/4'. ,a,^>^ ;\ u \JVvV3lJt UNIVERSITY FARM Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/chembeetsugarOOspenrich WORKS OF G. L. SPENCER PUBLISHED BY JOHN WILEY & SONS. A Handbook for Cane>gugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. Containing a review of processes of cane-sugar manuiacture, practical instruction in sugar-house control, selected methods of analysis, reference tables, etc. Fourth Edition, Rewritten and En- larged. i6mo, viii-l-331 pages, 52 figures, morocco, $3.00. A Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses and 5eed>culture Farms. Containing selected methods of analysis, sugar- house control, reference tables, etc., etc. i6mo, x+475 pages, 74 figures, morocco, $3 00. A HANDBOOK FOR CHEMISTS OF BEET-SUGAR HOUSES AND SEED-CULTURE FAEMS. CONTAINING SELECTED METHODS OF ANALYSIS, SUQAR-^ HOUSE CONTROL, REFERENCE TABLES, ETC., ETC, BT GUILFORD L. SPENCER, D.Sc., OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Author of "^ Handbook for Sugar Manufacturert.* FIRST EDITION. SECOND THOUSAUC NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 1910. Copyright, 1897, BY G. L. SPENCER. THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS ROBERT ORUMMOND AND COMPANY BROOKLYN. N. V. PREFACE. At the time the writer's "Handbook for Sugar Manu- facturers" was published, 1889, the sugar industry of the United States was confined almost exclusively to the cane sections of the South. Sorghum was attracting attention in the North, with some prospect of success ; the beet in- dustry was represented by two factories in California and dismantled factories in several other States. The condi- tions at this time are quite different. The beet-sugar in- dustry bids fair to attain enormous proportions, and sor- ghum, for the present, at least, has given up the struggle. Under these changed conditions there appears to be an opening for a book devoted exclusively to the sugar-beet, hence this work. In the preparation of this book it is assumed that the reader is familia. • with many of the ordinary chemical manipulations, but the fact is recognized that on account of the short manufacturing season many factories are com- pelled to employ assistants whose chemical knowledge is somewhat limited. In order to avoid repetition, methods of sampling are de- scribed in a special chapter. It is appropriate to mention here some of the men through whose efforts the sugar-beet has been successfully introduced into the United States. Among these are Dr. William McMurtrie, who visited the beet-sugar districts of Europe in 1880 and published a very complete report on the industry. Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chemist of the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, has labored incessantly for the promotion of sugar-manufacture in this country, and has iii 226830 17 PREFACE. published many able and exhaustive reports upon the sub- ject. Mr. E. H. Dyer, after repeated disappointments which would have discouraged the bravest advocates of the sugar-beet, succeeded in establishing the Alvarado factory in California, the pioneer of the successful American beet- sugar houses. Mr. Claus Spreckels, through his large in- vestments in the Watsonville, Cal., works, and the prestige of his renown as a successful sugar-manufacturer, has given the advocates of the industry great encouragement. The work of Mr. Henry T. Oxnard gave renewed impetus to beet-sugar manufacture, and has been of material value in demonstrating its financial success when backed by thoroughly scientific and systematic preparations. Many others have done much to encourage the culture of the sugar-beet. Among these may be mentioned Mr. Lewis S. Ware, of Philadelphia, who has for several years pub- lished a journal devoted to the sugar-beet without other compensation than the satisfaction of encouraging a new and promising industry. I take this opportunity of acknowledging many refer- ences to methods and suggestions given me by Mr. Ervin E. Ewell, Assistant Chemist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and of thanking him for many courtesies. G. L. Spencer. Washington, D. C, 1897. TABLE OF CONTENTS. References are to pages. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. General Remarks, i. The Basis of Sugar-house Control, 2. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. System of Weights, 3. Net Weight of the Beets, 4. Measurement of the Juice, 5. Automatic Recording Apparatus, 5. Various Methods of Measuring the Juice, 7. Calculation of the Weight of the Juice, 7. Auto- matic Determination of the Weight of the Juice, 8. Measurement and Weight of the Sirup, 9. Measurement and Weight of the First Massecuite, II. Measurement and Weight of the Second Massecuite, etc., 12. Sugar Weights, 13. ESTIMATION OF LOSSES OF SUCROSE. Division of the Season into Periods, 13. Loss in the Exhausted Cos. settes, 15. Loss in the-'Waste- water, 16. Estimation of the Losses in the Diffusion, by Difference, 17. Loss in the Filter P«ess-cake, 18. Loss in the Evaporation to Sirup, 18. Loss in the Vacuum pan, 18. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. The Polariscope, 20. Half-shadow Polariscope, 20. Triple-field Polari- scope, 23. Laurent Polariscope, 2^. ^ransition-tint Polariscope, Soleil- Ventzke-Scheibler, 26. General Remaoks on Polariscopes, 27. Manip- ulation of a Polariscope, 27. The Polariscopic Scale, 29. Reading thff Polariscopic Scale, 30. Preparation of Solutions for Polarization, 31. Adjustment of the Polariscope, 32. Notes on Polariscopic Work, 33. Error due to the Volume of the Lead Precipitate, 35. Scheibler's Method of Double Dilution, 37. Sach's Method of determining the Volume of the Lead Precipitate, 38. Influence of Subacetate of Lead and other Sub- stances upon the Optically Active Non-sugars, 38, SUGAR ANALYSIS. CHEMICAL METHODS. Determination of Sucrose by Alkaline Copper Solution, 41. Determina- tion of Sucrose in the Presence of Reducing Sugars, 42. SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. General Remarks on Sampling and Averaging, 43. Sampling Beets in the Field, 44. Subsampling of Beets in Fixing the Purchase-price, 45. Sampling Beets at the Diffusion-battery, 47. Sampling the Fresh Cos- 8tfttes, 48. Sampling the Exhausted Cossettes, 49. Sampling Waste- VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. waters, 48. Sampling Dififusion-juice, 49, Sampling Filter Press-cake, 49. Sampling Sirups, 49. Preservation of Samples, 49. Automatic Sampling Juices, 50. Sampling Sugars, 54. DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. APPARATUS AND METHODS. Notes on Density, 55. Brix and Baume Scales, 55 Automatic Appa ratus for the Determination of the Density of the Juice, 55. Hydrometers or Spindles, 56. The Westphal Balance, 58. Pyknometers, 60. ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. The Direct Analysis, 62. Scheibler's Extraction Method, 92. Stam- mer's Alcoholic Digestion Method, 64. Pellet's Aqueous Method, Hot Digestion, 65. Pellet's Instantaneous Aqueous Diffusion Method, 67. Determination of the Reducing Sugar, 68. Notes on the Direct Methods of Analysis, 69. Rasps and Mills for the Reduction of the Beet, 69. Indirect Analysis, 71. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. Determination of the Density, 74. Special Pipette for Measurements in (he Sucrose Determiflations, 74. General Method for Sucrose, 75. Notes on the Clarification of Samples for Polarization, 77. Remarks on th2 Reducing Sugars in Beet Products, 78. Gravimetric Determination o. Reducing Sugars, 78. Volumetric Determination of Reducing Sugars, 84. Notes on the Determination of Reducing Sugars, go. Determination of the Total Nitrogen, Albuminoids, 92. Determinatibn of the Total Solids, P3. Acidity, 95. Analysis of Carbonated juice, 95. Alkalinity, 96. Rapid Methods of Moderate Accuracy for the Alkalinity, 96. Methods (or the Total Calcium, 99. Free and Combined Lime and Alkalinity due io Caustic Alkalis, Pellet's Method, loi. ANALYSIS OF THE SIRUP. Analysis of the Sirup, 102, ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. Determination of the Density, 102. Density by Dilution and Spindling, 103. Total Solids and Moisture by Drying, 103. Total Solids and Coefficient of Purity, Weisberg's Method, 104. Determination of Sucrose »nd Raffinose, Creydt's Formula, 106. Sucrose and Raffinose, Lindet's Method, 107. Sucrose and Raffinose in the Presence of Reducing Sugar, no. Sucrose in the Presence of Reducing Sugar, Clerget's Method, no. Determinations to be made in the Analysis of Massecuites and Molasses. tii. Scheme for the Analysis of Massecuites and Molasses, in. Alkalinity of Massecuites and Molasses, 112. Estimation of the Proportion of Crystal- lized Sugar, 112. Notes on the Estimation of Crystallized Sugar, 117. ANALYSIS OF SUGARS. Analysis of Sugars, 118, Notes on the Analysis of Sugars, Massecuites, »nd Molasses, 119. TABLE OF CONTENTS. VU ANALYSIS OF FILTER PRESS-CAKE. Determination of the Moisture, 120. Total Sucrose, 120. Free and Combined Sucrose, 122. ANALYSIS OF THE RESIDUES FROM THE MECHANICAL FILTERS. Determination of the Moisture and Sucrose, 122. ANALYSIS OF THE WASH AND WASTE WATERS. Determination of the Sucrose, 123. ANALYSIS OF THE EXHAUSTED COSSETTES. Indirect Method for Sucrose, 124. DEFINITIONS OF THE COEFFICIENTS AND TERMS USED IN SUGAR ANALYSIS. Coefficient of Purity, True and Apparent, 126. Glucose Coefficient, or Glucose per 100 Sucrose, 126. Saline Coefficient, 126. Proportional Value, 127. Apparent Dilution, 127. Actual Dilution, 127. Coefficient o( Organic Matter, 127. DETERMINATION OF THE MARC. Determination of the Marc, 128. VISCOSITY OF SUGAR-HOUSE PRODUCTS. Viscosity of Sirups, etc., 130. CONTROL OF THE OSMOSIS PROCESS. Analytical Work, 135. " J ANALYSIS OF SACCHARATES. Saccharates, 137. Determination of the Sucrose, Lime, Strontium, and Barium, 137. Apparent and True Coefficients of Purity, 138. Analysis of Mother Liquors and Wash-waters, 138. EXAMINATION OF BONE-BLACK. Limited Use of Bone-black in Sugar Factories, 139, Revivification, 139. Weight of a Cubic Foot of Bone-black, 139. Sulphide of Calcium, 140. Moisture, 140. Decolorizing Power of the Bone-black, 140. Determina- tion of the Principal Constituents, 141. ANALYSIS OF THE LIME-KILN AND CHIMNEY-GASES. Analysis of the Gas from the Lime-kiln, 142. Simple Apparatus for Determining the Carbonic Acid, 146^ Analysis of the Chimney-gases, 147. ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE. Preparation of the Sample, 148. Determination of the Moisture, 148. Sand, Clay, and Organic Matter, 148. Soluble Silica, 148. Total Silica, 149. Iron and Alumina, 150. Calcium, 151. Magnesium, 152. Carbonic Acid, 153. Sulphuric Acid, 156. Notes on the Analysis of Limestone, »56. Vlli TABLE OP CONTENTS. ANALYSIS OF LIME. Determination of the Calcium Oxide, 15Q. Unburned and Slaked Lime 159, Calcium Oxide, Degener-Lunge Method, 159. Complete Analysis 160. ANALYSIS OF SULPHUR. Estimation of Impurities, 161. ANALYSIS OF COKE. Preparation of the Sample, 162. Determination of the Moisture, 162. Ash, 162. Sulphur, 162. LUBRICATING OILS. Tests applied to Lubricating Oils, 164. Cold Test, 164. Viscosity Test, 164. Tests for Acidity and Alkalinity, 165. Purity Tests, 165. ANALYSIS AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. Characteristics of Suitable Water, 167. Analysis, 167. Purification, 171. SEED-SELECTION. General Remarks, 174. Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet, 177. Methods of removing the Sample for Analysis, 177. Analysis of the Sample, 179. Pellet's Continuous Tube for Polarizations, 183. Polari- scope with Enlarged Scale, 184. Pellet's Estimate of Laboratory Appa- ratus and Personnel required for a Seed-farm, 185. Chemical Method for the Analysis of Beet-mothers, 187. SEED-TESTING. Beet-seed, 190. Sampling, 190. Moisture, 191. Proportion of Clean Seed, t9t. Number of Seeds per Pound or Kilogram, 191. Germination Tests, 192. Characteristics of Good Seed, 195. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. • Cobaltous Nitrate Test for Sucrose, 197. Test for Sucrose, using o- Napthol, 197. Nitrous Oxide set free in Boiling Sugar, 198. The Precipi- tate formed in heating Diffusion-juice, i<^8. Spontaneous Combustion of Molasses, 198. Calorific Value of Molasses, 198. Fermentation, 199. Melassigenic Salts, 201. Chemical Composition of the Sugar-beet, 201. List of Reagents suggested for the Treatment of Beet-juice, 203. SUGAR-HOUSE NOTES. Diffusion, 207. " Gray " Juice, 208. Carbonatation, 208. Sulphuring, 2IO. Filter-pressing, Difficulties, 210. Lime-kiln, 211. Granulation of the Sugar in the Vacuum-pan, 214. Second and Third Massecuites, 215. Gray Sugar, 215. SPECIAL REAGENTS. Alkaline Copper Solutions, 216. Normal Solutions, 217. Pure Sugar, 222. Subacetate of Lead, 223. Bone-black, 223, Hydrate of Alumina, 223. Indicators of Acidity and Alkalinity, 224. REFERENCE TABLES, 226. BLANK FORMS FOR USE IN SUGAR-HOUSE WORK, 301. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 1. Sugar-beet, showing Method of Topping. 4 2. Automatic Recording Apparatus, Horsin-Ddon 6 3. Automatic Scale, Baldwin 8 4. Diagrams showing Operation of Baldwin's Scale 9 5. Apparatus for determining the Weight of a Unit Volume of Massecuite ix 6. Half-shadow Polariscope 21 7. Double Compensating (Shadow) Polariscope — 22 8. Triple-field Polariscope 23 9. Diagram illustrating Triple-field Polariscope 24 10. Laurent Polariscope 25 11. White-light Attachment for Laurent Polariscope 25 12. Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler Polariscope 26 13. Lamp for Polariscopic Work 29 14. Polariscopic Scale 30 15. Weighing Capsule v I- j" 3* i6. Filtering Apparatus /T 32 17. Control-tube 35 18. Diagram showing Method of Removing a Sample from a Beet. 46 19. Boring-rasp 46 20. Details of Boring-rasp 46 21. Automatic Sampler. Coombs 51 22. Automatic Sampler, Horsin-Ddon 53 23. Sugar-trier . 54 24. Automatic Apparatus for Density Determinations 56 25. Brix Hydrometer 57 26. Method of reading a Hydrometer 57 27. Westphal Balance 59 28. Pykaometer 60 29. Soxhlet-Sickel Extraction Apparatus 63 30. Knorr's Extraction-tube ; 63 31. Pellet and Lomont Rasp, side view.. 65 32. Pellet and Lomont Rasp, end view '. 65 33. Pelle', and Lomont Rasp, view from above 66 34. Section, showing Method of Sampling a Sugar-beet 66 35. Sugar- flask 66 36. Cylindro-divider 70 ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOifS. FIGURE PACK 37. Neveu and Aubin^s Rasp 71 38. Pulp-press 7a 39. Special Pipette for Use in Sucrose Determinations 75 40. Filtering-tube 7^ 41. Apparatus for controlling the Current in Electrolytic Depo- sitions 80 42. Automatic Zero Burette .. 85 43. Wiley and Knorr Filter-tubes 86 44. Muffle for incinerating Sugars 91 45. Muffle for incinerating Sugars 91 46. Muffle for incinerating Sugars 91 47. Vacuum Drying-oven 94 48. Vivien's Tube for Control Analyses in the Carbonatation 98 49. Vivien's Apparatus for Crystallized Sugar Determination 114 50. Kracz Apparatus for Crystallized Sugar Determination 114 51. Pellet's Apparatus for Marc Determinations 129 52. Doolittle's Viscosimeter 131 53. Engler's Viscosimeter 133 54. Orsat's Apparatus for Gas Analysis. 143 55. Knorr's Carbonic Acid Apparatus 154 56. Schroetter's Alkalimeter 155 57. Vilmorin's improved White Beet 176 58. Kleinwanzlebener Beet 176 59. Diagram showing the Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet 177 60. Diagram showing the Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet 177 61. Diagram showing the Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet.... 177 62. Lindeboom's Sound , 178 63. Details of Boring-rasp 179 64. Hanriot's Apparatus 180 65. Sach's-Le Docte Apparatus for Determination of the Sucrose in the Beet 181 66. Automatic Pipette 182 67. Pellet's continuous Polariscope-tube 183 68. Polariscope for use in Seed Selection 185 69. Enlarged Scale for a Polariscope 186 70. Filtering Apparatus 186 71. Numbered Clamp... < 186 72. Antomatic Pipette 189 73. Seed Sampling-disk 190 74. Apparatus for Seed-testing • • i95 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 1. General Remarks.— The control of sugar-house work requires the analysis of the various products at each stage of the manufacture, and the tabulation of the results. From the data supplied by the analyses, the weights and measures of the raw material and the products, the chemist endeavors to trace the l^ses. The sugar received by the factory, in the beets, is clrarged on one side of the account, and that in the products and known losses is credited on the other side. The two sides of this account never balance owing to small unavoidable inaccuracies in methods, and to losses which cannot be located or measured. The question of the detection, location, and estimation of the losses of sugar in the processes of the manufacture is often very complicated, and its solution requires the highest degree of skill on the part of the chemist. As the processes become more complicated through efforts to extract the uttermost grain of sugar from the beet, the difficulties which beset the chemist increase. In many houses it is impossible to trace the losses quan- titatively, through lack of tank-room, etc. The slightest analytical error will sometimes result in figures of negative value and necessitate their rejection. The so-called "losses fror.i unknown sou^ce^s," "undeter- minable losses," and." mechanical losses,' are probably in 2 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. many cases the result of unavoidable errors in weights and measures or in sampling and analysis. . If an apparent loss be too large to be attributable to a reasonable allowance for error, it is well to view its exist- ence with doubt, until it is verified by repeated observations. The work of the chemist is further complicated in sugar- houses which treat the molasses by a saccharate process, es- pecially a lime process in which the saccharate is used in liming the juice. The adjustment of the analytical instruments should be frequently verified. The calibration of graduated ware should be checked. {See pages 231 and 250.) The chemical control of a sugar-house does not end with the tracing and location of losses; it is also necessary to control the processes of manufacture. Each product should be studied, and the influence of each of the processes on the yield of the sugar noted. Slight modifications in the treatment of the material at various stages of the manu- facture are often suggested by the work of the chemist, and result in an increased yield of sugar. Analytical data should be promptly obtained and tabu- lated, also all manufacturing data. Blank forms are given in pages 302 et seq. for permanent records for the chemist's use. The comparison of the data obtained in one period with those of another will always raise the questions, "Why is the yield of sugar smaller in one period than in the other ? " and " Why are the losses greater or less this week than last ?" The writer has always made it a practice, in the control of sugar-house work, to divide the season into periods of one week each, and estimate the yield and losses, so far as practicable, in each. {See 14.) 2. The Basis of Sugar-house Control. — It is evident that sugar-house control must begin at a stage where the amount of sugar entering the factory can be accurately determined. In order to include the diffusion it must begin with the weight of the beets. The weight of the beets cannot be deduced with accuracy from the aver- age volume of a- definite tyeiglji of cuttings as measured in the diffusers. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 6 The objections to the use of the net weight as determined by the deduction of the estimated tare from the gross weight are (i) the element of uncertainty due to an estimate, and (2) that portions of the beet, for which a deduction is made in the tare, reach the diffusion-battery. In those countries where the clean beets are weighed as they enter the cutters, by the government officials, the con- trol should begin with the cuttings. This affords the only strictly reliable method of checking the work of the diffusion- battery, since the losses at this stage must be the difference between the weight of sucrose in the beets, as determined by analysis of the cuttings, and that in the diffusion- juice. In the absence of the weights of the beets as indicated above, the control of the general work of the factory must begin with the weight of the diffusion-juice. It is very probable that the so-called "losses from un- known sources," "mechanical losses," and "undetermined losses" are largely due to errors in weights and measures, and inaccuracies in sampMng and analysis, rather than to actual losses. f This suggests that all instruments and graduated ware be carefully checked, and that weights of the raw material be adopted, instead of gauging, where practicable. Claassen,* a prominent German authority, recommends the automatic scale constructed by Reuther & Reisert, Hennef, Germany, for weighing the beets immediately before they are sliced. He states that this scale is prefectly reliable. The eminent French sugar engineer Charles Gallois has devised an apparatus which insures accurate weights. This apparatus is so arranged that the small car in which the roots are weighed cannot leave the scale unless it contain the correct weight of beets. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 3. System of Weights.— In view of the fact that all chemists employ the metric system in their analvtical work, 1 Zeit. RUbenzucker-Industrte, 1895, 1084. 4 HAi^DBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. and that manufacturers in this country still adhere to the English, it is necessary in a work of this kind to use both systems of weights and measures. 4. Net Weight of the Beets. — The beets as re- ceived at the factory have been topped with more or less care, and have variable quantities of earth and pebbles ad- hering to them. These conditions necessitate the careful determination of an allowance for tare. As nearly an average sample of the roots as is practicable is selected. This sample should consist of as many beets as can be conveniently taken, the larger the number the Fig. I. better. This number may afterwards be reduced by sub- sampling by the method of " quartering." Thq roots are weighed, then thoroughly washed, using a brush to remove adhering soil and rootlets, and are then dried. A cloth may be used for drying them, but where many samples are to be examined it is usually more con- venient to dry the roots by exposure to a free circulation of the air for a short time. SUGAR-nOUSE CONTROL. 9 The next operation is the removal of the neck or crown, i.e., that portion of the beet from just below the lowest leaf- bud. The cut should be made at the line shown in Fig. i. The roots are again weighed, the difference between this weight and the first being recorded as the tare. The number of beets included in the sample and their average weight should also be recorded. The beets, which have been employed in determining the deduction for tare, conveniently serve as a sample for analy- sis when the roots are purchased upon a basis of their sugar content. These roots, however, would not be a satisfactory average for calculating the sugar entering the factory. 5. Measurement of the Juice.— At the present time, the diffusion process has replaced all others in the ex- traction of the juice from the beet. This process requires that definite volumes of juice be drawn from the battery for definite quantities of beets. The juice is drawn into a measuring-tank which is alter- nately filled and emptied. If this measurement be made with accuracy \nd reliable samples of the juice be drawn, a basis is supplitd for subsequent control work. Unfortu- nately this measurement as usually made is only an approx- imation. Errors are introduced through variations in the temperature of the juice and the difficulty of closing the inlet-valve at the proper instant. Hence special apparatus is essential to accurate measurement. This apparatus should be so arranged that it is wholly or partly automatic in its functions. Whatever the system of tank measurements, it is essen- tial that the measuring-tank be carefully calibrated by means of a known volume of water rather than by calcula- tion. A slight error in the calibration is multiplied many times before the end of the manufacturing season. 6. Measurement oftlie Juice— Automatic Re- cording" Apparatus. — The errors mentioned above may be reduced to a minimum by a careful supervision of the battery temperatures, the use of automatic recording apparatus, and overflow pipes. The apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2, the invention of 6 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Horsin-D6on, is largely used in France. It consists essen- tially of a paper-covered cylinder revolved by clockwork. A float in the measuring-tank is connected, by means of a wire or chain, with a drum which revolves when the float rises or falls : on the shaft of the drum is a pinion which in revolving engages a rack ; this latter in turn is attached to a small arm which carries a pen. When the juice enters the tank the float lifts, revolves the drum, and by means of the motion transmitted through the rack and pinion the pencil traces a line on the paper-covered cylinder. The paper is divided vertically into 12 parts, corresponding to the Fig. 2. hours. These parts are subdivided into 5-minute spacca. The cylinder makes one revolution every twelve hours. The sheet of paper is ruled horizontally into spaces of such width that each represents a certain volume of juice. It is evident from an inspection of the figure that the apparatus will record irregularities in the operation of the diffusion- battery. As the lines traced by the pen bear an invariable ratio to the depth of the tank, the volume of the juice may be deduced from the height of the "peak" of the curve above the base-line. Bell signals, also operated by the float. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 7 warn the battery-man when the tank is filled nearly to the required point, or is almost empty. A counter records the number of times the tank has been filled. It is advisable to provide an overflow-pipe, to prevent drawing more than a certain volume of juice. Similar apparatus, constructed by Rassmus, is employed in German sugar-houses. The automatic recording apparatus is often of great value in locating irregularities which may lead to losses. 7. Various Methods of Measuring the Juice. — Probably the most reliable method of measuring the juice is that adopted by the Belgian Government in connec- tion with the excise. This method consists essentially of a tank provided with an adjustable overflow-pipe, and a device for returning the overflow liquor, the volume of which is very small, to the battery. The inlet and outlet are at the bottom of the tank. Several automatic measuring-tanks, more or less reliable, have been devised. The valves in the better class of these are operated by^ydraulic, steam, or air pressure. 8. Calcuhimon of the Weight of the Juice from its Volume. — The reference tables given in this book, except when otherwise stated, are referred to a tem- perature of 17^° C. This number is that adopted in the German sugar-houses and in the cane-sugar factories of this country as a standard. In view of these facts it is convenient to refer all sugar-house measurements to this temperature. The observed density of the juice should also be reduced to 17^° C. The mean temperature of the juice at the time of meas- urement should be noted and the volume corrected for temperature. The juice expands practically at the same rate as a water-solution of sugar, hence Gerlach's table may be used in figuring the corrected volume (23 j). The weight of a cubic foot of pure water at 17^° C. (63^° F.) is 62.348 pounds; the weight of one U. S. gallon of water (231 cu. in.) at this temperature is 8.335 pounds. These numbers, multiplied by the density of the juice, give respectively the weight of one cubic foot and of one gallon of juice. The calculations are facilitated by the table258. 8 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 9. Automatic Determination of the Weight of the «Tuice.— It is preferable to determine the weight of the juice by actual weighing when practicable. The automatic scale shown in Fig. 3 and in the diagrams (i, 2, Fig. 3. 3, and 4), Fig. 4, is the invention of John Paul Baldwin, and was devised especially for sugar-house purposes. The machine consists essentially of a revolving drum mounted upon a suitable scale. The liquid enters through the central pipe and flows into one of the compartments of the drum. When the weight of liquid for which the scale is set has entered the compartment, the liquid is automat- ically diverted to the s^ond compartment, the l«ad io SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. which soon revolves the drum so that the weighed liquid runs into the receiver beneath. The drum continues to re- volve until it assumes its original position. 1 HJ ^ < ^\nLLm^^^^ \ ^^ ' s Ci t\ / 3 ^ ^ f *y 1 11 r K « H \ ^^j^^:^^^:^ — '—j 1 SJ T Fig. 4. A counter records the number of weighings. A cup removes a small sample of the liquid from each load and stores it in a bottle, as shown in Fig. 3. 10. Measurement and Weight of the Sirup.— The sirup is pumped from the multiple-effect evaporator to storage-tanks. It is not always easy to obtain accurate measurements of the sirup in these tanks. Rectangular tanks should be thoroughly stayed with rods. In case the tanks are bulged or uneven, it may be necessary to calibrate them by running in a measured volume of water. If the tanks are of uniform sectional area from top to bottom, they may be fitted with gauge-glasses similar to the water- 10 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOtJSE CHEMISTS. gauges on a steam-boiler, except that the tubes should be of larger diameter, and may be graduated to any convenient scale. A stop-cock should be provided to cut off communi- cation with the tank, and a second cock to drain the sirup into a sample-bottle. The contents of the tank should be thoroughly mixed before admitting sirup to the tube. The sirup so obtained constitutes the chemist's sample. An electric signal-bell should be arranged to notify the work- man in charge of the tanks and the chemist each time a tank is filled. The reading on the scale is taken, the tem- perature noted, and the contents of the tube stored for analysis. The density and volume supply the data for cal- culating the weight of the sirup. A correction must be made to reduce the observed volume of the sirup to the standard conditions stated in 8. The calculations are facil- itated by the table 258. The coefficient of expansion of an average sample of the sirup should be determined by experiment. This coefficient approximates that of a pure sugar solution (236), which for most purposes is sufficiently near the truth. In sugar-houses which make a practice of drawing the sirup into the vacuum-pan from the tank into which the liquor is being pumped from the multiple-effect, it is neces- sary to provide special measuring and sampling apparatus. An automatic measuring tank, such as is sometimes used in connection with diffusion-batteries, can readily be adapted for the purpose. The measuring-tank proper is fitted with inlet and outlet valves operated by hydraulic or steam pressure. The valves are controlled by means of a float acting upon a suitable lever, which in turn opens and closes the water or steam ports. A small storage-tank is also provided, the outlet from which is operated by a float. This tank must be large enough to allow ample time for the drainage of the measuring-tank. The sirup delivery- pipes should dip below the surface of the liquor. The sirup may also be weighed directly by means of an automatic scale (9). A scale used for this purpose requires careful inspection at frequent intervals, especially when weighing very dense sirups. These methods of ascertaining the weight of the sirup SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 11 complicate the sampling. An automatic sampler should be used (see p. 50). 1 1 . Measurement and Weight of First Masse- cuite. — Few sugar-houses have the facilities for obtain- ing the direct weight of the massecuite. Results based upon measurements should be received with caution. When practicable the weight should be ascertained by weighing the massecuite in sugar-wagons or in tanks. The massecuite as it flows from the vacuum-pan is filled with bubbles which it is practically impossible to remove, hence the difficulty in obtaining a reliable direct determina- tion of the density for use in the calculation from volume to weight. It is difficult to gauge the massecuite in tanks and obtain accurate measurements. When the weight must be de- duced from such measurements, it is advisable that the weight of a unit-volume be determined by some simple method, such as the following : The massecuite is sampled from time to time as it flows from ihe^p^n, and the small portions drawn are united in a tall brass or copper cylinder, as shown in section in Fig. 5. S nc - there are great variations in the deiiaiiy of the massecuite in different parts of the pan, it is essential that great care be exercised in this sampling. The rim of the cylinder should be ground, and provided with a strip of brass or glass(CC), which extends from side to side and sup- pprt^ a capillary tube, as shown at T T' in the figure. Pins {P /*) should be placed in the rim of the cylinder and project through the strip, to insure replacing the latter always in the same position. Surround the cylinder, filled with masse- cuite (J/), with hot water, and remove as many of the air-bubbles ^s possible; cool, dry, and weigh . Place the strip C, carrying the capillary tube (7") upon the cylinder ; Fig. 5. add water ( W) from a burette, being careful to cause as few waves as possible, until the capillary tube is reached. The 12 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. instant the water reaches the tube, it rises some distance by capillarity, and affords prompt means of ascertaining when the vessel has been filled to a certain point. If water slightly colored with phenolphthalein be used, the rise of the water may be observed with ease. The difference between the volume of the cylinder to the capillary tube and the volume of water added is the required volume of the massecuite. It is evident that this method can only be used in a build- ing free from vibrations. Under proper conditions, a measurement to within two or three tenths of a cubic centi- metre can be made by this method in a large cylinder. A convenient-sized cylinder is 8 centimetres in diame- ter by 25 centimetres in depth, holding approximately 1500 grams of massecuite. In houses where the massecuite is run into large rectan- gular tanks or into small portable tanks, the volume may be roughly approximated by the above method; but where the various forms of " crystallizers with movement" are used, or the massecuite is run directly into the mixer, the weight can only be calculated from the analysis and the volume of the lower products. In order to estimate approx- imately the loss of sucrose at this stage when " boiling in " is practised, the analysis and volume of the molasses used must be known. It is not possible to do more than closely approximate the loss without knowing the actual weight of the massecuite. 12. Measurement and Weight of the Second Massecuite, etc. — With modern methods of boiling first- sugar, i.e., "boiling in" molasses on first-sugar, there is comparatively little of the lower grades of massecuite made. Such massecuite is usually boiled on a footing of grained massecuite and then run into motion crystallizers; low material' is often boiled to "string-proof." The weight may be estimated from that of a unit volume. The measure- ment may be made in the tank after the massecuite attains approximately the temperature of the hot-rcom. A correction for expansion should be made, or the weight of a measured volume at the temperature of measurement should be deter- mined. ESTIMATION OF LOSSES. 13 13. Sugar-weights.— The sugar-weights should be reported to the chemist for tabulation and for his use in calculating the yield and losses. ESTIMATION OF LOSSES AND THE DIVISION OF THE MANUFACTURING SEASON INTO PERIODS. 14. Division of the Season into Periods.— In factories which suspend manufacturing operations every Sunday, it is a simple matter to divide the season into periods of one week each, but in other factories it requires a systematic scheme of estimates to do this. .The following plan has given excellent results in the hands of the author, and is suggested : Sunday is a conven- ient time for beginning a period; for example, let each period begin at 6 a.m. that day. At six o'clock the chemist and his assistants pass through the sugar-house and meas- ure and estimate the quantities of materials in stock. This inch^des the measurement of the juice and sirup; an estimate of tne juice and sirup in the multiple effect and of the massecuite in process in the vacuum pans; the measurement of the massecuite in the crystallizers, mixers and centrifugals, and an estimate of the sugar in the centrifugals, hoppers, granulators, etc. The last package serial mmiber must be noted, or the quantity of sugar produced to the moment of stock-taking must be ascertained by other means. Where crystallizers are em- ployed, as is now usual, the massecuite is most conveniently and accurately measured at the time of discharging it from the pans. The measurement is made in the crystallizer. Prompt measure- ment is necessary, since the massecuite expands as the crystalli- zation progresses. The various materials should be sampled and analyzed. From the quantity of material and its composition, the sugar value or probable yield of sugar is calculated, using the formula given on page 14. It should be noted that using apparent purities in the calculation only approximate results are obtained, also that losses in manufacture are less from massecuite to sugar than from juice or sirup: 14 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. looP-BM . , 1 ^ ,1 X = —3 rj— = percentage yield of granulated sugar from the material; P, is the polarization of the material; B, its degree Brix; and M, its coefficient of purity. To adapt the formula to the calculation of raw sugar, substitute the following expression for the denominator: p—{SM -r- 100), in which p is the polariza- tion of the sugar and 5 the percentage of dry matter it contains. This formula gives the total sugar value, whether the product is obtained in one or more operations. 15. Loss of Sucrose in the Exhausted Cos- settes (Pulp). — In the analysis of the exhausted cossettes, the percentage of sucrose is expressed in terms of the cossettes. In order to calculate the loss of sucrose, it -is necessary to know the weight of exhausted cossettes per 100 pounds of beets. This number can only be accurately determined by actuaUy weighing the cossettes from a defi- nite weight of beets. This is manifestly impracticable, hence the chemist must necessarily base his calculations upon the average of a few weighings made each season. It is also evident that different diffusion-battery condi- tions result in differences in the percentage of exhausted cossettes. The depth of the diffuser, the working temper- ature, the condition of the beets, the thickness of the cos- sette, and the use of water-pressure only or water-pressure and compressed air, all have their influence upon the weight of exhausted cossettes produced. In general, it is usually considered that 100 pounds of beets, when working by water- pressure only, produce ap- proximately 90 to 100 pounds of well-drained exhausted cossettes, and working with compressed air, 100 pounds of beets produce approximately 80 to 85 pounds of exhausted cossettes. 16. Loss of Sucrose in the Waste Water.— It is not practicable to measure the waste water in the diffu- sion process. In order to figure the loss of sucrose at this stage of the manufacture it is necessary that this quantity be known; hence, being unable to ascertain it by actual measurement, it must be determined approximately by calculation. ESTIMATION" OF LOSSES. 15 t he total volume of the diffuser and its connections must be known, also the weight and specific gravity of the ex- hausted cossettes. It is more convenient to use the metric system in these calculations. Calculation. Let X = the required volume of waste water in hecto- litres; D = specific gravity of the exhausted cossettes; tV = the weight of the exhausted cossettes per diffuser in kilograms; F = the net volume of the diffuser in hectolitres, i.f., the volume between the upper and lower strainers; X ■=V =- = the waste water in the net diffuser iooZ> in hectolitres. To obtajK the total volume of the waste water, add the calculated volume of the "dead space," i.e.y the space .;.bove and below the strainers and of the parts of the pipes which drain into the diffuser. Example. (A diffusion-battery using water-pressure only.) Volume of the diffuser (net), hectolitres 30 Weight of the exhausted cossettes per diffuser, kilograms 1300 \Veight of fresh cossettes per diffuser, kilograms.. 1530 Specific gravity of the exhausted cossettes 0.984 Ter cent sucrose in the waste water .05 Volume of the " dead space," hectolitres 2.5 W 1300 X ~ V = 30 — — 30 — 13.2 = 16.8 hectolitres, \ooD 98.4 and 16.8 + 2.5 = 19.3 hectolitres total waste water. This water contains so little solid matter in solution that its specific gravity may be considered to be i, hence 19.3 hecto- 1930 litres of the waste water weigh 1930 kilograms or X 100 1530 ~ 126 kilograms per 100 kilograms of beets. 126 X .05 -;- 100 16 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. = .063 kilogram of sucrose lost per 100 kilograms of beets or .063 pound of sucrose per 100 pounds of beets. The quantity of sucrose in the waste water is so small that a very considerable error in figuring the volume of the waste water has but little influence. With a battery employing compressed air, the volume of the waste water is very small, and is determined by deduct- ing the volume of diffusion-juice drawn from the volume of the waste water as calculated above. In the above example, assuming a " draw " of 115 litres of diffusion-juice per 100 kilograms of beets, using com- pressed air, the volume of the waste water would be calcu- lated as follows : 15.3 X 115 = 1759-5 litres = 17.595 hectolitres of juice drawn and 19.3 — 17.595 = 1.705 hectolitres of waste water = 170.5 kilograms, or 11. i kilograms per 100 kilograms of beets. The loss of sucrose would be 11. i X .05 -r- 100= .0056 kilogram per 100 kilograms of beets or .0056 pound per 100 pounds of beets. 17. Estimation of the Losses of Sucrose in the Diffusion by Difference. — If it were always practicable to ascertain the exact weight of the beets enter- ing the diffusers, the simplest method of estimating the loss of sucrose in the diffusion would be by deducting the su- crose obtained in the diffusion-juice from that present in the beets, as ascertained by direct analysis. There are several probable sources of error in this method when not based upon the actual net weight of the beets. The tare (3) includes that part of the neck of the beet which should be removed in the field, but which has been left through care- less topping ; this passes into the diffusion -battery and contributes its sugar to the juice. This sugar increases the quantity in the juice without being charged to the beet supplying it. In brief, except in houses where the beets are weighed immediately before they are sliced, the only method of de- termining the losses in the diffusion is by direct gauging and analysis of the waste products. It is always advisable to make these analyses. Many chemists consider that there is usually some loss ESTIMATION OF LOSSES. 17 through decomposition of sucrose in the battery. Such loss has not been clearly proven. There is probably not often an appreciable inversion of sucrose in the diffusion of beets, except when there aj:e long delays. In the event of inversion the loss may be calculated by the formulae used in cane-sugar-houses, which were first proposed by Dr. Stubbs of Louisiana (263). 18. Loss of Sucrose iu the Filter Press-cake.— The weight of the press-cake per ton of beets X per cent sucrose in the press-cake -4- loo = pounds of sucrose lost per ton of beets. In sugar-houses in which it is not con- venient to weigh the press-cake the approximate weight may be estimated by the following method : Weigh several entire press-cakes and figure the average weight; multiply the average by the number of cakes per press. A record must be kept of the number of presses emptied. The average w^ght should occasionally be verified. 19. Los^ of Sucrose in the Evaporation to Sirup. — An examination of the ammoniacal waters from the multiple-effect apparatus will sometimes reveal the presence of sucrose. It is practically impossible to esti- mate this loss from the analyses of these waters, since the weight of the water is unknown and the percentage of su- crose small. The quantity of sucrose lost is best determined by the difference between the weight of sucrose in the purified juice and that in the sirup. To obtain the weight of sucrose in the purified juice otherwise than by direct analysis, the loss in the filter press-cakes and at the mechanical filters must be deducted from the weight of sucrose entering the house in the diffusion-juices. The following are some of the sources of loss of sucrose in the evaporation : Priming, i.e., juice entrained with the vapors ; caramelization and decomposition of the sugar. The liquors should always be alkaline, hence there is no loss from inversion. 20. Loss of Sucrose in the Vacuum-pan.— The estimation of the loss in the granulation of the sugar in the vacuum-pan is difficult. The sources of loss are the same as those in the multiple-effect. If the weight of the masse- 18 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. cuite can be accurately ascertained (11), the loss can be de- termined with certainty, as the weight of sucrose in the sirup should balance that in the massecuite. The "boiling in" of molasses with first-sugar complicates the determina- tion in so far as it requires that the quantity and analysis of such molasses be known. The weighf of sucrose in the massecuite can be ascertained indirectly when boiling "straight strikes " from the weight of sugar obtained and the volume of molasses produced, the weight of sucrose in the "wash" used in the centrifugals being deducted. In the event of its not being convenient to gauge the molasses, the measurement may be made after concentration to sec- ond massecuite, the loss indicated being that of the two boilings. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 19 SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. APPARATUS AND MANIPULATION, 21. The Polariscope. — The instrument employed in the optical methods of determining cane-sugar and other sugars is termed a polariscope, or saccharimeter. This instrument depends in theory and construction upon the action of sugar upon the plane of polarization of light. Polariscopes may be divided into two general classes, viz., shadow and transition-tint instruments. The shadow instruments may be subdivided into polariscopes employing white light.-^s from an ordinary kerosene lamp, and those employing monochromatic light, supplied by a sodium lamp. The principal instruments in use are the half-shadow, triple-field and the transition-tint polariscopes. The shadow instruments are constructed for use with white light and with the yellow monochromatic light. The former are usually employed in commercial work, and the latter in scientific investigations. The transition-tint instruments are being rapidly dis- placed by the shadow polariscopes, since these latter leave little to be desired in the matter of accuracy and conven- ience. The reader is referred to the manuals of Wiley and others for the theory and construction of polariscopes. A brief description of the polariscopes in general use will suffice for the purposes of this book. 22. Half-shadow Polariscope (Schmidt and Haensch). — The optical parts of this instrument are in- dicated in Fig. 6. At O there is a slightly modified Jellet-" Corny Nicol prism, at G is a plate of dextrogyratory quartz, at i? is a quartz wedge, movable by means of the screw M, and at /^ is a quartz wedge, fixed in position, to vrhich is attached the vernier. The scale is attached to the 20 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. movable wedge. These quartz wedges are of laevogyratory quartz. The parts G, E, and /^constitute the compensating apparatus, i.e.\ the apparatus which compensates for the deviation of the plane of polarization due to the influence of the solution of the optically active body placed in the observation-tube as shown in the figure. At H is the ana- lyzer, a Nicol prism. Aty is the telescope used in making the observation, and K is the telescope and reflector for reading the scale. The two lenses, shown in the diagram at the extreme right, are for concentrating the rays •£ SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 21 light from the lamp and transmitting them in parallel lines to the polarizing Nicol prism. The instrument above described is of the single compen- sating type. The double compensating instrument is shown in Fig. 7. This polariscope differs from the single compensating in- strument in having two sets of quartz wedges of opposite optical properties and two scales and verniers. The field of vision of the above instruments when set at 22 HANDBOOK FOK SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the neutral point is a uniformly shaded disk. If the milled screw controlling the compensating wedge be slightly turned to the right or left, one half the disk will be shaded and the other light. It is from this half-shaded disk that this type of instruments takes its name. 23. Triple - Field Polariseope (Schmidt and Haensch). — This instrument differs from the preceding in having two small Nicol prisms placed in front of the polar- izer, as shown in Fig. 8. The field of the instrument is divided into three parts, i, 2, and 3 of the diagram, Fig. 9. This figure shows the arrangement of the Nicol prisms (i, II, III) and a diagram of the field of observation. SUGAR AifALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 23 When the scale is set at the zero point, no optically active body being interposed, the field is uniformly shaded ; in other posi- tions I is shaded and 2 and 3 are light, or vice versa. This arrange- ment permits a very high degree of accuracy in the adjustment of the field in polariscopic observations. Ac- cording to the experiments of Wiley ' this instrument is extremely sensitive and is capable of results but little in- ferior to those with the Landolt- Lippich apparatus. It is probably the superior, in point of accuracy, to other instruments designed for industrial work. 24. Liaurent Polariscope. — The Laurent "pi?3+^iscope (Fig. 10) is a half-shadow instrument. It was originally designed for use with a monochromatic flame, but these in- struments, as now made, are provided also with compen- sating apparatus for use with white light. In the Laurent polariscope the analyzer is revolved by means of a milled screw, to compensate for the deflection of the plane of polarization by the sugar solution. The angular rotation is measured by means of a scale and ver- nier. This instrument is also provided with a second scale, termed the cane-sugar scale, on which the per cents may be read directly. As stated above, the Laurent polariscope is also often provided with a compensating apparatus (Fig. 11), which permits the use of white light. A distinctive feature of the Laurent instrument is the adjustable polarizer. This Nicol prism may be rotated through a small angle, thus permitting the sensitiveness of the instrument to be varied. The polarized light is passed through a disk of glass, 1 Agricultural Analysis, 3, gi. 24 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Fig. iz, SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 25 one half of which is covered with a thin plate of quartz, thus producing the half-shadow feature of the instrument. 25. The Transition-tint Polariscope. Soleil- Ventzke-Scheibler, — The tint polariscope, Fig. 12, resembles in appearance the half-shadow instrument of Schmidt and Haensch. It differs from this in being pro- vided with an additional Nicol prism at A and a quartz plate B, which produce the color. The tint is varied by means of a spur-wheel and pinion, revolved by a rod with a milled head, Z. The optical parts at the front end of the 26 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. instrument are the same as in the Schmidt and Haensch half-shadow polariscope. The field is colored, and when the instrument is set at the neutral point the tint is uniform. The sensitive tint for most eyes is a rose-violet. 26. Genertil Remarks upon Polariscopes.— The Laurent polariscope is very extensively used in France, and to but a limited extent in other parts of Europe and in this country. The tint instruments were formerly used almost exclusively, but have been largely replaced by the various forms of half-shadow polariscopes. Tint instru- ments, obviously, cannot be used by persons who are color-blind. All polariscopes are made to receive observation-tubes of various lengths. The standard length is 200 millimetres. There are several forms of polariscopes in addition to those described, but for industrial work it is unnecessary to mention others. 27. Manipulation of a Polariscope.— Having dis- solved the normal weight (28) of the material under examin- ation in water, clarify the solution as described in 30. Fill the observation-tube with a portion of the clarified solution, and pass the light froiii a suitable lamp into the instrument. The observer, with his eye at the small telescope y of the Schmidt and Haensch instruments, Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 12, or the corresponding part of the Laurent, will notice that one half the disk is shaded or more deeply colored, according to the kind of polariscope, provided the instrument is not set at the neutral point. The vertical line dividing the half-disks should be sharply defined; if not, the oculai' should be slipped backwards or forwards until a sharp focus is obtained. Turn the milled screw until the field appears uniformly shaded or tinted on both sides of the vertical line, and then read the scale (29). A little prac- tice will enable the observer to detect very slight differ- ences in the depth of the shadow or color and to attain great accuracy in this manipulation. The manipulation of the triple-field polariscope is as described above except as to the position of the shadows (23). SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 27 In the older models of polariscopes, the ray filter, a dichromate of potash crystal in an occular, should be used with very clear solutions. In recent models the filter consists of a glass cell containing the salt in solution. This filter is placed in a chamber in front of the polarizer, and the instrument should only be used with it in place. The Laurent instrument is fitted with a device for vary- ing its sensitiveness. This is convenient in polarizing dark-colored solutions, since a slight change in the position of the lever which rotates the polarizer will increase the intensity of the light, though at the same time decreasing the sensitiveness of the instrument: and vice versa in polar- izing very clear light-colored solutions, the rotation of the polarizer in the opposite direction, through a small angle, increases the sensitiveness. The double compensating Schmidt and Haensch polari- scopes are"\>rovided with two scales, one graduated in black and tRe other usually in red. The black scale is operated by a black milled screw, and the red scale by a brass screw. For ordinary work, set the red scale at zero and equalize the field with the black screw. To check the readings, remove the observation tube and equalize the field with the brass screw. The readings on the two scales should agree. To make a reading with laevorotatory sugar set the black scale at zero, and use the brass screw and red scale. The manipulations of the tint instruments, as explained, are similar to those of the shadow polariscopes, except that a uniform tint must be obtained. The intensity of the tint varies with the position of the analyzer. The color is varied by turning the milled screw on the horizontal rod which revolves the regulator. The Schmidt and Haensch shadow polariscopes, the Laurent with special attachment, and the tint instruments require a strong white light. A kerosene-lamp with duplex burner is usually employed. A gas-lamp such as shown in Fig. 8 is very convenient in many localities. The kerosene-lamp should be provided with a metal chimney. Dr. Wiechmann uses the Welsbach light in his labo- 28 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ratory at the Havemeyer & Elder refinery, Brooklyn, and finds it very satisfactory. Dr. Wiley of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has investigated the use of the light from acetylene gas for polariscopic purposes, and states that the readings obtained are very accurate and that the light is espe- cially convenient when polarizing very dark-colored solutions. This gas is readily and economically produced, in the small quantities required for polariscopic purposes in sugar-works, by the decomposi- tion of calcium carbide in water, in a suitable gas-holder. Incandescent electric-lamps, properly arranged for the diffusion of the light, yield ex- cellent results with white-light polari- scopes. In new models of polari- scopes the electric lamp is attached to the instrument. Lamps for mono- chromatic light are the Laurent gas- sodium and the Landolt gas-sodium lamps, and the Laurent eolipyle, burning alcohol. F'G. 13. M. Dupont ' has recently experi- mented with various sodium salts for use in monochromatic lamps. He finds that sodium chloride and tribasic phosphate of sodium, melted together in molecular proportions, give excellent results and are in every way superior to sodium chloride alone. 28. The Polariscopic Scale. The Normal Weight. — The scales of polariscopes for use in industrial work are usually so divided that if a certain weight of the substance be dissolved in water and the solution diluted * Bulletin de V Association des Chiniistes de France^ 14, 1041 SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 29 to lOO cc.,* and observed in a 20-centimetre tube, the read- ing will be in percentages of sucrose. This scale is termed the "cane-sugar scale," and the weight of material re- quired to give percentage readings is termed the "normal weight," or sometimes the " factor of the instrument." In commercial work the divisions of the scale are often termed "degrees," especially in the polarization of sugars. The normal weight for the German instruments is 26.048 grams, and for the Laurent 16.29 grams. The number given for the Laurent polariscope is that adopted by the 2^ Congres International de Chimie Appliqude, 1896. 29. Readings the Polariscopic Scale.— Having equalized the shadow or tint as directed in 27, examine the scale through the reading-glass. For example : Let the scale and vernier have the positions shown in Fig. 14. I 20 30 40 u I , 1 .1,1,1 mill I m 10 10 Fig. 14. The zero of the vernier is between 30 and 31; record the lower number; note the point to the right at which a line of the vernier, the small scale, corresponds with a line of the scale, in this case at 7; enter this number in the tenths place. The completed reading is 30.7. The portions of the scale and vernier to the left of the zeros are used in the polarization of laevorotatory bodies. If the zero of the ver- nier correspond exactly with a division of the scale, the reading is a whole number. If the normal weight of the material have been dissolved in a volume of 100 cc.^ and a 20-centimetre observation-tube have been used, the reading on the cane-sugar scale is the percentage of sucrose in the substance, provided other op- tically active bodies than sucrose are absent. The read- .. * The flasks should be graduated to hold 100 grains of distilled water at i7i° C. and not to true cubic centimetres, for the S. and H. instruments, but to true cc. for the Laurent. 30 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ings must be corrected for other weights of the substance than the normal,^ for other volumes than lOO cc, and for other tube lengths than 20 centimetres. 30. Preparatiou of Solutions for Polariza- tion. — Dissolve the normal or other convenient weight of the material in water. Add sufficient subacetate of lead to clarify the solution. It is difficult to specify the amount of the lead salt to use. If too little or too much be used, the solutions usually filter with difficulty and become turbid. With juice from immature beets the filtered solution will sometimes be perfectly clear and colorless when first ob- tained and in a few moments become too dark to polarize. Ih such cases the juice should be thoroughly mixed, with the lead solution and stand some time before filtration. Usually ID cc. of the dilute solution "^ subacetate of lead (207) or 2-3 cc. of the concentrated solution (208) will be sufficient for 100 cc. of beet juice. Sugars of high grade require only a few drops of the reagent. After adding the lead salt dilute to 100 cc, mix thoFougbly and filter. Reject the first few drops of the filtrate. Fill the observation- tube with a portion of the filtrate, and polarize as described in 27. In sugar analysis the materials to be examined are most conveniently weighed in a nickel or German-silver capsule such as is shown in Fig. 15. A convenient filtering ar- rangement is illustrated in Fig. 16. ^ is a stem- less funnel; B is a. quar- ter-pint precipitating jar; (7 is a small cylinder. The stemless funnels may Fig. 15. be made of tinplate or thin copper, planished. The latter, while more expensive, are preferable, as they are more durable. A plain cylin- '-i*t*fie Tnternational Commission for Uniform Methods in Sugar Analysis has adopted a normal weight of 26 grams to be used with a flask holding 100 metric or true cubic centimeters; the polariscope Ts ptandardized at 20^ C. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 31 der is preferred by some chemists, as the funnel makes a close joint with the edge. The advantage of the metal stemless funnels and the heavy glass precipitating jar or the lipped cylinder is the ease with which they may be washed and dried. The jar or cylinder is also a very convenient support for the funnel. Stammer and Sickel advise the addition of at least four times the weight of the sucrose in the massecuite or mo- FiG. i6. lasses, of strong alcohol in preparing solutions for polariza- tion, and if the substance be alkaline to acidulate with acetic acid.' Herzfeld, as the result of his experiments, gives the same advice.^ Other equally prominent chemists con- sider the use of alcohol unnecessary and liable to lead to error. 31. The Adjustment of the Polariscope.— The scale of the polariscope is the only part which is liable to get out of position. Fill an observation-tube with water and make an observation. If the scale be properly adjusted the reading should be zero. The method of adjusting the instrument to read zero under the above conditions is the same with all the Schmidt * Revue Universelle de la Fabrication du Sucre, ad year, 578. * Deutsche Zuckerind.y 1886, No. 24. 