they mean por- tions of discourse, and also the marks by which those portions are set off. RULE I. Parenthetical Expressions. — Phrases and single words, used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. PUNCTUATION. 181 Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not essential to the meaning and structure of the sentence in which they stand. Such words and phrases belong rather to some unexpressed th(>ught that is in the mind, than to the thought actually expressed. Thus, " It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world." Here the phrase "after all" does not belong to the verb " does." The author does not mean to say that mind does the work of the world, after doing everything else. In like manner, it docs not modify any other part of the expressed sentence. On the contrary, it be- longs to some unexpressed thought, as though we were to say, " After all that can be claimed/or other agents, we may still claim for the mind, that it does the work of the world." Sometimes the parenthetical word or phrase refers to what is expressed in the preceding sentence. Thus, " The danger was fully explained to him. His passions, however, prevented his seeing it." Parenthetical expressions, then, are such as are not necessary to the structure and meaning of the sentence in which they stand, if taken alone, but they are a part of the machinery, so to speak, by which the sentence is connected with some preceding sentence, or with some unexpressed sentence or thought existing in the mind of the writer. They are, in fact, of a conjunctional, rather than of an adverbial character. Some of the phrases in common use, which require to be sepa- rated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following : in short, in truth, to be sure, in fact, as it were, to be brief, in fine, as it happens, after all, in reality, no doubt, you know, in brief, in a word, of course. Some of the single words used parenthetically, and often sepa- rated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following: therefore, namely, moreover, then, consequently, surely, however, indeed, accordingly, perhaps, too, finally. Examples for Practice. 1. Gentleness is in truth ^the great avenue to real enjoyment. 2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of passion. 3. He knows very well^come what may that the note will be paid. 4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning languages. 16 ' 182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. He went home accordingly and arranged his business in the manner described. 6. There are in truth only two things to be considered namely his honesty and his ability. ,7. No nation in short is free from danger. 8. When however the hour for the trial came, the man was not to be found. 9. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own admis- sions. 10. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is no use in trying. 11. The meeting after all was something of a failure. 12. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in your business. RULE II. Intermediate Expressions. — Clauses and expres- sions, not parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to come between some of the essential parts of the sen- tence, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Care should be taken to distinguish these intermediate expressions from such as are properly restrictive in their character. An expression is re- strictive, when it limits the meaning of some particular word to some par- ticular sense. Thus, "The man who plants the field ought to reap the harvest." Here it is not " the man " merely, but " the man who plants the field," that is the subject of "ought." A separation of the relative and its adjuncts from " man," by means of commas, would destroy the sense. The clause, therefore, is restrictive. It limits the meaning to that particular man. But suppose I say, "Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, saw the carriage approach, and, in an ecstasy of delight, hastened to. meet it." Here, the expression, " who happened to be in the field at the time," is properly a relative clause not restrictive, and comes under Rule IV. ; and the expression, " in an ecstasy of delight," is properly intermediate, and comes under Rule II. The former breaks the continuity between the subject and the predicate ; the latter, between the two predicates. * Examples for Practice. 1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture are deserving of general attention. PUNCTUATION. 183 2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a small and inconsiderable portion of the universe. 3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show the incorrectness of his position. 4. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to depict the horrors of the scene. 5. Christianity is in a most important sense the religion of sorrow. 6. A man of great wealth may for want of education and refine- ment of manner be a mere cipher in society. 7. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it^ is one of the highest Christian graces. 8. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will bring in time large accumulations. RULE III. Dependent or Conditional Clauses. — A dependent or conditional clause should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or by commas. NOTES. 1. Clauses are dependent, when one of them is subject to the other for the completion of the sense. 2. One of the dependent clauses usually begins with ?