32 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. and Haensch polariscopes. A micrometer-screw, turned by means of a key, is arranged to move the vernier a short dis- tance. The field is equalized as usual by manipulating the milled screw. The micrometer-screw is then turned until the zeros of the scale and vernier coincide. The scale is moved through several divisions and the field then equal- ized as before. If after several trials the zeros be found not to coincide, the adjustment must be repeated, turning the micrometer-screw very little. It usually requires several trials to set the instrument to read zero. This adjustment is very fatiguing to the eye, which should be rested a few seconds between readings. In adjusting the Laurent polariscopes to read zero, the lever U, Figs. lo and ii, is lifted to the upper limit; the oc- ular O is next focused on the vertical line which divides the field into halves ; the zeros of the scale and vernier are made to coincide by the screw G. The field should then be uniformly shaded if the instrument is in .adjust- ment ; if not in adjustment, equalize with the screw F. This adjustment should be tested as with the Schmidt and Haensch polariscopes, and repeated until satisfactory. All parts of the instrument should be kept very .clean, especially the exposed parts of the lenses. Chamois-skin is con- venient for cleaning the metal parts and pieces of clean old linen for the lenses. All the crown-glass lenses should be occasionally removed from the instrument and cleaned with alcohol and wiped with old linen. The Nicol prisms should not be removed from the instrument or disturbed. The micrometer screw near H^ Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 12, is for adjusting the analyzer, should the field be unevenly shaded. This adjustment should be left to an experienced workman. Should the prisms, etc., require adjustment owing to an accident to the instrument, it is advisable to send the polariscope to the dealer that he may have it re- paired by an expert. 32. Notes on Polariscopic AVork.— When solu- tions do not filter readily, the funnel employed should be covered with a glass plate to prevent evaporation. The screw-caps of the observation-tubes should not bear heavily upon the cover-glasses, since glass is double- SUGAR AKALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 33 refracting under these conditions. It is preferable to use caps held with a bayonet-catch rather than screw- caps. In making an observation, the eye should be in the optical axis of the instrument, and should not be moved from side to side. The cover-glasses should be of the best quality of glass, perfectly clean and with parallel surfaces. A glass may be tested by holding it in front of a window and looking through it at the window-bars ; on turning the glass slowly, if the bars appear to move the surfaces of the cover are not parallel and the glass should be rejected. Old glasses which have become slightly scratched by repeated wiping should not be used. The planes of the ends of the observation-tube should be perpendicular to the axis of the tubes. This may be tested by placing a tube, containing a sugar solution, in the instrument and making an observation. On revolving the tube in the trough of the polariscope, should the readings in different positions vary, the ends of the tube have not been properly ground. The manufacturers of polariscopes have attained such precision in their methods that errors in the adjustment of the instruments or accessories are rarely found. The polariscope should be used in a well-ventilated room from which all light, except that from the polariscope-lamp, is excluded. It is an excellent arrangement to have the lamp in an adjoining room and pass the light through a glass screen to the instrument. Late models of the Ger- man polariscopes have mirrors arranged to reflect the light to the scale. When the instrument is in a room adjoining the lamp-room, obviously the above arrangement cannot be used. A small gas-jet or a candle should never be used for lighting the scale. A convenient source of light is a half- candle-power incandescent electric lamp mounted near the scale and switched into the circuit by an ordinary push- button. The lamp may be operated by a two-cell accumu- lator or in circuit with a 32-candle-power incandescent lamp, the latter being outside the polariscope-room. Ord'Pary 34 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Leclanche cells are cheap and will answer for several hun- dred polarizations. The instrument should be occasionally tested with pure sugar(206). or more conveniently with standardized quartz plates, to be obtained of the makers. Messrs. Schmidt and Haensch construct a control-tube, Fig. 17, with which all parts of the scale may be tested. The sugar solution is poured into the funnel T' and flows into the tube as it is lengthened by turning the milled screw. The tube length is read on the scale N. The figure describes the tube sufficiently. ^*-^ Errors which may occur in the polarization, but not through faulty manipulation of the instrument, are indi- cated in the following paragraphs. Fig. 17. 33. Error Due to the Volume of the L^ead Precipitate. — The lead precipitate, formed in the clarifi- cation of the solutions, introduces errors in the polarization, some of which are probably offset by compensating errors, notably in the analysis of low-grade products. An important error is that due to the volume of the lead precipitate. This question has been studied by a number of chemists, notably by Scheibler in Germany and Sachs in Belgium. Scheibler devised a simple method for the cor- rection of this error, which is commonly termed the *' method of double dilution." It was noticed by Rafey, Pellet, Commerson, and others that in low-grade products, the saline coefficient of which is large, there is apparently SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 35 no error due to the volume of the precipitate, which is very large. They attributed this fact to an absorption of sucrose by the precipitate at the moment of its formation. Sachs' published an exhaustive paper on this question some years since, and demonstrated that there is no absorption of su- crose. He attributed the results with low products to the influence of acetates of potassium and sodium, formed with the acetic acid set free in the decomposition of the lead salt, upon the rotatory power of the sucrose. This view is strengthened by the fact that there is a very perceptible error, in the polarization of juices, due to the precipitate. The precipitate in juices contains but little of the acetates of potassium and sodium, whereas these salts are formed in considerable quantities in molasses and low products. Sachs* experiments were made by increasing the concen- tration of the solutions instead of by dilution as practised by Scheibler. Sachs dissolved x grams of molasses in water, added sufficient subacetate of lead for clarification, completed the volume to loo cc. and polarized as usual. The quantity x increases from experiment to experiment by practically equal increments. Since the quantity of molasses is increased with each experiment, the volume of the precipitate must increase in the same ratio. An in- crease in the volume of the precipitate, if this were the only disturbing influence, should increase the polarization, since the volume of the solution is decreased and the con- centration is increased. Letting x — the weight of molasses, and^ = the polari- scopic reading, the ratio — should increase with each incre- ment of molasses if there be an error due to the volume of the precipitate, not compensated for by other influences. Sachs employed quantities of molasses ranging from 5 to 35 grams in 100 cc, and substituting the values of x and ^ in the ratio and reducing, obtained the following figures: ist series : 1.906, 1.900, 1.900, 1.906, 1.896; 2d series : 2.14, 2.13, 2.14, 2.14 ^fvtfe UniverselU de la Fabrication du Sucre, 1>45I< 36 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. The practically constant value of - shows that a minus error or errors have fully compensated for that due to the volume of the precipitate. Sachs' deductions are given above. A similar experiment with beet-juices gave the foUow- y ing values of -: X ist series : 0.5446, 0.5474, 0.5480, 0.5497TV 2d series : 0.5800, 0.5830, 0.5842, 0.5860. It is thus shown that there is an increase in the ratio and an error due to the volume of the precipitate in the analy- sis of juices. The volume of the lead precipitate from 100 cc. of normal juice is approximately i cc. It is not improbable that at least to some extent the so- called "losses from unknown sources" in sugar-house practice are due to errors in analysis which, with our present information, are unavoidable. 34. Error Due to the Volume of the Lead Precipitate — Scheibler's Method of Double Dilution. — The error due to the volume of the lead precipitate may usually be determined by Scheibler's' method. To 100 cc. of the juice add the requisite quantity of subacetate of lead, complete the volume to 100 cc. and polarize as usual; a second portion of 100 cc. of the juice is treated with lead as above, diluted to 220 cc. and polarized. Calculation. — Multiply the second reading by 2, subtract the product from the first reading, multiply the remainder by 2.2, and deduct this product from the first reading. The remainder is the required per cent sucrose. • Zeit,^ Rubenzucker -Industrie^ 85, 1054. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 37 Example, Degree Brix of the juice l8. First polariscopic reading (no cc.) 57.6 Second polariscopic reading (220 cc). ....... 28.7 2 X 28.7 = 57.4; 57-6 — 57-4 = .2; 2.2 X .2 = .44; 57-6 - .44 = 57.16, = the corrected reading. By Schmitz' table, as described on page 76, we have 15.18 .03 .02 15.23 = required per cent. In the application of this method to other products using the normal or multiple-normal weight, calculate as follows: 1st volume, 100 cc; 2d volume, 200 cc. Multiply the second polariscopic reading by 2 and sub- tract the product from the first reading; multiply the re- mainder by 2 and subtract the product from the first reading. This remainder is the required per cent sucrose. It is evident that this method requires extreme care in the polarization, since an error is multiplied. 35. Sachs' ' Method of Determining the Vol- ume of the Lead Precipitate.— Clarify 100 cc of juice with subacetate of lead as usual, using a tall cylinder instead of a sugar-flask. Wash the precipitate by decanta- tion, first using cold water and finally hot water. Continue the washing until all the sucrose is removed. Transfer the precipitate to a loo-cc sugar-flask and add the one-half normal weight (13.024 grams) of pure sugar, dissolve and dilute to 100 cc, mix, filter, and polarize, using a 400-mm. tube. op. cit., 1, 451. 38 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Calculation. Let P = the per cent of sucrose in the sugar; jP' = the polarization of the solution in the presence of the lead precipitate; X = volume of the lead precipitate. -, lOOP' — lOOP _ ■f hen X = ;; . X Example, tet P = 99.9; P' = 100.77. ^. _ 100 X 100.77 — 100 X 99-9 1 fltftii X — 100.77 = .86 cc, the volume of the lead precipitate. 3^. Yniiueiice of Subacetate of Lead and Other Substances upon the Suj^rars and Optically Ac- tive Non-sugars 1 in Beet Products. — Sucrose.— The rotatory power of sucrose in aqueous solution is not modified by subacetate oi lead under the conditions which usually obtain in analysis. In the presence of a very large excess of the lead salt there is a slight diminution in the rotatory power; there iy a decided diminution in alcoholic solution in the presence of the lead salt. Farnsteiner^ made the following observations relative to the influence of certain inorganic salts: " With a constant relation of sugar to water, the chlorides of barium, strontium, and calcium cause a decrease in the rotation which continues to decrease as the salt is increased; calcium chloride causes a decrease, but when %he salt reaches a maximum further addition causes an * The beet and beet products contain other substances which are opti- cally active in addition to those given here, but the quantities present are exceedingly small and would not appreciably influence the analytical results. The following optically active substances are also present : tar- taric acid, leucine, coniferine, and cholesterine. 2 Berichte deut. chem. Gesel.^ 33, isjo\ Journ. Chem. Soc, ^O, 283. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 39 increase which finally exceeds that of the pure sugar solution. " If the relation of the sugar to that of the salt be kept constant, it is found that the addition of water causes in all cases an increase in the specific rotatory power, i.e., the action of the salts is lessened. The specific rotatory power is almost unaffected by varying the quantity of sugar with a constant relation between the salt and water. The chlorides of lithium, sodium, and potassium behave in a similar manner. "An examination of the action of the same quantities of different salts shows that in the case of strontium, calcium, and magnesium the depression varies inversely with the molecular weight, and that the product of the two quanti- ties is approximately a constant. Barium chloride does not act in the same manner, but the chlorides of the alkalis show a similar relation. The relation, however, only holds good within each group of chlorides and not for two salts belonging to different groups." The rotatory power of sucrose in water or alcohol solu- tion is not modified by the presence of nitrates of sodium and potassium even when the quantity of the nitrate amounts to as much as 50 per cent of the sucrose (E. Gravier). In investigating the influence of the lead precipitate (33), Sachs found that the presence of acetate of potas- sium very perceptibly diminished the rotation. The diminu- tion was also noticeable with the sulphates of potassium and lead, but was not so marked with the corresponding sodium salts. Sachs also states that he has demon- strated that citrate of potassium, carbonate of sodium, and several other salts have an influence analogous to that of the acetates. The presence of free acetic acid reduces this influence in part. Sachs, in the same paper, urges that the use of tannic acid in decolorizing solutions is very objec- tionable, on account of the volume of the precipitate formed with the lead. Dextrose. — The rotatory power of dextrose is not modi- fied, or, if at all, but very slightly, under ordinary analytical 40 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. conditions by either the subacetate or the neutral acetate of lead. See also Invert-sugar. Levulose. — The rotatory power of levulose is very greatly diminished by the presence of subacetate of lead. Under certain conditions, a levulosate of lead is probably formed. This levulosate is precipitated in the presence of certain chlorides, in quantities more or less considerable according to the relative proportions of the salts, lead, and levulose. There is no precipitation by the normal acetate of lead (Gill, Pellet, Edson, Spencer). Invert-sugar. Dextrose and Levulose. — In the presence of the salts formed in the decomposition of the subacetate of lead, dextrose and levulose are precipitated in part (Pellet, Edson). The influence of the basic lead salt on the rotatory power of levulose {see above), or the formation of a levulosate of lead of little optical activity, gives undue prominence to the dextrose and results in a plus error. In 1885 the author recommended the acidulation of solutions containing invert-sugar with acetic acid. This restores the normal or nearly the normal rotatory power to the levu- lose. Acetic acid slightly lowers the rotatory power of invert- sugar; hydrochloric acid has an opposite effect. Sodic acetate and sodic chloride increase the rotation (H. A. Weber and Wm. McPherson). Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids increase the rotation; oxalic acid has no effect. The rotation increases as the quantity of mineral acid is increased.' Raffi,nose. — The rotatory power of raffinose is greatly diminished in concentrated solution by subacetate of lead in large quantity, and not at all in dilute solution, especially in the presence of sucrose. The normal rotation is restored by slight acidulation with acetic acid (Pellet). Raffinose is precipitated by highly basic subacetate of lead as readily as with ammoniacal acetate of lead solution (Svoboda). Asparagine. — Not precipitable by subacetate of lead, but is rendered dextrorotatory, instead of Isevorotatory, by the * Gubbe, Bulletin Assoc. Chimistes de France^ 3, 131. SUGA.R ANALYSIS. CHEMICAL METHODS. 41 lead salt. Asparagine is insoluble in alcohol, and in the presence of acetic acid is inactive (Pellet). In neutral and alkaline solution, laevorotatory; in presence of a mineral acid, dextrorotatory; in the presence of acetic acid the rotation is diminished and with lo molecules of the acid becomes o°, and with additional acid dextrorotatory (Degener). Aspartic Acid. — From asparagine by the action of lime; the lime salt is soluble. In alkaline solutions aspartates are laevorotatory, and acid solutions dextrorotatory ; aspar- tic acid is precipitated by subacetate of lead. Glutamic acid is dextrorotatory, and in the presence of subacetate of lead it becomes laevorotatory. Not precipi- tated by lead acetate except in the presence of alcohol. Malic acid is laevorotatory. The artificial malic acid is optically inactive. Malic acid is precipitated by subacetate of lead. Pectine ajid parapectine are dextrorotatory and are both precipitated by subacetate of lead, and the latter by normal acetate of lead. 36a. Bone-black Error. — The use of bone-black or animal chav- coal is to be avoided when possible, since it absorbs sucrose. The degreeof absorption varies with the charcoal from different sources. Where the use of this substance is necessary for bleaching dark -colored samples it should be used in small quantities, pref- erably placing about 3 grams of a finely powdered char in a filter. The solution should be poured onto the charcoal in suc- cessive portions, each of which is allowed to drain from the char before adding the next. The first five or six portions of the filtrate should be rejected and subsequent fractions utilized in the analysis, as by this time the char can absorb no more sucrose. Many chemists advise adding from 0.5 to 3 grams of finely powdered dry bone black, per 100 cc. of solution, to the material in the sugar-flask. After shaking the mixture thoroughly and letting it stand a few minutes, the char is removed by filtration. The charcoal should previously be tested with a solution of known sucrose content to ascertain its absorbent power, that a correction may be applied. 36b. Temperature Errors in Polarizations. — According to 42 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Wiley * a correction should be made for errors due to variations of temperature of 0.03 per cent, per degree above or below the normal temperature (17^° C. for the older and 20° C. for recent models of polariscopes). This correction is to be added for tem- peratures above the normal and sub^acted for those below it. This correction is designed to include all temperature errors, viz: changes in the quartz wedges, tube length, concentration and specific rotation. Wiechmann ^ and others deny the advisability of Wiley's correction. Since the rotation of quartz is slightly changed by variations of temperature, it may be well to conduct polariscopic work re- quiring great exactitude, as in research work, at the normal temperature of the instrument. CHEMICAL METHODS. 37. Detenu illation of Sucrose by Alkaline Copper Solution. — Dissolve a weighed quantity of the material in water and dilute to 50 cc. Invert by means of hydrochloric acid as described in 89. Transfer to a litre flask, cool, neutralize with caustic soda, and dilute to 1000 cc. The quantity of material to be used depends upon the method of further procedure selected. It is, however, convenient to use 5 grams or a multi- ple of 5 grams and to dilute to a multiple of 100 cc. in order that the table of reciprocals on page 294 may be used for the calculations if a volumetric method be selected. Determine percentage of invert-sugar by one of the methods in 72 or 73. Multiply the per cent invert-sugar by .95, since sucrose on inversion yields invert-sugar in the ratio 100 : 95. 38. Determination of Sucrose in the Presence of Keducing Sugars. — Determine the reducing sugar before inversion and after, as indicated in 37. Calculation, — Per cent reducing sugar after inversion — per cent reducing sugar before inversion X -95 = the required per cent sucrose. 1 Ckjmptes-renduIV CoQgreslut. de Chimie Appliqa^e, 2, 143. 2/6wi. 1. 143. SAMPLIKG AND AVEEAQING. 43 GENERAL ANALYTICAL WORK. SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 39. General Remarks on Sampling and Averaging. — Accurate sampling is essential to successful chemical control. The samples must be strictly represent- ative of the average composition of the substance or sub- sequent analytical work will be wasted. The method of sampling should be by aliquot parts. This consists in drawing a definite quantity from each lot of the material, which must be the same aliquot part in each case. Example. — Given four lots of sirup, A^ B, C, and D, from which an average sample is to be drawn. Let A = looo, B = 800, C= 500, and Z> = 200. Each of these lots differs in analysis. Manifestly a mixture of equal parts of A, B, C, and D would not be a true average sample, but a mixture of 10 parts of ^, 8 parts of B, 5 parts of C, and 2 parts of D would be a representative sample. In calculating an average analysis from a large number of analyses the same principle must be applied. Example. — Given the following per cents of sucrose, representing the analyses of the beets each d^y for a week: \l%\ 14%; 13^; 14.5^; 15^; 15.5^; i6^- The following num- bers of diffusers of beets were worked each day : 168; 144" 140; 150; 165; 160; 145 — a total of 1072. Required the mean percentage of sucrose in the beets. Multiply each analysis by the number of diffusers of beets it represents, and divide the sum of the products by the total number of diffusers worked. 44 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 15 X 168 = 2520 14 X 144 = 2016 15,806 ~ = 14.74 = 1,072 ^ '^ 13 X 140 = 1820 the mean per cent 14.5 X 150 = 2175 sucrose for the week 15 X 165 = 2475 15.5 X 160 = 2480 16 X 145 = 2320 1,072 15,806 It is obvious that the weight of juice obtained per day, or the weight of the beets worked, may be used as a factor in the above calculation and strictly accurate averages secured. Usually, however, if the diffusers receive practically uniform charges of beets, the average analysis, as calcu- lated above, will approximate the true mean very closely. 40. Sampling Beets in the Field.— Beets grow- ing side by side may differ greatly in sugar content; the same is true of beets grown within a few feet of one an- other as well as from widely different parts of the field. This indicates the difficulty if not impossibility of selecting a strictly representative sample. In point of fact, samples selected in the field only approximately represent the general average. A convenient plan for sampling in the field is as follows: When drawing the beets to the factory, take a definite number at random from each load until all the beets have been hauled; unite the subsamplesand proceed as indicated farther on. If the sample is to be taken after the beets have been lifted and placed in piles, select a number of beets from each pile as above, or from every second or third pile, etc., and unite the subsamples. If the roots be still in the ground, lift a beet at definite intervals in the row, from every second, third, or fourth row as may be deemed best, and unite the subsamples as before. The importance of the sample and the size of the field must determine the number of beets to be drawn, but this number should in any case be as large as practicable. Having selected the beets, they should be sorted into three or four classes according to size and ranged in rows SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 45 in a convenient place, protected from the rays of the sun. The number of beets is now reduced by subsampling, tak- ing from each row in proportion to the nufrtber of beets in the row. For example, take every fifth or every tenth beet in the row. If the number of beets drawn in this way be too large, the subsample should be rearranged in rows and again subsampled. 41. Subsaniplin^ of Beets for Analysis in Fix- ing the Purchase Price.— As will be shown (p. 177), the sucrose is not uniformly distributed throughout the beet, and further the juice obtained by pressure from the same sample varies in composition with the pressure exerted and the state of division of the pulp. The more finely divided the pulp, and the heavier the pressure, the nearer the juice obtained approaches the mean juice in composition. The proportion of juice in the beet varies from sample to sample, and often materially from the average (95^) ; hence the practice of employing a coefficient, e.g. .95, to calculate the percentage of sucrose in the beet from the analysis of the juice, should be discouraged. In the course of an en- tire season this may be just to the manufacturer, but un- doubtedly is an injustice in many cases to the producer of the beets. If the indirect method of analysis be employed, the same models of rasp and press should be used by the chemists of the buyer and the seller. Further, the conditions of sam- pling and analysis should be the same in both laboratories. The beets should be divided longitudinally into quarters or eighths, and an entire segment should be rasped. This insures the reduction of a portion of the beet in propor- tion to its size. In many factories it is the custom to remove a small plug "or cylinder from each beet for the analysis. Owing to the unequal distribution of the sugar in the beet this method cannot be depended upon to give a strictlj^ repre- sentative sample, but experience has shown that the varia- tions from the true average sample are not great, provided the cylinder be taken in the proper direction. The method and direction of removing the cylinder are indicated in Fig. 18. The boring-rasp (Keil and Dolle) is well adapted for 46 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. removing a sample of pulp from each of a number of beets. Fig This machine, which is shown in Fig. 19, may be used in Pellet's instantaneous diffusion method (B2). Fig 19. The beet is pressed carefully against the rasping-tool, which revolves at the rate of 2000 revolutions per minute. Fig. 20. An opening in the rasp, which is sh«wn in detail i» Fig. 20, permits the pulp to pass into the tool, whish is hollow, and SAMPLING AKD AVERAQIKG. 47 thence to the box shown in the figure. Practice is neces- sary in using this machine in order to produce a suitable pulp. The pulp from the first perforation should be re- jected. It is evident that this machine does not remove a portion of pulp bearing a fixed relation to the size of the beet. This is essential in order that the analysis may represent the mean composition of the roots. The following method of sampling has been proposed by Kaiser' to obviate this difficulty. The form of the beet is a cone the height of which is approximately three times the radius of the base, hence its volume is calculated by the formula nr^ = volume ; in other words, the volume of the beet increases as the cube of the radius of the base. For example, we have three beets whose radii are 4 : 5 : 6; their volumes are then in the ratio 4^ : 5' : 6', or 64 : 125 : 216. The beet whose radius is 4 should be per- forated once ; the second, whose radius is 5, should be per- forated (VY) 2 times, and the third, having a radius of 6, should be perforated (Vt) 3 times, and so on. Kaiser uses a scale which indicates the number of perforations to be made in each beet. Such a scale may easily be made which will show at a glance the number of times each beet should be perforated. This method of sampling gives approximately correct re- sults, even if the relation between the radius of the base of the beet and its length be different from Kaiser's numbers. When practicable, in order to obtain a thoroughly reliable sample, it is advisable to divide the beets longitudinally and reduce an entire segment of each to a pulp suitable for a direct method of analysis. After the sample of washed beets is received in the lab- oratory its weight should be noted, that a correction may be made for the loss of weight by drying prior to the an- alysis. 42. Sainpliiij? Beets at the Diffusion-battery. — Samples of beets can be drawn at the battery with mod- erate certainty of obtaining a fair average. In the various * Deutsche Zuckerindustrte, Nov. i8q6. 48 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAK-HOUSE CHEMISTS. manipulations from the field to the factory, including the transport and washing, the beets are pretty thoroughly mixed ; hence if a beet be taken at random at regular and frequent intervals, the united subsamples so drawn will be very nearly of the mean composition of the beets entering the sugar-house. It is not usually necessary to sample beets in this way, since the method given in the following para- graph is simpler and the sample drawn is more satisfactory. 43. Sampling- the Fresh Cossettes at the Diffusion-battery.— The proper time to sample the beets is after they have been sliced. A handful of the cos- settes should be taken from the elevator or drag at regular intervals and stored in a covered receptacle. Large granite- or agate-ware pails are very convenient for the purpose, as they can be easily inspected as to their cleanliness. It is not advisable to use a mechanical device to divert a part of the cossettes to the pail, since the sample so obtained is not usually a fair average. The samples should be drawn at very frequent intervalsp if practicable every two or three minutes. In practice it is more convenient to take a small portion of the cuttings shortly after they begin to fall into the diffuser, a second when the diffuser is half filled, and a third before directing the cuttings into the next diffuser. The sample obtained in the manner described should be taken to the laboratory for immediate treatment. It is perfectly reliable, and if the beets be weighed immediately before entering the cutter, it may enter into the chemical control of the diffusion. It is necessary to keep the sample-pails scrupulously clean, using boiling water in washing them ; they should be large enough to contain the subsamples from two or three hours' work. 44. Sampling the Exhausted Cossettes.— The exhausted cossettes should be sampled in a similar manner to the fresh cuttings. 1 his sample may be taken from the elevator leading to the pulp-presses, and should be stored in a covered galvanized-iron pail having the bottom per- forated for drainage. 45. Sampling Waste Waters.— A definite volume of the waste water should be drawn from each diffuser SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 49 and these subsamples stored in a loosely stoppered bottle, with corrosive sublimate as a preservative. 46. Sampling Diffusion-juice, etc. — In sampling diffusion-juice, a definite volume should be drawn from each measuring tankful. This volume once decided upon should not be changed during the sampling period except there be a change in the volume of juice drawn into the tank, and then the sample should be changed in a like proportion. This is not easily accomplished, except by the use of an automatic sampler. In sampling purified juices the same method should be observed. 47. Sampling Filter Press-cake.— In sampling the press-cake, small portions should be taken systemati- cally from different parts of the press, bearing in mind that parts of the cake contain more moisture than others, according to the kind of press. The number of presses filled should be recorded for use in estimating the weight of the press-cake and in averaging the analyses. A very simple and satisfactory instrument for sampling filter press-cake is made from a small brass tube with a cutting edge at one end. Several cork-borers of the same diameter are more convenient than a single brass tube for this purpose. In using this instrument small cylinders of the press-cake are cut out in precisely the same manner as one would bore a hole through a cork. The subsamples are left in the tubes until a sufficient quantity of material has been col- lected. Each subsample pushes its predecessor farther into the tube. 48. Sampling Sirups. — A method is recommended in 10 for the measurement of sirups. In this method gauge-tubes, similar to the water-gauges on steam-boilers, are used. The sirup should be thoroughly mixed in the tanks before admitting it to the tubes. If several tanks be used, a volume of sirup should be drawn from each in- cluded in the analytical period, as advised in lO. 49. The Preservation of Samples.— The sample of diffusion-juice is effectually preserved from fermentation by the addition of subacetate of lead. It maybe preserved 50 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. in this way several weeks or even months without percepti- ble change in the sucrose content. The most convenient preservative is mercuric chloride, i part to 5000 or 10,000 parts of juice. It is not advisable to store juices treated with mercuric chloride for a longer period than 24 hours. The advantage of the mercuric chloride is that it permits the usual determinations, viz., sucrose, total solids, ash, etc., to be made with the same sample, thus obviating the neces- sity of drawing a second sample as is usual when subacetate of lead is used. In many houses it is the practice to store the samples a week before analysis, uniting those drawn from day to day. In such cases it is advisable to determine the density, solids, and ash from day to day, and store a portion of the juice with subacetate of lead for the sucrose determination. The use of mercuric chloride simplifies the work, and as it is used in such minute quantities it does not perceptibly affect the accuracy of the results. When subacetate of lead is employed as a preservative, it should be added in the proportions required for the clari- fication of the juice, i.e., about 2-3 cc. of the concentrated solution (207). It is convenient to use the concentrated lead solution, and, when preparing for the polarization, to measure the mixed juice and lead solution and add suffi- cient water to increase the volume to 110% that of the juice. The per cent sucrose is then readily calculated by the use of Schmitz' table(p.285)from the degree Brix of the juice and the polariscopic reading. The preservative must be thoroughly mixed with juice as each portion is added. This is easily accomplished when an automatic sampler is employed by letting the de- livery-tube dip to the bottom of the storage-bottle. The mouth of the bottle should be loosely plugged with cotton. When the sampling is by hand, it is advisable to use a wide- mouthed jar, provided with a cover, for the storage of the juice, and mix frequently. This facilitates the collection of the subsamples without the use of a funnel. No preservative is required for sugar-house products other than the waste waters, juices, and sirups. 50. Automatic Samplings of Juices. — Automatic SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 51 samplers have for their object not only the relief of the chemist from this duty, but the drawing of samples which are probably more reliable than those obtained in any other way. This problem is not a simple one in the case of sampling diffusion-juices at the measuring-tank. It is evident from the method of conducting the diffusion, that the juice re- ceived into the measuring-tank is not of uniform composi- tion. A sample drawn from the bottom of the tank will differ slightly from one drawn at the centre or near the top. Coombs' Automatic Sampler. — The apparatus shown in Fig. 21 is the invention of Mr. F. E. Coombs, Chemist of JUICE PIPE A.— i TO I INCH VALVE. B,— STRONG RUBBER TUBE CON- NECTING PIPE LEADING FR0m"A"wITH C,— A GLASS T-TUBE|tO 7 INCHES INSIDE DIAMETER. D, — SHORT ARM OF T. FROM WHICH THE SAMPLE IS TO BE LED INTO AN APPROPRIATE RECEIVER. Fig. 21. the Shadyside Plantation, Louisiana, and of the Esperanza Estate, Trinidad, B. W. I., throfligh whose courtesy this de- scription and illustration were supplied the author. This apparatus is applicable to the sampling of liquids which are not too viscous to flow through small pipes. It may be used in sampling juice and sirup, and has proved quite reliable in practical work. It has the advantage of 52 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. being quickly set up wherever there is provision for re- turning a small quantity of overflow liquor to the tank. Attempts to draw continuous samples of liquor from pipes by means of a small valve, depending upon the valve to regulate the flow of the sample, have usually failed, since the valve must be so nearly closed that fine pulp in the juice or, in the case of sirup, a mere change from a low to a high density clogs the opening and stops the sampling. The flow must be sufficient to keep the valve free from obstruction. By the use of a T-tube, as shown in the figure, a strong current of liquor can be kept flowing through the pipe, and at the same time a small, continuous, easily regulated drip can be diverted into the sample- bottle. In the figure, the apparatus is shown as arranged for drawing a sample of juice as it passes from the measuring- tank to the carbonatation. It is advisable to pass the juice through a distributing-tank in which the sampler is lo- cated, otherwise an arrangement must be provided for con- ducting the overflow to the carbonatation-tanks. The sample-bottle at D rests upon a wooden shelf hung inside the tank by hangers of strap-iron which hook over the edge. It is apparent that when Z>, the short arm oi the T-tube, is in its lowest position it will give its maximuna discharge. By rotating the T-tube, which is of glass, in the strong rubber connecting-tube B to the position Z?', the drip will cease, all the liquor passing out at C, The posi- tion giving a sample of the required volume is readily ascertained by experiment. The sample, if juice, is pre- served as indicated in 49 ; sirups require no preservative. With well-strained juice the drip is regular and there is rarely trouble from clogging. It is evident, from the arrangement of the sampler, that the samples drawn, whether of juice or sirup, may be de- pended upon as being representative of the composition of the entire volume of the liquor. It is necessary to connect the small pipe at the under side of the juice or sirup main, to insure a continuous flow, even when but little liquor is passing. The main should be tapped at its highest level, or on the discharge side of SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 53 that level, to avoid drawing liquor left in the pipe when the flow is temporarily stopped. The valve on the sampling- pipe should be placed as close as possible to the point where the main is entered. The valve A should always be opened as widely as pos- sible to prevent clogging, but this must be regulated so that the current through the main arm of the T-tube shall not be too swift, since it will then act as an aspirator. For this reason it is advis- able to avoid extending the discharge-tube Z> below the level of the sample in the bottle, otherwise the entire contents may be lost. Horsiti' Dean's Automatic Sampler. — This apparatus, shown in Fig. 22, consists of a three-way cock for con- necting a small standpipe alternately with the measur- ing-tank and the sample- bottle, and is operated by a suitable float. This sampler is placed in- side the measuring-tank. It is so arranged that the volume of the sample drawn is proportionate to the quantity of juice in the tank. The discharge-pipe from the diffusion-battery should enter the measuring-tank at the bottom. The inlet to the sampler should be di- rectly over the inlet from the battery, if practicable, projecting into the pipe. If this precaution be not ob- ^^^' ^^" served the sample drawn will not be a iair average. 54 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 2t is obvious that this sampler is not applicable in sam- pling sirups. 51. Sampling Sugars.— Sugars are best sampled by means of a "trier" or sound (Fig. 23). This in- FlG. 23. strument is so constructed that it may be plunged into a quantity of sugar and, on withdrawal, remove a sample representative of the sugar through which it has passed. The trier should be long enough to pass from end to end of the package of sugar, diagonally if necessary. The chemist must be guided largely by the grade of the sugar and the method of packing in drawing the sample. A portion should be dra^yn from every third, fifth, etc., package according to the size of the lot. The large sample should be well mixed, andiall lumps broken, then subsam- pled by quartering. k DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. ^5 DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. APPARATUS AND METHODS. 52. Notes on Density. — The expression "density" as used in this work is synonymous with " specific gravity," and is employed for brevity and convenience. Sugar chemists also frequently term the degree Brix or the degree Baume the " density " of the liquor. While this use of the word " density" is not strictly correct, it is sanctioned by general usage. 53. The Brix and Baume Scales.— The degree Brix is the percentage by weight of sucrose in a pure sugar solution. It is customary to consider the degree Brix as the percentage of total solid matter in the solution, and it is thus applied in sugar analysis. It is this feature of the Brix spindle which renders it more convenient than the Baum6 for sugar-house purposes. . The Baume scale has no convenient relation with the percentage composition of any of the sugar-house products. The point to which it sinks in distilled water at the stand- ard temperature is marked zero ; the corresponding point in pure sulphuric acid of 1.8427 specific gravity is marked 66 degrees. Baume spindles are also graduated for den- sities above and below the limits mentioned, but this range is all that is ever required in sugar analysis. There has been much confusion in the graduation of Baum6 spindles. The graduations should be checked by means of splutions of known density and under standard conditions (55). The use of these spindles is now com- paratively limited in sugar-house practice. 54. Automatic Apparatus for the Determi- nation of the Density of the Juice.— The density \h usually ascertained by means of a hydrometer, an instru- ment commonly termed a " spindle " in sugar-house practice. These instruments are usually graduated to degrees Brix or Baum6. The readings on the spindle are converted into terms of specific gravity or density by means of a table {see p. 256); Automatic apparatus is used to some extent in the Euro- pean sugar-houses for the determination of the density. 56 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. One of the simplest forms of apparatus for this purpose is that devised by Langen and shown in Fig. 24. The construction of this instrument is based upon the principle of communicating vessels. By suitable means, the small reservoir ^ is connected with the measuring-tank at the diffusion-battery; a portion of the juice from each charge drawn into the latter is deflected and passes through the reservoir into the tube S, and overflows at r. Inside the tube S is another tube, J^D, which terminates above in a fun- nel-shaped vessel and below in a flexible bulb in the tank H. The interior of this tube, including the bulb, is filled with water, whose height is registered upon a cylinder B by means of a float carrying a pencil, n. It is evident from an in- spection of this apparatus that the water in the inner tube will rise in proportion to the specific gravity of the juice surrounding and press- — ing upon the flexible rubber bulb. This rise in the level of the water is registered by the pencil, carried Fig. 24, by the float, upon the paper-cov- ered cylinder. The cylinder is revolved by clockwork, making one revolution every twelve hours. The record may be in degrees Brix or Baum6 as preferred. The variable temperatures of the juice have no influence upon the apparatus, provided the column of water be of the same temperature as the juice surrounding it. For this reason the tube /^is spiral at its lower end. Mr. Eugene Langen, the inventor of this instrument, has substituted a bundle of fine copper tubes for the spiral, jD. Foam and mechanical impurities do not affect the accuracy of the apparatus. 56. Hydrometers or Spindles. — These instru- ments are also termed " saccharometers " when specially graduated for use in the sugar industry. The density is DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. 57 ascertained by noting the depth to which -BRix the spindle sinks in the liquid. 1 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 L Hydrometers of the better grade, for use in sugar work, are of the shape shown in Fig. 25. Spindles of the best quality are of glass, and are usually provided with a fine thermometer. Instruments for rough work are made of metal or of glass, and without a thermometer. A variety of systems of graduations is used in France, but in this country and in Germany the Brix and the Baum6 are the only scales employed in sugar work. In com- paring data obtained in French sugar-houses it is well to remember that percentages are usually expressed in terms of the volume of the solution instead of the weight. In American and German sugar-houses, the standard temperature for the graduation ~ of instruments is 17^° C; in France, etc., it is 15° C. Since the tables for cal- culations are based on a temperature of 17^° C. it is advisable that all hydrom- eters be graduated at this temperature. It is recommended that the hydrometers be gradu- ated to ^V Brix. The in- struments should be ar- ranged in sets of o" to 5°, 5° to 10°, 10° to 15°, 15° to 20°, and 20° to 25° Brix. Each should be provided with a delicate thermome- ter. The stem should be long, that the graduations may be read with certainty Fig. 26. and ease. 0-. 1-. i ^ m 1 tft^ ^'. Wii ES 2| ^ 58 HAN"DBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Spindles should be tested from time to time, employing •standardized solutions of pure sucrose of the temperature at which the instrument was graduated, preferably at 17^° C. The strength of the sugar solution should be checked by means of the polariscope. The method of reading the spindle is shown in Fig. 26. The reading at E, not R\ should be recorded as the observed density, and a correction should be made for variations in the temperature from the standard. A table is given on page 282 for the correction of the observed degree for varia- tions of temperature above and below 17^° C. It is advisable to make all readings at as nearly i7^°C.as may be practicable. 56. The WestpUal Balance.— The principle of this balance ' may be briefly stated as follows : A glass bob is so adjusted as to be capable cf displacing a given num- ber of grams, five for instance, of distilled water, at a given temperature when wholly immersed in the liquid and sus- pended by a fine platinum wire. The bobs may be gradu- ated for any temperature ; but for sugar work 17^° C. is most convenient, since this is the temperature usually em- ployed in preparing specific-gravity tables. For accurate work the temperature of the solution whose specific grav- ity is to be determined should be exactly that for which the bob was graduated. The balance is provided with several riders or weights. Two of these riders, (i) and (2), are each exactly the weight of the water displaced by the bob at the standard temperature, i7i°C. The other riders, (3), (4), and (5), are respectively one tenth, one hundredth, and one thousandth the weight of the first mentioned. When the weight (i) is hung on the hook at the end of the beam, and the bob is immersed in distilled water at 17^° C, the balance should be in equilibrium, the weight having the value i.ooo in this position. In case the balance be not in equilibrium under these conditions, provided the bob have been correctly graduated, the latter must be suspended from the hook and the adjusting-screw turned until the pointers are exactly opposite one another. The weights (2), (3), (4), and (5) are placed on the beam in addition to (i) for liquids * Adapted from Bull. 13, Chem. Div., U. S. Dept. Agri.; also illustration. DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. 59 heavier than water, and have the values .i, .oi, .001, and .ooor, respectively, when placed on the corresponding graduations of the beam, and for other graduations .300, .030, .003, .0003, etc. Each rider is provided with a hook Fig. from which additional weights may be suspended in the case of more than one falling upon the same graduation. The method of using the balance is as follows : Dissolve a weighed portion of the material in water and dilute to a measured volume at 17^° C. ; for example, 25 grams to 100 cc. Suspend the bob of the balance, as described above, in this solution, and weight the beam with the riders until the balance is in equilibrium. Read off the specific gravity from the position of the weights on the beam. Example : 25 grams material dissolved and diluted to 100 cc. Position of the riders : 60 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. (i) at point of suspension of the bob = i.ooo (2) not on the beam. (3) at 7 =0.07 (4) at 9 = 0.009 Specific gravity = 1.079 The degree Brix corresponding to 1.079, '•'^•» the per cent solids in this solution, is 19, as given in the table, page 275. To obtain the weight of the solution, multiply 1.079 by 100 = 107.9 > hence the weight of solids in the solution js 107.9X19-^-100 = 20.5 grams = the weight of solid matter in 25 grams of the material. The per cent solids in the material, i.e., the degree Brix = 20.5 -^^ 25 X 100 = 82, and the corresponding specific gravity, obtained from the table, /T^ Fig. 28. the density is to be determined. is 1.4293. See 85 relative to the ac- curacy of this determination of the degree Brix. 57. Py kilometers. — Pyknome- ters are bottles so constructed that they may be filled with a definite volume of liquid. Knowing the weight of this volume, it may be compared with the weight of an equal volume of water, from which the density of the liquid is calculated. It is rarely necessary to use a pyknometer in the sugar in- dustry, the more rapid density deter- mination by the spindle being usually sufficiently accurate. Pyknometers are made in a great variety of forms. One of the most convenient of these is shown in Fig. 28. The stopper is a fine thermom- eter ground into the neck of the bottle. The side tube provides an outlet for the excess of liquid when the stopper is put in place. The bottle should be filled at a somewhat lower temperature than that at which As the temperature DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. 61 gradually rises to the desired point, the excess of liquid is blotted off. At the required temperature, the cap is placed in position, and receives any further liquid, which may be expelled from the bottle, as the temperature rises to that of the room. There is a minute opening in the cap for the escape of the air. In sugar work, the specific gravity should be determined at 17^° C. for reasons already stated. The weight of the corresponding volume of water may be determined at room temperature and a correction be made to reduce it to the standard temperature, the tables on page 251 being used for this purpose. It is customary to express specific gravities as follows : — '—:, 1.0705; the numbers above and below the 17.5 line being the temperatures at which the bottle was filled with water and the substance respectively. Recently boiled and cooled distilled water should be used in density determinations. To calculate the density of a liquid, divide the weight of a definite volume of it by the weight of an equal volume of water. 57a. Standard Temperature for Density Determinations. — 20° The International Commission has adopted — ^ C. as the stand- ard temperature for density determinations. The hydrometer should sink to the 0° mark in water at 20° C, and the cor- responding specific gravity of the water, referred to water at 4° C, is 0.998234. As the adoption of this standard is very recent, most factories are equipped with instruments standardized at 17^° C. and with the corresponding tables, such as are given in this book. 62 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 58. The Direct Analysis of the Beet.— The Methods for the direct analysis of the beet may be divided into two general classes, according to the solvent used, viz. : (i) methods employing alcohol ; (2) methods employing water. The alcoholic methods have found most favor in Germany, and the aqueous methods in France. Certain modifications of the Scheibler alcoholic method and Pellet's aqueous methods, hot and cold, are the most important of their classes, and are the only ones which will be described in this book. It is probable, judging from the published statements of many chemists, that these meth- ods are equally accurate if the instructions of their invent- ors be implicitly complied with. The alcoholic methods are usually considered the most scientific. 69. Scheibler's Alcoholic Method with Sox- hlet's Extraction Apparatus.— Various modifications of Soxhlet's apparatus are used to such an extent in chem- ical laboratories that an illustration. Fig. 29, and a brief description of it will suffice. The apparatus is so arranged that the vapors of the solvent, which is boiled in the flask by means of a hot-water bath, pass up through the tube B to the reflux condenser, and the solvent falls back into the extractor in which the material is placed. When a suffi- cient quantity of the solvent accumulates in the extractor, it is siphoned into the flask by the tube shown at the right. The substance is thus extracted with successive portions of the solvent. A very convenient and efficient modification of this ap- paratus is the siphon extraction-tube devised by A. E. Knorr, shown in Fig. 30. The connections with the flask and condenser are made with corks as in the Soxhlet apparatus. Knorr's apparatus, as arranged for general purposes, dispenses with corks, but requires a special flask, which is not convenient for sugar analysis. The siphon-tube S is sealed into the bottom of the tube ANALYSIS OP THE BEET. 63 A and lies close to the wall so as to permit the insertion of the tube B containing the material. The lower end of B is closed with a perforated disk. A spiral of copper wire, C, pre- vents the tube A from closing the tube D. This apparatus has the ad- vantage of extracting the SU' crose with a hot solvent. Other convenient modifications of Soxhlet's appara- tus are described by Wiley in his Agri- cultural Analysis, In the direct an- alysis of the beet with the Soxhlet- Sickel apparatus, Fig. 29, proceed as follows for the ex- traction of the su- crose: Place a plug of absorbent cotton in the bottom of the tube, then introduce 26.048 grams of the pulped beet, or 2 X 16.29 grams, accord- ing to the polari- scope in use, press- ing the pulp lightly with a rod. Very small fragments of the beet may be used instead of pulp. Connect the extractor with the reflux condenser as shown. Place 75 cc. of 95 per cent alcohol in the flask and connect with the extractor as indicated in the figure; heat the flask in the water-bath and continue the extraction from half an Pig. 29. Fig. 30. 64 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. hour to two hours or more, according to the state of division of the sample. Use somewhat weaker alcohol if only 16.29 grams of pulp be taken. Cool and remove the flask, substituting a second containing 75 cc. of 75 to 80 per cent alcohol, and continue the extraction to ascertain whether the first extraction were complete. Fill the first flask to the 100 cc. mark, after treating the sample with two or three drops r>f subacetate of lead solu- tion. Mix the contents of the flask, filter, and polarize. Having extracted the normal weight of pulp, the polari- scopic reading is the per cent of sucrose in the sample. The extract in the second flask should also be polarized as a check upon the extraction. Great care is essential in the polarization of alcoholic solutions. The least quantity of subacetate of lead, that will clarify the solution, should be used. The solution must be protected from evaporation during the filtration by a cover-glass. Avoid irregularities in the temperature of the solution in the observation-tube, due to the warmth of the hands; since the density of the solution in different parts of the tube will vary under such conditions, striae will form, rendering an accurate reading impossible. The Scheibler method, as above described, differs from the original only in a few minor details, especially in the arrangement of the extraction apparatus. The Soxhlet ex- traction apparatus is much more effective than Scheibler's original instrument. 00. Stammer's Alcoholic Digestion Method/ — This method differs from that of Pellet described in 62 in details of manipulation and in the use of alcohol instead of water. The pulp must be reduced to a cream, in fact should be as finely divided as is required in the Pellet method (62). Wash 26.048 grams of pulp into a flask graduated at 100.55 cc. with 92 per cent alcohol, add subacetate of lead for clarification, and dilute to the mark with the alcohol. The least quantity of the subacetate that will effect clarifica- tion should be used. Acetic acid is not required. Mix thor- oughly, and after allowing a few minutes for the digestion, ^ Zeit. Rubenzucker-Indu5irte,ZZ»aQ6. i-,-iy,'*f -Ju ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 65 filter and polarize, observing the precautions given in 59 relative to the polarization of alcoholic solutions. A method similar to this, Rapp-Degener, employs hot digestion in a flask fitted with a reflux condenser. 61. Pellet's Aqueous Method. Hot Digestion. — Any good rasp may be used in the preparation of the pulp for this method. Pellet recommends the conical rasp of Pellet and Lomont, as illustrated in Figs. 31, 32, and 33. There is frequently a depression in the side of the beet, as shown in section in Fig. 34. Since the segments OA and OB are not of equal sugar con- tent, two segments should be reduced to pulp, or, if the sam- ple include a large number of beets, a single segment of each may be pulped, taking care to present alternately the large and the small diameters of the beets to the rasp. The special flasks shown in Fig. 35 are convenient for use in this method. Transfer 26.048 grams of the pulp to 4;he flask, F'g. 32. using a little water to wash the weighing capsule and funnel, or, for the Laurent, employ 32.58 grams of pulp, i.e., 2 X normal weight. The flasks are graduated to contain 801.35 cc. for the Schmidt and Haensch and 201.7 cc for i>^^»«» 66 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the Laurent polariscopes, in order to compensate for the Fig. 34. Fig. 33- volume of the marc and the lead precipitate. Add 5 to 10 cc. subacetate of lead solution of 54.3° Brix (207) for the clarification. Approxi- mately 6 to 7 cc. are required per 26 grams of beet-pulp. This reagent should be run into the flask in advance of the beet-pulp. Add a few drops of ether to beat down the foam, then sufficient water to increase the volume of the solution to about 190 cc. Heat to So"" C. in a water- bath and maintain this temperature about 30 minutes, occasionally giving the flask a circular move- ment to facilitate the escape of the air from the pulp. Increase the volume of the solution from time to time during the heating, so that when the opera- tion is completed only a few drops of water will be required to complete the volume of the solution to the mark. After approxi- mately 30 minutes' heating, cool the flask and contents and add strong acetic acid to the solution to acidity, dilute to the graduation, mix and filter. The state of division of the pulp will govern the time of heating. In polarizing the filtrate, use a 400-mqj. observa- tion-tube, thus directly obtaining the per cent sucrose in the beet with the Schmidt and Haensch polariscope, or double this percentage if the Laurent instrument be used. Fig. 35. ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 67 Pellet uses a special water-bath in this process that admits a considerable number of flasks at one time. The flasks are held in a rack and may all be removed from the bath at one time and plunged into cold water. The solutions should be carefully protected from evap- oration by covering the funnel during filtration. There has been much controversy relative to this method, especially among the German chemists. Many claim that it gives results that are too high, and other chemists of equal prominence and experience contend that it gives cor- rect results. Le Docte,' in a series of experiments, obtained percentages by hot digestion a few one-hundredths higher than by the cold diffusion method described below. The following method, using cold water, is usually preferred, provided a sufficiently fine pulp can be produced. 62. Pellet's Instantaneous Aqueous Diffu- sion Method. — The method as described by Pellet will be given first, and then a few of the various modifications. The author prefers the Sachs-Le Docte modification given on page i8i, which combines rapidity and accuracy. Pellet's Original Method. — In following Pellet's original method the specifications as to the condition of the pulp and the quantity used must be strictly complied with in order to obtain satisfactory results. For polariscopes whose normal weight is 26.048 grams wash this weight of pulp, with water, into a fiask graduated to hold 201.35 cc, or 25.87 grams into a 200-cc. flask. Run 5 to 7 cc. of subacetate of lead solution of 54.3° Brix (ii07) into the flask before washing in the pulp, and then thoroughly mix with the latter. Add several small portions of ether to beat down the foam. Rotate the flask to facilitate the escape of the air-bubbles. Add a few drops of acetic acid to acidulate the solution, complete the volume to the graduation, mix, filter, and polarize, using a 400-mm. observation-tube. The polariscopic reading is the per cent sucrose in the beet. With the Laurent instrument, use the normal weight of pulp and a flask graduated to hold 200.85 cc. The polariscopic reading, > Sucrerit Beige ^ 585, 2451 273, 309. 68 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. using a 400-mm. observation-tube, is the per cent sucrose in the beet. Success with this method demands (i) that the pulp shall be in a suitable state of division, neither too coarse nor too fine; (2) that no more pulp shall be used than indicated in the description of the method. If there be difficulty in removing the air occluded by the pulp, notwithstanding repeated additions of ether, the pulp is too fine. This may be remedied by altering the speed of the rasp. The occluded air is the source of error that requires greatest care to avoid. Kaiser-Sachs Modification. — This method and the Sachs- Le Docte modification practically eliminate errors from the Pellet instantaneous diffusion method. Use flasks holding a little more than 200 cc. Also use the same quantities of pulp as indicated in the description of the original Pellet method. Run 5 cc. of subacetate of lead solution into the flask, then counterpoise the flask and contents on a balance. Wash the pulp into a flask and add sufficient water to make a total of 172 grams of water. Mix thor- oughly, filter, and polarize the solution in a 400-mm. tube. The polariscopic reading is the per cent of sucrose in the beet. According to Pellet, acetic acid should always be added. This agrees with the author's experience. Sachs-Le Docte. — This method, which is fully described on page 181, differs from the above in adding the water and subacetate of lead from an overflow or automatic pipette. This insures a very accurate measurement, with extreme rapidity. The finest attainable pulp should be used with both the Sachs-Le Docte and the Kaiser-Sachs methods. 