/, unhfts, until, when, where, or other word expressive of condition, purpose, cause, time, place, and the likej as, " If you would succeed in business, be honest and indus- trious." Examples for Practice. [Note. — In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, insert not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also those required by the preceding rules.] 1. If you would succeed in business be punctual in observing your engagements. 2. Every man if he would succeed in business must be punctual in observing his engagements. 3. The days in December you know are at their shortest and therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have much daylight. 4. The index at the end of the book will enable the pupil if his memory fail him to discover the particular rule which he needs. 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. The reader should however as he proceeds from sentence to sentence make a note of whatever strikes his attention. 6. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be forgotten. 7. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we boast of could the world see our real motive. RULE IV. Relative Clauses not Restrictive. ^Clauses intro- duced by a relative pronoun, if not restrictive, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. NOTES. 1. See Note under Rule II., for an explanation of what is meant by restric- tive clauses. 2. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restric- tively, if it is immediately followed by a word or a phrase inclosed in commas ; as, " Those friends, who> in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of Robertson's future eminence, were at length amply rewarded." 3. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if several words intervene between it and its grammatical antecedent; as, ** He preaches most eloquently, who leads the most pious life." 4. Of which and of whom, even when used restrictively, are preceded by a comma; as, "No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the groundwork." Examples for Practice. 1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous passion had now taken full possession of him. 2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for vengeance. 3. The man of letters who has constantly before him examples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of excellence. 4. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we are born. 5. Civil war is an awful evil of which however history fur- nishes many examples. ^ 6. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who has never been at sea. 7. The powers which now move the world are the printing- press and the telegraph. 8. America may well boast of her Washington whose character and fame are the common property of the world. PUNCTUATION. 185 RULE V. A Continued Sentence consisting of Co-ordinate Sentences. — In a continued sentence, consisting of co- ordinate sentences, the several co-ordinate sentences, if simple in construction, are separated from each other by commas. If, however, these co-ordinate sentences are complex and involved, espe- cially if they have commas within themselves, the sentences should be sepa- rated by a semicolon ; as, " Crafty men, though they may pretend other- wise, contemn studies ; simple men, though they really care nothing about the matter, yet pretend to admire them ; wise men use them." Examples for Practice. 1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise men use them. 2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you promise. 3. Caesar was dead the senators were dispersed all Kome was in confusion. RULE VI. Grammatical Expressions in the same Construc- tion forming a Series. — Grammatical expressions in the same construction forming a series should be separated from each other, and from what follows, by commas. NOTES. 1. A grammatical expression is a collection of words, having some gram- matical dependence and connection, but not containing in themselves a predicate. 2. If the expressions are brief, and there are but two of them, connected by and, or, or nor, no comma between them is needed ; as, " Hard study and neglect of exercise impair the health." If, however, the two connected expressions differ much in form, it is better to set them off by commas; as, " Hard study, and the entire absence of attention to the matter of diet, bring on disease." 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Examples for Practice. 1. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness in the choice of friends are important traits of character. 2. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts from malignity and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a paler sky ? 4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill the mind with great ideas. RULE VII. Words in the same Construction forming a Series. — Words in the same construction, forming a series, ad- mit of the following three cases : — 1. There may be a conjunction between each two of the words ; as, "Industry and honesty and frugality and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of the words in the series are to be separated by commas. 2. The conjunction may be omitted, except between the last two of the words ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, all the words are to be separated from each other by commas. 3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last two words, as well as between the others ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, temperance, are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, not only all the words of the series are to be separated from each other by commas, but a comma is to be inserted also after the last word, to separate it from what follows. A comma is not in any case to be inserted after the last word of a series, if what follows is only a single word; as, "The good will form hereafter stronger, purer, holier ties." Examples for Practice. 1. He was brave and pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 2. He was brave pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 3. He was brave pious patriotic in all his aspirations. 4. He was a brave pious pati'iotic man. PUNCTUATION. 187 6. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid sword. 6. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly written. 7. We are fearfully wonderfully made. 8. Virtue religion is the one thing needful. 9. Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down. 10. The earth the air the water teem with life. 11. Grand ideas and sentiments elevate and ennoble the mind. RULE VIII. Words or Phrases in Pairs. — Words or phrases in pairs take a comma after each pair. Examples for Practice. 1. Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress desolation and ruin are the consequences of civil war. 2. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty reverence and devotion were all remarked in him. 3. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and the old ha/e one common Father. 4. Eating or drinking laboring ^or sleeping let us do all in moderation. RULE IX. Nouns in Apposition. — A Noun in apposition to some preceding noun or pronoun, and having an adjunct consisting of several words, should, with all its connected words, be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. NOTES. 1. Where the noun put in apposition stands alone, or has only an article before it, no comma is required between said noun and the word with which it is in apposition ; as, " Paul the apostle was a man of energy." 2. A noun following another as a synonym, or as giving additional illus- tration to the thought, is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before and after; as "The word Poet, meaning a maker, a creator, is de- rived from the Greek." 3. When a noun is predicated of the noun or pronoun with which it is in apposition, no comma is required between them ; as, " They have juat elected him Governor of the State." 188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. After several words containing a description of a person or thing, if the name of the person or thing is added, it should be set oflF from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " The greatest of poets among the ancients, Homer, like the greatest among the moderns, Milton, was blind." 5. A title, whether abbreviated or expressed in full, when annexed to a noun or pronoun, must be set off by commas ; as, " At the request of the Rt, Rev. W. H. Odenheimer, D. D., the ceremony was postponed." Examples for Practice. 1. We the p.eople of the United States do hereby ordain and establish this Constitution. 2. Virgil the chief poet among the Komans was fond of rural life. 3. To call a man a fool is not to make him one. 4. The chief work of Chaucer the Canterbury Tales suggested to Longfellow the plan of his work the Tales of a Wayside Inn. 5. John Chapman Doctor of Medicine. John Chapman M. D. RULE X. The Vocative Case. — A noun in the vocative case, or case independent, as it is called, together with its adjunct words, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or by commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my regard. 2. I beg sir, to acknowledge the receipt of your favor. 3. I rise ^r. President^ to a point of order. 4. Show pity Lord ! Lord forgive I 6. Remember sir you cannot have it. RULE XL The Case Absolute. — A clause containing the con- struction known as the case absolute should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or by commas. PUNCTUATION. 189 Examples for Practice. 1. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in the midst. 2. A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than a state of pleasure. 3. Shame lost all virtue is lost. 4. His father being dead the prince ascended the throne. 5. I being in the way the Lord led me to the house of my mas- ter's brother. RULE XII. Inverted Clauses. — Inverted clauses, standing at the beginning of a sentence, are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. NOTES. 1. The infinitive mood, especially when used to express object or design, is often inverted in this way j as, " To obtain an education, he was willing to make sacrifices." 2. In making alphabetical catalogues, compound names, such as John Quincy Adams, are usually inverted, that is, the last word in the name, being the principal one, is put first, and is then separated from the other parts of the name by a comma ; as, Adams, John Quincy. Examples for Practice. 1. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect. 2. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 3. To supply the deficiency he resorted to a shameful trick. 4. Living in filth the poor cease to respect one another. 5. To confess the truth I never greatly admired him. RULE XIIL Ellipsis of the Verb. — In continued sentences, hav- ing a common verb, which is expressed in one of the members, but omitted in the others, the ellipsis of the verb is marked by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Reading maketh a full man ; conference a ready man ; writing an exact man. 2. Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist. 190 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 3. Semiramis built Babylon; Dido Carthage; and Romulus. Eome. RULE XIV. Short Quotations. — A short quotation, or a sentence resembling a quotation, should be preceded by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Patrick Henry began his celebrated speech by saying " It is natural to man to indulge the illusions of hope." 2. A good rule in education is Learn to be slow in forming your opinions. 