03. Determination of the KecliiciDg- Sugar in the Beet. — Herzf eld's Modification of Claassen's Method. — Digest no grams of finely divided pulp, or preferably creamed pulp, in a 500-cc. flask with 10 to 15 cc. of dilute subacetate of lead solution, 3 grams of precipitated carbon- ate of calcium, and suflBcient water to nearly fill the flask. Digest 45 minutes at a temperature of 75° to 80° C. Cool and complete the volume to 500 cc, mix, and filter. If necessary, clarify 100 cc. of the filtrate with an additional ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 69 portion of subacetate of lead ; add carbonate of sodium in small excess to precipitate the lead, dilute to no cc, and filter. Determine the reducing sugar in the filtrate by one of the methods given in 72 and 73. The percentage of reducing substance in the beet is so small that no correc- tion need be made for the volume of the marc. 64. Notes on the Direct Methods of Analysis. — With the exception of Scheibler's alcoholic method, it is necessary to make an arbitrary allowance for the volume of the marc in the direct analysis of the beet. Pellet has based this allowance upon the mean of a large number of marc determinations, made under practically the conditions which obtain in his cold diffusion method. The error intro- duced through an arbitrary allowance for marc is very small, and even in extreme cases may be neglected. There should be no delay in the analysis of the pulp. As soon as it is obtained it should be thoroughly mixed and protected from the air. 65. Rasps and Mills for the Reduction of the Beet. — The Cylindro-divider, Keil (Gallois and Dupont, Paris). — This machine, Fig. 36, as indicated by its name, consists esssentially of two deeply grooved cylinders which revolve in opposite directions. Nearly all of the pulp adheres to the cylinders, but little dropping into the drawer. The particles which fall, if too large, should be returned to the mill and the grinding should be continued until the pulp is uniformly divided. The mill should be driven at 120 revolutions per minute, either by hand or power. Should the beets be unripe or unsound, the juice may separate and collect in the drawer. In this event, the pulp, when fine enough, should be removed from the cylinders and thoroughly mixed with this juice. The pulp will absorb the juice, and may then be sampled as usual. This mill is designed for grinding cossettes and fragments of beets, and produces a pulp which may be analyzed by Pellet's instantaneous method. Pellet and LomonVs Conical Rasp. — This machine as illus- trated in Figs. 31,32, and 33 is fitted with saw-blades and is not applicable in the instantaneous diffusion method. The 70 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAK-HOUSE CHEMISTS. machine is also constructed with a cast-steel disk, which may be briefly described as a rotary file as cut for rasping wood. Fig. 36. This form is applicable in the above-mentioned diffusion method. A little practice is necessary in the manipulation of this and certain other rasps in order to produce a suitable pulp. Neveti and Aubin^s Rasp.^ — This rasp may be used in the * Bulletin de r Association des CUimistes, 13, 31 ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 71 reduction of beets, but not cossettes, to an extremely fine pulp for use in any of the direct methods of analysis or in the indirect method. The construction of the machine is shown in Fig. 37. It is driven by hand or power from 75 to 400 revolutions per minute. Fig 37. Additional rasps, designed especially for use in seed selection, are described in IGO and 1 (>1 . 66. Indirect Analysis of the Beet.— The indirect analysis, i.e., the analysis of the juice and calculation to terms of the weight of the beets, cannot be depended upon to supply data for the control of the factory. In order tb calculate the analysis of the beet from that of the juice, it is necessary to assume that the juice extracted by the press is of the same composition as the average of all the juice contained in the beet. Experience has shown that this is 72 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. not true, and that the juice obtained by moderate pressure differs materially from that obtained by heavy pressure. It also varies with the state of division of the pulp. There is also reason to believe that the beet contains water in which there is little, if any, sugar in solution. Further, in order to render an indirect method practicable, it is necessary to assume that the beet contains an average of a certain percentage of juice, and employ this percentage as a coefficient in reducing to terms of the beet. The fact Fig. 38. that the content of marc varies within rather wide limits is an argument against this method of analysis. The indirect method is still employed in a large number of sugar-houses, hence is described in this book. The following is the usual method of procedure : The sample is finely rasped by a suitable machine, such as a special rasp or an efficient horseradish grater. The pulp is placed in a small cotton bag and the juice is ex- AKALYSIS OF THE BEET. •?$ pressed by means of a powerful press, such as that shown in Fig. 38. In operating the press as heavy pressure as possible is exerted by turning the upper wheel, then locking with the ratchet as shown in the figure, and completing the expression of the juice by means of the lower wheel. This press exerts a maximum pressure of nearly 2000 lbs. per square inch. In order to closely approximate the true mean composi- tion of the juice, it is essential that the pulp be very finely divided and that as much pressure be exerted in expressing the juice as is practicable. The analysis is made as indicated in 07 et seq. In the indirect analysis, it is customary to assume that the beet contains a mean of 95 per cent of juice ; therefore to calculate the percentage to terms of the weight of the beet, multiply the per cents on the weight of the juice by 95 and divide by 100. This method permits an approximate determination of the coefficient of purity of the juice which is not possible with a direct method and which is often of value. 74 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHExMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 67. Determination of the Density.— The density is usually determined by means of a Brix spindle. The degree Brix may be converted into terms of the specific gravity for use in calculating the weight of the juice by means of the table, page 275 ; or a Baume spindle may be used and the readings converted into Brix and specific gravity by the above-mentioned table. A cylinder is filled with a sample of the juice and is set aside for the escape of air-bubbles and to permit mechani- cal impurities to subside or rise to the surface. This time varies from a few minutes to half an hour. Care must be observed not to let the juice stand long enough for fermen- tation to set in. Those impurities which rise to the surface should be brushed off, and the spindle then floated in the juice. After allowing sufficient time for the spindle to reach the temperature of the juice, the scale is read as directed in 55 and illustrated in Fig. 26, and the tempera- ture of the juice is noted. To correct for temperatures above or below 17^° C, the standard temperature at which these instruments are usually graduated in Germany and the United States, con- sult the table on page 282. It is advisable that the tem- perature of the juice when spindling be as nearly 17^° C. as practicable. It is necessary that the density be determined with great care, since the result obtained is employed in calculating the weight of the juice at an important stage of the control work. Other methods of determining the density are indicated in pages 55 to 61. 68. Sucrose Determination . Special Pipette for Measurements.— The method of preserving the samples will, to some extent, influence the preliminary work of the analysis. ANALYSIS OF THE J DICK 75 The method of analysis indicated in 69 is usually more convenient when subacetate of lead is used as a preservative. If, however, mercuric chloride be employed in the sampling, the special pipette devised by the author is convenient, since the polariscopic reading is a multiple of the per- centage of sucrose. This pipette is shown in Fig. 39. It is so gradu- ated that one need simply note the degree Brix of the juice, then fill the pipette to the corresponding degree marked on its stem. The graduations in- dicate the volume of juice, of corresponding den- sities, which weighs 52.096 grams, i.e., two times the normal weight. The pipettes are usually graduated for ordi- nary work from 5 to 25 degrees Brix in tenths. It is recommended that, for control work, the pipettes be graduated with only a small range on each, and that there be an additional graduation as shown in the figure. The tubing should be of small internal diameter that the tenths may be the more easily read. The pipette as ordinarily made, without the additional mark near the outlet, should be graduated with a solution of approximately the viscosity of a sugar solution, of the mean de- gree Brix within the limits of the scale. One should not blow into the pipette while emptying it, nor should the last portions of the juice be expelled in this way. To calculate the percentage of sucrose, divide the polariscopic reading, with the German instru- ments, by 2. Pipettes for the Laurent instrument are graduated to deliver three times the normal weight (3 X 16.29 grams), hence the reading should be divided by 3. The juice should be measured at the temperature at which the degree Brix was determined. 69. Sucrose in tlie Juice . General Metliod. — When the test is not complicated by the use of a liquid preservative, the measurement may /\ / ^6 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. be effected in a loo-iio cc. flask. To lOO cc. of the juice, sub- acetate of lead is added and the volume is completed to the no cc. mark with water. The percentage of sucrose is ascertained from the polariscope reading, and the degree Brix, with aid of Schmitz' table, page 285. Method Employing Subacetate of Lead Solution as a Pre- servative — This method is applicable in preparing a composite sample representing a day's work. A measured volume of the lead solution is used, and at the end of the sampling period the sample, containing the lead, is measured and sufficient water is added to complete the volume to no per cent, of the juice. The method and calculations are best illustrated by the following exaniple: Degree Brix of the juice as determined in duplicate sam- ples = 12.2. Measure the day's sample, plus the lead sub- acetate solution, subtract the number of cubic centimetres of the lead solution, and calculate the water to be added as shown below: Volume of juice and lead solution. . . . 3750 cc. Volume of lead solution 75 " Volume of juice 3675 " Ten per cent of volume of juice = one tenth of 3675 = 367.5 cc. ' Volume of lead solution = 75 " Volume of water required = 292.5 '* The total volume, i.e., 3750 -|- 292.5 = 4042.5 cc. = iio per cent of the volume of the juice (3675 cc). Having diluted the juice and lead solution to 4042.5 cc, mix and filter off a few cubic centimetres, and polarize in a 20-centimetre tube: Polariscopic reading = 38.3. In Schmitz' table, in the column headed 12, the nearest degree Brix to the observed degree, and opposite 38, the integral part of the polariscopic reading, note the number 10.36; in the small table at the bottom of the page, opposite .3, the decimal part of the polariscopic reading, note the number .08, and add this to the number obtained above for ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 77 the completed percentage: 10.36 + .08 = 10.44, t^^ P^*" ^^^^ sucrose in the juice. Method Employing Dry Subacetate of Lead (Home's Method). — The storage and preservation of composite samples of juice and their subsequent analysis are greatly facilitated by Home's dry subacetate of lead method. This method was designed priinarily to eliminate the error arising from the displacement of a part of the solution by the lead precipitate; it not only accomplishes this end, but also greatly facilitates the analytical work by obviating the necessity of measurements. For ordinary analytical purposes with juices, a small quantity of finely powdered anhydrous subacetate of lead is added to an indefinite volume of juice and the whole is thoroughly mixed by shaking. It is usually advisable to add also a small quantity of dry sharp sand with the lead. The sand is for the purpose of breaking up any portion of the imperfectly precipitated impurities that may be occluded by a coating of lead precipitate. After thorough shaking, the mixture is poured upon a filter and the filtrate is polarized as usual. The per cent, sucrose is ascer- tained by dividing the observed reading of the polariscope by i.i and using the quotient in connection with Schmitz table, page 285, In this and similar calculations, the uncorrected degree Brix or the degree Brix at the temperature of the sucrose test, is used. Manifestly the use of a table or extended calculation could be avoided in this method, by measuring a portion of the filtrate with a sucrose pipette as in 68, but the table is usually the more convenient. Dr. Home's method is especially convenient in the preparation of composite samples of juices. A quantity of the dry lead estimated to be sufficient to defecate the entire sample, is placed in a jar or large bottle. A measured quantity of the juice is drawn from each measuring-tankful and added to this lead. The contents of the jar should be thoroughly mixed after each addition. The analysis is conducted as has been described above. 70. Notes on the Clarification of Samples for Polarization. — Too little subacetate of lead solution or a decided excess in the clarification may result in cloudy fil- trates, or solutions which filter too slowly. Experience will soon enable one to estimate the proper amount of the lead solution to use. Sufficient of the lead nalt must be used, not 78 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. only to produce a clear filtrate, but to precipitate all the matter precipitable by this reagent. This is essential, since the beet contains other optically active bodies than sucrose (36). 71. Remarks on the Reducing Sugars in Beet Products. — Beet juices and products, under normal con- ditions, do not usually contain more than traces of reducing sugars. There is a reducing substance present in small quantity, however, of which little is known. It is usually termed " Bodenbender's substance," from the name of the chemist who first reported its presence. There is little probability of inversion in the processes of manufacture, except at the diffusion-battery, since the liquors are always more or less alkaline. There is probably rarely any inver- sion in the diffusion process, except during very irregular work or in treating unsound beets. In view of these facts, the beet-sugar chemist is not often called upon to make reducing sugar determinations, except in the estimation of sucrose by the chemical inversion method. The methods of estimating reducing sugars are given quite fully in the following pages, for use in any work in which chemical methods may be required. 72. Determination of Reducing Sugars (Glu- cose, etc.). Gravimetric Methods.— In selecting a method for reducing sugars, the analyst should be guided by the probable composition of the material under examination. Gravimetric Method for Material containing I percent or less of Invert-sugar ' and a High Percentage of Sucrose. — Dis- solve 20 grams of the material in nearly loocc. of water. If necessary, clarify with subacetate of lead {see 74), precipi- tate the excess of lead by means of sodium carbonate in small excess, complete the volume to lOocc, mix thoroughly and filter. This clarification is usually advisable. Place 50 cc. of Soxhlet's solution (192) in a beaker and add 50 cc. of the sugar solution. Heat slowly, taking about four minutes to reach the boiling-point, and boil two minutes. These directions should be strictly complied with. After the completion of the two minutes' boiling add 100 cc. of cold re- ^ The reducinff sugar of the beet and beet products is probably the re- sult of inversion of sucrose. The methods described for invert-sugar are applicable. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 79 cently boiled distilled water. Determine the copper, in the precipitate, by one of the following methods : (i) Filter im- mediately under pressure, using the filter-tube described below. The filter-tube, Fig. 40, consists of a 6-inch hard glass tube about | inch in diameter, into one end of which is sealed a tube about 3 inches long and of con- ^venient size for inserting into the stopper of the .filtering apparatus such as that shown in Fig. 49. A perforated platinum disk A, A' is sealed into the bottom of the large tube as a support for an as- bestos felt filter. To prepare the tube for filter- ing, place it in position in the stopper of the fil- tering apparatus, start the filter-pump, then pour water containing finely divided asbestos in suspen- sion upon the disk. The asbestos forms a film or felt; dry and weigh. Moisten the felt before commencing the filtration. A funnel should be used in pouring the liquid and precipitate into the filter-tiibe, to prevent the cuprous oxide from adhering to the walls of the tube, near the top. F'g- 40. Transfer all of the precipitate to the filter and wash thoroughly with hot water. After washing with water pass a few cc. of alcohol through the filter and finally a little ether. 'Dry the precipitate. Pass a continuous current of pure, dry hydrogen through the tube, at the same time gently heating the cuprous oxide, with a Bunsen burner, until it is completely reduced to the metallic state; cool in a current of hydrogen and weigh. (2) Filter immediately after the reduction is completed, using a Gooch crucible. Wash the beaker and precipitate thoroughly with hot water, but without any effort to transfer the entire precipitate to the crucible. Wash the asbestos film and the adhering cuprous oxide back into the beaker, using hot dilute nitric acid. After the copper is all in solution, filter through a Gooch crucible, using a very thin asbestos film, and wash thoroughly with hot water. Add 10 cc. of dilute sulphuric acid, containing 200 cc. acid of 1.84 specific gravity, per litre, to the filtrate and evaporate it until the copper salt has largely crystallized. Heat care- fully on a hot iron plate or a sand-bath until the evolution 80 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. of white fumes. Add 8 to lo drops of nitric acid, specific gravity 1.42, and rinse into a platinum dish of 100 to 125 cc. capacity. Precipitate the copper on the dish by electrolysis. Wash the copper thoroughly with water before breaking the current ; remove the dish from the circuit, wash with alcohol and ether successively, and dry at a temperature that can easily be borne by the hand, cool and weigh. A beaker may be substituted for the platinum dish, the copper being deposited upon a platinum cylinder. When a direct current is used in lighting the sugar-house, it is the most convenient source of electricity for the deposi- tion of the copper. The current must be passed through a resistance or regulator in addition to the lamp. A convenient and durable regulator is shown in Fig. 41. C is a glass tube partly filled with water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid ; the wire A connects with a platinum wire sealed into the tube ; ^ is a glass tube through which a copper wire extends and connects with a platinum wire E sealed into this tube. The tube B may be slipped up or down, thus regulating the distance between the wires E and A and regulating the current. The twin wire M\s separated, severed, and one end, Z>, connected with the platinum dish in which the copper is to be deposited, and the other with the regulator i5, thence through the acidulated water and A with the platinum cylinder f\ suspended in the copper solution. II (3) Collect the suboxide in a weighed Gooch crucible, wash as indicated in (3), following the water first with a little alcohol, then with a few drops of ether. Place the crucible in a water oven and dry 30 minutes. Weight of suboxide of copper X -888 = weight of copper reduced. Fig. 41. Having determined the weight of copper reduced by one of the above-described methods, ascertain from ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 81 Herzfeld's table the per cent of invert-sugar corresponding to the weight of copper. Herzfeld's Table for the Determination of Invert- sugar IN Materials Containing i Per Cent or Less OF Invert-sugar and a High Percentage of Sucrose. Copper Copper Copper reduced by lo Grams Invert- Sugar. reduced by 10 Grams Invert- reduced by 10 Grams Invert- of of sugar, of sugar. Material. Material. Material. Milligrams. Per Cent, Milligrams. Per Cent. Milligrams. Per Cent. 50 0.05 120 0.40 190 0.79 55 0.07 125 0.43 195 0.82 60 0.09 130 0.45 200 0.85 65 O.II 135 0.48 205 0.88 70 0.14 140 0.51 210 0.90 75 0.16 145 0.53 215 0.93 80 0.19 150 0.56 220 0.96 85 0.21 155 0.59 225 0.99 90 0.24 160 0.62 230 1.02 95 0.27 165 0.65 235 1.05 100 0.30 170 0.68 240 1.07 105 0.32 175 0.71 245 1. 10 110 0.35 180 0.74 115 0.38 185 0.76 Gravimetric Method for Materials containing more than I Per Cent of Invert-sugar. — Prepare a solution of the material to l)e examined, in such a manner that it contains 20 grams in 100 cc. ; clarify and remove the excess of lead with a small excess of sodium carbonate {see 74). Prepare a series ef solutions in large test-tubes by adding i, 2, 3, 4, etc., cc. of this solution successively. Add 5 cc. of the Soxhlel solution (192) to each, heat to boiling, boil two minutes and filter. Note the volume of sugar solution that gives the filtrate lightest in tint but still distinctly blue. PJace twenty times this volume of the solution in a loo-cc. flask, dilute to the mark and mix well. Use 50 cc. of this solution for the determination, which is conducted as under the preceding method, for materials containing i per cent or less of invert-sugar, until the weight of copper is 82 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. obtained. For the calculation of the result use the follow- ing formulae and table of factors of Meissl and Hiller: Let Cu = the weight of copper obtained; P = the polarization of the sample; IV = the weight of the sample in the 50 cc. of the solution used for the determination; F= the factor obtained from the table for conver- sion of copper to invert-sugar; — = approximate absolute weight of invert-sugar = Z; 100 Z X -zzr = approximate per cent of invert-sugar =_y; fV looP „ , . , , -— = J?, relative number for sucrose; P + y 100 — P = /, relative number for invert-sugar; CuP W = per cent of invert-sugar. Z facilitates reading the vertical columns; and the ratio P to /, the horizontal columns of the table, for the purpose of finding the factor, P, for the calculation of the copper to invert-sugar. Example. — The polarization of the sugar is 86.4, and 3.256 grams of it, W, are equivalent to 0.290 gram of copper. Then Cu .200 ^ „ 100 100 ^ X ;^ = . 145 X^;^^ = 4.45 =>•; I OOP _ 8640 _ _ Jh=7~ 86.4+ 4.45 ~^^*'~ ' 100 — p = 100 — 95.1 = /= 4.9; ^: 7=95.1 :4.9. By consulting the table it will be seen that 150 mg. in the vertical column are nearest the value of Z, 145 mg., and ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 83 the horizontal column headed 95 : 5 is nearest the ratio R to /, 95.1:4.9. Where these columns meet we find the factor 51.2 which enters into the final calculation: CuF W .290 X 5 1-2 3.256 4.56 per cent of invert-sugar. MEISSL AND KILLER'S FACTORS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MORE THAN 1 PER CENT OF INVERT SUGAR. Ratio of Sucrose to Invert-sugar = R'.I. Approximate Absolute Weight of Invert-sugar = Z. 200 Milligr. 175 Milligr. 150 Milligr. 125 Milligr. 100 Milligr. 75 Milligr. 50 Milligr. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. 0:100 56.4 55.4 54.5 53.8 53.2 53.0 53.0 10:90 56.3 55.3 54.4 53.8 53.2 52.9 52.9 20:80 .56.2 55.2 54.3 53.7 53.2 52.7 52.7 30:70 56.1 55.1 54.2 53.7 53.2 52.6 52.6 40:60 55.9 55.0 54.1 53.6 53.1 52.5 52.4 50:50 55.7 54.9 54.0 53.5 53.1 52.3 52.2 60:40 55.6 54.7 53.8 53.2 52.8 52.1 51.9 70 : 30 55.5 54.5 53.5 52.9 52.5 51.9 51.6 80:20 55.4 54.3 53.3 52.7 52.2 51.7 51.3 90:10 54.6 53.6 53.1 52.6 52.1 51.6 51.2 91 :9 54.1 53.6 52.6 52.1 51.6 51.2 50.7 92:8 53.6 53.1 52.1 51.6 51.2 50.7 50.3 93:7 53.6 53.1 52.1 51.2 50.7 50.3 49.8 94:6 53.1 52.6 51.6 50.7 50.3 49.8 48.9 95:5 52.6 52.1 51.2 50 3 49.4 48.9 48.5 96:4 52.1 51.2 50.7 49.8 48.9 47.7 46.9 97:3 50.7 50.3 49 8 48.9 47.7 46.2 45.1 98:2 49.9 48.9 48.5 47.3 45.8 43.3 40.0 99:1 47.7 47.3 46.5 45.1 43.3 41.2 38.1 The above methods have been taken, with a few changes in the wording and with additions, from Bulletin No. 46, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Gravimetric Method using SoIda'inV s Solution.'^ — Place 100 to 150 cc. of Soldaini's solution (103) in an Erlenmeyer Traits d'' Analyse des Matiires Sucrdes^ D. Sidersky, p. 148. 84 HANDHOOK FOR SUGAU-HOUSE CHEMISTS. flask; boil five minutes; add a solution containing lo grams of the material previously clarified with subacetate of lead, if necessary, the excess of lead being removed with small excess of carbonate of sodium {see 74); boil five minutes. In boiling always use the naked flame. Having completed the reduction, remove the flask from the flame and add loo cc. cold distilled water. Filter immediately through a Gooch crucible and determine the copper in the precipitate by the electrolytic method, or collect the precipitate in a filter-tube, Fig. 40, and reduce in hydrogen. These methods are described on page 79. The weight of metallic copper X 0.3546 -i- weight of the material used in the determination X 100 = per cent invert- sugar. It is claimed that this method is very exact and that invert-sugar can be determined to within .01 per cent with certainty. 73. Deteriiiiiiatioii of Reducing Sugars (Glu- cose, etc.). Volumetric Methods.—^ Modification of Violette's Method. — This is the rapid method used very generally in cane-sugar-houses. If always conducted under the same conditions as to dilution, method, and time of heating, the results are approximately correct and are comparable with one another. Take a definite weight of the juice, a multiple of 5 grams is most convenient, varying this quantity with the amount of reducing sugar present, clarify with subacetate of lead, precipitate the excess of lead with small excess of carbon- ate of sodium {see 74), and dilute to 100 cc; mix and filter. A sufficient quantity of the juice should be taken, if prac- ticable, to give a reading on the burette of approximately 20 cc. in the titration to be described. In seed selection, as will be explained, it is unnecessary to adhere strictly to these specifications, but in using this method with other products they should, as far as practicable, be complied with. It is convenient in this work to use an automatic, zero burette, in measuring the copper solution. Such a burette as designed by Squibb is shown in Fig. 42. This burette is filled by suction, as with a pipette, applying the suc- tion at the mouthpiece shown at the end of the rubber ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 85 tube. The reagent is drawn into the burette to a point a little above the zero mark, the mouthpiece is then released and the liquid siphons back into the reservoir, leaving the burette filled to exactly zero. A wash-bottle containing caustic soda solution should be connected with the air-inlet near the reservoir to prevent the entrance of carbonic acid. This is one of the most conven- ient of the many forms of auto- matic burettes. These burettes may be used with advantage in nearly all the measurements required in volumetric analysis, in the sugar-house laboratory. Measure lo cc. of Violette's modification of Fehling solution (195) into a large thin glass test-tube, 1.5 X 9 inches and di- lute it with an equal volume of water. If the alkaline copper re- agent be prepared with the cop- per in one solution and the alkali in a second, use 10 cc. of each solution and omit the addition of the 10 cc. of water. Heat the reagent in the tube, over the naked flame of a lamp, to the boiling-point, then add a few cubic centimetres of the sugar solution, and boil two minutes. A sand-glass is convenient for use in timing the boiling. Repeat these operations until the blue color almost disappears, taking care to add the juice very gradually as this point is approached. After the first boiling, it is only necessary to boil the liquid a few seconds each time. Now add the juice, a drop or two at a time, until the blue color disappears. Filter off a small portion of the liquid, using a Wiley or Wiley-Knorr filter- tube, and proceed as described farther on. Fig. 42. S6 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Wiley's filter-tubes, Fig. 43, a, are made from glass tubing about one fourth inch in diameter and about ten inches in length. One end of the tube is softened in the flame of a lamp and then pressed against a block of wood to form a shoulder ; a piece of washed linen is stretched over this end and is held in place by means of a strong thread. In using these tubes the filter end is dipped into water in which very finely divided asbestos is sus- pended, and by suction, with the mouth, the cloth is covered with a film of this substance. Knorr's modification of these tubes is very convenient, and is preferred by many chem- ists. These filter-tubes, Fig. 43, <^, are of small diameter and are tipped with platinum-foil. The asbestos is applied as with the Wiley tubes. With the Wiley filter, the filtrate must be poured from the tube ; with the Knorr tube, the liquid is expelled through the platinum tip, after wiping off the asbes- tos with a cloth. These tubes should be dipped in dilute acid after use, then thor- oughly washed. Many chemists prefer to remove a drop of the solution and place it on a piece of quan- titative filter -paper. The precipitate re- mains in the centre of the moistened spot with the filtered solution around it. A drop of ferrocyanide of potassium solution acidu- lated with acetic acid is placed adjacent to the first drop. There will be a coloration where the two solutions touch one another if there be still copper in solution. If a portion of the solution be filtered off in one of the tubes above described, pour it into a few drops of acetic acid, to acidity, in a depression in a white porcelain test-plate ; the acid discharges the color from tha solution and neutralizes the alkali of the Violette's solution. Add a drop of* a dilute solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. Fig. 43. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 87 yellow prussiate of potash ; a brown coloration shows the copper has not all been reduced, and that more juice must be added. The juice must be added very carefully as the test reaction diminishes in intensity, until finally all the copper is reduced, there being no further brown colora- tion. The burette reading is now made. It is advisable to make a preliminary test to guide in the dilution of the juice and to show within a few tenths of a cubic centimetre the volume of juice required for the re- duction of the copper, and then add nearly all the sugar solution at one time in a final test. A porcelain dish may be substituted for the large test- tube, but on account of the small surface exposed for evaporation, the latter is preferred. Calculations. W = the weight of juice in i cc. of the solution ; B = the burette reading ; D . A • 0-05 X loo Per cent reducing sugar = x = . rr /\ Jj When ^ is .05 gram the formula reduces to jc = — H or j; = reciprocal of the burette reading multiplied by 100. A table of reciprocals is given on page 294 to simplify these calculations. If a multiple of 5 grams of juice be diluted to 100 cc. for this determination, the reciprocal of the burette reading multiplied by 100 is the same multiple of the percent of re- ducing sugar. If 5 grams in 100 cc. should prove a too-concentrated solu- tion, dilute to 200, 300, etc., and multiply 100 times the reciprocal of the burette reading by 2, 3, etc. If 5 cc. or a multiple of 5 cc. of juice be used for the an- alysis, the above-mentioned method of calculation may be employed, but the value of x must be divided by the spe- cific gravity of the juice to reduce it to terms of the weight of the juice. On account of the very small percentage of reducing sugar in beet-juices a much higher burette reading than 20 cc. may be necessary, even using the undiluted juice; fur- ther, for the same reason, it may be necessary to use only 88 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 5 cc. of Violette's solution. It is preferable in such cases to use a gravimetric method. The accurate determination of reducing sugar by this method requires rapid work and considerable practice. Sidersky's Volumetric Method, using Soldaini's Sohition} Standardize the Soldaini solution by means of a solution of invert-sugar containing 5 grams of the reducing sugars per litre. Proceed as in 73, except that the end reaction is judged by the disappearance of the blue color instead of by the ferrocyanide test. The method described in 73 is probably applicable, though Sidersky was guided solely by the disappearance of the blue color. This method has the advantage of freedom from the source of error, due to the presence of sucrose, in the older method of Violette. For highly colored products, such as molasses, etc., Sidersky has modified his method as fol- lows: Dissolve 25 grams of the material in water, add suf- ficient subacetate of lead for clarification {see 74), dilute to 200 cc, mix and filter. To 100 cc. of the filtrate add 25 cc. of a concentrated solution of sodium carbonate, mix and filter; of this filtrate use 100 cc, corresponding to 10 grams of the material, for the reduction. Boil 100 cc. of Soldalni's solution five minutes in a flask over a naked flame, then add the sugar solution, little by little, continuing the heat- ing an additional five minutes. Remove the flask, add 100 cc. cold distilled water, and collect the precipitate upon an asbestos felt in a Gooch crucible, with the assistance of a filter-pump. Wash the precipitate with hot water until the wash-waters are no longer alkaline. Three or four washings are usually sufficient. Wash the cuprous oxide into an Erlenmeyer flask and add 25 cc. normal sulphuric acid (199) and two or three crystals of chlorate of potas- sium, then heat gently until the cuprous oxide is completely dissolved. Titrate the solution with a standard alkali solution (201), determine by diff^erence the volume of the acid saturated, and from this the amount of copper re- duced. It is preferable to use a half-normal solution of ammonia (201) for this titration, letting the sulphate of copper act as an indicator. Check the ammonia solution * Train d' Analyse des Matures Sucrees, D. Sidersky, p. 150. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 89 against the normal sulphuric acid, using 2 cc. of a concen- trated solution of sulphate of copper as an indicator to 25 cc. of the ammonia. Continue the addition of the acid until the blue color disappears. In making the titration proceed as follows: Cool the sulphate of copper solution, resulting from the treatment of the cuprous oxide with the normal sulphuric acid and chlorate of potassium, add 50 cc. half-normal ammonia solu- tion and titrate back with the normal sulphuric acid. The blue color disappears with each addition of the acid, but re- appears on stirring the solution so long as any unsaturated ammonia remains. When all the ammonia is saturated the color of the solution is no longer blue, but a faint green. Note the burette reading. Each cc. of the sulphuric acid is equivalent to .0317 gram of copper. Multiply the weight of copper by .3546, Bodenbender and Scheller's factor, to obtain the weight of reducing sugar (invert-sugar), or multiply the burette reading by .1124 to obtain the per cent reducing sugar. Volumetric Permanganate Method.^ The saccharine strength of the solution should be approximately one per cent. The solution should be clarified as usual, and the excess of lead removed (74). Ten cubic centimetres of this solution are placed in a porcelain dish with a consider- able excess of copper solution (102). If the saccharine solution contain no sucrose, heat to the boiling-point and maintain this temperature until the reducing sugar is oxi- dized. When sucrose is present the temperature should not exceed 80° C, and the heating should be continued longer than at the higher temperature. There should be enough of the copper solution used to maintain a strong blue coloration at the end of the reaction. Ervin E. EwelP advises using the following modification of the method of determining the weight of copper reduced: Collect the precipitate on asbestos in a Gooch crucible, with the as- sistance of a filter-pump, and wash thoroughly with hot recently boiled distilled water. Transfer the asbestos, with * Principles and Practice 0/ Agricultural Analysis^ H, W. Wiley, 3, 134- » Op. cit.y 136. 90 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. as much of the precipitate as possible, to the beaker in which the precipitation was made, beat it up with 25 to 30 cc. of hot recently boiled distilled water, and add from 50 to 75 cc. of a saturated solution of ferric sulphate in 20 per cent sul- phuric acid; pour this solution through the crucible to dis- solve adhering portions of the cuprous oxide. The precipi- tate must be well beaten up with the water to break all large lumps or there may be difficulty in effecting solution with the ferric salt. After the solution is complete, titrate with per- manganate of potassium of such strength that i cc. is equiv- alent to .01 gram of copper (203), or decinormal perman- ganate solution (202) may be used. In addition to stand- ardizing the permanganate solution with metallic iron or oxalic acid, as is usual for general purposes, it should be standardized, for this method, by titrations with copper, reduced by solutions of invert-sugar which have been stand- ardized by the gravimetric method (72). The invert-sugar value of I cc. of the permanganate solution is thus ascer- tained for use in calculating the percentage of reducing sugar in the material. Ewell's modification of the permanganate method of determining the amount of reduced copper, is also recom- mended for use in the methods in 72, 74. Notes on the Deterniiiiation of Reducing Sng"ars. — Edson, Pellet and other chemists have shown that a part of the reducing substances in certain sugar- house products is precipitated by subacetate of lead, but not at all or to a very small extent with the normal acetate. Edson advises that the solutions be acidulated with acetic acid before filtering oft" the lead precipitate, and finds that acidulation practically obviates this source of error. The author's experience confirms Edson's observations. Born- trSger ' states that sodium sulphate is preferable to sodium carbonate for the precipitation of the excess of lead. Ac- cording to his experiments, an excess of the sulphate is less objectionable than of the carbonate. The carbonate is almost exclusively used by sugar-house chemists for the removal of the excess of lead. * Zeit, Angew. Chem., 1892, 333. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 91 75. Determination of the A^\\,— Sulp hated Ash.— )ty lo grams of the juice in a tared platinum dish. Add a drops of concentrated sulphuric acid to moisten the ndue, and heat over the flame of a lamp or in a muffle at redness until the organic matter is charred, then in- ;ase the temperature to bright redness and heat until all le carbon is consumed. In the event of too high a tem- srature, the ash will melt and thus may vitiate the results. The ash so obtained is termed the " sulphated ash," since ertain of the mineral constituents are converted into llphates by the acids. It is estimated that the average icrease in the weight of the ash, due to the formation of mlphates instead of carbonates, is lo per cent, hence a >rrection of one tenth is customary to reduce the sulphated fcSh to terms of the normal or carbonated ash. Calculation. — Weight of ash X 9 = per cent normal ash. tt is usually more convenient to measure lo cc. of the juice lan to weigh lo grams. In such cases calculate as follows : Weight of sulphated ash X 9 Specific gravity of the juice The above method of incineration 1$ usually employed, since there is isually difficulty in the direct inciner- don of saccharine materials. Normal Ash. — The normal or car- bonated ash may be obtained by Bey- er's method, as follows : Dry lo grams, or lo cc, of the juice in a platinum dish, then heat carefully to caramelize the sugar, but not enough to char it; add 2 cc. benzoic acid solution, 25 grams benzoic acid in 100 cc. of 90 ^ alcohol, and warm gently to expel the alcohol. Char the sugar at a low heat, at the same time volatilizing the acid ; incinerate at a low red heat. The ash consists largely of alkaline carbonates, which, on exposure to the air, quickly absorb moisture. Cool the ash in a desiccator and weigh quickly. per cent normal ash. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. [;■ Fig. 46. 1 4. 1 T i 1 1 ©' ... — , 92 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. The weight of the ash -r- the weight of the juice X loo = per cent ash. The following described muffle, devised by Schweitzer and Lungwitz,^ is effective, and may be cheaply constructed for sugar purposes. In a French clay muffle a narrow slot is cut the length of the bottom, Fig. 44, a, b ; holes are drilled in the walls atr, , driven by a toy engine, or other suit- able means, agitates the air inside the oven and insures a strictly uniform temperature in all parts. The drying-bottles. A, are connected by means of short tubes with a central vacuum-pipe, JS, which is in turn con- nected with an ordinary filter-pump or the third pan of the triple-effect. Each bottle may be removed by closing the cock G without disturbing the others. A small trap, //, of glass, shown also in detail at the right of the oven, pre- vents any moisture which may condense in the tubes from falling back into the bottle. The following procedure is advised : Place a quantity of small fragments of pumice-stone suflScient to absorb 5 cc. of juice, in a weighing-bottle, dry in the oven, cool, insert the glass stopper and weigh ; distribute a definite weight of the juice, approximately 5 grams, upon the pumice-stone. Insert the stopper, provided with the trap, in the bottle, and connect with the vacuum-pipe. A vacuum of 20 inches is usually all that is required, and in fact is preferable to a higher vacuum. The drying is usually complete in one hour; it is advisable to dry to a practically constant weight, weighing at intervals of one hour or more as may be con- venient. The calculations are made as in the preceding meihod. This apparatus may also be used for drying in an inert gaa. The per cent total solids by the spindle, the degree Brix, and the per cent total solids by drying, are employed in calculating the purity coeflScients or quotients (106). 78. Acidity of the Juice. — The normal juice of the beet and the diffusion-juice are always acid. This acidity is due to a number of organic acids. It is not often neces- sary to determine the acidity of the juice. This determi- nation is made by a titration with a decinormal alkali solution (201). It is somewhat difficult to determine the end reaction, since the color of the juice obscures the color of the indicator to some extent. Phenolphthalein is usually Employed as the indicator. Collier recommended the 96 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. use of logwood solution as an indicator in determining the acidity of sugar-cane juices, and in the author's experience it has been satisfactory. The acidity may be expressed in terms of the number of cubic centimetres of normal alkali solution required to neu- tralize the juice or, for comparative purposes, more conven- iently as cubic centimetres of normal alkali per loo grams of sucrose or lOO degrees Brix. 79. Analysis of Carbonated Juices. — The methods of analysis of the purified juices are the same as for the raw juice, except that the carbonated juice must receive an additional treatment with carbonic acid to pre- cipitate all of the calcium. This is evidently necessary, since these analyses are made in part for the purpose of comparing the purity of these juices with that of the diffusion-juice before treatment. 80. Alkalinity of the Juice.— It is occasionally necessary to determine the total alkalinity of the juice after liming and before carbonatation; it is also necessary at very frequent intervals to determine the total alkalinity of the carbonated juices, in the control of the carbonatation process. In many factories an alkalimetric method is employed in ascertaining when to shut off the carbonic acid gas in the carbonatation of each tankful of juice. The total alkalinity is usually expressed in terms of the grams of lime (CaO) per litre of juice, although the alkalinity is in part due to the presence of caustic alkalis. Methods are usually employed, in the control of the car- bonatation of the juice, which are very rapid and well adapted to the use of unskilled employes, but which yield only moderately accurate results (81). It is advisable that the rapid methods indicated be occa- sionally checked in the laboratory. This is necessary in order to know to what extent the results vary from the truth, that the carbonatation may be the more satisfactorily controlled. 81. Rapid Methods of Moderate Accuracy for the Alkalinity, of Juices.— (i) Standard Add Solution. — Prepare a standardized solution of sulphuric acid contain- AlfALTSIS OF THE JUICE. 97 ' ing 35 grams of the monohydrated acid (HjSO*) in looo cc. {See 200.) The strength of this solution is such that i cc. will neutralize 0.02 gram of lime (CaO). This solution is used for limed juices and juice from the first carbonatation. A more dilute acid is employed for the titration of juice from the second carbonatation. This acid is prepared by diluting 100 cc. of the above standard acid to 1000 cc, and contains 3.5 grams of sulphuric acid in 1000 cc. Indicators. — As great accuracy is not necessary in this determination, indicators which are more or less affected by carbonic acid may be employed. Among those most commonly used are neutralized corallin, phenolphthalcin, cochineal, etc. A few drops of the solution of the indicator are added to the juice, or in this class of analyses, with cer- tain indicators, more conveniently to the acid solution, when standardizing it, and before completing the volume to 1000 cc. {See^lS,) Titration. — Measure 20 cc. of the juice into a porcelain dish or into a small Erlenmeyer flask. If the flask be used, it should be placed over a sheet of white paper or a por- celain slab during the titration. Except in the case of the limed juice, before carbonata- tion, the liquor should be filtered. Add a few drops of the indicator to the juice, if it be not already contained in the standard acid, and deliver the acid cautiously from a burette. Note the point when the alkalinity is saturated by the change in the color of the indicator, and read the burette. Calculation. — I cc. of stronger acid solution neutralizes 0.02" gram of lime (CaO); hence for each cc. of acid used there is an alkalinity corresponding to 0.02 gram of lime per 20 cc. of juice, or to o.i gram per 100 cc. of juice, or I gram per litre of juice. Example. — 20 cc. of juice required 2.2 cc. of the acid. .'. 0.02 X 2.2 X 50 = 2.2 grams lime per litre of juice, or the number of cc. of acid used = grams of lime per litre. The calculations are the same when using the weaker acid with second carbonatation juices, except that i cc. of the acid <:ofresponds to 0.002 gram of lime. /. 98 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. (2) Vivien's Method. — This exceedingly convenient and simple method is employed very generally in France. Like the preceding method, it only gives approximately correct results. Vivien employs a solution of sulphuric acid con- taining a small quantity of phenolphthalein, of such strength that one volume of this acid will neutralize one volume of juice containing .05 gram of lime per litre, i.e.^ total alkalinity expressed as lime (CaO). A specially graduated tube shown in Fig. 48 is used with this method. This tube is divided into six parts of equal _ volume. Each part except the bottom one is subdivided into five parts. Acid Solution. — Prepare a standardized solu- tion of sulphuric acid containing 0.875 gram of the monohydrated acid (H2SO4) in 1000 cc; add a small quantity of phenolphthalein to the solu- tion before completing the volume to 1000 cc. Standardize by titration against decinormal alkali solution; 10 cc. of the alkali should neutralize 56 cc. of this solution. Manipulations. — Fill the tube, Fig. 48, to the zero mark with juice; add the standardized acid cautiously, placing the thumb over the mouth of the tube and agitating from time to time. The solution turns red at the first addition of the acid, provided it be not added in excess; finally, when the acid is in very slight excess, the color disappears. The reading on the scale is next made. Every ten divisions correspond to an alkalinity due to i gram of lime per litre of juice, • 48- j^jj(j each division to o.i gram of lime (CaO.) per litre. For second carbonatation juice, use a much more dilute acid; for example, one half or one fifth the strength of the above. In this case every ten divisions of the scale cor- respond to 0.5 gram or 0.2 gram of lime per litre. It is evident that these methods are susceptible of many modifications, but for the purposes of this book those described are sufficient. These methods must be used with caution in analyzing 25 so- ls: 10— 5=:^ ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 99 the juice from the second carbonatation, for the reasons given below. It is the practice in the second carbonatation to saturate all the lime; hence this process is often termed the " saturation." If this point be passed, the caustic sodium and potassium, which remain as such in the presence of the caustic lime, are converted into carbonates. This is wrong, from manufacturing considerations, and further it would be objectionable to leave lime unprecipitated. It is thus apparent that a process should be employed which will show the exact moment at which all the lime has been combined with the carbonic acid. In practice it is usual to ascertain, in the laboratory, approximately the alkalinity the juice should have when the lime has all been precipitated, and be guided by this in the control of the carbonatation. The use of phenacetoline is said to be an advantage in this test. It is used in the cold. Degener recommends the use of a few drops of a i per cent solution of phenace- toline in alcohol. 82. Methods for the Deteriiiiiiatioii of the Total Calcium iii the Juice.— Gravimetric Method.— To ICO cc. of the juice add an excess of ammonium hydrate, heat to the boiling-point and filter, should there be a pre- cipitate. Wash the filter with hot water, add an excess of oxalate of ammonium to the filtrate, boil two hours, and let stand several hours ; collect the precipitate in a small quantitative filter and wash with dilute ammonia. The filter and contents are next transferred to a tared platinum crucible, partly dried and the filter charred at a low tem- perature, then ignited until the carbon is removed. Add a small quantity of sulphate of ammonia solution containing chloride of ammonia (see 136), dry at a moderate heat, and ignite at a high temperature. The residue consists of sul- phate of calcium (CaSOi). Cool in a desiccator and weigh. The weight of the calcium sulphate multiplied by .41158 is the weight of calcium oxide (lime) per 100 cc. of juice. This number is practically the percentage of calcium oxide (CaO) by weight in the juice, or the correct percentage is this number divided by the specific gravity of the juice. 100 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Fradiss' Volumetric Method.' — Treat loo cc. of juice as described under the preceding method. Decompose the oxalate of calcium with warm dilute sulphuric acid. The acid combines with the calcium and sets the oxalic acid free. The oxalic acid is determined by means of a i/io normal solution of permanganate of potassium (202). Titrate the solution without filtering, maintaining a tem- perature of 60° to 80° C. The addition of the permanganate solution should be continued until a permanent pink color is produced. Calculation. — Multiply the burette reading, the cc. per- manganate solution, by 0.0028 to obtain the weight of cal- cium oxide (CaO), or by 0.002 to obtain the weight of cal- cium (Ca). The numbers so obtained are the per cents by volume of the juice. Divide by the specific gravity of the juice to obtain the corresponding per cents by weight. Soap Method. — This is an application of Clarke's soap test, used in estimating the hardness of water. The total percentage of calcium as calcium oxide (CaO) may be rapidly and closely estimated by this method. As used by the French it is more convenient for sugar-house purposes than the English method. Chloride of Calcium or Barium Solution. — Dissolve 0.25 gram of pure chloride of calcium or 0.55 gram of pure crystallized barium chloride (BaCla + 2H3O) in water and dilute to I litre. Special Burette. — The burette is so graduated that 2.4 cc. correspond to 23 divisions. The zero of the graduation is placed at the second division to allow for the quantity of soap solution required to produce a permanent lather with 40 cc. of distilled water; the 22 divisions correspond to o.oi gram of chloride of calcium dissolved in distilled water: hence a division or 1° corresponds to 0.00045 gram of the chloride in 40 cc, or 0.0114 gram per litre. Special Bottle. — This bottle is graduated at 10, 20, 30, and 40 cc. Only two of these graduations, viz., at 10 and 40 cc, are used in sugar work. Method of Making the Test. — Introduce 40 cc. of the cal- cium chloride or barium chloride solution into the special * Bulletin de P Assoc, des Chimistes de France, 14, 22. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 101 bottle, and add the soap solution {see 186) little by little, with agitation, until a foam 5 mm. deep forms and persists during 5 minutes. The solution must be vigorously agi- tated by shaking the stoppered bottle after each addition of the soap. If the soap solution be of the correct strength, a volume corresponding to 22 divisions of the burette is required. The burette should always be filled to the division above the zero mark, and the reading should be from zero. If the reading be not 22°, add sufficient cold, recently boiled distilled water to dilute it to this strength. To ID cc. of the juice in the special bottle, add sufficient cold, recently boiled distilled water to dilute it to 40 cc. Proceed as above, using the standarized soap solution. Multiply the number of *' degrees " read on the burette by 0.0228 to calculate the lime (CaO) per litre of juice. This method may be applied to the sirup, massecuites, and molasses, using i gram of the material diluted to 40 cc. See page 171 relative to the influence of magnesia in this test. The presence of magnesia, resulting from dolomite in the limestone, may vitiate the results obtained. Parallel determinations by the soap and the gravimetric methods, or an examination of the lime, will show whether sufficient magnesia is present to render this process unavailable. This method is not applicable to the juice from the first car- bonatation. 83. Free and Combined Lime and Alkalinity Due to Caustic Alkalis. Pellet's Method.' — A. Determine the total alkalinity by titration with sul- phuric acid, using litmus as an indicator. The titration must be made at the boiling-point of the juice. Calculate the alkalinity as lime per 100 cc. of juice. B. Add an equal volume of strong alcohol to a measured portion of the juice; the "free" lime is precipitated as an insoluble saccharate of lime; filter and determine the alka- linity of the filtrate operating upon an aliquot part; calcu- late as lime per 100 cc. of juice. This alkalinity is, however, due to sodium and potassium hydrates, but is expressed as lime for comparative purpos2S. -7 Fabrication du Suc*-e Per.uc^et, Pallet, etc, >18< joi. 102 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. C. The total lime is determined by one of the methods in 82, and is also expressed as lime per loo cc. of juice. The following example illustrates the calculations: Example. As Lime per loocc. \A) Total alkalinity 0.027 gram. {B) Alkalinity due to soda and potassa 0.021 " (C) Total lime, including organic salts 0.023 " Free lime (^ - ^) 0.006 " Combined lime, /..?., lime salts (C—[^—j9]).. 0.017 '* \ ANALYSIS OF THE SIRUP. 84. Analysis of the Sirup.— The analysis of the sirup is conducted as that of the juice (67 to 83); the same determinations are made, the only variations being in the quantities of the material used for the analysis. All the portions used for analysis should be weighed, not measured. This is necessary on account of the viscos- ity of the sirup. : ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 85. Deteriiiiiiation of the Density. — The deter- mination of the density of massecuites presents certain difficulties which cannot well be avoided, and which com- pel the acceptance of results which are not strictly accurate. As has been explained, the degree Brix of a solution is the percentage, by weight, of pure sugar which it contains, but it is usually taken as the percentage of solid matter in the solution. The use of a spindle or pyknometer for the determination of the degree Brix, assumes the impurities in the solution, or the non-sucrose, to have the same specific gravity as sucrose. This assumption, unfortunately for the convenience of th,e caerni^i, is far from true, especially in the densei»products and in those from which a part of the sugar has been removed, viz., the second, third, etc., mas- ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES A^B MOLASSES. 103 secuites and the molasses. The mineral impuruic* Influ- ence the specific gravity very materially, since they differ so widely in specific gravity from the sugars. Since the proportion of inorganic non-sugar increases as one passes from the products of high purity to those of low purity, the difference between the apparent percentage of total solids, as indicated by the density, and the true percentage of total solids, becomes greater. From this, it is apparent that calculations of the total solids in massecuites, etc., from the density of the product, must be accepted with caution, and then only for compara- tive purposes, when uniform conditions of analysis are maintained. The methods by dilution and spindling are given in this book for calculating approximate coefl5cients, etc., and must not be assumed to give strictly accurate results. •'■ It is customary to term the degree Brix, as deduced from the specific gravity of the material, the "apparent degree Brix," or simply the "degree Brix"; the term "true or real degree Brix" is sometimes applied to the percentage -of total solids, when this number is determined by actually ^drying the material in an oven. 86. Determination of the Density by Dilu- tion and Spindling. Apparent Degree Brix.— Dissolve 250 grams of the massecuite or molasses in water and dilute to 500 cc. Transfer a portion of the solution to a cylinder and determine its degree Brix. Calculate the degree Brix of the product used by the following formula : Apparent degree Brix = — — , in which B is the degree Brix (corrected) of the solution, S/>. Gr. the specific gravity corresponding to the degree Brix of the solution before correction, V the volume of the solution, and ^ the weight of massecuite used. The above formula reduces to the following if the weight and volume specified have been used : Apparent degree Brix = 2 X Sp. Gr. X B. The following is a very convenient modification of th^ above method : 104 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Dissolve a definite weight of massecuite in an equal weight of water, mix the solution thoroughly, and spindle. The degree Brix of the massecuite is two times the degree Brix of the solution. {See also 88, Weisberg's method.) 87. Determination of the Total Solids or Moisture by Drying.— The method of Carr and San- born, and the vacuum method given in 77, are recom- mended. In the latter case use i gram of the massecuite, and in both methods, after weighing the material, dissolve it in a small quantity of distilled water, in order to dis- tribute it evenly. In the Carr-Sanborn method, dilute the sample to content of about 20 to 30 per cent dry matter, using a weighed portion of water. Add such quantity of the diluted material to the pumice-stone, in the tared dish, as will yield approximately i gram dry matter. 88. Approximate Determination of the Total Solids and Coefficient of Purity of Massecuite, etc., by Dilution and Spindling. Weisberg's Method.' — This is the ordinary method by dilution and spindling, but conducted under certain definite conditions, under which a table of coefficients, deduced by Weisberg from a very large number of experiments, is used. Weigh three times the normal weight, or any convenient multiple of the normal weight, of the massecuite and dissolve it in water; transfer the solution to a 300-cc. flask, or to a flask corresponding to the multiple of the normal weight of massecuite used, and dilute to the graduation. Mix the solu- tion thoroughly and determine its degree Brix, using a spin- dle graduated to twentieths of a degree. Transfer 50 cc. of the solution, corresponding to the half-normal weight of the massecuite, to a flask, clarify with subacetate of lead, dilute to 100 cc, mix and filter. Polarize the filtrate, and multiply the polariscopic reading by 2 to compensate for the dilu- tion. This gives the percentage of sucrose in the masse- cuite. In materials containing notable quantities of raffin- ose, etc., use the method of Creydt (89) to ascertain the per cent of sucrose in the massecuite. The methods of calculation are most conveniently explained by an example. * Bui. Asfoc. ChimUtes de France, 14, 978. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSBCVlTES AND MOLASSES. 105 Example and Formula for Calculations, Weight of massecuite {2\ times the normal) = 65.12 gram Volume of the solution = 250 cc. Degree Brix of the solution = B = 22 Specific gravity corresponding to the degree Brix {see table page 275) = Z> = i. 09231 Polariscopic reading X 2 = ^ = 55- Constant (normal weight -r- 100) = .26048 , ^ R X 0.26048 . , .., . , (i) — ^— = per cent sucrose in the diluted solu- tion, S\ (2) — X 100 = apparent coefficient of purity (106) of the solution and of the massecuite. WEISBERG'S TABLE OF COEFFICIENTS. Coefficient of Purity. Coefficients. • Apparent Coefficient of Purity. Coefficients. 57 1.054 78 1.021 57.5 1.(^2 79 1.020 58 1.050 80 1.019 58.5 1.048 81 1.018 59 1.046 82 1.017 60 1.044 83 1.016 61 1.042 84 1.015 62 1.040 85 1.014 63 1.038 86 1.013 64 1.036 87 1.012 65 1.034 88 1.011 66 1.033 89 1.010 67 1.032 90 1.009 68 1.031 • 91 1.008 69 1.030 92 1.007 70 1.029 93 1.006 71 1.028 94 1.005 72 1.027 95 1.004 73 1.026 96 1.003 74 1.025 97 1.002 76 1.024 98 1.002 78 1.023 99 1.001 77 1.022 100 1.000 106 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. The letters have the values indicated in the statement of the example and in equation (i). (3) Multiply the apparent coefficient of purity by the co- efficient corresponding to it in Weisberg's table to obtain the true coefficient of purity of the massecuite. (4) The true per cent total solids of the massecuite is deduced by dividing its percentage sucrose by the true co- efficient of purity and multiplying by 100. Substituting the values of -^and D in formula (i) we have R X 0.26048 55 X 0.26048 = = 13.12 = S\ D I. 09231 and substituting the values of ^ and 5 in formula (2) we have S 13.12 B^ ^°° ^~^^ X 100 = 59.64, apparent purity of the massecuite; and from (3), 59.64 X 1.045 = 62.32, the approximately true purity of the massecuite. - - ' R From (4), X 100 = 88.25, the approximately true per cent of total solids in the massecuite. In checking this method by actual drying of the above massecuite, Weisberg obtained a true purity of 62.02. Thiy sample was a very severe test of the method owing to the low purity of the massecuite, Weisberg constructed his table from experimental data, obtained in the examination of massecuites produced with- out " boiling in " molasses, as is now practised to a consider- able exteiit. With massecuite obtained by "boiling in" molasses on first-sugar, it is possible that the method may not give as satisfactory results as indicated in the example. 89. Detenninatidii of Sucrose and RafRnose. Creyclt'sForillulse. — This is the official German method ;' it is that of Clerget, as published by the German Govern- ment, except that the acidulation of the solution for direct polarization is recommended. This method is not applicable in the presence of optically active bodies Other than sucrose and raffinose. Percentages of raffinose less than 0.33 cannot be determined with certainty by the inversion methods. \ Zeit, Rubenzucker -Industrie, 38, 867. AKALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AKD MOLASSES. 107 Dissolve the normal weight of the material in water, clarify as usual, and dilute-to loo cc. Filter, and polarize the filtrate at 20° C. Record the polarization as the " direct reading." It is recommended that this solution be slightly acidulated with acetic acid before diluting to 100 cc. Dissolve 13.024 grams of the substance in 75 cc. of water, in a loo-cc. flask, and add 5 cc. hydrochloric acid containing 38.8 per cent of the acid, mix the contents of the flask by a circular motion, and place it on a water-bath heated to 70' C. The temperature of the solution in the flask should reach 67° to 70" C. in two and one half to three minutes. Maintain a temperature of as nearly 69" C. as possible for seven to seven and one half minutes, making the total time of heating ten minutes. Remove the flask and cool the contents rapidly to 20'^ C, and dilute the solution to 100 cc. If necessary treat the solution with i gram of dry bone-black (180) to decolorize it. Polarize in a tube provided with a lateral branch for the insertion of a thermometer. A tube, provided with a jacket, through which a current of water of 20° C. circulates, should be used. The invert reading should be made at 20° C, and be multiplied by 2. If a preliminary cal- culation, using the formula, per cent sucrose =0.7538 X sum of the direct and invert readings, give a percentage which is more than i per cent higher than the direct read- ing, raffinose is probably present, and the following formulae by Creydt should be used in making the calculations : P= the direct reading, z.^?., the polarization before in- version ; /= the invert reading , multiplied by 2. S = the percentage of sucrose ; R = the percentage of anhydrous raffinose. G.5i88iP-/ P-S •J "—^ ;; 1 J^ — '::. — • 0.845 1.85 It is very important in this process that the time and temperature conditions be strictly complied with. The amount of material used should be varied, according to the nature of the substance, that the invert solution may have a concentration of approximately 13.7 grams rn loa cc.r i.e., the invert-sugar produced in the inversion of 13.024 108 HANDBOOK POR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. grams of sucrose. The value of the constants varies con- siderably with the concentration (j-^f 267). 90. DetermiDation of Sucrose and Raffinose. Lindet's Inversion Method as Modified by Courtonne. — Courtonne^ has slightly modified the method of Lindet'^ in order to facilitate the manipulations. Dissolve the normal weight of the material in water and dilute to IOC cc. Transfer 50 cc. of this solution to a 50-cc. flask and add sufficient dilute subacetate of lead solution (20.7); acidulate with acetic acid; mix, filter, and polarize the filtrate. Increase the polariscopic reading one tenth and record as the direct reading (A). Transfer 20 cc. of the original solution of the material to a 50-cc. flask, and add to it 5 grams of zinc-dust. The dust must be weighed. Heat the flask and contents by immer- sion in boiling water or in the steam from a water-bath. Add 10 cc. of dilute hydrochloric acid, in portions of about 2 cc. at a time, being careful that none of the liquid is lost through a too rapid addition of the acid. The portions of acid may be added as frequently as convenient. The dilute acid is prepared by adding an equal volume of distilled water to pure hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity. In the original method of Lindet, it is specified to heat the contents of the flask on the boiling-water bath about 20 minutes. In the modified method, it is only necessary to heat a few minutes after the last addition of acid. The quantity of acid is so gauged that a portion of the zinc is left undecomposed and occupies a volume of .5 cc, for which a correction must be made in the calculations. After the inversion is completed, cool the solution, either by immersing the flask in cold water or by setting aside to cool slowly. When the temperature reaches 20° C. com- plete the volume to 50 cc, mix and filter. Polarize the filtrate in an observation-tube provided with a lateral branch for the insertion of a thermometer. Multiply the reading by 2.475 if a 20-centimetre observation-tube were used. This factor includes a correction for the volume of the excess of zinc used. The polarization should be made * Bui. Assoc. Chiniistes de France ^ 7, 232, 9 Op. cii., supra, 7, 432. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 109 it 20° C. Caculate the percentages of sucrose and raffinose by the following formulae: A = the direct reading, i.e.^ before inversion ; B = the invert reading, corrected to terms of the nor- mal weight ; C — the sum of the direct and the indirect reading ; S = the per cent sucrose ; R = the per cent raffinose. The first set of formulae is for the Laurent polariscope, instruments whose normal weight is 16.29 grams, and the second set for the Schmidt and Haensch polariscope, in- struments whose normal weight is 26.048 grams : Set No. I : ^ ' 0.81 ^ ' 1.54 Set No. 2 : (i) s = ^P^— ; (2) i? = = 1.017^ -. ^ ' 0.827 1-57 1.298 In the formulae, R is the percentage of hydrated raffinose. To obtain the percentage of anhydrous raffinose substitute 1.84 for 1.54 in the denominator in the first set of formulae and 1.85 for 1.57 in the second set. The invert solutions by this method are perfectly colorless and require no bone-black or other treatment preparatory to polarization. This process is only applicable to materials containing no optically active bodies other than sucrose and raffinose. As beet products, under normal conditions, rarely contain reducing sugars, this process is generally applicable in all beet work. The formulae given in the set No. i are those of Creydt, modified by Lindet. The correction for the space occupied by the undecom- posed zinc-dust, is based upon the fact that only enough hydrochloric acid is used to decompose a certain quantity of zinc. If the quantities of acid and zinc indicated be used, there will be sufficient excess of zinc to occupy a vol- ume of nearly .5 cc. 110 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOtJSE CHEMISTS. The author prefers to use a solution of hydrochloric acid, standardized by means of a normal alkali solution. The acid should be measured from a burette. It is conducive to accuracy to use a flask graduated at 50.5 cc, and an obser- vation tube 50 centimetres long. To insure an observation at 20° C. a tube, provided with a water-jacket, through which water of that temperature flows, is necessary. The great advantage claimed for Lindet's method is that it permits the inversion at the boiling-point of water with- out decomposition of the resultant products. Further, the matter of the time element is very much simplified, since while the inversion is complete in less than twenty minutes, there is no perceptible decomposition of the invert-sugar on heating a much longer time. This method, in common with other inversion methods, has been the subject of much investigation and discussion. The evidence appears to be largely in favor of the methods of inversion given in 89 and 92, 91. Determination of Sucrose and Raffinose in the Presence of Reducing Sugars.— J. Wortman > recommends the following method for this determination : The reducing sugar is determined by the method with alkaline copper solution on page 8i, using the following formulae for the calculation : N = per cent reducing sugar; ] Cu = the weight of copper reduced; f = the weight of material employed; The value of A^ is substituted in the following equations: 0.9598/' - 1.85/" — o.277iV I. Per cent sucrose = S = II. Per cent raffinose = /? 1.5648 F — 5 + o.3io3A^ 1.85 in which P is the direct polarization and P' is the invert reading. These formulae are based upon the work of Herzfeld and are for the normal weight of 26.048 grams. * Zeii. Riibenzucker -Industrie^ 39, 766. ANALYSIS OP THE MASSECUITES AKD MOLASSES. lU The inversion, as far as concerns time, temperature, and acid, is made as in section 89. 92. Determination of Sucrose in the Pres- ence of Reducing Sugars, Clerget's Method.— In this modified method of Clerget, as adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, the direct and invert readings are obtained as in 89. The readings, especially if much reducing sugar be present, should both be made at very nearly the same temperature. This temperature should not vary more than two or three de- grees from 2o° C. The readings should be made at 20° C. if practicable, in which case the following formula is used : ^ 100 .S" Per cent sucrose = — — - = o.^ssS.S', 142.66 --2/ '^-^ in which iT is the algebraic difference of the direct and in- vert readings. Should the temperature (/) vary from 20° C, use the fol- lowing formula : 100^ Percent sucrose = — . 142.4 - |/ Certain important precautions are given in 89 in con- nection with this method. Since beet products obtained under normal conditions rarely contain appreciable quantities of reducing sugars, and the very low products probably always contain raffi- nose, the methods of Creydt, preferably, or of Lindet (89, 90) are usually employed. All inversion methods are usually spoken of as '* Clerget's method," from the chemist who devised the original proc- ess of which all are slight modifications. 93. Determination to be made in the Analy- sis of Massecuitesand Molasses.— All the determina- tions required in the analysis of the sirups are also to be made in the massecuite and molasses. The methods for sucrose and raffinose are those given in 89 to 92. The scheme given in the next paragraph is convenient for use in this class of work. 94. Scheme for the Analysis of Massecuite* and Molasses, Adapted from Sidersky's Method. 112 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. — In order that Weisberg's table of coefficients may be available (see page 104), the quantity of material he advises should be used. Dissolve 78.144 grams of massecuite in distilled water, dilute the solution to 300 cc, and use portions of it for the various determinations. Determine the per cent sucrose, the apparent and true coefficients of purity (106), and the apparent and true de- grees Brix by Weisberg's method (88). For the determination of the ash, evaporate 19.2 cc. of the solution (5.0012 grams of the material) nearly to dry- ness. Multiply the corrected weight of the ash by 20 to obtain the per cent of ash. The slight excess of material used over 5 grams does not introduce an appreciable error even in low-grade molasses. For the determination of the alkalinity, use a measured volume of the solution, remembering that each cubic centi- metre corresponds to 0.26048 gram of the material. Use the methods in 05. 95. Alkalinity of Massecuites and Molasses.— It is often necessary to determine the alkalinity of masse- cuites, and occasionally of the molasses. These products are often very dark, rendering it difficult to employ a volumetric method. The following method devised by Buisson ' gives satisfactory results in very highly colored products: Transfer 25 cc. of a solution of the material to be titrated, to a glass-stoppered flask, add one drop of a neutral solution of corallin and 10 cc. of washed ether. The ether must be neutral. After each addition of the standard acid (see 81 et seq.), agitate thoroughly and wait a few seconds for the ether to separate and rise to the surface. The slightest excess of acid reacts upon the corallin and colors the ethereal solution yellow. This reaction is very sharp. The alkalinity is calculated as lime (CaO), percentage by weight. The methods given in 80 to 83 are also applica- ble to these products. 96. Estimation of the Proportion of Crystal- lized Sugar. — Many of the methods of estimating the ■ ■ ' Bulletin de V Assoc, des Chimistes de France^ 9, 597. ANALYSTS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 113 proportion of crystallized sugar, in sugars and massecuites, were suggested by Scheibler's modification of Payen's method for estimating the refining values of raw sugars. In this method the crystals, in the weighed sample, are washed with successive portions of the following solutions: (1) 85 per cent alcohol containing 50 cc. acetic acid per litre and saturated with sugar; (II) and (III) 92 and 96 per cent alcohol, respectively, saturated with sugar; (IV) absolute alcohol; and (V) one third ether and two thirds absolute alcohol. The residual sugar is washed into a sugar-flask and its content of sucrose determined by the polariscope. This method is no longer used, but is given in outline for historic reasons and because it suggested other methods which are in use. Pellet devised a somewhat similar method, using first a saturated solution of pure sugar and afterwards saturated alcoholic sugar solutions, of increasing alcohol content, to wash the crystals. The sugar crystals are finally dried and weighed. IFlG. 49. The following described methods, of which the author •prefers Dupont's, are the most practical: Vivien's Method. — Place a weighed quantity of mass©' 114 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. cuite in the funnel E, Fig. 49, of the pressure filtering apparatus ; for example, 200 grams. The funnel is fitted with a perforated filtering-cone, as indicated by the dotted line. Connect the apparatus with a filtering-pump, Chap- man's or other simple model, by the tube V. Wash tl.e crystals with a cold solution of sugar containing 2 parts of pure sucrose to i part of distilled water. The pressure is regulated by raising or lowering the tube A, which dips into mercury in the cylinder B. The material in the funnel should always be covered with the wash-liquor. Continue the washing until all the crystals are free from molasses, then transfer them to a tared dish, mix thoroughly and weigh. Determine the moisture in 10 grams of the crystals by drying as usual in an oven. Since the wash-liquor contained i part water and 2 parts of sucrose, the loss in weight on drying multiplied by 3 gives the weight of the liquor adhering to the crystals. Example and Calculations, Weight of massecuite 200 grams Weight of moist crystals 176.5 ** Moisture in 10 grams of the crystals. 0.56 '* Then — ^ =9.884 grams water in the moist crys- tals, and 9.884 X 3 = 29.652, the weight of the wash-liquor adhering to the crystals. 176.5 - 29.652 , , „. , = 73-43 grams of dry, crystallized sugar in 100 grams of massecuite. Karcz' Method.'^ — This method, as applied to raw sugar, consists in dissolving the adhering molasses in pure anhy- drous glycerine and filtering off a portion of the solution for polarization. The polarizations of the raw sugar and of the glycerine solution supply the data for the calcula- tions. The apparatus shown in Fig. 50 is used for the filtration. The application of the method to massecuite is given farther on. Since anhydrous glycerine is very hygroscopic, it must 1 Zeit. Rubenzucker'Industrie, 31, 500. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 115 be protected from the moisture in the air at each stage of the analysis. Weigh 30 to 50 grams of the sugar and transfer to a glass dish contain- ing an equal weight of glycerine. Mix intimately with a glass rod, and place in a desiccator containing fused calcium chloride or concen- trated sulphuric acid. Repeat the mixing from time to time, until the crystals are well separated and the molasses uniformly distributed in the glycerine solution. This requires fifteen minutes and upwards. Place a plug of dry filtering-cotton in the funnel of the apparatus (Fig. 50), transfer the mixture to the funnel, and replace the cover. Filter under pressure, u^ing a filter-pump. The mixture is protected from moisture, during filtration, by chloride of cal- cium tubes, as shown in the figure. Fig. 50, Polarize the normal weight of the filtrate. Karcz' * for- mula has been shown to be inexact; hence the corrected formula is given. Formula for the Calculations. X = sucrose in the molasses attached to the crystals ; /* = per cent sucrose in the raw sugar ; / = per cent sucrose in the glycerine filtrate ; 200 — P , „ , , , x = p, and /* — .;tr = the percentage of crystal- 100 - p ^ lized sugar. Example. — Polarization of the raw sugar = 95.6 ; polari- zation of the filtrate = 6.75. 200 — 05. 6 x=^^---^X 6.75 =7-55, and 95.6 - 7.55 = 88.05. the percentage of crystallized sugar. * Zaitschri/t /. Zuckerindustrit Bohem., Jan. 1895. 116 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Perepletchikow ' recommends the following procedure with massecuites : Transfer the normal weight of the massecuite treated with an indefinite quantity of pure anhydrous glycerine, as described above, to the funnel of Karcz' apparatus, and filter off the glycerine solution. Wash the crystals with repeated portions of glycerine, until the filtrate is no longer colored. Remove the funnel from the apparatus and wash the crystals into a sugar-flask, dissolve, and polarize. The polariscopic reading is the percentage of sugar crystals in the massecuite. Perepletchikow made comparative tests of the various methods, with the results given in the following table : ,— Crystals per cent— « Time required MAthnH Massecuite. for Making juemoa. Massecuite Massecuite the Analysis. No. 1. No. 2. Minutes. - Washing with sugar j -,. - go ^ *• solution S" '*• ** 2. Pellet. 69.8 60.7 60 3. Washing with glycerine .70 60.8 60 4. Dupont 71.1 61.6 * 45 5. Siderskya 71 61.5 150 ' 6. Karcz 70 60.6 60 7. Perepletchikow 70.1 61.3 30 Actual percentage of I r-n a ai i crystals present f" *"'* '**•* Duponfs Method^ — Heat a quantity of massecuite of known polarization, 500 grams, for example, to 85° C. and centrifugal in a small machine, such as is constructed for laboratory purposes. The wire sieve of the centrifugal machine should be covered with thin flannel. Dry the sugar as thoroughly as possible. Determine the percent- age of sugar in the molasses with the polariscope. Calcu- late the percentage of crystallized sucrose by the following formula, in which a = the polarization of the massecuite \ p = polarization of the crystals ; /' = polarization of the ' Zapiski, 1894, 18, 346; Abstract in Bulletin de V Association des Chi- fnistes, 1/J, 407. * jc : 100 = a : i, la which jc = sugar adhering to the crystals; a = per cent ash (sulphated) in the massecuite; 6 = per cent ash in the molasses, obtained by filtration ; 100 — jr = per cent crystallized sugar in the massecuite. • Manuel-Agenda des Fabricants de Sucre^ 1891, p. 293. I ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AKD MOLASSES. 117 molasses ; and x — the weight of crystallized sucrose in a unit of the massecuite : a — p' X = ^ -, and looo: = the per cent of crystallized sucrose /— / in the massecuite. Example. Polarization of the massecuite = 84.5 = a Polarization of the molasses = 60.6 =/' The crystals may be considered to be pure sugar; hence p = 100. Substituting in the formula, we have 84.5 — 60.6 100 — 60.6 = 0.6066, and looji: = 100 X 0.6066 = 60.66, the percentage of crystals in the massecuite. Dupont's formula is applicable to the calculation of the crystallized sugar in the massecuite, on the basis of the data obtained by the analysis of the massecuite, and of the molasses flowing from the sugar-house centrifugals, pro- vided the sugar is not washed in the machines. Further, it is necessary to filter the molasses through flannel, to remove fine crystals which may have passed the centrif- ugal sieves. The above is one of the most practical methods yet pro- posed for the estimation of the proportion of crystallized sugar in massecuites. 97. Notes on the Estimation of the Crystal- lized Sugar. — This estimation is of great practical value in the control of the vacuum-pan work and the centrif- ugals. The reduction in the yield of first-sugar in many sugar-houses, through careless centrifugal work, or by sugar-crystals passing into the molasses through holes in the sieves, "too small to amount to anything," is undoubt- edly often quite large. Dupont's method affords an easy .control of this part of the manufacture, and should be systematically applied. Loss in the centrifugals may also be due to a very fine grain. 118 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEM-STS. ANALYSIS OF SUGARS. 98. Analysis of Sugars.— The usual determinations to be made in sugars are the percentages of sucrose and ash. The latter is determined as in 75. The moisture is occasionally required. It is determined as usual by dry- ing a weighed portion of the sample, in an oven, to constant weight. For high-grade sugars the temperature of the oven may be 105° C, and for very low grades 100° C, or, preferably, these sugars should be dried in the vacuum- oven, page 94, at a temperature below 95° C. White sugars can be polarized without clarification of the solutions ; filtration is necessary, however, to remove dust and mechanical impurities. Raw -sugar solutions must be clarified with a few drops of dilute subacetate of lead solution. Aluminic hydrate will sometimes facilitate the clarifica- tion of low-grade sugars. With compensating instruments the polarization of sugars should be effected at moderate temperatures. The Schmidt and Haensch instruments give correct percentages, when the normal weight of the sugar is contained in 100 Mohr's cubic centimetres of the solution, and is observed in a 200-mm. tube at 17^° C. With the Laurent apparatus, the normal weight of the sugar should be contained in 100 true cubic centimetres. Creydt's method, 89, should be used with low-grade sugars. The chemist is occasionally called upon to estimate the refining value or " titrage " of a raw beet-sugar. The method adopted in Germany for this calculation is as fol- lows : Deduct 5 times the per cent of ash from the polari- zation of the sugar to obtain the titrage. If a saccharate process have been used, an additional allowance of i per cent of the titrage, as calculated above, is made. This ANALYSIS OF SUGARS. 119 method is not entirely satisfactory to the refiners, who claim that with modern methods of raw-sugar manufacture the allowance is too small. They suggest that 2 times the per cent of non-sugar be deducted. The French deduct 4 times the per cent of ash and 2 times the per cent of reducing sugar from the polarization. For white first sugars, the deduction is 5 times the percent of ash. Fractions in the polarization are not counted. The French Government, in its calculations, uses only the per cent soluble ash and not the total ash. These methods are purely arbitrary and are based solely upon refining experience. 99. Notes on the Analysis of Massecuites, Sujjars, and Molasses. — In the event of obtaining very dark-colored solutions which are difficult to polarize, shake the solution with about one gram of finely powdered dry bone-black, and filter. To avoid an error, due to the ab- sorption of sugar by the bone-black, it is advisable to use the latter in small quantity, or to filter the solution through a very small quantity of bone-black, rejecting the first half of the filtrate. In the clarification of the solution with subacetate of lead, the reagent should be added as long as a precipitate forms. In solutions which contain invert-sugar or raffinose acetic acid should be added to restore the normal rotatory power. Since the rotatory power of raffinose is modified by subacetate of lead, it is advisable that the direct polari- zation, in the inversion methods, be made in a solution acidulated with acetic acid as advised by Pellet. There is much room for improvement in the existing methods for the analysis of the low products, especially of molasses. 120 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF FILTER PRESS-CAKE. 100. Determination of Moisture.— Dry 5 grams of the press-cake at 100° C. to constant 'weight. The loss in weight X 20 = percentage of moisture. 101. Determination of the Total Sucrose.— The sucrose in the press-cake is partly in combination with the lime, as a saccharate, and partly in water solution. The saccharate must be decomposed and the sucrose set free. Several processes for the decomposition of the saccharate, in this analysis, have been suggested, a few of which are given in the following methods : Stammer's Method. — Place 100 grams of the press-cake in a mortar and beat to a smooth cream with water ; transfer to a large tared Erlenmeyer flask, and add suffi- cient water to make about 200 cc, including that used in beating up the press-cake. Treat with an excess of car- bonic acid ; raise the temperature to the boiling-point, and expel the excess of carbonic acid. Cool the flask and con- tents, place it upon a scale, and add sufficient water to com- plete the quantity to 200 grams. Mix the water and press- cake thoroughly, filter off 50 cc. of the solution, add 5 cc. subacetate of lead for clarification, and filter. Polarize the filtrate, using as long an observation-tube as the instrument will admit, and increase the reading by i/io, to correct for the dilution. Example indicating the Calculations. Weight of press-cake used 100 gram.*;. Water in the sample as determined by drying . . 40 per cent. Polariscopic reading, 400-mm. observation-tube, cor- rected for the i/io dilution (Schmidt and Haensch polariscope) 4 Water in the press-cake = 100 X 40 40 grams. Water added 200 ** Total water 240 " The volume of the total water therefore is 240 cc. ANALYSIS OF FILTER PRESS-CAKE. 121 Formula. Let R — polariscopic reading in a 200-mm. tube; V = total volume of water added and the water in the press-cake; F ■=■ the normal weight divided by 100. q,, F y^ R y, V _S the per cent of sucrose in the press- 100 ( cake. Substituting the values of R, V, and Fin the formula, .26048 X 2 X 240 _ { 1.25, the per cent of sucrose in the 100 ( press-cake. The saccharates of lime may be decomposed by one of the methods given below. There is an inappreciable error in this method in con- sidering the volume of the water added and that of the water in the press-cake as the volume of the sugar solution in Mohr's units. Sidersky' s Method. — This is one of the most convenient methods for the analysis of well-formed press-cake. It is based upon the fact that the volume of the insoluble mat- ter in 26.048 grams of press-cake is approximately 5 cc. Beat 25 grams of press-cake, 15.7 grams for the Laurent polariscope, and a small quantity of cold water to the con- sistence of a cream, using a glass mortar and pestle, and transfer the mixture to* a loo-cc. flask. Add a few drops of a solution of phenolphthalein as an indicator, then sufficient dilute acetic acid, drop by drop, to discharge the color. Clarify with subacetate of lead, filter and polarize. It is advisable to use a 400-mm. or 500-mm. observation-tube for the polarization, and divide the polariscopic reading by 2 or 2.5 to obtain the per cent of sucrose. Various Methods. — Other methods usually differ from Sidersky's in the reagent used for the decomposition of the saccharates of lime. Among these reagents may be mentioned boracic acid, carbonate of sodium, bicarbonate of magnesium and sulphate of magnesium. The object of this treatment is to decompose the saccharates without decomposing salts of optically active bodies which may be present in the press-cake. Herzfeld does not consider magnesium sulphate suitable for this purpose. 122 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 102. Determination of the Free and Com- bined Sucrose. — Proceed by one of the above methods for the sucrose in press-cakes, except use neither acetic acid nor other reagent which will decompose the sac- charates. Add a few drops of acetic acid to the solution before polarizing. This gives the free sucrose. The combined sucrose, i.e., the sucrose in the saccharates, is obtained by deducting the free from the total sucrose. ANALYSIS OF RESIDUES FROM THE ME- CHANICAL FILTERS. 103. Composition and Analysis.— The composi- tion of the residues from the sirup filters is quite variable, and, aside from the sucrose, is of interest on account of incrustation in the multiple-effect and the difficulty some- times experienced in the filtration. The composition depends somewhat on the quality of the stone and coke used in the lime-kiln, and upon the method of conducting the carbonatation and the saturation. The difficulties in the filtration may often be traced to the presence of gelat- inous silica. The important constituents of the residues are sucrose, oxide, carbonate, sulphite and sulpJiate of calcium, iron, alumina and silica. The moisture and sucrose are determined by the methods in sections lOO and lOl. After the removal of the organic matter, by ignition, the inorganic constituents may be determined by the methods given for the analysis of limestone, page 148, ANALYSIS OF WASH AND WASTE WATERS. 123 ANALYSIS OF WASH AND WASTE WATERS. 104. Determiiiatiou of the Sucrose. — The sucrose is usually the only determination required in wash and waste waters. The water used in washing the filter press-cake is ana- lyzed in the same manner as carbonated juices. The waste waters from the diffusion-battery contain exceedingly small quantities of sucrose. The determina- tion may be made either by the optical or the chemical method. In the former add one or two drops of concen- trated subacetate of lead solution (207) to loo cc. of the water, mix and filter. Polarize in 400-mm. or 500-mm. observation-tube. Obtain the percentage of sucrose by inspection, from the following table (Schmitz): Tenths of the Polari- Per Cent Su scopic Reading. erose. 0.1 0.03 0.2 0.05 03 0.07 0.4 0.11 0.5 0.12 Tenths of the Polari- scopic Reading. 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Per Cent crose. Su- 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.22 The chemical method (37) is applicable to all waste waters, especially to those containing little more than traces of sucrose. Proceed as follows: Concentrate a measured volume of the water to small volume, invert with hydrochloric acid, neutralize with caustic soda, and determine the reducing sugar by one of the methods in 72 or 73. Multiply the percentage of reducing sugar obtained by .95 to obtain the percentage of sucrose. Tartaric acid may be added to the water before the concentration, thus inverting the sucrose and dispens- ing with the hydrochloric acid. In the examination of the ammoniacal waters from the multiple effect, by the chemical method, the ammonia should be driven off by boiling. 134 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE EXHAUSTED COS- SETTES. 105. Indirect Method.— Cut the sample of well- drained cossettes into very small fragments by means of a meat-chopper, or, preferably, reduce to a cream with a mill. This machine should be one which will not press the cossettes and whose construction permits easy access for cleaning. Express the thin juice from the cossettes with a powerful press. It is essential that as great pressure as practicable be exerted, in order that a fairly representative sample of the juice may be obtained. Several models of powerful presses are made for this purpose, one of which is shown in Fig. 38. To 100 cc. of the juice, in a sugar-flask, add sufficient subacetate of lead for the clarification, dilute to no cc. and filter. Polarize the filtrate, using as long an observation- tube as the instrument employed will accommodate. Cal- culate the percentage of sucrose by Schmitz' table, page 285. In order to calculate the percentage of sucrose upon the weight of the exhausted cossettes and then to terms of the weight of the beets, it is necessary to know the per- centage of water in the cossettes and the weight of the latter per 100 pounds of beets. The water is determinec* by the usual method, of drying a sample to constant weight in an oven. The weight of cossettes per cent beets is ascertained by actual experiment. The well-drained exhausted cossettes, when working by water-pressure, contain approximately 95 per cent of thin juice; hence the percentage of sucrose in the thin juice X 95 -5- 100 = the percentage of sucrose in the cossettes. Direct Method {Stammer' s slightly modified). — Grind a sample of the well-drained exhausted cossettes to a cream ANALYSIS OP THE EXHAUSTED COSSETTES. 125 in a cylindro-divider, Fig. 36, or other suitable milling device. To 300 grams of the cream add 10 cc. dilute solution of subacetate of lead for clarification, mix thor- oughly, and filter. Polarize the filtrate, using as long an observation-tube as the polariscope will accommodate. Example and Calculation. — Three hundred grams of the creamed cossettes, containing 90 per cent of water, were treated as above described. The polariscopic reading, Schmidt and Haensch instrument, was 1.6, corrected for tube length. Whence 300 X 90 = 270 grams of water in the cream = 270 cc, and 270 cc. + 10 cc. subacetate of lead solution = 280 cc, the total volume of the solution, exclusive of the marc (113), and 1.6 X .26048 = 0.417 gram of sucrose per 100 cc. of the solution; 0.417 X 280 -4- 100 = 1.168 grams, the sucrose in 300 grams of the exhausted cossettes ; 1.168 -^ 300 X 100 = 0.39, the per cent sucrose in the exhausted cossettes. The error due to calculating the percentage of water as the percentage of thin juice in the cossettes is inappreciable. 126 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS- DEFINITIONS OF THE COEFFICIENTS AND TERMS USED IN SUGAR ANALYSIS. 106. Coetficient of Purity, True and Appa- rent. — The true coefficient of purity is the percentage of sucrose contained in the total solid matter in the product, and is calculated by dividing the percentage of sucrose by the percentage of total solids, as determined by drying, and multiplying the quotient by lOO. The apparent coefficient of purity is calculated as above, except that the degree Brix, as determined by spindling or from the specific gravity, is substituted for the percentage of solids, as ascertained by drying. This coefficient is also often termed the " quotient of purity," the " degree of purity," or the "exponent." The calculations may be much simplified by the use of Kottmann's table, page 295. It will be noticed that this table advances by .2 per cent sucrose. Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation. This is sufficiently ac- curate for all calculations based upon the degree Brix as ascertained by spindling, since this degree itself only ap- proximates the true percentage of solids. 107. Glucose Coefficient, or Glucose per lOO Sucrose. — This coefficient is frequently termed the " glu- cose ratio." Calculation. Per cent reducing sugars j the glucose (reducing Per cent sucrose "" ( sugars) coefficient. This coefficient is useful in detecting inversion. An increase in the glucose coefficient at different stages of the manufacture, provided there has been no removal of sucrose or decomposition of reducing sugars, shows that a portion of the sucrose has been inverted. 108. Saline Coefficient.— The saline coefficient is the quantity sucrose per unit of ash. DEFINITIONS OF THE) COEFFICIENTS. 127 Calculation, Per cent sucrose ,. ^ . — =; — = saline coeflScient. Per cent ash 109. Proportional Value. — This coefficient is em- ployed in comparing the manufacturing value of different samples of beets. Calculation. Per cent sucrose X coefficient of purity ~ = proportional value. loo *^ '^ 110. Apparent Dilution.— The apparent dilution is the amount of water added to the normal juice to in- crease its volume to that of the diffusion-juice. This is expressed in percentage terms of the normal juice. 111. Actual Dilution.— The actual dilution is the proportion of water added to the normal juice to reduce its percentage of sugar to that of the diffusion-juice; hence the actual dilution represents the evaporation necessary, per cent normal juice, to remove the added water. In calculat- ing the dilution we use either the percentage of sucrose or the degree Brix. In figuring coal consumption all state- ments should be based on the actual dilution. The nearer we approach a perfect extraction, the nearer the apparent dilution approaches the actual. 112. Coefficient of Org^anic Matter.— This co- efficient is the quantity of sucrose per unit of organic matter other than sucrose. The true coefficient and the apparent coefficient are calculated as follows, using the solids by drying for the former and the degree Brix as the per cent solids in the latter: Per cent sucrose _ Per cent total solids — (per cent sucrose -(- per cent ash) ~ coefficient of organic matter. The apparent coefficient of organic matter is of doubtful value. 128 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. DETERMINATION OF THE MARC. 113. Determination of the Marc— The marc is that portion of the sugar-beet which is insoluble in water. Direct and indirect methods are used for its determina- tion. In the direct methods, the soluble matter is removed with water, under certain temperature conditions. The in- direct methods assume that a juice can be obtained, by heavily pressing the pulp, which has the mean composition of all the juice in the beet. The investigations of distin- guished chemists indicate the presence of water that holds little if any sugar in solution, and which is termed, by the Germans, " Co/oi'd-wasser." In view of this fact, indirect methods cannot be depended upon for other than approxi- mate results, hence are not given in this work. Method of von Lippmann. — Place 20 grams of the finely ground sample in a basket of wire netting. The mesh must be very fine, and any portions of the pulp which pass it, in the subsequent operations, must be returned. Insert the basket in a current of water heated to 65° to 70° C. for 30 to 35 minutes, or until the pulp yields no more soluble matter. Drain the exhausted pulp, then complete the washing with a mixture of alcohol and ether. This last washing is for the displacement of part of the remaining water, and thus facilitates the drying. Dry the exhausted pulp, at first slowly at a temperature of 80° to 90° C, and then complete the drying at 100° C. to constant weight. Cool in a desiccator and weigh quickly. Weight of residue -*- 20 X K)o = per cent marc, and 100 — per cent marc = per cent juice contained in the beet. Method of Pellet. — For convenience in the manipulations, DETEliMINATIOJ^ OF THE MARC. 139 Fig. 51. Pellet uses the apparatus shown in section in Fig. 51 1 Ct c is a small cylinder of finely perforated metal that fits snugly into an outer vessel or envelope of copper, F, V, V, perforated at the lower part ; a perforated disk, fl, a, provided with a stem or rod, S, fits snugly into the cylinder. The cylinder is large enough to hold 25 to 50 grams of beet-pulp. Tare the cylinder 'and disk and place 25 to 50 grams of very finely divided pulp in it. The pulp should be such as is suitable for Pellet's diffusion method, 62. Place the cylinder in the envelope, the disk on top of the pulp, and the entire apparatus in a funnel. Wash with cold water, i.e., at the laboratory temperature. With 25 grams of pulp, allowing 10 to 12 minutes for the filtration, the ex- traction is complete with 500 cc. of water. It is simpler to direct a stream of water upon the disk, maintaining a uniform level, and using about 2000 cc. for the extraction. Return the first portions of the extract, since it may con- tain fine particles of pulp. After the extraction is com- pleted, press the exhausted pulp, by means of the disk, then loosen the residue, with the stem, to facilitate the drying. It is convenient to pass a few cubic centimetres of strong alcohol through the pulp after pressing, to economize time in the desiccation. Dry the marc, and cal- culate its percentage as in the preceding method. 130 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAK-HOUSB CHEMISTS. VISCOSITY OF SUGAR-HOUSE PRODUCTS. 114. The Viscosity of Sirups, etc.— The study of the influence of the viscosity of the liquors upon the rate of evaporation, and upon the crystallization of the sugar, is receiving some attention in the European sugar-houses. Since it is within the power of the manufacturer to slightly modify the viscosity of the sirups, etc., in the purification, the importance of viscosity-tests is evident. Several models of viscosimeters are made, all of which are designed primarily for testing oils, but which may be readily applied to the examination of sugar-house products. These instruments may be divided into two classes — viz., the torsion-viscosimeter and flow-viscosimeters. There is but one torsion-instrument, that devised by Doolittle; there are many models of flow-viscosimeters, ranging from a simple pipette to complicated instruments with devices for controlling the temperature and flow. It is evident in viscosity comparisons that the same prod- ucts should be compared with one another at the same densities, i.e., juices should be reduced to a common degree Brix, and sirups to a degree common to all. So little of this work has been done with sugar-house products that there have been few opinions published rela- tive to a method of procedure. The following densities are recommended as standards: Juices, io° Brix; sirups, 40° Brix; molasses, 65° Brix. Doolittle Viscosimeter. — This instrument is well adapted for sugar-work. The following description is from that published by Doolittle in the American Engineer and RaiU road Journal: *' Having experimented with a number of these viscosim- eters (flow-instruments) in the laboratory of the Philadel- phia & Reading Railroad Company, we found them so very unsatisfactory where rapid and accurate work was required that we abandoned them all and designed an instrument on the above-mentioned principle (torsion-balance). In the VISCOSITY OF SUGAR-HOUSE PRODUCTS. 131 ':^i torsion-viscosimeter we have an instrument which, during the year and a half we have had it in daily use, has proved itself reliable, accurate, and satisfactory in every way. It is very easy to clean and manipulate, is adapted to oils of all ranges of viscosity, and reduces personal error to a minimum. "A glance at the cut will show how the principle has been applied. A steel wire is suspended from a firm sup- port and fastened to a stem which passes through a graduated horizontal disk, thus allowing us to measure accurately the torsion of the wire. The disk is adjusted so that the index-point reads exactly o, thus showing that that there is no torsion in the wire. A cylinder 2 in. long by i^ in. in diameter, having a slender stem by which to suspend it, is then immersed in the oil and fast- ened by a thumb-screw to the lower part of the stem of the disk. The oil-cup is sur- rounded by a bath of water or high fire-test oil, accord- ing to the temperature at which it is desired to take the viscosity. This tempera- ture being obtained, while the disk is resting on its supports, the wire is twisted 360° by rotating the milled head at the top. The disk being released, the cylinder rotates in the oil by virtue of the torsion of the wire. Fig. 52. "The action now observed is identical with that of the simple pendulum. 132 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. "If there were no resistance to be overcome, the disk would revolve back to o, and the momentum thus acquired would carry it 360" in the opposite direction. What we find is, that the resistance of the oil to the rotation of the cylinder causes the revolution to fall short of 360°, and that the greater the viscosity of the oil the greater will be the resistance, and hence the retardation. We find this retarda- tion to be a very delicate measure of the viscosity of the oil; " There are a number of ways in which this retardation may be read, but the simplest we have found to be directly in the number of degrees retardation between the first and second complete arcs covered by our rotating pendulum. For example, suppose we twist the wire 360" and release the disk so that rotation begins. In order to obtain an ab- solute reading to start from, which shall be independent of any slight error in adjustment, we ignore the fact that we have started from 360°, and take as our first reading the end of the first swing. Ignore the next reading, which is on the other side of the o point, as it belongs in common to both arcs. Take the third reading, which will be at the end of the second complete arc, and on the same side of the o point as the first reading. The difference between these two readings will be the number of degrees retardation caused by the viscosity of the oil. Suppose the readings are as follows: First reading, right hand 355.6° Second reading, left hand — ignore Third reading, right hand 338.2° 17.4° retardation. " In order to secure freedom from error, we make two tests: one by rotating the milled head to the right and the other to the left. If the instrument is in exact adjustment these two results will be the same; but if it is slightly out the mean of the two readings will be the correct reading." Flow-vis cosimeter. — Of the many efficient forms of fiow- viscosimeters a brief description of Engler's, which is pre- ferred by Dupont,' will suffice. * Bulletin de V Association des Chimistes, 14, 948. VISCOSITY OF SUGAB-HOUSE PRODUCTS. 133 Engler's apparatus is shown in Fig. 53. The inner or oil chamber has an accurate arrangement for measuring the Fig. 53. liquid. This chamber is surrounded by a water-bath. A plug at the centre closes the exit-tube. The apparatus is so arranged that the flow will be under the same conditions in comparative tests. In making a test, the inner chamber is filled to the mark with water at 20° C, this temperature being maintained by means of the water-bath. The plug is lifted and the time noted, in seconds, required for 200 cc. of the water to flow into the graduated flask. A stop-watch should be used in timing the flow. The inner chamber and the tube are thoroughly dried, and the chamber is filled with the liquid to be tested. The temperature of the water in the bath is again main- tained at 20° C. for some time, to insure a corresponding temperature of the liquid in the inner chamber. The plug is lifted as before, and the time in seconds required for the flow of 200 cc. of the liquid is again noted. This time, 134 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. divided by that required for the flow of the water is the specific viscosity of the liquid. It is usual, in testing oils, to state the viscosity as the number of seconds required for a given volume of the oil to flow through an orifice which will pass the same volume of a standard oil at the same temperature in a given time. It would be more convenient to state the viscosity of a sugar solution in this waya nd operate at a higher temper- ature than 20° C. jgiS^r^^iis' :u> vv , orij CONTROL OF THE OSMOSIS PROCESS. 135 CONTROL OF THE OSMOSIS PROCESS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MOLASSES. 115. Analytical Work.— The object of the osmosis process (dialysis) is the reduction of the proportion of the saline and organic impurities, so that an additional quantity of sugar can be removed from the molasses by crystalliza- tion. The proportion of saline matter in the molasses and in the by-products from the osmosis is so high that the apparent coefficients of purity are of but comparatively little value, and the time required for the determination of the true coefficients is so long that they cannot be made available for the immediate control. Notwithstanding the objections mentioned, manufacturers are compelled to be guided largely by the apparent purities in conducting the osmosis. The saline coefficient is a more reliable guide, but, unfortunately, its determination also requires much time. In actual practice, the following, determinations are usually made in the molasses, before and after osmosis, and in the osmosis water: Degree Brix, percentage of total solids by drying, percentage of sucrose, percentage of ash, the percentage of organic matter not sucrose by difference, the percentage of reducing-sugars, and the alkalinity due to lime. The following coefficients, true and apparent, should be calculated : Coefficient of purity, saline coefficient, glucose coefficient, and coefficient of organic matter. Practice and the expense of the application of the process, as compared with the value of the sugar recovered, must be the guides in determining the improvement to be made in the above coefficients. Gallois and Dupont give the following advice, in their manual,* relative to the character of molasses that may ^ Manuei- Agenda, 1891, p. 383. 136 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. be treated by this process with profit : " It is useless to dialyze molasses whose saline coefficient is higher than 6°, since it will yield a satisfactory quantity of sugar on fur- ther concentration. Molasses containing more than i per cent of reducing-sugars cannot be treated with profit. Mo- lasses containing much lime, especially organic salts of lime, are difficult to dialyze. Such molasses should receive a preliminary addition of carbonate of soda or acid phos- phate of barium to precipitate the lime, which must be re- moved. Molasses containing as much as 0.2 per cent of lime (CaO) should be treated as indicated. If there are in- dications of fermentation, or if the molasses is but slightly alkaline, neutral, or acid, caustic soda should be added." ANALYSIS OF SACCHAKATES. 137 ANALYSIS OF SACCHARATES. 116. Saccharates. — The various chemical processes for the extraction of the sugar from the molasses, usually depend upon its precipitation as a saccharate of lime or strontium. The precipitation of lead and barium sac- charates has been proposed, and used to a limited extent. These saccharates possess the requisite properties, but for commercial reasons lime and strontium are the precipitants almost exclusively employed. The following are the chemical formulae of the lime sac- charates, of which the tribasic is the most important: Monobasic saccharate, (C12H22O11). CaO Dibasic saccharate, (CisHaaOn)- 2CaO Tribasic saccharate, (CnHaaOn). sCaO Strontium forms two saccharates, the monobasic and the dibasic; barium forms a monobasic saccharate. The for- mulae of these saccharates are similar to those of the corre- sponding lime compounds. 117. Deterniiiiatloii of the Sucrose, Lime, Strontium, and Barium. — Mix a large quantity of the saccharate thoroughly to obtain a uniform sample, transfer a portion to a mortar and rub to a smooth paste. Titrate ten grams of this paste with normal hydrochloric acid solution (176), using phenolphthalein as an indicator. It is advisable to reduce the paste, before titration, with a few cc. of water. Calculation: i cc. normal hydrochloric acid will saturate .028 gram calcium oxide (CaO), 0.07671 gram harium oxide (BaO), or .0518 gram strontium oxide (SrO). Multiply the burette reading by the factor for cal- cium oxide, barium oxide, or strontium oxide, as given above, and this product by 10, to obtain the percentage of calcium oxide, etc., in the saccharate. , To determine the sucrose : To the normal weight of the 138 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. saccharate add acetic acid to slight acidity, using phe» nolphthalein as an indicator. Transfer the solution to a sugar-flask, add a few drops of subacetate of lead solution, dilute to loocc, mix the contents of the flask and filter. Polarize the filtrate in a 20o-mm. tube. The polariscopic reading is the percentage of sucrose in the saccharate. 118. Apparent and True Coefficients of Pu- rity. — Beat an indefinite quantity of the saccharate, to a cream, in a mortar with distilled water, add sufficient oxalic acid to combine with the greater part of the lime, being cautious not to add sufficient to decompose all of the sac- charate. Transfer the mixture to a strong flask, add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution, and saturate with car- bonic-acid gas from a suitable generator. The discharge of the color indicates the termination of the process. It is advisable to saturate under moderate pressure. Close the flask with a 2-hole stopper; pass the gas-delivery tube through one hole, nearly to the bottom of the flask, and in the other hole insert a short piece of tubing closed with a rubber tube and a pinch-cock. The cock should be opened from time to time at the beginning of the operation for the escape of air. If the gas from the lime-kiln be used for this saturation, the apparatus should be placed in a fume- chamber, and a regulator, on the principle of that shown in Fig. 49, should be connected with the short tube. ' On the completion of the saturation, boil the mixture to expel the excess of carbonic acid, and filter off the solution. Cool the filtrate and determine its density (Brix) and per cent sucrose as in juices, and calculate the apparent and true coefficients of purity. 119. Analysis of ** Mother-liquors " and Wash-waters. — The analysis of these products is made as described for saccharates (1 17), except that in the su- crose determination, only sufficient acetic acid should be added to neutralize the alkalinity, phenolphthalein being used as an indicator. EXAMINATION OF BONE-BLACK. 139 EXAMINATION OF BONE-BLACK. 120. Limited Use of Bone-black in Sngar Factories. — The use of bone-black, or char, as it is often termed, in sugar factories, is now very limited, it having been almost entirely replaced by sulphurous acid. In view of tkis fact, only a few essential tests are given. 121. Revivification. — The practical test to deter- mine whether the revivification has been properly con- dusted is qualitative, and employs a caustic-soda solution, as follows : Uml about 50 grams of bone-black two or three minutes in 50 cc. of a solution of caustic soda (9° Brix or 5° Baum6). Decant or filter the solution into a test-tube, using an as- bestos filter, and note its color. A faint tinge of color in- dicates a good revivification; a yellow or brown color indicates insufficient revivification; a colorless or greenish solution indicates over-revivification. This test is of great importance, and should be made frequently. A reddish- tisged char indicates imperfect revivification; gray, leakage ®f air into the retorts; and white, an overburned bone-black. 122. Weight of a Cubic Foot of Bone-black. — Bone-black increases in weight each time it is used, by the absorption of impurities which are not removed in the revivification. This gradual increase in weight is a meas- ure of the deterioration from usage. The weight per cubic foot depends in a large measure upon the size of the grains, and in new char will range from about 43 to 48 lbs. On commencing work with new char its weight per cubic foot should be recorded, and this weight employed in future comparisons. According to Gallois and Dupont,^ the weight of bone-black of good quality, while in use, should not exceed 1.23 times its weight when new; at 1.47 it is in a very bad condition; and at 1.50 times the original weight it should be rejected. * Manuel- Agenda des Fabricants de Sucre, 1891, p. 307, Ch. Gallois and F. Dupont. 140 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ! 128. Sulphide of Calcium.— A greenish color on treatment with caustic soda, as in 121, is an indication of the presence of sulphide of calcium. Occasional tests should be made for this substance, since its presence very materially affects the quality of the bone-black, and when it is present in more than very small quantities, the char snould be rejected. This salt may be tested for qualita- tively by treating the char with strong acid and testing the gas liberated for sulphuretted hydrogen. 124. Moisture. — The moisture should be determined in new bone-black, since this substance is very hygroscopic. An increase over 6 per cent moisture is an excess chargeable to the dealer, and for which the sugar manufacturer should not pay. Bone-black may absorb 20 per cent of moisture without showing external indications of this increase. 125. Decolorizing Power of the Bone-black. — The decolorizing power of bone-black is determined by means of a colorimeter. Stammer's instrument for this purpose is a very convenient form, and the results obtained by different operators are comparable. This instrument consists essentially of an arrangement for comparing the depth of color of a column of sugar solution with standard- colored glass plates. An ocular is so arranged that the color of the solution under examination appears upon one half of a disk, and that of the standard glass on the other. The eyepiece and a tube containing the glasses are raised and lowered by means of »a rack and pinion, the length of the column of solution being varied at the same time; this length is shown on a scale by means of a pointer, carried by a slide. The theory of this instrument depends upon the variations in the intensity of the color of the so- lution, which is proportionate to the length of the column. In using the colorimeter, the object is to equalize the in- tensities of the colors as seen on the disk through the ocular, by lengthening or shortening the column of the solu- tion under examination. The strength of solution being known, a comparative statement of depth of color in terms of the sucrose present may be made, or the reading on the scale may easily be reduced to an expression showing the depth of color as compared with the standard. EXAMINATION OF BONE-BLACK. 141 This instrument may be used in determining the decolor- izing power of a char in the following manner: A standard-color solution should be prepared, using car- amel, a definite quantity being taken. Duboscq recom- mends 2 grams per litre for his instrument. Prepare the caramel by heating pure cane-sugar to about 215° C, until all the sugar is decomposed. In examining bone-black, determine the depth of color in the standard solution, then heat a measured volume of this solution with a weighed portion of the char a certain length of time, for example, half an hour, filter, and again determine the intensity of color. The difference in the depth of color referred to the standard represents the efficiency of the bone-black in de- colorizing. In sugar-house work, a standard bone black of a known decolorizing capacity is convenient for compari- son. Comparable results can only be obtained by adopting certain conditions and adhering to them in all experiments. The decolorizing power may be roughly determined, in the absence of a colorimeter, as follows: Treat a measured volume of a standard-color solution as described above. Fill a cylinder, similar to those used in Nesslerizing, to a certain depth with the decolorized and filtered solution; place the same volume of the standard solution in a similar cylinder, and add water to the latter from a burette until a portion of the same depth as that of the decolorized solu- tion shows the same intensity of color when examined over a white background. The volume of water added is in- versely proportional to the decolorizing power of the char. 126. Determination of the Principal Con- stituents. — The constituents which it is sometimes necessary to determine in the examination of bone-black are the following: moisture, carbon, carbonate, sulphate, sulphide, and phosphates of calcium, sand and other foreign substances. The moisture is determined by drying 2 grams of the powdered bone-black at 140° to 150° C. The other constituents are determined by the usual methods of quantitative analysis as given in the various text-books. 142 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE LIME-KILN AND CHIM- NEY GASES. 127. Analysis of the Gas from the Linie-kilii. — Carbonic acid (COa) is the valuable constituent of the gas. The other gases which are present and should be quantita- tively determined in the control of the lime-kiln are car- bonic oxide (CO) and oxygen (O). Hydrosulphuric acid (H2S) and sulphurous acid (SOa) are sometimes present in traces. The following analyses' illustrate the, usual com- position of the gas, as reported by six sugar-houses, and will be a guide in the analysis : A B C D E F Carbonic acid, pr. ct., 31-2 30 27 25 to 30 29-5 33 Carbonic oxide, " 1.6 0.5 3 0.5 Oxygen, 1-3 I 2.5 1.5 Nitrogen, by differ- ence, pr. ct., 65.9 71-5 69.75 Sulphurous acid, pr. ct,, 0.75 A modification of Orsat's apparatus, Fig. 54, is convenient for use in this analysis. It consists essentially of a burette for measuring the gases and a series of pipettes or U-tubes for their absorption. The burette A has a capacity of 100 cc, ; the lower part is divided into cubic centimetres and tenths ; it is enclosed in a cylinder, which is filled with water, in order to avoid variations in the temperature of the gas during measurement. The U-tubes B, C, and Z> are filled with the reagents for absorbing the gases. The sur- faces exposed to the gases are increased by filling the U-tubes with small glass tubes. The connecting tubes are of very small internal diame- ter and are made of heavy glass. Prepare the solutions for 1 Bu^. Assoc, des Chimistes de France, ANALYSTS OF THE LIME-KILK GASES. 143 absorbing the gases as follows and fill each U-tube about half full: For tube B : Use a concentrated solution of caustic potas- sium (KHO) of about 60° Brix. For tube C : Dissolve 25 parts of pyrogallic acid in 50 parts of hot water and add 100 parts of caustic potassium solution Fig. 54. of approximately 50° Brix. The volume of the U-tube should be ascertained, and only sufficient of this solution should be prepared to half fill the tube. For tube D : Cuprous chloride for filling this tube may be quickly prepared by the following method : Dissolve 35 grams of cupric chloride in a small quantity of water and add stannous chloride in excess as indicated by the change in the color of the solution. Cuprous chloride, insoluble in water, separates as a white crystalline precipitate. Wash ihe cuprous chloride several times, by decantation, with jlistilled water. Avoid exposing the precipitate to the action of the air more *han is strictly necessary. In the last washing, pour off the water close to the precipitate, then dis- 144 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. solve the latter in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and wash it into a bottle with this acid, using in all 200 cc. : dilute the solution with approximately 120 cc. of water. Place a few pieces of copper wire or turnings in the bottle, stopper it, and set it aside until required for filling the tube. The following method may be used instead of the above : Place 35 grams of cupric chloride in a glass-stoppered bottle, add 200 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid and a quantity of copper turnings or fragments of copper-foil. Stopper the flask and set aside for two days, shaking oc- casionally ; add 120 cc. water (Wagner). The excess of this solution over the quantity required for filling the tube should be preserved as described above. Fill the bottle F with distilled water and set it on the table. Close the cocks on the tubes B, C, and D, and turn the 3-way cock G so that it connects the burette with the outer air. Lift the bottle F until the water fills the burette, then close the pinch-cock. A U-tube, partly filled with water, and having each branch loosely plugged with cotton, is connected with the tube By and has a tube for connection with the pipe leading from the carbonic-acid pump. Having filled the burette, close D and place the bottle F on the table ; open the cock on the U-tube B, then cautiously open the pinch-cock, and as the water flows out of the bu- rette the caustic potash solution will rise in B ; close the pinch-cock when the potash solution reaches the mark on the tube just below the stop-cock. Fill the burette again and repeat these manipulations with Cand Z> successively. Care must be exercised not to let the liquids rise to the stop-cocks. Pour a little kerosene oil on the surface of the solutions in those limbs of the U-tubes at the back of the apparatus, to protect thern from the action of the air. A small pipe should be led from the gas-main to a con- venient place in the laboratory, where the apparatus can be permanently arranged for these analyses. The pipe should terminate in a pet-cock for drawing the samples of gas. Connect the open branch of the U-tube at the inlet E with the pet-cock. The apparatus is now ready for test- ANALYSIS OF THE LIME-KILN GASES. 