3. I say There is no such thing as human perfection. 4. Some one justly remarks " It is a great loss to lose an afflic- tion." XL THE SEMICOLON. The Semicolon marks a division of a sentence some- what larger and more complex than that marked by a comma. RULE I. Subdivided Members in Compound Sentences. — When a sentence consists of two members, and these members, or either of them, are themselves subdivided by commas, the larger divisions of the sentence should be separated by a semicolon. NOTES. 1. If the connection between these members is close, the semicolon is not used. The word " when," introducing the first member, indicates this kind of close connection, and prevents ordinarily the use of the semicolon. The Rule itself furnishes an example of the semicolon omitted in a sentence beginning with " when." 2. When the members are considerably complex, they are sometimes separated by a semicolon, even though not subdivided by commas ; as, " So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work of fiction ; and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being Boftened." PTTNCTUATION. 191 Examples for Practice. 1. Sparre was sulky and perverse because he was a citizen of a republic. 2. Sparre the Dutch general was sulky and perverse because according to Lord Malion he was a citizen of a republic. 3. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover and like Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love. 4. You may quit the field of business though not the field of danger and though you cannot be safe you may cease to be ridic- ulous. RULE IL Clauses and Expressions having a Common De- pendence. — When several clauses or grammatical ex- pressions of similar construction follow each other in a series, all having a common dependence upon some other clause, they are separated from each other by a semicolon, and from the clause on which they all depend, by a comma. Example. — "Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries." Examples for Practice. 1. Mr. Croker is perpetually stopping us in our progress through the most delightful narrative in the language to observe that really Dr. Johnson was very rude that he talked more for victory than for truth that his taste for port wine with capilliare in it was very odd that Boswell was impertinent and that it was foolish in Mrs. Tlirale to marry the music-master. 2. To give an early preference to honor above gain when they stand in competition. to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook no meanness and to stoop to no dissimulations are the indications of a great mind. 192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULE III. Sentences Connected in Meaning, but without Grammatical Dependence. — Sentences following each other, without grammatical dependence, but connected in meaning, are usually separated from each other by semicolons. Example.—" She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it in her tears ; her fancy catches more than an angel's tongue can describe." In all the cases which come under this Rule, two features are essential. First, each of the several members forming the continued sentence should be complete in itself, so that it might grammatically stand alone, with a period following. Secondly, these several members should have some underlying thread of connection in the thought. Authors differ in regard to the punc- tuation, in these cases. Some insist on separating the members by a period. By such a course, however, we lose one important means of marking nice changes of thought. Others use the colon, instead of the semicolon, for these purposes. This was the case formerly much more than now. The best usage at present is, to employ a period, a colon, a semicolon, or a comma, according to the degree of complexity or simplicity of the several sentences, and the degree of closeness or looseness of connection in the thought. If the connection is close, and the successive members are short and simple, the comma is used; if the members are somewhat longer, and especially if any of them are at all complex, the semicolon is used ; if, in addition to this, the connection in the thought is but faint, the colon is used ; and when the connection almost disappears, the period is used. Examples for Practice. 1. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and feel. 2. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with its frosts and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night the beast in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air seek the habita- tion of men. 8. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the house of God the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofe horses neigh beside the altar. PUNCTUATION. 193 RULE IV. The Clause Additional. — When a sentence com- plete in itself is followed by a clause which is added by way of inference, explanation, or enumeration, the addi- tional clause, if formally introduced by some connecting word, is separated from the main body of the sentence by a semicolon ; but, if merely appended without any such connecting word, by a colon. Examples. — Apply yourself to study ; for it will redound to your honor. Apply yourself to study : it will redound to your honor. Some of the connecting words most commonly used for this purpose are namely, for, but, yet, to wit, etc. The word as, when used to connect an example with a rule, should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus Xenophon and Thucydides. 2. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages viz. the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 3. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 4. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four cardinal virtues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and Prudence. RULE V. A General Term in Apposition to the Particulars under it. — A general term in apposition to several others which are particulars under it is separated from the particulars by a semicolon, and the particulars are separated from each other by commas. If the enumeration of the particulars is given with much for- mality, so as to make the several expressions complex, containing commas of their own, then these particulars must be separated 17 N 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. from the general term by a colon, and from each other by semi- colons; as, — Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes; Distributive, Demon- strative, and Indefinite. Adjective Pronouns are divided into these three classes : first, the Dis- tributive, which are four in number; secondly, the Demonstrative, which are four; and thirdly, the Indefinite, which are nine. III. THE COLON. The Colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly complete than a semicolon. The word is derived from the Greek ku)\ov (colon), a limb, or member. The two principal uses of the colon have already been given in Rules IV. and v., preceding. The following additional rules are given. RULE I. Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences. — When the minor divisions of a complex sentence contain a semi- colon, the greater divisions should be separated by a colon ; thus, — As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not per- ceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such insensible steps, are only perceivable by the distance. RULE II. Before a Quotation. — A colon is used before a direct quotation; thus, — Speaking of party, Pope makes this remark : " There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were not the most violent." If the quotation is of considerable length, consisting of several PUNCTUATION. 195 sentenceB, or begins a new paragraph, it should be preceded by both a colon and a dash. Example : — At tho close of the meeting, the president rose and said : — " Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with extreme reluctance that I address you on this occasion," etc. If the quotation is merely some short saying, a comma is sufficient; as, Dr. Thomas Brown says, " The benevolent spirit is as universal as the miseries which are capable of being relieved." RULE III. Yes and No. — The words yes and no, when in answer to a question, should be followed by a colon, provided the words which follow the yes and no are a continuation of the answer ; as, — " Can these words add vigor to your hearts ? Yes : they can do it ; they have often done it." Yes and no are often followed by some noun in the vocative case, or case independent ; as, " Yes, sir," " Yes, my lords," etc. In such cases, the colon should come after the vocative; as, "Yes, sir: they can do it." "Yes, my lords: I am amazed at his lord- ship's speech." Examples for Practice on the Rules for the Comma, tke Semicolon, and the Colon. [Tell what Point is due at each place where this mark o occurs, and give the Rule for the same.] 1. Satire always tends to dwarf o and it cannot fail to carica- ture o but poetry does nothing o if it does not tend to enlarge and exalt o and if it does not seek rather to beautify than deform. 2. This is an iambic line o in which the first foot is formed of a word and a part of a word o the second and third o of parts taken from the body or interior of a word o the fourth o of a part and a whole o the fifth o of two complete words. 3. Melissa o like the bee o gathers honey from every weed o while Arachne o like the spider o sucks poison from the fairest flowers. 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united ? No o sir o no united nation can be o that has the spirit to resolve not to be conquered. 6. Be our plain answer this o The throne we honor is the people's choice o the laws we reverence are our brave fathers' legacy o the faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity with all mankind o and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave. 6. The discourse consisted of two parts o in the first was shown the necessity of exercise o iu the second o the advantages that would result from it. IV. THE PERIOD. The Period marks the completion of the sentence. The word Period is derived from the Greek ntpio^oi (period), a circuit, and means primarily anything rounded or brought to completion. It was the first point introduced. RULE I. Complete Sentences. — Sentences which are com- plete in sense, and not connected in construction with what follows, and not exclamatory or interrogative in their character, should be followed by a period. RULE II. After Abbreviations. — A period is used after all abbreviated words. NOTES. 1. The most common method of abbreviation is to use the first letter of a word for the whole word, as B. Franklin for Benjamin Franklin. Some- times, in abbreviating the word, the first letter is doubled ; as, p, for page, pp. for pages, M. for Monsieur, MM. for Messieurs. In such cases, a period is not inserted between the two letters which represent the plural of one word. This explains why there is no period between the two L's in the title LL.D. (Legum Doctor), the LL. standing for one word in the plural, and the D. for the other word in the singular. Sometimes a word is abbre- PUNCTUATION. ' 197 viated by taking the first two or three letters, as Eng. for England; somo- times by taking the first letter and the last, as Wm. for William, Ca. for California ,; sometimes by taking the first letter and some leading letter in the middle of the word, as Mo. for Missouri, MS. for manuscript. In these cases, the period is to be used only at the end of the combined letters. In the case last cited, the last letter of the combination is doubled when the word is plural; as, MS. manuscript, MSS. manuscripts. 