145 ing. If there be no leaks, the cock G being open to the gas-inlet, the pet-cock closed, and the pinch-cock open, the water-column in the burette should sink a little, then remain stationary. Having satisfactorily tested the connections, proceed to the analysis as follows : Fill the burette to the loo-cc. mark with water, close the pinch-cock, and place the bottle ^on the table ; turn the 3-way cock G so that it con- nects with the open air and with the capillary tube leading to the burette, then open the pet-cock carefully and let the gas bubble through the U-tube connected with JS" and ex- pel the air from the tubes, including that leading from the gas-main. Disconnect the apparatus from the open air, and let the gas flow slowly into the burette, by opening the pinch-cock. Hold the bottle F so that the level of the water in it is the same as that in the burette; when the latter reaches the lowest graduation, which should be zero, close the 3 way cock. Relieve any pressure there may be in the apparatus by manipulating the 3-way cock C, opening it to the air. To determine the carbonic acid (CO2) in the gases, open the cock on the U-tube B, containing caustic potash solution, and by raising the bottle F force the gases into the tube, and close the pinch-cock ; lower the bottle to the table, and, by gradually opening the pinch-cock, let the potash so- lution rise to the mark. Repeat this manipulation two or three times, holding the bottle F close to the burette, each time, with the water in the two at the same level. As soon as there is no further decrease in the volume of the gas, close the cock on B and read the burette, being careful to hold the bottle so that the water-level is the same in both it and the burette. The rise of the water in the burette corre- sponds to the percentage by volume of carbonic acid (CO2) in the gas. Repeat these manipulations, using the U-tube C containing the pyrogallate of potassium. The burette reading is the sum of the percentages of carbonic acid and oxygen. Again repeat, using the U-tube D containing the cuprous chloride. This burette reading is the sum of the percentages of carbonic acid, oxygen, and carbonic oxide (CO). The separate percentages are obtained by subtrac- tion. The residual gas, consisting almost entirely of nitro- gen, is expelled by lifting the water-bottle after opening 146 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the cock G. The burette should be left filled with water to the loo-cc. mark, and it is then always ready for a new ianalysis. The cocks should be well greased with a mix- ture of vaseline and mutton tallow. The pipe leading from the main should always be well rinsed with the gases before each test. The solutions in the U-tubes should be changed as soon as the absorption becomes sluggish, which will be after 150 determinations or more. The order indicated of ab- sorbing the gases should be followed. The lime-kiln gases may also contain small quantities of hydrosulphuric acid (H2S) and sulphurous acid (SO2), from sulphur in the coke. The former gas is tested for with filter-paper dipped in subacetate of lead solution, or by passing the gases into the lead solution. A black precipitate of sulphide of lead is formed in the presence of this gas. Sulphurous acid is tested for by shaking a little of the gas, in a test-tube, with iodized starch solution. In the presence of sulphurous acid the blue color is discharged. 128. Simple Apparatus for the Deteriniiui- tioii of Carbonic Acid in Lime-kiln Gases (Stammer). — This apparatus consists of a 50 cc. gas- burette, in i/io cc, with glass stop-cock, the measurement from the stop-cock; also a large glass cylinder of suflScient depth to immerse the greater part of the burette. Fill the cylinder and the burette with water; connect the delivery- tube of the burette with the gas-main, as with Orsat's ap- paratus, holding the burette vertically with the mouth under the water in the cylinder. Fill the burette with the gas and close the stop-cock. Immerse the burette in the water to the lowest graduation, then open the cock for the escape of gas until the water stands at the same level inside and outside the tube. Pass a small piece of caustic sodium or potassium under the surface of the water and into the burette, placing the thumb over the mouth of the latter. Remove the burette from the water and shake it, to bring the caustic soda in contact with the gas. Place the mouth of the tube under the water, move the thumb a little to one side to permit the rise of the water to take the place of the carbonic acid ANALYSIS OF THE CHIMNEY GASES. 147 absorbed. Repeat these manipulations until there is no further rise of water in the burette. Lower the burette in the cylinder until the level of the water is the same in both, then note the rise in the water. Multiply this number by 2 to obtain the percentage of carbonic acid. The results by this method are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. 129. Analysis of the Cliiiuuey Gases.— The analysis of the chimney gases is conducted in the same manner as that of the gas from the lime-kiln (127), except that it is necessary to use a pump or a double-acting rubber bulb in drawing the samples. It is usually only necessary to determine the carbonic acid (CO2), carbonic oxide (CO), and the oxygen (O). With a good boiler-setting and satisfactory firing, the proportion of carbonic acid should be large, and that of the carbonic oxide very small. 148 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS, ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE. 130. Preparatiou of the Sample.— Fragments should be chipped from a large number of pieces of the stone, and reduced to a uniform size, then mixed and sub- sampled by "quartering." The small sample should be reduced to a very fine powder in an iron mortar or on a grinding-plate. Particles of metallic iron, from the mortar or plate, should be removed by stirring the powder with a magnet. Sift the powder through an 8o-mesh sieve, and mix thoroughly by sifting or otherwise. 131. Deteriniuation of Moisture.— Dry 2 grams of the powdered stone to constant weight in a tared fiat dish or a watch-glass. The oven should be heated to 210° C. The loss of weight divided by 2 and multiplied by 100 is the percentage of moisture. 132. Determiuatiou of Sand, Clay, and Or- ganic Matter. — Treat i gram of the powdered lime- stone, in a beaker, with a few cubic centimetres of hydro- chloric acid, being cautious, in adding the acid, to_ prevent the projection of particles of the material from the glass. Cover the beaker with a watch-glass and heat the liquid a few minutes. Collect the residue on a tared quanti- tative filter, wash it thoroughly with hot water, and reserve the filtrate (A) for further treatment. Dry the filter and residue to constant weight at iio" C. The weight of the residue multiplied by 100 is the percentage of sand, clay, and organic matter. Place the filter and residue in a tared platinum crucible and incinerate. The weight of the residue (A) multiplied by 100 is the percentage of sand and clay (silica and combined silica and alumina). The differ- ence between this percentage and that obtained before incineration is the percentage of organic matter. 133. Determination of Soluble Silica.— Evapo- rate the filtrate (A) from the preceding determination to ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE. 149 strict dryness, on the water-bath, using a platinum or porcelain dish. Moisten the residue with hydrochloric acid and again evaporate to dryness. It is advisable to continue the heat for an hour or longer after apparent dryness, to insure the insolubility of the silica. Treat the residue with dilute hydrochloric acid ; collect the insoluble portion on a small quantitative filter and wash it thoroughly with hot water until free of chlorides. Reserve the filtrate (B) for further use. Partially dry the filter and contents, then in- sert it in a tared platinum crucible, and char it by the appli- cation of a very gentle heat. If charred too rapidly, there may be difficulty in subsequently burning off the carbon. Increase the heat until the filter is completely incinerated, and then raise to bright redness. Cool in a desiccator and weigh. The weight of the ash of good quantitative filters, or of the so-called " ashless filters," is so small that it need not be taken into account. The weight of the residue, multiplied by loo, is the per- centage of silica, SiOa, in the soluble silicates of the stone. 134. Determination of Total Silica. — Mix the residue A (139), in the platinum crucible with four or five times its weight of ^ mixed carbonates of sodium and potassium, and fuse at a red heat. Continue the heat about 30 minutes after the contents of the crucible are in a quiet state of fusion. Remove the bulk of the mass from the crucible, while still warm, with a platinum wire, to facilitate the subsequent solution. Place the crucible and the material removed from it in a beaker and treat with dilute hydrochloric acid, being careful to avoid loss by the projection of the liquid from the glass. Use heat, if required. Wash and remove the crucible. Filter the solution and evaporate to strict dryness, as under soluble silica in the preceding paragraph (133). Treat with dilute hydrochloric acid, collect the residue as before, and reserve the filtrate (C). Incinerate and heat to bright redness, weigh, and calculate the per- • Use strictly chemically pure, dry carbonate of sodium and potassium, mixed in molecular proportions and finely powdered. The proportions are io6 parts sodium carbonate to 138 parts potassium carbonate. 150 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. centage of silica as described in the preceding paragraph. Subtract the percentage of soluble from that of the total silica, to obtain the percentage of silica present as sand in insoluble silicates. 135. Determination of Iron and Alumina.— Combine filtrates A, B, and C from the preceding opera- tions and concentrate to a convenient volume. Add a slight excess of pure ammonia while the solution is still hot, boil until only a slight odor of ammonia can be detected, collect the precipitate on a small filter, filtering rapidly while the solution is hot. If there be considerable iron and alumina present, it is advisable to dissolve the precipitate with dilute hydrochloric acid and reprecipitate with ammonia as directed above, uniting the filtrates (D). Partly dry both filters, and incinerate as advised in 133. If the so-called ashless filters be used, no correction need be made for the weight of the ash from the two filters. The residue consists of the mixed oxides of iron and alumina (FcaOa , AI2O3). Multiply the weight of the resi- due by 100 to •btain the percentage. It is not usually necessary to determine the iron and alumina separately. If required, however, proceed as follows: Treat i gram of the powdered limestone with concentrated hydrochloric acid, most conveniently in a platinum dish. Evaporate to strict dryness, moisten with hydrochloric acid, and again dry on the water-bath, as described in 133, in the silica determination. Treat the residue with dilute hydrochloric acid, with heat, and filter; wash the filter with hot water, and treat the filtrate with ammonia, as described above, to precipitate the iron and alumina. Wash the precipitate into a small dish, dissolve it in sulphuric acid, and evaporate the solution nearly to dryness. Wash the residue into an Erlenmeyer flask, being cautious in the first addition of water. The iron is now most conveniently determined by titra- tion with a standardized solution of permanganate of potassium (202). Add a small quantity of pure zinc-dust to the solution in the flask, to reduce the iron from the ferric to the ferrous state, and titrate with the decinormal permanganate solu- ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE. 151 tion. This solution is added until a faint permanent pink color is produced. Multiply the burette reading by .008 to obtain the weight of ferric oxide in i gram of the stone. Multiply this weight by 100 to obtain the percentage of ferric oxide (FeaO»); subtract this number from the com- bined percentages of iron and alumina, as obtained above, to obtain the percentage of alumina. 136. Deteriuiiiatioii of Calcium,— To the filtrate from the iron and alumina determination (D), correspond- ing to I gram of the stone, add sufficient hydrochloric acid to render it slightly acid. Concentrate this solution to a convenient volume, neutralize with ammonia, heat to boil- ing, and add an excess of boiling-hot oxalate of ammoniunv solution. Set aside for 12 hours, then collect the precipi- tate of oxalate of calcium on a quantitative filter, wash with cold water (filtrate E), dry and incinerate the filter in a tared platinum crucible, then ignite the residue strongly. The residue consists of almost pure calcium oxide (CaO), and maybe weighed as such, or, more accurately, it may be converted into the sulphate (CaS04) or carbonate (CaCOa), and weighed as such. It requires less time and labor to convert into the sulphate, using the following solution: Dilute one volume of sulphuric acid with an equal vol- ume of water, and neutralize three parts of stronger water of ammonia with this acid, then add two parts of ammonia. Dissolve 2 grams of ammonium chloride in each 100 cc. of this solution. Filter, if necessary, and preserve for use in calcium determinations. Strictly chemically pure reagents must be used in preparing this solution. Add an excess of the ammonium sulphate solution, pre- pared as above, to the residue in the crucible, evaporate to dryness, ignite strongly, cool and weigh. The weight of the residue multiplied by .41158 gives the weight of calcium oxide (CaO), and by .73416 the weight of calcium carbonate (CaCOs), in i gram of the stone, and these numbers multiplied by 100 give the percentages of calcium oxide (quicklime) and calcium carbonate, respectively. The residue may be converted directly into calcium car- bonate, if preferred, as follows: Mix it with finely pow- dered ammonium carbonate, moisten with water, heat 152 HANDBOOK TOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. some time to expel the ammonia at a temperature between 50° and 80° C, then below a red heat. Repeat this opera- tion until a constant weight of carbonate of calcium is obtained. The weight of the carbonate of calcium multi- plied by .56 gives the weight of calcium oxide in i gram of the stone. The weight of calcium carbonate multiplied by 100 is the percentage of calcium carbonate, or that of the calcium oxide multiplied by 100 is the percentage of this substance. 137. Determination of Magnesium.— To the filtrate E, from the calcium determination (136), after concentration to approximately 100 cc, corresponding to I gram of the stone, add a slight excess of ammonium hydrate, then add, drop by drop, with vigorous stirring, sodium phosphate solution in excess to precipitate the magnesium as a phosphate. After 15 minutes add a decided excess of ammonia. Set aside several hours, preferably overnight, to insure the complete precipitation. Collect the precipitate in a Gooch crucible, wash with dilute ammonia, i part stronger ammonia, 0.96 specific gravity, to 3 parts water. The washing should be con- tinued until a drop of silver nitrate solution added to a drop of the filtrate, acidulated with nitric acid, produces at most only a faint opalescence. The precipitate is ammo- nium-magnesium phosphate; dry it, first at a gentle heat, then increase the temperature to expel the ammonia, and finally ignite a few minutes in the flame of a blast-lamp to convert the residue into pyrophosphate of magnesium. Cool the residue in a desiccator and weigh it. The weight of the magnesium pyrophosphate (MgjPsOT) multiplied by .36208 gives the corresponding weight of magnesium oxide. The magnesium is present in limestone as carbonate. To obtain the weight of the carbonate, multiply the weight of the pyrophosphate by .7574. Multiply by 100 to obtain the percentages of the weight of the stone. In limestones which contain very little magnesium, the method proposed by Prinsen Geerligs and modified by Herzfeld ^ and Forster may be used. Dissolve 2 grams of" 1 Zeit. RUbenzucker -Industrie, 1896. ANALYSIS OF LIMESTOKE. 153 the powdered stone in concentrated hydrochloric acid in a porcelain dish. Evaporate to dryness on a hot-plate or sand-bath, then heat over a naked flame, to render the silica insoluble. Treat the residue with hydrochloric acid, boil, add a few drops of nitric acid, and evaporate to small bulk, to expel the greater part of the acid.. Dilute the solution with water, and add an excess of calcium carbonate, to pre- cipitate the iron and alumina and filter into a flask, wash- ing the precipitate with hot water. Add lime-water in excess to the filtrate, mix, then fill the flask to almost the top of the neck with water. Stopper the flask and set it aside for the precipitate to settle, then decant the super- natant liquid through a filter, and wash the precipitate by decantation as before. Dissolve the precipitate, including any particles which may adhere to the filter, using hydro- chloric acid. Precipitate the calcium from the solution, as described in 136, with oxalate of ammonium, and remove it by filtration; precipitate the magnesium as ammonium- magnesium phosphate, and convert it into the pyrophos- phate as already described. 138. Deteriiiiuation of Carbonic Acid.— It is not usually necessary to determine the carbonic acid, as it may be calculated from the quantity required to combine with the lime and magnesia, except when sulphates are present. The gravimetric determination is made with one of the various forms of alkalimeters. Knorr's apparatus, Fig. 55, is one of the best of these. The method of using this ap- paratus is as follows: A weighed quantity, 5 grams or more, of the finely powdered limestone, is introduced into the flask (Fig. 55), with 50 cc. or more of distilled water. The tube G is connected with a filter-pump to draw a cur- rent of air through the apparatus during the entire pro- cess. The bulb B contains the acid for decomposing the stone, preferably concentrated hydrochloric. Cis a guard- tube, filled with fragments of caustic soda or potash, or with soda-lime, to prevent the entrance of carbonic acid, with the air. Open the stop-cock on the bulb-tube B and admit the acid slowly; the liberated gas passes into the tube /?, where most of the moisture is condensed, thence 154 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. through the bulbs E, containing concentrated sulphuric acid, which removes every trace of moisture ; the dry gas bubbles through the tared bulbs F, containing a caustic potash solution of 1.27 specific gravity, which absorbs the carbonic acid, and the residual air, containing moisture from the potash solution, passes on through the guard- tube F, which absorbs the moisture, and escapes through G and the filter-pump. The gas should flow at the rate of Fig. 55. 4 to 5 bubbles per second. When the bulb B is empty, heat the contents of the flask carefully, fiinally boiling the liquid slowly, to expel the carbonic acid. Air should be passed through the apparatus for a few minutes after boiling, to insure the removal of all the carbonic acid. Caps should be placed over the inlet and outlet tubes of F while making the v.eighings, to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid or moisture. When the operation is com- pleted, place the bulbs and guard-tube F in the balance- case, and after a few minutes, weigh. The increase in weight divided b;^ the weight of material used and multi- plied by 100 is the i,crcentage of carbonic acid. A similar apparatus may be fitted up, using an ordinary ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE. 155 flask, with cork connections and an empty U-tube, as rec- ommended by Gladding, instead of the condenser D. In the determination of carbonic acid with Schroetter's or similar apparatus, proceed as follows: The description refers to Fig. 56. Fill the tube on the left, to above the upper bulb, with concentrated sulphuric acid, and that on the right with dilute hydrochloric acid. Weigh the flask and contents, then introduce approximately 1.5 to 2 grams of the powdered limestone by the opening at the left and weigh again. The difference in the two weights is the weight of the powder used. Lift the stop- per on the hydrochloric-acid tube, and open , ,,,.,., . , T , Fig. 56. the stop-cock and admit a little acid. In the decomposition of the stone, the carbonic acid is given off and bubbles through the sulphuric acid, which retains any watery vapor that would otherwise pass off with the gas. Repeat this operation from time to time until no more car- bonic acid is disengaged. Add small excess of the hydro- chloric acid. Heat gently, to expel the carbonic acid from the solution, cool, and weigh. After cooling and wiping the apparatus, it should be placed inside the balance case a few minutes before weighing. The loss in weight is the weight of carbonic acid set free. Divide this weight by the weight of limestone used and multiply by 100 to obtain the percentage of carbonic acid. The carbonic acid in the limestones, used in sugar-manu- facture, is almost entirely combined with the calcium; a small portion is usually combined with magnesium, and occasionally the stone contains a vein of dolomite, a car- bonate of calcium and magnesium. In the absence of gyp- sum, sulphate of calcium, if either the percentages of calcium or magnesium and carbonic acid are given, the percentages of the two carbonates may be calculated: The percentage of calcium oxide (CaO) X 1-7857 = percentage of calcium carbonate (CaCOa); the percentage of carbonic acid in the magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) multiplied by 1. 916 = the percentage of magnesium carbonate. Example. — A sample of limestone contains 54.8 per cent 156 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. calcium oxide and 43.4 per cent carbonic acid ; required, the percentages of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbon- ate. Calculation, 54.8 X 1.7875 = 97.96, per cent calcium carbonate. 97.96—54.8 = 43.16, carbonic acid in the calcium car- bonate. 43.4 —43.16 = 0.24, carbonic acid in the magnesium carbonate. 0.24 X 1. 916 = 0.46, the per cent magnesium carbonate. Many sugar-house chemists calculate the carbonates in this way in order to economize time. In many cases this method will supply all the information necessary relative to the purity of the stone, but it is not usually advisable to depend entirely upon it. A serious objection to this process is the fact that there may be slight errors in the determina- tions of the calcium and carbonic acid which would lead to false deductions. It is advisable, as a rule, to determine both the bases and the acid. 139. Dstermiriation of Sulphuric Acid.— The limestone may contain small quantities of sulphate of calr cium, which is calculated from the percentage of sulphuric acid. Digest 5 grams or more of the powdered limestone with hydrochloric acid, using heat. Dilute the solution, fil- ter, and wash the residue thoroughly with hot water. Evap- orate the filtrate to a very small bulk, to remove the greater part of the acid. Precipitate the sulphuric acid with barium chloride, as described in the analysis of coke (149). The weight of barium sulphate (BaS04) X .34271 -^ weight of limstone used X 100 = percentage of sulphuric anhydride (SO3); the weight of barium sulphate X .5828 -f- weight of limestone used X 100 = percentage of calcium sulphate. 140. Notes on the Analysis of liimestone.— It may be necessary in some of the determinations to use a larger portion of the stone than i gram. If so, it is more convenient to use a multiple of i gram, and dissolve and dilute to a definite volume 5 grams to 500 cc, for example. ANALYSIS OF LIMESTOiq"E. 157 and use measured portions of this solution for the deter- minations. A Gooch crucible will often be found much more con- venient for the filtrations and ignitions than filter-paper and an ordinary crucible. In the methods of analysis, only those determinations are given which are necessary in judging a limestone for su- gar-house purposes. A number of analyses of limestones is given on page 213, with remarks on the values of the stones for use in sugar manufacture. Sundstrom ' has suggested a method for the rapid analysis of a limestone, an abstract of which follows: (A) Weigh two portions of i gram each of the finely- powdered sample, transfer to a small dish and add about 100 cc. of distilled water to each. To one portion add 25 cc. of normal hydrochloric acid (197), cover the dish with a watch-glass until all action ceases ; heat to boiling, cool, and titrate with normal sodium hydrate (201), using methyl orange as an indicator. The number of cc.'s of normal hydrochloric acid — the number of cc.'s of normal soda solution = cc.'s of normal hydrochloric acid required to saturate the carbonates of lime and magnesia. (6) To the second portion of i gram cautiously add 5 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid, keeping the dish covered to avoid loss. After all effervescence ceases, evaporate the material to complete dryness over a low flame. When dry, cool, take up with a little hot water and a few drops of hydrochloric acid ; heat to boiling, filter through an ashless filter, washing all insoluble portions into the filter, and wash free of all traces of chlorides with boiling water. (C) Dry the filter and contents; ignite in a platinum cruci- ble to bright redness, cool under a desiccator and weigh for silica. (SiOa). (D) Neutralize the filtrate and washings from (B) with ammonium hydrate, in slight excess ; heat to boiling, col- lect the precipitate and wash free of chlorides. Dry and ignite the filter and contents; cool and weigh for oxides of iron and aluminum (FejOs and AUOs). > Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry^ 16. sao. 158 HANDBOOK POU StGAft-HOUSE CMEMlSTS. (E) Heat the filtrate and washings from (D) to boiling, add a concentrated solution of oxalate of ammonium, also heated to boiling. Allow to stand until clear, which, if the analysis have been rightly conducted, requires two or three minutes ; decant the clear solution into a filter, dissolve the precipitate in hydrochloric acid and repre- cipitate with ammonium hydrate. Allow to settle aind de- cant as before, and then wash the whole precipitate into the filter and wash with hot water until free of chlorides and oxalates. Dry the filter and contents, ignite in a platinum crucible, at first cautiously, then over a blast- lamp, until the residue is converted into calcium oxide (daO) ; cool under a desiccator, weigh and calculate the weight of calcium carbonate (CaCOa). Titrate the residue with norrrial hydrochloric acid as a check. Divide the percentage of calcium carbonate by 5 (= cc. of ^'6rmal hydrochloric acid required for calcium carbonate), 'Subtract the quotient from the number of cc. of normal hydrochldric acid required for (A), and multiply the re- mainder by 4.2 to obtain the percentage of MgCOs. ' '' Suhdstrom states that this method is very rapid and sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. bv^TtJvoD rfstb drfJ :^ n^d'^r .-: •^.:: •. - ' . to '■.qo-'.b •■ baa viG ANALYSIS OF LIME. 159 ANALYSIS OF LIME. 141. Determination of the Calcium Oxide (Ijime). — Add suflScient water (30 cc. ca.) to 10 grams of lime, in a mortar, to form a thick milk. Add an excess of pure sucrose in the form of a solution of 35-40° Brix and mix intimately with the lime which dissolves, a soluble saccharate being formed. Transfer the solution and residue to a loo-cc. flask, using a sugar solution of the above composition to wash the last portions from the mortar and to complete the volume to 100 cc. ; mix and filter. Titrate 10 cc. of the filtrate with a normal solution of hy- drochloric acid (107), using phenolphthalein or lacmoid as an indicator. The burette reading X .028 = the weight of calcium oxide (CaO) in i gram of the lime, and X 100 = per- centage of calcium oxide. 142. Determination of the Proportion of Un- burned and Slalced Lime. — Slake i gram of lime with water, add an excess of normal sulphuric acid (178) and heat to expel carbonic acid if present; add a few drops of cochineal solution (215) or other suitable indicator, and ascertain the excess of sulphuric acid used, by titration with normal sodium hydrate (180). Calculation: (cc. of normal sulphuric acid — cc. of normal soda solution) X .028 = the total weight of calcium, as calcium oxide, in i gram of the lime, and X 100 = the percentage of total calcium as calcium oxide. This number — percentage of calcium oxide (141) = percentage of unburned and slaked lime as cal- cium oxide. 143. Determination of Calcium Oxide, etc. Degener-Lunge Method. — Both the above determi- nations may be made with one titration, using phenacetoline as suggested by Degener and applied by Lunge. Slake a weighed portion of the lime with water, add a few 160 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. drops of phenacetoline solution and titrate with normal hydrochloric acid. Add the acid until the yellow color changes to a red, and read the burette. This reading multiplied by .028 gives the weight of calcium oxide. Con- tinue the addition of the acid; the solution remains of a red color until all the calcium is saturated, then changes to a golden yellow. It is advisable to make this titration a few times for practice with material of known composition. The burette reading multiplied by .028 gives the total weight of calcium as calcium oxide. The unburned and slaked limes are determined by difference. 144. Complete Analysis. — The methods described for limestones, page 148, may be applied for a further analysis of the lime if requiretL AiJALYSlS OF SULPHUB. 161 ANALYSIS OF SULPHUR. 146. Estimation of the Impurities.— Transfer 0.5 gram of the powdered sulphur to a flask provided with a well-fttted glass stopper. Add at one time an excess of saturated bromine-water and shake thoroughly. Water dissolves 2 to 3.25 per cent of bromine at ordinary temper- ature, and, as at least 15 parts bromine are required for 1 part of sulphur, it is advisable to use from 275 to 400 cc. of the bromine water to insure sufficient of the reagent for the oxidation of the sulphur to sulphuric acid. Boil the solu- tion to expel the excess of bromine, collect the residue and wash with hot water; dry and weigh. A Gooch crucible is convenient for collecting the residue. The weight of the residue X 200 = percentage of impurities. The percentage of sulphur may be determined directly from the proportion of sulphuric acid in the filtrate (149), or, with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, by subtracting the per- centage of impurities from 100. Commercial roll-sulphur is usually very pure. Its qual- ity can generally be satisfactorily determined from its color and relative freedom from dust and small fragments. 163 HAl^DBOOK FOR SUGAE-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF COKE. 146. Preparation of the Sample.— The sample should be obtained as with limestone (130), and be very finely powdered. 147. Deterinination of the Moisture.— Heat 2 to 3 grams of the powdered coke in a tared flat dish or a watch-glass in an oven at a temperature of ilo" C. Three hours' heating is usually sufficient for drying the sample. Loss of weight -^ weight of material used X 100 = per cent moisture. The author is of the opinion, though not based upon experiment, that more satisfactory results would be obtained in drying coke or coal in a vacuum-oven. 148. Deterinination of the Ash. — Place 2 grams of the finely-powdered coke in a flat platinum dish and heat in a muffle, first at a moderate temperature and finally at a high temperature.. Cool and moisten the ash with strong alcohol (Muck's method), then repeat the heating in the muffle until all the carbon is burned off. The weight of the ash -^ weight of material used X too — per cent ash. 149. Determination of the Sulphur. — Mix i gram of the powdered coke intimately with i gram of calcined magnesia and 0.5 gram anhydrous sodium carbonate. Heat over a lamp in an open platinum crucible, inclined so that only its lower half may be brought to a red heat. The ig- nition requires forty-five to sixty minutes; the mixture should be stirred with a platinum rod every five minutes. The process is complete when the ash is yellowish or brownish. Let the mixture become quite cold, mix in- timately with the ash, by means of a rod, i to i gram of am- monium nitrate, and heat to redness for five to ten minutes, the crucible being covered with its lid.^ The sodium car- bonate may be advantageously replaced by carbonate of » Crooke's Select Methods^ 3d ed., 588. ANALYSTS OF COKE. 163 with distilled water. Detach adhering portions of the residue from the crucible with hot water, aided by a rod, and wash into the beaker. Heat to dissolve the sul- phate formed, filter and wash the residue with hot water. Determine the sulphuric acid in the filtrate, as barium sulphate : Concentrate the filtrate in a beaker, to a volume of approximately 50 cc, if necessary acidulate with hydro- chloric acid, heat to boiling and add a solution of barium chloride. Add the barium solution gradually, a few drops «t a time, keeping the liquid at the boiling-point. Remove the beaker from the lamp after each addition, for the sub- sidence of the barium sulphate. Add a drop of the barium chloride solution and note whether a precipitate forms in the clear supernatant liquid. Continue the boiling and addition of the reagent until there is no further separa- tion of the sulphate. Collect the precipitate in a tared Gooch crucible, wash with hot water, dry and heat to red- ness. The weight of the residue, barium sulphate (BaS04), X -13734 = the weight of sulphur; this weight -T- weight of coke used X 100 = per cent sulphur in the coke. * ChentikevZeitung, 1892, 60. 164 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. LUBRICATING OILS. 150. Tests Applied to Lubricating Oils.— A few oil tests may be made in the sugar-house laboratory without expensive or special apparatus. Some of the* methods given here, while not assuring the greatest accu- racy, will generally answer for sugar-house purposes. The usual tests are the " cold test," viscosity, the acidity or alkalinity and the purity. 151. Cold Test.— Pour a portion of the oil, to the depth of approximately one and a half inches, into a test- tube one and three-eighths inches in diameter. Plunge the tube into a freezing mixture and stir with a thermometer until the paraffine begins to separate, or until the oil ceases to flow, on inclining the tube. Remove the tube from the mixture and hold it between the eye and the light and note the temperature at which the paraffine disappears. The oil must be stirred during the entire test. Repeat the test two or three times and record the mean of the two readings which agree best with one another as the temperature of the cold test. With very dark oils, and with certain other oils, the beginning of the separation of the paraffine can- not be noted with accuracy, hence the reading is made at the temperature at which the oil ceases to flow. 152. Viscosity Test.— -The viscosity test is best made with a viscosimeter, such as described in 114. The method of making tests with these instruments is suffi- ciently described in the sections cited. In the absence of a viscosimeter, a moderately accurate test may be made with a large pipette. The pipette should be inclosed in a water-jacket so that the oil may be heated to 15.5"* C, or 100° C, as its nature requires. The pipette is standardized with pure rape-oil or other oil that may easily be obtained in a state of great purity. The time, in seconds, required LUBRICATING OILS. 165 for the flow of 50 cc. of the rape-oil is noted by means of a stop-watch. The pipette is then filled with the sample to be tested and its flow noted under the same con- ditions as before. According to Redwood, the average time required for the flow of 50 cc. of rape-oil, with his viscosimeter, is 535 seconds at 60° F., and the viscosity of the oil under examination in terms of the viscosity of rape-oil is calculated as follows : Multiply the number of seconds required for the flow of 50 cc. of the oil by 100 and divide the product by 535 (seconds required for the flow of 50 cc. of rape-oil at 60° F.) ; multiply this quo- tient by the specific gravity of the oil under examination, at the temperature of the experiment, and divide by .915, the specific gravity of rape-oil at 60° F. It is very difficult to graduate the orifice of a pipette to give the desired flow. For houses of large size using con- siderable quantities of oil, it is desirable to provide a viscosimeter (Figs, 52 and 53). The viscosity test is the most important in judging the suitability of the oil for the required purpose. 153. Tests for Acidity and Alkalinity.— Shake a portion of the oil with hot distilled water in a test-tube. After the oil and water separate on standing, test the latter for acidity and alkalinity. It should be neutral to test-paper. Oils are usually treated with sulphuric acid followed by washing with water and caustic soda. The acid especially should be completely removed, otherwise the bearings of the machinery may be injured. 154. Purity Tests.— Boil a portion of the oil with distilled water, and, after allowing the two substances to separate, examine the latter, which should remain clear and transparent. In testing a mineral oil for admixture with animal or vegetable fats and oils, proceed as follows by the saponifica- tion method : Transfer a weighed portion of the oil {e.g., 2 grams) to a pressure-bottle, and heat it in a water- or steam- bath with 25 cc. of alcoholic potash solution. This solution is prepared by dissolving 40 grams of good caustic potash in one litre of 95 per cent alcohol. The solution must be filtered if not perfectly clear. The flasks used in the 166 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Kjeldahl nitrogen determination are suitable for pressure- bottles. The stopper of the bottle must be tied down with strong twine. Continue the heating about one hour, re- volving the flask from time to time to mix its contents. A parallel experiment should be made in blank, with the re- agent only. Cool the bottles to the room temperature and ti- trate the contents with half-normal hydrochloric acid (197), using phenolphthalein as an indicator. In the absence of animal and vegetable fats and oils, the results of the two titrations should be the same. Should a saponifiable oil be present as indicated by the titration, remove the alcohol by distillation, transfer the residue to aseparatory funnel, and extract several times with ether to remove the mineral oil ; evaporate the ether solution and weigh the residue. The saponifiable oil, i.e.^ animal or vegetable, is determined by difference. The saponification test may also be conducted, as de- scribed above, in a closed flask, but without alcohol. Pour 2 cc. of a solution, containing loo grams of the pure potassiunf hydroxide in 58 grams of hot distilled water upon 2 grams of the oil; heat one hour as before; cool, and transfer the contents of the flask to a separatory funnel and extract the mineral oil with ether ; evaporate the ether extract and weigh the residue, consisting of the min- eral oil. Should the residue weigh less than 2 grams saponifiable bodies are present. ANAIiYSIS AND X'UKli'ICATlOJS' OF WATER. 167 ANALYSIS AND PURIFICATION OF THE WATER USED IN SUGAR MANU- FACTURE. 165. Characteristics of Siiital)le Water.— The condensation-waters from the multiple effects, vacuum- pans, etc., form an abundant and very satisfactory supply of water for the boilers. The water for the diffusion-battery should be as pure as possible and should contain a minimum amount of calcium and magnesium salts and of the salts referred to below as melassigenic. The calcium and magnesium salts, notably the bicarbonates and the sulphate of calcium, foul the heating surfaces of the battery and evaporating apparatus. The bicarbonates decompose to some extent in the diffusers and deposit the normal carbonates upon the cossettes and probably influence the diffusion unfavorably. The water should not contain more than lo parts per loo.ooo of cal- cium sulphate, otherwise incrustations may form at some stage of the concentration of the liquors. Pure water should also be used in slaking the lime, though for economy of sugar and in the evaporation cer- tain wash-waters containing sugar, etc., are used for this purpose. The relative melassigenic effect of various salts is indi- cated in paragraph 180. Water obtained from rivers does not usually contain objectionable quantities of melassigenic salts, but may be unsatisfactory on account of its scale- forming constituents. 150. Analysis. — Collection of Samples. — When practi- cable, samples should be collected in large glass-stoppered bottles. The bottles should be thoroughly washed and finally rinsed with the water to be examined. It is advisable to use new bottles for this purpose. When ordinary corks must be used they should be new and thoroughly washed with the water. From two quarts to one gallon of the water will usually be a sufficient quantity of the analyses. 168 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Total Solids. — If the water contain a small quantity of suspended matter, it should be filtered. Evaporate loo cc. of the water to dryness in a tared platinum dish over a steam- or water-bath which should have porcelain rings. The residue should be dried to constant weight in an oven at ioo° C. The weight of the residue in milligrams corre- sponds to the parts of total solids per 100,000 parts of water. Test the residue for nitrates as follows: Place a drop of a solution of brucia in concentrated sulphuric acid on a white porcelain surface and add a fragment of the residue. In the presence of nitrates a deep-red color appears, which soon changes to reddish yellow. Two drops of aniline sulphate solution, with one drop of con- centrated sulphuric acid, give a rose-red to a brown-red color on a porcelain plate, with nitrates. If nitrates be present, the proportion may be estimated with moderate accuracy by the following method: Nitrogen of Nitrates. — Mix 25 cc. of the water in a small Erlenmeyer flask with 50 cc. pure concentrated sulphuric acid. Titrate immediately with a solution of indigo pre- pared as described farther on. The indigo solution should be added until the color changes to a bluish green. The flask must be shaken during the entire titration. Repeat the operation with a fresh portion of the water and acid, adding at one time the nearly full volume of the indigo solu- tion that was required to produce the green color in the preliminary titration; continue the addition of the indigo in small portions until the bluish-green color is produced. The flask must be shaken as in the preliminary titration. The indigo solution is prepared by dissolving i part of powdered indigo in 6 parts of pure concentrated sulphuric acid, heating on the water-bath, if necessary, to promote solution. Add 240 cc. of distilled water to this solution, cool and titrate, as above, against distilled water having a known content of nitric acid. Dilute the indigo solution so that 6 to 8 cc. correspond to o.ooi gram nitric anhydride (NaOs). Should the water contain more than 0.003 to 0.004 gram of NjOs in 25 cc. as indicated by the preliminary titration, it should be diluted to apprpximately this content before the final titration. ANALYSIS AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 169 It requires a great deal of practice for accurate work by this method, and in the presence of much organic matter the results are too low. Chlorine. — If much chlorine be present, as indicated by a considerable precipitate, on the addition of nitrate of silver solution to the water, in the presence of nitric acid, proceed as follows: Concentrate a convenient volume of the water, e.g., loo cc. to a small volume, and add 2 cc. of pure concentrated nitric acid and a solution of nitrate of silver in slight excess. Heat to the boiling-point and maintain this temperature a short time, avoiding violent ebullition. Stir during the heating to collect the precipi- tate, chloride of silver, in a granular form. Wash the chloride, by decantation with 200 cc. hot water contain- ing 8 cc. of concentrated nitric acid and 2 cc. of a i per cent nitrate of silver solution. Pass the decanted solutions through a tared Gooch filter.' Use small portions of the washing solution at a time and break up the lumps of silver chloride with a glass rod. A filter-pump is used in making the filtration. The arrangement shown in Fig. 49 is a convenient one for this purpose. On the completion of this washing remove the filtrate and filter it a second time through the Gooch filter, rinsing the vessel with cold water. Wash the precipitate by decantation as before, except using about 100 cc. cold water, and finally transfer it to the filter and wash with 100 cc. cold water. After washing, pass a few cubic centimetres of strong alcohol through the precipitate and dry it at a temperature between 140° and 150" C. for 30 minutes ; cool and weigh. The weight of the silver chloride X .24726 = the weight of chlorine in the quantity of water used. Hardness. — The hardness is determined by Clark's soap method and is expressed in terms of the volume of a standard soap solution required to form a permanent lather with a given volume of the water. The soap solu- tion is prepared as indicated in 18G. Measure 50 cc. of the water into a glass-stoppered flask » A platinum crucible, with perforated bottom, which supports a filter- ing film of asbestos. 170 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. of 250 cc. capacity. Shake thoroughly, then remove any carbonic acid that may be given off by suction with a glass tube. Add a small quantity of the soap solution, not exceeding i cc, and shake vigorously. Repeat the addi- tions of soap solution and the shaking until the foam remains unbroken over the entire surface of the liquid during five minutes. As in ordinary titrations, the quan- tity of the standard solution added must be gradually decreased until, at the last, but a drop or two are added at a time. Should the quantity of soap solution used exceed 16 cc, less water should be taken and diluted to 50 cc, with cold, recently boiled distiUpd water. The calculation is made with the aid of the following table: TABLE FOR THE CIRCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER. (Sutton.) (Parts per 100,000, using 50 cc. of water.) a d □ c a Q "1 • '•3 ■Z ■§ 'C -§ "1 •c ^"S •^ 81 R'o 8l s| 81- el §8 sf §s 3 ^m dS Om> ^2 5i 6z ^■^ Oct, u. :- .00 a ^^ d. & & ^fe ft 1 ■A .3 a. A .9 ft 1 .5 0. 11.05 1 ft 1 •' 3.64 7.29 .1 15.00 .7 '.% .16 .4 3.77 6.0 7.43 .6 11.20 .2 15.16 .8 .9 .3-2 .5 3.90 .1 7.57 .7 11.35 .3 15.32 .9 1.0 r .48 .6 4.03 .2 7.71 .8 11.50 .4 15.48 14.0 .1 .63 4.16 .3 7.86 .9 11.6.'') .5 15.63 .1 ."i .79 !8 4.29 .4 8.00 9.0 11.80 .6 15.79 .2 .3 .95 .9 4.43 .5 8.14; .1 11.95 7 15.95 .3 .4 1.11 4.0 4.57 .6 8.29 .2 12.11 .8 16.11 .4 .5 1.27 .1 4.71 .7 8.48! .3 12.26 .9 16.27 .5 .6 1.43 .2 4.86 .8 8.57 .4 12.41 12.0 16.43 .6 1..56 .3 5.00 .9 8.71 .6 12.56 .1 16.59 7 !8 1.69 .4 5.14 7.0 8.80 .0 12.71 .2 16.75 '.8 .9 1.82 .5 5.29 .1 9.00 12.8() .3 16.90 .9 2.0 1.95 .6 5.43 .2 9.14i is 13.01 .4 17.06 15.0 .1 2.08 5.. 57 !3 9.29 .& 13.16 5 17.22 .1 2.2! is 5.71 .4 9.43 10.0 13.31 .6 17.38 .2 '.I 2.34 .9 5.86 .5 9.57; .1 13.46 .7 17.54 .3 A 2.47 5.0 6:00 .6 9.71! 13.61 .8 17.70 4 . ..5 2.60 .1 -6.14 ^7 9.86 '.l 13.70 .9 17.86 .5 .6 2:73 .2 6.29 '!'8 10.00 A 13.91. , 13.0 18.02 .6 2.86 .3 6.431 9 10.15 .5 14.06 .1 18.17 .7 !8 2.99 .4 6.57 8.0 10.30 .6 14.21 .2 18.33 .8 .'9 3.12 -.•5 6.71 .1 10.45 7 14.37 .3 18.49 .9 8.0 3.25 .6 6.86 .2 10.60 .8 14.52 .4 18.65 16.0 .1 3.38 .7 7.00 .1 10.75 .9 14.68 .5 18.81 .2 3.51 . -.8 7 M A 10.90 no 14.84 .6 18.97 £1 19.13 19.29 19.44 J9.60 19.76 19.92 20.08 20.24 20.40 20.56 20.71 20.87 21 .03 21.19 21.35 21.51 21.68 21.85 22.02 22.18 22.35 22.52 22.69 ANALYSIS AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 171 The permanent and temporary hardness of waters may be determined by the French modification of the Clarke soap method, as described on page lOO. To calculate the hardness in parts per 100,000, as calcium carbonate (CaCOa), i*ultiply the " degrees " of the special burette by 1.03 since i*^ Corresponds to .0103 part calcium carbonate per 1000 cc. of water. The presence of magnesia is indicated by the formation of a peculiar curd, and also a lather which disappears on further addition of soap solution. Permanent Hardness. — Boil gently for thirty minutes a weighed quantity of water in an Erlenmeyer flask. Gool, and add sufficient recently boiled distilled water to compen- sate for the evaporation. Filter off a portion of this w^ter, and determine the hardness as before. Calcium^ Magnesia, Iron, Silica, Sulphuric Acid, etc. — Evaporate a large measured volumeof the water to dryness and determine these constituents in the residue as 5nd?- cated in the methods for the analysis of limestone. Netes on iVater-analysis. — The results of water-analyses are usually stated in terms of grains per U. S. gallon, parts per 100,000, or parts per 1,000,000. 157. Purification of Water.— To water containing the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, add milk of lime in slight excess (Clark). 'The normal carbonates are formetl and precipitated, and may be removed by sedimenta- tion or filter-pressing. If the water be exposed to the a;ir,, the excess of lime is quickly precipitated by the carbonic icid. Lime-water in slight €XG' ■ ' > Bulletin de I ''Assoc. Chim. de FraneeiX^^ i^x ahd Bigr^ -" " MISCELLANEOUS KOTES. 203 The following table showing the distribution of the nitro- gen in the beet is from analyses by Ed. Urbain: ' Per Cent Per Cent of the in the Beet. Total Nitrogen. Total nitrogen o. 198 Nitrogen of insoluble proteids... 0.012 6.06 Albuminoid nitrogen 0.063 31.81 Nitric nitrogen 0.050 25.25 Amide and ammoniacal nitrogen. 0.069 34-84 Loss 2.04 100.00 There is a reducing substance present in the beet that is not a sugar. Its composition is not definitely known. It is usually termed " Bodenbender's substance," from the name of the discoverer. 182. List of Keagents Suggested for the Treat- llieilt of Beet-jlliee.^ — {von Lippmann, Zeit. RUben- zucker-Ind., 1886, 621,) Chloride of calcium, Z., II, 65. Chloride of lime, Z., VII, 423. Carbonate of calcium, Maumene, J. d F. S., 17, 22. Acetate of calcium, Durieux, Jahresber., 8, 334. Sulphate of calcium, Duquesne, Dingier, 196, 83. Chloride of strontium, Kottmann, Z., 32, 899. Chloride of barium, Licht, Berl. Ber., 15, 1471. Chloride of barium with caustic soda, Plecque, D. Z. I., 2. 51. Barium hydroxide with sulphate of aluminum, Eisen- stuck, Jahresber., 3, 244. Oxide of magnesium, Thenard, Z., 13, 128. Carbonate of magnesium, Reich, Z., G, 173. ' Bulletin de V Associr.tion des Chitnistes de France, 14, 1095. ' Abbreviations : Z. = Zeitschrift des Vereins ffir die RUbenzucker-In- dustrie des Deutschen Reichs. N. Z. = Neue Zeitschrift fUr die RiJbenzucker-Industrie (Scbeibler). D. Z. I. = Deutsche Zuckerindustrie. J. d. F. S. = Journal des Fabricants de Sucre. Dingier = Dingler's Polytecnische Journal. Berl. Ber. = Herichte der deutschen cliemischen Gesellschaft. Jahresber. = Jahresbericht. 204 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Sulphate of magnesium, Bayvet, Z., lO, 256. Hydrate of magnesium, Riimpler, D. Z. I., 1879, 52. Sulphite of magnesium, Dubrenil, J. d. F. S., 13, 27. Chloride of magnesium, Kessler, Z., 16, 760. Dolomite, Dubrenil, Berl. Ber., 6, 155. Sulphate of magnesium with sulphide of barium, Drum- mond. Dingier, 203, 325. Acid sulphite of magnesium, Becker, Z., 1886. Sulphate of magnesium ar)d sulphide of calcium, Drum- mond. Dingier, 203, 325. Chloride of ammonium, Licht, Jahresber., 24, 415. Sulphate of ammonium, Beanes, Dingier, 167, 220. Ammonia and lime, Marot, Berl. Ber. 9, 643. Carbonate of ammonium, Stammer, Z., 9, 430. Phosphate of magnesium, Kessler, Z., 15, 525. Phosphate of ammonium, Kuhlmann, Z., II, 92. Phosphate of sodium, Z., 2, 130. Phosphate of potassium, Blanchard, Berl. Ber., 6, 153. Double phosphate of calcium and sodium, Gwynne, Z., 3, 292. Tribasic phosphate of lime with phosphate of ammonium, Leplay, Z., 12, 193. Acid phosphate of calcium with sulphate of magnesium, Kessler, Z., 15, 51. Phosphate of calcium with sulphate of aluminum, Kess- ler, ibid. Sulphite of ammonium, Beauss, Dingier, 167, 220. Sulphite of lime, Calvert, Z., 12, 500. Sulphite of sodium, Perier-Possoz, Z., 12, 128. Sulphite of magnesia, Mehay, Z., 23, 27. Bisulphite of calcium, Reynose. Z., 12, 501. Basic sulphite of magnesium, Z., 23, 26. Bisulphite of calcium with sulphate of aluminum, Leyde, z., 1,365. Bisulphite of iron, Becker, N. Z., 16^6, Hydroxide of iron with plaster, Rousseau, Z. , 11, 67. Chloride of iron, Krai, Z., 18, 317. Ferric sulphate, Krai, ibid. Ferrous sulphate, Bayvet, Z., 10, 256. Sulphate of manganese, Masse, Z., ibid. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 205 Chloride of tin, Maumene, J. d. F. S., 20, 7. Chloride of tin, Manoury, Z., 34, 1275. Stannous sulphate, Org, Z., 15, 76. Oxide of tin with soda, Berl. Ber., 19, 520. Sulphate of zinc, Kindler, Z., 3, 556. Nitrate of zinc, Decastro, Jahresber. , 19, 340. Nitrate of zinc with alkaline sulphides, ibid. Nitrate of zinc with sulphide of barium or of calcium, ibid. Zinc-dust, with sulphuric acid and sulphide of barium, Crespo, Jahresber., 24, 416. Acetate of lead and sulphide of sodium, Maumen6, in his "Traits." Hydroxide of lead, Gwynne, Z., 3, 292. Acetate of lead, ibid. Saccharate of lead, ibid. Hydrate of aluminum, Howard, Z., 2, 92. Colloidal aluminum, Lowig, Z., 29, 905. Silicate of aluminum (Walkererde), blue clay, Fritsche, Z., 35, 261. Chloride of aluminum, with lime, Siemen, Jahresber., 18, 256. Fluoride of aluminum, Kessler, Z., 15, 525. Sulphate of aluminum, Kessler, Z., 15, 51. Alum, Kindler, Z., 3, 556. Phosphate of aluminum, Oxland, Z., 2, 92. Acid phosphate of aluminum, ibid., 2, 130. Acetate of aluminum, Schubarth, Z., 2, 92. Sulphite of aluminum, Mehay, Z., 23, 27. Sulphite of aluminum, with hydrate of calcium, Schu- barth, Z., 2, 129. Sulphite of aluminum with sulphate of manganese, Mass6, Z., 10, 256. Bisulphite of aluminum, Becker, Z., 35, 924. Hydrosulphite of aluminum, Becker, Z., 1886 (?). Aluminates of the alkaline earths, Alicoque, D. Z. I., 2,51. Aluminate of calcium, Oxland, Z., 2, 92. Fluosilicate of aluminum, Kessler, Z., 16, 760. Silica, Schubarth, Z., 2, 92. Silicate of sodium, Wagner, Z., 9, 331. 206 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Borax, Brear, Berl. Ber., 15, 1224. Borate of calcium, ibid. Hydrofluoric acid, Frickenhaus, Z., 15, 43. Fluosilicic acid, Kessler, Z., 16, 760. Sulphuric acid, Kessler, ibid. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid, Possoz, Dingier, 170,64. Sulphurous acid and sulphite of calcium, Calvert, Z-, 12, 500, Phosphoric acid, Stammer, Z., 9, 433. Tannin, Wagner, Z., 9, 331. Pertannic acid (Ubergerbsaure), Meretens, Z., 28, 842. Stearic acid, Wagner, Z., 9, 331. Oleic acid, Th^nard, Z., 8, 130. Acetic acid and caustic soda. Marguerite, J. d. F. S. 18, 248. Acetic acid and sulphurous acid, Z., 20, 741. Tartaric acid, Possoz, Z., 23, 27. Oxalic acid, Wagner, Z., 9, 331. Salicylic acid, D. Z. I.. 1884, 7. Carbolic acid, ibid. Soap, Basset, Z., 7, 381. Caseine, Kriiger, Z., 9, 221. Pectic acid, Acar, Wagner's " Technology," 12, Aufl. 563. Alcohol, P^sier, Z., 11, 522. Alcohol with plaster and sulphuric acid, Duquesne, Ding- ier, 196, 83. Alcohol with chlorine, Duncan, Jahresber., 22, 274. Alcohol (methylic), Trobach, D. Z. I., 11, 1302. Glycerine, Rabe, Z., 14, 124. Ozone, Lee, Z., ibid. Peroxide of hydrogen, Frank, Z., 11, 392. Charcoal from peat, lignite, brown coal, Maumen6, Z., 4. 452. Lignite, Knauer, Z., 11, 350. Brown coal (lignite), Knauer, Z., ibid. Brick-dust, Maumen6, in his " Traits." SUGAR-HOUSE KOTES. 207 SUGAR-HOUSE NOTES. 1 83. Diffusion.— fVaf^r-su/>pl)>.— Relative to the pur- ity of the water-supply, sre page 167. Temperature. — The higher the temperature maintained in the battery, other conditions being equal, the faster the diflfusion. A low temperature requires a long contact of the beet-cuttings with the water, in order to obtain a satisfactory extraction. Many authorities limit the maxi- mum temperature to 80° C. (176°?.). The eminent French authority, Dupont, recommends the following tempera- tures in a battery of 12 dififusers, 10 of which are in activity: Diffuser No i 2 (3,4,5,6,7,8) 9 lo Temp deg. F 104° i4o"> leg^-iSs" i49°-i58° i04°-i22*» Temp. deg. C 40" 60° 76° -85" 650-70" 4o'>-5o'' Dififuser No. i contains the exhausted cossettes or "pulp." Volume of Juice to Draw.— According to Dupont, Secre- tary of the French Association of Sugar-house Chem- ists, the density of the diffusion-juice should be approxi- mately eight tenths the density of the normal juic-e. His table on page 246 shows that the quantity of juice which should be drawn with beets of different richness to obtain a juice eight tenths the normal density varies but little. The volume of juice to be drawn need not exceed 115 to 120 litres per 100 kilograms of beets without regard to their richness. The method of using the table is best shown by example: With beets, the normal juice of which has a density of 9°, if 109 litres of diffusion-juice be drawn, its density should be 7.2"; if 112 litres be drawn, the density should be 7°. With careful work it is practicable 208 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. to obtain dense juices, and lose only from 0.15 to 0.26 per cent of the weight of the exhausted cossettes of sucrose. Difficulties in Diffusion-work. — Some difficulty may be experienced in the conduct of the diffusion when the sup- ply of beets is irregular, the battery overheated, the roots imperfectly washed, or the knives improperly sharpened or set. The remedies are self-evident. The work should be so conducted that the juice may be drawn at regular intervals. The intervals should be lengthened in the event of a shortage in the supply of beets or delays in the sugar- house. A lon^delay in the diffusion-work or excessively slow work results in impure juices, which yield but stub- bornly to subsequent treatment. Overheating affects the purity of the juice adversely, cooks the beet-cuttings, and renders them difficult to press. Overheating is also liable to cause the cuttings to pack or mat in the diffuser and thus render the circulation of the juice slow and imperfect and the pulp difficult to remove from the cell. Overheating may also cause pectic bodies to pass into solution, which later in the manufacture result in compounds which impede the filtration of the juice. 184. "Gray" Juice. — According to Herzfeld^ tht cause of this phenomenon is somewhat obscure. Invert- sugar and similar bodies, are present in the beet, and react with the alkalis, sodium, and potassium, during the evaporation, and form apoglucic acid and humlc sub- stances, which color the juice. The oxide of iron also plays a part. Beets exposed in mild weather to rain lose much sugar through, renewed vegetation, and impart a gray color to the juice. It is difficult to remedy this coloration. Sulphurous acid modifies it but little. Sugars from such juices lose this color if stored in the warehouse about two weeks, and subjected to frequent mixing. 185. Carbonatation. — It is the practice in many houses to pass the juice, flowing from the measuring-tank at the battery, through a heater in which its temperature * Bulletin P Assoc, des Chimistes de France, 13, 663. SUGAR-HOUSE N^OTES. 209 is raised by the vapors from the last pan of the multiple- effect. A small quantity of lime is then added, about 5 quarts of the milk of 20° Baum6 per 1000 gallons, and the juice is passed through a heater, its temperature quickly raised to about 90° C, and the lime added, preparatory to the first carbonatation. In many houses the lime is placed to the juice immediately after it leaves the measur- ing-tank. In the early part of the season, the quantity of lime used for the first carbonatation is much smaller than the amount necessary later on. More lime is required when the beets are in a bad condition than when sound. The quantity used is about 15 pounds of quicklime per 100 gallons of juice, but with unsound beets this amount is often exceeded. In France, the lime is usually slaked, and reduced to a milk of 20° Baum6 with the thin juice obtained in washing the filter-cake. The practice in many houses is to place the quicklime in wire baskets and slake it directly in the juice in the carbonatation-tank. This practice is extend- ing. The carbonatation should be effected with rich gas, i.e.^ containing approximately 30 per cent carbonit acid, thus not only economizing time, but producing a precipitate which is more easily removed by the filter- presses. Practice differs as to the temperature of the carbonatation, but with rich juices a temperature of ap- proximately 85° C. appears to give the more satisfactory results. With weak juices a lower temperature is often employed. Toward the end of the carbonatation, the juice is heated to 80° to 90° C, thus breaking up the sucrocarbonates of lime which have been formed. Practice also differs relative to this temperature. There is an alkalinity of i gram to 1.6 grams, calculated as lime (CaO), per litre of juice after the first carbonata- tion. Second Carbonatation or Saturation. — The quantity of lime required in the second carbonatation is from 2 to 4 pounds per 100 gallons of juice. The gas is passed into the limed juice, when working with sound beets, until a test shows 210 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. that the free lime is saturated ; late in the season, or when the beets are in a bad condition, the supply of gas is cut off before the alkalinity is entirely saturated. When work- ing without sulphur, the alkalinity is usually reduced to 0.02 gram per litre, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. In some factories, instead of leaving a slight alkalinity due to lime, a small quantity of carbonate of soda is added to the juice. This practice is of doubtful utility. On the completion of the carbonatation, the juice is boiled two or three minutes, then filtered. Difficulties. — A defective first carbonatation results in difficulty in the filtration of the juice, imperfect removal of the sugar from the filter-press cakes, juices of lower purity than necessary, and formation of lime salts. It may also result in difficulty inboiling the sugar to grain in the vacuum-pan. These difficulties arise from a slow carbon- atation, too low a temperature (sucrocarbonates of lime in the press-cake), too little lime, excessive use of the car- bonic acid, or excessive alkalinity of the juice from the second carbonatation. 180. Sulphuring". — Sulphurous acid is usually em- ployed in the gaseous state, in the manufacture of white sugar, without bone-black. When sulphurous acid is used the following procedure is advised : The second carbonatation is stopped when the alkalinity is reduced to .5 to .6 gram per litre, calculated as caustic lime, CaO, and the juice is boiled and filter-pressed, as usual. The filtered juice is treated with sulphurous- acid gas at a temperature of 95° C, until the alkalinity is reduced to .1 to .15 gram per litre; the juice is then boiled. The sulphuring must be very carefully controlled, in order to avoid loss of sugar through inversion. 187. Difficulties in Filter-pressing.— With juice from sound beets, properly treated in the carbonatation process, the filtration is always easy. If the juice have not been sufficiently heated after the first carbonatation, or the supply of gas have been cut off too soon, the juice will filter badly; also, if too little lime, or Hmc from stone containing too much silica or having SUGAR-HOUSE NOTES. 211 hydraulic properties have been employed. In the U. S. Government's experiments, in carbonating sorghum-cane juices, the limestone supplied by the contractor had de- cided hydraulic properties. The filter-press cake soon became hard, forming an impervious slab of artificial stone. A supply of suitable lime remedied the difl!iculty. This illustrates the importance of a chemical examination of the limestone supplied the factory. A German manufacturer had considerable difl[iculty in filter-pressing certain juices. The usual remedies were applied, without success. A sample of the filter-press cake was sent to Dr. Herzfeld, of the German Sugar Manufac- turers* Association, who found, on analysis, 1.3 per cent ferric oxide and 0.3 per cent aluminic oxide in the dry sample. He explained the difficulty as follows : In the presence of iron, pectine forms a flocculent, spongy mass of ferropectine, and not calcium pectate, which is granular. It is probable that, owing to an abnormal quantity of pectine, formed by excessive heat in the battery, in the presence of iron from the lime, a large quantity of ferro- pectine was formed, which obstructed the cloths. A proper adjustment of the quantity of lime added to the juice, and careful control of the diffusion and of the first carbonatation, will usually remedy diflSculties in the filtration. 188. Lime-kiln. — The relative quantities of coke and limestone vary between wide limits in the practice of vari- ous sugar-houses. According to Gallois, who has made probably one of the most exhaustive studies of the lime- kiln yet published, the quantity of coke theoretically re- quired is 6 pounds for the decomposition of 100 pounds of limestone containing 95 per cent of calcium carbonate. This is approximately i volume of coke per 6 volumes of limestone. Gallois advises, however, in practice, the use of I volume of coke per 4 to 5 volumes of limestone. These proportions of coke and limestone produce a satis- factory gas. Some authorities recommend 3 volumes of limestone to i volume of coke. The coke and stone should be well mixed, and dis- 212 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. tributed as evenly as possible in the kiln. Notes relative to the quality of the limestone are given on the following page. The gas produced by the furnace should contain ap- proximately 30 per cent of carbonic acid. Difficulties. — The difficulties usually encountered in the management of the lime-kiln are as follows : A limestone containing too much silica will show a tendency to fuse, and, if overheated, will adhere firmly to the walls of kiln.' Stone in too small pieces, or stone and coke improperly mixed, or stone with an excess of coke, will sometimes " scaffold " or bridge. The above conditions soon prevent the downward progress of the stone and lime. These dif- ficulties are obviated by the use of suitable stone, properly mixed with the coke and evenly distributed in the kiln, and by the withdrawal of lime at regular intervals. Should the charge "scaffold" in the kiln, it can only be broken down by the withdrawal of a considerable quantity of material at the lime-doors and energetic use of an iron bar at the " peep-holes." The use of too little coke or the too rapid withdrawal of lime results in an undue proportion of underburned or raw lime. The admission of too little air to the kiln results in an imperfect combustion and an excess of carbonic oxide in the gas. This carbonic oxide not only is a loss of carbon, but, if carelessly inhaled by the work- men, may result in serious poisoning. The addition of too much air dilutes the gas. This may result from leakage in the pipes, careless charging, or from driving the gas-pump too fast. The following table contains valuable information rela- tive to the quality of the limestone: *• Limestone No. 3 was used in a sugar-bouse and caused much trouble: 'scaffolding,' difficulty in the mechanical filtration, incrustations in the triple-effect and on the vacuum-pan coils. No. 9 was substituted for this stone, and these difficulties disappeared." * Largely based on a report by F. Dupont and J. Delavierre, Bulletin de V Association des Chimistes de France, 9, 134. SUGAR-HOUSE NOTES. 313 ANALYSES OF LIMESTONES AND COMMENTS ON THEIR COMPOSITION. (Messrs. Gallois and Dupont, Paris.) Substance. 1 2 3 4 5 Moisture Sand, clay, and insoluble matter 4.10 4.50 1.20 2.10 0.37 85.86 0.95 0.05 0.87 5.10 5.15 1.17 1.75 0.41 85.12 0.47 0.06 0.77 % 7.25 4.90 1.37 3.30 0.27 81.67 0.59 oies 4.15 S.15 1.05 1.05 0.17 90.13 0.75 0.10 0.45 % 4.17 3.07 0.97 Soluble silica ." 98 Oxides of iron and alumina ) 0.19 (FeaOa, AljOs) j Carbonate of calcium (CaCOg) Carbonate of magnesium (MgCO^) Sodium and potassium (Na,0, KjO) ... Undetermined 88.65 0.95 0.01 1 00 100 100 100 100 100 Substance. Moisture Sand, clay, and insoluble matter Organic matter Soluble silica Oxides of iron and alumina ) (FeaOs. AI2O3) S Carbonate of calcium (CaCOa) , Carbonate of magnesium (MgCOs) . , Sodium and potassium (NaaO, K^O) Undetermined : 6 7 8 9 % 6.25 8.17 1.12 0.64 5.16 2.25 0.86 0.56 % 0.52 2.85 0.30 0.06 % 1.21 0.55 0.41 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.32 0.23 87.93 0.50 90.03 0.45 93.80 1.81 96.58 0.50 0.24 "6! 39 6;34 6! 32 100 100 100 100 10 0.11 0.27 0.15 0.03 99.10 0.34 100 Nos. I, 2, 3, 4 are bad, Nos. 5, 6, 7 are passable, and Nos. 8, ^, 10 are excellent." In the examination of a limestone its physical condition as well as its chemical composition must be taken into account. The stone should be compact and hard, thus reducing the quantity of fragments and the risk of "scaf- folding" in the kiln. Excessive moisture, 5 per cent or more, in the stone reduces the temperature of the kiln when charging, involv- ing an imperfect combustion and the production of car- bonic oxide (CO); further, such stone breaks into small pieces under the influence of the heat. A small proportion of water, approximately i per cent, probably facilitates the decomposition of the stone, and is advantageous. Magnesium is not objectionable, so far as the operation of the kiln is concerned, except in the presence of silicates, 214 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. but introduces difficulties in the purification of the juice and forms incrustations on the heating-surfaces of the evaporating-apparatus. It forms fusible silicates at high temperatures, and thus increases the tendency to "scaf- folding." The objections to sulphate of calcium are prac- tically the same as to magnesium. The objections to the presence of silicates are as indicated above, in the formation of fusible silicates of .lime and magnesium. Part of the silica passes into the juice with the lime, retards the filtration with the presses and coats the cloths of the mechanica,! filters, to their detriment. Silica also forms part of the scale on the heating-surfaces. Less harm results from this substance in hard limestones than from that in soft stone; hence, if the stone be hard and compact, a larger content of silica is admissible than in a soft stone. When necessarily using stone of comparatively poor quality, the best obtainable coke should be employed. 189. Granulation of the Sugar in tltc Vacuum-pan. — An excessive alkalinity or an excess of lime salts in the sirups causes the "strike" to boil slowly or heavily. When the difficulty is due to the alkalinity, the addition of sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to nearly neutralize the massecuite, and careful supervision of the " saturation " with carbonic acid or sulphurous acid, is usually a satisfactory remedy. Excessive alkalinity of the sirup may be corrected by the addition of superphos- phate of calcium, followed by filtration, to remove the precipitate, or the sirup may be nearly neutralized with dilute hydrochloric acid. The former method is prefer- able. The author was once present in a French sugar- house when the pan-man reported that "the strike would not boil." The chemist determined the alkalinity of the massecuite in the pan and calculated the quantity of acid required to nearly neutralize it, then added dilute sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid not being readily obtainable. The strike was completed without further difficulty, though the yield of sugar was diminished by the treatment. Should the difficulty be due to excess of lime salts, they may be decomposed by the addition of a vegetable oil or SUGAR-HOUSE NOTES. 21-^ carbonate of sodium. The purification of the juice should be carefully controlled, so that it may rarely be necessary to adopt one of these remedies. Difficulty in boiling the massecuite may also arise from a large proportion of organic matter, not sugar. In this event the only remedy is to increase the proportion of lime used in the first carbonatation. 190. Second and Third Masseciiites, etc.— There is occasionally a tendency in massecuites, boiled tvj "string-proof," to foam in the crystallizing-tanks, or, as this is usually termed by the workmen, to "boil over." This has been attributed to various causes (see also page 200). It is often charged to reducing the alkalinity of the juice in the first carbonatation too low. Caustic soda may be used to remedy the alkalinity. Overheating of the massecuite in the pan or in the hot-room is supposed to often be the cause of the difficulty. The usual remedies are to sprinkle water or caustic soda solution on the surface of the massecuite. 191. Gray Sugar. — A series of experiments, by Herzfeld,^ shows that the gray or reddish-gray color, which is sometimes observed in raw sugars, is due to the solution of ferric and ferrous oxides in the juice, in the presence of which, during the saturation with sulphurous acid, the sugar is discolored. Gray sugar, as a class, is acid to phenolphthalein; this discoloration is not noticeable in the products when the liquors are kept alkaline. Certain sugars, obtained when using dry lime in the defecation, gave unsatisfactory results. The alkalinity of the dry. products was not determined. That of the sirups was determined with rosolic acid as an indicator, the use of which led to great errors, since juice apparently alkaline was in reality acid, and therefore dissolved ferric and ferrous oxides. When the sugar is gray its color may be remedied by cover- ing it with strongly alkaline sirup. The "graying" of raw sugar is attributed by Munier' to the formation of a double sulphate of iron and potassium. The sulphur of this double salt is chiefly derived from the decomposition of albumin. * Zet'i. Rube»zticker-Ind., 1896, 46, i. ^ Deutsche Zucker.-Ind., 1895, ^^1 1744? Journ. Soc. Chem, Ind., 16, 42. 216 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAE-HOUSE CHEMISTS. SPECIAL REAGENTS. 192. Soxhlet's Solution. — In Soxhlet's method two solutions are employed, prepared as follows : (A) Dissolve 34.639 grams of copper sulphate in water and dilute to 500 cc. (B) Dissolve 173 grams tartrate of soda and potash (Rochelle salt) in water, add 51.6 grams of caustic soda dis- solved in water and dilute the solution to 500 cc. 193. Solclaiiii's Solution. — Dissolve 40 grams ot sulphate of copper and 40 grams of carbonate of sodium separately in water ; mix ; collect the precipitate on a filter and wash with cold water. Transfer the precipitate to a large flask fitted with a reflux condenser ; a long glass tube will answer for this purpose. Add approximately 416 grams of bicarbonate of potassium and 1400 cc. distilled water ; heat on a water-bath or a hot-plate several hours, or until the evolution of carbonic acid ceases. When no more carbonic acid is given off, filter the solution and boi) the filtrate! a few minutes, and dilute it to 2000 cc. Th© specific gravity of the solution should be approximately 1. 185. Solutions to be treated with Soldaini's reagent should be boiled in case they contain ammonia, to insure freedom from this substance. Check this solution as indi- cated in 175. 194. Fehling's Solution.— The formula for Feh' ling's solution is as follows : 34.64 grams of pure crystalline copper sulphate ; 100.00 grams neutral potassium tartrate. Dissolve the copper sulphate in 160 cc. distilled water ; dissolve the neutral potassic tartrate in 600 to 700 cc. caustic-soda solution, specific gravity 1.12, equivalent to approximately a 14-per-cent solution by volume ; add the copper solution to the alkali, stirring thoroughly after SPECIAL REAGEIfTS. 217 each addition ; make up to looo cc. at the temperature at which the litre flask was graduated. Check this solution as indicated in 195. Fehling's solution decomposes readily on exposure to strong light. The author prefers the following modifica- tion by Violette for commercial work. 195. Violette's Solution.— This solution should be prepared in small quantities at a time, since it is liable to deposit oxide of copper, even in the cold, on long expos- ure to light. To prepare this solution, use the following quantities of the reagents : 34.64 crams chemically pure crystallized sulphate of copper ; 187.00 grams commercially pure tartrate of soda and pot. ash (Rochelle salt) ; 78.00 grams commercially pure caustic soda. Dissolve the copper sulphate in 140 cc. water, and add it slowly to the solution of Rochelle salt and caustic soda, taking care to thoroughly stir the solution after each addi- tion ; dilute to one litre. The copper sulphate should be carefully examined for impurities. If the salt be impure it must be dissolved and recrystallized repeatedly. The crystals must be finely powdered and dried between filter-papers before weigh- ing. If it be desirable to make up a large quantity of Fehling or Violette solution, all risk of deposition of the copper oxide in the cold may be avoided by making a separate solution of the copper sulphate. Dissolve the alkali and dilute to one litre ; dissolve the copper and make up to exactly one litre. For the analytical work take equal vol- umes of the solutions. Check this solution with invert- sugar (204) or dextrose under the conditions adopted for the analysis. The copper in 10 cc. of this solution should be reduced by 0.05 gram invert-sugar. 196. Normal Solutions.—" Normal solutions, as a general rule, are prepared so that one litre shall contain the hydrogen equivalent of the active reagent weighed in grams (H = i)" (Sutton). Thus, normal sulphuric acid 218 HANDBOOK FOR SliaAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. contains 49.043 grams H2SO4 per litre ; normal hydrochloric acid, 36.458 grams HCl per litre, etc. Half-normal, one- fifth normal, and one-tenth normal (decinormal) solutions are frequently used, and are prepared by diluting the nor- mal solutions. Normal, half-normal, one-fifth normal so- N N N lutions, etc., are usually written as follows: N, — , — , — , 2 5 10 etc. These solutions are prepared and checked as indi- cated in the following sections. 197. Standard Hydrochloric Acid.— The re- agent acid has usually a specific gravity of 1.20, approxi- mately. Acid of this specific gravity contains 40.78 per cent of hydrochloric acid {see table, page 272); hence, a little less than 100 grams of this acid is required to con- tain the 36.458 grams necessary to form a normal solution. It is advisable to dilute a somewhat larger quantity of the acid, e.^., 80 cc. to 1000 cc, with distilled water, rather than to attempt to closely approximate the correct quantity. Titrate this solution with a normal alkali solution (201), adding the acid from a burette to 10 cc. of the alkali solu- tion, using cochineal or other suitable indicator (215). The preliminary titration should, most conveniently, show the acid solution to be too strong; for example, suppose 9.6 cc. of the acid solution is required to neutralize 10 cc. of the alkali solution, then to 9.6 X 100 = 960 cc. of the acid must be added 1000 — 960 cc. = 40 cc. of water to make one solution exactly neutralize the other. The solution should be further checked by a determination of the chlorine, preferably by the method described on page 169. This acid is a convenient one for use in preparing very accurate standard alkali and acid solutions, since its strength may be ascertained with ease ajid accuracy by the chlorine determination. The half-normal acid is a con- venient strength, and should contain 17.725 grams of chlorine per litre. I cc. normal hydrochloric acid = .036458 gram HCl • = .03545 " CI ,= .02804 " CaO = .05181 *' SrO = .07672 ** .BaO. SPECIAL REAGEKTS. 219 198. Standard Oxalic Acid.— This is the simplest of the normal solutions to prepare, and when strictly pure oxalic acid can be obtained it may be used in the prepara- tion of all the standard alkali and acid solutions. Repeatedly crystallize the purest obtainable oxalic acid, from water solution. Dry the crystals thoroughly in the air at ordinary temperatures. Reject all crystals that show indications of efflorescence. Dissolve 63,034 grams of this acid in distilled water and dilute to looo cc. to prepare the normal solution, or, preferably, dry the powdered acid at 100° C. to constant weight and use 45.018 grams in pre- paring the normal solution. It is advisable to employ weaker solutions, usually the one-tenth normal acid. This should be prepared from the normal solution as required, since the latter keeps better, provided it is not exposed to direct sunlight. I cc. normal oxalic acid = .06303 gram H2C2O4.2H2O. 199. Standard Sulphuric Acid.— Add approxi- mately 28 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid to distilled water, cool the solution, and dilute to 1000 cc. Standard- ize by titration with normal alkali. I cc. normal sulphuric acid = .049043 gram H2SO4 = .02804 " CaO = .05181 " SrO = .07672 •• BaO. 200. Standard Sulphuric Acid for the Con- trol of the Carbonatation. — Add approximately 21 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid to distilled water, cool the solution, and dilute to 1000 cc. Titrate this solution with a normal soda or potash solution, using phenolphtha- lein as an indicator. Dilute the acid so that 14 cc. [will be required to neutralize 10 cc. of the normal alkali (201). I cc. this standard acid = .035 gram H2SO4 = .02 " CaO. It is usual to add the phenolphthalein to this solution before dilution to 1000 cc. 201. Standard Alkali Solutions. — Ammonium 220 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. hydrate (NH4HO), caustic soda (NaHO), and caustic potash (KHO) are used in preparing the alkali solutions. The normal soda or potash solutions are used, but the ammonia should be weaker, preferably decinormal, or, for Sidersky's method for reducing-sugars, half-normal. Dissolve 42 grams of chemically pure caustic soda in water, in preparing the normal reagent, cool the solu- tion, dilute to 1000 cc, and standardize by titration, against a normal acid. In preparing the potash solution, use 58 grams of chemically pure caustic potash. The table, page 274, is convenient for use in standardizing the ammonia solution. Dilute the ammonia to approximately the re- quired strength, and standardize by titration with deci- normal or half-normal acid, as may be required, using cochineal as an indicator, or for Sidersky's method for reducing-sugars, use sulphate of copper as an indicator, as directed on page 88. I cc. normal caustic-soda {Solution = .0401 gram NaOH = .03105 " NaaO 1 cc. normal caustic potash solution = .056 " KHO = .04711 •' KaO I cc. half-normal ammonia solution = .00853 " NHs = .01754 " (NHOHO I cc. decinormal ammonia solution = .00171 " NHs = .00351 " (NH^HO Phenolphthalein cannot be used as an indicator with ammonia. 202. Decinormal Permanganate of Potas- sium.— Dissolve 3.16 grams of chemically pure and dry permanganate of potassium (KMn04) in distilled water, and dilute to 1000 cc. This solution is conveniently checked by titration with decinormal oxalic acid. To 10 cc. of deci- normal oxalic acid add several volumes of water and a few cc. of dilute sulphuric acid. Warm the solution to approxi- mately 60° C, and add the permanganate solution little by little. Discontinue the addition of the permanganate as soon as the solution acquires a faint pink- or rose-color. The temperature of the solution must be maintained at SPECIAL REAGENTS. 221 approximately 60° C, and a little time must be allowed for the reaction. In reducing-sugar determinations, check the permanganate, as indicated on page 90. Permanganate of potassium solution should be preserved in a tightly stoppered bottle, and should be checked from time to 'time. The appearance of a sediment indicates a change in the solution. It is simpler to determine a factoi from time to time, rather than attempt to maintain the solution strictly decinormal. I cc. decinormal permanganate of ) = .0316 gram KMn04 potash J = .00636 " Cu. 203. Permanganate Solution for Reducing- sugrar Determinations.— This solution should be of such strength that i cc. is equivalent to .oi gram of copper. Dissolve 4.9763 grams of permanganate of potas- sium in distilled water and dilute to 1000 cc. This solu- tion should be checked by a reducing-sugar determination in material of known composition. 204. Invert-sugar Solution.— Borntrager^ recom- mends the following method of preparing an invert-sugar solution for checking the reagents used in reducing-sugar determinations : Dissolve 2.375 grams pure sucrose in water, dilute to 100 cc, and add 10 cc. hydrochloric acid of 1. 188 specific gravity. Let the mixture stand overnight in the cold. Neutralize with sodium hydrate and dilute to 1000 cc. 20 cc. of this solution contains .05 gram invert-sugar, and should reduce the copper in 10 cc. of Violette or Fehling solution. The inversion may also be conducted under the tem- perature conditions given in 89 in preparing invert sugar; or pure dextrose may be substituted for it in standardizing the alkaline copper reagents. 205. Soap Solution for Clark's Test and Alka- linity Determinations.— Courtonne recommends the following method of preparing the soap solution, which he states is quite permanent : To 28 grams or 33 cc. of olive-oil or oil of sweet almonds add 10 cc. caustic soda * 2^it, Angew. Chent.^ 1892, 333, 233 HAKDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSB CHEMISTS. solution of 35° Baume, and lo cc. 90 to 95 per cent alcohol ; heat the mixture a few minutes on the boiling water-bath to saponify the oil, then add 800 to 900 cc. of 60 per cent alcohol and agitate to dissolve the soap. Filter the solu- tion into a 1000 cc. flask, cool, and complete the volume to i litre with 60 per cent alcohol. The solution should be standardized as directed in 82. Sidersky recommends the following solution : Dissolve 50 grams of white Marseilles soap in 800 grams of 90 per cent alcohol, filter and add 500 cc. distilled water. Standard- ize as in 82. Thfe following is Clark's method as described by Sut- ton : " Rub together 150 parts lead plaster (Emplast. Plumbi of the druggists) and 40 parts dry potassic carbonate. When fairly mixed add a little methylated spirit and tritu- rate to a uniform creamy mixture. Allow to stand some hours, then throw on a filter and wash several times with methylated spirit. Dilute the strong soap solution with a mixture of one volume of distilled water and two volumes of methylated spirit (considering the soap solution as spirit) until 14.25 cc. are required to form a permanent lather with 50 cc. standard calcic chloride, the experiment being performed as in determining the hardness of water. To prepare the calcic chloride solution : Dissolve 0.2 gram pure crystallized calcite in dilute hydrochloric acid in a platinum dish. Evaporate to dryness on the water-bath, dissolve with water and again evaporate to dryness, repeat- ing this several times. Lastly, dissolve in distilled water and complete the volume to 1000 cc." 206. Preparation of Pure Sugar.^-The following method of purifying sugar, for use in testing polariscopes. was adopted by the Fourth International Congress of Ap- plied Chemistry, Paris, 1900, on the recommendation of the committee appointed with a view to unifying the methods of sugar analysis used in various countries : Prepare a hot saturated solution of the purest commercial sugar obtain- able, and precipitate the sugar with absolute ethel alcohol. Spin the precipitated sugar in a centrifugal and wash it with alcohol. Redissolve the sugar and again precipitate and wash it as before. The sugar so obtained should be SPECIAL EEAGENTS. / 223 dried between pieces of blotting-paper and preserved in a stoppered glass jar. The moisture contained in the sugar shouldjbe determined and proper allowance made for it when weighing the sample for analysis. If the sugar be of beet or unknown origin, purify it by the following method recommended by Wiley : Dissolve 70 parts of sugar in 30 parts of water, then precipitate the sugar from this solution at 60° C. with an equal volume of 96 per cent alcohol. Decant the supernatant liquor while still warm, and wash the sugar with strong warm alcohol. The raffinose is removed in the alcohol solution. Finally wash the sugar with absolute alcohol and dry over sulphuric acid in a desiccator. 207. Sllbacetate of Lead. — Dilute Solution. — Heat, nearly to boiling, for about half an hour, 430 grams of neu- tral acetate of lead, 130 grams of litharge, and 1000 cc. of water. Cool, settle, and decant the clear solution and re- duce this to 54.3° Brix with cold, recently boiled, distilled water. This is the solution recommended for use with Pellet's aqueous methods for the direct analysis of the beet. Concentrated Solution. — Proceed as above, except use only 250 cc. of water. Late investigations show that highly basic solutions of subacetate of lead should not be employed. 208. Preparation of Bone-black for Decolor- izing' Solutions. — Powder the bone-black obtained from the sugar-house filters, or otherwise, and heat it several hours with hydrochloric or nitric acid to dissolve the min- eral matter. Decant the acid and wash the bone-black with water until the washings no longer turn blue litmus- paper red. Dry the powdered char in an air-bath, at about 150" C. Preserve in a tightly stoppered bottle. pi Vivien advises digesting the bone-black, reduced to a fine powder, with a large excess of acid during several days; the char is then thoroughly washed with water, and finally with dilute ammonia, and thoroughly dried. The dry ch^r is calcine^i^ft^i vessel from which the air is ex- cluded. . .ift .,jU J 224 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 1 209. Preparation of Hydrate of Alumina.— Hydrate of alumina, frequently termed '* alumina cream,'* may be used instead of lead for decolorizing sugar solu- tions or for removing an opalescence. To a moderately concentrated solution of common alum in water add am- monia in slight excess. Wash the resulting precipitate by decantation until the wash-water no longer reacts alkaline with litmus-paper. This precipitate is employed in a moist state. After adding the hydrate of alumina to the solu- tion to be examined, it should stand a few minutes, with frequent shaking. A little lead may sometimes be advan- tageously employed with the alumina. 210. Litmus Solution. — Powder the litmus and treat it several times with boiling-hot 8o-per-cent alcohol to separate the coloring matter soluble in this reagent. Reject the alcoholic solution, boil the residue with distilled water, and filter. Divide the filtrate into two equal parts ; carefully neutralize one with sulphuric acid, then mix the two portions together. Again divide into two parts, neutralize one, and mix as before. Repeat these opera- tions until the solution is exactly neutral; preserve in an open bottle. 211. liitmus-papers. — Take a portion of the above solution and divide into two parts. To one part add suffi- cient sulphuric acid to render it faintly acid ; to the other portion add caustic-soda solution to faint alkalinity. Soak strips of Swedish filter-paper in these solutions, using the acid for red paper and the alkaline for the blue. Dry the strips in a room free from acid or alkaline vapors. Pre- serve in an unstopperect bottle, out of contact with strong sunlight. 212. Turmeric-paper.— Treat the finely powdered turmeric first with water, to dissolve out impurities, then with alcohol, to extract the coloring matter. Soak strips of Swedish filter-paper in the alcoholic solution, and dry them out of contact with the laboratory fumes. Preserve the papers in a stoppered bottle. 213. Phenolphthalein Solution.— Dissolve i gram of phenolphthalein in lOO cc. of dilute alcohol. This solu- SPECIAL REAGENTS. 225 tion is colorless when acid and red in the presence of al- kalis. It should be neutralized with dilute caustic soda or potash. Phenolphthalein is not applicable in the presence of ammonia. This indicator is considered the most suitable for beet-sugar work by Herzfeld, Claassen, and Henke.* 214. Coralliii or Rosolic Acid Solution.— Digest equal quantities of carbolic, sulphuric, and oxalic acids to- gether for some time at 150° C ; dilute the mixture with water, saturate the free acid with calcium carbonate, and evaporate the mixture to dryness ; extract the color with alcohol and nearly neutralize the solution (Sutton): or, pre- pare a saturated solution of commercial corallin in 90^ al- cohol, and nearly neutralize with an alkali. This solution is more permanent than litmus, but otherwise has no advan- tages over the latter. 215. Cochineal Solution.— Extract 3 grams of pul- verized cochineal with 50 cc. strong alcohol and 200 cc. water, with occasional agitation, for a day or two. Filter off, and neutralize the extract. 216. Phenacetolin Solution. — Dissolve 2 grams of the reagent in looo cc. of strong alcohol. 217. Nessler's Solution.— Dissolve 62.5 grams of potassium iodide, KI, in 250 cc. of water. Set aside about 10 cc. of this solution ; add to the larger portion a solution of mercuric chloride, HgCla, until the precipitate formed no longer redissolves. Add the 10 cc. of the iodide solution ; then continue the addition of mercuric chloride very cautiously until a slight permanent precipitate forms. Dissolve 150 grams of caustic potash in 150 cc. water, cool, and add gradually to the above solution. Dilute the mix- ture to I litre. * An extensive paper on indicators for sugar-house purposes is published by Henke in Cent. Blatt./. d. Zuckerind., 18^4, Nos. 11 and 12 ; abstract in Bulletin de V Association des Chitnistes, 13, 4g2. r 226 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. REAGENTS. 218. TABLE SHOWING THE IMPURITIES PRESENT IN COM- MERCIAL REAGEI^TS ; ALSO, THE STRENGTH OF SOLU'HONS, ETC., RECOMMENDED. Name. Bulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). Nitric Acid. Hydrochloric Acid OHuriaticAcid). Nitro-hydro- chloric Acid. (Aqua regia.) Acetic Acid. Sulphurous Acid. Oxalic Acid. Sulphuretted Hydrogen. Sodic Hydrate or Potass ic Hydrate. Ammonic Hy- drate. Baric Hydrate. H2SO4. HNOa. HCl. H^CaO,. HaSOj LH,Ca04, HaS. NaHO, KHO. NH4HO. BaOaH,. Pb, As, Fe, Ca, HNO3, Na04. II2SO4, HCl. CI, FejCl,, HaS04, SO2, As. HaSO*, HCl, Cu, Pb, Fe, Ca. Fe, K, Na, Ca. Al, SiOa, phos- phates, sul- phates, and chlorides. Sulphate, chlo- ride, carbon- ate, tarry matters. Strength of Solution, etc. Concentrated and dilute. To dilute pour 1 part acid by measure into 9 parts distilled water. Use por- celain dish. Concentrate and dilute. To dilute add 1 part acid to 9 parts water. Concentrated and dilute. Dilute = 1 part acid to 9 parts water. Prepare when required by adding 4 parts hydro- chloric to 1 part nitric acid. Use concentrated acids. Concentrated and dilute. Dilute = 1 part pure gla- cial acetic acid to 1 part water. To charcoal, in a flask, add concentrated H2SO4. Boil, wash the gas gen- erated by passing it through water, and finally pass it into very cold water. Preserve the so- lution in tightly -stoppered bottles. Dissolve 1 pai't of crys' tallized acid in 9 parts dis- tilled water. Use in gaseous state or in water solution. Wash the gas. Dissolve the stick soda or potash in 20 parts wa- ter. (Soda is less expen- sive, and will usually an- swer for most purposes in place of potash.) Stronger water of am- monia (.96 specific gravity) and ^ above strength. Dissolve 1 part of the crystals in 20 parts water ; filter, and preserve in Stoppered bottle. REAGENTSo 227 REAaENTS.— Conttnwed. Name. Syhbol. IMPURITIBS. Strength of Solution, ETC. CalclcHydrate. CaOaHj. Slake lime in water, filter off the solution, and preserve out of con- tact with the air. Sodic Ammo- Na(NH4)HP04. Dry and powder the nic Hydric salt. It may be made as Phosphate. follows: Dissolve 7 parts (Microcosmic disodic hydric phosphate Salt.) (Na2HP04) and 1 part ammonic chloride in 2 parts boiling water, fil- ter, and separate the re- quired salt by crystalli- zation. Purify by recrys- tallization. Sodic Biborate. Na,B40,. Heat to expel water of crystallization and powder. Sodic NaaCO,. Chlorides, Use the powdered salt Carbonate. phosphates, sulphates, silicates. or dissolve in 5 parts water. Ammonic Sul- (NH4)2S04. Dissolve 1 part in 5 phate. parts water. ■ Ammonic (NH4)C1. Fe. Purify the Dissolve 1 part in 5 tftr: Chloride. commercial salt by the ad- dition of am- monia; filter. Neutralize fil- trate with HCl; concentrate and recrystallize. parts water. Ammonic (NH4)N0,. Saturated solution. Nitrate. Ammonic (NH4)aCa04. Purify by re- Dissolve 1 part in 30 Oxalate. crystalliz.ition . parts water. Ammonic (NH4)aC03. Pb, Fe, Dissolve 1 part in 4 Carbonate. sulphates, chlorides. parts water, and add 1 part ammonia, specific gravity .880. Ammonic mo- Dissolve the salt in lybdate. strong ammonia, decant the clear solution slowly into strong nitric acid, stirring thoroughly till the precipitate redis- solves. Ammonic sul- (NH4)aS. Saturate 3 parts am- monia with HjS, then phide. add 2 parts ammonia. Yellow (NH4)aSa Prepared by dissolving sulphur in ammonic sul- Ammonic Sul- phide. phide. Potassic Sul- KaS04. Dissolve 1 part in 10 phate. parts water. Potassic KI. lodate. car- Dissolve 1 part in 50 Iodide. bonate. part.s water. 228 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. REAGENTS.— Confintted. Name. Potassic Chromate. Potassic Bi- chromate. Potassic Ferri- cyanide. Potassic Ferrocyanide. Baric Chloride. Baric Nitrate. Baric Carbonate. Calcic Chloride Calcic Sulphate. Magnesic Sulphate. Ferrous Sulphate. Ferric Chloride Cobaltous Nitrate. Cupric Sulphate. Mercuric Chloride. Mercurous Nitrate. K3Cr04. KaCraOT. K,FeaCyi«. KiFeCy.. BaCl,. BaCNOg)^. BaCOa. CaCla. CaSO*. MgSO^. FeS04. FeaCl«. C0(N03)a. CUSO4. HgCla. Hg,(NO,),. Impurities. Sulphates. Purify the commercial salt by passing H,S through it and crystallizing Fe. Fe, Ni, etc. Fe, Zn. Strength of Solution, etc. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. ve 1 part m 12 parts water. Better to prepare solution when re- quired. Dissolve 1 part in 12 parts water, or, for glu- cose work, 1 part in 30 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 15 parts water. Add water to the pow- dered carbonate and pre- serve in salt-mouthed bot- tle. Dissolve 1 part in 5 parts water. Dissolve as much of the salt as possible in water (in the cold), filter, and preserve the filtrate. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts cold water. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. For sugar work purify by repeated crystalliza- tions. Even the so-called C. P." salts cannot al- ways be depended upon. For Fehling solution see page 216. For ordinary work dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 30 parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 20 parts water acidulated with 1.2 part nitric acid. Filter into a bottle con- taining a little metallic mercury. ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 329 RE AGENTS. —Contmued, Name. Symbol. Impurities. Strength of Solution, etc. Platinic Chloride. ptcu. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Argentic Nitrate. AgNOs. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Stannous Chloride. SnCla. Dissolve pure tin in strong HCl in the presence of platinum. Dilute with 4 volumes dilute HCl. Keep granulated tin in the 219. ATOMIC WEIGHTS— PARTIAL LIST. (The Constants of Nature— Fra,nk Wigglesworth Clarke.) Name. Sym- bol. Atomic Wt. H= 1 = 16 Aluminum. Al 26.91 27.11 Antimony.. Sb 119.52 120.43 Arsenic — As 74.44 75.01 Barium... Ba 136.39 137.43 Bismuth... Bi 206.54 208.11 Boron B 10.86 10.95 1 Bromine... Br 79.34 79.95 Calcium ... Ca 39.76 40.07 Carbon .... C 11.92 12.01 Chlorine... CI 35.18 35.45 Chromium. Cr 51.74 52.14 Cobalt Co 58.49 58.93 Copper — Cu 63.12 63.60 Fluorine... Fl 18.91 18.06 Gold Au 195.74 197.23 Hydrogen.. H 1.00 1.008 Iodine I 125.89 126.85 Iron Fe 55.60 56.02 Name. Lead Magnesium. Manganese. Mercury Nickel Nitrogen.... Oxygen Phosphorus Platinum..., Potassium . . Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium.. . Sulphur Tin Zinc Sym- bol. Pb Mg Mn Hg Ni N O P Pt K Si Ag Na Sr S Sn Zn Atomic Wt. H=l 0=16 24.10 54.57 198.49 58.24 13.93 15.88 30.79 193.41 38.82 28.18 107.11 22.88 86.95 31.83 118.15 64.91 206.92 24.28 54.99 200.00 58.69 14.04 16.00 31.02 194.89 39.11 28.40 107.92 23.05 87.61 32.07 119.05 65.41 330 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 280. COMPARISON OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Measures op Weight. Pounds Avoirdupois. Ounce Avoirdupois. Troy Grains. Milligram.. Centigram . Decigram. Gram Decagram . Hectogram . Kilogram... .01543 .15433 1.54332 15.43316 1 lb. avoirdupois = 453.593 grams. Measures of Length. Inches. Feet. Millimetre .03937 .39371 3.93708 39.37079 393.70790 3937.07900 39370 79000 393707.90000 .003281 .032809 328090 Metre 3.280899 32 808992 Hectometre 828.089917 3280.899167 Myriametre 32808 991667 1 inch 2 . 53995 centimetres. 1 foot = 30 . 47945 centimetres. Measures of Capacity. Millilitre (cubic centimetre). Centilitre Decilitre Litre (cubic decimetre) Decalitre Hectolitre Kilolitre My rialitre Cubic Inches. .06103 .61027 6.10270 61.02705 610.2705 6102.705 61027.05 610270.5 Gallons (231 cu. in.). .002641 .026414 .26414 2.6414 26.414 264.14 2641.4 t = 28.3153 litres. 1 cubic inch = 16.3862 cubic centimetres. 1 cubic foot 1 gallon (231 cu. in.) = 3.785 litres. Measures of Surface. Centiare, square metre Are, 100 square metres Hectare, 10,000 sq. metres. . . SQUARE Feet. 10.7643 1076.4293 107642.9342 Acres. .024711 2 471143 1 SQ. inch = 6.4514 sq. centimetres. 1 sq. foot = 9.29 sq. decimetres. 1 acre = .4046 hectare. RELATIVE VALUES OF DIFFEREKT FUELS. 231 831. RELATIVE VALUES OF DIFFERENT FUELS.- (Haswell.) Description. Anthracites. Peach Mountain, Pa Beaver Meadow Bituminous. Newcastle Pictou Liverpool Cannelton, Ind Scot<3h Pine wood, dry a a^. i^s ■^a 1 Si 11 S|5 ill «8 t- 2 M 1^^ is- ^i^ 111 sai sll m 11 III 10.7 1 1 .505 .683 .725 9.88 .923 .982 .207 .748 6 8.66 .809 .776 .595 .887 .346 8.48 .792 .738 .588 .418 1 7.84 .7m .663 .581 1 .3.33 7.34 .686 .616 1 .984 .578 6.95 .649 .625 .521 .499 .649 4.69 .436 .175 .... 16417 .945 .904 .876 .852 .848 .909 222. Testing a Burette.— The method of testing a burette as described by Payne ^ may be applied with ad- vantage in a sugar-house laboratory and contribute its share to the reduction of the " undetermined losses." Payne's article is given here in full, with the exception of the preliminary statements and the abridgment of the tables to an upper limit of 40° C. The author urges the adoption of Payne's suggestion relative to the standard temperature. " Most makers choose 15° or 16° as the standard tem- perature, and many graduates are so marked; but we may preferably take a somewhat higher temperature, one nearer the average working temperature of our room, and in this way secure less actual deviation from the truth. Several temperatures have been proposed from 15° to 25", and the highest of these seems to be the best. " Having selected a standard temperature for our burette, the next point to consider is the standard unit of volume. By definition, ' The kilogram is the vacuum weight of 1000 cc. of water at its temperature of maximum density, about 4^' Reversing this, the volume occupied by i kilo J Journal of Anal, and Applied Chemistry 6, 327. 232 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. of water at 4° (weighed in vacuo) is the volume of icxx) cc. or I litre. Since we are obliged to weigh in air, and for convenience at temperatures greater than 4°, we can only arrive at the correct litre by knowing the conditions of our experiment and making the proper corrections therefor. " The true litre is independent of the expansion of water by heat, and out of respect for the authors of the metric system, as well as from a regard for uniformity, it may well be retained as our actual standard. "Our first correction depends upon thevariation in weight of I litre of water under a change of temperature. This has been determined by several experimenters, and a care- ful comparison of their best results will give us a very accurate table. The following has been compiled from the latest determinations, plotted into a curve of expansion and corrected by the method of second differences. (See Table I.) " At our standard temperature, 25°, the true weight of i litre of water is seen to be 997.27 gms. The apparent Table No. 1. Density Volume Density Volume or or or or Degrees C. Grams Centime- Degrees C. Grams Centime- in tres cu. in in tres cu. iu 1 Litre. 1 Kilo. 1 Litre. 1 Kilo. 999.86 1000.14 21 998.18 1001.82 1 999.91 1000.09 22 997.97 1002.03 2 999.95 1000 05 23 997.74 1002.26 3 999.98 1000.02 24 997.51 1002.49 4 1000 00 1000.00 26 997.27 1002.78 5 999.97 1000.03 26 997.02 1002.98 6 999.94 1000.06 27 996.76 1003.24 7 999.90 1000.10 28 996.48 1003.52 8 999.85 1000.15 29 996.19 1003.81 9 999.79 1000.21 30 995.89 1004.11 10 999.72 1000.28 31 995.58 1004.42 11 999.64 1000.36 32 995.25 1004.75 12 999.55 1000.45 33 994.92 1005.08 13 999.44 1000.56 34 994.58 1005.42 14 999.32 1000.68 35 994 23 1005.77 15 999.19 1000 81 36 993.87 1006.18 16 999. 0") 1000 95 37 993 50 1006.50 17 998.90 ICOl.lO 38 993.12 1006.88 18 9^8.74 1001.26 39 992.73 1007.27 19 998.57 1001.43 40 992.32 1007.68 20 998.38 1001.62 TESTING A BUHETTE. 333 weight of I litre of water at 25° as weighed with brass weights in air at the same temperature and at 760 mm. barometric pressure would be less than this by an amount equal to the weight of air displaced by the difference in volume between the water and the weights. With brass at a sp. gr. of 8, and water at i, the difference in volume equals | of the volume of the water or | of i litre, i litre of air at 25° and 760 mm. B. weighs 1. 1845 gms. and | of this 1.0364 gms. Hence the litre under these circumstances weighs or at least counterbalances weights equal to 996.23 gms. This correction for loss of weight in air varies with the barometer, but for any pressure between 730 and 780 mm. a change of less than .05 cc. per litre is occasioned, which for our purpose may be entirely disregarded. The temperature of the air will be approximately the same as that of the water, a maximum difference of 5° modifying the result by only .02 cc. per litre, and by subtracting the correction from the previous table we get the following : Table No. 2. APPARENT WEIGHT OF 1 LITRE OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES, AS WEIGHED WITH BRASS WEIGHTS IN AIR. Temp, of Water, Degrees C. Apparent Weight. Temp, of Water, Degrees C. Apparent Weight. J5 998.1 28 995.4 16 • 998.0 29 995.2 17 997.8 30 394.9 18 997.7 Si 994.6 19 997.5 • 32 991.2 20 997.3 33 993.9 21 997.1 34 993.6 22 996.9 35 993.2 23 996.7 36 992.9 24 996.5 37 992.5 25 996.2 38 992.1 26 996.0 39 991.7 27 995.7 40 991.3 " This table at 25° gives the apparent weight of one litre of water as measured by our burette. The expansion or con- traction of the glass above or below this temperature will modify the other figures by an amount equal to .023 cc. for each degree, and this amount must be subtracted below 25°, 234 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. and added above 25°, to the figures of the table. Hence we have a final table giving the apparent weight of i litre of water under ordinary circumstances as above stated. As most of our volumetric glassware is marked as standard at 15°. we give a table for this temperature also, although the difference amounts to only .02 per cent. Table No. 3. apparent weight of 1 litre of water at different temperatures, as weighed with brass weights in AIR. CORRECTED FOR EXPANSION OF GLASS. Temperature. Apparent Weight. Apparent Volume. Degrees C. Standard Standard Standard Standard at 15°. at 25°. at 15°. at 25°. 15 998.1 997 9 1001.9 1002.1 16 998.0 997.8 1002.0 1002.2 17 997.9 997.7 1002.1 1002.3 18 997.8 997.5 1002.2 1002.5 19 997.6 997.4 100-2.4 1002.6 20 997.4 997.2 1002 6 1002.8 21 997.3 997.0 1002.7 1003.0 22 997.1 996.8 1002.9 1003.2 23 996.9 996.6 1003.1 1003.4 24 996.7 996.4 1003 3 1003.6 ^5 996 6 996 2 1003.5 1003.8 26 996. '-2 996.0 1003 8 1004.0 27 996.0 995.8 1004.0 1004.2 28 995.7 995.5 995.5 1004.3 1004.5 29 995.2 1004.5 1004.8 30 995.2 995.0 1004.8 1005.0 31 994.9 994.7 1005.1 1005.3 32 994.6 994.4 1005.4 1005.6 33 994.3 • 994.1 1005.7 1005.9 34 994.0 993.8 1006.0 1006.2 35 993.7 993.5 1006.3 1006.5 36 993.4 993.2 1006.6 1006.8 37 993.0 992.8 1007.0 1007.2 38 992.6 992.4 1007.4 1007.6 39 992.3 992.1 ioor.7 1007.9 40 991.9 991.7 1008.1 100S.3 " This table is accurate to probably .1 cc. in a litre or to .01 per cent., which is about the limit of error in an ordinary analysis. " In testing a burette or other graduate, the conditions of the operation should be as nearly as possible the same as those of actual uSe. The burette should be read after a lapse TESTING A BURETTE. 235 of lime equal to the time of an ordinary titration. We have found that in a lOO cc. burette on drawing the contents out rapidly the liquid will run down from the sides about as follows : .1 cc. in ^ minute. .2 cc. in 2 minutes. .3 cc. in 5 minutes, and .4 cc. in 15 minutes. "Water, acid, and salt solutions about the same, but al- kalies a little more slowly. As a careful titration takes usually more than 2 minutes and less than 15, we are accus- tomed to read the burette after 5 minutes standing. " Select water at the same temperature as the balance- room. A convenient vessel for holding the water while weighing is a good-sized weighing-bottle or a glass-stop- pered 100 cc. flask. A solution of bichromate of potash in moderately strong sulphuric acid used warm is an excellent agent for removing grease or other foreign matter from a burette-tube. " The following example of 2 burettes purchased recently will show the method of testing and also exhibit the quality of graduated glassware to be found in the market. With two or three tested burettes and flasks in a laboratory we may readily compare others and make them equivalent. 25 cc„ Burette. Mark B. Water at 25°. Weighings. HjO. True cc. Burette. Difference. Empty 25.120 0.00 32.931 7.8TI 7.84 7.82 7.82 41.452 8.521 8.55 16.37 8.55 49.252 -J. too 7.83 24.21 7.84 24.22 Same Burette again for Total Capacity. Water at 25' Weighings. Burette. Empty 25.084 0.00 49.946 24.94 24.862 = 24.96 cc. error, .02 cc. 236 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Duplicate. Water at 25°. Burette. Empty 25.086 49.983 0.00 24.897 = 25.00 cc. 24.97 error, .03 cc. " Burette readings were taken to y^^ cc, but the error of such a reading would amount to probably .03 cc. The re- sults of the above test shOw the burette to be highly accu- rate. It will be noticed that duplicate determinations give concordant results, the variations being less than the prob- able error of any single reading. This fact alone will indi- cate the general accuracy of the method. Empty Empty ! cc. Burette. Mark K. Water at 26' Burette. Errors. Weighings. 25.065 H2O. True cc. Difference 0.00 . Successive. Total. 32.587 7.522 7.55 7.57 7.57 + .02 40.083 7.496 7.53 15.10 7.53 .00 + .02 47.573 7.490 7.52 22.63 7.53 + .01 + .03 54.954 7.381 7.41 30.00 7.37 - M - .01 62.501 7.547 7.58 37.59 7.59 + .01 .00 70.022 7.5:M 7.55 45.17 7.58 + .03 + .03 77.692 7.670 7.70 52.88 7.71 + .01 + .04 25.129 32.940 7.811 7.84 60.70 7.82 - .02 + .02 40.461 7.521 7.55 68.25 7.55 .00 + .02 45.740 5.279 5.30 73.65 5.40 + .10 + .13 73.53 73.65 '* The test points to a probable inaccuracy in the lower part of the burette. This fact was proven by a duplication of the weighings for the lower part of the burette, and also by a direct comparison of this burette with the 25 cc. burette marked B, and an error of .1 cc. was discovered between the 70 and 75 cc. marks." In graduating apparatus to Mohr's units, instead of to true cubic centimetres, proceed as described in 233, page 250. When the normal weight, 26.048 grams, is used with Schmidt and Haensch polariscopes, the flasks should be graduated to Mohr's units ; with the Laurent polariscope, the flask.s should be graduated to true cubic centimetres. EVAPORATION^ TABLE. 237 ''.t^fef!^ gpilSSg ^S2SS S^SS8 00 30 00 as 00 00 00 do 00 40 00 00 00 00 00 ggggg sssss {gS^^g g^85§§J ss^ss sssss 00 00 00 QO 00 ssggs i-Sg&r: §|5SSS g!S8?J^ 8§S5Si§ Sg;S8?2 sssss ■^ th T-lO O sgggg g&I^&g 1 = t<=^i gSS38S SJ5§g8§ Sfe^^?2 ^S:S§^ i sil| sssss 00 00 00 00 1- g?£i2g& r:gggg 1 oM-l Jggl^^s SSS5JS sssg^s ^ssgg 6 "^l| ^S5S8 ssggg ?2g&&:g gg^^g: T 02 S28^S § Q s^sss 2S&^§ g$:?:S§ ^S52g 03 sssgs ggS^^E: ggggs: g:^g2gg2 2 SJg;::^^ g§S38:SS J§^S^& g?S8^8!8 Sgg^gg g:^^gg ^^g:si2 g2gJ?igJS i SSS8S ^ o ggfeg§ sssss $:SSggj SSI^gg ^ Sli&ii^g {2S^^gE g2t=2gJj:j:: eg§§s i ^5:S?§S5 SSSiSJS ?Jl5^-JSit: ^28855 s gt^.^{?.^ 2:g=g2gig p:j:gg§ §g§SS o SSg8S 8^8^S ^?2SS;: fe§S83 g ^g^^g2 ?2gJj:j:g ggggg ^^§88 02 K-S S^^SfeS ^^S?:;2 feS^S^ f=SS8^ ,^gHgEgig2 sgg§§ gggsss gsss§ 1 II ^(NCO-viS t-OOOS tH ©teo»o QOOS i-lOl mioioioio 10»010«00 0«0?D<0«0 CDi£>Oi>I> ll «T);oao gioioioiai OjTfOOO _C»-*«OQ0 238 HAKDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. PQ CO »o «n lO ^ t> t^ i- 1- 1- taotStnot QOONODO ?D o eo io gSgHggg g?§gSg5 §§S^? «o< sgl 00 oSc* o> t^^SS^o;; |-<1-Q0« lOi-iC ^^git:r: ►< -a s? )»Q0O <050CO g=E2i^g!g t- £- i> t- C- o ^-1 K^?2§?S SS^JSS SSS^o ^§iSi§§ -ill 5r^gf2?i ?igt:t:g gg§8§ SS^gg ^i| ^S8^S ^ssss SSfeSS ^SSSf= ?2?H?ig2S r:t:gg8 §§S§S y§g8{§ ..-1 1 SS58S ©JiS^SS 8S^S?§ ^S$:§^ OOiOiOOQQ Q0J>t*Cp?O iOiftiO-^^ t^ ^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CD CO CO CO CO CO CO :g8SS8 8838SS SSKSSg 5SSSS > CQ CO CO CO CO CO ^ CO CO CO CO CO CO C- 1- t- CD CO o k<=> a OJO»00Q0I> TjiOiiooo T—coi-ii.-*! t>-ccaoeoo» j>cococou:) »r5-*-*eoco nni-h-iO CO CO CO CO CO CO ^ CO CO CO O CO CO ^ CO ^m^. (ooeooo jt>t>CO CO ifSmrfTjicO CC©J(NtHi-i ooqoso* CO cococococo cococococo (ocooino « -a > IQ IC - > CO CO* 00500C010 rj.ojT-iQ«» t~co«n-*eo T-i>cD cococococo cocococoio oininmo CQ ^i t^^ 28 |g 00 CO 00 MOO ■^' ■* « CO i?j cococococo 00 5» t- T- »ra 5* ©»--.■ ,-i O CO CO CO CO CO ■^mcoi>QO Jt-^ t«^ 1> £- l> ©»-<1§CO 03 00 00 l^ t- CO CO JgSS OOSQOQOt- I~C I to icio la m oio in ?s m in o m >00QOQOO0 0000000000 GOOid Oid (NTfCOQO ©jTfCOOO WtJ-COOO '^TiM C«O?>00'* O oj 05 00 00 00 *> tr *r ^ ^ S2 ;2r: O CO OS «o (?« OS CO to CO CO CO S OSCOCOQCO o I- CO o CO ©iSo— .do tJ CO o CO o CO CO CO CO CO looswcoo 00 ■TJ< O t- CO O CO icikQ-^-^ -n^ eo cO cO cO cO CO CO ;§S CO in lO •««'- ■^' CO CO CO cO cO CO CO CO ^ ^JD CO cocooioio ■^■^cijeo CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO Oi-hncoco jOiSSf::*^ 9° - ©3 CO CO o in CO 1-- 1- .>. 55 05 in T-H g8Sg?5 cocoiOT»» cocococo cococococo lammino to (Mt^coiC-^r Oin^coc t-- 1-^ CO CO CO »o totatatnta m ^8SSS ^jo?;.t?. SS88^§ ^ s ssgss SSfeSS SSSSS 58.53 58.05 57.56 57.07 56.58 56.09 55.61 55.12 54.63 54.14 53.66 53.17 52.68 52.29 51.70 56.41 55.90 55.39 54.88 54.36 53.81 53 33 52.82 52.31 51.80 51.28 50.77 50.26 49.74 49.23 ^ ^ 54.05 53.51 52.97 52.43 51.89 51.35 50.81 50.27 49.73 49.19 48.65 48.11 47.57 47.03 46.49 ^ 4 51.43 50.86 50.29 49.71 49.14 45.71 45.14 44.57 44.00 43.43 g ^ t-ooosi-iw CO cot-onoso ^ eo r}< m CO OSOSOSOSO ooooo OOOrHTH OJ^COQO C«Tjb-'t>^i:> QfoaoaoQo'oo aiosos'osos o feft^ A(J HAI^DBOOK POR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. t^ u^ act PQ OOOOOOQOC ss OOOOOO QDQOOOOOC- t-l-l-t-t- w-riooio* -i-ieooi-C) t-i-cooi^so g*QO«'*?o OOI00510 OS-VOOi-HS- 00050JQO OJiOO-^OJ socdiorfaj coco5*C'>T-i i-«o<~>'o5a6 odi^i>?diO QOOOGOOOOO QOOlSOOaOCO QOQOi-J-C- I>t-J>t-J> ooo5D t- 1- 1- > -r" o 5 S 0»0Si-cO5»O i> ,-H ,- I- C» 00 00 00 00 00 iSooPi ca 00 tx I- 1- 1- J> t- j> i tg2g2| l>- C* Ol lO OJ I So 00 00 00 00 lOODCOOO TtsJrcj>?o eojo-^eoco (Ni-i-r-Iooi i>i-i>t-t>- t-i-i^t>t- t-t-i-t-eo 3 "C 2« 3 5» . §8S??g T-! o e»' 00 00 c- 1- 50 o ?o OT5OQ0 OJ< 5OQ0< tH O 05 OO' 00 00 00 l^ I- i- >Q (N-t 00 < 00 05000 • ?0 iO lO "* Sooosoi-* lo «o ojoeo 8^gi i^ i> t» j> i> r-ll0 0!0 t «d >o Ti< 00 o» Q0S!C»t-os l- 00 l-J « Tt< tJ CO 50 irj ■^" 'M^J^^a rHOSeOSD-* (NTflClOQO oJoDi>5d iri l^ t~ l- 1^ t- t^Tjicoosin 00 I-l l-l l-H Tjt OoJodi^t-^ SOiOTjtos o OJ i>- 1- 1-- f??2i ceo a;pq OS (N 00 in 00 »0 t- 00 O i-H 00 CO CO ■^ Tt* ooooo S^^SSS SSJ^feg l5Se:^§ 53SSS g888g g8§§i « l- Tl 'os lHCOtOt>OS THOQint^OS fi^'^tOQOOS ^vi I- 1> to :gSsg38 g weo-'i't-tp OTlOt-OJOT o C5 od I- 1- to to CO CO CO CO CO OJ T-< q" OS o» , . ^ '^ i> t: •«iti TJ" ■* TT CO 00 SSiOiOiO o < O 05 00 o Oi i 00 CO iO lo' Ti» JiOOO lO JO V > as 020 u SSSfcS s ©»co Tjii-. «D » l> t-' t- CO 1 2 g o M I. © 4) 7 2 2 II 111 ® .9 o •S V i- •" X © 11§ fe S- 242 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 835. TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OF' THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP OF A GIVEN DEGREE BRIX OR BAUMfi TO A SIRUP OF 54.3° BRIX OR 30° BAUMfi.— (G. L. Spencer.) Initial Equivalent Sirup of 04 3° Brixor Initial Equivalent Sirup of 54.3° Brix or Density. 30° Baum6. Density. 30° Baum6. ,.^ S ^ « 2 «,'« w ■2 4> i-c 11 id |a 14 ^£ S3 ^ £ > 0M u ^ Ti ^ _^ Ph PLH ^ ^ PH P4 85.0 19.6 64.46 59.19 89.0 21.8 71.82 67.10 .1 19.65 64.64 59.38 21.8 72.00 67.30 .2 19.7 64.83 59.58 .2 21.9 72.19 67.51 .3 19.8 65.01 59.77 .3 21.9 72.37 67.71 .4 19.8 65.19 59.96 .4 22.0 72.55 67.91 .5 19.9 65.38 60.16 .5 22.05 72.74 68.12 ,6 19.9 65.. 56 60.36 .6 22.1 72.92 68.32 .7 20.0 65.74 60.56 .7 22.2 73.10 68.52 .8 20.0 65.93 60.75 .8 22.2 73.29 68.72 .9 20.1 66.11 60.94 .9 22.3 73.47 68.92 86.0 20.1 66.30 61.14 40.0 22.3 73.66 69.12 .1 20.2 66.48 61.33 .1 22.4 73.84 69.32 .2 20 25 66.67 61.53 .2 22.4 74.02 69.52 .3 20.3 66.85 61. 7i .3 22.5 74.21 69 73 .4 20.4 67.03 61.92 .4 22.5 74.40 69.93 .5 20 4 67.22 62.12 .5 22.6 74.58 70.14 .6 20.5 67.40 62.31 .6 22.6 74.76 70.34 .7 20.5 67.59 62.50 .7 22.7 74.94 70.54 .8 20.6 67.77 62.70 .8 22.8 75.13 70.74 .9 20.6 67.95 62.91 .9 22.8 75.31 70.94 87.0 20.7 68.14 63.11 41.0 22.9 75.. W 71.15 .1 20.7 68.32 63.31 .1 22.9 75.68 71.35 .2 20.8 68.50 03 51 .2 23.0 75.87 71.55 .3 20.9 68.69 63.70 .3 23 76.06 71.75 .4 20.9 68.87 63.90 .4 23.1 76.24 71.95 .5 21.0 69.06 64.10 .5 23.1 76.42 72.16 .6 21.0 69.24 64.30 .6 23.2 76.60 72.37 .7 21.1 69.42 64.49 .7 23.25 76 78 72.58 .8 21.1 69.61 64.69 .8 23.3 76.97 72.79 .9 21.8 69.79 64.89 .9 23.4 77.16 73.00 88.0 21.2 69.98 65.09 42.0 23.4 77.34 73.21 .1 21.3 70.16 65.29 .1 23.5 77.52 73.41 .2 21.35 70.34 65.49 .2 23.5 77.70 73.61 .3 21.4 70.53 65.69 .3 23.6 77.89 73.81 .4 21.5 70.72 65.90 .4 23.6 78.08 74.01 .5 21.5 70.90 66.10 .5 23.7 78.26 74.22 .6 21.6 71.08 66.30 .6 23.7 78.44 74.43 .7 21.6 71.26 66.50 .7 23.8 78.62 74.64 .8 21.7 71.45 66.70 .8 23.8 78.81 74.86 .9 21.7 71.63 66.90 ,9 23.9 79.00 75.08 TABLE FOR -REDUCTION OF WEIGHT OF SIRUP. 243 TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OP THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP, KTC— Continued. Initial 1 Equivalent Sirup of 54.3° Brix or Initial Equivalent Sirup of 54,3° Brix or Density. 30° Baum6. Density. 30° Baum6. r^"^ 2 «* 5 6 ^^ 2 ^• « l§ 1^ 1 ^ 61.0 28.2 93.92 92.. 53 55.0 30,4 101.28 101.61 .1 28.3 94.10 92.75 .1 30.4 101.46 101.84 .2 28.35 94 29 9i.97 .2 30.5 101.64 102.07 .3 28.4 94.47 93.19 .3 30.5 101.83 102.30 .4 28.5 94.65 93.41 .4 30.6 102.01 102.53 .5 28.5 94 84 93 63 .5 30.6 102.20 102.76 .6 28.6 95.02 93.85 .6 307 102.38 102.99 .7 28.6 95.20 94.07 .7 30.7 102.56 103.22 .8 28.7 95.39 94.30 .8 30 8 102.75 103.45 .9 28.7 95.58 94.53 .9 30.8 102.94 103.68 62.0 28.8 95.76 94.77 60.0 30.9 103.13 103.92 .1 28.8 95.94 94.99 30.9 103 31 104.15 .2 28.9 96.13 95.21 .2 31.0 103.49 104.38 .3 28.9 96.31 95.43 .3 31.05 103.68 104.61 .4 29.0 96.50 95.65 .4 31.1 103.86 104.84 .5 29.0 96.68 95.87 .5 31.2 104.05 105.07 .6 29.1 96 87 96.09 .6 31.2 104. -^3 105.30 .7 29.15 97.05 96.. 32 .7 31.3 104.41 m.M .8 29.2 97.23 96.55 .8 31.3 104.60 105.78 .9 29.2 97.42 96.79 .9 31.4 104.78 106.02 68.0 29.3 97.60 97.02 67 31.4 104.97 106.26 .1 29.4 97.79 97.25 .1 31.5 105.15 106.49 .2 29.4 97.98 97.48 .2 31.5 105 34 106.72 .3 29.5 98.16 97.71 .3 31.6 105.. 52 106.95 .4 29.5 98.34 97.94 .4 31.6 105.70 107.18 .5 29.6 98.52 98.17 .5 31.7 105.89 107.41 .6 29.6 98.70 98.40 .6 31.7 106 07 107.65 .7 29.7 98.89 98 63 .7 31.8 106.25 107.89 .8 29.7 99.07 98.86 .8 31.8 106.44 108.13 .9 29.8 99.26 99.08 .9 31.9 106.62 108.37 64.0 29.8 99.44 99.30 68 81.9 106 81 108.61 .1 29.9 99.62 99.53 .1 32.0 106.99 108.84 o 29.9 99.81 99.76 .2 32.0 107.17 109.08 64!3 80.0 100.00 100.00 .3 32.1 107.35 109.32 .4 .30.05 100.18 100.22 .4 32.15 107.54 109.56 .5 30.1 100.36 100.45 .5 32.2 107.73 109.80 .6 30.2 100.55 100.68 .6 82.8 107.91 110.04 .7 30.2 100.73 100.91 .7 32.3 108.09 110.28 .8 30.3 100.91 101.14 .8 32.4 108.28 110.52 .9 30.3 101.09 101.37 .9 82.4 108.47 110.76 TABLE FOR REDUCTIOIT OF WEIGHT OF SIRUP. 245 TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP, ETC.-Continued. Initial Equivalent Sirup of 54.3° Brix or Initial Equivalent Sirup of 54.3° Brix or Density. 30° Baum6. Density. 30° Baum6. vc 2 4^ « «• va^ ^ ^ « 45 ®.b |S m hi h 08 s4 hi t 1" 1^ &> t ^M &^ &> 69.0 32.5 108.65 111.00 ! 60.0 33.0 110 49 113.39 .1 32.5 108.83 111.23 .1 33.0 110.68 113.63 32.6 109 02 111.47 .2 33.1 110.86 113.87 .3 32.6 109.20 111.71 .3 33.1 111.04 114.11 .4 32.7 109.38 111.95 .4 33.2 111.23 114.35 .5 32.7 109.56 112.19 .5 33.2 111.41 114.59 .6 32.8 109.75 112.43 .6 33.3 111.60 114.83 .7 32.8 109.93 112.67 .7 33.35 111.78 114.97 .8 32.9 110.12 112.91 .8 33.4 111.96 115.31 .9 32.9 110.30 113.15 .9 33.45 112.14 115.45 The above table is for use in calculating sirups within the usual range of densities, to a standard degree Brix or Baum6, for purposes of comparison. A convenient check on pan and centrifugal work is a statement showing the analysis of the sirup and the pounds of first sugar yielded per loo lbs., or per loo gallons of sirup of 54.3° Brix (30° Baume). The volume or weight of sirup at 54.3° Brix (30° Baum6) is obtained by multiplying the measured volume or the weight by the number in the per cent column in the table corresponding to the observed degree Brix or Baum6 and pointing off as in other percentage calculations. 246 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 226. TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUMES OF JUICE, IN LITRES, YIELDED IN THE DIFFUSION OF 100 KILOGRAMS OF BEETS OF VARIOUS DENSITIES. (F. Dupont.) See page 207. Density of the 1 Density of the Normal Juice of the Beet. Diffusion- juice. 5° 5.5° 6° 6.5° 7° 7.5° 8» 8.5° 9° 3.6» 125 137 148 161 173 184 193 206 218 3.8 118 134 143 152 163 174 185 '\ 206 4 113 124 134 144 155 165 176 186 196 4.2 117 127 138 147 157 167 177 187 4.4 112 122 132 141 150 160 170 178 4.6 116 111 126 121 116 111 135 130 124 120 145 138 132 127 153 147 141 135 162 156 149 143 170 4.8 163 5 157 5.2 151 5.4 115 HI 122 118 130 126 138 132 145 5.6 140 5.8 114 110 121 117 114 110 127 124 120 117 114 110 135 6 131 6.2 127 6.4 123 6.6 119 6.8 115 7 112 7.2 109 I jitres c )f juic« ? per 1 DO kilo 3. beet 3. ^ The degrees given in this table are according to the French. To con vert into specific gravity, prefix 10 and move the decimal point two places to the left. Example : S.e* = 1.036 specific gravity = 9° Brix. FORMULJE FOR CONCENTRATION AND DILUTION. 247 227. Formiilse for Coucentratiou and Dilu- tiou. (1) Having two solutions of known degrees Brix (B and B), to determine the degree Brix of a mixture composed of the volumes Fand V of these solutions. 'A VB+VB' X = degree Brix required = — ' . (2) Formula for the calculation of the water required (per cent by weight) to reduce a sugar solution of a given density to any required density. xz=z per cent of water required; B= initial degree Brix ; ■« . . .., . B-h „ ^ 100^ h = degree Brix after dilution ; — =5 — = E, and - = x, the per cent required. (3) For formulae for the concentration of sugar solutions from stated densities to certain required densities, see pages 239, 241. (4) To determine the volume F of a sugar solution before concentration. b = degree Brix, 8 = the specific gravity of the solution before concentration ; B = degree Brix, S = specific gravity after concentration to a volume of 100. lOOSB V = 8b 338. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THEKMOMETRIC SCALES. (Schubarth's Handbuch der techn. Chem. III. Aufl. I. 61.) Fah- Centi- Reau- Fah- Centi- Reau- Fah- Centi- Reau- ren- heit. grade. mur. ren- heit. grade. mur. ren- heit. grade. mur. 212 100 80 100 87.78 70.22 168 75.55 60.44 211 99.44 79 56 189 87.22 69.78 167 75 60 210 98.89 79.11 188 86.67 69.33 166 74.44 59.56 209 98.33 78.67 187 86.11 68.89 165 73.89 59.11 208 97.78 78.22 186 85.55 68.44 164 73.33 58.67 207 97.22 77.78 185 85 68 163 72.78 58.22 206 96.67 77.33 184 84.44 67.56 162 72.22 57.78 205 96.11 76.89 183 83.89 67.11 161 71.67 57.33 204 95.55 76.44 182 83.33 66.67 160 71.11 56.89 203 95 76 181 82.78 66.22 159 70.55 56.44 202 94.44 75.56 180 82.22 65.78 158 70 56 201 93.89 75.11 179 81.67 65.3;i 157 69.44 55.56 200 93 33 74.67 178 81.11 64.89 156 68.89 55.11 199 92.78 74.22 177 80.55 64.44 155 68.33 54.67 198 92.22 73 78 176 80 64 154 67.78 54.22 197 91.67 73.33 175 79.44 63.56 153 67.22 53.78 196 91.11 72.89 174 78 89 63.11 152 66.67 53.33 195 90.55 72.44 173 78.33 62.67 151 66.11 52.89 194 90 72 172 77.78 62.22 150 65.55 52.44 193 89.44 71.56 171 77.22 61.78 149 65 52 192 88.89 71.11 170 76.67 61.33 148 64.44 51.56 191 88.33 70 67 169 76.11 60.89 147 63.89 51.11 248 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. COMPARISON OF THERMOMETI^ip SCATjES.— Continued. Fah- Centi- Reau- Fah- Centi- Reau- Fah- Centi- R6au. r6n- heit. grade. mur. ren- heit. grade. mur. ren- heit. grade. mur. e o e 146 63.33 50.67 83 28.33 22.67 21 -6.11 -4.89 145 62.78 50.22 82 27.78 22.22 20 -6.67 -5.33 144 62.22 49.78 81 27.22 21.78 19 -7.22 -5.78 143 61.67 49.33 80 26.67 21.33 18 -7.78 -6.22 142 61.11 48.89 79 26.11 20.89 17 -8.33 -6.67 141 60.55 48.44 78 25.55 20.44 16 -8.89 -7.11 140 60 48 77 25 20 15 -9.44 -7.56 139 59.44 47.56 76 24.44 19.56 14 -10 -8 138 58.89 47.11 75 23.89 19.11 13 -10.55 -8.44 137 58.33 46.67 74 23.33 18.67 12 -11.11 -8.89 136 57.78 46.22 73 22.78 18.22 11 -11.67 -9.33 135 57.22 45.78 72 22.22 17.78 10 -12.22 -9.78 134 56.67 45.33 71 21.67 17.33 9 -12.78 -10.22 138 56.11 44 89 70 21.11 16.89 8 -13.33 -10.67 132 55.55 44.44 69 20.55 16.44 7 -13.89 -11.11 131 55 41 68 20 16 6 -14.44 -11.56 180 54.44 43.56 67 19.44 15.56 5 -15 -12 129 53.89 43.11 66 18.89 15.11 4 -15.55 -12.44 128 53.33 42.67 65 18. 