2. When an abbreviated word comes at the end of a sentence, it is not necessary to use two periods. One point is suflBcient to mark both the abbre- viation and the end of the sentence. But if the construction requires some other point, as the comma, semicolon, colon, interrogation, etc., both points must be inserted, one to mark the grammatical construction, the other to mark the abbreviation ; as, '* He reported the death of John Chapman, M.D." "John Chapman, M.D., at the early age of twenty-four, was carried ofif by disease." 3. When two or more abbreviated titles follow each other, they must be separated from each other by commas, just as they would be, if written out in full. Thus : " Thomas Sumner, Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws, Bishop of London," abbreviated, becomes, ** Thomas Sumner, D.D., LL.D., Bp. of London." 4. Proper names are sometimes permanently shortened, the short form being meant, not as an ordinary abbreviation, but as the real and true name. This was the case with the celebrated dramatist, Ben Jonson. We have analogous and more familiar instances in Ned Buntline, Bill Smith, Tom Jones, etc. In such cases, no period should be inserted to mark abbreviation. 5. In like manner, various other abbreviations which are in very familiar use acquire the character of integral words, not requiring the period after them to denote abbreviations. They become nouns, with a singular and a plural. Thus, in England, Cantab (an abridgment of Cantabrigiensis, and meaning an alumnus of Cambridge University), has become a noun, the body of the alumni being called Cantabs, and any one of them a Cantab. In like manner, we have Jap and Japs for Japanese, consol and consols for consolidated loan or consolidated loans of the British Government, three per cents, five per cents, etc. 6. The word cent, in the combination per cent, had become thoroughly es- tablished as an integral word, and was almost universally written and printed without the mark of abbreviation ; but of late years, some writers, in a spirit of hypercriticism, have insisted, unwisely I think, on restoring the period after cent to show that it is an abbreviation of centum. They ought in consistency to put a period after quart, to show that it is an abbreviation of quarta, or after cab, because it is abbreviated for cabriolet. 7. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, A, B, C, etc., when used in geom- etry and other sciences to represent quantities, are not abbreviations, and should not be so marked by the insertion of a period. 8. When the letters of the alphabet are used to represent numerals, it is 17* 198 ENGLISPI GRAMMAB. customary to insert a period at the end of each completed numeral; as, Psalms iv., xxi., Ixxxvi., cxix., etc. When dates are thus expressed, the whole number is separated into periods of thousands, hundreds, and the por- tion less than a hundred; as, M.DCCCLXXI. for the year one thousand, eight hundred, and seventy-one, or 1871. 9. The Arabic figures, 1, 2, 3, etc., and the various marks used by printers, as ^ for section, ^ for paragraph, etc., are not abbreviations, but stand for whole words, and therefore do not require the period. The period is used, however, before decimals, and between pounds and shillings; as, £2. 10s. 4d. sterling was worth $13,719 at the rate of exchange then prevailing. 10. The words 4to, 8vo, 12mo, etc., are not strictly abbreviations, the figures representing a part of the word. If the letters were written in place of the figures which represent them, it would be seen at once that the words are complete, quar-io, octa-vo, duodeci-mo, etc. Periods therefore are not required for such words. The same rule will apply to 1st, 2dly, 3dly, etc. Examples for Practice. [Tell what Point is needed at each place where this mark o occurs, and give the Rule for the same.] 1. The laws of Phoroneus were established 1807 o B o C o o those of Lycurgus o 884 o B o C o o of Draco o 623 o B o C o o of Solon o 587 o B o C o o See chap o vii o g xiv o H 7 o p o 617 o 2. The reader is requested to refer to the following passages of Scripture o Ex o xx o 18 o Deut o xx o 19 o 2 o Sam o xix o 2 o 3. Bought o on 9 mos credit o the following articles o 4 yds o 3 qrs o 2 n o of broadcloth at $12 a yd o o 6 gals o 1 pt o 2 gi o of vinegar at 65 cts o a gal o o and 3J cords of wood at $7.50 a cord o 4. Excellence in conversation depends o in a great measure o on the attainments which one has made o if o therefore o education is neglected o conversation will become trifling o if perverted o corrupting. 5. Dryden's page is a natural field o rising into inequalities o and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegeta- tion o Pope's is a velvet lawn o shaven by the scythe o and levelled by the roller. pu:j^ctuation. 199 V. THE INTERROGATION POINT. An Interrogation Point is used for marking ques- tions. In regard to the portion of discourse marked off by it, the In- terrogation Point is equivalent most commonly to a period ; but it may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. It is a question of some importance to know, in each case, to which of these four points the interrogation point is equivalent, because upon thii depends the propriety of using, or not using, a capital after it. When there is, in that particular construction, but one interrogation point, it is always equivalent to a period, and should be followed by a capital. When, how- ever, there is a succession of questions, following each other in a series, with- out any affirmative sentences intervening, the interrogation point some- times represents sections of discourse less than a period. The way to determine to which class the particular question belongs is to change the construction into an affirmative form. It will, in one case, be resolved into a series of independent sentences, separated by periods; in the other, into a connected or continued sentence, with co-ordinate members separated by commas, semicolons, or colons. Example : " Who will bring me into the strong city? who will lead me into Edom? Wilt not thou, God, who hast cast us off"? and wilt not thou, God, go forth with our hosts ? " (Ps. 108 : 10, 11.) Change to the affirmative form. "Some one will bring mo into the strong city; some one will lead me into Edom. Thou, God, who hast cast us off, wilt do it ; thou, God, wilt go forth with our hosts." "Shall a man obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety? by murder? by falsehood ? by theft? " Affirmatively : " A man cannot obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety, by murder, by falsehood, by theft." « RULE. Direct Questions. — The interrogation point should be placed at the end of every direct question. NOTES. 1. A direct question is one in regular form, requiring, or al least admit- ting an answer; as, " Why do you neglect your duty? " An indirect ques- tion is one that is merely reported or spoken of; as, " He inquired why you neglected your duty." 2. When there is a succession of questions, having a common grammat- ical dependence on some preceding word or clause, each question forming 200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. by itself an incomplete sentence, some writers place an interrogation point at the end of the series, and separate the several members by a dash, or perhaps by a comma. This method of punctuation is not correct. Each question, no matter how short or broken, should have its own point. See the example immediately preceding the Rule. 3. Sometimes a question is intended, although the words are not put in the usual interrogative form. Thus : " You will come this afternoon ? " In such cases the interrogation point should be used, as in this example, although the sentence may be declarative in its form. 3>©^c So reads he Nature, whom the lamp of truth Illuminates ; thy lamp, mysterious Word I Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, But runs the road of wisdom. Thou hast built With means, that were not till by thee employed. Worlds, that had never been, hadst thou in strength Been less." 228 • SELECTIONS FOR MAN, like the generous vine, supported lives ; The strength he gains is from the embrace he gives. On their own axes as the planets run, Yet make at once their circle round the sun ; So two consistent motions acts the soul, And one regards itself, and one the whole. Thus God and Nature linked the general frame, And bade self-love and social be the same." 5j^C THUS Caesar, god-like, to the pilot cries : — Superior to despair, the waves despise, And the vain threat' ning of the angry skies ; Though gods deny thee yon Italian strand. Yet go, I charge thee, go at my command. To ignorance alone ascribe thy cares. Not knowing what a freight thy vessel bears. Let floods and winds loud war with cowards wage, Or waste upon themselves their empty rage ; One stronger in his might remains thy friend ; Thou and thy barque on Caesar's fate depend." I DO not rise to waste the night in words ; Let that Plebeian talk : it is not my trade ; But here I stand for right — let him show proofs For Eoman right : though none, it seems, dare stand To take their share with me. Ah, cluster there; Cling to your master, judges, Eomans, slaves. His charge is ftilse : — I dare him to his proofs. You have my answer. Let my actions speak. But this I will avow, that I have scorned. And still do scorn, to hide my sense of wrong. Who brands me on the forehead, breaks my sword, Or lays the bloody scourge upon my back, Wrongs me not half so much as he who shuts The gates of honor on me." ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 229 THE daughters of the year, Oue after one, through that still garden passed. Each garlanded with her peculiar flower Danced into light, and died into the shade ; And each in passing touched with some new grace Or seemed to touch her, so that day by day, Like one that never can be wholly known, Her beauty grew ; till Autumn brought an hour For Eustace, when I heard his deep ' I will,' Breathed like the covenant of God, to hold From thence through all the world ! but I rose up Full of his bliss, and following her dark eyes, Felt earth as air beneath me." >j*:c THOUGHT in the mine may come forth gold or dross ; When coined in word, we know its real worth : If sterling, store it for thy future use ; 'T will buy thee benefit, perhaps renown. Thought, too, delivered, is the more possessed ; Teaching we learn, and giving we retain The births of intellect ; when dumb, forgot." INVIDIOUS Grave I how dost thou rend in sunder Whom love has knit, and sympathy made one I A tie more stubborn far than Nature's band. Friendship I mysterious cement of the soul I I owe thee much. Thou hast deserved from me Far, far beyond what I can ever pay. Oft have I proved the labors of thy love, And the warm efforts of thy gentle heart. Anxious to please. Oh I when my friend and I In some thick wood have wandered heedless on Hid from the vulgar eye, and set us down. How often have we thought of joys departed." 20 Index. 'I=®nC Absolute Phrase, 176. Active, a distinction of voice, not of verbs, 65. Adjective, 40-44; true difference be- tween the adjective and the noun, 41 ; its syntax, 136. Adjective I'hrase, 175. Adjective Pronoun, 53; its syntax, 139. Adjuncts to Predicate, 169. Adjuncts to Subject, 163. Adverb, 85-88 ; its syntax, 144. Adverbial Clause, 176. Affixes, 99. Alphabet, origin of the name, 12. Analysis, definition and division of the subject, 161. Apposition, 124. Appositional Clause, 176. Appositional Phrase, 175. Aristotle, author of the division of letters into vowels, semi-vowels, and consonants, 12. Article, 22-24 ; origin and uses of a and the, 23 ; its syntax, 133. Auxiliary Verbs, 72. Brackets, 208. Capitals, 179 ; rules for their use, 213. Case Absolute, 103 ; how punctuated, 188. Case Independent, 103, 188. Case, of nouns, 36. Clause, 101, 163, 176. Colon, 194. Comma, 180. Comparison of adjectives, 41. Complex Predicates, 169. Complex Sentences, 101, 174. Complex Subjects, 163. Compound Personal Pronouns, 47. Compound Predicates, 172. Compound Relatives, 50. Compound Sentences, 102, 179. Compound Subjects, 167. Coinimund Tenses, their true char- acter, 73. Compound Words, their plurals, 33. Conditional Clauses, how punctu- ated, 183. Conjugation, the verb to be, 74-76; the verb to love, 78-84. Corrjunction, 88 ; its syntax, 149. Conjunctional Clause, 176. Consonants, 14. Dash, 202. Declarative Sentences, 173. Defective Verbs, 72. Degrees of Comparison, 41. Demonstrative Pronouns, 53. Dentals, 14. Depende7it Clauses, how punctu- ated, 183. Derivation, of words, 96. Diphthongs, 13. Dissyllable, definition, 15. Distribtitive Pronouns, 53. Elocutionary Pauses, 204. Emphatic Form, of the verb, 83. 230 INDEX 231 Etymology, 21-100; origin of the name, 21; detiuition and division of the subject, 21. Exelamatitrn, 200. Figures, 21&-220. Foreign Words, their plurals, 33. Gender, of nouns, 26; peculiarity of English in regard to gender, 27. Grammar, definition and divisions of the subject, 9. Grammatical I'redicate, 168. Grammatical Subject, 162. Chreek, prefixes, 98. Gutturals, 14. Imperative Sentences, 173. Impersonal, verbs, 71. Indefinite Pronouns, 54. Independent Phrase, 176. Infinitive Mood, its syntax, 147. Infinitive Phrase, 175. Interjections, 93, Intermediate Expressions, how punctuated, 182. Interrogation, 199. Interrogative Pronouns, 51. Interrogative Sentences, 173. Irregular, verbs, 67. Is building, is it correct? 63. labials, 14. Latin, prefixes, 97. letters, definition, 11; divisions, 12. Unguals, 14. logical Predicate, 168. logical Subject, 162. Member, of a sentence, 102, 176. Monosyllable, definition, 15. Mood, of verbs, 57. Mutes, 14. Xominative, its relation to the verb, 103. Nouns, 24-40 ; definition and classifica^ tion, 25 ; attributes, 26 ; gender, 27 ; number, 30 ; person, 35 ; case, 36. Number, of nouns, 30 ; modes of form- ing the plurals, 30-34; irregular plurals, 32; plural of compounds and of foreign words, 33. Numerals, 41. Ol^ect Clause, 176. Objective, governed by verb, 112; by preposition, 115. Orthography, 11-20. Palatals, 14. Parenthesis, 207. Parenthetical Expressions, how punctuated, 207. Participial Phrase, 175. Participles, 62 ; true character of the past participle active, 63 ; their syn- tax, 141. Period, 196. Personal Pronouns, 45. Person, of nouns, 35. Phrase, 101, 163, 175. Plural, of nouns, modes of forming it, 30-34 ; irregular plurals, 32 ; plurals of compounds, and of foreign words, 33. Polysyllable, definition, 15. Possessive Case, of nouns, 37-39 ; ori- gin and truecharacter of the English possessive, 38 ; its syntax, 120. Predicate, 101, 168. Prefixes, 96. Prepositional Phrase, 175. Preposition, 90 ; its government of the objective, 115; appropriate use of, 117. Primitive, words, 96. Progressive Form, of the verb, 82. Pronouns, 44-55; sense in which the pronoun stands in stead of the noun, 44 ; syntax, 128 ; Personal,»45 ; Rela- tive, 48 ; Adjective, 53. Prosody, belonging to Ehetoric rather than grammar, 10. Punctuation, belonging properly to Orthography, 11 ; Kules of, 175. Quotation Marks, 210. Itegular, verbs, 66. Jlelative, its syntax, 130. Relative Clause, 170 ; how punctu- ated, 184. Relative Pronouns, 48. Responsive Pronouns, 51. Saxon, prefixes, 96. Semicolon, 190. SenU'VOtvels, 14. Sentences, 101, 161. Sex, modes of distinguishing it, 28. 232 INDEX. Shall; its use as a part of the future tense, 61 ; its true force as an aux- iliary, 73; difference between shall and will, 76. Simple I*redicates, 168, Simple Sentences, 101, 174. Simple Subjects, 163. Spelling, 15 ; Rules of, 16-20. Strong Conjugation, 66, Sulfject, of a sentence, 101, 164. Subject Clause, 176, Subject Phrase, 175. Subjunctive mood, its uses, 77. Syllables, definition, 15. Syntax, 101-162, Tense, of verbs, 58. That, its different uses, 49, 95 ; its syn- tax, 129, Ifie more, the less, origin of the con- struction, 134, To, sign of the infinitive, not to be sep- arated by intervening words, 147. 2V> be, case of the noun after it, 122. Transitive, verbs, 64. Triphthongs, 13. Trisyllable, definition, 15. Verbs, 55-84 ; true ground of its defini- tion, 85; attributes, 56-64; voice, 56; classes, 64-74; conjugafion, 74- 84 ; agreement with its nominative, 106; government of the objective, 112, Versification, 221-223. 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