3& 14.67 3 -16.11 -12.89 127 52.78 42.22 64 17.78 14.22 2 -16.67 -13.33 126 52.22 41.78 63 17.22 13.78 1 -17.22 -13.78 125 51.67 41.33 62 16.67 13.33 -17.78 -14.22 124 51.11 40.89 61 16.11 12.89 -1 -18.33 -14.67 123 50.55 40.44 60 15.55 12.44 -2> -18.89 -15.11 122 50 40 59 15 12 -3 -19.44 -15.56 121 49.44 39.56 58 14.44 11.56 -4 -20 -16 120 48.89 39.11 57 13.89 11.11 -5 -20.55 -16.44 119 48.33 38.67 56 13.33 10.67 -6 -21.11 -16.89 118 47.78 38.22 55 12.78 10.22 -7 -21.67 -17.33 117 47.22 37.78 54 12.22 9.78 -8 -22.22 -17.78 116 46.67 37.33 53 11.67 9.33 -9 -22.78 -18.22 115 46.11 36.89 52 11.11 8.89 -10 -23.33 -18.67 114 45.55 36.44 51 10.55 8.44 -11 -23.89 -19.11 113 45 36 50 10 8 -12 -24.44 -19.56 112 44.44 35.56 49 9.44 7.56 -13 -25 -20 111 43 89 35.11 48 8.89 7.11 -14 -25.55 -20.44 110 4:^.33 34.67 47 8.33 6.67 -15 -26.11 -20.89 109 42.78 34.22 46 7.78 6.22 -16 -26.67 -21.33 108 42.22 33.78 45 7.22 5.78 -17 -27.22 -21.78 107 41.67 33.33 44 6.67 5.33 -18 -27.78 -22.22 106 41.11 32.89 43 6.11 4.89 -19 -28.33 -22.67 105 40.55 32.44 42 5.55 4.44 -20 -28.89 -23.11 104 40 32 41 5 4 -21 -29.44 -23.56 103 39.44 31.56 40 4.44 3.56 -22 -30 -24 102 38.89 31.11 39 3.89 3.11 -23 -30.55 -24.44 101 38.33 30.67 38 3.33 2.67 -24 -31.11 -24.89 100 37.78 30.22 87 2.78 2.22 -25 -31.67 -25.33 99 37.22 29.78 36 2.22 1.78 -26 -32.22 -25.78 98 36.67 29.33 35 1.67 1.33 -27 -32.78 -26.22 97 36.11 28.89 34 1.11 0.89 -28 -33.33 -26.67 96 35.55 28.44 33 0.55 0.44 -29 -33.89 -27.11 95 35 28 32 0. 0. -30 -34.44 -27.56 94 34.44 27.56 31 -0.55 -0.44 -31 -35 -28 93 3:3.89 27.11 30 -1.11 -0.89 -32 -35.55 -28.44 92 33.33 26.67 29 -1.67 -1.33 -33 -36.11 -28.89 91 32.78 26.22 28 -2 22 -1.78 -34 -36.67 -29.33 90 32.22 25.78 27 -2.78 -2.22 -35 -37.22 -29.78 89 31.67 25.33 26 -3. as -2 67 -36 -37.78 -30.22 88 31.11 24.89 25 -3.89 -3.11 -37 -38.33 -30.67 87 30.55 24.44 24 -4.44 -3.56 -38 -;38.89 -31.11 86 30 24 23 -5 -4 -39 -39.44 -31.50 85 84 29.44 28.89 23 56 23.11 22 -5.55 -4.44 -40 -40 -38 COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 249 Formulae for the conversion of the degrees of one thermometric scale into those of another: B = |(F-32) = ja. Additions and subtractions are algebraic. 839. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. Centi- Fah- Reau- Centi- Fah- Reau- Centi- Fah- Reau- grade. ren- heit. mur. grade. ren- heit. mur. grade. ren- heit. mur. o o o o o o o o 100 212 80 62 143.6 49.6 24 75.2 19.2 99 210.2 79.2 61 141.8 48.8 23 73.4 18.4 98 208.4 78.4 60 140 48 22 71.6 17.6 97 206.6 77 6 59 138.2 47.2 21 698 16.8 96 204.8 76.8 58 136.4 46 4 20 68 16 95 203 76 57 134.6 45.6 19 66.2 15.2 94 201.2 75.2 56 132.8 44 8 18 64.4 14.4 93 199.4 74.4 55 131 44 17 62.6 13.6 92 197.6 73.6 54 129.2 43.2 16 60.8 12.8 91 195.8 72.8 53 127.4 42.4 15 59 12 90 194 72 52 125.6 41.6 14 57.2 11.2 89 192.2 71.2 51 123.8 40.8 13 KK A 10.4 55. 4 88 190.4 70.4 50 122 40 12 53.6 9.6 87 188.6 69.6 49 120.2 39.2 11 51.8 8.8 86 186.8 68.8 48 118.4 38.4 10 50 8 85 185 68 47 116.6 37.6 9 48.2 7.2 84 183.2 67.2 46 114.8 36.8 8 46.4 6.4 83 181.4 66 4 45 113 36 7 44.6 5.6 82 179.6 65.6 44 111.2 35.2 6 42.8 4.8 81 177.8 64.8 43 109.4 34.4 5 41 4 80 176 64 42 107.6 33.6 4 39.2 3.2 79 174.2 63.2 41 105.8 32.8 3 37.4 2.4 78 172.4 624 40 104 32 2 35.6 1.6 77 170.6 61.6 39 102.2 31.2 1 33 8 .8 76 168.8 60.8 38 100.4 30.4 82 75 167 60 37 98.6 29.6 -1 30.2 - .8 74 165.2 59.2 36 96.8 28.8 -2 28.4 -1.6 73 163.4 58.4 35 95 28 -3 26.6 -2.4 72 161.6 57.6 34 93.2 27.2 -4 24.8 -3.2 71 159.8 56.8 33 91.4 26.4 -5 23 -4 70 158 56 32 89.6 25.6 -6 21.2 -4.8 69 156.2 55.2 31 87.8 24.8 -7 19.4 -5.6 68 154 4 54.4 30 86 24 -8 17.6 -6.4 67 152.6 53 6 29 84.2 23.2 -9 15.8 -7.2 66 150.8 52.8 28 82.4 22.4 -10 14 -8 65 149 52 27 80.6 21.6 -11 12.2 -8.8 64 1472 51.2 26 78.8 20.8 -12 10.4 -9.6 63 145.4 50.4 25 77 20 830. APPROX UN [MATE TEMPERATURl riL IT HAS THE FOLI :s OF I] ^OWINQ RON WHEN HEATED COLORS: op °C. op °0. Faint rf^ 977 525 Or 9,nge .... 2100 1150 Dark re Cherrv- d 1292 1666 700 908 Wl Da lite zzling wl 2370 2730 1300 red ... . lite.".'.'.'.'!! 1500 Bright ( 3herry-n id.'.'.'. 1 832 1 m 1 J 350 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 231. TABLE SHOWING THE ALTERATION OF THE VOLUME OF GLASS VESSELS BY HEAT, THE VOLUME AT lb" C. BEING TAKEN AS UNITY. (From Bailey's " Chemist's Pocket-Book.") Temp. Volume. Temp. "C. Volume. Temp. »C. Volume. .99981210 15 1.00000000 30 1.00038790 1 .99963796 ! 16 1.00002586 35 1.00051720 2 .99966382 17 1.00005172 40 1 .0006^650 3 .99968968 18 1 .00007758 45 1.00077580 4 .99971554 19 1.00010344 50 1.00090510 5 .99974140 20 1 00012930 55 1 .00103440 6 .99976726 81 1.00015516 60 1.00116370 7 .99979313 22 1.00018102 66 1.00129300 8 .99981898 23 1 .00020688 70 1.00142230 9 .99984484 24 1.00023274 75 1.00155160 10 .99987070 25 1.00025860 80 1.00168090 11 .99989656 26 1.00028446 85 1.00181020 12 .99992242 27 1.00031032 90 1.00193950 13 .99i)94828 28 1.00033618 95 1.00206880 14 .99997414 29 1.00036204 100 1.002J9810 833. COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION (CUBICAL) OF ORDINARY GLASS. Expansion per Degree from— 0° C. to 100" c. 0° C. to 150» C. 0°C. feo200°C. 0° C. to 250° C. 0° C. to 300° C. .0000276 .000028^1 .0000291 .0000298 .0000306 833. TABLE SHOWING THE APPARENT WEIGHT OF 1,000 MOHR'S UNITS (MOHR'S LITRE) OF WATER AT DIFFER- ENT TEMPERATURES AS WEIGHED WITH BRASS WEIGHTS IN THE AIR. Corrected for expansion and contraction of the glass container, for temperatures above and below 17^° C. Based on Payne's Table, page 234. Apparent Weight. Temp. Apparent Temp. Apparent Weight. Temp. Apparent Weight. Temp. °(f. Weight. °C. "C. "C. Grams. Grams. Grams. 15 1000.3 19 999.8 24 998.8 29 16 1000.2 20 999.6 25 998.6 30 17 1000.1 21 999.4 26 998.4 31 >;^ 1000.0 22 999.2 27 998.2 32 999.9 23 999.0 28 997.9 33 34 Grams. 997.6 997.4 997.1 996.8 996.5 996.2 The above table may be used in the graduation of sugaj'-flasks, burettes, etc., to Mohr's units. This unit is the volume occupied by 1 gram of water, as weighed with brass weights in the air, at 17)4° O., and is frequently termed " Mohr's cc." In checking a litre flask, it should be counterpoised on a good scale, and the number of grams of water corresponding to its tempetature run into it. If the flask be correctly graduated, this quantity of water should fill it to the mark. The water should be at the temperature of the laboratory. The same principle is applied in checking other gradu- ated ware to Mohr's units. For methods of graduating apparatus to true cubic centimetres, see 888, EXPANSIOl^^ OF WATER. 251 234. KOPP'S TABLE, SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF WATER FROM 0° 0. TO 100° C. (32° F. TO 212° F.). Temp. ° C. Temp ° F. Volume. Temp. » C. Temp. ° F. Volume. 32 1.000000 21 69.8 1 001776 1 33.8 .999917 22 71.6 1.001995 2 35.6 .999908 23 73.4 1.002225 3 37.4 .999885 24 75.2 1.002465 4 39.2 .999877 25 77.0 1.002715 5 41.0 .999883 30 86.0 1.004064 6 42.8 .999903 35 95.0 1.006697 7 44 6 .999938 40 104.0 1.00TO31 8 46.4 .999986 45 113.0 1.009541 9 48.2 1.000048 50 122.0 1.011766 10 50.0 1.000124 55 131.0 1.014100 11 51.8 1.000213 60 140.0 1.0i6590 12 53.6 1.000314 65 149.0 1.019302 13 55.4 1.000429 70 158.0 1.022246 14 57.2 1.000556 75 167.0 1 025440 15 59.0 1.000695 80 176.0 1.028581 16 608 1.000846 85 185.0 1.031894 17 62.6 1.001010 90 194.0 1.035397 18 64.4 1.001184 95 203.0 1.039094 19 66.2 1.001370 ■ 100 212.0 1.042986 20 68.0 1.001567 335. TABLE SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF WATER AND THE WEIGHT OF A UNIT VOLUME AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. (Abridgment of F. Rossetti's Table.) °c. Weight. Volume. °C. Weight. 4-4° C. = 1. Volume. +4° C. = 1. -f 4°C. = 1. + 4°C. = 1. + 4 1.000000 1.000000 20 0.998259 1.001744 5 0.999990 l.OOOOIO 21 0.998047 1.001957 6 0.999970 1.000030 22 0.997828 1.002177 7 0.999933 1.000067 23 0.997601 1.002405 8 0.999886 1.000114 24 0.997367 1.002641 9 0.999824 1.000176 25 0.997120 1.002888 10 0.999747 1.000253 26 0.996866 1.003144 11 0.999655 1.000a54 27 0.996603 1.003408 12 0.999549 1.000451 28 0.996331 1.003682 13 0.999430 1.000570 29 0.996051 1.003965 14 0.999299 1.000701 30 0.99575 1.00425 15 0.999160 1.000841 31 0.99547 1.00455 16 0.999002 1.000999 32 0.99517 1.00486 17 0.998841 1.000116 33 0.99485 1.00518 18 0.998654 1.001348 34 0.99452 1.00551 19 0.998460 1.001542 35 0.99418 1.00586 252 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 236. TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUME OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERA.TURES.— (Gerlach.) Temp.°C. 10 per cent. 20 per cent. 30 per cent. 40 per cent. 50 per cent. 0° 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 5 10004.5 10007 10009 10012 10016 10 10C12 10016 10021 10026 10032 15 10021 10028 10034 10042 10050 20 10033 10041 10049 10058 10069 25 10048 .10057 10066 10075 10088 30 10064 10074 10084 10094 10110 35 10082 10092 10108 10114 10132 40 10101 10112 10124 10136 10156 45 10122 10134 10146 10160 10180 50 10145 10156 10170 10184 10204 55 10170 10183 10196 10210 10229 60 10197 10209 10222 10235 10253 65 10225 10236 10249 10261 10278 70 10255 10265 10277 10287 10306 75 10284 10295 10306 10316 10332 80 10316 10325 10335 10345 10360 85 10347 10355 10365 10375 10388 90 10379 10387 10395 10405 10417 95 10411 10418 10425 10435 10445 1 00 10442 10450 . 10456 10465 10457 237. TABLE SHOWING THE C0NTRA.CT10N OF INVERT SUGAR ON DISSOLVING IN WATER ; ALSO, THE CONTRACTION OF CANE-SUGAR SOLUTIONS ON INVERSION. (From " Manuel Agenda" Gallois and Dupont.) Volunae. Contraotion. Specific Gravity. Per Cent Sugar, Cane-Sugar Solution. Invert-Sugar Solution. 6 10 15 90 25 1.00000 .99863 .99744 .99639 .99546 .99462 0.00000 0.00137 0.00256 0.00361 0.00454 0.00538 1.0000 1.0203 1.0413 1.0630 1.0854 1.1086 1.0000 1.0206 1.0418 1.0631 1.0856 1.1086 238. TABLE SHOWING THE BOIUNG-POINT OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS.-(Gbblach.) Strength of Solution, Boiling-point, ° C. Boiling-point, » F. Per cent. 10 100.4 212.7 SO 100.6 213,1 80 101 213.8 40 101.5 214.7 60 102 215.6 60 103 217.4 70 106.5 223.7 79 112 233.6 90.8 130 266 SOLUBILITY OF LIME AND SUGAR. 253 239. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF LIME IN SOLUTIONS OF SUGAR. 100 PARTS OF THE RkSIDUH Sugar in 100 Density of Sirup. Density after saturation with lime. DRIED AT 1:20° C. contain: parts water. Lime. Sugar. 40 1.122 1.179 21 79 35 1.110 1.166 20.5 79.5 SO 1.096 1.148 se.: :2.9 S5 1.082 1.128 19.8 80.2 ao ^063 1.104 18.8 81.2 16 1.052 1.080 18.5 81.5 10 1.036 1.053 18.1 81.9 5 1.018 1.026 15.3 84.7 240. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OP SUGAR IN WATER.— (After Flourens.) Temp. ° C. Sugar. Per Cent. 67 Degree Baum6 at the ob served temper- ature. 37 at 15° C. 34.6 34.9 35.2 35.5 35.7 36.25 36,7 37.1 37.5 38.1 38.7 Temp. ° C. 90 95 100 Sugar. Per Cent. 72.8 74 75 76.1 77.2 78.35 79.5 80.6 81.6 82.5 Degree Baum6 at the ob- served temper- ature. 37.5 37.9 38.3 38.6 39 39.3 39.65 39.95 40.1 at 15" C. 39.3 39.9 40.55 41.1 41.7 42.2 42.8 43.3 43.7 44.1 241. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUGAR IN WATER. (.Herzfeld.) Temp. Sugar. Temp. Sugar. Per Cent. Temp. Sugar. °C. Per Cent. °C. °C. Per Cent. 64.18 35 69.55 70 76.22 5 64.87 40 70.42 75 77.27 10 65.58 45 71.32 80 78.36 15 66.53 50 72.25 85 79.46 20 67.09 55 73.20 90 80.61 25 67.89 60 74.18 95 81.77 30 67.80 65 75.88 100 82.97 The solubility is decreased by presence of a small quantity of organic or inorganic salts, but increased by a large quantity. 354 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 242. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUGAR IN ALCOHOI AT 17.5° C. (Otto Schrefeld.) (Zeit. f. Rubenzucker-Ind., 44, 970.) Sucrose in Grams Alcohol Per Cent by in 100 Grams of the Weight. Mixture of Alcohol and Water Solution. 66.20 195.8 5* 64.25 179.7 10* 62.20 164.5 15 60.40 152.5 20* . 58.55 141.2 25 56.20 128.3 30 54.05 117.8 35 51.25 105.3 40 47.75 91.3 45 43.40 76.6 50 38.55 62.7 55 32.80 48.8 60 26.70 36.4 65 19.50 24.2 70 12.25 13.9 75 7.20 7.7 80 4.05 4.2 85 2.10 2.1 90 0.95 0.09 95 0.15 0.01 Absolute 0.00 0.00 Calculated. 243. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF STRONTIA SUGAR SOLUTIONS. (Sidkrsky.) IN PerC< jtrontia (SrO ) ution. Strontia (SrO) mt of the So Per Cent of the Solution. Per Cent i Per Cent Sucrose. Sucrose. At At At At At At At At 3«'C. 15«C. 24» C. 40° C. 3°C. 15° C. 24° C. 40° 0. 1 0.45 0.65 0.70 1.68 11 1.30 1.57 2.01 3.75 2 0.53 0.75 0.83 1.89 12 1.38 1.66 2.14 3.96 3 0.62 0.84 0.96 2.09 13 1.47 1.75 2.28 4.16 4 0.70 0.93 1.09 2.30 14 1.55 1.84 2.41 4.37 5 0.79 1.03 1.22 2.51 15 1.64 1.94 2.55 4.58- 6 0.87 1.12 1.35 2.72 16 1.72 2.03 2.69 4.79 7 0.96 1.21 1.48 2.92 17 1.81 2.12 2.83 4.99 8 1.04 1.30 1.61 3.13 18 1.90 2.21 2.97 5.20 9 1.13 1.39 1.74 3.33 19 1.99 2.«) 3.11 5.41 10 1.21 1.48 1.87 8.55 20 2.08 2.39 3.25 5.61 r ■-»43a. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF BARYTA IN ■ SUGAR SOLUTIONS. SOLUBILITY OP BARYTA, ETC. (Pellet and Sencibr, La fabrication du Sucre, 1, 186.) 255 Sucrose per 100 cc. Baryta (BaO) Baryta (BaO) per 100 cc. per cent Sucrose. 2 5 4.59 18.3 5 5.46 10.9 7.5 6.66 87 10 7.96 7.7 12.5 9.41 7.5 16 10.00 6.6 20 10.90 5.4 25 12.90 5.1 30 14.68 4.9 &43b. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF CERTAIN SALTS IN WATER IN THE PRESENCE OF SUCROSE. (Jacobsthal, Zeit. Riibenzuckerind., 18, 649; taken from Sidersky's Traite d'analyse des Matikres Sucrees, p. 11.) Solution containing 5% Sucrose. m Sucrose. 15^ Sucrose. 20% Sucrose. 25j( Sucrose. Sulphate of calcium. Carb. of calcium Grams. 2.095 0.027 Grams. 1.946 0.036 Grams. 1.593 0.024 Grams. 1.539 0.022 0.008 0.018 1.454 0.213 Grams. 1.333 0.008 Oxalate of calcium . Phosph. of calcium . Citrate of calcium... Carb. of magnesium 0.033 0.029 1.813 0.317 0.047 0.028 1.578 0.199 0,012 014 1.505 0.194 0.001 0.005 1.454 0.284 266 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. o o >^ S^ r*^ -^ flH W •« o e4 3 ^g: o "^ ^ ^ 2 S o £ •I Q « J^ O a> S« § g i O :r U so I i •< .S* •3 .a •S.3 ^ il^S b S a oB 1^ Ma 0-3 O y ^- g O §.5^3-5 2 .2 N -2 cs g ■H « N ia ^5 2=3 .a O O _ oS '§111 •£:o 5 o Si "IP a a^ bc~ ce . •- CO 3 © 'a Rd O I'^o^^ O K^ ^ . o ai O o *^ •^ §^ta'i« :S5 *:oJ3 acs oo o h ?. a I so o' « " g w o o cd -§9. IS I" :P2a •oo •dW :oo •oo_ .oo ; II II 35 H= ■'•x-ii ••2 (5>^o^>'OOf5 o : a • o : «• ' W : o : W -g .O • «8 11 ,/ s II s.a §o |o|| Bol^o- Q o >-i T-i CO o o ■'o s;a3 sag 111 PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES. 257 as o II a o o u&^ § © o «*^ S 2: ^ fe 2 $5 g : 'Sis a BQ en uu s ^ s « S a> ggS2 .2 'a "S^ •I n ^ I •« .9 o S ^■^S '-S ill- 2 P.S*- "- (D ™C D k> S3 ^ c EH o:z; fa; -a'S 0.5 •? 1 a •a o * -a •§ ^- o o •a si a -s o I I 1 ? •^ .2 .2 « 1 I 5? 7 o e« w W CO- » • O ^>^ OOhH S •» • gaao el oi O I ' §1^2 »- M .0 «*a : 4 c u .^ s-fl ; - Sis :W t- be • ®5 : li o w q W .0 03O 5 K . be « > o ill tp-t Y' s§ I! •o S o o oTo S'3 S H «2 O 3 S 2S .i- *J e« 535-3 3 5-3.2 2S-S S)X>jD-3 m£i * >^ ca O >» d !it-Tsl^ m l^i=«llLsi«l=l| lli-iiif|«||| S'od "^^l-uSt^-s-^^' i e'0;2-:= 4^ S ?5 a c g g- §2' tj o *- e "O -^ — ' 0) J' cs a c o i2 I M g M li s 6' S lis ill 2 => ■'-.5 1^13 •a Ssa ^3-^ 00 rj^o^ 260 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ooo z z z p » 00 waa a o o t- t- i» ooo xi II o S S 3 ^ 1 ^ ssa i -o 1 ooo >> Ei:<^^ < « > >>>?b>?>> ^ll '^i'i'i' ii ical ioal tical tical bical tical 1 111.1 65 -2 OaT ?3t3 s S3 a I! So a a a s a d 09 CC DO SO CO CO -a — TS OJ U 0) o c c D a d OOOOOO •^-^r a§g a a a a a a ccgajMOiai tow a)Oajjj4)u a)© a &> "^ 1 0-33 5 S-o « fc. g -11I.& I |8|.S.S8|os ^EEo2 Hfafa fa ±~-S5 O « "3 bC«M C8 i g g I o o o S g ^ .a o ^^ I S go;:| o "^ ffl " $ SSa.8 ^i: H ^-.25 II m u •a ago* 5W ® 3>,6cS S*^ c:= 3 o ^.ffi 262 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAK-HOUSE CHEMISTS. >> -a g OS J>5 « A fa — Y— 8 M 5«1 .20 S 1 .2 "^ o a—' WSSgocc « « « PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES. 263 ■2 SS ^2 cS 93 fa SS ■8 -l-^ II ^•3 . Q Q CQ §1 *3 OS a3z a fa T3 6 .Si.2 :i a 1^ g 5 bto -^ y 72-6 '^ CO as t: o o X .2 fa ^ fa ri fa J3 ti ^'33 oj a; a p t- 1) S5 I i 2 ^ '5 3 3 eS-i^ g eS d ® q ^ S s^ ^ C S b S o ^ ^ c^ c a a tftf o e >»o8 r Ss - , ft H "lb f h3o © Sill g ^ .a II ^ "■Ho w fa g 1 P a t. g^^ ill I'll ) a a PfH C^Oifi HI SI T, ^ Til a 2 ^ a c o .2 SO© §11 52 o s3 XI o--i. = :; o H J3 H H-— EC ^ PROPEKTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES. 265 fit J3 P t3 s s s i o o o ill Sir §1 i 1 = ^1 s Is I n •^ TV'- 2'^ o a i ^ t! aJ 2 S S i I ^ a g II II I II i 6 s i 6c O cS fl o § o .2 a a <=> a . 3 * :i II I ^ ^^ 8iQ S|» i si«i I i I II II •3.2 SIS 266 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. O O o o 3 3 M "So s.^ o ti a a II o o §■^.2 73-2 1^ ©^•3 a •St * fl 3 M ® *3 O g*^ OP4 a 1^ mOUU> Is «g CS3 o y o O-O 3 cjS aj3 .2d m ~< CO H §08 "Sfl a> x> 0.2 08 33-3 1 «§ 2 ^a & -5 as -t-> "" .2 c8 ^ S o o3 t» XS © PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES. 267 mt I g'2 2«3 ti o O 4J s^ 11" .'»• ^ ^ 3 te 1) 03 c« © "Tf^ o) cc w o ao © ^ .-as o 3 o ^ is I |i O *5 60.2 § I 09 'So 00 fl JO t-l I §1 i"o -3 : U S : Q 2SK 268 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 845. FREEZING MIXTURES.— (Walker's List.) Tempkrature Falls— Parts Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Reaumur. Ammonium Nitrate. ..It Water If Frora+ 4° .4 From -f 40° From + 3°.5 to - 15°.5 to + 4° to -12°.4 Ammonium Chloride, . 5 Potassium Nitrate .... 5 V Water 16 From + 10° to - 12°.2 From -f 50° to + 10° From + 8° to - 9°.8 Ammonium Chloride.. 5^ Potassium Nitrate .... 5 ! Sodium Sulphate 8 f Water IGJ Sodium Nitrate 3| Nitric Acid, diluted.... 2f From + 10° From + 50° to + 4° From + 8° to - 15°. 5 to -12°.4 From + 10° From 4- 50° From + 8° to - 19° .4 to -3° to -15°.5 Ammonium Nitrate. . . 1 Sodium Carbonate .... 1 V Water 1 From + 10° to - 21°.7 From + 10° From + 50° to - 7° From + 50° From + 8° to -17°.3 Sodium Phosphate. . . . 9 | Nitric Acid, diluted... 4f From -f 8° to - 24°. 4 to - 12° to -19°.5 Sodium Sulphate 51 Sulphuric Acid, dilut.. 4 | From + 10° From + 50° From + 8° to - 16°.l to 4-3° to ~12°.9 Sodium Sulphate...... 6") Ammonium Chloride.. 4 [ From + iO° From + 50° From 4- 8° Potassium N itrate .... 2 ( Nitric Acid, diluted.... 4 J to - 23°.3 to - 10° to -18°.« Sodium Sulphate 6 Ammonium Nitrate.. . 5 V Nitric Acid, diluted.... 4 From + 10° to -40° From -f 50° to- 40° From -f 8° to -32° Snow or pounded ice.. 2 1 Sodium Chloride (com- V to - 20°.5 to -5° to - 16°.4 mon salt) 1 ) Snow or pounded ice. . 5^ Sodium Chloride (com- 1 mon salt) 2 ] to - 24° .4 to -12° to - 19-.5 Ammonium Chloride. . 1 J Snow or pounded ice. 24"] Sodium Chloride (com- mon salt) 10 i- to - 27°.7 to -18° to - 22° .8 Ammonium Chloride.. 5 Potassium Nitrate... 5 J Snow or pounded ice. .12") Sodium Chloride (.com- 1 mon salt) 5 [ to - 31°.6 to -25° to - 25° .3 Ammonium Nitrate. . . 5 J Snow 31 Sulphuric Acid, dilu'd 2 f From 0° From -1- 32° From 0° to - 30°.5 to -23° to - 24°.4 Snow 8/ Hydrochloric Acid.... Sf From 0° From + 32° From 0° to - 32°.8 to - 27° to - 26».2 Snow 7) Nitric Acid, diluted... 4f From 0° From + 32° From 0° to - 34°.4 to -30° to - 27°. 5 Snow 41 Calcium Chloride V (Chlorideof Lime).. 5 J From 0° to - 40° From + 32° to - 40° FromO° to -32° Snow 2 Calcium Chloride, V crystallized 3 ) From 0° to - 45°.5 From -f 32° to - 50° From 0° to - 36°.4 Snow 3 Potash 4 From 0° From -j- 32° From 0° to - 46°.l to - 51° to - 36°.9 STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC ACID. 269 246. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC ACID (OIL OF VITRIOL) OF DIFFERENT DENSITIES, AT 15° CENTI. GRADE.— (Otto's Table.) Per Cent of . H2SO4. Specific Percent of SO3. Per Cent of H2SO4. Specific Per Cent of SO3. Gravity. Gravity. 100 1.8426 81 63 50 1.3980 40.81 99 1 8420 80.81 49 1.3806 40.00 98 1.8406 80.00 48 1.3790 39.18 97 1.8400 79.18 47 1.3700 38.36 96 1 8384 78 36 46 1.3610 37.55 95 1.8376 77.55 45 1.3510 36.73 94 1.835C 76.73 44 1.3420 35.82 93 1.8340 75.91 43 1.3330 35.10 92 1.8310 75.10 42 1.3240 34.28 91 1.8270 74.28 41 1.3150 33.47 90 1.8220 73.47 40 1.3060 32.65 89 1.8100 72.65 39 1.2976 31.83 88 1.8090 71.83 38 1.2890 31.02 87 1.8020 71 02 37 1.2810 30.20 86 1.7940 70.10 36 1.2720 29.38 85 1.7860 69.38 35 1.2640 28.57 84 1.7770 68.57 34 1.2560 27.75 83 1.7670 67.75 83 1.2476 26.94 82 1.7560 66.94 32 1.2390 26.12 81 1.7450 66.12 31 1.2310 25.30 80 1.7340 6.?.?C on 1.22CC 24.49 79 1.7220 64.48 29 1.2150 23.67 78 1.7100 63.67 28 1.2066 22.85 77 1.6980 62.85 27 1.1980 22 03 76 1.6860 6v>.04 26 1.1900 21.22 75 1.6750 61.22 25 1.1820 20.40 74 1.6630 60.40 24 1.1740 19.58 73 1.6510 59.59 23 1.1670 18.77 72 1.6390 58.77 22 1.1590 17.95 71 1.6270 57.95 21 1.1516 17.14 70 1.6150 57.14 20 1.1440 16.32 69 1.6040 56.32 19 1.1360 15.51 68 1.5920 55.59 18 1.1290 14.69 67 1.5800 54.69 17 1.1810 13.87 66 1.5860 53.87 16 1.1136 13.06 65 1.5570 53.05 15 1.1060 12.24 64 1.5450 52.22 14 1.0980 11.42 68 1.5340 51.42 13 1.0910 10.61 62 1..5230 50.61 12 1.0830 9.79 61 1.5123 49.79 11 1.0756 8.98 60 1.5010 48.98 10 1.0680 8.16 59 1.4900 48.16 9 1.0610 7.34 58 1.4800 47.34 8 1.0536 6.53 57 1.4690 46.53 7 1.0464 5.71 56 1.4586 45.71 6 1.0390 4.89 55 1.4480 44.89 5 1.0320 4.08 54 1.4380 44.07 4 1.0256 3.26 53 1.4280 43.26 3 1.0190 2.44 52 1.4180 42.45 2 1.0130 1.63 51 1.4080 41.63 1 1.0064 0.81 1370 HAITDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 847. ANTHON'S TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF SULPHURIC^ ACID. To 100 To 100 To 100 parts of Water at paits of Water at parts of Water at 15° to 20° C Specific 15° to 20° C. Specific 15° to 20° C. Specific add... parts Gravity of add... parts Gravity of add. .parts Gravity of diluted diluted of diluted Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric Acid of 1.84 Acid. Acid of 1.84 Acid of 1.84 Specific Specific Specific Gravity. Gravity. Gravity. 1 1.009 130 1.456 370 1.723 2 1.015 140 1.473 380 1.727 5 1.035 150 1.490 390 1.730 10 1.060 160 1.510 400 1.733 15 1.090 170 1.5.30 410 1.737 20 1.113 180 1 543 420 1.740 25 1.140 190 1.556 430 1.743 30 1.165 200 1.568 440 1.746 35 1.187 210 1.580 450 1.750 40 1.210 I 220 1..593 460 1.754 45 1.229 230 7.606 470 1.757 50 1.248 240 1.620 480 1.760 55 1.265 250 1 630 490 1.763 60 1.280 260 1.640 500 1.766 65 1.297 270 1.648 510 1.768 70 1.312 280 1.6.54 520 1.770 75 1.326 290 1.667 530 1.772 80 1.340 300 1.678 540 1.774 85 1.357 310 1.689 550 1.776 90 1.372 320 1.700 560 1.777 95 1.3S6 3:30 1.705 580 1.778 100 1.398 340 1.710 590 l.-iSO 110 1.420 350 1.714 600 1.782 120 1.438 360 1.719 848. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF NITRIC ACID (HNO3) BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY. HYDRATED AND ANHYDRIDE. Temperature 15°. (Fresenius, Zeitschrift f. analyt. Chemie. 5. 449.) Sp. dr. 100 PARTS CONTAIN— Sp. Gr. at 15° C. 100 PARTS CONTAIN— at 15° C. N2O9 NO3H N2O5 NO3H 1.530 85.71 100.00 1.488 75.43 68.00 1.530 85.57 99.84 1.486 74 95 87.45 1.530 85.47 99.72 1.482 73.86 86.17 1.529 85.30 99.52 1.478 72.86 65.00 1.523 83.90 97.89 1.474 72.00 84.00 1.520 83.14 97.00 1.470 71.14 83.00 1.516 82 28 96.00 1.467 70.28 82.00 1.514 81.66 95.27 1.463 69.39 60.96 1.509 80.57 94.00 1.460 68.57 80.00 1.506 79.72 93.01 1.456 67.71 79.00 1.503 78.85 92 00 1.451 66.56 77.66 1.499 78.00 91.00 1.445 65,14 76.00 1.495 77.15 90.00 1.442 64.28 75.00 1.494 76.77 89.56 1.438 63.44 74.01 STREKGTH OF NITRIC ACID, ETC. 271 TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF NITRIC ACID.- -Continued. Sp. Gr. 100 PARTS CONTAIN— | Sp. Gr. at 15° C. 100 PARTS CONTAIN — at 15° C. N^Os NOsH N,05 NO3H 1.435 62 57 73.00 1.295 39.97 46.64 1.432 62.05 72.39 1.284 38.57 45.00 1.429 61.06 71.24 1.274 37.31 43.53 1.423 60.00 69.96* 1.264 36.00 42.00 1.419 59.31 69.20 1.257 35.14 41.00 1.414 58.29 68.00 1.251 34.28 40.00 1.410 57.43 6700 1.244 33.43 39.00 1.405 56.57 66.00 1.237 32 53 37.95 1.400 55.77 65.07 1.225 30.86 36.00 1.395 54.85 64.00 1.218 29.29 35.00 1.393 54.50 63.59 1.211 29.02 33.86 1.386 53.14 62.00 1.198 27.43 32.00 1.381 52.46 61.21 1.192 26,57 31.00 1.374 51.43 60.00 1.185 25.71 30.00 1.372 51.08 59.59 1.179 24.85 29.00 1.368 50.47 58.88 1.172 24.00 28.00 1.363 49.71 58.00 1.166 23.14 27.00 1.858 48.86 57 00 1.157 22.04 25.71 1.353 48.08 56.10 1.138 19.71 23.00 1.346 47.14 55.00 1.120 17.14 20.00 1.341 46.29 54.00 1.105 14.97 17.47 1.339 46.12 53.81t 1.089 12.85 15.00 1.335 45.40 53.00 1 077 11.14 13.00 1.331 44.85 52 33 1.067 9.77 11.41 1.393 43.70 50.99 1.045 6.62 7.22 1.317 42.83 49.97 1.022 3.42 4.00 1.312 42.00 49.00 1.010 1.71 2.00 1.304 41.14 48.00 0.999 0.00 0.00 1.298 40.44 47.18 ♦ Formula : NOjH -f- l^^HaO. t Formula : NOsH +3HaO. 349. TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CaO IN MILK OF LIME OF VARIOUS DENSITIES AT 15° C. (From Blatner's Table.) Weight Weight Deg. Brix. Decree Baum6. of one litre. Milk of Lime. CaO per litre. Per Cent CaO. Brix. Degree Baum6. of one litre. Milk of Lime. CaO per litre. Per Cent CaO. Grams. GramB. Grams. Gram>. 1.7 1 1007 7.5 0.745 28.4 16 1125 159 14.13 3.5 2 1014 16.5 1.64 30.3 17 1134 170 15 5.3 3 1022 26 2.54 32.1 18 1142 181 15.85 7 4 1029 36 3.5 as. 9 19 1152 193 16.75 8.8 5 1037 46 4.43 35.7 20 1162 206 17.72 10 6 6 1045 56 5.36 37.5 21 1171 218 18.61 Vi.a 7 1052 65 6.18 39.4 22 1180 229 19.4 HA 8 1060 75 7.08 41.2 23 1190 242 20.34 15.9 9 1067 84 7.87 43.1 24 1200 255 21.25 17.7 10 1075 94 8.74 44 9 25 1210 268 22.15 19.5 11 1083 104 9.6 46.8 26 1220 281 23.03 21.3 12 1091 115 10 54 48.6 27 1231 295 23.96 23.0 13 1100 126 11.45 50.5 28 1241 309 24.9 .24 8 14 1108 137 12.35 52.4 29 1252 324 25.87 26.6 15 1116 148 13.26 54.3 30 1263 339 26.84 273 HAl^DBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSR CHEMISTS. »»0. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Muriatic Acid) SOLUTIONS. Temperature, 15° C. (Graham-Otto's Lehrb. d. Chem. 3 Aufl. II. Bd. 1. Abth. p. 382.) 8p.Gr HCl. 1.2000 1.198;! 1.1964 1.1946 1.1928 1.1910 1 . 1893 1.1875 1.1857 1.1846 1.1822 1.1802 1.1782 1.1762 1.1741 1.1721 1.17011 1.16811 1.16611 1.164l! 1.1620, 1.1599, 1.1578! 1.1557i 1.15371 1.1515J 1.1494; 1.1473i 1.1452! 1.1431! 1.1410 1.1389 1.1369 1.1349, 40.777 40.869 39.961 39.554 39.146 38.738 38.330 37.923 37.516 37.108 36.700 38 292 35.884 35.476 35.068 34.660 34.252 33.845 33.437 33.029 32.621 32.213 31.805 31.398 30.990 30.582 30.174 29.767 29.359 28.951 28.544 28.136 27.728 27.321 CI. 39.675 39.278 38.882 38.485 38.089 37.692 37.296 36.900 36.503 36.107 35.707 35.310 34.913 34.517 34.121 33.724 33.328 32 931 32.535 32.136 31.746 31.343 30.946 30.550 30.153 29.757 29.361 28.964 28.567 28.171 27.772 27.376 26.979 26.583 Sp.Gr 1.1328 1.1308 1.1287 1.126' 1.1247 1.1226 1.1206 1.1185 1.1164 1.1143 1.1123 1.1102 1.1082 1.1061 1.1041 1.1020 1.1000 1.0980 1.0960 1.0939 1.0919 1.0899 1.0879 1.0859 1.0838 1.0^18 1.0798 1.0778 1.0758 1.0738 1.0718 1.0697 1.0677 HCl. 26.913 26.505 25.282 24.874 24.466 24.058 23.650 23.242 22.834 22.426 22.019 21.611 21.203 20.796 20.388 19.980 19.572 19.165 18.757 18.349 17.941 17.534 17.126 16.718 16.310 15 902 lg.494 15.087 14.679 14.271 13.863 CI. 26.186 25.789 25.392 24.996 24.599 24.202 23.805 23.408 23.012 22.615 22.218 21.822 21.425 2!. 028 20.632 20.235 19.837 19.440 19.044 18.647 18.250 17.854 17.457 17.060 16.664 16.267 15.870 15.474 15.077 14.680 14.284 13.887 13.490 Sp. Gr. 1.06.57 1.0637 1.0617 1.0597 1.0577 1.0557 1.0537 1.0517 1.0497 1.0477 1.0457 1.0437 1.0417 1.0397 1.0377 l.a357 1.0337 1.0318 1.0298 1.0279 1.0259 1.0239 1.0220 1.0200 1.0180 1.0160 1.0140 1 0120 1 0100 1.0080 1.0060 1.0040 1.0020 HCl. CI. 13.456 13.049 ' 12,641 I 12.233 I 11.825 I 11.418 I 11.010 ! 10.602 I 10.194 i 9.786 I 13.094 12.697 12.300 11.903 11.506 11.109 10.712 10.318 9.919 9.522 9.126 8.971 8.729 8.563 8.332 8.155 7.935 7.747 7.538 7.340 7.141 6.932 6.745 6.524 6.348 6.116 5.951 5.709 5.554 5.301 5.158 4.893 4 762 4.486 4.365 4.078 3.968 3.670 3.. 571 3.262 3 174 2.854 2.778 2.447 2.381 2.039 1.984 1.631 1.588 1.124 1.191 0.816 0.795 0.408 0.397 351. TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT Si CaO IN MILK OF LIME OF VARIOUS DENSITIES.-(Mategczek.) 1 kilo CaO 1 kilo CaO Degree Degree per . . litres Degree Degree per . . litres Brlx. Baume. Milk of Lime. Brix. Baum6. Milk of Lime. 18 10 7.50 38.3 21 4.28 20 11 7.10 40.2 22 4.16 21.7 12 6.70 42.0 23 4.05 23.5 13 6.30 43 9 24 3.95 25.3 14 5.88 45.8 25 3.87 27.2 15 5.50 47.7 26 3.81 29 16 5.25 49.6 29 3.75 30.9 17 5 01 51.6 28 3 70 32.7 18 4.80 53.5 29 3.65 34.6 19 4.68 55.5 30 3.60 86.5 20 4.42 SODIUM OXTDE, ETC., IN" VARIOUS SOLUTIONS. 273 352. TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF SODIUM OXIDE IN SOLUTIONS OF VARIOUS DENSITIES." (Fresenius Anl . z. quant. Analyse V. Aufl. f 730.) According to DAI.TON. ACCOEDINQ TO TUNNERMANN AT 15' C Sp. Gr. Per Cent NaaO, Sp. Gr. Per Cent Na^O. Sp. Gr. Per Cent NaaO. Sp. Gr. Per Cent NajO. 2.00 77.8 1.4285 30.220 1.2982 20.550 1.1528 10.275 1.85 63.6 1.4193 29.616 1.2912 19.945 1.1428 9.670 1.72 53.8 1 4101 29.011 1.2843 i9.;mi 1.1330 9.066 1.63 46.6 1.4011 28.407 1.2775 18.730 1.1233 8.406 1.56 41.2 1.3923 27.802 1 1.2708 18.132 1.1137 7.857 1.50 36.8 1.3836 87.200 1.2642 17.528 1.1042 7.253 1.47 34.0 1.3751 26.594 1.2578 16.923 1.0948 6.648 1.44 31.0 1.8668 25 989 1 2515 16.319 1.0^55 6.044 1.40 29.0 1.3.586 25.385 1.2453 15.714 1.0764 5.440 1.36 26.0 1.3.-)05 24.780 1.2.392 15.110 1.0675 4.835 1.32 23.0 1.3426 24.176 1 2280 14.506 1.0587 4.231 1.29 19.0 1.3:349 23 572 1.2178 13.901 1.0500 3.626 1.23 16.0 1.3273 22.967 1.2058 13.297 1.0414 3.022 1.18 13.0 1.3198 22.363 1.1948 12.692 1.0330 2.418 1.12 9.0 1.3143 21.894 1.1841 12.088 1.0246 1 813 1.06 4.7 1.3125 21.758 1.1734 11.484 1.0163 1.209 1.3053 21.154 1.1630 10.879 1.0081 0.604 853. TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF POTASSIO OXIDE IN SOLUTIONS OF VARIOUS DENSITIES. (Fresenius Anl. z. quant. Analyse. V . Aufl. f. 730. ) According to Dalton. According to Tunnermann at 15° C. Sp. Gr. K2O. Per Cent. Sp. Gr. KjO. Per Cent. Sp. Gr. K2O. Per Cent, 1.68 51.2 1.3300 28.290 1.1437 14.145 1.60 47.7 1.3131 27.158 1.1308 13.013 1.52 42.9 1.2966 26.027 1.1182 11.882 1.47 39.9 1.2803 24.895 1.1059 10.750 1.44 36.8 1.2648 23.764 1.0938 9.619 1.42 34.4 1.2493 22.632 1.0819 8.487 1.39 32.4 1.2.342 21.500 1 0703 7.355 1.36 294 1.2268 20.935 1.0589 . .. 6.224 1.32 26.3 1.2122 19.803 1.0478 5.002 1.28 23.4 1.1979 18.671 1 .0369 3.961 1.23 19.5 1.1839 17 540 1.0260 2.829 1.19 16.2 1.1702 16.408 1.0153 1.697 1.15 13.0 1.1568 15.277 1.0050 0.5658 1.11 9.5 1.06 4.7 274 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 254. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIA BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 14° C.-(Abridged from Camus' Table.) Per Cent Ammonia (NH3). Specific Gravity. Per Cent Ammonia (NH3). Specific Gravity. Per Cent Ammonia (NH3). Specific Gravity. 1. 0.9959 13. 0.9484 25. 0.9106 1.4 0.9941 13.4 0.9470 25.4 0.9094 2. 0.9915 14. 0.9449 26. 0.9078 2.4 9899 14.4 0.9434 264 0.9068 3. 9873 15. 0.9414 27. 0.9052 3.4 0.9655 15.4 0.9400 27.4 0.9041 4. 0.9831 16. 0.9380 28. 0.9026 4.4 0.9815 16.4 0.9366 28.4 0.9016 5. 0.9790 17. 0.9347 29. 0.9001 5.4 0.9773 17.4 0.9333 29.4 0.8991 6. 0.9749 18. 0.9314 30. 0.8976 6.4 0.9733 18.4 0.9302 30.4 0.89()7 7. 0.9709 19. 9283 31. 0.8953 7.4 0.9693 19.4 9271 31.4 0.8943 8. 0.9670 20. 0.9251 32. 0.8929 8.4 0.9654 20.4 0.9239 32.4 0.8920 9. 0.9631 21. 0.9221 33. 0.8907 9.4 0.9616 21.4 0.9209 33.4 0.8898 10. 0.9593 22. 0.9191 34. 0.8885 10.4 0.9578 22.4 9180 34.4 0.8877 11. 0.9556 23. 9162 35. 0.8864 11.4 0.9542 23.4 0.9150 35.4 0.8856 12. 0.9.^20 24. 0.9133 3C. 0.8844 12.4 0.9505 24.4 0.9122 »65. TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF ACETATE OF LEAD IN SOLUTIONS OF THE SALT, OF DIFFERENT DEN- SITIES, AT 15° C— (Gerlach.) Specific Per Cent of Specific Per Cent of Specific Per Cent Gravity. the Salt. Gravity. the Salt. Gravity. of the Salt. 1.0127 2 1.1384 20 1.2768 36 1.0255 4 1.1544 22 1.2966 38 1.0386 6 1.1704 24 1.3163 40 1.0520 8 1.1869 26 1 3376 42 1.0654 10 1.2040 28 1.3588 44 1.0796 12 1.2211 30 1.3810 46 1.0739 14 1.2395 32 1 4011 48 1.1084 16 1.2578 34 1.4271 50 1.1234 18 DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME AND SP. GR. OF SUGAR. 275 56. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, AND OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS AT 17»^° C. -(Stammer.) I . VS 2i o^ I i .1 o^ I i ,|f v^ Degree Brix ( Cent Sugar P fill PI CO 0.0 0.0 1.00000 3.0 1.7 1.01173 6.0 3.4 1.02373 .1 0.1 1.00038 .1 1.8 1.01213 .1 35 1.02413 .2 0.1 1.00077 .2 1.8 1.01252 .2 3.5 1.02454 .3 02 1.00116 .3 1.9 1.01292 .3 3 6 1.02494 .4 0.2 1.00155 .4 1.9 1.01332 .4 3.6 1.02535 .5 0.3 1.00193 .5 2.0 1.01371 .5 3.7 1.02575 .6 0.3 1.00232 .6 20 1.01411 .6 3.7 1.02616 .7 0.4 1.00271 .7 2.1 1.01451 .7 3.8 1.02657 .8 0.45 1.00310 8 2.2 1.01491 .8 3.9 1.02694 .9 0.5 1.00349 .9 2.2 1.01531 .9 ■ 3.9 1.02738 1.0 0.6 1.00388 4.0 2.3 1.01570 7.0 4.0 1.02779 .1 0.6 1.00427 .1 2.3 1.01610 .1 4.0 1.02819 .2 0.7 1.00466 .2 2.4 1 .01650 .2 4.1 1.02860 .3 0.7 1.00505 .3 2.4 1.01690 .3 4.1 1.02901 .4 0.8 1.00544 .4 2.5 1.01730 .4 4.2 1.02942 .5 0.85 1.00583 .5 2.55 1.01770 .5 4.25 1.02983 .6 9 1.00622 .6 2.6 1.01810 .6 4.3 1.03024 .7 1.0 1.00662 .7 2.7 1.01850 .7 4.4 1.03064 .8 1.0 1.00701 .8 2.7 1.01890 .8 4.4 1.03105 .9 1.1 1.00740 .9 2.8 1.01930 .9 4.5 1.03146 2.0 1.1 1.00'/V9 5.0 2.8 1.01970 8.0 4.5 1.03187 .1 1 2 1.00818 .1 2.9 1.02010 .1 4.6 1 .03228 .8 1.2 1.00858 .2 2.95 1.02051 .2 4.6 1.03270 .3 1.3 1.00897 .3 3.0 1.02091 .3 4.7 1 .a3311 .4 1.4 1.00936 .4 3.1 1.02131 .4 4.8 1.03352 .5 1.4 1.00976 .5 3.1 1.02171 .5 4.8 1 .03393 .6 1.5 1.01015 .6 3.2 1.02211 .6 4.9 1.03434 .7 1.5 1.01055 .7 3.2 1.02«5« .7 4.9 1.03475 .8 1.6 1.01094 .8 3.3 1.02292 .8 5.0 1.03517 .9 1.6 1.01134 .9 3.35 1.02333 .9 5.0 1.03558 CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE, BRIX SPINDLE.-(Gerlach.) Approximate Degree Temp. °C. Temp. °F. Brix AND Correction. 6 10 15 13 55.4 .14 .18 .19 .21 -tl Note.— For temperatures 14 57.2 .12 .15 .16 .17 § .above 171^° C. add the cor- 15 59. .09 .11 .12 .14 is reetion to the reading at the 16 60.8 .06 .07 .08 .09 ,•£ observed temperature; be- 17 62.6 .02 .02 .03 .03 cc low 173^° subtract. 18 64.4 .02 .m .m .03 19 66.2 .06 .08 .08 .09 20 68. .11 .14 .15 17 21 69 8 .16 20 22 24 _-• Obtain 6aum6 corrections 22 71.6 .21 .26 .29 .31 -o from the corresponding de- 23 73.4 .27 .32 .35 .37 < gree Brix. 24 75.2 .32 .38 .41 .43 25 77. .37 .44 .47 .49 276 HAN^DBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME', etc., OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS.— Cow^nited. OC — D 3 ill bc§^ It ill gree rix (Per ent agar). SO) 2 m it ^V^OfXl «=^I ^0QOc» a«l ^ ^mocc «"1 ^ 9.0 5.1 1.03599 12.0 6.8 1.04852 15.0 8.5 1.06133 .1 5.2 1.03640 .1 6.8 1.04894 .1 8.5 1.06176 .2 5 2 1.03682 .2 6.9 1.04937 .2 8.55 1.06219 .3 5.3 1.03723 .3 7.0 1.04979 .3 8.6 1.06262 .4 5.3 1.03765 .4 7.0 1.0.5021 .4 8.7 1.0G306 .5 5.4 1.03806 .5 7.1 1.05064 .5 8.8 1 06349 .6 5.4 1.03848 .6 7.1 1.0.5106 .6 8.8 1.06392 .7 5.5 1.03889 r> 7.2 1 .05149 .7 8.9 1.06436 .8 5.55 1.03931 ."8 7.2 1.05191 .8 8.9 1.06479 .9 5.6 1.03972 .9 7.3 1.05233 .9 9.0 1.06522 10.0 5.7 1.04014 18.0 7.4 1.05276 16.0 9.0 1.06566 .1 5.7 1.040.55 .1 7.4 1.05318 .1 9.1 1.06609 .2 5.8 1.04097 .2 7.5 1.05361 .2 9.2 1.06653 .3 5.8 1.04133 .3 7.5 1.05104 .3 9 2 1.06696 .4 5.9 1.0J180 .4 7.6 1.05446 .4 9.3 1.06740 .5 5 9 1.04222 .5 7.6 1.05489 .5 9.3 1.06783 .6 6.0 1.04204 .6 7.7 1 .05532 .6 9.4 1.06827 .7 6.1 1.04306 .7 7.75 1.05574 .7 9.4 1.06871 .8 6.1 1.04348 .8 7.8 1.05617 .8 9.5 1.06914 .9 6.2 1.04390 .9 7.9 1.05660 .9 9.5 1.06958 11.0 6.2 1 044.31 14.0 7.9 1.05703 17.0 9.6 1.07002 .1 6.3 1.04473 .1 8.0 1.05746 .1 9.7 1.07046 .2 6.3 1 04515 .2 8.0 1 05789 .2 9.7 1.07090 .3 6.4 1.04557 .3 8.1 1.05831 .3 9.8 1.07133 .4 6.5 1.04599 .4 8.1 1 .05874 .4 9.8 1.07177 .5 6.5 1.04641 .5 8.2 1.05917 .5 9.9 1 .07221 .6 6.6 1.04683 .6 8.3 1.05960 .6 9.9 1.07265 .7 6.6 1.04726 .7 8.3 1.06003 7 10.0 1.07.309 .8 6.7 1.04768 .8 84 1.06047 '.% 10.0 1.07353 .9 6.7 1.04810 .9 8.4 1.06090 .9 10.1 1.07397 CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE, BRIX SPINDLE.-(Gerlach.) Approximate Degree Temp. °C. Temp. »F. Brix AND Correction. 15 20 25 30 13 55.4 .21 .22 .24 .26 -g' Note.— For temperatures 83 above 17J4° C. add the cor- 14 57.2 .17 .18 .19 .21 15 59. .14 .14 .15 .16 is rection to the reading at the 16 60.8 .09 .10 .10 .11 •2 observed temperature; be- 17 62.6 .03 .03 .04 .04 m low 171^° C. subtract. 18 64.4 03 .03 .03 .03 19 66.2 .09 .09 .10 .10 20 21 22 68. 69 8 .17 24 .17 24 .18 25 .18 25 ^ Obtain Baum6 corrections 71.6 .31 .31 .32 .32 73 from corresponding degree < Brix. 23 73.4 .37 .38 .39 .39 24 75.2 .43 .44 .46 .46 25 77. .49 .51 .53 .54 DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME AND SP, GR. OF SUGAR. 277 TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, KTC.-Continued. J I^ III ^i • I^ f III s^ Degre Bnx Cent Suga III S3 > u fill 18.0 10.1 1.07441 28.0 13.0 1.09686 28.0 15.7 1.12013 .1 10.2 1 07485 .1 13.0 1.09732 .1 15.8 1.12060 .2 10.3 1.07530 2 13.1 1.09777 .2 15.8 1.12107 .3 10.3 1.07574 3 13.1 1.09823 .3 15.9 1.12155 .4 10.4 1.07618 4 13.2 1.09869 .4 16.0 1.12202 .5 10.4 1.07662 5 13.2 1.09915 .5 16.0 1.12250 .6 10.5 1.07706 6 13.3 1.09961 .6 16.1 1.12297 .7 10.5 1.07751 7 13.3 1.10007 .7 16.1 1.12345 .8 10.6 1.07795 8 13.4 1.10053 .8 16.2 1.1239S .9 10.6 1.07839 9 13.5 1.10099 .9 16.2 1.12440 19.0 10.7 1.07884 24. 13.5 1.10145 29.0 16 3 1.12488 .1 10.8 1.07928 1 13.6 1.10191 .1 16.3 1.12536 .2 10.8 1.07973 2 13.6 1.10237 .2 16.4 1.12583 .3 10.9 1.08017 3 13.7 1.10283 .3 16.5 1.12631 .4 10.9 1.08062 4 13.7 1.10329 .4 16.5 1.12679 .5 11.0 1.08106 5 13.8 1.10375 .5 16.6 1.12727 .6 11.1 1.08151 6 13.8 1.10421 .6 16.6 1.12775 .7 11.1 1.08196 7 13.9 1.10468 .7 16.7 1.12823 .8 11.2 1.08240 8 14.0 1.10514 .8 16.7 1.12871 .9 11.2 1.08285 9 14.0 1.10560 .9 16.8 1.12919 20.0 11.3 1.08329 25 14.1 1.10607 30.0 16.8 1.12967 .1 11.3 1.08374 1 14.1 1.10653 .1 16.9 1.13015 .2 11.4 1.08419 2 14.2 1.10700 .2 16.95 1.13063 .3 11.5 1.08464 3 14.2 1.10746 .3 17.0 1.13111 .4 11-5 1.08509 4 14.3 1.10793 .4 17.1 1.13159 .5 11.6 1.08553 5 14.3 1.10839 .5 17.1 1.13207 .6 11.6 1.08599 6 14.4 1.10886 .6 17.2 1.13255 .7 11.7 1.08643 7 14.5 1.10932 .7 17.2 1.13304 .8 11.7 1.08688 8 14.5 1.10979 .8 17.3 1.13352 .9 11.8 1.08733 9 14.6 1.11026 .9 17.3 1.13100 21.0 11.8 1.08778 26 14.6 1.11072 81.0 17.4 1.13449 .1 11.9 1.08824 1 14.7 1.11119 .1 17.4 1.13497 .2 11.95 1.08869 2 14.7 1.11166 .2 17.5 1.13545 .3 12.0 1.08914 3 14.8 1.11213 .3 17.6 1.13594 .4 12.0 1.08959 4 14.85 1.11259 .4 17.6 1.13642 .5 12.1 1 .09004 5 14.9 1.11306 .5 17.7 1.13691 .6 12.1 1.09049 6 15.0 1.11353 .6 17.7 1.13740 .7 12.2 1.09095 7 15.0 1.11400 .7 17.8 1.13788 .8 12.3 1.09140 8 15.1 1.11447 .8 17.8 1.13837 .9 12.3 1.09185 9 15.1 1.11494 .9 17.9 1.13885 22.0 12.4 1.09231 27.0 15.2 1.11541 «2.0 17.95 1.13934 .1 12.5 1.09276 .1 15.2 1.11588 18.0 1.13983 .2 12.5 1.09321 .2 15.3 1.11635 '.2 18.0 1.14032 .3 12.6 1.09367 .3 15 3 1.11682 .3 18.1 1.14081 .4 12.6 1.09412 .4 15.4 1.11729 .4 18.2 1.14129 .5 12.7 1.09458 .5 15.5 1.11776 .5 18.2 1.14178 .6 12.7 1.09503 .6 15.5 1.11824 .6 18.3 1.14227 .7 12.8 1.09549 .7 15.6 1.11871 .7 18.3 1.14276 .8 12.85 1.09595 .8 15.6 1.11918 .8 18.4 1.14335 .9 12.9 1.09640 .9 15.7 1.11965 .9 18.4 1.14374 278 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIZ AND BAUMfi, ETC.— Continued. Degree Brix (Per Cent Sugar). III II Degree Brix (Per Cent Sugar). 1 in III Degree Brix (Per Cent Sugar). J 83.0 18.5 1.14423 38.0 21.2 1.16920 43.0 23.95 1.19505 .1 18.55 1.14472 .1 21.3 1.16971 .1 24.0 1.19558 .2 18.6 1.14521 .2 21.35 1.17022 .2 24.1 1.19611 .3 18.7 1.14570 .3 21.4 1.17072 .3 24.1 1.19653 .4 18.7 1.14620 .4 21.5 1.17123 .4 24.2 1.19716 .5 18.8 1.14669 .5 21.5 1.17174 .5 24.2 1.19769 .6 18.8 1.14718 .6 21.6 1.17225 .6 24.3 1.19822 .7 18.9 1.14767 .7 21.6 1.17276 .7 24.3 1.19875 .8 18.9 1.14817 .8 21.7 1.17327 .8 24.4 1.19927 .9 19.0 1.14866 .9 21.7 1.1V3V9 .9 24.4 1.19980 84.0 19.05 1.14915 39.0 21.8 1.17430 44.0 24.5 1.20033 .1 19.1 1.14965 .1 21.8 1.17481 .1 24.55 1.20086 .2 19.2 1.15014 .2 21.9 1.17532 .2 24.6 1.20139 .3 19.2 1.15064 .3 21.9 1.17583 .3 24.65 1.20192 .4 19.3 1.15113 .4 22.0 1.17635 .4 24.7 1.20245 .5 19.3 1.15163 .5 22.05 1.17686 .5 24.8 1.20299 .6 19.4 1.15213 .6 22.1 1.17737 .6 24.8 1.20352 .7 19.4 1.15262 .7 22.2 1.17789 .7 24.9 1.20405 .8 19.5 1.15312 .8 22.2 1.17840 .8 24.9 1.20458 .9 19.5 1.15362 .9 22.3 1.17892 .9 25.0 1.20512 85.0 19.6 1.15411 40.0 22.3 1.17943 45.0 25.0 1.20565 .1 19.65 1.15461 .1 22.4 1.17995 .1 25.1 1.20618 .2 19.7 1.15511 .2 22.4 1.18046 .2 25.1 1.20672 .3 19 8 1.15561 .3 22.5 1.18098 .3 25.2 1.20725 .4 19.8 1.15611 .4 22.5 1.18150 .4 25.2 1.20779 .5 19 9 1.15661 .5 22.Q 1.18201 .5 25.3 1.208.32 .6 19.9 1.15710 .6 22.6 1.18253 .6 25.4 1.20886 .7 20.0 1.15760 .7 22.7 1.18305 .7 25.4 1.20939 .8 20.0 1.15810 .8 22.8 1.18357 .8 25.5 1.20993 .9 20.1 1.15861 .9 22.8 1.18408 .9 25.5 1.21046 86.0 20.1 1.15911 41.0 22 9 1.18460 46.0 25 6 1.21100 .1 30.2 1.15961 .1 ^2.9 1.18512 .1 25.6 1.21154 .2 20.25 1.16011 .2 23.0 1.18564 .2 25.7 1.21208 .3 20.3 1.16061 .3 23.0 1.18616 .3 25.7 1.21261 .4 20.4 1.16111 .4 23.1 1.18668 .4 25.8 1 21315 .5 20.4 1.16162 .5 23.1 1.18720 .5 25.8 1.21369 .6 20.5 1.16212 .6 23.2 1.18772 .6 25.9 1.21423 .7 20.5 1.16262 .7 23.25 1.18824 .7 25.95 1.21477 .8 20.6 1.16313 .8 23.3 1.18877 .8 26.0 1.21531 .9 20.6 1.16363 .9 23.4 1.18929 .9 26.1 1.21585 87.0 20.7 1.16413 42.0 23.4 1.18981 47.0 26.1 1.21639 .1 20.7 1.16464 .1 23.5 1.19033 .1 26.2 1.21693 .2 20.8 1.16514 .2 23.5 1.19086 .2 26.2 1.21747 .3 20.9 1.16,565 .3 23.6 1.19138 .3 26.3 1 .21802 .4 20.9 1.16616 .4 23.6 1.19190 .4 26.3 1.218.5G .5 21.0 1.16666 .5 23.7 1.19243 .5 26.4 1.21910 .6 21.0 1.16717 .6 23.7 1.19295 .6 26.4 1.21964 .7 21.1 1.16768 .7 2:^.8 1.19348 .7 26.5 1.22019 .8 21.1 1.16818 .8 23.8 1.19400 .8 26.5 1.22073 .9 21.2 1.16869 .9 1 23.9 1.19453 .9 26.6 1.22127 DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME AND SP. GR. OF SUGAR. 279 TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUMfi, ETC.— Continued. CLi —C •<) -w 26.6 26.7 26.7r< 26.8 86.9 26.9 27.0 27.0 27.1 27.1 27. "J 27.2 27.3 27.3 27.4 27 i 27.5 27.6 27.6 27.7 27.7 27.8 27.8 27.9 27.9 28.0 28.0 28.1 28.1 28.2 28.2 28.4 28.5 28.5 28.6 28.6 28.7 28.7 28.8 28.8 28.9 28.9 29.0 29.0 29.1 29.15 29.2 29.2 1.22182 1.22291 1.22345 1.22400 1.22455 1.22509 1.22564 1.22619 1.22673 1.22728 1 1 1 1.22948 1 23003 1.23058 1.23113 1.23168 1 1.23278 1.23334 1.23444 1.23499 1.23555 1.23610 1.23666 1.23721 1.23777 1 1.23888 1 1 1.24055 1.24111 1.24166 1.24222 1.24278 1.24334 1 1.24446 1.24502 1.24558 1.24614 1.24670 1.24726 1.24782 1.24839 1.24895 J ^ VD.2 o^ J - .-t m iv Im -^mow ^cq8 ^ ^CQO0 .9 37.6 1.34398 .9 40.1 1.37575 •4.0 35.1 1.31381 1 69.0 37.6 1.34460 74.0 40.1 1.37639 .1 35.1 1.31442 i .1 37.7 1.34523 .1 40.2 1.37704 .2 35.2 1.31502 .2 37.7 1.34585 o 40.2 1.37768 .3 35.2 1.31563 .3 37.8 1.34648 '.S 40.3 l.378;« .4 35.3 1.31624 .4 37.8 1.34711 A 40.3 1.37898 .5 35.3 1.31684 .5 37.9 1 34774 .5 40.4 1.37962 .6 35.4 1.31745 .6 37.9 1.34836 .6 40.4 1.38027 .7 35.4 1.31806 .7 38.0 1.34899 .7 40.5 1.38092 .8 35.5 1.31867 .8 38.0 1.34962 .8 40.5 1.38157 .9 35.5 1.31928 .9 38.1 1.35025 .9 40.6 1.38222 65.0 35.6 1.31989 70.0 38.1 1.35088 75.0 40.6 1.38287 .1 35.6 1.32050 38.2 1.35151 .1 40 7 1.38352 .2 35.7 i.;«iii .2 38.2 1.35214 .2 40.7 1.38417 .3 35.7 1.3.'172 .3 38.3 1.35277 .3 40 8 1.38482 .4 35.8 1.32233 .4 38.3 1.35340 .4 40.8 1.38547 .5 85.8 1.32294 .5 38.4 1.35403 .5 40.9 1.88612 .6 35.9 1.32355 .6 38.4 1.35466 .6 40.9 1.38677 .7 35 9 1.32417 .7 38.5 1.35530 .7 41.0 1.38743 .8 36.0 1.32478 .8 38.5 1.35593 .8 41.0 1.38808 .9 36.0 1.32539 .9 38.6 1.35656 .9 41.1 1.38873 66.0 36.1 1.32601 71.0 38.6 1.35720 76.0 41.1 1.38939 .1 36.1 1 1.32662 ! .1 38.7 1.35783 .1 41.2 1.39004 .2 36.2 ; 1.32724 | .2 38.7 1.35847 .2 41.2 1.39070 .8 36.2 1.32785 1 .3 38.8 1.35910 .3 41.3 1.39135 .4 36.3 1.32847 .4 38.8 1.35974 .4 41.3 1.39201 .5 36.3 1.3-2908 .5 38.9 1.36037 .5 41.4 1.39266 .6 36.4 1.32970 i .6 38.9 1.36101 .6 41.4 1.39332 .7 36.4 1.33031 .7 39.0 1.36164 .7 41.5 1.39397 ,8 36.5 1 33093 1 .8 39.0 1.36228 .8 41.5 1.3946S .9 36.5 1.33155 .9 39.1 1.36292 .9 41.6 1.3D529 67.0 36.6 1.33217 72.0 39.1 1.36355 77.0 41.6 1.39595 36.6 1.33278 .1 39 2 1.36419 .1 41.7 1.39600 .2 36.7 1.3?.340 .2 39.2 1.36483 .2 41.7 1.39726 .3 36 75 1.33402 .3 39.3 1.36547 .3 41.8 1.39792 .4 36 8 1 33464 .4 39.3 1.36611 .4 41.8 1.39858 .5 36.85 1.33526 .5 30.4 1.36675 .5 41.9 1.39924 .6 36.9 : 1.33588 .6 39.4 1.86739 .6 41.9 1.39990 .7 36 95' 1.33650 .7 39.5 1.36803 .7 42.0 1.40056 .8 37.0 1.33712 .8 39.5 1.36867 .8 42.0 1.40122 .9 37.0 1.33VY4 .9 39.6 1.36931 .9 42.1 1.40188 DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME AND SP. GR. OF SUGAR. 281 TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, ETC.— Continued. hf 9- ^ h •0 Degree Brix (Pe Cent Sugar). ill m 1 III vb5 m -1 11 78.0 42.1 1.40254 83.0 44.6 1.43614 88.0 47.0 1.47074 .1 422 1.40321 .1 44.6 1.43682 .1 47.0 1.47145 .2 42.2 1.40387 .2 44.7 1.43750 .2 47.1 1.47215 .3 42.3 1.40453 .3 44.7 1.43819 .3 47.1 1.47285 .4 42.3 1.40520 .4 44.8 1.43887 .4 47.2 1.47356 .5 42.4 1.40586 .5 44 8 1.43955 .5 47.2 1.47426 .6 42.4 1.40652 .6 44.9 1.44024 .6 47.3 1.47496 .7 42.5 1.40719 .7 44.9 1.44092 .7 47.3 1.47567 .8 42.5 1.40785 .8 45.0 1.44161 .8 47.4 1.47637 .9 42. G 1.40852 .9 45.0 1.44229 .9 47.4 1.47708 79.0 42.6 1.40918 84.0 45.1 1.44298 89.0 47.45 1.47778 .1 42.7 1.40985 .1 45.1 1.44367 .1 47.5 1.47849 .2 42.7 1.41052 .2 45.15 1.44435 .2 47.55 1.47920 .3 42.8 1.41118 .3 45.2 1.44504 .3 47.6 1.47991 .4 42.8 1.41185 .4 45.25 1.44573 .4 47.6 1.48061 .5 42.9 1.41252 .5 45.3 1.44641 .5 47.7 1.48132 .6 42.9 1.41318 .6 45 35 1.44710 .6 47.7 1.48203 .7 43.0 1.41385 .7 45.4 1.44779 .7 47.8 1.48274 .8 43.0 1.41452 .8 45.4 1.44848 .8 47.8 1.48345 .9 43.1 1.41519 .9 45.5 1.44917 .9 47.9 1.48416 80.0 43.1 1.41586 85.0 45.5 1.44986 90.0 47.9 1.48486 .1 43.2 1.41653 45.6 1.45055 .1 48.0 1.48558 .2 43.2 1.41720 !2 45.6 1.45124 .2 48.0 1.48629 .3 43.2 1.41787 .3 45.7 1.45193 .8 4'" 1 1.48700 .4 43.3 1 41854 .4 45.'? !.455a<5 .4 48! i 1.48771 .5 43.3 1.41921 .0 45.8 1.45331 .5 48.2 1.48842 .6 40 ■ 1.41989 .6 45.8 1.45401 .6 48.2 1.48913 .7 is! 45 1.42056 .7 45.9 1.45470 .7 48.3 1.48985 .8 43.5 1.42123 .8 45.9 1.45539 .8 48.3 1 49056 .9 43.55 1.42190 .9 46.0 1.45609 .9 48.35 1.49127 81.0 43.6 1.42258 86.0 46.0 1.45678 91.0 48.4 1.49199 .1 43.65 1.42325 .1 46.1 1.45748 .1 48.45 1.49270 .2 43.7 1.42393 .2 46.1 1.45817 .2 48.5 1.49342 .3 43.7 1.42460 .3 46.2 1.45887 .3 48 5 1..9413 .4 43.8 1.42528 .4 46.2 1.45956 .4 48.6 1.49485 .5 43.8 1.42595 .5 46.3 1.46026 .5 48.6 1.49556 .6 43.9 1.42663 .6 46.3 1.46095 .6 48.7 1.49628 .7 43.9 1.42731 i .7 46.35 1.46165 .7 48.7 1.49700 .8 44.0 1.42798 .8 46.4 1.46235 .8 48.8 1.497ri .9 44.0 1.42866 .9 46.45 1.46304 .9 48.8 1.49843 82.0 44.1 1.42934 87.0 46 5 1 46374 92.0 48.9 1.49915 .1 44.1 1.430O2 .1 46.55 1.46444 .1 48.9 1.49987 .2 44.2 1.43070 .2 46.6 1.46514 .2 49.0 1.50058 .3 44.2 1.43137 .3 46.65 1.46584 .3 49.0 1.50130 .4 44.3 1.43205 .4 46.7 1.46654 .4 49 05 1.50202 .5 44.3 1.43273 .5 46.7 1.46724 .5 49.1 1.50274 .6 44.4 1.43341 .6 46.8 1.46794 .6 49.15 1.50346 .7 44.4 1.43409 .7 46.8 1.46861 .7 49.2 1.50419 .8 44.5 1.43478 .8 46.9 1.46934 .8 49.2 1.5^191 .9 44.5 1.43546 .9 46.9 1.47004 .9 49.3 1.50563 282 HANDBOOK I*OR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, ETC.-CowfmMed. ^ x> &1 9~ H ii: vB +J i^ «£ <^ i-. ^moM |l| ll II , 93.0 49.3 1.50635 04.0 49.8 J. 51359 .1 49.4 1.50707 .1 49.85 1.51431 .2 49.4 1.50779 .2 49.9 1.51504 .3 49.5 1.50852 .3 49.9 1.51577 .4 49.5 1.50924 .4 50.0 1.51649 .£» 49.6 1.50996 .5 50.0 1.51722 .6 49.6 1.51069 .6 50.1 1.51795 .7 49.7 1.51141 .7 50.1 1.51868 .8 49.7 1.51214 .8 50.2 1.51941 .9 49.8 1.51286 .9 50.2 1.52014 95.0 50.3 1.52087 357. TABLE FOR THE CORRECTION OF READINGS ON THE BRIX SCALE FOR VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE FROM THE STANDARD, 17i^° C. (63)^° F.).— (Gkrlach.^ Temp. Temp. op AppnoxiMATE Degree Brix and Correction. »C 5 10 15|20 25 30, 3o 40 50 60 70 75 32 .27 .30 .41 .52 .62 .72 .82* .92 .98 1.11 1.22 1.25 1.29 5 41 .23 .30 .37 .44 .52 .59 .65| .72 .75 .80 .88 .91 .94 10 50 .20 .26 .29 .33 .36 .39 .42 .45 .48 .50 .54 .58 .61 11 51.8 .18 .23 ,26 .28 .31 .34 .36 .39 .41 .43 .47 .50 .53 12 53.6 .16 .20 .22 .24 .26 .29 .31 .3S .34 .36 .40 .42 .46 13 55.4 .14 .18 .19 .21 .22 .24 .26 .27 .28 .29 .33 .m .39 14 57.2 .12 .15 .16 .17] .18 .19 .21 .22 .22 .2J^ .26 .28 .32 15 59 .09 .11 .12 .14 .14 .15 .16 .17 .16 .17 .19 .21 .25 16 60.8 .06 07 .08 .09 .10 .10 .11 .12 .12 .12 .14 .16 .18 17 62.6 .02 ,02 .03 .03 .03 .04 .04 .04 1 .04 .04 .05 .05 .06 Add the correction to readings above 17i^° C. (63}^ F.) and subtract the correction from those below this temperature. 64.4 66.2 68 69.8 71.6 7'3.4 75.2 77 78.8 80.6 82.4 84.2 86 95 104 122 140 158 176 .02 .70 1.10 1.50 .68 .84 .92 1. 1.79 2 3.88 5 1 6.5416.46 1 1 o 3 5 6.38 30 1.83 2.79 3.82 90 6.06 .03 .43 .51 .58 .65 .72 .80 .88 1.27 1.69 2.56 43 4.47 5.50 .06 .11 .18 .25 .33 .40 .48 .55 .62 .70 .78 .86 1.25 1.65 2.51 3.41 4.35 5.33 WEIGHT OF SUGAB SOLUTIONS AT l?^'^ C. 283 »58. TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT, AND U. S. GALLON (231 Cu. In.) OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS AT 17i^° 0. (Calculatkd prom Stammer's Table op Specipic Gravities.) Degree Brix. Degree Baume (corrected). 11 oa-9j 1 m ■sod 1 1 m 1^1 .Co IP ^^1 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ebs. Lbs. 1 0.6 62.59 8.36 28 15.7 69.84 9.33 55 30.4 78.62 10.51 1.5 0.85 62.72 8.38 28.5 16.0 69.99 9.35 55.5 30.6 78.79 10.53 2 1.1 63.84 8.39 29 16.3 70.14 938 56 30.9 78.97 10.55 2 5 1.4 62.96 8.40 29.5 16.6 70 29 9 39 56.5 31.2 79.15 10.57 3 1.7 63.08 8.42 30 16.8 70.44 9.41 57 31.4 79.33 10.60 3.5 2.0 63.20 8.44 30.5 17.1 70.59 9.43 '57.5 31.7 79.51 10.62 4 2.3 63.32 8.46 31 17.4 70.74 9.45 ;58 31.9 79.70 10.65 4.5 2.55 63.44 8.48 31.5 17.7 70.89 9.47 ,58.5 32.2 79.87 10.67 5 2.8 63.57 8.50 32 17.95 71.04 9.49 '59 32.5 80.05 10.70 5.5 3.1 63.70 8.52 32.5 18.2 71.19 9.51 (59.5 32.7 80.24 10.72 6 34 63.83 8.53 33 18.5 71.35 9.53 '60 33.0 80.43 10.75 6.5 3.7 63.95 8.55 83.5 18.8 71.50 9.55 60.5 33.2 80.62 10.77 7 4.0 .64.08 8.57 34 19.05 71.65 9.58 61 33.5 80.80 10.80 7.5 4.25 64.21 8.59 345 19.3 71.80 9.60 !61.5 33.8 80 98 10.82 8 4.5 64.34 8.60 35 19.6 71.96 9.62 :62 34.0 81.17 10.85 8.5 4.8 64.47 8.61 35.5 19.9 72.11 964 62.5 34.3 81.35 10.87 9 5.1 64.60 8.63 36 20.1 72.27 9.66 63 34.5 81 54 10.90 9.5 5.4 64.72 8.65 36.5 20.4 72.43 9 68 63.5 34.8 81 73 10.92 10 5.7 64.84 8 67 37 20.7 72.59 9.70 64 35.1 81.92 10.95 10.5 5.9 64.97 8.69 37.5 21.0 72.74 9.72 164.5 35.3 82.11 10.97 11 6.2 65.11 8.71 38 21.2 72.90 9.74 65 35.6 82.30 11.00 11.5 6 5 65.24 8.72 38.5 21.6 73.06 9.76 '65.5 35.8 82.49 11.02 12 6.8 65.38 8.74 39 21.8 73.22 9.78 66 36.1 82.68 11.05 12.5 7.1 65.51 8.76 39.5 22.05 73.38 9.80 66.5 36.3 82.87 11.07 13 7.4 65.64 8.78 40 22.3 73.54 9.83 67 36.6 83.06 11.10 13.5 7.6 65.77 8.79 40.5 22.6 73.70 9.85 67.5 36.85 83.25 11.12 14 7.9 65.91 8.81 41 22.9 73.86 9.87 ■68 37.1 83.45 11.15 14.5 8.2 66.04 8.82 41.5 23.1 74.02 9.89 168.5 37.4 83.64 11.17 15 8.5 66.18 8.84 42 23.4 74.18 9.91 69 37.6 83.84 11.20 15.5 8.8 66.31 8. 86 42.5 23.7 74.34 9.93 69.5 37.9 84.03 11.23 16 9.0 66.44 8.88 43 23.95 74.51 9.96 70 38.1 84.23 11.26 16.5 9.3 06.58 8.90 43.5 24.2 74.67 9.98 70.5 38.4 84.42 11.28 17 9.6 66.72 8.92 44 24.5 74.84 10.00 I7I 38.6 84.62 11.31 17.5 9.9 66.85 8.93 44.5 24.8 75.00 10.02 171.5 38.9 84.82 11.33 18 10.1 66.99 8.95 45 25.0 75.17 10.05 172 39.1 85.02 11.36 18.5 10.4 67.13 8.97 45.5 25.3 75.34 10.07 72.5 39.4 85.21 11.39 19 10.7 67.27 8.99 46 25.6 75.51 10.09 73 39.6 a5.41 11.42 19.5 11.0 67.41 9.01 46.5 25.8 75.67 10.11 73.5 39.9 85.61 11.44 20 11.3 67.55 9.03 47 26.1 75.84 10.13 74 40.1 85 81 11.47 20.5 11.6 67.69 9.04 47.5 26.4 76.01 10.15 [74.5 40.4 86.01 11.49 21 11.8 67.83 9.06 48 26.6 76.18 10.18 75 40.6 86.22 11.52 21.5 12.1 67.97 9.08 48.5 26.9 76.35 10.20 75.5 40.9 86.42 11.55 22 12.4 68.11 9.10 49 27.2 76.52 10.23 76 41.1 86.63 11.58 22 5 12.7 68.25 9.13 49.5 27.4 76.69 10.25 176.5 41.4 86.83 11.60 23 13.0 68.39 9.16 50 27.7 76.87 10.27 177 41.6 87.04 11.63 23.5 13.2 68.54 9.17 50.5 28.0 77.04 10 29 77.5 41.9 87 24 11.66 24 13.5 68.68 9.18 51 28.2 77.21 10.32 [78 42.1 87.45 11 69 24.5 13.8 68.82 9. 20 51.5 28.5 77.38 10.34 '78.5 42.4 87.65 11.71 25 14.1 68.96 9.22 52 28.8 77.56 10.36 179 42.6 87.86 11.74 25.5 14.3 69.11 9.24 .52 5 29.0 77.73 10.38 79.5 42.9 88.07 11. 7T 26 14.6 69.26 9.26 53 29.3 77.91 10.41 80 43.1 88.28 11.80 26.5 14.9 69.41 9.27 53.5 29.6 78.08 10 43 80.5 43.3 88.49 11.82 27 15 2 69.55 9.29 54 29.8 78.26 10.46 ,81 43.6 88.70 11.85 27.5 15.5 69.69 9.31 54.5 30.1 78.44| 10.48 81.5 43.8 88.91 11.88 284 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT AND U. S. GALLON (231 CxJ. In.) OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS.— Continued. M ^ o «■ ! ^ ^ x' ^ >^ pa 1 •sd -o^S pq I 'S*^ oc--" ' (S 1 ■se ^..a 1 ^ 2 S^3 I 'OJU 11 m II |QO<» *;5®J®I2^S2$^S2S gSSSJ 1 d ddd r-,T-lr-.r-l0iTi ^vi eo vi CO rf -^ -^ ^ i6 5.50 5.77 6.05 6.32 JO d §5SS§Sgg{g§S^ (jj M ec 03 ed -^ ■*" -"t Tf o 5 51 5.78 6.06 6.33 O O O T-( ,-. rH M 0» (N o d 0.28 0.55 0.83 1.10 1.38 1.66 1.93 2.21 2.48 5 52 5 79 6.07 6.35 00 §55g§3;::??Sg5J^ SS^SfeS^gfe^ Sss^ O O O r-. ,-( ,-1 TH (N 0» ^sococcsoTfTPTH-^o »o>fiwo o CO 0.28 0.55 0.83 1.11 1.38 1.66 1.94 2.22 2.49 e,' CO eo CO 00 ■* T)J TjJ Tf m 5.54 5.82 6.09 6.37 iO d d d rt' r-l T-I r.; OJ (J* ^ «0 CO CO 00 TT -* TlJ -rli o ^^::^ ^««® o dddT-i,-.r-.,-;oJd ^cocoeooo-^TfTridio 5.56 5.84 6.12 6.40 d dddf-Ir-Ir-iTH'oJo* •xeoeocoTjI-^Tfioo 5.57 5 85 6.131 6.4ll o d 0.28 0.56 0.84 1.12 1.40 1.67 1.95 2.23 2.51 ^eococdco-^nJ-^iOJO SS : : »o §5SS25§S^S;S gg^s^s^^gsg? : : : : O O O !-< -TH ,1 rH OJ Ot e,o3eoeoooTjo 0.28 0.57! 0.85! 1.18 1.41J 1.70, 1.98; III! o 0.28 0.57 0.85 1.13 1.42 1.70 1.98 : : : : lO wo^3^ : : : : —••••:::: : : : : dddi-ir^ : : : : ::::.:: o gfeS : : : : : : : : : : ooo d ^ ::::::: • .... •ONia lowoosi ri©|«O-fl»lO«et-00O» ©.-i(M«0r} « » i>; I- 1>: 00 8.28 8.55 8.&3 od SSS^^g ::.:::::: OOl-l>l>Q0 o 00 SSS^g :::.:::::: I-' ^^^ :::::::.:::. •ooi- :::::::::::; o I' £:::::.•••:;•• 1 ^iiiitniii: I .si o +3 . 6° §88;^ ^^ss^ g 5r.§ oooo ooooo m PnOJ ^ 'C Q o9 . C! £.1 h H S |1 i-KNCC* »f5 01>00 0> pq OOOO ooooo g 1* § fl Ss Q H SCHMITZ TABLE. 287 OWOOSIHVaOd i-i©»eon0 to eo eo eo «o d 0.27 0.54 0.80 1.07 1.34 1.61 1.87 2.14 2.41 • *»' d d d Tf •<«<' •^ •<* d ^O^^eoeoeoeoj o d dddi-lT-Ir-Ii-iwd S§6,55£Si}§§82 ^ ©»■ d d d ■*■ T(<' ■*■ •* d ^dddddd 0.27 0.54 0.81 1.08 1.34 1.61 1.88 2.15 2.42 •c«ddd-*-^TiI-<=> O^ 1-1 y-y-i (not dddi-J.-Ji-!T-i(N©t ^ d d d d •*■ ■* tj. -*■ d o dddi-Ji-n-fi-Ieioi a;^ (N d d d -"ji 'I'' Tj.' T>; d j^wdeoddi^;! 2 1 0.27 0.54 0.81; 1.08 1.35 1.62 1.89 2.17 2.44 ^wdddTj-'-TTf-^iId o ^kdtei<0 d dddi-ii-Ii-J^NN ^COCOCOCO^^^TTO - ,o so d d d i> •ONia 0M008] 1 ^NW^WOt-OOOJ ©i-ie»eo-*«ocoi-ooo» gSJSI^S^lg ^88 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ijss ^^^n^^n^^^ o t- 1> t- t>^ 00 00 00 00 OS 05 OS o o to i> t-^ I- t^ 00 00 00 OS oi cs OS o" o t^!>i-^ i>;o6o6oo'ososo;oso©' o 00 i> J> i> (^ oo" oo' 00 OS OS OS OS o o s m m^mu o t^t-^t- gjjQoadodososoiiosoo •« ^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^ o ^_sg ^^^_^^^^^^^ id t>'t^i>^ ^ododooos'dos'osoo o g;ss gssss^g^ss i-'j-^t-^ j^ooQOodososososoo o t-^ «> l> g(5 00 00 00 OS os' os' o o o t-'t-'t~ "ooooodos'osos'oo'd o §5SSo '^^g^SS?£8S?S l>' l-V 3^ 30 00 X OS OS OS* o o o 1 mm^m^ o i>i>i^ gj^Qo'oooios'os'osodo " ?gS^ g^S§^§o£;:^§ - t-l>l> -ooooososososooo o T-l ^■SS S^J^S^^^"^^ t-t-C- -OOQOOSOSOSOSOOO o i>i>t-^ • 00 00 OS OS OS OS d S5^^ iS^^^icSSsSSl s S^S^ SSSSJ^ ^ «l oooo ooooo »o ?J a •c 1 ^6b (13 ^S T-l(N«lTj« JO I© t- 00 OS "^W oooo odooo o o CO cu Xi o § Q H _^ o (So « §88;:^ s^s^s g ^^ oooo ooooo AhM d S •fU II (-! «1 s ^S i-i(Neo-^ »o«oi>Q0os M ::« oooo ooooo » 0.2 H 03 a oi ^ o o H ft ^ gCHMITZ' TABLE. 289 oiaoos -iHyqo J I ICO tO<5^(0 «o *^q?§ss/^.i:g§; ?ss_§^g^§i3g ^.'^y■_^^^^^s^ ^ ® o" i-i •rH ^ ,-.'©» oj oj (N ** 00 eo" TT T« -* Tj< »o »n iri ** so 50 «5 <» i> t-^ i- x 06 * • Qi'itOiQi C9'. < l- O CJ IC I- C CO i ■«t -r -T- «n 1ft «n »» ?c o o «o t-- 1-' t-^ 00 CO O o — " -h' ,-<■ -^ o» N ir» eo vi m CO ^ ^ •*• -^ 16 toiT. »c o ?D 1-^ i'^ i^ C-' ^ ^ 00 >r! 1-1 00 o -i-H 00 «n «0 Oi T-< ^ t- OS w 10 <- o © O — •' T^ i-" i-< 0» (N <» 00 05oQCi-ieo?oc!i-iTjtt^ ©5\>ifti-o« W eo CO rr ■«i'' -^ M< «o ift ift »o 50 «d «5 1-^ t-^ r. Tf O {- -r*) '^ {- -^ T-. l- • O ^ ^ ^ «,j ^ /; j ^ C^ ^l-<00-!j «^ CO CO -t< -^ Tf" -!f<' 1.0 »ft' lO ^ o —' -r-.' T-' mf oj o» c»' eo' 1-. -K o I- -v T-. 1- -f T-j CO 5^ -o o; i-< TT i- en IN ic i> j^ CO eo "* -^' •* -Tc' irr «n m* • Oeoio< ; o — ' '-< ^' '>>' 'ri o^j ' Ooecot~--fd--<*i-i 51=oc3s>m:-o(?»»oao ^ co' co' -** Tjl t' »ra ift ift »o 5© o i~ ■<»• >— X) o -^ oc o • xiir. > O? 10 00 O CO CO 00 ; ^' ^ -^ ^' 0> ci TJ C> CO siocccooi-eooi- ;^ CO C5 c< in I- o eo ift ' Tji t' -* IC' 10 Ift ^ ■»— I 1-1 -^^ ^^ r;v '«^ ';v v/ '.V Q^ v,-> -i^.' ^r -T 'rr «-' «.' ^ .-I ^ 1-1 T-l 1-11-1 ri T-ir-l ^_^ i-ci-l 1-1 1-1 i-( i-i i-c 'i-'i-iiNM(??'r>co -^coeOTfTjiTf Tj0J(N I ^ ^ ^ (jj (jj ej -jj CO ■^ ?! CS CO CO ^ i- ■ 1 CO CO o ■?» -^ t> O ,-1 — ; ,_; o» oj (?j eo ea rr 1-" 00 1ft CO o S 1-1 Tf CO 05 CJ 10 as CO OS'-;- 1ft- ^ I ggg;: ?2SSSS g II 0000 oooocr ll i-nNec* lO9l 10.67 10.65 41 42 11.091 11.07 11.04 11.02 11.00 10.97 10.95 10.93 10.90 42 43 11.35 11.33 11.31 11.28 11.26 11.24 11.21 11.19 11.17 43 44 11.62 11.59 11.57 11.55 11.52 11.50 11.47 11.45 11.42 44 45 11.88 11.86 11.83 11.81 11.78 11 76 11.73 11.71 11.69 45 46 12.15 12.12 12.09 12.07 12.05 12.02 12.00i 11.97 11.94 46 47 12.41 12.39 12.36 12.33 12.31 12.28 12.26: 12.23 12.21 47 48 12.67 12.65 12.62 12.60 12.57 12.54 12.521 12.49 12.47 48 49 12.94 12.91 12.88 12.86 12.83 12.81 12.78 12.75 12.73 49 60 18.20 18.18 18.15 18.12 18.09 13.07 18 04 18 01 12.99 50 51 13.47 13.44 13.41 13.39 13.36 13.33 13.30 13.27 13.25 51 52 13.73 13.70 13.68 13.65 13.62 13.59 13.561 13.53 13.51 52 53 14.00 13.97 13.94 13.91 13.88 13.85 13.82 13.79 13.77 58 54 14.26 14. 2S 14.20 14.17 14.14 14.11 14.08 14.06 14.02 54 55 14.53 14.50 14.47 14.44 14.41 14.38 14.35 14.32 14.29 55 56 14.79 14.76 14.73 14.70 14,67 14.64 14.61 14.58 14.55 56 57 15.06 15.02 14.99 14.96 14.93 14.90 14.87 14.84 14.81 57 58 15.32 15.29 15.26 15.23 15.19 15.16 15.13 15.10 15.07 58 59 15.58 15.55 15.52 15.49 15.46 15.42 15.39 15.36 15.33 59 60 15.86 15.82 15.78 15.75 15.72 15.60 15.65 15.62 1559 60 61 16.11 16.08 16.05 16.01 15.98 15.95 15.91 15.88 15.85 61 62 16.38 16.35 16.31 16.28 16.24 16.21 16.18 16.14 16.11 62 63 16.64 16.61 16.57 16.54 16.51 16.47 16.44 16.40 16 37 63 64 16.91 16.87 16.84 16.80 16.77 16.73 16.70 16.66 16.63 64 65 17.17 17.14 17.10 17.07 17.03 17.00 16.96 16.92 16.89 65 66 17.44 17.40 17.37 17.33 17.29 17.26 17.22 17.19! 17.15 66 67 17.70 17.67 17.63 17.59 17.56 17.52 17.48 17.45' 17.41 67 68 17.97 17.93 17.89 17.86 17.82 17.78 17.74 17.71 17.67 88 69 18.23 18.19 18.16 18.12 18.08 18.04 18.00 17.97 17.93 69 70 18.50 18.46 18.42 18.38 18.86 18.31 18.27 18.28 18.19 70 71 18.76 18.72 18.68 18.65 18.61 18.57 18 53 18.49 18 45 71 72 19.03 18.99 18.95 18.91 18.87 18.83 18.79 18.75 18.71 73 73 19.25 19.21 19.17 19.13 19.09 19.05 19.01 18.97 73 74 ... 19.52 19.48 19.44 19.40 19.. 35 19.31! 19.27 19.23 74 75 19.78 19.74 19.70 19.66 19.62 19.57i 19.53 19.49 75 76 '.'.'. 20.00 19.96 19.92 19.88 19.84 19.80 19.75 76 77 ... .... 30.27 20.22 20.18 20.14 20.10! 20.06 20.01 77 78 ... .... 20.49 20.45 20.40 20.36! 20.32 20.27 78 79 20.75 20.71 20.66 20.62 20.58 20.54 79 80 .... .... 20.97 20.93 20.88 2084 20.80 80 Degree Brix from 23 to 24. Tenths of the Polari- Per Cent Tenths of the Polari- Per Cent scopic Reading. Sucrose. scopic Reading. Sucrose. 0.1 0.03 0.6 0.16 0.8 0.05 0.7 0.18 0.3 0.08 0.8 0.21 0.4 0.10 0.9 0.33 0.5 0.13 CORRECT POLARISCOPIC READING, ETC. 291 260. TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUME OF JUICE REQUIRED TO GIVE TWO OR THREE TIMES THE CORRECT POLARISCOPIC READING. (Divide the Reading by 2 for instruments whose factor is 26.048 grams, and by 3 for those whose factor is 16.19.) De- Factor De- IK. Factor De- gree. Brix. Factor De- Factor 26.048 gr. Required— cc. 26.048 gr. Required— cc. 16.19 gr. Required— cc. 16.19 gr. Required— cc. 5 51.1 12.9 49.5 5 47.6 12.7 46.2 5.4 51 13.4 49.4 5.7 47.5 13.3 46.1 5.9 50.9 13.9 49.3 6.3 47.4 13.8 46 6.4 50.8 14.4 49.2 6.8 47.3 14.3 45.9 6.9 50.7 14.9 49.1 7.3 47.2 14.8 45.8 7.4 50.6 15.4 49 7.8 47.1 15.3 45.7 79 50.5 15.9 48.9 8.3 47 15.9 45.6 84 50.4 16.4 48.8 8.9 46.9 16.4 45.5 8.9 50.3 16.9 48.7 9.5 46.8 17 45.4 9.4 50.2 17.4 48.6 10 46.7 17.5 45.3 9.9 50.1 17.9 48.5 10.5 46.6 18 45.2 10.4 50 18.4 48.4 11 46.5 18.6 45.1 10.9 49.9 18.9 48.3 11.6 46.4 19.1 45 11.4 49.8 19.4 48.2 12.1 46.3 11.9 49.7 19.9 48.1 12.4 49.6 261. TABLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF THE APPROXIMATE PER CENT TOTAL SOLIDS IN MASSECUITE, MOLASSES, ETC. (F. E. Coombs.) (Dilution of sampie = 100 grams to 500 cc.) Degrees Brix of Diluted Sample. (Corrected for Temperature.) Per Cent Solids Degrees Brix of Diluted Sample. Per Cent Solids in Original Sample. (Corrected for Tempei-ature.) m Original Sample. 14.0 73.99 16.0 85.25 74.55 .1 85.82 .2 75.11 .2 86.39 .3 75.65 .3 86.96 .4 76.23 .4 87.53 .5 76.79 .5 88.10 .6 77.35 .6 88.67 .7 77.91 .7 89.24 .8 78.47 .8 89.81 .9 79.04 .9 90.38 15.0 79.60 17.0 90.95 .1 80.16 .1 91.52 .2 80.72 .2 92.10 .3 81.29 .3 92.67 .4 81.86 .4 93.82 .5 82 42 .5 93.82 .6 82.99 .6 94.39 .7 83.55 .7 94.97 .8 84.12 .8 95.54 .0 84.68 .9 96.12 293 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 262. Table for the Calculation of the Per Ceut Sucrose iu Molasses, Massecuite, etc. (F. E. Coombs). — A portion of the solution used in estimating the approximate total solids, equivalent to lo grams of the material {see 261), is transferred to a lOO cc. sugar-flask, clarified, and polarized as usual. To calculate the sucrose, find the integral part of the polariscopic reading in the first column, follow the line to the right to the number under the tenths of the reading, and enter this number as the per cent sucrose in the material. ^1 HI Fractional Part of Polariscope Reading 1^1 .0 .1 •2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 8.0 20.84 21.10 21.36 21.62 21.88 22.14 22.40 22.66 22 92 23.18 9.0 23.44 23.70 23.96 24.22 24.48 24.74 25.01 35.27 25.53 25.79 10.0 26.04 26.30 26.56 26 8-.J 27.08 27.34 27.61 27.87 28.13 28.39 11.0 28.65 28.91 29.17 29.43 29.69 29.95 30.22 30.48 30.74 31.00 1?.0 31.26 31.52 31.78 32.04 32 30 32.56 32.82 33.08 33.34 33.60 13.0 33.86 34.12 34.38 34.64 34.90 35.16 35.43 35.69 35.95 36.21 14 36.47 36.73 36.99 37.25 37.51 37.77 38.03 38.29 38.55 38.81 15.0 39.07 39.33 39.59 39 85 40.11 40.37 40.63 40.89 41.15 41.41 16.0 41.68 41.94 42.20 42.46 42.72 42.98 43.24 43.50 43.76 44.02 17.0 44 28 44.54 44.80 45.06 45.32 45.58 45.84 46.10 46.36 46.62 18.0 46.89 47.15 47.41 47.67 47.93 48.19 48.45 48.71 48 97 49.23 19.0 49 49 49.75 50.01 50.27 50.53 50.79 51.05 51.31 51.57 51.83 20.0 52.10 .52.36 52.62 52.88 53.14 53.40 53.66 53.92 54.18 54.44 FOKMUL^ FOR CALCULATION" OF INVERSION. 293 263. Formulae * for the Calculation of Inver- sion in the Diffusion-hattery. — The author is in- debted to Lieut. A. B. Clements, U.S.N., for the following formulae, unless otherwise indicated ; F — F (1) X = b = inversion in the battery per cent diffusion-juice; _ per cent sucrose in the diffusion- juice * "~ per cent glucose in the diffusion-juice _ percent sucrose in the normal juice ^ ' ~" percent glucose in the normal juice* b = per cent glucose in the diffusion-juice j lOO - = 1.05263. 95 (2) X = a ^- ^— = inversion in the battery per cent diffusion-juice; a = per cent sucrose in the diffusion-juice; per cent glucose in the diffusion-juice Yx = -. -r — -TT^ : -^. — X 100; per cent sucrose in the diffusion-juice per cent glucose in the normal juice *, — ■»_ *-* - z. . \/ xcycw " per cent sucrose in the normal juice loooo , = 105.263. 95 (3) \.P — (100 — e)P'\ .95 = jr = inversion in the battery per cent diffusion-juice. / = per cent glucose in diffusion- juice; /•= percent glucose in the normal juice -^ 100; e ■= evaporation necessary to concentrate the diffusion-juice to the same percentage of sugars as in the normal juice. To obtain e subtract the sum of the sugars in the diffusion- juice from that in the normal juice and divide the remain- der by the sum of the sugars in the normal juice. Multi- ply the quotient by 100. This formula only gives approximate results. The error amounts to less than 15 lbs. sucrose per 1,000,000 lbs. of juice when the inversion does not exceed i per cent (G. L. Spencer). 1 Based upon the formula of Dr. Stubbs of the Louisiana Bxperiment Station. 294 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. JJ64. » RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS FROM 11 TO 36, ADVANCINa BY TENTHS. Num- Recip-' rocal. Num- Recip- rocal. Num- Recip. rocal. Num- Recip- rocal. Num- Recip- rocal. ber. ber. ber. ber. ber. 11.0 .0909 16.0 .0625 21.0 .0476 26.0 .0385 31.0 .0322 11.1 .0900 16.1 .0621 21.1 .0474 26.1 .0383 31.1 .0321 11.2 .0893 16.2 .0617 21.2 .0472 26.2 .0381 31.2 .0320 11.3 .0885 163 .0613 21.3 .0469 26.3 .0380 31.3 .0319 11.4 .0877 16.4 .0610 21.4 .0467 26.4 .a379 31.4 .0318 11.5 .0869 16.5 .0606 21.5 .0465 26.5 .0377 31.5 .0317 11.6 .0862 16.6 .0602 21.6 .0463 26.6 .0376 31.6 .0816 11.7 .0855 16.7 .0599 21.7 .0461 26.7 .0374 31.7 .0315 11 8 .0847 16.8 .0595 21.8 .0459 26.8 .0373 31.8 .0314 11.9 .0840 . 16.9 .0592 21.9 .0457 26.9 .0372 31.9 .0313 12.0 .0833 17.0 .0588 22.0 .0454 27.0 .0370 32.0 .0312 12.1 .0826 17.1 .0585 22.1 .0452 27.1 .0369 32.1 .0311 12.2 .0820 17.2 .0581 22.2 .0450 27.2 .0368 32.2 .0310 12.3 .0813 17.3 .0578 22.3 .0448 27.3 .0366 32.3 .0309 124 .0806 17.4 .0575 22.4 .0446 27.4 .0:J65 32.4 .0308 12.5 .0800 17.5 .0571 22.5 .0444 27.5 .0364 32.5 .0308 12.6 .0794 ^ 17.6 .0568 22.6 .0442 27.6 .a362 32.6 .0307 12.7 .0787 1 17.7 .0565 22.7 .0440 27.7 .0361 32.7 .0305 12.8 .0781 17.8 .0562 22.8 .0438 27.8 .0360 32.8 .a305 12.9 .0775 17.9 .0559 22.9 .0437 27.9 .0358 32.9 .0304 13.0 .0769 18.0 .0555 23.0 .0435 2S.0 .0357 33.0 .0303 13.1 .0763 18.1 .05,52 23.1 .0432 28.1 .0356 33.1 .0302 13.2 .0757 18.2 .0549 23.2 .0431 28.2 .a355 33.2 .0301 13.3 .0752 18.3 .0546 23.3 .0429 28.3 .0353 33.3 .0300 13.4 .0746 18.4 .0543 23.4 .0427 28.4 .0352 33.4 .0299 13.5 .0741 18.5 .0540 23.5 .0425 28.5 .0351 33.5 .0298 13.6 .0735 18.6 .0538 23.6 .0424 28.6 .0350 33.6 .0297 13.7 .0730 s 18.7 .0535 23.7 .0422 28.7 .0348 33.7 .0296 13.8 .0725 ! 18.8 .0532 23.8 .0420 28.8 .0347 33.8 .0295 13.9 .0719 [ 18.9 .0529 23.9 .0418 28.9 .0346 33.9 .0295 14.0 .0714 i 19.0 .0526 24.0 .0417 29.0 .0345 34.0 .0294 14.1 .0709 19.1 .0523 24.1 .0415 29.1 .0344 34.1 0293 14.2 .0704 19.2 .0521 24.2 .0413 29.2 .0342 34 2 .0292 14.3 .0699 19.3 .0518 24.3 .0411 29.3 .0341 34.3 .0291 14.4 .0694 19.4 .0515 24.4 .0409 29.4 .0340 34.4 .0290 14.5 .0690 19.5 .0513 24.5 .0408 29.5 .0339 34.5 .0289 14.6 .0685 19.6 .0510 24.6 .0406 29.6 .0338 34 6 .0289 14.7 .0680 19.7 .0508 24.7 .0405 29.7 .0337 34.7 .0288 14.8 .0676 19.8 .0505 24.8 .0403 29.8 .0335 34.8 .0287 14.9 .0671 19.9 .0502 24.9 .0402 29.9 .0334 34.9 .0286 16.0 .0667 20.0 .0500 25.0 .0400 30.0 .0333 85.0 .0285 15.1 .0662 20.1 .0497 25.1 .0;i98 30.1 .0.332 35.1 .0284 15.2 .0658 20.2 .0495 25.2 .0397 30.2 .0331 35.2 .0284 15.3 .0654 20.3 .0493 25.3 .0395 30.3 .0330 35 3 .0283 15.4 .0649 20.4 .0490 25.4 .0394 :^0.4 .0329 35.4 .0282 15.5 .0645 20.5 .0488 25.5 .0392 30.5 .0328 35.5 .0283 15.6 .0641 20.6 .0485 25.6 .0391 30.6 .0327 35.6 .0281 15.7 .0637 20.7 .0483 25.7 .0389 30.7 .0326 35.7 .0280 15.8 .0633 20.8 .0481 25.8 .0388 30.8 .0325 35.8 .0279 15.9 .0629 20.9 .0478 25.9 .0386 30.9 .0324 35.9 .0278 * See page 87 for suggestions relative to the use of this table. COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY. 29o 865. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY.— (G. KOTTMANN.) ^i Per Cent of Non-Sucrose = Degree Brix MINUS Per 1 gH 1 Cent Sucrose. | o§ 11 i" iio 1.1 1.2 1.3 14 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 II 8.0 88.9 87.9 87.0 86.0 85.1 84.2 83.3 82.5 81.6 8 8.2 89 1 88.2 87 2 86.3 85.4 84.5 83.7 82.8 82.0 8.2 8.4 89.4 88.4 87.5 86.6 85.7 84.8 84.0 83.2 82.3 8.4 8.6 89.6 88 7 87.8 86.9 86.0 85.1 M.3 83.5 82.7 8.6 8.8 89.8 88.9 88.0 87.1 86.3 85.4 84.6 83.8 83.0 8.8 9 90.0 89.1 88.2 87.4 86.5 85.7 84.9 84.1 83.3 90 9.2 90.2 89 3 88.5 87.6 86.8 86.0 85.2 MA 83.6 9.2 9.4 90.4 89.5 88.7 87.8 87.0 86.2 85.5 &4.7 83.9 9.4 9.6 90.6 89.7 88.9 88.1 87.3 86.5 85.7 85.0 84.2 9.6 9.8 90.7 89.9 89.1 88.3 87.5 86.7 86.0 85.2 84.5 9.8 10 90.9 90.1 89.3 88.5 87.7 87.0 86.2 65.5 84.7 10.0 10.2 91.1 90.8 89.5 88.7 87.9 87.2 86.4 85.7 85.0 10 2 10.4 91.2 90.4 89.7 88.9 88.1 87.4 86.7 86.0 85.2 10.4 10.6 91.4 90.6 89.8 89.1 88.3 87.6 86.9 86.2 86.5 10.6 10.8 , 91.5 90.8 90.0 89.3 88.5 87.8 87.1 86.4 85.7 10.8 11 91.7 90.9 90.2 89.4 88.7 88.0 87.3 86.6 85.9 11.0 11.2 91.8 91.1 90.3 89.6 88.9 88.2 87.5 86.8 86.2 11.2 11.4 91.9 91.2 90.5 89.8 89.1 88.4 87.7 87.0 86.4 11.4 11.6 ; 92.1 91.3 90 6 89.9 89.2 88.5 87.9 87.2 86.6 11.6 11.8 92.2 91.5 90.8 90.1 89.4 88.7 88.1 87.4 86.8 11.8 12 92.3 91.6 90.9 90.2 89.6 88.9 88.2 87.6 87.0 12.0 12.2 92.4 91.7 91.0 904 89.7 89.1 88.4 87.8 87.1 12.2 12.4 92.5 91.9 91.2 90.5 89.9 89.2 88.6 87.9 87.3 12.4 12.6 92.6 92.0 91.3 90.6 90.0 89.4 88.7 88.1 87.5 12.6 12.8 92.8 92.1 91.4 90.8 90.1 89.5 88.9 88.3 87.7 12.8 130 ■ 92.9 92.2 91.5 90.9 90.3 89.7 89.0 88.4 87.8 13.0 13.2 93.0 92.3 91.7 91.0 90.4 89.8 892 88.6 88.0 13.2 13.4 93.1 92.4 91.8 91.2 90.5 89.9 89.3 88.7 88.2 13.4 13.6 93.2 92.5 91.9 91.3 90.7 90.1 89.5 88.9 88.3 13.6 13.8 98.2 j 92.6 92.0 91.4 90.8 90.2 89.6 89.0 88.5 13.8 14 ' 93.3 92.7 92.1 91.5 90.9 90.3 89.7 89.2 88.6 14.0 14.2 ; 93.4 92.8 92.2 91.6 91.0 90.4 89.9 89.3 88.8 14.2 14.4 93.5 92.9 92.3 91.7 91.1 90.6 90.0 89.4 88.9 14.4 14.6 ' 93.6 930 92.4 91.8 91.3 90.7 90.1 89.6 89.0 14.6 14.8 |93.7 93 1 92.5 91.9 91.4 90.8 90.2 89.7 89.2 14.8 15 , 93.7 93.2 92.6 920 91.5 90.9 90.4 89.8 89.3 15.0 15.2 ! 93.8 93.3 92.7 92.1 91.6 91.0 90.5 89.9 89.4 15.2 15.4 93 9 93.3 92.8 92.2 91.7 91.1 90.6 90.1 89.5 15.4 15.6 , 94.0 93.4 92.8 92.3 91.8 91.2 90.7 90.2 89.7 15.6 15.8 94.1 93.5 92.9 92.4 91.9 91.3 90.8 90.3 89.8 15.8 16 94.1 93.6 93.0 92.5 92.0 91.4 90.9 90.4 89 9 16.0 16.2 94.2 93.7 93.1 92.6 92.0 91.5 91.0 90.5 90.0 16.2 16.4 94.3 93.7 93.2 92.6 92.1 91.6 91.1 90.6 90.1 16.4 16.6 94.3 93.8 93.3 92.7 92.2 91.7 91.2 90.7 90.2 16.6 16.8 94.4 93.9 93.3 92.8 92.3 91.8 91.3 90.8 90.3 16.8 17.0 94.4 93.9 93.4 92.9 92.4 91.9 91.4 90.9 90.4 17.0 '6 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOdSI: CHEMISTS. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF FVBITY.— Continued. gH Pee Cent of Non-Sucrose = Degree Brix MINUS Per ga H O Cent Sucrose. H Q O aj O flj II 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 £l 8.0 80.8 80.0 79.2 78.4 77.7 76.9 76.2 75.5 74.8 8.0 8.2 81.2 80.4 79.6 78.8 78.1 77.4 76.6 75.9 75.2 8.2 8.4 81.5 80.8 80.0 79.2 78.5 77.8 77.1 76.4 75.7 8.4 8.6 81.9 81.1 80.4 79.6 78.9 78.2 77.5 76.8 76.1 8.6 8.8 82.2 81.5 80.7 80.0 79.3 78.6 77.9 77.2 76.5 8.8 9 82.6 81.8 81.1 80.4 79.6 78.9 78.3 77.6 76.9 9.0 9.2 82.9 82.1 81.4 80.7 80.0 79.3 78.6 77.9 77.3 9.2 9.4 83.2 82.5 81.7 81.0 80.3 79.7 79.0 78.3 77.7 9.4 9.6 83.5 82.8 82.1 81.4 80.7 80.0 79.3 78.7 78.0 9.6 9.8 83.8 83.1 82.4 81.7 81.0 80.3 79.7 79.0 78.4 9.8 10 84.0 83.3 82.6 82.0 81.3 80.6 80.0 79.4 78.7 10.0 10.2 84.3 83.6 82.9 82.3 81.6 81.0 80.3 79.7 79.1 10.2 10.4 84.6 83.9 83.2 82.5 81.9 81.2 80.6 80.0 79.4 10.4 10.6 84.8 84.1 as. 5 82.8 82.2 81.5 80.9 80.3 79.7 10.6 10.8 85.0 84.4 83.7 83.1 82.4 81.8 81.2 80.6 80.0 10.8 11.0 85.3 84.6 84.0 83.3 82.7 82.1 81.5 80.9 80.3 11.0 11.2 85.5 84.8 81.2 83.6 83.0 82.4 81.8 81.2 80.6 11.2 11.4 85.7 85.1 84.4 83.8 83 2 82.6 82.0 81.4 80.9 11.4 11.6 85.9 85.3 84.7 84.1 83.5 82.9 82.3 81.7 81.1 11.6 11.8 86.1 85.5 84 9 84.3 83.7 83.1 82.5 81.9 81.4 11.8 12 86 3 85.7 85.1 84.5 83.9 83.3 82.8 82.2 81.6 120 12.2 86.5 85.9 85.3 84.7 84.1 83.6 83.0 82.4 81.9 12.2 12.4 86.7 86.1 85.5 84.9 84.4 83.8 83.2 82.7 82.1 12.4 12.6 86.9 86.3 85.-7 85.1 84.6 84.0 834 82.9 82.4 12.6 12.8 87.1 86.5 85.9 85.3 84.8 84.2 83.7 83.1 82.6 12.8 13.0 87.2 86.7 86.1 85.5 &5.0 84.4 83.9 83.3 82.8 18 13.2 87.4 86.8 86.3 85.7 85.2 84.6 84.1 83.5 83.0 13.2 13.4 87.6 87.0 86.5 85.9 85.4 84.8 84.3 83.7 83.2 13.4 13.6 87.7 87.2 86.6 86.1 85.5 85.0 84.5 83.9 83.4 13.6 13.8 87.9 87.3 86.8 86.3 85.7 85.2 84.7 84.1 83.6 13.8 14 88.1 87.5 87.0 88.4 85.9 85.4 84.8 84.3 83.8 14.0 14.2 88 2 87.7 87.1 86.6 86.1 85.5 85.0 84.5 84.0 14.2 14.4 88.3 87.8 87.3 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.2 84.7 84.2 14.4 14.6 88.5 88.0 87.4 86.9 86.4 85.9 85.4 84.9 84.4 14.6 14.8 88.6 88.1 87.6 87.1 86.5 86.0 85.5 85.1 84.6 14.8 15 88.8 88.2 87.7 87.2 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.2 847 15.0 15.2 88.9 88.4 87.9 87.4 86.9 86.4 85.9 85.4 84.9 15.2 15.4 89.0 88.5 88.0 87.5 87.0 86.5 86.0 85.6 85.1 15.4 15.6 89.1 88.6 88.1 87.6 87 2 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.2 15.6 15.8 89.3 88.8 88.3 87.8 87.3 86.8 86.3 85.9 85.4 15.8 16.0 89.4 88.9 88.4 87.9 87.4 87.0 86.5 86.0 85.6 16.0 16.2 89.5 89 88.5 88.0 87.6 87.1 86.6 86.2 85.7 16.2 16.4 89.6 89.1 88.6 88.2 87.7 87.2 86.8 86.3 85.9 16.4 16.6 89.7 89.2 88.8 88.3 87.8 87.4 86.9 86.5 86.0 16.6 16.8 89.8 89.4 88.9 88.4 88.0 87.5 87.0 86.6 86.2 16.8 17.0 89.9 895 89.0 88.5 88.1 87.6 87.2 86.7 86.3 17.0 Coefficients of ruEiTY. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OP FVRITY.— Continued. ^i Per Cent of Non-Sucrose = Degree Brix minus Per | ^i Si Cent Sucrose. 1 ai t6 ^ f^ s 2.8 2.9 3.0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 6 3.6 (£S 8.0 74.1 73.4 72.7 72.1 71.4 70,8 70.2 69.6 69.0 8.0 8.2 74.5 73.9 73.2 72.6 71.9 71.3 70.7 70.1 69.5 8.2 8.4 75.0 74.3 73.7 73.0 72.4 71.8 71.2 706 70.0 8.4 8.6 75.4 74.8 74.1 73.5 72.9 72.3 71.7 71.1 70.5 8.6 8.8 75.9 75.2 74.6 73.9 73.3 72.7 72.1 71.5 71 8.8 9 76.3 75.6 75.0 74.4 73.8 73.2 72.6 72.0 71.4 9.0 9.2 76.7 76.0 75.4 74.8 74 2 73 6 73.0 72.4 71.9 9.2 9 4 77.0 76.4 75.8 75.2 74.6 74.0 73.4 72.9 72.3 9.4 9.G 77.4 76.8 76.2 75.6 75.0 74.4 73.8 73.3 72.7 9 6 9.8 77.8 77.2 76.6 76.0 75.4 74.8 74.2 73.7 73.1 9.8 10.0 78.1 77.5 76.9 76.3 75.8 75.2 74.6 74.1 73.5 10 10.2 78.5 ':7.9 77.3 76.7 76.1 75.6 IS.O 74.5 73.9 10.2 10.4 78.8 78.2 77.6 17.0 76.5 75.9 75.4 74.8 74.3 10.4 10.6 79.1 78.5 77.9 77.4 76.8 76.3 75.7 75.2 74.6 10.6 10.8 79.4 78 8 78.3 77.7 77.1 76.6 76.1 75.5 75.0 10.8 11.0 79.7 79.1 78.6 78.0 77.5 76.9 76.4 75.9 75.3 11.0 11.2 80.0 79.4 78.9 78.3 17.8 77.2 76.7 76.2 75.7 11.2 11.4 80.3 79.7 79.2 78. G 78.1 77.6 77.0 76.5 76.0 11.4 11.6 80.6 80.0 79.4 78.9 78.4 77.9 77.3 76.8 76.3 11.6 11.8 80.8 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.7 78.1 77.6 77.1 76.6 11.8 12 81.1 80.5 80.0 79.5 78.9 78.4 77.9 77.4 76.9 12 12.2 81.3 80.8 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.7 78.2 77.7 77.2 12.2 12.4 81.6 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.5 78.0 77.5 12.4 12.6 81.8 81.3 80.8 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.8 78.3 77.8 12.6 12.8 82.1 81.5 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.5 78.0 12.8 13 82.3 81.8 81.2 80.7 80.2 79.8 ';9.3 78.8 78.3 13.0 13.2 82.5 82.0 81.5 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.6 13.2 13 4 82.7 82.2 81.7 81.2 80.7 80.2 79.8 79.3 78.8 13.4 13.6 82.9 824 81.9 81.4 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.1 13.6 13.8 83.1 82.6 88.1 81.7 81.2 80.7 80.2 79.8 79.3 13,8 14 83.3 82.8 82.3 81.9 81.4 80.9 80.5 80.0 79.5 14 14.2 83.5 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.6 81.1 80.7 80.2 79.8 14.2 14.4 83.7 83.2 82.7 82.3 81.8. 81.4 80.9 80.4 80.0 14.4 14.6 83.9 83.4 82.9 82.5 82.0 81.6 81.1 80.7 80.2 14.6 14.8 84.1 83.6 83.1 82.7 82.2 81.8 81.3 80.9 80.4 14.8 15.0 84.3 83.8 83.3 82.9 82.4 82.0 81.5 81.1 80.6 15 15.2 84.4 84.0 83.5 83.1 82.6 82.2 81.7 81.3 80.8 15.2 15.4 84.6 84.2 83.7 83.2 82.8 82.4 81.9 81.5 81.0 15.4 15.6 84.8 84.3 83.9 83.4 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.7 81.2 15.6 15.8 84.9 84.5 84.0 83.6 83.2. 82.7 82.3 81.9 81.4 15 8 16.0 85.1 1 84.7 84.2 83.8 83.3 82 9 82.5 82.0 81.6 16.0 16.2 85.3 84.8 84.4 as. 9 83.5 83.1 82.7 82.2 81 8 16.2 16.4 85.4 84.9 84.5 84.1 83.7 83.2 82.8 82.4 82.0 16.4 16.6 85.6 85.1 84.7 84.3 83.8 83.4 83.0 82.6 82.2 16.6 16.8 85.7 85.3 84.8 84.4 84.0 83.6 83.2 82.8 824 16.8 17.0 85.9 85.4 85.0 84.6 84.2 83.7 83.3 82.9 82.5 17.0 2d8 HAKDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OP FVRITY.— Continued. ^i Per Cent of Non-Sucrose = Degree Brix minus Per gH Cent Sucrose. o« p2^ 3 7 3.8 8.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 1 4.6 II 8.0 68.4 67.8 67.2 66.7 66.1 65.6 65.0 64.5 64.0 8.0 8.2 68.9 68.3 67.8 67.2 66.7 66.1 65.6 65.1 64.6 8.2 8.4 69.4 68.8 68.3 67.7 67.2 66.7 66.1 65.6 65.1 8.4 8.6 69.9 69.3 68.8 68.3 67.7 67.2 66.7 66.2 65.6 8.6 8.8 70.4 69.8 69.3 68.8 68.2 67.7 6-7.2 66.7 66.2 8.8 9.0 70.9 70.3 69.8 69.2 68.7 68.2 67 7 67.2 68.7 9.0 92 71.3 70.8 70.2 69.7 69.2 68.7 68.1 67.6 67.2 9.2 9.4 71.8 71.2 70.7 70.1 69.6 69.1 68.6 68.1 67.6 9.4 9.6 72.2 71.6 71.1 70.6 70.1 69.6 69.1 68.6 68.1 9.6 9.8 72.6 72.1 71.5 71.0 70.5 70.0 69.5 69.0 68.5 9.8 10.0 73.0 72.5 71.9 71.4 70.9 70.4 69.9 69.4 69.0 10.0 10.2 73.4 72.9 72.3 71.8 71.3 70.8 70.3 69.9 69.4 10.2 10.4 73.8 73.2 72.7 72.2 71.7 71.2 70.7 70.3 69.8 10.4 10.6 74.1 73.6 73.1 72.6 72.1 71.6 71.1 70.7 70.2 10.6 10.8 74.5 74.0 73.5 73.0 72.5 72.0 71.5 71.1 70.6 10.8 11 74.8 74.3 73.8 73.3 72.8 72.4 71.9 71.4 71.0 11.0 11.2 75.2 74.7 74.2 73.7 73.2 72.7 72.3 71.8 71.3 11.2 11.4 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.0 73.5 73.1 72.6 72.2 71.7 11.4 11.6 75.8 75.3 74.8 74.4 73.9 73.4 73.0 72.5 72.0 11.6 11.8 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.7 74.2 73.8 73.3 72.8 72.4 11.8 12 76.4 75.9 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.1 73.6 73.2 72.7 12.0 12.2 76.7 76.2 75.8 75.3 74.8 74.4 73.9 73.5 73.1 12.2 12.4 77.0 76.5 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.7 74.3 73.8 73.4 12.4 12.6 77.3 76.8 76.4 75.9 75.4 75.0 74.6 74.1 73.7 12.6 12.8 77.6 77.1 76.6 76.2 75.7 75.3 74.9r 74.4 74.0 12.8 18 77.8 77.4 76.9 76.5 76.0 75.6 75.1 74.7 74.3 18 13.2 78.1 77.6 77.2 70.7 76.3 75.9 75.4 75.0 74.6 13.2 13.4 78.4 77.9 77.5 77.0 76.6 76.1 75.7 75.3 74.9 13.4 13.6 78.6 78.2 77.7 77.3 76.8 76.4 76.0 75.6 75.1 13.6 13.8 78.9 78.4 78.0 77.5 77.1 76.7 76.2 75.8 75.4 13.8 14 79.1 78.7 78.2 77.8 77.3 76.9 76.5 76.1 75.7 14.0 14.2 79 3 78.9 78.5 78.0 77.6 77.2 76.8 76.3 75.9 14.2 14.4 79.6 79.1 78.7 78.3 77.8 77.4 77.0 76.6 76.2 14.4 14.6 79.8 79.3 78.9 78.5 78.1 77.6 77.2 76.8 76.4 14.6 14.8 80.0 79.6 79.1 78.7 78.3 77.9 77.5 77.1 76.7 14.8 16.0 80.2 79.8 79.4 78.9 78.5 78.1 77.7 77.3 76.9 15 15.2 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 77.9 77.6 77.2 15.2 15.4 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.2 77.8 77.4 15.4 15.6 80.8 80.4 800 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 78.0 77.6 15.6 15.8 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.2 77.8 15.8 16.0 81.2 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 78.0 16.0 16.2 81.4 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.3 16.2 16.4 81.6 81.2 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.5 16.4 16.6 81.8 81.4 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.7 16.6 16.8 82.0 81.6 81.2 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.9 16.8 17.0 82.1 81.7 81.3 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.1 17.0 DEGREES OF POLARISCOPIC SCALES, ETC. 29d 266. Value of the Degrees of Polariscopic Scales. Qrams sugar in 100 cc. scale of Mitscherlich = .750 " " Soleil-Dubosq =.1619 " ** Ventzke-Soleil =.36048 *' ** Wild (sugar scale) = .10 " " Laurent and Dubosq (Shadow) =.1619 1° scale of Mitscherlich = 4°.635 Soleil-Dubosq = 2°. 879 Soleil-Ventzke. 1° scale of Soleil-Dubosq = .315° Mitscherlich = .630" Ventzke-Soleil = 1°.619 Wild. 1" scale of Ventzke = .346° Mitscherlich = 1°.608 Soleil- Dubosq = 2V648 Wild. 1° scale of Wild (sugar-scale) = .618° Soleil-Dubosq = .384* Soleil-Ventzke = .133' Mitscherlich. Circular Degrees. V Wild (sugar-scale) = . 1 838 Circular degree D. /l°Soleil-Dubosq. ... =.3167 " " D. JV " " . . . . = .3450 *' '* J. JV Soleil-Ventzke .. . . = .3455 " '• D. JV " " .... = .3906 *' " j. 267. Clerget's Constant. Results of Rede- terminations. (A. Wohl, Zeit. ftir Zucker, Aug. 1888.) Weight of Concentration of Invert Sucrose. Invert Solution. Reading. Constant. 13.034 13.700 -16.34 142.7 6.513 6.855 - 7.93 143.3 3.356 3.437 - 3.80 140.4 These numbers correspond very nearly with the mean of Landolt's determination& BLAISTK FORMS FOR PRACTICAL USE -nr _STJGAR^HOUSE WORK. SEASON OF BEETS AND Dates. I Beets \\orked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. Be ts per Diffuser. Juic^ % Beets. Gals, or Litres. ' , DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. 1 ': . - 303 SEASOl J OF BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. Beets per DifEuser. Juice ^ Beets. Gals, or Litres. • . . ^- i i 8(U DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. " 1 '■ ' rt— 806 SEASON OF BEETS AND Dates. 1 Beets Worked. I Tons. 1! Number of Diffusers. Beets per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. 1 806 F DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. i I 1 • i 1 807 SEASON OF BEETS AND i Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. Beets per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. 1 . ■• DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Weight of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Pounds. ^ ' 800 SEASON OF. BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diflf users. Be?ts per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. J , ■ i ^ . 810 DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp, Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. I 1 811 SEASON OF LOSSES IN THB Dates. Sucrose % Beets Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. ' — ^ • ' t 1 - ! A . JSL DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSETTKS, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste W^ter. Total Losses. Not Deter- mined. .. __ ' , ' -■ A .-. --^ ..^ 1 ,. ,', ! ma SEASON OF. LOSSES IN THE Dates. Sucrose % Beets Fresh Cossettes Diflfusion- juice. Diflfusion Losses, by Diflference. i i I f 1 ' * ML DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSETTKS, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted 1 „. ,„ Cossettes. j Wastewater. Total Losses. Not Deter* mined. -" — — ..___._„.__„-_, 1 i i 01$. »1!-A»U.> UF LOSSES IN THE Dates. SccROSK % Bkets Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. -» \ i „ \ I • S16 DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSETTES, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. Not Deter- mined. [ ) J ! m SEASON OF, LOSSES IN THE Dates. Sucrose % Beets Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion- juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. ' ' J •* J joa. DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSKTTKS, LoSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. Not Deter, mined. "" . '■' ■ ■• ' ' ' . 1 :M- SEASON OF LOSSES IN THE Pfttes. Sucrose % Bebts Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Differeijce. • ■; i ) 1 1 • 320 DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSKTTES, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. Not Derer- mined. ' ' . i ■ ■' ■ ■ ; . mm*.' SEASOl ^ OF .... ANALYSES OF Sucr»se % in the j Beets. Diffusion-juice. Dates. Brix or Baum6. Sucrose. Sucrose % j Reducing tseets. Sugar. j i "" .,, 1 • « ' ; i : i * ' i : 1 , i , * " ' ■ 1 BEETS AND DIFFUSION-JUICE. DiFFDSION-JUICK. Dates. Ash. % Organic Matter not Sugar. Coefflcient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 1 ^ ^, ^ _. m SEASO> r OF ANALYSES OF i 1 Sucrose 1 % in the Beets. Diffusion-juice. Dates. Brix or Baum6, % Suciose % Sucrose. Beets. Reducing Sugar. i : i , i " : . ' ^ ' ; ' 1 m- BEETS AND DIFFUSION-JUICE. IJiFFDSION-JUICE. Dates. A. % Organic Matter not Sugar. Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient . J „ 1 i ' • i 1 1 i 1 ► ; KiSh SEA.SON OF ANALYSES Sucrose % in the Beets. Diffusion-juice. Dates. Brix or BaumS. Sucrose. Sucrose ^ Beets. Reducing Sugar. , , , 1 • '- 1 1, .226. BEETS AND DIFFUSION-JUICE. DlFrCSION-JUICB. Dates. Ak % Organic Matter not Sugar. Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient, " I 1 . ■ "! ^ 1 ! ■ 1 j . „ ■ V- - . 1, . . .' SEASON OF ANALYSES OF 1 Sucrose % in the Beets. Diffusion-juice. Dates. Brix or Baum6. Sucrose. 1 % Sucrose % \ Reducing Beets. 1 sugar.^ 1 ' ' BEETS AND DIFFUSION-JUICE. Diffusion-juice. Dates. Ash. % Organic Matter not Sugar. Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ; 1 ;, . ^• ^ FEASON OF ANALYSES OF 1 Diffusion-juice. Dates. % in the Beets. Brix or Bauiu6. Sucrose. ^p^JTtf^ Reducing ueets. Sugar. • 1 ] ■ . ; " : '■ ' — ' s 1 I BEETS AND DIFFUSION-JUICE. DlKFDSION-JUICE. Dates. Ak % Organic Matter not Sugar. Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient, ■ 1 ' [ . 1 1 331 SEA SO] fl OF T^TFFTTST ON-JUIOE. 1st Carbonatation. 2d Carbonatation. Alkalin- Dates. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. ity after Sulphur- ing. 1 . -' i 8b: SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baum6. Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coefficieut of Purity. ■» , , [ f - SEASON OF DIFFUSION-JUICE. 1st Carbonatation. 2d Carbonatation, Alkalin- Dates. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. ity after Sulphur- ing, — •""^■^ .1 I ' . bbii SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or 6aum6. Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coeffieieut of Purity. -» . SEASON OF DIFFUSION- JUICE. 1st Carbonatation. 2d Carbonatation. Alkalin- Dates. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Lirre. Lime Alkalinity, used, Grams Lime % Beets. per Litre. ity after Sulphur- ing. 1 ■,. i ^ J2i. SIRUPS. Dates. i Brix or BaumS. % Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. 1 • f • .235. SEASON OF. DIFFUSION-JUICE. 1st Carbonatation. 2d Carbonatation. Alkalin- Dates. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. |ity after Sulphur- 1 ing- i } |l ■ i * ■ 'l i i j .; ^ i i i i: 1 . 1 ! ' j 1 1 ML SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baum6. Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. IBP SEASON OF DIFFUSION-JUICE. 1st Carbonatation. 2d Carbonatation. Alkalin- Dates. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. ity after Sulphur- ing. ., ; 4 SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baum6. Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. SEASON OF DIFFUSION-JUICE, 1st Carbonatation. 2d Carbonatation. Alkalin- Dates. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. ity after Sulphur- ing. j • ! 1 ' ( 1 ^ • ' 34C SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baume, % Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. . ^ ' ■ . 1 j 1 m SEASON OF. FIRST Dates. Apparent Brix or Baura6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Raffinose, 1 » 842 MA5SECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ; • , 848 SEASON OF. FIRST Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. ^ Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflno.se. \ « ! _ -1 ^ 344 MASSECUITES. JC Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. L • . ' , ! " , f>4.n . I SEASON OF. FIRST Dates. Baum6. % Total Solids by Dryin*. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Haffinose. J : . ■ ■ ! ■ ! 1 1 1 - 348 MASSECUITES. ^ Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ; • . < ■ ■ JUo J SEASON OF. FIRST Dates. Apparent Biix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafianose, ' • r • 860 1 1 MASSECUITES. % Ash. % ReduciDj Sugars. % Organic > Matter no Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. , • # 8di , J SEASO^ OF .... SECOND Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Raffluose. > t f 1 ! i b 1 , , I 35d MASSECUITES ^^'--'IfiT^ % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient \' 1. i ;■• • !i ' % SEASON OF ... SECOND Dates. Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). 5f Raffinose. ■ ■ ( i . " ' 854 MASSECUITES. ***%^g*at,°'' j< Orgranic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coeffldi^nt of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ■ ( ■ ' 865 SEASON OF SECOND Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying, % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose. ] i ; i ■ U • 356 MASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 1 i SEASON OF SECOND Dates. Brix or BaumS. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % RafflnoBe. ' ^ MASSECUITES. < Ash. ^ Reducing ' Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. [ . ; • SEASON OF SECONIv Dates. Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose. ' • MASSECUITES. % Ash. ^ Reducing ^ ' Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. . . m SEASON OF. THIRD Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose, ' _, . . '' ' . i 1 JIASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 1 ' 333: 1 SEASON OF. THIRD Dates. Apparent Brixor Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Eafflnose, i ; ! i _ __ __ i i - J • ML MASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity, Saline Coefficient. — . II SEASON OF THIRD Dates. Apparent Brix or 1 Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Eafflnose, . 36G MASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars, % Orsranic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefflcieut of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity, Saline Coefficient. ' . » : 867 1 SEASON 9W. THIRD HAtes. Apparent Brix or Baumfi. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct), % Sucrose (Clerget). % Eafflnose, i :> 1 4 &()8 MASSECUITES. Jf Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. Tn,6 Coefficieflf of Purity. Saline Coefficient, , 399 SEASON OF. THIRD Dates. Brix or Baura6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose, '• ' I- ■ ^70 1 1 MASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ^ . ■■ 871 II 1 M SEASON OF .... MOLASSES. Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose, 1 I ii " 1 ■ 1 • MOLASSES. ^ Ash. ^ Reducing Sugars. % Orgranic » Matter nol Sucrose. Apparent . Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. [ ' S7S SEASON OF MOLASSES. Dates. Baumg. % Total Solids by Drying, % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose. ■ 1 ; 1 j i 1 1 1 , L. 874 MOLASSES. '^^"■ffutr^ % Orp:anic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ' , ' ' ■ ■ 875 J SEASON OF .... MOLASSES. Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6. ; % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). *^c^ *Ra««o,e. \ 1 ttOLASSES. < Ash. ^ Reducing * ^ • ! Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. ' 877 SEASON OF .... MOLASSES. Dates. Apparent Brix or Baum6, a Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). t Kaffinose. J5S_ MOLASSES. i % Organic AJatter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 1 I • ■ ' m. SEASON OF MOLASSES. Dates. Apparent % Total Brix or Solids bj- Baum6. j Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). i Sucrose (Clerget). % Rafflnose. • f — ■ MOLASSES. % Ash. ^ Reducing ^ ^* ■ Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 1 ' ' _ 891 -. . 1 1 J SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot N03. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. i ■ ' 1 1 1 1 '' ■ SEASON OF . FIRST SUGAR Lot Nds. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar izations. Pounds of Sugar. ,' ' ae )8 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Polar- Nos. izations. Pounds of Sugar. 1 . i 1 , 1 ^ 1 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAtt. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. ■ B ■ I 1 ■ K \ ■ ■ ■ B ' as R ^ SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. : 1 I 1 386 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. ; Lot Polar- Nos. izations. Pounds of Sugar. 1 ' 387 SEAS ON OP.. FIRST RTTdAT? H Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. < ; : .: ,. . jm. SEASON OF FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. 1 Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. 1 ■ . 99 n SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- _ , -, „ izations. Pounds of Sugar. 1 Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. t ! 1 i ' r j . ' 1 8M 1 w SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. ' SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos\ Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. 1 L 1 ■ ' • 8»8 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR Lot Kos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. j a • 1 394 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. "" ,. . 1 1 1 ' 1 i 1 ! 1 ' ' • 1 395 1 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. ' 1 !' SEASON OF.. FIEST SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. , j . . • 397 SEASON OF.. FIRST SUGAlt. Lot Nos. izations. Pounds of Sugar. i Lot Nos. 1 i^Sons.i Pounds of Sugar. ! ^ L i 398 SEASON OP.. FIRST SUGAR Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar, • . i ; j !| r- 1 1 ' 399 SEASON OF SECOND SUGAR. Lot N08. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Poimds of Sugar. • , I j . 1 , 4m SEASON OF . SECOND SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. • m > u^"^ SEAS( )N OF . SECOND SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. ■■ ■■ j ' ' !: . ' . • i * ' t • 462 SEASON OF . SECOND SUGAR, Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. • • '■ ': ' \ 4^S SEASON OF . SECOND SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. 1 . . ■? ■ -mr SEASON OF . SECOND SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. ' f ^! - r I 40. 1 Wr SEAS ON OF . SECOND SUGAR 1 Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Lot Polar- Nos. izations. Pounds of Sugar, 408 SEASON OF . SECOND SUGAR Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. » . 1 ' f • f ■ 4m SEAS ON OF.. .. TWTRn STiaA-p TnTAT. GTT^A-D ^ ■.-■-•-« ^ '*' **'* VV^'''*-'-*, Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Dates. Total Sugar to Date. Pounds, 1 i 1 1 1 m eEAS( 3N OF.. THIRD SU aAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Dates. Total Sugar to Date. Pounds. • • i • ■■ 409 SEASON OF.. THIRD SUGAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Dates. Total Sugar to Date. Pounds. 1 1 ! 1 i li 1 1! ■ i li i ! 1 '1 . jL ' ' «;< . 1 ■ — ^ : 410 SEASON OF.. THIRD SUGAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. 1 1 Dates. Total Sugar to Date. Pounds. I 1 i [' , \ !■ r i S: 1^ V i \ ! . t i • ! i i 1 } 1 ! i ^ K ' '■ ^ I i I , 411 SEAS ON OF. THTRn ST JGAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar, Dates 1 Total Sugar to Date. Pounds. • J . : , 412 SEAS SON OF. THIRD SUGAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. ! Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. 1 Dates Total Sugar to Date. Pounds. 1 ! " 1 ' ] '"V 1 • ■ — \ ■ ^t 1 t i 41S SEAS ON OF. THTT?r> RT IGAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations Pounds of Sugar. Dates Total Sugar to Date. Pouuds. i I ' 414 3EAS0N OF.. .. THIRD SUGAR. TOTAL SUGAR. Lot Nos. Polar- izations. Pounds of Sugar. Dates. Total Sugar to Date* Pounds. * . » • 1 ! 1 )t ' 1 t 1 4^1 SEASON OF LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic 4cid, COa. <-»,^„^v, r\ Carbonic Oxygen, 0. oxide, CO. % ^ Nitrogen, N. (By differ- ence.) % « r " - ~m SEASON OF LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO,. Oxygen, O. Carbonic Oxide, CO. Nitrogen, N. (By diflfer- enee.) % j ' • , JUL SEASON OF. LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, COa. 1 ^ ^ 1 Carbonic Oxygen, 0. oxide, CO, ^ 1 % Nitrogen, N. (By differ ence.) j 1. i i "1 ; 1 ' . ■ ■ { 118 SEASON OF....... LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, COa. Oxyg|., 0. oSlSa^rCO. * 1 * Nitrogen, N. (By differ- ence.) ' 1 ; I r I r. j .. ; '■ ! iI9 SEASON OF LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, COj. Oxygeo,0.oarcS. ^ 1 % Nitrogen, N. {By differ- ence.) % ^■. 4M SilASO N OF LIME.KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, COj. Oxygen, 0. Carbonic Oxide, CO. % Nitrogen, N. (By differ- ence.) % ,; _j 1 ^ ' 1 421 SEASON OF, LIME-KILN GASEV Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO,. 1 _. ^ ( Carbonic Oxygen, 0. oxide, CO. Nitrogen, N. (By differ- ence.) . . '■ ; - ^' ■ . ■ ■ ■ ' ■■■ i 4^' SEASON OF LIME.KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic! Acid, COa. Oxygen, o\^^^^ Nitrogen, N. (By differ ence.) % ■. , ; . ' r ; I 1 :. 1 ■ 42S SEASO N OF LIME-KILN GASES Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO,. Oxygen, 0. Carbonic Oxide, CO. % Nitrogen. N. (By diflfer- ence.) ' ■- 1 , ML SEASON OF LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO,. Oxyge..0.oS;,rcS. * 1 * Nitrogen. N. {Hy differ euue.) • ' , J, .' ( ■ ! 1 1 1 1 1 I m SEASON OF LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO,. 0.yge».O.oSrrca * * Nitrogen, N. (By differ euce.) :| . " 1 — ' -m SEASON OF. LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, COj. 1 ^ _ 1 Carbonic Oxygen, O. Oxide, CO. * % Nitrogen, N. (By differ- ence.) 1 i if— ■ ■ K w _ 1 m SUMMARY OF YIELD AJSTD LOSSES. 1 IS h go B coo pi ^(^ i f ? 1 ,11 » » OS § 1 1 1 1 1 430 workod Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice •• First massecuite, total weight •• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses •• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture «« «• «» , Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes ** . •• •• . Sucrose lost in the waste waters •• •• •• . " " by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery •« •• u ^ Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup •♦ Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ** Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses *• Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. ** " *' " the filter press cake... " " " " the evaporation " Other losses, sucrose ** Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** " unaccounted for 431 lis IP 1 wo p «« 1^1 It i ' ' ll 1 ' ' % ° 09 1 1 1 1 1 5 ^ 482 Beets worked Tons .... Sucrose in the beets Pounds. Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice.... First massecuite, total weight Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Percent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture •' ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos* settes « «« M ^ Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** '* *• . " " by inversion in the diffu« sion-battery ** •• •• , Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence M M M ^ Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup « « M ^ Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ** " •• , Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses «• « •« . Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. ** *• •• . *• " " the filter press cake... " •• •• , •* " " the evaporation •* ** •• , Other losses, sucrose „. ♦» •• •• , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. *' ** unaccounted for 433 ill Hi IP 11^ ll til • O ^ Sugar and Molasses. 1 IX 1 1 i ^ 1 ) ^ 1 1 CO 1 1 i 434 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Founds Juice extracted '* Sucrose in the juice " First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses •• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars andmolasses Percent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture.. " ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos* settes *♦ «* " . Sucrose lost in the waste waters " *• " , " ** by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery *• •• *• , Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence « M tt ^ Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " «• " . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite *' ** •• . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses «* *» •• , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. ** ** *• . " " " the filter press cake... " ** " , '• " " the evaporation ♦* •• " , Other losses, sucrose ** «* •• , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. " ** unaccounted for 435 Si Sucrose per cent Beets. 1 III IF • 1^^ 1^^ ^ h II CO iX S ) ) 1 ' 1 00 1 1 1 436 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beets^ Pounds Juice extracted '* Sucrose in the juice ** First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses *• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- t« •» M Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** ** " " by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery •* ** Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " «» " Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ....... '• *• *• Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses •• *• •* Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " ** ** •♦ " " the filter press cake... " " •» " " " the evaporation ** *• •* Other losses, sucrose ** •• *• Total sucrose accounted for in the losses " »• «« Total sucrose ticcounted for in the products and losses. " ** *• »* ** unaccounted for ♦• *» •« 437 1 IP H4 MO - P Ill 11 1(2 ^ 1 §2 "^ to i ) ) ) i 1 1 1 1 438 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beeta Pounds Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice ** First massecuite, total weight *' Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses *• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars andmolasses Percent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " . *• " . Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** ** '• . " •• by inversion in the diffu> sion-battery mm m ^ Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence u u u ^ Sucrose lost in the concentration to simp u « M Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite....... *• •• »• _ Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses ** «• •• , Sucrose lost in ovei'flows and wastage. ** ** •* , " " " the filter press cake... *• •• «* . " " " the evaporation •* •• •• , Other losses, sucrose *• •• *• , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** *♦ unaccounted for 439 hi III 111 ooo '1 • = .-• Ill 3 ^ 1 1 ) u a I IX. ) " 1 1 1 1 Eh 440 worked Tons. ... Sucrose in the beets Founds. Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice *• First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture ** ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes '. 44 44 u , Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** 4*44^ " •• by inversion in the diffu> sionbattery »4 44 « _ Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by diflPer- ence ** u u ^ Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup •♦ •• •« ^ Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite. .. ** •* ** , Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses «* " •• , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. 44 u 44 ^ " " " the filter press cake... *• •♦ •• , '♦ " •' the evaporation " *• •• , Other losses, sucrose •• •• •• , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** " unaccounted for 441 Si U fl 3 5S" ill 11^ 11^ M COO if 31 jl ^ ^ 4 H 1 " I "5 " CD g 1 1 1 1 1 i 442 worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted '* Sucrose in the juice ** First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses *• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars andmolasses Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " ♦• •' . Sucrose lost in the waste waters " " " . " " by inversion in the diffu* sion battery " •• •* . Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence u u w Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " « " . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite. ., *• •* *• . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses «• «♦ •♦ , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " ** •* , " " " the filter press cake... " ** *• . " " " the evaporation •* ♦* ♦* . Other losses, sucrose •♦ " « , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** " unaccounted for 443 ill li4 wo ■»3 ill 4J 11 1^ 1 1 " ' 5 X ^ " n 1 1 1 444 Beetsworked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice *' First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses ** ........ Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture *' ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes *» " " . Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** ** ** . " •* by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery " •* *• , Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence *♦ *• •• , Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup ** •• •• Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite. .. ... '* *• *• Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses •* *♦ *• , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. ** ** " , " " " the filter press cake... '* ** " , " " " the evaporation •* ** •• , Other losses, sucrose ** •* ** , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** *' unaccounted for 445 IP i i C OD'O J ^ 1 1 a ) J , 1 1 so -a § 1 1 446 Beet s worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Founds Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice ** ........ First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses *• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses ". Per cent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture ** ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes , a M .» ^ Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** ** ** , " •' by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery *t M u Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence a M tt Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup , ** " •• , Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ... *• •• •• , Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., f I'om sirup to molasses *• ** •• , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. ** " ** , " " " the filter press cake... ** ** " , *♦ " " the evaporation *• •• ** , Other losses, sucrose ** •* *• , Total sucrose accounted for in the losses " ♦• *• , Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. " ** ** , ** •* unaccounted for ♦» " *♦ , 447 lis 1 1 i ill 02 O 1 1 1.1 II r ^ P^ 6 il ) g cZ S 1 > 1 CO 1 1 1 448 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted *' Sucrose in the juice " First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses •• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- Sucrose lost in the waste waters '* " *' by inversion in the diffu- sion battery •* Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence •• Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ...... ** Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses *• Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " " " " the filter press cake ... " " " •* the evaporation " Other losses, sucrose *» Total sucrose accounted for In the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** ** unaccounted for 449 i|l 1 1 Sucrose per cent Beets. §3^ MO 1 If ° .CO 1"^ 1 If 1.2 ^ 1 Q . il ) I ) 1 ' 1 1 t» a 1 E- 450 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted '* Sucrose in the juice " First massecuite, total weight " Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses " Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses ; Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " «* •• . Sucrose lost in the waste waters " ** " . " ♦• by inversion in the diflfu- sion-battery *• ** ** . Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence " ♦* " . Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " " •» . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite. . . " " " , Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses •' •' " . Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. *• " " . " " " the filter press cake... " '• •• , " " " the evaporation •• *♦ " , Other losses, sucrose '* " «* , Total sucrose accounted for in the losses " •• ♦* , Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. '* ** *♦ . " ** unaccounted for " " " . 451 S 1 I Sucrose per cent Beets. Sucrose per ton of Beets. Pounds. <3 u' s wo If ^ ® 8 ! a ' 1 1 s a S " 1 CO S a 1 1 452 Per cent beets. worked Tons. . Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted '• Sucrose iu the juice *' First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses '* Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes ^ ** Sucrose lost in the waste waters " " " by inversion in the diflfu- sion -battery *• Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence • •• Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup ** Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ... ** Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses ** Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage, ** " " " the filter press cake .. . " "* " " the evaporation ** Other losses, sucrose " Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. *• •• unaccounted for 453 Ill . iP II O 00 ? ^ 1 C5 Q . i g ^ s 1 g jZ S i 1 S o 1 1 n a a 1 "a 454 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice " First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " " •* . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " *• " . Sucrose lost in the waste waters '* *• *• . " " by inversion in the diffu- sion battery ** ** •• . Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by diflfer- ence « " «* . Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup •• *» »• . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ** " »• . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses , . «• •• *• Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. '• " " " " " the filter press cake... " '* •• , " " " the evaporation " " " . Other losses, sucrose " •* «♦ , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. '* " unaccounted for 455 . Sucrose per cent Beets. m Is t.4 fli IS ^ 1 1 EX 3 1 i 1 ) b g 1 ^ ^ ) 00 c 1 1 o 1 456 worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted *'■ Sucrose in the juice " First massecuite, total weight *' Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses *• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture ** ** * . Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " •* •♦ . Sucrose lost in the waste waters " ** *• . " " by inversion in the diffu- sion battery ** u u ^ Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence u tt « Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup 44 u «• Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ** •• •• . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses «* *• •• , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. *• ** •* , " " *' the filter press cake... ** ♦♦ •* . " " " the evaporation " *• •• , Other losses, sucrose •• •♦ « , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. ** *• unaccounted for 457 5 fl 3 wo ill Total weight. Pounds. 1 4 Sugar and Molasses. t. 9m ) g a S , " BO i 1 1 1 1 . 458 Beets worked Tons. . . Sucrose in the beets Pounds. Juice extracted *' Sucrose in the juice *' First massecuite, total weight " Sucrose accounted for in the sugarft and molasses ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " ** Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " ♦* Sucrose lost in the waste waters '* ** " " by inversion in the diflfu- sion battery •• " Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence " ** Sucrose lost in the concentration to simp ** *• Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ** ** Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to IT olasses «• «♦ Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " " " the filter press cake.., '• " " the evaporation *• Other losses, sucrose Total sucrose accounted for in the losses Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. '* " unaccounted for 459 beets . IP B coo |l| tl o il a 1 > g ^ ^ g ^ s c a: 00 O 1 1 CO 1 1 460 Beets worked Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted ** Sucrose in the juice ** First massecuite, total weight ** Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses *• Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets. Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture ** ** ** . Sucrose lost in the exhausted coa- settes ♦♦«••». Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** ** ** . " ♦' by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery •* ** •* . Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ. ence « •« «. Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup ♦• •• «« . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ....... '* *• •♦ . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses *♦ *• •• , Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " " *• . " " " the filter press cake... '* ** *• , •* " " the evaporation '* •• *• . Other losses, sucrose *• *• *« , Total sucrose accounted for in the Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. " *• •• *• *• unaccounted for " »* •• 461 INDEX. A. PAGE Acidity of the Juice 95 Adjustment of the polariscope 31 Alcohol, use in preparing solutions for polarization 31 Alkalinity of juice 96 due to lime and caustic alkalis loi Rapid methods of determining 96 massecuites and molasses 113 Alumina cream, Preparation 224 Aluminic hydrate, Preparation 334 Analysis of beet 63 coke 162 exhausted cossettes .<. 124 filter press-cake. 120 gases 142 lime 159 limestone 148 massecuites 102 and molasses. Necessary determinations iii sugars and molasses. Notes 119 molasses , loa residues from the filters i2« saccharates 137 sirup 102 sugars 118 sulphur 161 wash and waste-waters 123 Ash determination . * 91 Normal 91 Sulphated 91 Asparagine, Effect of acetic acid on the rotatory power 41 Influence of subacetate of lead on the rotatory power. ... 40 Aspartic acid, Optical activity 41 Automatic apparatus for density determinations 54 recording apparatus 5 sampling of juices 5«i 4S3 464 IKDEX. Automatic zero burette , , 85 Averaging and sampling .....••• 43 B. Baldwin's automatic scale , , 8 Baum^ scale. 55 Beet analysis 62 Alcoholic method 62 Direct methods 63 Indirect method 71 Chemical composition 201 juice, Reagents suggested for treating 203 mothers, Analysis 179 Chemical method of analysis 187 seed 190 Beets, Analysis, in seed selection 179 Distribution of the sugar 177 Methods of removing samples , 177 Net weight 3 Typical 17s Belgian method of measuring the juice 7 Bodenbender's substance 78 Bone-black, Decolorizing power 140 Determination of the principal constituents 141 for decolorizing solutions 222 Limited use, in sugar factories 139 Moisture determination 140 Revivification 139 Test for sulphide of calcium 140 Weight of a cubic foot 139 Brix scale 55 Burette, Automatic zero 83 C. Calibration of burettes, etc 231, 250 Capsule for weighing 30 Carbonatation 208 Carbonated juice, Analysis 96 Carbonic acid 142 Simple apparatus for determining 146 Chimney gases, Analysis 145 Clarification of the juice, Notes 77 Clerget's inversion method in Cochineal solution 225 Coefficient of organic matter 127 purity 126 of saccharates 138 INDEX. 465 PAGE Coefficient of Saline 126 Coefficients, true and apparent 126 Coke, Analysis 162 Determination of ash 162 moisture 162 sulphur 162 Continuous tube, Pellet 183 Control of sugar-house work i tube for polariscopes 34 Coombs' sampler 51 Corallin solution 225 Cossettes, exhausted, Sampling ' 48 fresh, Sampling 48 Creydt's formulae for sucrose and raffinose 107 Crystallized sugar, Dupont's method 116 Estimation of the proportion 112 Kracz' method 114 Notes on the estimation 117 Vivien's method 113 Cylindro-divider 69 D. Density determinations by dilution and spindling 103 in the juice 74 Notes 55. of massecuites and molasses 102 Dextrose, Influence of lead salts on the rotary power 39 Diffusion 207 gas in the battery 200 juice. Precipitate formed on heating 198 losses, by difference 16 Dilution, Actual 127 Apparent 127 Direct methods of beet analysis, Notes 69 Division of the season into periods 13 Doolittle viscosimeter 130 Double dilution method, Scheibler 36 Dupont's method for crystallized sugar... ,, 116 E. Error due to volume of the lead precipitate 34 Evaporation, Loss of sucrose 17 Exhausted cossettes. Analysis 124 Loss of sucrose 14 Quantity, produced 14 Exponent of purity 126 Extraction apparatus , 6? 466 INDEX rACB P. Fehling's solution 916 Fermentation 199 Acetic 199 Lactic 199 Mucous 199 Putrid 199 Vinous or alcoholic 199 Viscous 199 Filtering apparatus 30 Filter press-cake ... 120 Loss of sucrose 17 Filter-pressing, Difficulties 210 •• Frog spawn" , 199 G. Gas analysis 142 Carbonic acid — 145, 246 Nitrogen 145 Oxygen 145 German official method for sucrose and raflinose 106 Glucose coefficient 126 per icx) sue .ose 126 Glutamic acid, Influence of subacetate of lead on the rotatory power. 41 Glycerine method for crystallized sugar 114 Gray juice 208 sugar 215 H. Half-shadow polariscope 19 Hanriot's apparatus 179 Horsin-Deon's recording'apparatus 5 sampler 53 Hydrochloric acid. Standard 218 Hydrometers 56 Method of reading 58 I. Invert sugar, Influence of some substances on the rotatory power ... 40 subacetate of lead on the rotatory power... 40 solution 221 J. Juice, Acidity determination 95 Alkalinity 96 Automatic sampling , ,,.,..,...,,*...,,....* 50 INDEX. 467 PAGB Juice, Gray 208 Measurement 5 K. Kaiser-Sachs modification of Pellet's aqueous method 68 Kjeldahl's method for nitrogen 92 Knorr's apparatus for carbonic acid 153 extraction apparatus 61 Kracz' apparatus for determining crystallized sugar 114 method for determing crystallized sugar 114 L. Lamps for polariscopic work 27 Laurent polariscope 23 Lead precipitate, Influence, on polarizations 35 Scheibler double dilution method 36 Levulose, Influence of certain substances on the rotatory power. .... 40 Lime, Analysis 139 Determination of unbumed and slaked 159 Free and combined, in the juice loi Lime-kiln 21X gas, Analysis 143 Limestone, Analysis 148 Determination of calcium 151 carbonic acid 152 clay 148 iron and alumina . 150 magnesium 152 moisture 148 organic matter 148 sand 148 soluble silica 148 sulphuric acid 156 total silica 149 Limestones, Notes on the analysis 156 Sundstrom's method of analysis 157 Table of analyses 213 Lindeboom's sound 178 Lindet's inversion method 108 Litmus paper 224 solution 224 Losses, Estimation 13 Lubricating oils, Purity tests 165 Tests applied 164 M. Malic acid ■ 4< Marc determination. Pellet's method 128 468 INDEX. PAGB Marc determination, von Lippmann's method 128 Massecuite 215 Alkalinity 112 Analysis 102, iii Fermentation . . 200 Measurement and weight 11,12 Measurement of the sirup , , . g Meissi and Hiller's factors for invert sugar 83 Melassigenic salts 201 Mills 69 Moisture, Determination, in filter press-cake 120 in massecuites and molasses, by drying 104 Molasses, Alkalinity 112 Analysis 102, 111 Calorific value 198 Spontaneous combustion 198 MufHe for incinerations 91 N. Nessler's solution 225 Net weight of the beets 3 Nitrogen determination 92 Total and albuminoid 92 Nitrous oxide set free in boiling sugar 197 Normal solutions 217 weight 28 O. Oils, Purity tests , 165 Tests applied 164 Optical methods of sugar analysis 19 Organic matter, Coefficient 127 Orsat's apparatus 14a Osmosis process for molasses. Analytical work . 135 Oxalic acid. Standard ... 219 P. Parapectine 41 Pectine.. 41 Pellet's aqueous method, hot digestion 65 continuous tube 183 diffusion method as modified by Sachs-Le Docte 181 instantaneous aqueous diffusion method 67 method for the alkalinity of juices loi Permanganate of potassium, Decinormal 220 Phenacetoline solution 225 Phenolphthalein solution .,..♦ — 224 INDEX. 469 PAGB Polariscope 19 Adjustment 31 Control tube 34 Double compensating 21 Enlarged scale 184 Half-shadow ig lamps 27 Laurent 23 manipulation 26 room 33 Triple-field 23 Polariscopes, General remarks 26 Polariscopic scale — — 28 Reading 29 work, Notes 32 Polarization, Preparation of solutions 30 Preservation of samples 49 Proportional value 127 Pulp-press 72 Pure sugar, Preparation 222 Pyknometers , 60 Quotient of purity. 126 R. Raffinose and sucrose in presence of reducing sugars no Inversion method ic6 Lindet's inversion method 108 Influence of subacetate of lead on the rotary power 40 Precipitation, by highly basic subacetate of lead 40 Rasp, Boring 46,178 Neveu and Aubin 70 ■ Pellet and Lomont ^ 65 Rasps 69 Reagents, Special 216 Recording apparatus 5 Reducing sugars, Determination, by gravimetric methods 78 in the beet 68 Notes 90 Gravimetric method, using Soldaini's solution 83 in beet products 78 Sidersky 's method 88 Violette's method 84 Volumetric methods 84 permanganate method 89 Regulator for use in electrolytic deposition of copper 8g 470 IN^DEX. FACE Residues from the mechanical filters, Analysis 122 Rosolic acid solution 224 S. Saccharates 137 Sachs-Le Docte modification of Pellet's metho^ 68, 181 Sachs' method of determining the volume of the lead precipitate 37 Saline coefficient 126 Sampler, Automatic. 50 Sampling and averaging 43 beets at the diif usion battery 47 for analysis in fixing the purchase price .... ; . 45 in the field 44 exhausted cossettes 48 fresh cossettes 48 sirups 49 sugars 54 waste-waters 48 Samples, Preservation 49 Scale, Automatic, for weighing the beets ". 3 juice 8 Scheibler's direct method of analysis 62 polarfscope j[^ Schroetter's alkalimeter , 155 Seed, Characteristics of good 195 Germination test 192 Moisture determination 191 Number, per pound or kilogram 191 Proportion of clean , .... 191 sampling 190 selection 174 General remarks 174 testing 190 Seed-farms, Personnel of the laboratory 185 Sirup, Analysis 102 Measurement and weight , 9 Sampling 49 Soap method for total calcium in the juice 100 solution for Clark's test ' 221 Soldaini's solution 216 Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler polariscope *. 25 Soxhlet-Sickel extraction apparatus 63 Soxhlet's solution 216 Spindles 56 Method of reading 58 Stammer's alcoholic digestion method 64 Subacetate of lead 223 Influence, on the sugars and optically active non- sugars 38 INDEX. 471 PAGB Sucrose, a-naptliol test 197 and raffinose in the presence of reducing sugars 110 Inversion method 106 Lindet's inversion method 108 Cobaltous nitrate test 197 Determination, by alkaline copper solution 42 in the juice 74,75 presence of reducing sugar, chemical method. .. 42 Free and combined, in filter press-cake .. 122 in filter press-cake, Sidersky's method 121 Stammer's method 120 the presence of reducing sugars, Clerget's method m Influence of certain salts on the rotatory power 38 Loss, in the evaporation 17 exhausted cossettes 14 filter press-cake 17 vacuum pan 17 waste-water 14 pipette 74 Total, in filter press-cake 120 Sugar, Analysis 118 Optical methods 19 beets, see beets. Granulation 214 Gray 215 Sampling 54 weights 13 Sugar- house control x Basis 2 Remarks — i notes 207 Sulphur, Analysis 161 Sulphuric acid 219 for control of the carbonatation , 219 Sulphuring 210 T. Tare, Determination 3 Testing a burette ....'. 231 Tint polariscope 25 Total calcium in the juice, Fradiss' method 100 Gravimetric method 99 Soap method 100 solids. Approximate determination, Weisberg's method 104 by drying 93 in a vacuum oven 94 Carr-Sanborn method 94 472 INDEX. PAGE Total solids, in massecuites and molasses, by drying to Transition tint polariscope 25 Triple-field polariscope 22 Turmeric paper 234 V. Vacuum drying oven 94 Violette''s solution ... 217 Viscosiraeter, Eng^ler's 133 Flow 132 Viscosity of sirups, etc ... 130 Vivien's apparatus for determination of the crystallized sugar 113 control tube for use in the carbonatation 98 W. Waste- waters, Sampling 48 Water, Analysis 167 Collection of samples 167 Nitrogen of nitrates 168 Total solids , i«8 Determination of chlorine 169 hardness 169 Permanent hardness 171 Purification 167, 171 suitable for sugar manufacture 167 Wash and waste. Analysis 123 Weight of the juice. Calculation 7 Weights and measures 2 Weisberg's method for total solids in massecuites 104 'Vestphal balance , 58 Wiley-Knorr filter-tube 86 Wiley's filter-tube 86 LIST OF TABLES AND FORMULA. CARBOHYDRATES. PACK Chemical and Physical Properties of the Carbohydrates. Ewell 256 CALIBRATION OF GLASS VESSELS. Apparent Weight of Mohr's Unit at Different Temperatures and Calibration of Vessels to Mohr's Unit... 250 Testing a Burette : Tables and Descriptive Matter. Payne 231 DENSITY. Comparison of Degrees Brix and Baume and the Specific Gravity of Sugar Solutions. Stammer — 275 Corrections of Readings on the Brix Scale for Variations of Tempera- ture from the Standard. Gerlach , 282 DIFFUSION. Volume of Juice, in Litres, yielded in the Diffusion of 100 Kilograms of Beets of Various Densities. Dupont 246 EVAPORATION. Evaporation Tables. Spencer 237, 240 Formulae for Concentration and Dilution 239, 241, 247 Reduction of the Weight or Volume of a Sirup to that of a Sirup of a Standard Density. Spencer 242 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. Alteration of Glass Vessels by Heat . 250 Coefficient of Expansion of Glass, Cubical 250 Contraction of Invert-sugar on Dissolving in Water 252 Rx;).-insion of Water. Kopp 251 Expansion of Water. Rossetti 251 Volume of Sugar Solutions at Different Temperatures, Gerlach 253 473 474 LIST OF TABLES AND FORMULA. INVERT-SUGAR AND INVERSION. PAGE Contraction on Dissolving in Water 252 Inversion Formulae. Stubbs and Clements 293 Table for the Determination of less than I per cent. Herzfeld 81 Table for the Determination of more than i per cent. Meissl and Hiller 83 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND FORMULAE. Atomic Weights. Clark 229 Clerget's Constant. Wohl 299 Formulae for Concentration and Dilution 247 Freezing Mixtures. Walker 268 Fuels: Relative Values. Haswell 231 Reciprocals 294 Values of the Degrees of Polariscopic Scales 299 Weights and Measures, Customary and Metric 230 Weight per Cubic Foot and U. S. Gallon of Sugar Solutions 283 REAGENTS. Impurities and Strength of Reagents 226 SOLUBILITIES. Baryta in Sugar Solutions. Pellet and Sencier 255 Lime in Sugar Solutions. Gerlach 252 Sugar in Alcohol. Schrefeld 254 Sugar in Water. Flourens 253 Sugar in Water. Herzfeld 253 Strontia in Sugar Solutions. Sidersky 254 Solubility of Certain Salts in Sugar Solutions. Jacobsthal 255 I STRENGTH OF VARIOUS SOLUTIONS, ETC. Acetate of Lead. Gerlach 274 Ammonia. Carius 274 Calcium Oxide in Milk of Lime. Blatner 271 Calcium Oxide in Milk of Lime. Mateczek 272 Hydrochloric Acid. Graham-Otto 272 Nitric Acid. Kolb 270 Potassic Oxide 273 Sodium Oxide 273 Sulphuric Acid. Otto 269 Sulphuric Acid : Table for Dilution. Anthon 270 THERMAL DATA. Approximate Temperature of Iron at Red Heat, etc 249 Boiling-point of Sugar Solutions. Gerlach 252 Comparison of Thermometric Scales 247, 249 Freezing Mixtures. Walker 268 LIST OF TABLES AKD FORMULJE. TABLES FOR CALCULATING SUCROSE, REDUCING SUGAR AND PURITY. PAGE Approximately True Coefficient of Purity. Weisberg 105 Clerget's (Constant. Wohl 299 Coefficients of Purity. Kottmann 295 Reciprocals for Calculating Reducing Sugar 294 Schmitz' Table for Sucrose 285 Sucrose in Massecuites, etc. Coombs 291 Table for less than i per cent Invert-sugar. Herzfeld 81 Table for more than i per cent Invert-sugar. Meissl and HiDer 83 Volume of Juice required to give Polariscopic Readings which are Certain Multiples of the Percentage of Sucrose. Spencer 291 TOTAL SOLIDS. Approximate Total Solids in Massecuites, etc. Coombs 291 Coefficients for Use in Determining the Approximately True Total Solids. Weisberg i«S WATER ANALYSIS. Table for the Calculation of the Hardness of Water. Srtton. 176 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BRANCH OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE I*AST DATE STAMPED BELOW OCT 2 1933 "^i 9 1947 JUL 1 9 1965 RET JUL "19^5 5to-8,'26 226830 TPSyO Stjencer. G •L. S6 Hand-boo k for chemist; 3« ra & ■ OCT ^ 'r-S «An9fi,, . - ^^^•^-- TP^'-^i LIBRARY, BRANCH OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE