f o 1 \ia7 [[&__., uc-NRV>:, $C lb ^'^^ TTOlANA EDUCATIONAL SERIES, o S» ^--A. ♦r ♦♦♦.#♦♦♦-# *- ♦- ji!. <^ '♦>%•'♦**- t^ ♦ «. «. * ♦ tt. .♦.-«> # ♦ ♦ ♦ * > *."*■'* * K > ♦ w m:"M / \ ^ \ o^ r >: * « c< >j « i« « « « (« c« ♦) « >; 5*^ c: >) C« « '< C*^ x*' v^' $>' '- -*J ' c« « « c« i« c« « c« c« >' ^♦^ ^♦^ A_^^.^' V A V \ ^ \v w s'y \ ^ w \ / <^/ "wv "♦♦♦♦*♦♦"♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ '♦ ♦ >♦»♦♦♦«•♦♦♦♦ «*«♦««*««*•♦ COMPLETE Geography f j^j*t<*> ^*' " >*' • ■ >?- S' >* ■•* •>*' ■*?' *' X' \ ■ v* \ "C' v> -T' *- ^T' *' •*■• y sSfy^., ?;■'>;•' •*' ••:•' ^ '■■•>l> ' ^ 'i> . -i^. .'W^. .•'-.* -v. .<***. .'"> ?t w V"' S' "V"' V'' \' V' V' V* N' \^ **.' '^.' ^i-* . VV. .V. .V. .V- .'*■ .v. .'»>• . »V .•»"•. .V. .V. ."X: .'♦""• •***• •"♦• •»• •♦ •»• •'•»• •▼• NDIANAPOLIS, IND.: INDIANA SCHOOL BOOK CO. o GIFT OF Dr. H.I. Prolstley / Indiana Educational Series. THE Complete Geography MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, POLITICAL, ■nCHw— — I ^ — .w — ^ INDIANAPOLIS, IND.: IITDIANA SCHOOL BOOK CO. 1889. FDH'^ATioM nETPT. PREFACE. In presenting the Advanced Geography to the public a few words in regard to its general plan and scope may not be out of place. The book may be divided into three parts: the first treating of Mathematical Geography, the second, of Physical, the third, of Political. A full outline of mathematical geography is given. Definitions and conclusions are based upon what the pupil is required to see and do, and it is believed that all who are willing to work and think may comprehend every point pre- sented in the course. The diagrams are numerous and excellent. In the department of physical geography, the land, the water, and the air are considered in the order named. The climate of the several continents as determined by position, and modified by elevation, slope, mountain ranges, proximity to the sea, ocean currents, prevailing winds, and rainfall, then receives careful attention. At this point the pupil is pre- pared to study Life on the Globe; and the distribution of plants and animals in the several climatic zones, the plant and animal life of the continents are fully presented. The earth has now put on its mantle of plants, animated creatures are everywhere, and it is ready for man, the lord of all, who appears on the scene. "Man in the Different Zones" is made a subject of study, and the zone most favorable to civilization is indicated. Human industries as dependent on physical geography are considered and the pupil is led to see why some peoples are nomadic, and why others have fixed habitations. He goes over the earth, pointing out the regions best suited to agri- culture, to mining, to manufacturing, to commerce, and so on. In this way physical geography is made the foundation of political geography; the pupil's horizon is broadened and he is prepared to study the different countries, peoples and industries of the world with great interest and profit. The author has sought to hold the pupil in the attitude of a constant observer, to throw him upon his own resources, to make him self reliant. He has given him many test exercises, many queries, in the belief that they will stimulate thought, and lead to a better understanding of the subject. Great pains have been taken in the preparation of the maps and charts, and they will be found unusually clear and attractive. The physical maps are a special feature of this work. The diagrams and pictorial illustrations are by skilled artists. The mechanical appearance of the work will prove a source of pleasure to every pupil and teacher. SANFORD NILES. COPYRIGHT, 1889. C. W. WILLETT. TABLE OF CONTENTS. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. PAGE. The Earth as a Planet, 1 The Solar System 2 The Sphere, 2 The Circle, 3 Form and Size of the Earth, 3 Circles of the Earth, 4 Latitude and Longitude, 4 Representations of the Earth — Globes, Maps, 5 Motions of the Earth — Day and Night, Chaage of Seasons, 5 Zones, 7 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Divisions of Land, 8 Divisions of Water, 8 Map Sketching, 9 Globe and Map Studies, 10 Climate, 12 Forms of Land, 12 Forms of Water, 14 The Atmosphere, 14 NoETH America, 15 Map Studies, 15 Description 17 Tables — Chief Mountains, Great Lakes, and Principal River Systems of North America, 19 South Ameeica, 21 Map Studies, 21 Description, 21 Europe, 23 Description, 23 Map Studies, 25 Asia, 26 Map Studies, 26 Description, 26 Afeica, 29 Description, 29 Map Studies, 31 Islands, 32 Classes of Islands, 32 Australia, 32 Table — Comparative Heights of the Principal Mountains of the World, 32 The Sea— Tides, Currents, 33 The Atmosphere — Winds, Rainfall, ... 36 Climatic Zones, 43 Life on the Globe, 43 Distribution of Plants 43 Range of Plants Useful to Man, .... 46 North America (Plant Life), 47 South America (Plant Life), 48 Europe (Plant Life), 50 Asia (Plant Life), 50 Africa (Plant Life), 51 Australia (Plant Life), 52 The Sea (Plant Life), 52 Distribution of Animals, 53 North America (Animal Life), .... 54 South America (Animal Life), .... 56 Europe (Animal Life), 57 Asia (Animal Life), 58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.— Cont'd. PAGE. Africa (Animal Life), 58 Australia (Animal Life), 59 The Sea (Animal Life) 59 Mankind — Races — Man in the Different Zones. Geographical Distribution of Labor, 61 Test Questions and Exercises, .... 63 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. States of Society, 64 Giovemment, 64 Religion, 64 NoETH America, 64 Map Studies, 64 Description, 66 United States, 66 Description, 66 Map Studies, 68 New England States, 70 Map Studies, 70 Description, 70 The Middle Atlantic States, .... 72 Map Studies, 72 Description, 72 The Southeen States 76 Map Studies (Eastern Division), .... 76 Description, 76 Map Studies (Western Division), ... 78 The Centeal States 81 Description, 81 Map Studies (Eastern Division), .... 83 Map Studies (Western Division), ... 84 The Pacific States and Teeeitoeies, . 87 Description, 87 Map Studies, 89 Table — Area and Population of the States and Territories — Questions and Exercises, . 91 Dominion of Canada, 94 Description, 94 Danish Ameeica, 96 Mexico, 96 Description, 96 Central America 99 The West Indies 99 South America, 100 Map Studies, 100 Description, 102 Europe, . 105 Description, 105 British Isles, 105 Map Studies (Europe), 107 Map Studies (British Isles), 109 Norway and Sweden, Ill France, Ill Belgium, Ill Map Studies (Central Europe), Ill Denmark, 112 German Empire, 112 Austrian Empire, 112 Portugal, 113 Spain, 113 Italy, 114 III POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.— Cont'd. PAGE. Greece, 115 Turkey, 115 Russian Empire, 115 Asia, . . . .^ 117 Description, 117 Map Studies, 117 Afeica, 122 Map Studies 122 Description, 122 Oceania, 127 Map Studies, 127 Description, 127 Test Questions and Exeecises 130 Miscellaneous Tables — Railways Open in the Principal Countries of the World — * Length of Principal Rivers and Area of River Basins, 130 Area and Population of the Principal Coun- tries of the Worid, 131 Population of the Chief Cities of the World, 131 Population of the Chief Cities of the United States, 1.32 Peonouncing Vocabulary, 133 MAPS. Sketch of Great Lakes of North America, . iv Western Hemisphere, 10 Eastern Hemisphere, 11 Physical Map of North America, .... 16 Physical Map of South America, .... 20 Physical Map of Europe, ....... 24 Physical Map of Asia, 27 Physical Map of Africa, ....'... 30 Chart of Ocean Currents 34 Wind Chart 37 Rain Chart 40 Chart of Isotherms and Climatic Zones, . . 42 World Chart Showing the Distribution of For- est Trees and Plants, 44 Political Map of North America, 65 Map of the United States 68 Map of the New England States, 71 Map of the Middle Atlantic States, .... 73 Map of the Southern States (Eastern Division), 77 Map of the Southern States (Western Division) , 79 Map of the Central States (Eastern Division), 82 Map of the Central States (Western Division), 85 Map of the Pacific States, 88 Industrial and Commercial Map of the United States, 92 Map of Canada, 95 Map of Central America, Mexico and the West Indies, 97 Map of South America, 101 Map of Europe, 106 Map of the British Isles, 108 Map of Central Europe, 110 Map of Asia 116 Map of Africa, 123 Map of Oceania 126 Commercial Chart of the World, 129 584717 HINTS TO THE TEACHER. Mathematical Geography. — ^In preparing his lessons in mathematical geog- raphy the pupil should have a ball, a globe, or diagram before him. The questions and exercises are designed to lead him to obserre closely, and the definitions are supposed to be based on his observations. Nearly every defini- tion is followed by questions or exercises to test the pupil's understanding of the point under consideration. The teacher is advised to hold to this general plan of work, adding queries, and other tests as he sees that they are needed. Some of the work of preparation for the recitation may be done at home, where the evening lamp may serve as the sun, the play ball may represent the earth, a needle its axis, a thread about the ball the equator, or a meridian circle, etc. At the recitation the several steps of the preparation may be repeated, at the discretion of the teacher. Questions Following Lessons. — The Author is of the opinion that the furnishing of questions on the several lessons, to be answered in the words of the text-hook, is a pernicious feature often resulting in mere rote learning and per- functory teaching. This plan may cultivate verbal memory, but it leaves the imagination undeveloped; and does not train the pupil to observe, to think, to describe. A Better Way. — Let us suppose that the lesson relates to the Pacific High- lands, page 17. As the pupil reads the text, inspects the map, examines the pic- torial illustrations, he should try to see the vast plateau stretching from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. His imagination should picture the mountain ranges, with numberless peaks; the intervening plateaus and valleys; the wild crags; the caiions with rushing streams; the hare, wind-swept hills. Or, suppose the task to be "Vegetation of Africa," page 71. Studying the lesson for the ideas, without a thought of memorizing the words, the pupil will be able to see the date palm growing on the borders of the waste of sand and rock, or rising here and there in the solitudes of the Sahara; he will see these trees with their branchless trunks, their fronds from 30 to 60 feet in the air, with the dates beneath. The swarthy sons of the desert will appear before him eating the dates ripened under the rainless skies. The pupil who has used his imagination, and has obtained these clear men- tal pictures, has studied his lesson to some purpose, though he may not have mem^ orized a word of the text. He has used the book as a means of obtaining ideas, i^' The Recitation. — At the recitation the pupil recalls the mental pictures — not the words — and the mountains, the peaks, the wild crags; or the palm, the dat«s and the sons of the desert are there on the mind-screen, a photograph, which he describes in the best language he can command. This is his recita tion, and it is worth more to him than any amount of mere i)arrot work. Map Studies. — Great care should be taken to give correct ideas of a map. To this end the exercises on pages 5 and 10 apply alike to the globe and to the maps. Pupils are required to trace the equator, the tropics, the polar circles, and meridian circles; to find opposite points, countries, and cities; and to take imaginary journeys on both. Throughout the book the map studies are de- signed to lead the student to observe, to compare, to judge. A map may be made to mean a great deal, or very little. The position of a country on the map should give an idea of its climate; the indentations of its coasts are a key to its possible commerce; its mountaira are condensers of moisture, water- partings, pasture or forest lands, storehouses of minerals; its rivers are drains, fertilizers, arteries of trade; great cities suggest commerce by rail, river, lake, or sea. These larger views should be kept before the mind of the learner. Order of Map Studies. — Though the printer has found it necessary, in a few instances, to change the order, "Map Studies ' ' should precede the study of the descriptive matter. This remark applies to the physical and to all the politi- cal maps. The chart of ocean currents, wind, rain, etc., should be studied at the points indicated by notes found on the several pages. Reading the Map. — On page 15 is given a method of reading a map. The pupil should locate and describe the states and countries of the world in a similar manner. The following order may prove helpful as a guide to begin- ners: 1. Position. 2. Comparative size. 3. Boundaries. 4. Character of coast. 5. Mountains; their location and direction. 6. Lakes; where situated. 7. Prin- cipal rivers; where they rise; in what direction they flow; into what bodies of water. 8. Chief cities; where situated. Tlie pupil should read the map to himself, at his seat, taking the points in order, as above. When he comes to the recitation he may rea|^ ^^^^^^* NORTH POLE S ^^^^^^ "•--< GLOBE AND MAP STUDIES. stretch a rubber band about the globe so as to represent the meridian circle that divides the earth into an eastern and a western hemisphere. Find the prime meridian on the globe and on the map. Find the 180th degree of longitude on the globe and on the map. Find the 150th degree of east longitude on both. The 170th degree of east and of west longitude on both. Find the island of Iceland and the peninsula of Kamtchatka on the globe and also on both hemispheres. Why are these countries drawn on both hemispheres? Find, on the globe and on the map, the circle that divides the earth into a northern and. a southern hemisphere. Begin at the first meridian and trace the Equator round the globe from west to east; also on the map in the same direction. Trace the tropics and the polar circles. In tracing these circles on the globe, find the points where they leave the Eastern and enter the West- ern Hemisphere. Find the same jmints on the map. Which hemisphere contains the most land? Which contains the most water, the Northern or the Southern Hemisphere? Which hemisphere contains the largest islands? Name the continents of the Eastern and of the Western Hemisphere Judging by the eye, name them in the order of their size, beginning with the largest. Name the continents which are most alike in form, and speak of some of the points of resemblance. Which continent has the mo.st irregular coast ? What continents resemble one another in the direction of their monnir ain ranges? Name eight large isLinds in the order of their size. Name the oceans. What continents are separated by the Atlantic? By the Pacific? Which is the longest and which the broadest ocean? What ocean extends from pole to pole? Which ocean is bordered by the largest number of guKs, bays, and seas? Which washes the largest number of con- tinents? Which contains the greatest number of islands? Name the seas that wash the coast of Asia. Of Europe. Name the great rivers whose waters find their way into the Atlantic Ocean. Into the Pacific. Indian. Arctic. Judging by the eye, which zone contains the most land? Wliich the least? What continents extend into three zones? Which, probably, is the warmest continent? Point out the coolest portion of each continent. Which ■ zone contains the largest number of islands? Name the largest islands of the North Temperate Zone. Of the Torrid. What changes of climate would we notice in traveling overland from Behring Strait to Cape Horn? From the British Isles, by sea, to the Cape of Good Hope? From Lisbon to Pe- kin, on the 40th parallel? 10 ^^_^.,0'^ g. ___N0R 1> ^0LE .^ ''^»i-^_*t7?7 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. J2 » vsi~' "W' Trace the following on the globe and on the map : The shortest water route from Sydney, in Australia, to New Zealand. From New York to London. From San Francisco to Shanghai. From Melbourne to New York. From Liverpool to Sydney. AREAS OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS. Square Miles. Square Miles. North America... South America... 8,892,000 6,957,500 3,829,800 17,317,900 11,556,700 4,232,000 Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean... Indian Ocean Antarctic Ocean.. Arctic Ocean 72,000,000 35,000,000 25,000,000 7,000,000 5,000,000 Africa Oceania 52,780,900 144,000,000 SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 80_ 11 12 CLIMATE— FOEMS OF LAND. CLIMATE. The climate of a country is the condition of its atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture. Climate has a very great influence on the plants and ani- mals of a country; and also on the occupations and character of its people. Some plants require much heat, and others thrive best where the temper- ature is moderate or cool. Some grow only where the air is moist, while others, as the date palm, flourish in the dry atmosphere of the desert. Few animals can live in all climates. The elephant enjoys the heat of the tropics, the white bear, the cold of the polar regions, while the cow does best in the Temperate Zones. In cold climates men require warm houses, abundant clothing, and fuel; while in hot climates cooler dwellings and little clothing and fuel are needed. Farmers in the warm zones cultivate sugar cane, cotton, coflfee, and bananas; in the Temperate Zones, the grains and grasses. From this it will be seen that the subject of climate should receive our careful attention. As climate depends mainly on distance from the Equator, distance from the sea, elevation above the sea, slope of land, direction of mountain chains, ocean currents, and prevailing winds, these topics, with the exception of the first, which has already been treated under "Zones,'' will be discussed in the lessons which follow. FORMS OF LAND. Coast Lines. — The maps show us that there are great dif- ferences in the coast lines of continents. Some continents have several large peninsulas and are deeply indented by gulfs, bays, or seas, while others have regular coasts with scarcely a pro- jection or an indentation worthy of note. Irregular coasts furnish many harbors; regular coasts, but few. The arms of t)ie sea, stretching far into the land, are so many water-roads over which ships may pass to carry away what people have to sell, and to bring back the products of other lands. The sea, penetrating the land at many points, changes the climate of a country. This is because water is warmed by the sun much more slowly than land, and in hot weather remains considerably cooler, lowering the summer tempera- ture of regions near the sea. On the other hand, water parts with its heat more slowly than Land, and remains warmer in winter, tempering the winds which blow from the sea. For these reasons countries near the sea are usually cooler in summer and milder in winter than those far inland. Then, again, moisture, or vapor, is always rising from the water, and the air is more moist, and rain usually falls more freely along the coast than elsewhere, affecting plant and animal life and even the occupations of men. From all this we learn that the close observation of coast lines enables us to determine which continents or countries have natural advantages for trade, and whether the climate is proba- bly affected by nearness to the ocean or other great bodies of water. Lowlands and Highlands.— All lands may be classified as lowlands or highlands. Lowlands have an elevation of less than 1,000 feet above the sea. Highlands have an elevation of 1,000 feet or more. They include plateaus and mountains. Plains. — N'early one-half of the surface of the continents consists of low and level or gently rolling lands. If covered with herbage, but mainly destitute of trees, they are called prairies, llanos, pampas or steppes. The wooded plains of the Amazon are called selvas, and the barren plains of the Old World, deserts. Some plains once formed the floor or bottom of the sea; others are com- posed of materials brought from higher lands by the rains and streams. Such are called alluvial, and they are among the richest lands in the world. The lower valley of the Mississippi is an alluvial plain. Plateaus. — The name plateau, or table-land, is usually given to surface elevations above 1,000 feet. They are sometimes very level, but are often covered with hills or even mountains. Some of the most noted plateaus are bordered with lofty moun- tain ranges; others descend to the lowlands by successive benches or tables; and, others still, slope very gradually to lower plains. Plateaus with their accompanying mountains form the back- bone of almost every continent, determine its general shape, and give direction to its streams. Mountains. — Mountains are usually long, high ridges with peaks rising from them like the teeth of a saw. Though the peaks seem to the eye to be separated, they are joined by a common ridge, extending to half or two-thirds of their height. Such a ridge with its peaks is called a mountain chain. The notches, between the peaks, are passes, from which valleys lead down the slopes, and in which streams often have their begin- nings. There are usually many more or less parallel chains with intervening valleys, the whole forming a mountain system. From the highest mountiiin peaks hundreds of other peaks may sometimes be seen — a sea of mountain tops stretching far away. From many mountain summits one may see clouds and hear the rolling thunder far beneath his feet while the sun is shining from the clear sky overhead. Formation of Mountains. — It is supposed that the earth was once a heated mass, and that it slowly cooled. The surface cooling most rapidly, a thin rock-crust was formed about a vast molten center and resting upon it, as ice rests upon water. But the cooling pro- cess went on until the inclosed heated mass shrank away from its rock cov- er, leaving it too large. Portions of the cover then bent downward, fonn- ing wrinkles, or ridges and hollows, like those seen in the figure. These ridges and hollows are mountains and \ alleys. When first formed they were I II it just as we see them to-day, be- ( ause their original shapes have been rhanged by the water, the wind, the earthquake and the frost, which have wrought for long, long ages. The oldest, but not the loftiest, mountains were probably formed in this manner. Among such are the Ap- palachian, in the United States, and the Jura, in Switzerland. Many mountains were formed by upheaval. An internal force like that which throws vast quantities of rock and melted matter from volcanoes, and causes earthquakes, lifted and fractured the strata forming the earth's crust, leaving their edges upturned. Such mountains have a wilder and more rugged aspect than those formed by folds. They have many bare peaks, deep gorges, frightful precipices, and dark valleys. The Uocky Mountains and Swiss Alps are of this class. In examining the upturned, broken strata, we find some rocks, such as the granite, that were formed of melted matter, and others, such as limestone, that were formed of sediment at the bottom of the sea. The former are called igneous, the latter, sedimentary. The sedimentary rocks contain the forms of plants and animals that lived, nobody knows how long ago. This shows that the sea once spread over what are now continents, and that multitudes of crea- tures found a home in its waters "before the mountains were brought forth." Volcanoes. — A volcano usually takes the form of a mound or a cone, and is composed of material thrown up from the interior of the earth. Either upon the summit or upon the slopes is a great hollow or depression like a bowl which is called the crater. Through holes in the bottom or sides of the crater, lava, stones, ashes, water, and steam are forced; some- times with great violence and with deafening noise. The dis- charge from a volcano is called an eruption. Eruptions may occur at short periods or at intervals of years or even cen- turies. During an eruption the mountain is sometimes shaken to its foundations; clouds of vapor, ashes or pulverized lava fill the air and vivid lightnings play around the mountain top. In the night, the sky, far and wide, reflects the glow as of a great conflagration; and the red-hot rocks and huge masses of lava, FOLDED STRATA, USES OP MOUNTAINS— VALLEYS. 13 thrown thousands of feet into the air, add to the awful grandeur of the scene. Villages and cities are sometimes buried by a deluge of ashes and lava. Volcanoes are of all heights, from cones that do not reach the surface of the sea, to Bahama, in Bolivia, 23,000 feet above it. The number of volcanoes, active and extinct, is estimated at 600 to 700, nearly 400 of which are on the coasts and islands bordering the Pacific Ocean, girdling it with a belt of burning mountains. CLOUDS FORMING ABOUT A MOUNTAIN PKAK. Uses of Mountains. — High mountains condense the mois- ture of the atmosphere into rain or snow which reappears along their sides in countless springs that flow down the slopes in brooks and rivers. Mountain ranges generally form the parting ground or water- shed between streams flowing in opposite directions to water different regions. They also give variety to the surface, pro- moting drainage and preventing the earth from becoming a sodden mass incapable of cultivation. Mountains, like mighty walls, arrest or change the course of winds. They shut out the cold that comes from the icy north; check moist winds that sweep from the sea and hot winds from the desert. Mountains are also vast store-houses of iron, silver, gold, coal, and other minerals. Their sides are usually clothed with valuable timber, and their lower slopes and foothills furnish rich pasturage. They sometimes form the boundaries of coun- tries, keeping enemies apart, furnishing refuge for the weak, and offering health and freedom to those who seek homes among them. Glaciers. — In some mountain valleys, the snow accumulates, year after year, until it is very deep, and the pressure is so great that the lower portion be- comes solid ice. This mass, which is often many miles in length, moves very slowly down the valley, carrying rocks and soil which it loosens from the sides of the mountain. The lower end of this ice river, called a glacier, on reaching the warmer and broader valley below, is melted by the sun, the water forming numerous rivulets which rush and roar through ice crevices, to unite in the valley below. The rocks are dropped at the end of the gUicier and lie in ridges across the valley. While the foot of the glacier is thus wasting slowly away, its high source is receiving fresh supplies of falling snow by which the ice stream is ever renewed and moves on, age after age. A glacier moves but a few yards during a year and its motion is so very slow that it appears to be standing still. It is only by noticing, from time to time, the relative positions of objects on the glacier and at the sides, that a movement can be detected. The immense glaciers of Greenland project from its valleys into the sea, forming icebergs that are carried by ocean currents far out across the track of ships. Valleys. — Every mountain chain or range has its valleys. Those which separate the ridges are called longitudinal; and those which extend across the ridges, dividing them into peaks or independent mountains, are termed transverse. The longi- tudinal valleys were formed by the folding of the earth's crust at the time the mountains were upheaved; transverse valleys were originally, in many instances, nothing but cracks or clefts in the rocks which formed the ridges. These cracks, and the hollows, or longitudinal vallejrs, were gradually widened by running water, from the rain, from melting snow or springs. The frost, too, helped on the work of widening by putting in its wedges of ice to break and crumble the rock. In ten thousjind years the crack had become a narrow gorge; in a hundred thousand, the gorge had widened into a narrow valley, and the longitudinal valley had become broader, deeper, and its slopes less rugged. This work of the water and the frost is still going on. Valleys stretching across plains and plateaus have been formed in the same manner as channels are cut across roads and fields during the summer shower, only in the case of the greater valleys, the work goes on more slowly. The canons of the Colorado River are wonderful instances of valleys of this kind. Hundreds of thousands of years must have been required for the water to cut those channels in the rock that forms this plateau. Uses of Valleys. — Transverse valleys make it possible to cross lofty ranges. They are passes where highways and rail- ways are constructed, and through which the mule, the llama, or the yak train finds it way. Valleys open up the mountains so that their mineral wealth may be secured, and they afford dwell- ing places for vast numbers of men. Influence of Elevation. — The surface of the earth is warmed by the sun, and gives off or radiates its heat to the atmosphere which receives very little from the sun's rays as they pass through it. Por this reason the air near the earth's surface is warmer than that which is high above. Those who ascend in a balloon find the temperature cooler and cooler as they rise. The atmospheric covering of the earth, like the covering we place over us at night, serves to keep the heat in, and the VEGETATION AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. thicker the covering, or the deeper the atmosphere, especially when moist, the more slowly is the earth cooled. Prom this it 14 INFLTJENCE OF SLOPE— FOEMS OF WATEE. follows that places high above the sea have a cooler temperature than those in the same latitude near the sea-level. On the low plains of the Torrid Zone, up to an elevation of 4,000 feet, the various species of palm and the balsams grow with the greatest luxuriance. At an altitude of 4,000 to 8,000 feet the fig family, and the tree ferns, whose thick trunks and delicate lace-like foliage stand out against the clear blue sky, are the most common trees. In this belt, also, are found those plants and trees common to the Warm Temperate Zone, such as the cactus, the agave, and the orange. From 8,000 to 10,000 feet occur those families of deciduous trees composing the forests of the Temperate Zones, together with wheat, com, and other plants raised in our fields. Above 10,000 feet we find the vegetation peculiar to the Cold Temperate and the Frigid Zones. Evergreens, grasses, dwarf trees, and shrubs, Alpine flower- ing plants, mos.ses, and lichens clinging to the rocks, occur in succession, and above these, fields of perpetual snow. Thus, in passing from the level of the sea in the Torrid Zone to an elevation of 15,000 to 17,000 feet, or about three miles, every zone of vegetation is seen. We journey from the tropics to the poles, from the home of the palm to the realms of ice. To ascend 350 feet gives the same change In temperature as to travel one degree north. In other words, places having an elevation of 700 feet are as cool as other places at the sea-level two degrees further north, if in the North- ern Hemisphere, and two degrees further south, if in the Southern. It must not be supposed that the belts of vegetiition are so clearly marked that we can see just where one leaves off and another begins. On the contrary, as with the zones, one belt gradually merges into another. From this it will appear that the elevation, as well as the latitude, of a coun- try must be known in order that we may determine the character of its cli- mate, its plant and animal life, the occupations and mode of life of its people, who depend on what the land produces. The Influence of Slope. — Southern slopes are warmer than northern. On southern slopes the ground first becomes bare in spring. Here we seek early flowers, and here, too, the grain is first ready for the sickle. On northern slopes, in our hemisphere, the sun's i^ays fall obliquely and the snow-banks linger till late in spring. In our study of the continents we shall find that large portions of the earth's surface incline to the north or to the south and that the climate is made cooler or warmer by the slope. Some plants thrive on one slope that cannot grow on another in the same latitude. In some countries of Europe the vine, the olive, and the mulberry grow only on slopes that receive the direct rays of the sun. Slope also gives direction and force to streams. SNOW LINE OR LIMIT IN THE DIFFERENT ZONE.S. It is a curious and important fact that there is a gradual slope from the low plains along the Arctic Ocean to the high plateaus in the Torrid Zone. Were the most elevated portions of the earth situated far to the north, or even in the cooler portions of the Temperate Zone, they would be rendered uninhabitable by man, and there could be neither plant nor animal life on account of the intense cold. •• On the other hand, were the surface of the earth within the tropics no more elevated than the great northern plain, the vegetation would be luxuriant, but man could scarcely live in a region of such inten.se heat. As it now is, some of the elevated regions in the Torrid Zone have the most delicious climate. They are lifted above the fierce heat of the low plains and yet never have the snow and biting frost of the northern winter. These pla- teaus and moirntain valleys are, so to speak, pieces of the Temperate Zone propped up on rock pillars right under the equatorial sun. We shall find such regions in South America and in Asia^ FORMS OF WATER. Water has three forms, and a change of temperature causes it to pass from one of these forms to another. As a liquid, it falls in the summer shower, gurgles in the wayside spring, sparkles in the moss-covered bucket, moves in the flowing river, and spreads in the boundless sea. "When chilled by the cold it becomes a solid; descends in the gentle snow or rattling hail, incrusts the lakes and streams, forms glaciers in mountain valleys, and ice hills in the polar regions. Under the influence of heat it takes the form of vapor, ascends from the land and from the sea, filling the atmos- phere with invisible "water dust" or atoms to be changed to clouds and to rain. The Sea. — The sea is the great reservoir from whose 'sur- face water, as vapor, is always ascending. The vapor is borne by the winds over the continents to fall as rain or snow. A portion of the rain water evaporates in the air and another sinks into the ground, through which it soaks to form springs or to feed the sheets of water that supply our welLs. A large portion flows over the surface and finds its way into brooks, which unite to form rivers that drain the land into the sea. Lakes. — Lakes are bodies of water in the hollows or ba- sins of the land. They are supplied by streams, by springs, or by rain or snow that falls on the surrounding slopes. Uses of Lakes. — Lakes, when large or numerous, serve to modify the extremes of heat and cold. They also give mois- ture to the air and, in some degree, increase the fall of rain. Lakes supply vast numbers of fish and water-fowl, that serve as food. Large lakes are often navigable, and great cities are built on their shores and enriched by traffic on their waters. Rivers. — Water always seeks the lowest places, and a thou- cand rills and brooks are gathered to form a great river that fiows on the line of lowest level down a long slope to the sea. All the land drained by a river and its branches is called a river basin, and the highest land between two or more ba- sins from which streams flow in opposite directions is called a water-shed. A water-shed may be a mountain range, a ridge of hills, or simply a "height of land." A large river and its tributaries is often called a river system, and we sometimes speak of all the rivers flowing into an ocean as the Atlantic system, or the Arctic system, etc. Uses of Rivers. — Without streams to drain the land, the earth would be so wet that neither grains nor fruits could grow, and man could not find a home upon the earth. Streams supply him with pure water, enrich his fields, drive his ma- chinery, and form highways for travel and trade. The most fruitful soil is found on the borders of rivers, and here are built many of the largest towns. THE ATMOSPHERE. We live at the bottom of a deep ocean of air, stretching over sea and land, and receiving heat and moisture from both, as they are generated by the sun. The winds carry the invisible vapors which the air receives from the sea over the parched earth to fertilize the fields. Plants, animals, and men are alike dependent on the heat and the moisture which the air holds. Without these there could be no green meadows, no fields of waving grain, no blooming gardens, nor animals, nor men. Were the busy winds to sleep the broad continents would be- come barren, lifeless deserts. We know how our climate is affected by the winds. The south wind brings us warm weather and rain. The north wind brings colder weather and clearer skies. All countries have their prevailing winds, and we must know something about them before we can tell the amount of heat and moisture the countries receive. Queries. — In the Southern Hemisphere, what slopes are warmest? Why? In how many ways does water act to change the surface of the earth? How does the frost act to change the form of mountains? What forces are operating to level all the hills and mountains? What force is building up mountains? As the rivers flow into the sea, why does it not become full and overflow the land? NORTH AMERICA. (Phybical.) MAP STUDIES. Key to Physical Maps. — Very low plains are indicated by the darkest shade, and higher plains by lighter shades. Plateaus are still lighter than plains, the highest being nearly white. Mountains are so drawn as to seem to stand up from the page, the loftiest ranges appearing most elevated. General Questions. — Which coast is most irregular? What is the general direction of each coa.st? Point out the lowest coast. Which coa.st is bordered by the greatest number of islands? Name the largest islands. See map, page 16. What portions of the continent are most mountainous ? Place a ruler over the level portion of the continent. In crossing the continent in the latitude of St. Louis, how many great slopes are found ? What highlands would be crossed ? Where would we cross the lowest portion of the Great Central Plain ? In a journey from the Gulf of Mexico overland to the month of the Mackenzie River, where would we find the highest land, or water-shed ? What portion of the continent contains a large number of great lakes? How many of these lakes may be touched by a single straight line ? How may the slope of a country be determined? Point out the principal slopes of the continent. Into wliat ocean is the greater portion of the continent drained ? Use the scale of tBe map to determine the greatest length and the greatest width of the continent. What is the distance from San Francisco to New York? From New Orleans to the mouth of the Mackenzie? What is the length of the Gulf of Mexico? Of Hudson Bay? In what zones does the continent lie? tion of it? What zone includes the greater por- EXEECISES.— Point out and describe the coast waters, peninsulas, Islands, highland regions, mountains, Great Central Plain, Great Basin, lakes, and rivers. Sketch the coasts, mountain ranges, lakes, and great rivers. Draw reUef diagrams as directed by the teacher. To the Teacher. — In describing the coast waters, penin- sulas, islands, etc., as indicated above, for the first time, the pupil may be allowed to have the map before him. His reci- tation should consist in stating, in his own language, just what the map says to him. Ask him to look out of the window and describe some of the features of the landscape. He sees a lake, a stream, a hill, etc., and says: "Clear Lake is long and narrow, and is surrounded by high prairie with groves here and there. A rocky island is near the middle of the lake. Trout Brook, the outlet of the lake, flows through a beautiful valley near which our school-house stands. Pilot Knob, a round hill, with a flat top, is not far from the lake." Tour pupil has given a fine recitation in geography with- out memorizing a word. He saw and then described in his own language. Place the map in his hands and teach him to observe and describe in the same manner. After a little practice he may be expected to interpret the map somewhat as follows: The coasts of North America are washed by three oceans — the Pacific on the west, the Atlantic on the east, and the Arctic on the north. The eastern coast is quite irregular. From New York to the Isthmus of Panama it is low. The general direction of the coast is northeast and south- west. Florida is a long, low peninsula. It lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The West Indies are between North and South America. They are sur- rounded by the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. Cuba, Hayti, Porto Rico, and Jamaica are the largest of the group. Their position gives them a warm climate. The Pacific Highland region is in the western part of the continent, extend- ing its entire length. It is a mountainous section. The Rocky Mountains extend north and south through the whole length of the continent. The shading and the rivers show that they have a long eastern slope to the Mississippi. In Mexico, the chief range is called the Sierra Madre. The Great Central Plain extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. It has the Pacific Highlands on the west, the Atlantic Highlands on the east. The southern portion is drained by the Mississippi and its tribu- taries; the northern, by the Mackenzie and other large streams. The Mackenzie rises in the Pacific Highlands. Its course is northwesterly into the Arctic Ocean which it reaches through several channels. The waters of Lakes Athabasca, Great Slave, and Great Bear find their way to the sea through this river. Superior is the largest lake in North America. It is in the east central jwrt of the continent and is one of five great lakes drained by the St. Lavn-ence. These examples are not introduced as models to be followed to the letter. Parrot work should be avoided. At first, the pupil will see little and say little. Encourage him to observe, to think, and to express his thonghts, and he will soon see more, think better, and recite better. /CHICAGO ,' ^ >, .' ■' ^'i J Y i -.^'^ts -s ^ LoE s" PHYSICAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA "it MEWCO ■ ooiitaTM*tl volcano Mexico Orizaba volca^no u Whitnev . Sierra Nevad.a<« Shasta a tt Rocky Mouijtaiiis HarvJird . TjOiiff's Peak. Holv Cross Pike's Peak u n tt n Mitchell White Mountains 6,293 5,110 TTerla volcano .... .. .. Iceland AEEA, ETC., OF GREAT LAKES. Name. Area, Square Miles. Length, Miles. > ElevatiOD, Feet. Mean Depth, Feet Tjake Sunerior 31,400 25,600 23,800 40,000 7,300 355 340 280 250 190 609.40 589.15 589.15 573.08 '- 250.00 1.000 Lake Michigan _ 990 1,000 128 606 PEINCIPAL EIVEE SYSTEMS. Name. Mississippi Mackenzie St. Lawrence.... Saskatchewan . . . Columbia Colorado Rio Grande Yukon Colorado, Texas Brazos Alabama St. John Susquehanna Hudson Connecticut Savannah Area of Drainage, Square Miles. 1,244,000 590,000 480,000 478,000 298,000 257,000 240,000 200^000 38,000 34,000 33,000 26,500 25,000 12,000 10,600 10,000 Length, Miles. 4,300 2,300 2,000 1,900 1,020 1,000 1,500 1,600 600 650 650 450 400 330 350 300 Questions. — How does the altitude of Mt. Washington compare with that of Mt. St. Elias? How does Hecla compare with Popocatapetl? Which is larger, Jlinnesota or the Great Lakes? What proportion of the entire conti- nent is drained by the Mississippi System? C.St, ftoque ^ PHYSICAIi MAP OP SOUTH AMERICA Scale of Jlilcs 100 200 300 400 500. 600 700 800 ^00 /Str. o/MageUan DoBOlatti c*_ South '•CAPS HOHH SOUTH AMERICA. (Physical.) MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — Are the coasts of South America regular or broken ? Which coast is most indented hy the sea? Wliich is lowest? Which has the largest number of islands? What is the general direction of each coast? What portions of the continent are mountainous? Starting from the Straits of Magellan, how far could one travel northward without crossing mountains? Are the plains or highlands mo.st extensive ? How many great river systems are there? Which ocean receives the largest amount of water from the rivers? Is the general slope of the con- tinent toward the Atlantic or the Pacific? Find the greatest length and breadth of the continent. Measure the rivers and name them in the order of their length. So far as temperature is concerned, what is the climate ^„ - of the continent? Judging by the rivers, is the W^ rainfall heavy or light? ft&;^_r Compare South America with North America ^St .—-' as to form, regularity of coasts, position and direc- !: tion of mountain chains, position of Great Central Plain, and character of climate. EXERCISES.— Name, locate, and describe the coast -waters ; islands ; mountaios ; high- lands ; plains, including llanos, selvas, pampas; lakes, and rivers. Sketch the coasts, principal mountain ranges, lakes and great rivers. Draw relief diagrams as the teacher may direct. DESCRIPTION. Coasts. — Though South America is without great peninsulas or important indentations of its coasts, save at the mouth of the Amazon and of the La Plata, its navigable rivers are highways for vessels of the largest size, and these are, in a measure, equivalent to the irregular coasts of other countries. Surface. — South America, like North America, has a great highland system on the west and a smaller system on the east, with a great plain between. The Andes. — From the misty Straits of Magellan to the Isthmus of Panama, 4,500 miles, extend the Andes, one of the grandest mountain systems of the globe. For more than a thousand miles there is but a single chain, made up of a series of old volcanic peaks rising from the lofty table-land of a coast broken by countless fiords, and worn by the dash- ing waves. The average height of this portion of the mountains is about 6,000 feet. v^SSh ASCENDISa TUB ANDES. In difficult mountain climbing, wliy is the mule pre- ferred to the horse? Is there anything in the engraving to show whether the travelers are near the base of the mountain, or whether they are well up its sides? What is the probable use of the structure seen on the narrow plateau ? At its southern extremity stands Mt. Sarmiento, one of the most impos- ing peaks in the whole Andean range. It rears a spotless cone of snow 6,910 feet above the sea. Many blue-colored glaciers descend from its snoviy cap through the dark forests at its base, looking, as Darwin, the naturalist, tells us, "like so many frozen Niagaras."* Further north there are two nearly parallel ranges, with a long narrow strip of land descending in terraces to the Pacific * Sec Voyage of a Naturalist, by Charles Darwin. The ranges inclose barren table-lands, and on the eastern slopes are romantic, hilly landscapes covered with rocks, lava, and ashes. Many portions of the mountains consist of soft, chalky rock, which, from exposure to the air, has worn into shapes like turrets of ruined churches or castles. This central section of the Chilian Andes has an elevation of some 13,000 feet, while the highest summits reach 22,415 feet. The passes are very difficult, none of them being lower than 7,200 feet, while several have an elevation of two and one-half miles. The eastern slope of this portion of the mountains is very grad- ual, merging at last into the pampas ol the Argentine Eepublic. Still further north, in Bolivia, and Peru, are several ranges, some with rounded outlines and others crowned with jagged crests, covered with per- petual snow. The Pacific slope of Peru is a long, arid wast*, intersected by nar- row, deep river valleys made fertile by the melting snows of the Cordilleras. Between the ranges are table-lands from 11,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea. The glittering snow- clad peaks bordering the table-lauds may be seen far out on the ocean, towering like silver spires. On these plateaus are the cold, sterile, uninhabit- able regions called by the Spaniards, despoblados and punas. Here, too, are the closed mountain valleys, or holsonas, with the climate and products of the Temperate Zones; and also the wild island- studded lake, Titicaca, 12,196 feet above the sea. It was in these mountain valleys that Peruvian civilization flourished, and the lucas reigned for centuries before Columbus was bom. On the shores of the lake are the ruins of noble temples and other buildings erected by these people. In this region, too, are the tropical mountain gorges, where ten thousand streams that feed the Amazon gather their waters before forcing their way through frightful clefts and over thundering cataracts to the vast plains below. Between two nearly parallel ranges of the mountains of Ecuador lies a val- ley 250 miles long and but 14 to 20 miles wide. The road leading southward from Quito, which is situated in this valley, is bordered by fifty peaks, three of which emit volumes of smoke. Here is Chim- borazo, 20,517 feet, the great silver bell of the group, and not far away is Coto- paxi, 19,550 feet, with its regular cone, and its crater 15,000 feet higher than Vesuvius in the Old World, and, at times, belching fiames 3,000 feet above its cap of snow, with a roaring that has been heard 600 miles at sea. Near Quito, which is but nine miles from the Equator, may be had one of the grandest views on earth. The great traveler, Humboldt, says: *"Here, at a single glance, one may see the luxuriant forests of the tropics, the oaks and other trees, shrubs, and flowers of the Temperate Zone; the Alpine flowers, licheiis, and ice oi the polar regions; and, at night, volcanoes, with their "Cosmos, Vol. I., oage II. 21 22 PLAIN'S AND LOWLANDS— RIVEES. fUunee, and all the constellations in the sky of both hemispheies, from the Polar Star to the clouds of Magellan." In the diverging mountain ranges of Colombia are fertile valleys with rushing streams and every variety of climate. Some of the upper valleys are so rugged that no roads can be built, and everything is carried on the backs of mules or of men. Near Bogota are the falls of Tequandama, the most noted cataract of South America. The river rushes in clouds of foam and mist through the rocky sides of its bed until it reaches a deep gorge, where it plunges into an abyss, dis- appearing in a cloud of mist with a terrific roar that echoes among the hills. The plunge is 580 feet, and the force of the water has scooped out a well 130 feet deep in the rock below. summits fall below the line of perpetual snow, and most of them are destitute of trees. Mount Roraima, on the lx)undary between Guiana and Venezuela, is a mass of sandstone eighteen miles long, with perpendicular sides and a perfectly level summit 7,500 feet high. Its bare, vertical walls are in no place le.ss than 1,500 feet in sheer precipice. The summit is the source of several streams which leap from the plateau in grand cascades. The Brazilian Highlands consist of hilly ranges with numer- ous intervening valleys or elevated table-lands, intersected by mountain ridges. The Serro-do-Es-pin-ha-co, a name meaning backbone, has several peaks of 8,000 feet, but none to compare with the monsters of the Andes. Plains and Lowlands. — Plains and lowlands con- stitute four -fifths of the surface of the continent. Their area exceeds that of the United States by more than 2,000,000 square miles. The pampas of the La Plata, stretching to the southern extremity of the continent ; the selvas of the Amazon and the llanos of the Orinoco form a continuous series of low- lands 3,500 miles in length. The elevation between the rivers which drain these plains is so slight that a large stream, called the Casiquiare, flows both ways, carrying a part of its waters to the Orinoco, and a part to the Rio Negro, a branch of the Amazon; and the tributaries of the Amazon and of the Paraguay aresometimesjoined during seasons of higli water. The Andes, with their many peaks, extending along the western border of the conti- nent, check the movement of the winds that sweep over it, condense their mois- ture to a remarkable degree, greatly affecting the climate as well as plant and animal life so largely controlled by it. The engraving on the left represents a hunting party in pursuit oC the nandu, or South American ostrich. Each hunter is provided with a missile called a "bola," consisting of a pair of balls fastened together by a string of rawhide. When within sixty or eighty feet, the bola is thrown and entangles the legs of the fleeing bird, so that it is easily caught. The feathers of the uaudu are valued for dusters. Cattle are caught in the same manner. Is there anything in the engraving to indicate whether the principal mountain peak is high or low? How many "pack traing" are seen? What animal is used? Why preferred to the horse? How many kinds of plants are seen? Do the plants indicate a warm or a cool climate? What is a lagoon? Minerals. — The Andes are famed for their minerals. Gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron, and other metals are found in different sections. Eastern Highlands. — The highlands of Guiana are moder- ately elevated table-lands from which hills and ridges rise in solitary clusters, with intervening fertile plains. The loftiest Rivers. — The Amazon is sometimes called the "King of Elvers." It is 3,600 miles in length, and, with its tributaries, many of which are great streams, it drains a plain whose area is two-thirds as great as that of Europe. No other river on earth discharges half so much water into the sea. So vast is the quantity that it changes the color and saltness of the ocean a hundred miles from shore. Eising in the high moun- tain valleys of Peru, it becomes a large stream, navigable for 1,000 miles before leaving that country. Entering Brazil, the main stream and its nineteen principal aflSuents furnish that empire with 25,000 miles of water-way available for steamboat navigation. EUEOPE— COAST— SUEF ACE, 23 On the Lower Amazon there are hundreds of miles of side channels, lagoons, creeks, lak&s, and streams, all connected with the main channel of the river, where one may sail in a small boat for weeks without seeing a human being. The alluvial plain at the mouth of the river forming its delta, extends 150 miles inland. It is everywhere traversed by channels and creeks, some narrow as canals for scores of miles, others expanding into spacious lagoons and hays, mostly deep and navigable. The Orinoco is a stream carrying more water than the Mississippi. It is navigable for large vessels to a point 800 miles above its mouth, and so broad and deep are its waters that large ships spread their sails to catch the trade winds that blow from the east, and are borne up stream against the sluggish current. On the Lower Orinoco the banks are low, and during the season of greatest rain millions of acres are over^^owed and the country has the appearance of an immense lake with small, low islands here and there. At the great cataracts, the Orinoco is over a mile and a half wide. The water rushes over and among a wilderness of granite rocks, changing it into a mass of foam. Each mass of granite is like some ruined tower or castle, and is surmounted by a group of palms or otJ[ier trees. On every stone where the soft mould has gathered during a flood, grow the mimosa, with its delicate leaves, and orchids with their charming flowers. These are perfect little gar- dens surrounded by foam. A cloud of vapor hovers over the river and the rainbow shines through the verdant hues of innumerable bowers of foliage. This is the lovely spectacle the Orinoco affords for a distance of several miles along its two rapids.* The great estuary, named th« Rio de la Plata, or "Silver Stream," is the outlet of a river system which has sometimes been called the Mississippi of South America. At Montevideo it is 62 miles broad. The two main tributaries, the Paraguay and the Parana, are navigable, one for 1,700, the other for 1,300, miles from the mouth of the La Plata. * Consult Travela and BeseaTcbes of Humboldt, EUROPE, (Physical.) DESCRIPTION. Europe has a much longer - , coast, accord- / ingto its area, than any other continent. Vast seas stretch into the land and broad peninsulas extend hundreds of miles in- to the water, so that no part of the continent, save the interior of Eussia, is more than 400 miles from the sea. Even the large islands add to the length of its coast and increase its facilities for commerce. From the most ancient times the Mediterranean has been a highway of civ- ilization between the nations dwelling on its shores, north, south, east, and west; and now, also, it forms a part of the great highway between Asia and Europe. No other sea has played so large a part in the history of mankind. It was the "Great Sea" of the sacred writers; " Our Sea " and the "Inner Sea" of the Romans, to distinguish it from the outer sea — the great ocean beyond the pillars of Hercules.* Surface. — The continent may be divided into two large, unequal por- tions, one of which is a plain, includ- ing five-sevenths of the surface; the other, a highland region consisting of a net-work of mountain ranges, low table-lands, many inclosed basins and hundreds of open, fertile valleys, all giving great diversity of surface and of climate. Mountains, — The Alps are the most important mountains. They cul- minate in Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet in height, and form a water-shed be- tween the rivers flowing into the North Sea and those that discharge their waters into the Mediterranean. With their various windings they have a length of 700 miles, and cover an area of 90,000 square miles. Their average height is about 7,700 feet, and above this elevation there are more than 400 peaks that rise to the limit of perpetual snow. The most noted peaks are from 12,000 to 15,000 feet in height. Approaching the Alps from the plains of France or Germany, one finds the ground begin to rise and sink in long ridges which follow each other in parallel lines, like the undulations on the surface of a great ocean. The smooth valleys are green and fertile; the ridges bear their slopes of rich pasture and shaggy wood. Here and there, deep, transverse gorges cross the ridges and carry the drainage out into the plains beyond. Threading his way through these transverse valleys, the traveler finds the ridges on either hand growing higher, and the hollows between steeper and steeper, until he reaches one of the last and loftiest of these outer elevations. From its top, he can see on one side the succession of wave-like folds of hill and valley across which he has journeyed; on the other, his eye may take in the whole panorama of the Alps, a vast array of mountains crowding behind each other along the sky line, their higher crests and slopes white with snow and hardly, at times, to be distinguished from the white clouds which rest upon them. X The Alps are very different from the Andes with their long parallel ranges and narrow plateaus and valleys stretch- ing on for hundreds of miles in the same direction. Stand- ing on a peak of the Alps one sees around his horizon, points, pinnacles, jagged crests, ridges, horns, teeth, and snowy crests glittering from afar. All seem thrown together as if by chance, like the broken, frozen waves of a mighty ocean, * ^ee Stanford's Corapendiimi of Geography and Travel.— -Fwrope. t Consult Elementary Lessons in Physical Geography.— Gettie. EUROPE— GLACIEES — MAP STUDIES. 25 Between the ridges run numberless valleys and cross valleys, some open to the bright sun, some shaded by mountain walls. In the district of the Orisons, one of the most inaccessible of the Alpine regions, there are 500 valleys so winding and intri- cate that they have been the citadel of Europe, a refuge for oppressed peoples, for many centuries. Avalanches. — Vast quantities of snow fall on the moun- tain slopes and in the higher valleys. At the Hospice of Grim- sel, 6,148 feet above the sea, the naturalist, Agassiz, noticed a fall of 57J feet during the six winter months. On the St. Ber- nard the snowfall ranges from 11 J to 44 J feet every year, while on the St. Gothard 6i feet sometimes comes in a single night. In spring and summer the heat of the sun and the warm winds loosen great bodies of snow which have accumulated on the- high slopes, and travelers, in the green valleys below, often see acres of snow sliding down the silvery pyramid of the Jungfrau. ASCENT OF MONT DLANC. "First the enormous bed of snow is seen to plunge forth like a cataract, and lose itself in the lower stages of the mountain; whirlwinds of powdered snow, like a cloud of bright smoke, rise far and wide into tlie atmos^ere; and then, when tlie snow cloud has passed away, and the whole region has again assumed its solemn calm, the thunder of tlie avalanche is heard reverberating in deep echoes in the mountiiin gorges." The avalanches most dreaded by the people living in the Alps are those which immediately follow a fresh fall of snow. Before the fresh layers have had time to adhere to the old snow, the tread of the little chamois, the fall of a branch from some bush, or even an echo may start a mass of snow which in- creases in speed and in size as it descends. It rushes down steep slopes, leaps over ledges, loosens rocks, tears down trees, sweeps away houses in its path, and buries hamlets in the valley below. On the borders of the avalanche, clouds of fine snow fill the air, which roars and whirls with such violence as to shake the very rocks, and uproot hundreds of trees. In those districts most liable to avalanches protection is sought by planting forest trees; by driving piles of wood and of iron; and by erecting buttresses and heavy walls of rock. Glaciers. — The Alps are noted for their ice rivers, or gla- ciers, nearly 1,100 of which have been counted in the high valleys. Some of the glaciers are from fifteen to thirty miles in length, and from one to two miles in width. Their depth, as measured by dropping stones into the crevices in the ice, is sometimes 800, 1,000, or even 1,600 feet. The glaciers of Mont Blanc alone, though not so large as those of Monte Eosa, cover 109 square miles. If melted, it is said they would supply water sufiBcient to keep the Seine, a large, navigable stream, running for nine years. The gliu-iers have their sources in the fields of perpetual snow between the mountain walls, and move down the valley a few inches a day. Slowly and surely moving on, century after century, with layers of white or bluish ice hundreds of feet thick, bearing with them innumerable fragments of rock and earth loosened from the ledges and slopes. Some of the glaciers descend far he- low the snow line, into forests of beeches, birches, and larches, and even so low into the warm valleys that fields of wheat, gardens, and vineyards extend to the ice river. Many rivera have their sources in glaciers, and beautiful mountain lakes are fed by streams from the melting ice.* Passes. — The Alps have many natural passes, over forty of which commercial highways have been built. The Grimsel and Purka passes at the head of the Rhone Valley; the Simp- Ion, the St. Gothard, and the great St. Bernard are among those most noted. Pyrenees. — Next to the Alps, the Pyrenees are the most important mountains in Europe. The chain is a long saw -like ridge whose high passes are but little lower . than the neigh- boring peaks. The average height of the range is about 8,000 feet. In it are many narrow gorges with dashing streams and winding foot-paths. There are valleys, also, like huge amphi- theaters, with high ragged rock walls all about them. The Caucasus Mountains are rocky barriers rising ab- ruptly from the plains and crowned by a series of snowy peaks, the chief of which is Mt. Elburz, 18,526 feet, or more than 2,000 feet higher than Mont Blanc. The Urals form a low range exceedingly rich in metals. The Scandinavian Mountains consist of broken ranges rising from high plateaus. The greatest elevation at any point is something over 8,000 feet. No European highlands surpass those of Scandinavia in terrific and savage grandeur. They are rent and torn, full of fearful chasms and deep gorges, abounding in mountain lakes imbedded in vertical rock walls, and impetuous torrents and rivers, often forming enormous waterfalls. The hills are strewn with scattered fragments of rock and filled with mighty glaciers. Volcanoes. — Mt. Etna, in Sicily, is one of the most cele- brated volcanoes of the world. Its base is about 90 miles in •Consult Eeclus, Vol. I. MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — Are the coasts of Europe regular or irregular? Point out the lowest coasts. "What part of the continent is most distant from the sea? What part is best situated for commerce? Name five islands in the order of their size. How many great peninsulas are there? Which portion of the continent is most mountainous, and which consists of a great plain? Are there few or many rivers ? Draw an irregular line across the continent in such a way as to divide it into two great slopes, the rivers of one slope flow- ing northwest; of the other, southeast. Find the greatest length of the continent. What is the distance across the eastern plain from the Sea of Azof to the Kara Sea? From the Caspian to the Baltic ? What is the length of Great Britain ? Of the Scandinavian Peninsula? . Of the Mediterranean Sea? In how many zones does Europe lie ? Compare it with the two Americas as to regularity of coasts; distance of the interior from the sea; the position, direction, and length of mountain chains; size and number of rivers; the num- ber of islands near the coast; the greatest extent of land, whether frt>m north to south or from east to west; and the number qf zones. EXERCISES.- Locate and describe the coast waters, peninsulas, prin- cipal islands, chief mountains, lakes, and rivers. Sketch the coasts, British Isles, principal mountains, and chief river*. Draw diagrrams showing relief of the continent. 26 ASIA— MAP STUDIES— COAST— SURFACE. circumference and it rises like an immense cone to the height of about 11,000 feet. Its height is so great that the lava breaks through its sides and has formed innumerable smaller cones all about it. Vesuvius is ten miles from Naples, and is the only active volcano on the continent of Europe. Its height is about 4,000 feet. Plains. — The plains of Europe embrace about two-thirds of the continent. The Valdai Hills, which rise with a gentle swell to the height of 1,100 feet, are the greatest elevations of the vast eastern plain. The table-lands are low when com- pared with the plateaus of other continents. Those of Spain have an elevation of but 1,000 to 2,000 feet. Rivers. — The rivers of Europe, although not so large as those of America, are very numerous. Most of them are nav- igable, and, as they aris generally connected by canals, every Section of the continent has its water-roads. The ten thous- and streams of Europe give fertility to its soil, beauty to its landscapes, health and prosperity to its people. The Volga is the longest European river, hut its volume of water is far less than that carried by the Danube. With its tributaries it affords about 7,200 miles of navigation. In the upper part of its course, it flows through a marshy country where its banks are bordered by "trembling forests" resting on a layer of soft mud which allows the surface to shake at every step. Its lower course, until it reaches the great bend, is through plains like tlie flat western prairies. Below this point its right bank is skirted with steep cliffs, rising into crags, peaks, and pyramids. The river enters the Caspian through 200 mouths forming a delta 50 miles back. Most of the mouths are shifting channels choked with mud. The Danube is the largest river in Europe in respect to the volume of water. Above Vienna it is said to surpass the Rhine in the beauty of its scenery. It skirts many smiling valleys overlooked by lofty mountains, clothed with somber forests or capped with snow. After pa&sing the narrow "Carpathian Gate," it breaks up into a number of branches encircling many "Golden Islands." It then flows on, a broad and rapid stream, through fertile plains, till it reaches the mountain border of Roumauia, where it crosses a rocky ledge called the "Iron Gate," a mile in width, with tooth-like points projecting above the surface, forming a cataract ot seething waters. The river system of the Danube has 2,500 miles of navigable water. The Rhine, called by the Germans "Father Rhine," is the most famous of the continental rivers. Rising in the Alps, its upper course is noted for its cataracts, of which that of Schaffhausen, a fall of seventy feet, is most remark- able. In its middle course, the river winds through a fertile valley often called the "Garden of Germany." As it cuts the plateau further down, it flows among vine-clad hills, often crowned with ruined castles, or between towering ledges that open now and then into beautiful cross valleys with clear streams. The length of the Rhine is 960 miles. Its basin is connected by canals with that of the Danube, Rhone, Saone, and other streams. Lakes. — Europe is dotted with lakes, and its coasts are in- dented by many narrow and deep fiords. In the Scandinavian Peninsula, and in Finland, the lakes are numbered by thous- ands. The lochs in the highlands of Scotland, and the fiords on the west coast are celebrated for their wild beauty. There are, also, many beautiful lakes in "Wales, and in the mountainous parts of England. The lakes of the Alps are remarkable for their number, their depth, and the beauty and grandeur of their scenery. The largest are small when compared with the great lakes of North America. The Lake of Geneva has an area of but 220, and Lake Constance 208, square miles. Lake Maggiore, in Italy, has a depth of 2,666 feet, the deepest part being 2,000 i'eet below the sea level. Minerals. — Gold and silver are not so plentiful as in the other continents; but the useful minerals are abundant. The precious metals are found in the Carpathian Mountains ; gold, diamonds, and platinum in the Ural. Iron is widely distribut- ed, and is very abundant in Scandinavia, Britain, and France. Coal is most abundant in Britain and Belgium; copper, in Norway and Britain ; lead, in England and Spain ; tin, in England and Germany; quicksilver, in Austria and Spain; sulphur, in Italy ; marble, in Italy and Greece; salt, in Russia, Austria, Germany, and England. ASIA. (Physical.) MAP STUDIES. General Questions.— What is the character of the coa.sts of Asia? Which coast is lowest? How many great peninsulas on the east and south? How many seas indent the coast? How many gulfs? What portion of the continent is most elevated ? In what directions does the land slope? Toward which ocean is the slope long and gradual ? Are the rivers equally distributed over the continent? Point out those portions of the continent having few streams. Which ocean receives water from the largest number of rivers? In what direction is the continent longest? Determine its greatest length and breadth. What is the distance from the Caspian Sea, across the northern plain, to Behring Strait? What is the distance from Lake Baikal to the Arctic Ocean? What is the length of the Red Sea? Of the Malay Pen- insula? • Judging by the latitude, which part of the continent is very cold ? Very warm? Point out those portions of the continent that have the least rainfall. Give reasons for your conclusions. If Europe were placed over Central Asia would its boundaries touch the sea at any point? Which continent most re- sembles Asia in the direction of its mountain ranges? In the indentations of its coasts ? EXERCISES.— Name, locate, and describe the coast waters, peninsulas, islands, mountains, plateaus, deserts, plains or steppes, Inland seas and lakes, and great rivers. Sketch the coasts, principal mountains, inland seas, lakes, and chief rivers. Draw dia^ams, showing: elevations, as the teacher directs. DESCRIPTION. Size. — Asia is the largest of the continents. North Amer- ica and South America together do not equal it in size by more than 1,000,000 square miles. The distance from the Isthmus of Suez to East Cape is 6,700 miles; from Cape Romania to Cape Northeast, in a straight line, 5,300 miles. Coast. — Though the coast is deeply indented, the heart of the continent is far from the sea, and is separated from it by towering mountain ranges and extensive deserts, which are crossed with great difficulty. Surface. — Central Asia is a table-land, the highest and most extensive on the globe. The average elevation is 6,000 to 15,000 feet, and far above this rise the Himalayas, the Kuen-lun, and other ranges. The central plateau has an area of nearly 3,000,000 square miles, and may be divided into sections, greatly differing in elevation and character. The Thibetan Plateau has a mean elevation of 14,000 to 20,000 feet; the Pamir Steppe, to the west, or "Roof of the World," as the natives call it, and the Kokonor Basin, in the east, are respectively 15,000 and 10,000 feet. The Gobi Desert ranges from 4,000 feet in the ea.st to 2,000 feet in the west. The Himalayas, called the "Abode of Snow," extend in three 28 ASIA— MOUNTAINS— EI VEES— LAKES. nearly parallel ranges 1,500 miles southeastward from the point where the mountain systems unite in the "Eoof of the World." They form terraces with intervening valleys, the highest range bordering the plateau of Thibet. As many as forty peaks of the Himalayas are known to ex- ceed 24,000 feet in elevation. the Brah-ma-poo-tra, the Ganges, and the Indus, sacred streams from the Himalayas, flow to the south; the Sihon seeks the Aral Sea, and the Euphrates the Persian Gulf The immense rivers of the great northern plain afford 30,000 miles of navigable water, but as they are closed by ice during a large part of tlie year, are of little commercial i"^ ' importance. Mount Everest, the highest land on the globe, is 29,002 feet. They Between the ranges are some of the most beautiful valleys on earth, are watered by clear streams and have a genial climate and a fertile soil. The Himalayas have many narrow, deep gorges, some of which are dry; through others course rivers fed by gla^ ciers. Baltoro, the largest glacier, is 33 miles long and is flanked by two peaks each over 27,000 feet high. The northern section of the continent is a vast plain sloping to the Arctic Ocean. For hun- dreds of miles inland are low, dreary wastes open to the Arctic gales. Southward the land ascends gradually to the South Siberian highlands and to the steppes of the Aral and the Cas- pian. Eastward the great pla- teau descends by rugged moun- tain slopes to the fertile vaUeys and plateaus of China. Oh the south of the central highlands, stretching from east to west, are the rich plains of India, sloping to the sun. The plateau of Deccan, with its low mountain borders, is but 2,000 to 3,000 feet in elevation. Rivers. — The rivers of Asia flow in all directions from the central highlands. The Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena find their way through the plains of Si- beria to the distant northern ocean; the Amoor, the Ho-ang ho, and Yang-tse-kiang to the Pacific; the Mekong and the Irrawaddy through Farther India; MOLST EVEREST. The Obi drains a basin larger than that of the Mississippi. It is three miles wide 700 miles from its mouth. The Yenisei and the Lena, when free from ice, have 5,000 to 6,000 miles of navigation. So numerous are the rivers of Southern Siberia that one may travel by water from the Ural Mountains to Yakutsk, on the Lena, over 5,000 miles, and make but two portages of less than seventeen miles together. The Yang-tse-kiang is the great river of China. Its estuary is 60 miles vride and in places 300 feet deep. The tides penetrate the estuary 200 miles up from the sea. The united delta of the Ganges and Brah-ma-poo-tra is said to be the largest in the world, extending 200 miles inland and 80 miles along the Bay of Bengal. The water from these rivers discolors the sea 60 miles from shore. Lakes. — Lake Baikal, or the " Holy Sea," of the Mongolians, is the largest lake in Asia. It is 360 miles long, and has a mean depth of 850 feet, the line sink- ing, in places, to 4,500 feet, or far below the sea level. The water of the lake is remarkable for its transparency, objects on the bot- tom being seen to a depth of 40 to 50 feet. The shores in places are bold and rocky, and hot springs abound. A lovely island in the lake is famous for it beau- tiful and fragrant Alpine roses. Seas. — The Aral Sea is very yhallow and without an outlet, though it was probably once con- nected with the Caspian and with Lake Balkash. The Aral-Cas- pian depression is the largest in extent on the earth. Within it are salt marshes and sandy plains, with numberless salt lakes. On one camel route across this region, but a single tree is seen APEICA— COAST— SUEF ACE. 29 in a journey of 300 miles. The Caspian is 84 feet lower than the Black Sea. Both the Aral and the Caspian receive large rivers, and, as the seas have no outlet, evaporation must go on very rapidly. Minerals. — The metals are not so abundant in Asia as in the other continents, but it is rich in precious stones. Dia- monds abound in the Ural Mountains, in Ceylon, and iu«Borneo. Rubies, turquoises, carnelians, amethysts, beryls, rock crystals, and other gems are found. Gold is most abundant in Siberia, especially in the Altai or "Gold Mountains." Silver is found in Japan and China, and salt abounds in all parts of the conti- nent. The coal fields of China are very extensive. AFRICA. (Physical.) DESCRIPTION. Coast. — The coast of Africa is not deeply inden- ted, and, as its great rivers have many cataracts, the heart of the con- tinent is not yet open to the com- merce of the world. Surface, — Africa may be considered as al vast plateau, its elevation va- rying from 1,000 to 9,000 feet. Along nearly the entire coast is a lowland belt from 100 to 300 miles wide. The highest portion of the con- tinent is 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea; and the south half has an elevation of 4,000 to 6,000 feet. The table-land of the interior is reached by a series of broad terraces. While Africa, as a whole, is a plateau, and we do not find that diversity of surface seen in Europe, or the mountain ranges, the lofty plateaus, and wonderful valleys that make Asia so grand, we shall see lower plateaus with tropical vegetation succeeded by desert wastes; hilly landscapes of varied beauty, and some mountain groups rivaling the scenery of the Alps. The most hilly and mountainous region lies along the eastern coast, be- ginning in the highlands of Abyssinia and extending southward some distance beyond the Equator. A few peaks rise above the line of perpetual snow. Mt. Kenia, about 20,000 feet, and Kilima N'jaro, 22,814 feet, are of this class, and are the highest points in Africa. The Atlas Mountains, whose loftiest summits are 11,400 feet, the Kong, near the Gulf of Guinea, and the Camaroons, are the other important ranges. The Great Desert. — The Sahara has an area of 2,500,000 square miles, or a little more than two-thirds the area of the United States. This water- less ocean was once covered by the sea, but it is not, as pictured in the old geographies, a "sea of sand," although along the northern borders are sand- hills, or dunes, that are formed of fine particles that have been driven by the winds to accumulate in mounds which take the form of the billows of the ocean. Several low ranges of mountains are found in the desert, and, though they lack the elevation of the mountains of Europe, they equal the Alps or the Apennines in extent. The highest known point in any desert range is 7,900 feet. Nothing can be imagined more utterly dreary and awe-iusplring than a mountain in the Sahara. The bare rocks absolutely void of vegetation, the dark, gloomy appearance and peculiar outlines of the masses of stone, all much more even than the extensive sand dunes, remind the traveler that he is in the "Great Desert." Much of the desert is occupied by table-lands more or less level. Some are strewn with sharp stones and others with small water- worn pebbles. There are a few plains whose surface is below the sea level, but they are of small extent. Wherever water is found in a valley or hollow of the Sahara, or where hidden springs soak through the soil, or water is supplied by irrigation, even in the hardest clay or the most unpromising sands, there spring grass and herbs, there grows the palm and there is a fertile spot — an oasis. Oases watered by rivers are only found near the base of mountains, such as the Atlas in the north. In the whole Sahara there is not a river-bed where the water flows throughout the year, — all rivers evaporate or are gradually lost in the sands. But there are dry river-beds, and many places where lakes have once been, that are now incrusted with salt that glistens like snow in the glaring sunlight. From all this it will be seen that the Great Desert is not a level waste of drifting sand, but a region of rock-strewn plateaus with low, desolate mountains, and ridges here and there; of hills and la. of 8t Helena PHYSICAL MAP OF AFRICA AaJeofMllea 200 too eOO 800 AFRICA— THE RIVERS— THE LAKES— MAP STUDIES. 31 plains of sand ; of river and lake beds, all, save infrequent oases, utterly desolate. Rivers. — The Nile, the Niger, the Congo, and the Zambesi are the four great rivers of Africa. All are obstructed by rap- ids, and for this reason they do not afford easy access to the interior of the continent. The Nile is one of the most celebrated rivers of the globe. In the valley of the Lower Nile lived the ancient Egyptians, whose civilization began thousands of years ago. Here are the pyramids, here reigned the Pharaohs, and here the Israelites toiled as bondmen. Rising in Lake Victoria Nyanza, under the Equator, the White, or true Nile, flows over a space of more than 30° of latitude. In its upper course it is a rapid stream with many waterfalls. From about the mouth of the Bahr el Arab to its junction with the Blue Nile at Khartoum it has a sluggish appearance, often spreading out into broad lakes with no sign of current except in time of flood. The Blue Nile and the Athara, or "Black River," are large streams rising in the Alpine regions of Abyssinia. They receive their names from the color of their water which, at certain seasons, is flUed with slime that goes to fertilize the plains below. From the mouth of the Atbara to the sea, some 1,500 miles, the river receives no tributary, yet, notwithstanding the sandy, heated region through which it flows, it continues a mighty stream, capable of watering the plains of Egypt every year. Basin of the Nile. — Lake Victoria Nyanza is about 4,000 feet above the Mediterranean. North of the lake the river crosses a rolling, picturesque country, with rocky hills and fertile valleys interspersed with jungles where large herds of buffaloes and elephants are seen. Further down are low marshy regions bordered by level steppes stretching to the horizon in all directions. These plains are strewn with the conical mounds of the termite, or white ant, and with patches of brush wood. Then come tropical forests, with innumerable monkeys; half- barren steppes, and the great Nubian Desert, which is usually crossed by caravans of camels, the journey requiring many days. The route winds through a succession of bare gorges walled in by high rocks; over stony plateaus and across rocky ridges. Only a few of the deeper valleys have moisture sufficient to support a few palms and mimosas or to give scanty food for gazelles. •' Most parts of the desert are without the least trace of life, and the track is marked out by the remains of fallen camels. Excessive dryness and heat prevent these from decaying, and the skin becomes like parchment drawn over the skeleton. The mirage is almost continuous; the horizon appears like a wide sea, and mountains far beyond the limit of vision are frequently seen reversed in the air as if standing ou their summits, while others take the form of castle towers." Cataracts. — The lower cataracts of the Nubian Nile are not waterfalls. The second, or Great Cataract, looks like a walled lake whose waves are dash- ing against the rock-border that towers in numberless clifls, and against islands of red and yellow sandstone. The unlimited desert stretches away on either hand. At the lower cataract, black rock masses rise abruptly from the foam- ing current, and blocks fallen from them form islets 150 to 200 feet in height. At last, the river enters a valley, which, above the delta, is about 500 miles in length with an average breadth of but seven miles. On either side of the valley, walling it in, are continu- ous ridges of barren limestone hills, beyond which extend arid deserts — pictures of desolation save where a few oases lift their palms. The valley itself is naturally barren, but every year for thousands of years it has been innundated, the whole plain being a sheet of water, the villages forming islands. The river begins to rise about June 25th, and reaches its greatest height near the 21st of September. At Thebes the flood is 40 feet; at Cairo, 37; at Rosetta, 4. After the flood subsides, the surface is found covered by the fine, rich mold which has made this valley so productive further back than history can tell. The Congo is by far the most copious stream of the conti- nent, and one of the great rivers of the world. At its mouth it is 6 miles wide and 150 fathoms deep. Where it bursts through the mountains from the table-lands its channel is interrupted by almost continuous cataracts, some thirty of them occurring in a distance of 40 miles. Above the cataracts the river has a width of 4 to 5 miles, and is navigable to .Stanley Falls, nearly 1,000 miles. Above these it is again navigable for a long distance. The Congo drains an area nearly one-half as large as that of the United States. It has been called the Amazon of Africa. The Lakes. — Not long ago. Equatorial Africa was marked on the map as an unexplored region. At that time, the conti- nent was thought to be without lakes, except Tchad, south of the Sahara; but it is now known that its great lakes rank next to those of North America Victoria Nyanza is a beautiful sheet of water with long reaches of lovely and picturesque shore. Stanlfey sailed en- tirely round it in his little boat, "The Lady Alice," the voy- age occupying ninety days. Lake Tanganyika is some 450 miles in length. Captain Bur- ton, an English explorer, thus describes it: "Nothing can be more picturesque than this first view of Tanganyika as it lies ba.sking in the gorgeous, tropical sunshine. Beyond a short foreground of rugged and precipitous hills, a narrow plot of emerald green shelves toward a ribband of glistening yellow sand, here bordered by sedgy rushes, there clear, and clean cut by the breaking w.avelets. ' "Further in front stretches an expanse of the lightest, softest blue, varying from thirty to tliirty-five miles in breadth, and sprinkled by the east wind with crescents of snowy foam. It is bounded on the otlier side by tall and broken walls of purple hills, flecked and capped with peiirly mist, or standing sharply penciled against the azure sky. To the south, and opposite a low point, lie high, bluft' headlands and capes, and, as the eye dilates, it falls ujjon outlying islets specking a sea horizon. Villages, cultivated lands, and the freouent canoes of the fishermen give something of life to the scene." MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — What continent most resembles Africa in the charac- ter of its coast? Are there many or few islands near the coast. Are the indentations of the coast favorable or unfavorable to trade? Where are the mountains of the continent situated ? What portions of the continent are most elevated ? Ou the whole, is the surface diversified or monotonous ? Where are the great lakes ? What portion of the continent is best watered ? What portion receives the most rain? Give a reason for your conclusion. Are there many or few rivers? Does the latitude show a temperate or a hot climate ? Which portion of the continent has the dryest climate ? Why does it not rain in the Sahara? • What is the length, and what is the breadth, of the continent as determined by the scale? Which is the longest river? Which is the longest lake ? Give the length and width of the Great Desert. EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the coast waters, islands, moun- tains, deserts, lakes, and chief rivers. Sketch the coast, mountains, deserts, lakes, and rivers. Comparison of Continents. — Name the continents in the order of their size. Which continent has the longest coast line in proportion to its area? Considering its coast lines, its lakes and rivers, which continent oilers the best natural advantages for commerce? Which continent is longest from north to south? Which from east to west? Which continent has the longest mountain ranges? Which has the most extensive plains? Deserts? Plateaus? Which continent has the least, and which the most, diversified surface ? Over which continents are the streams most evenly distributed ? How many of the continents lie in three zones? On the whole, which are the warmest conti- nents' ISLANDS. CLASSES OF ISLANDS. Islands are of two classes, continental and oceanic. Though almost innumerable, they form scarcely one-seventeenth of the land surface of the earth. The continental islands were once parts of the continents, having the same kind of rock,*the same plants and large ani- mals. They are of all sizes, from mere specks in the ocean up to the size of the British Isles, or Australia. Oceanic islands lie in the midst of the oceans, and are usually in groups. There are two classes of oceanic islands — the Mgh and the low. The former are of volcanic origin, and they often have cones with craters still active. The latter are the tops of coral reels, just above the sea. Coral islands are found only in the warm waters of tropical seas. They are sometimes in the form of a circle inclosing a basin or lagoon of salt water, but the ring is often broken into small islands, still forming a circular line of islets on which grow the noble cocoanut palm and other tropical plants. The high volcanic islands are sometimes encircled by coral reefs, the cones tak- ing the place of the lagoons. Tlie conil islands are the work of iiiarineanimals called polyps, which live in conntless numbers in warm seas not crossed by cold ocean currents. These silent, tiny toilers of the sea have been named "world builders." They live in societies and do not work at a depth below twenty five fathoms, and, hence, build on a foundation which tliey find on sub- marine cones and pea,ks. As their structures are reared around the peaks, they have the same circular form as the peaks themselves. The substance composing the coral is lime, secreted from the waters of the sea and dejwsited between the outer and inner skins, or sacs, that imv^ the cylindrical body of the polyp. This lining substance is to tlie polyp the same as the bones in the higher animals. The polyps not only multii)ly by eggs, but by budding, like plants, so that one generation seems to grow out of another, and, as each generation dies, it leaves behind the soUd limestone secreted by it. This substance is what we call coral. The following extract from Eeclus will show how the coral islands are gradually fitted to be the abode of man: "The waves break in pieces the projecting stems, and, lifting up the looser fragments of coral, drive them outward to the highest point of the reef. There, by degrees, they form a bank of debris on which the breakers beat, and bring from the open sea, sand, broken shells, and the remains of the innumera- ble organisms which swarm in the ocean. Enriched by these additions brought to them by the waves, the calcareous bank becomes covered here and there by a thin layer of vegetable soil, where, sooner or later, some seed germinates which has been carried away by the currents, as it washed the coast of some distant land. "A few land plants embellish with their verdure the gray and monotonous coast; after a time trees take root there; then insects and worms, carried along on driftwood as if on rafts, begin to x>opulate the incipient groves; bij-ds resort hither to hide their nests among tlieir foliage; and at last, :is it often happens, some fishing party, attracted from afar by the beauty of the site, come and take possession of the new land, and build their huts on the edge of a spring which had been gradually formed in some cavity by the subterranean filtering of the rain water." COMPARATIVE HEIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. N. AMEEICA. S. AMERICA. I, Chilian Andes; 2 Pass of Cumbre; 3, Colombian Anilm; 4, City of Quito; .'i, Bolivian Andes ; 6, l.akeTiticaca; ".Peru- vian Andes; 8, Andes of Patagonia ; 9, West India Islands: 10, Mts. of Venezuela; 11, Mts. of Brazil; 12, 13, Table-land and >Its. of Mexico ; 14, Rocky Mts.; 15, Ca.-^cade Range ; 16, Great Salt Lake; 17, Sierra Nevadaj 18, Alleghany Mts.; 19, Sandwichlslands; 20, Mt. Erebus (Victoria Land); 21, Society Islands ; 22, New Zealand. AUSTRALIA. ^Australia, the largest island on the globe, is by many geog- raphera called a continent. It ranks but little below Euroiie in size, its area being somewhat less than 3,000,000 square miles. Coast. — Its coast is very monotonous. Nearly parallel with it, on the east, and about sixty miles from it, is the "Great" Barrier Eeef," 1,200 miles in length. In this distance there is but one safe opening for ships. The Great Barrier Keef is 70 milcjs wide at its southern extremity, but its average width is much less. Tlie channel between it and the shore is some 15 miles across, but navigation is dangerous on account of numerous sunken reefs. Here and there are openings to the ocean, some very narrow, others several miles wide. There are atolls, fringing reefs, and every kind of coral formation. The entire reef with its numerous islands has an area of ,30,- 000 square miles. This mighty barrier against which the ocean has dashed, age after age, is the work of the minute polyp we have described. The northern and the southern coasts have no deep indenta- tions, but the western is richer in bights and inlets, and has several good harbors. Surface. — Highlands are found in the east, and, to a limited extent, in the west. These highlands are generally hilly pla- teaus of no great ele- vation. The gorges through which the streams flow from the hills are usually deep and difficult of access. Mountains with rug- ged sides often rise from the table-lands. The interior of Aus- tralia consists of lowlands forming some of tlie most desolate regions of the globe. Tlie soi 1 is sandy or clayey, of a red color, and in many places contains salt. There are no springs, but at rare intervals the rain pours in a deluge, converting the land into a swamp. In the dry season which follows, the soil is baked and becomes almost like stone. Lakes. — The lake district of Australia is nearly 1,000 miles in extent from southeast to northwest. Some of the lakes are more than 100 miles iu length, but they are subject to great changes in size because their water sui)ply depends wholly upon the rainfall. And where broad sheets of water are seen at one time grassy plains appear at another. All the lakes are salt, and around them are sand ridges or salt-crusted mud- plains iu which men and beasts sink and are lost. For hundreds of miles the arid plains are covered with porcupine griuss which grows in bunches or tus- socks. The sharp spines of this grass tear the clothes and flesh of explorers, and injure the feet of horses so that they are often lamed and even killed. Rivers. — The riv^ers of the lowland region flow inland, and are lost in the sands or shallow lakes. Nearly all the streams are subject to the influence of drought and flood. In the east- ern portion of the island, especially, great floods occur at long intervals, the streams rise suddenly and carry destruction over large areas. Sometimes the rain fails for years, deep streams have not a drop of water in their beds, not a blade of grass cau grow, and large numbers of cattle die of hunger or thirst. ♦See map of Oceania, 1 , Alps; 2, Pyrenees; 3, Apennines; 4, Carpathian Mts.; 5, Dovrefeld Hits.; 6, British Islands; 7, Ural Mts.; 8, Caucasus Mts.; 9, Hindoo Koosh: 10, Himalayas; 11, Kuen-Lun; 12, Taurus Mts.; 13, Altai Mts.; 14, Mt.Sin.-ii; l.'i, StannovoiMts.; 16, Kilmandjaro; 17, Mts. of Abyssinia; IS, Atlas Mts.; 19, Cape Verde Islands ; 20,Pcak of Teneriife; 21,Cameroons; 22, Madagascar; 23, Snow Mts.; 24, Table Mt.; 25, Sumatra ; 26, Borneo; 27, Java; 28, Australia. 32 THE SEA. Size — Oceans. — The sea is a body of salt water encircling the globe and covering three-fourths of its surface. The con- tinents divide it into parts called oceans. The Pacific Ocean is the largest. It contains more than half the waters of the sea. Before 1513, this immense body of water was unknown to Europeans. In that year it was discovered by Balboa, a Spaniard, who crossed the Isthmus of Panama. The part of the ocean seen from the mountains of the isthmus lay to the south, and from this it received the name, "South Sea." Magellan, a navigator who crossed tlie ocean in 1521, named it the Pacific, because he encountered no storms during his voyage. The Atlantic is about half the size of the Pacific, and it contains only a quarter of the water surface of the globe. The Indian Ocean is next in size to the Atlantic. The Arctic is really but a part of the Atlantic, and the Antarctic is hardly to be regarded as separate from the great body of the sea. Depth of the Oceans. — The average depth of the Atlantic is not far from 15,000 feet. The deepest soundings near the island of St. Thomas gave 23,200 feet, but there are few places where the line goes below 18,000 feet. The Pacific has deeper tracts, but its average appears to be about the same as that of the Atlantic. The greatest depths yet accurately meas- ured are about 4} or 5 miles. The Indian Ocean is supposed to be of great depth. Bottom of the Sea.— The sea has its long and gentle, and its more abrupt slopes; its plateaus, valleys, and plains, similar to those of the land. In the vicinity of the continents it is often shallow for a great distance from the coast. Mountain chains are not found except near the continents of which they form a part. Extensive plains and broad table-lands are the rule Forces are ceaselessly operating to level the bottom of the sea. Hun- dreds of rivers are bringing down their deposits of soil and sand, and the dead bodies of countless millions of tiny creatures are falling like snowflakes from the upper strata of the water and slowly filling up its valleys. The bottom of the sea is strewn with the shells of creatures so minute that an ounce of sand often contains a quarter of a million. The remains of some species cover thousands of square miles, and when the lead brings up ooze it is often found to be composed of 80 to 90 per cent of skeletons. Saltness of the Sea. — The waters of the sea are salt in all parts, but their saltness is greatest in the Torrid Zone, where the trade winds blow and evaporation goes on most rapidly. It diminishes toward the poles, and is less in the vicinity of great rivers where fresh and salt water are mingled. Origin of Saltness. — Much saline matter is carried by rivers into the sea, and as the water evaporates the salt is left behind, the same as in the case of brine left in a tub to "dry up " by the heat of the sun. Supposing the sea to have been fresh at first, it would, in this way, finally become salt. Color of the Sea. — A glass of sea-water is of crystal clear- ness, but, viewed from a distance, the ocean in tropical latitudes is of a deep blue, while in the direction of the poles it is of a greenish hue. Its hue often depends on the color of the bottom, on plants growing in the waters, or on its myriads of animated creatures. THE PACIFIC AND THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. "At dawn the surface of the water is gently brightened by the glimmering of the atmosphere, as yet pale and fiilnt; then the sparkling of the waves becomes more brilliant, and the full light of day pours a flood of fire upon the billows. The least movement in the air is betrayed by a change in the aspect of the water; every cloud in passing mirrors itself with the forms and shades of its vapors; every breath of wind that just curls the waves renews the har- mony of changed coloring on the face of the ocean, and when evening comes the sea reflects back to the sky all its splendor of purple and flame."* Waves. — The sea seldom presents a smooth surface. It is only now and then, when the winds are at rest, that the waters are like a mirror, reflecting the stars and all other objects with clear outlines. Usually, the wind, in breeze or tempest, raises the surface into waves that move forward regularly, or are dashed across one another, forming what sailors call a "chopped sea." The height and speed of the waves are determined by the strength of the wind, the depth and saltness of the water. In the Mediterranean the tempest waves rise from 13 to 18 feet above the trough of the sea. In the North Atlantic the average height of the largest waves is 19 feet, but navigators have measured those which were over 43 feet. Off the Cape of Good Hope waves of 50 and 60 feet are not uncommon. The Bell Rock lighthouse, off the coast of Scotland, rises 112 feet above the rock on which it is built, yet its top is often enveloped in waves and spray after the fury of the tempest is past. Waves sometimes entirely cover the Eddystone lighthouse, whose lantern is 72 feet above high-water mark, and it is stated that jets of water have been thrown 80 feet higher than its light. The water does not move forward with the wave, but remains almost at rest. This may be understood by watch- ing the waves that pass in succession over a field of grain, or a forest — the grain and trees remain rooted while the form of the wave sweeps on. Tides. — The waters of the ocean are moved not only by the winds but by a force called attraction, exerted by the moon and the sun. Every day dwellers on the sea-coasts see its waters sweU and fall in regular movements. Twice every day vast plains of sand are covered, and bays are filled by the rising waters; twice a day rivulets are changed to rivers, and basins of mud to harbors. Six hours later the sands are again bare, the mud has reap- peared, and ships lie aground in the harbors. These move- ments of the waters are called tides. When the water rises the tide is said to flow; when it recedes, it ebbs. The rising sea is flood-tide, and the falling, ebb- tide. The time between two high tides, or two low tides, is 12 h., 56min., and the time of any tide comes fifty-two minutes later every day. Cause of Tides. — The solid portions of the earth and the water are alike drawn or attracted by the moon, but the parti- cles composing the water are alone free to move, and they are lifted up, as seen in the diagram at B, in a broad and increasing swell, following the moon in its journey from east to west over the sea. As the tidal wave reaches the shore the waters rise, and for six hours there is flood-tide. After the moon passes on, the waters recede, and for six hours the tide ebbs. While this swell is following the moon, as just described, * Consult Heclus's Ocean, 33 a « o S a o -a ■ » W ita a -2 o a a o 13 «> a a a o to a c a e3 £ s.. (>. a a 4i rt .2J m o £ a X, a q: ■n k., e ^i s a O O rj o « „ " .. O "5 f^ ^.2 &4 •e o o -a o -H ^ S t2 P .2 I 5b 2 ■3 a "^ r: QJ i 15 a g ».g 53 .g o THE SEA— TIDES — OCEAN CUEEENTS. 36 another swell is formed on the opposite side of the earth, as at A, where the attraction of the moon is weaker, and the waters tend to fall away from the solid kernel of the earth. So there are always two high waters under the moon on opposite sides of a«^'"'f- ..?.?*?•'"- ''■■Z^---' SPRINO AND NEAP TIDES. the earth, and two low waters at equal distances between them. As the earth turns on its axis every twenty-four hours, two swells and two troughs travel over every part of the ocean in that time, causing a regular succession of tides moving in a direction opposite the motion of the earth. At new moon, when the sun and moon are in the same part of the '^^^^ heavens, and at full moon, when the sun and moon are in opposite quarters, the sun adds its powerful force to that of the moon, or, in other words, their influences coincide, and the tides are very high, and are called spring tides. When the moon is at its first and third quarter, the sun acts in opposition to the moon, the tides are low, and are called neap tides. See diagram. The course of the tidal waves is changed or greatly modiiied by the forms of continents, and the waves are sometimes broken up by numberless islands. In mid ocean tlie tide is only 2 to 5 feet in height. On the eastern coast of North America it is from 8 to 12, but iu the narrow Bay of Fundy it rises to 60 or 70 feet. In the English Channel the spring tides reach 40 or 50 feet. Where the advancing tide meets the current of a great river, the contending wave, like a mighty wall of water, moves up the stream, often for hundreds of miles, or to the limit of tide- water, forming what is called a bore. At the mouths of some rivers, such as the Seine, the Elbe, the Weser, the Hoogbly, and the Amazon, the bore, at the period of high tides, becomes an enormous wave. The bore of the Amazon, called by the Indians po-ro-ro-ca, because of its roaring, rises iu three successive waves, attaining together a height of 30 to 50 feet. Not suspecting the flood, vessels are in great danger of capsizing. Ocean Currents. — The waters of the sea are never at rest. The heat of the sun and the rotation of the earth on its axis produce movements in the oceans grander than the waves or the tides. These forces carry the cold waters from the polar seas to the equatorial regions, and the warm waters from thence in the direction of the poles. They form ocean rivers hundreds of miles in width, and of vast depth. The mightiest rivers on land are but rills when compared with the streams that flow through the sea. The courses of these ocean rivers may be traced by the temperature and color of their waters, by the creatures living in them, and by the debris they bear along in their journeys from clime to clime. Causes of Currents.^ The unequal distribution of the sun's heat over the earth's surface and the rotation of the earth on its axis are the chief causes of ocean currents. Cold water is heavier than warm, and the cold waters toward the poles tend constantly to flow into and displace the warm waters of the Torrid Zone. Were the earth at rest, and were there no land, there would be a slow but ceaseless flow of cold water in a direct line from the poles to the Equator, and of warm water from the Equator to the poles, giving rise to two currents — an upper, warm current, and an under, cold current. But the earth turns on its axis from west over to east. Its rate of motion at the Equator is 1,000 miles an hour; at the 60th parallel, 500 miles; at the poles it is diminished to zero. The water of slow-moving polar regions flowing to fast-mov- ing equatorial regions cannot acquire the increased eastward speed of the latter, and it is left more and more behind the meridians on which it started — the bottom of the sea passing eastward under it — and instead of reaching the Equator due south or due north of the place of starting, it reaches it many degrees westward. The polar currents are thus made to bend westward, and, meeting within the tropics, form the Great Equatorial Current that encircles the earth, save where it is broken or turned aside by the land. It is thus that the equatorial current and two polar cur- rents are produced. All other currents, or rivers of the sea, are but branches of these, caused by the forms of the land. Gulf Stream.* — The Gulf Stream is a branch of the equa- torial current of the Atlantic, a part of which passes through the Carribean Sea and a part further east, as shown on the chart. The name was given when it was thought that its waters made the circuit of the Gulf of Mexico. Its current is fully apparent north of the island of Cuba. At its narrowest part it is some 37 miles wide and 200 fathoms deep. The width of the stream increases and its depth dimin- ishes until, as it approaches Europe, it spreads out, like a fan, over the Atlantic. Its color is of a beautiful azure, and its tem- perature is so much warmer than the bordering ocean that the fish and other inhabitants of the Torrid Zone follow its course, while the birds of summer lands fly far to the northward, hovering in the warm air above the current. On the contrary, the Greenland whale and other animals of northern seas shun the Gulf Stream as though it were a belt of flame. In the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland the outskirts of the Gulf Stream are met by the united Greenland currents with their icebergs, and their waters chill and con- dense the warm vapors, giving rise to the thick and everlasting fogs peculiar to that I'egion. The icebergs borne southward from the immense glaciers of Greenland are rapidly thawed by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream into which they are carried. iThe broad plateau knovra as the Banks of Newfoundland was undoubtedly built up by the meeting of these conflicting currents, which drop their sand,and the icebergs their roeks,in the contending waters. The Gulf Stream crosses the entire Atlantic at an average rate of twenty- four miles a day, though iu the vicinity of the Bahamas it flows over three miles an hour. Seeds, trunks of trees, timbers of wrecked ships, and other works of human hands have been borne by the Gulf Stream from South America and other portions of the New World to the western shores of Europe. It was such remains that famished Columbus evidence of an unknown world across the sea. Sometimes that portion of the Atlantic east of the Banks of Newfoundland assumes the appearance of the Arctic Sea. Icebergs, like ships, pass majestic- ally through the waves which dash against them. Enormoos blocks have been * Study map on page 34 at this point. 36 THE ATMOSPHEEE— DEPTH OF AIE. seen, 300 to 400 feet high, and measuring at least seven times that distance below the surface of the water. Those parts of the huge masses that rise above the surface often have the appearance of pinnacles. The summit is white and occasionally covered with snow. The sides are pierced with holes, or caves, through which the water rushes with a hollow murmur, or springs in jets. Silver fountains occasionally burst alternately from either side of the ice- berg as it is tipped by the waves. Hundreds of ships have been lost by striking against these monsters, unseen in the dense fog. Whole archipelagoes of ice are occasionally met. A British brig, off Cape Race, remained twenty-nine days surrounded by towers and threatening peaks of ice. Looking at the map, we see that most of Europe lies in what should be the Cool Temperate Zone. Yet, in Southern France, as far north as St. Paul, flourish the olive, the mul- berry, and the vine. Berlin, the capital of the German Empire, and all of England, are further north than the northern bound- ary of Minnesota, but their climate is not rigorous. Roses bloom in England in October, and the "Emerald Isle of the Seas" is so named because of its green fields. The lakes of the Faroe and Shetland Isles, 800 or 1,000 miles north of the parallel of Minneapolis, are said never to freeze. In the waters of the Torrid Zone is stored the heat which the Gulf Stream bears across the ocean to tcarm the winds which blow over Western Europe and make homes of comfort and plenty for millions of men iu latitudes where King Frost else would make his reign. On the eastern coast of North Am'irica, in the same latitude as the British Isles, the ground is frozen nine months in the year, and the few dwarfed inhab- itants get their living by catching seal and fish that find a home in the icy Greenland current. The Japan current is a branch of the equatorial current of the Pacific. It is a noble stream of warm blue water, flowing rapidly along the eastern coast of Japan, and thence across the ocean to Alaska, where it bends to the south and at last is again merged into the equatorial current. Its genial influence is felt in Japan, but so much of its heat is lost in cros.sing the Pacific that it has little direct influence on the climate of the western coast of North America. THE ATMOSPHERE. Depth of the Air. — Air is present wherever we go. It extends far above the highest clouds, the loftiest mountain peaks. The main body of the air is from 40 to 50 miles in depth, or about twelve times the average depth of the sea. In a very thin or rare state it probably extends hundreds of miles above the surface of the earth. Weight of the Air. — At the level of the sea, the weight or pressure of the air, or atmosphere, is fifteen pounds upon every square inch. We do not feel this pressure upon our bodies, because, in accordance with a simple law of nature, air, like water, presses equally in all directions. The pressure of the air and its density diminish with the (elevation. Far above the earth it is too thin to sustain life. Persons ascending to great heights experience strange difficulties. Two a;ronauts, Glaisher and Coxwell, rose in a balloon six and a half miles, or a mile higher than Mount Everest. "The air becoming too thin, or rare, for their lungs, hardly allowed them to pant; they had palpitation of the heart, singing in tlie ears; the blood swelled the arteries of their temples; their fingers froze and refused to move, and at last Glashier fainted away." Simi- lar effects have been experienced by some who have attempted to scale the highest peaks of the Himalayas and the Andes. Air in Motion. — The great ocean of air is never at rest. Like the ocean of water, it has its waves and currents. Air in motion is called mnd. Cause of Wind. — Wind is caused by the unequal distri- bution of heat. If all portions of the air were equally warm it would remain at rest, or in a state of equilibrium. This is illustrated by a heated stove. Place the hand above the stove and we feel the warm air rising. A paper wind-wheel attached to the stovepipe is whirled rapidly by the ascending current. Through the crack below the door the cool air is rushing into the room. We hear the stove drawing, and the hot air is moving up the chimney. Now, all these movements of the air, these little winds in the room, are caused by the fire in the stove. Let us try to understand this: Heat expands air, — makes it thinner, or rarer, and lighter. At the point of greatest warmth near the stove, the air expands, becomes lighter, and is forced upward by the colder and heavier air that is pressing from the outer and less heated portions of the room. The warm, light air, ascending above the stove is replaced by steady, horizontal currents of cooler air rushing in from without, moving, as horizontal currents always move, toward the point of greatest heat. Land and Sea Breezes. — Let us take an example from nature. The rays of the morning sun fall upon an island and upon the surrounding sea. The land is heated more readily than the water, and it gives off its heat to the air much more rapidly. The temperature of the air above the land is soon raised higher than that of the air over the water, and the equilibrium is thus destroyed. The cooler and heavier air of the sea rushes in from all directions, making a fresh sea breeze, while the warmer air is forced upward from the island, form- ing an ascending current. When night falls, the land has radiated most of its heat, but the water retains much which it continues to give off, and, ? o B W B I' ft 1^ 2, 3 vi 1*3. 3. § . p- 2. g <" ! S o 3 ^5* e 3 CO CO O 3 p. 3 ? 2 g, a ■ S- w a' • 3 :^ S» -d * O S o, «i 2. W 2, > 2. cc B 2 ■■;. a ^ B. rt- rt- a & B " C3 W CO 2 c«- S- g. 2 c a O C o ? » *S. B £. j! s s o S' S " C3 ft Pi -c O » 2 P. B p. m „ B 3 ^ 2 ^ p- 3 ■•c CR I =^1^ O' B- O- p B. 01 S" & o- ^i 5' 3? Pi H- OJ B* =^* S f Bl (6 -> s ,(j -li a -< s fi [3 'r=^ b£ rr 11 a ^ g Ci a -«-> OJ ^- ■u u a H cS r-^ 1—1 S-9 en CS a s o a CO CO a: CJ> >^ s .9 .5 a C) aj -S g a I -s a o v: THE ATMOSPHERE— MISTS— CLOUDS. 41 temperature of the air sinks as low as 32°, the freezing point, the dew is frozen, and hoar-frost is seen in the morning. Mists, or fogs, are masses of vapor that hover near the earth. When the atmosphere over a pond, or stream, is some- what cooler than the water below, the cool air condenses the vapor in the warm air resting on the surface of the water, rendering it visible, and fog is formed. No other part of the world is so foggy as the Grand Batiks of Newfound- land. The warm waters of the Gulf Stream send up vast quantities of vapor, which is rapidly condensed by the chilly atmosphere ahove the great Greenland current, always cold, but which at certain seasons floats vast masses of ice. Ships in this dangerous part of the ocean must frequently sound their steam fog-horns, to prevent collision with other vessels. Clouds are but masses of visible vapor floating in the at- mosphere, generally at a considerable elevation. A traveler on a mountain sees fogs in the valley, which are clouds to those who dwell below. Rains within the Tropics. — Within the Torrid Zone evapo- ration goes on most rapidly, and there is always a very large amount of moisture in the air. The clouds fly much higher than in cooler regions and the falling rain-drops are much larger. When the trade winds blow with regularity the skies are of a deep azure, and there is not a cloud to be seen. As the sun approaches the zenith at any point on its journey from tropic to tropic, clouds begin to appear, first in the horizon, then more and more overhead. Right under the path of the burning sun the air is most intensely heated, and rises in strong currents, carrying vast quantities of moistui'e with it, high above the earth, where it is condensed by the cold and falls in heavy showers during the hottest part of every day. These showers are always accompanied by terrific thunder and lightning. This belt of showers keeps advancing northward with the sun, until it reaches the Tropic of Cancer. It then swings southward, following the sun toward the Tropic of Capricorn. During this period of rain the people are in a constant vapor- bath; the air is stifling, and the body is weak; vegetation puts on new life, the wastes of the dry season are clothed with green, and one can almost see tlie plants grow. When the rainy season is gone, with the retreating sun, the trade winds resume their regularity, the skies become clear and no more raiu falls until another season, when the sun returns. In the equatorial zone of calms, which separates the northern and southern zones of periodical rains, the clouds gather and rain falls in torrents almost every day in the year. The early part of the day is beautifully clear, but from 1 to 2 o'clock the clouds suddenly gather and pour their torrents on the earth. It will be seen that there are three rain belts in the Torrid Zone: the belt of periodical rains in the Southern Hemisphere, the belt of constant rains near the Equator, and the belt of periodical rains in the Northern Hemisphere. The amount of rain that falls in the Torrid Zone during the wet season is far greater than that which falls in the Temperate Zones. The yearly average in the tropical parts of the New World is estimated at 115 inches; in the Old World, 77 inches. But there are localities where it is much greater. In Para- maribo it has sometimes reached 142 inches, and at the mouth of the Amazon 276 inches. At the foot of the mountains in Northern India it has fallen to the depth of 51 feet. In view of the copious rainfall we cannot wonder that the mightiest rivers are found in the Torrid Zone. The Amazon, the Orinoco, the La Plata, the Nile, and the Congo are examples. Rains of the Temperate Zones. — The rains of the Tem- perate Zones are produced by the meeting and mingling of horizontal currents of different temperatures; while those of the Torrid Zone are caused by ascending currents. AVERAGE ANNUAL FALL OF RAIN. Latitude. iDches. Latitude. Inches. 0° 100 50° 30 20° 80 60° 20 30° 60 70° 10 40° 40 80° 5 The great deserts of the world are in the sub-tropical belts just beyond the influence of the trade winds, and not fairly in the region of the return trades. This is true in the Southern as well as in the Northern Hemisphere, as may be seen by reference to the chart. Aside from these general laws relating to rainfall in the several zones, there are other influences at work in different regions of the earth which serve to increase or to diminish the deposit of moisture. Influence of the Andes.* — The Andes lie directly across the path of the trade winds which follow their eastern slopes upward from the warm plains to cooler and cooler regions, until the snowy peaks are reached. On their course the moisture of the winds is condensed and falls in vast quantities, giving rise to the great streams which unite to form the Amazon. On the western side of the Andes is a long, rainless belt, made so by the mountains on the east, which have left little moisture in the air. Further south, in the region of the return trades, the winds blow from the Pacific, and the moisture falls on the western slopes of the Andes, while the plains to the east are dry and parched. Rains of the Pacific Slope. — Southern California receives its rains in the autumn and winter. During the summer the sandy plateaus of the southwestern part of the continent heat the air which passes over them, increasing its capacity for moisture, and causing the hot, dry summers of that part of the coast. It is only when the sun is far to the south, and the cold of the northern winter bears toward the tropics, that the moisture of the air is condensed, and rain falls. Further north, in Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, the bending mountains, like a great arm, gather in the moisture from the return trades, or southwest winds, and there is an abundance of rain at all seasons on the western slopes. The southwest winds that bring the welcome rain to the Pacific coast lose their moisture on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada and other mountain ranges, and, for that reason, little rain falls in the vast highland region to the east, the arid portion of the continent. Western Europe receives a liberal supply of rain from the westerly winds, made moist by the warm Gulf Stream. Rainless Regions of the Old World. — The Great Deserts of Northern Africa and Western Asia, wastes of sand and rock crossed by the Tropic of Cancer, are regions over which the air is very warm. Cooler winds blowing from any direction become heated, increasing their capacity for moisture, their clouds are dissipated, and no rain falls. The immense deserts and plateaus of Central Asia, hundreds of miles in breadth, forming the very heart of the continent, are surrounded by mountain chains. If the winds are from the *Fupil9 should refer to the chart or the map at ever; step. S E= £ ° 2 c s 3 M ■c a f? ^ Ji ^ « o 2: -p '° m S S S "3 ^ S -a H "^ p oj tr J. a a a o n - o §a ° s ^ CO ■■§ « C3 o ,«' = s « 5 g -g 4! till o 5^ t --s ^ I X « U- "b ■V' ?^ p. 3 ^oo p, * S o =" a c5 o -^ £ a s s o j,^ g a^ =" £ S K-a a a tots lag asl •B a 5 I 2 .a a ■I Ol O) .- C5 s "So as — "S ■^ « Ml m.-S a c3 o ra^ p* CO >:=; a 5 ^ a ^. p.| +3 CS t„ ■'^ l^ S5 a ^ « a^^^^.S ^ CO Pi a:: c5 0) f^ S ^ a £ =3" E.£ r. £< « cca S i -s ^ « .d a|^.i-Jj 0) oj I a .2 c"a £ ^ H O ^ o .2 S « 0, £ « "•^ "is a !>• ^ Sg S £o| ^ p.535^'-SC g a .a ^ a „ o ^ 5|^§^f ai ■d !p ^ 4) ■§ o) ^ f^ -3 £ .2 ■:: ^«w .g e.. ^ d H « « a «,a B a 1 •p « a .a ^-e ^|a as ■s -p .ail las 'g'M a a o fc, 6 Q a -5 « "^ -a =9 u « c3 .Ss S53 P- -*^ ^ to CLIMATIC 20KES— LIFE OK THE CLOBE. south, their moisture is condensed and falls on the southern slopes of the Himalayas; if from the north, it falls on the northern slopes of the Altai; if from the east or west, mountains cut off the supply of moisture, so that this whole region has little rainfall. The Nile, flowing for hundreds of miles through a rainless country, has its annual overflow, bringing plenty to millions of people. Its sources are in the Torrid Zone, and in the course of the northeast monsoons which sweep across the Indian Ocean, depositing their moisture on the rugged western coasts of AXriea. As these rains occur during the northern winter, the floods begin to reach the land of Egypt, and the river to rise in the early summer. When the southwest monsoons prevail, the western and southwestern coasts of Southern Asia are deluged with rain. Snow. — In the Temperate and Frigid Zones, and in elevated regions iu warm latitudes, much of the moisture of the air falls in the form of snow, which is but condensed and frozen vapor that takes a great variety of forms. As the heat of the air increases downwards, the temperature of the lower atmosphere may be sufficient to melt the frozen drops before they reach the earth, so that snow and rain often come from the same cloud, the snow falling on the mountains and rain in the valleys. Hail, or frozen rain, is supposed to be formed at a great height in the atmosphere. Many frozen drojjs are sometimes clustered together, or collected in layers, forming large stones. CLIMATIC ZONES. In the five zones already considered, the climate is deter- mined by distance from the Equator. The influence of the sun's rays is alone regarded, no account being made of the modifying effects of elevation, ocean currents, prevailing winds, or other agencies. It is for this reason that we cannot, in every case, determine the climate of a country by the zone in which it lies. Two places on the same parallel may diffier widely in temperature. Naples, in Italy, with its orange groves, is on the same parallel as New York with its ice ponds; and England, with its fertile fields, has the same latitude as Labra- dor — a treeless waste. The true climatic zones are not bounded by the tropics or polar circles, but are irregular in shape, varying in breadth according to all the agencies operating to produce the climate of the different regions. For instance, the North Temperate Zone reaches its greatest breadth where the Gulf Stream and the sonthwest winds carry their heat far north of the Arctic Circle; and it is narrowest where it crosses the high plateaus and the great northern slope of Asia. Isothermal Lines.^ — The isothermal lines, seen on the chart, were first used by Humboldt to show the actual distri- bution of heat as measured by the thermometer. They con- nect all places having the same average temperature for the year. To study the chart aright, observe that a heating influence is denoted when the lines bend away from the Equator towards either pole ; and a cooling influence, when they bend from the poles toward the Equator. As we have learned something of the modifying influence of elevation, slope, mountains, ocean currents, winds, etc., we are prepared to interpret the chart; to study the climate of the several continents, and of different regions. study the Chart of Isotherms at this point. LIFE ON THE GLOBE. DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. The mantle of plants with which the earth is clothed consti- tutes its chief beauty. Without the trees, the grass, the flowers, it would be but a barren, cheerless desert. Men have not yet had time to count the prodigious number of plants that surround us, from the giant redwood, or the oak with spreading boughs, to the humble lichen clinging to the rock. It is thought that the different vegetable species number from 400,000 to 500,000, of which hardly a quarter have been placed on the lists of botanists. Even in the best known countries of Europe, where men have been exploring since the days of the great Linnaeus, who lived a century ago, new species are brought to light every year. There are yet vast regions of the earth of whose plant life, or flora, very little is known, but enough to show that, " Full many a flower is bom to blush un.seen, And wa.ste its sweetness on the desert air." Nature has distributed her plants over the land, from the line of perpetual frost in the Torrid Zone, far into the polar regions; and even the streams, the ponds, the great lakes, and the vast oceans are by no means barren wastes. Plants depend on sunlight, warmth, and moisture for their support; and we find different zonies or belts of vegetation cor- responding with the climatic zones just traced on the chart. We cannot indicate by isothermal lines the precise limit of each species of plant. This can be done only in the most general manner, and were we to make a journey from the extreme northern or the southern limit of vegetation to the Equator, we should not be able to tell just where one zone was left behind and another entered, because the change is so very gradual. Vegetation of Different Zones. — Far beyond the Arctic Circle, in what may be called the North Polar Zone, plant life is almost extinguished by the perpetual cold. In narrow val- leys, sloping to the low summer sun, or by the base of shel- tering rocks, spring a few humble plants that adorn the bare spots or oases which the sun has made in the endless wastes of ice and snow. In the Arctic Zone, albng the northern borders of the con- tinents, are frozen marshes, or tundras, covered with moss, the chief food of the reindeer. A few herbs, shrubs with edible berries, flowering plants, and patches of grass spring up in favored places. The willow, the birch, and some of the ever- greens appear here and there, but they do not grow to be trees until the limit indicated by the dotted line on the chart is reached; and, even then, they do not tower at once into the lofty forests seen further to the south. LIFE ON THE GLOBE— DISTEIBUTION OF PLANTS. Oats, barley, rye, potatoes, turnips, and hardy grasses may be cultivated with success. Wheat of fine quality is also grown in some portions of this zone. In the Temperate Zone are noble forests of oaks, numbering many species, maples, elms, beeches, chestnuts, walnuts, poplars, locusts, basswoods, ashes, and other deciduous trees. Forests of pine, spruce, and fir are found in the north. The May winds are loaded with the fragrance of apple, peach, and other orchard trees. Countless shrubs and flowers adorn hill and dale. Broad pastures and rich green meadows are seen. Fields of wheat, corn, oats, and other grains wave in the summer wind, and vineyards cover many a slope. In the Warm Temperate Zone, the live oak, laurel, oleander, and myrtle, with large, stiff, evergreen leaves are characteristic trees; oranges, figs, olives, and pomegranates are among the fruits. Corn, cotton, tea, and the mulberry and grape are cultivated. Flowering trees like the magnolia, with its large, beauti- ful, and fragrant blossoms, and the dwarf palm are found in the Old World and in the New. Eice and sugar-cane indicate that we are near the Torrid Zoue, where these plants find their best home. Within the Tropical Zone are the greatest abundance of light, heat, and mois- ture, and vegetable life appears in strange forms and dazzling splendor. Spring returns with every rising sun; new flowers bloom every day, and many trees bear blossoms and fruit at the same time. Ferns grow to the size of forest trees, and some species of grasses, such as the bamboo, become real trees, sixty or seventy feet high, from whose hollow trunks homes and even whole cities are built. A single tree in a tropical forest often supports hundreds of twining plants with leaves of curious forms and varied hues and numberless brilliant flowers. Palms of many varieties, with their tall, slender trunks, bear their grand foliage and flowers above other trees of the forest. The banana, with its wide- spread leaves and huge bunches of fruit, grows about every tropical home. Here, too, we see the rice plant which feeds more than half the human family; the M LIFE ON THE GLOBE— FOOD PLANTS. manioc, which is the bread of the tropics; the bread-fruit tree on which grow large loaves ready for baking; and coffee, cocoa, the fragrant vanilla, and spices for all the world. RANGE OF PLANTS MOST USEFUL TO MAN. Food Plants. — Wheat thrives in America as far north as latitude 55° and in Europe as high as 60°. It blights in regions of great heat, and is produced in the tropics only at a considerable elevation above the sea. The cooler portions of the South Temperate Zone are favorable to its growth. The -wheat plant is not known in a wild state, but botanists think it first came from Central Asia. It formed the bread of civilized man further back than history dates. In the rock tombs of Egypt, with the embalmed dead who were laid to rest thousands of years before Christ, it is said that modem explorers have found grains of this precious cereal. Barley is more widely distributed than any other grain. It is adapted to cold and to warm climates, and is raised by the peasantry of Europe in latitudes where no other grain will ripen. One variety grows on the plateau of Thibet, 14,000 feet above the sea. Barley is used for bread in many parts of the world. Eye and oats flourish in the cooler portions of the Temperate Zones. The potato is a native of the high, tropical valleys of Mexico, Peru, and Chili, and several varieties are still found in a wild state in the last-named countries. Though indigenous to tropical America, it does not grow in the lowlands of the Torrid Zone, but only in valleys several thousand feet above the sea. It is most at home in the cooler portions of the United States and of Southern Canada. In Europe it is cultivated up to latitude 60°. The common jiotato, which is now a part of the daily food of millions of mankind, was hardly kno-wn to the people of Europe, outside of Ireland, until the middle of the eighteenth century, and but little earlier in our own country, so that the eighteenth century may be said to have given the civilized world this new article of food. Corn, or maize, delights in a warm climate, but it ripens in all latitudes from 50° north to 40° south, though it does not grow well in the intensely hot coast lands of the Torrid Zone. Its geographical range extends over three-fourths of the earth's surface, and it is the most important grain raised by American farmers. Indian com is indigenous to America. It has always formed the principal food of the Indian tribes, from which fact its name is derived. After the settlement of America it was introduced into Southern Europe, Asia, and Africa, where it spread with great rapidity, becoming the food of many barbarous tribes. It cannot be grown in the British Isles, or other countries of Northern Europe, because there is too little summer heat. The golden corn is another gift of America to the Old World. Eice is the principal food of more than half of mankind. In India, China, and in many tropical islands it is the "staff of life," constituting a part of every meal among the wealthy, and almost the sole food of the poorer classes. It delights in low, swampy grounds, and its growth is limited to the warm belt between 40° north and 35° south latitude. The Madeira and Tahita sugar-cane grow in the warm latitudes of every conti- nent, but some varieties of cane, such as the Chinese, mature in those parts of the Tem- perate Zone where corn is raised with suc- cess. The banana grows in the warm countries of both hemispheres. No other food plant yields so abundantly. An acre of bananas is said to produce as much nourishment as 44 acres of potatoes. Darwin tells us that in the island of Tahita, in the Pa- cific Ocean, the wild banana reaches a height of 20 to 25 feet, with stems 3 to 4 leet in circumference. The earth under the plants is sometimes thickly covered -with the fallen fruit, which grows beneath a cluster of leaves at the top of the stem. Tlie leaves are from 6 to 10 feet long and alraut 1 foot wide, and are often used as a thatch. The natives wrap the green bananas in leaves and roiust them on stones heated in a fire of sticks. The choice green parcels are then eaten with water dipped from a stream with a cocoauut shell. Mandioca, or manioc, from which tapioca is made, is indigenous to South America, but grows in other trojjical countries. Every part of this plant is useful. The leaves and stalks are eaten by horses and its turnip-like ^ LIFE ON THE GLOBE— JTOETH AMEEICA— PLANT LIFE. 47 roots are gl-odnd into pulp, which is pressed, dried, and baked, forming the principal food in Brazil and in some other coun- tries. It is a curious fact that the juice is poisonous. The bread-fruit tree is a native of the warm islands of the Pacific. The fruit grows to weigh some four pounds, and when baked resembles in taste light wheat bread. It supplies food for millions of human beings. Beverage Plants. — Cacao, of which chocolate is made, tea, and coffee grow in warm countries. The East Indies are famed for their spices. Cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper, and allspice are confined to a hot belt near the Equator. Plants Used for Clothing. — Cotton is the most important textile plant. It likes a warm climate and its range covers half the earth. The United States, Brazil, Egypt, and India supply the mills of most of the world. Silk is produced most largely in the Warm Temperate Zone. Flax and hemp delight in the climate of the Temperate Zone between 25° and 50° north. Medicinal Plants. — Quinine, sarsaparilla, castor oil, bal- sams, and gums come from the warm zones. Vegetation of Different Continents. — Owing to differences in temperature and moisture, dependent on position, elevation, the direction of prevailing winds, etc., the continents, and even different portions of the same continent, though in the same latitude, are distinguished one from the other by a character- istic vegetation. Queries. — Who was Linnseus, and why is he called great? From what poem is the couplet on page 43 taken? What is meant by "edible berries?" What is the difference between deciduous and evergreen trees? What are "pungent spices?" What are "cereals?" What plants are said to be indige- nous? What is a textile plant? What is meant by the expression "staff of life ? ' ' What does the term ' ' economic purposes ' ' signify ? NORTH AMERICA. (Plant Life.) Forests. — North America abounds in magnificent forests. In the United States alone there are no less than 800 species of trees and shrubs, 400 of which are large enough to be called trees. About 120 species grow to be 100 feet in height, 12 reach 200 feet, and 5 or 6 sometimes reach 300 or even more. Over 120 species, of which the cone-bearing form nearly one-half, are used for economic purposes. The marvelous autumn tints of our forests of deciduous trees, ranging through all shades of color from fiery red to deepest green, give our landscapes a beauty characteristic of this continent. Pacific Highland Region. — As a whole, this is the arid region of the continent, but that portion lying west of the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains has an abundance of mois- ture, and is not included in the arid section. Along the west- ern slopes of these ranges and near the coast from Cape Men- docino northward into the Dominion of Canada, are, perhaps, the heaviest forests on the globe. They are composed of differ- ent varieties of evergreen trees, thousands of which are 200 feet high, and many much larger, even up to 300 or 350 in height and from 8 to 15 feet in diameter. The redwood; the white, red, and yellow pine; the red, black, and yellow fir, and the white cedar are among the chief varieties. The Sequoi Gigantea, "Giant of the Sierras," is the largest, but not the tall- est, tree known. It is not found outside of California, and only in a few groves in that sfcite. Some of the trees now standing are over 300 feet high, and from 45 to 60 feet in girth, and the remains of those that have fallen show a still larger growth. The rings of one of these fallen trees, not of the largest size, indicate an age of 2,000 years. "The Keystone State," the tallest tree now remaining, is 325 feet in height, and its girth, six feet ifrom the ground, is 45 feet. This belt is noted not only for its trees, but for its grain, vegetables, and fruits, the latter ranging from oranges, grapes, and figs in the semi-tropical south, to apples and other orchard products in the north. From the eastern limit of the "Great Plains" to the slopes of the Sierras, and stretching from the high plateaus of Mexico to Alaska, is the region of scanty rainfall, and only three per cent of the surface is covered with forests. These forests are composed mostly of evergreens, and are found on the slopes of the higher mountains, and sometimes extend over the more elevated plateaus. Large tracts are covered with dwarf cedars and pines, of no value except for fuel. The heavier forests are in the north, vegetation decreasing toward the south, as the climate grows hotter and drier. The lower mountains, and hills in countless numbers, are destitute of trees. Most of the plateaus, plains, valleys, and bordering slopes are covered with buffalo grass, a short, tufted, nutritious grass, which once furnished food for vast herds of buffaloes that ranged over this section. But there are tracts, es- pecially in the south, so barren that one may travel for days over regions where nothing but cacti and wild sage are to be seen. Some localities in the Great Basin are so arid that absolutely nothing will grow, and the eye is greeted by broad wastes of sand or glistening alkali. Agriculture in this region must depend on irrigation. It is said that much of the land on which now grows nothing but wild sage may be made highly productive; but the water supply of the streams is far too limited to irrigate more than a small portion of these wastes. The Plains. — The Great Plains east of the Eocky Mountains are covered with buffalo grass in the north, and grama grass in the south, except in barren localities, where the prickly pear, sage brush, and yucca take their place. Near the mountains, where there are many streams, the grass is abundant. No trees are seen except in thin skirts along the water-courses, and this whole belt, from the llanos of Texas far into the Dominion of Canada, thousands of miles, is a sea of short grass suitable for pasturage. Mexico and Central America. — It is said that Mexico has over 100 species of timber-trees and cabinet- woods, 12 species of dye-woods, 17 oil-bearing plants and trees, 8 varieties of gum tree, and 60 medicinal plants. On the low coast lands, where the heat is great and the atmos- phere is humid or moist, flourish the mahogany, chocolate tree, banana, indigo plant, cotton and coffee trees, sugar-cane, and almost every variety of tropical fruit. Eising to the tierra templada, which embraces all the middle levels having an elevation of 3,000 to 8,000 feet, there is the climate of perpetual spring. Here the evergreen oak forms magnificent woods, and all varieties of grains and fruits of the 48 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— SOUTH AMERICA— PLANT LIFE. Temperate Zone are raised. On the lower portions of this region and in the valleys, oranges, lemons, figs, pineapples, grapes, sweet potatoes, and scores of luscious wild fruits abound. From 8,000 feet upward on the tierra fria the air is cooler, the sky is clear and cloudless, and all traces of tropical vegeta- tion have disappeared. The coniferous trees have taken the place of the oaks of the middle plateau, and the olive tree re- fuses to grow. Wheat and barley, however, still mature. Large tracts on the most elevated portions, and long stretches of the moun- tain summits are harren, as are the regions northward in the United States. A few stalks of grass, a cactus clump, a stunted juniper, or a half-dried yucca constitute nearly all the vegetation of this scantily watered, unsheltered soil. Atlantic Highland Region. — The Appalachian region has an abundance of rain, and is very different from the Pacific High- lands in the character of its vegetation. No other temperate climate produces so large a number of valuable hardwood trees. Forests originally clothed the mountains to their very summits — their eastern slopes to the Atlantic as well as most of their longer western slopes to the Mississippi. Most of the prairies of the United States lie west of a line drawn from Gal- veston, Texas, to Toledo, Ohio. East of this line an almost unbroken forest once stretched to the Atlantic. While the deciduous trees predominate, there are pine for- ests from Maine to Louisiana. The various kinds of oak, maple, birch, walnut, ash, spruce, and fir are found. The Ohio Valley is noted for its black walnut, its tulip and ash; Maine and the Carolinas for their fir and pine; Florida for its live oak, useful in ship building. Though the finest of the timber has been cut, and no grand, unbroken for- ests like those which Daniel Boone found in Kentucky now remain, there is still much valuable timber in the mountains throughout their whole extent, and on their eastern and we-stern slopes. Region of the Great Lakes.— From the headwaters of the Mississippi eastward over the whole region bordering on the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence to its gulf, in the United States and also in Canada as far north as James Bay, is a magnificent forest region, consisting of large tracts of pine, fir, and cedar, and other tracts of almost every variety of hardwood that grows in this latitude. Large portions of this forest have already fallen before the woodman's axe, but much timber yet remains. The Prairie Belt.— Between the plains and the timbered region is the fertile prairie belt extending from the Gulf to Great Slave Lake. Here, when summer smiles, grow the wild prairie grass and flowers — ^a sea of verdure divided by narrow belts of timber along the streams and dotted with groves of deciduous trees, circling around lakes or covering northern slopes. Fur- ther north are evergreen forests stretching along the Mackenzie River almost to the Arctic Ocean; but eastward and north of the Churchill River the trees become mere dwarfs, and, at last, are no longer seen. Grains, vegetables, and fruits flourish in the rich soil of the prairie belt wherever it has been turned by the plow. SOUTH AMERICA. (Plant Life.) Selvas of the Amazon. — The Amazon and its tributaries drain regions of great heat and moisture, favorable to a lux- uriant growth of vegetation, and here we find the largest and most wonderful forests of the globe. This forest region may be divided into three sections, the first covering the low delta from the mouth of the Xingu to the sea; the second extending 500 miles above the first; the third stretching to the Andes, at least 1,200 miles in a direct line. The palm trees are the chief among the giant vegetable growths of the delta, but they are mingled with other trees, and do not form the bulk of the forest. The ubussu palm, with its erect, stem-like column, 80 feet high, and its massive crown of fan-shaped fronds; and the jupati palm, with its leaves, each 6 feet broad and 50 feet in length, are peculiar to this section. Thousands of climbing plants overrun all the trees, and their great diversity of stem, foliage, and flower forms a striking feature of the high forest walls that everywhere border the in- terminable network of creeks and lagoons. Above the Xingu, there are wide stretches of open, sandy savanna, with coarse innutritions grass. Patches of forest are scattered here and there, and the islands and banks of all the streams are heavily wooded. The turbid, yellow river bears along uprooted trees and islets of aquatic plants torn from the banks by the waters. %¥« CAJA NUT, USED FOK MAKING WINE. GUAVA, USED FOR MAKING JELLY. Above the mouth of the Madeira, we enter a forest 1,200 miles in length and 800 to 1,000 miles in width. With the ex- ception of a few miles of road in the vicinity of the towns and the openings formed by the rivers, this forest is unbroken, with- out paths, and impenetrable. Its plants, as well as its animals, have a strange tendency to climb. Many of the creepers unite, forming huge cables or ropes of several strands, while the stalks of others are twisted in a thousand ways, coiling, like snakes, around the trunks of trees and forming gigantic folds about their thick branches. Some trail along zigzag-fashion or shape themselves like the steps of a ladder leading to great heights. Flowers and fruits are found in the mass of loliage above. All below is dark and damp, with neither green turf, flowers, nor foli- age to beautify the ground. ' 'A tropical forest is not so majestic and regular as a forest of firs and larches. It is a chaos of verdure; an accumulation of interlacing foliage where the eye vainly seeks to distinguish innumerable vegetable forms. Above the large, tufted tree-tops others are perceived, and palm trees rise united to eacli other by an inextricable network of vines. Branches and leaves of every variety are disposed in plumes, fans, and garlands; orchids expand their strange flowers in the air. Trees which have fallen from age disapi)ear under the mass of flowers, and the greater part of those still upright are themselves surrounded by spiral stems of parasites with elegant foliage." * The forest region of the Amazon spreads over the Brazilian Highlands along all the tributaries of the great river, but the * Consult Beclus, VoL L LIFE ON THE GLOBE— SOUTH AMERICA— PLANT LIFE. trees are less lofty and farther apart. There are trees whose boughs are one mass of bloom. The long, broad, glossy leaves of the swampy forests disappear, and in their stead flowers are abundant, and a vast variety of exquisite ferns ornament the glades. On the loftiest elevations the somber Brazilian pine adds to the beauty of the woodlands. The tropical forests of the Amazon extend over the eastern foot-hills and up the slopes of the Andes, the character of the vegetation changing according to elevation. One may stand on the snow line of tlie Cordilleras, with the lichen beneath his feet, and look down upon every zone of vegetation. In the tropical forests of South America grow many trees valuable for timber, resin, fiber, oil, dyes, or fruit, among which are the India rubber, Brazil wood, used for coloring, rosewood, chinchona, cacao, wax palm, aud cow-tree. Brazil nuts are the seeds of a beautiful tree which reaches the height of 100 feet. The seeds, to the number of about 24, are inclosed in a round, woody covering, nearly as large as a man's head. They are valuable for oil which is burned in lamps, as well as for food. The Llanos. — The llanos of the Orinoco, as we have learned, are immense treeless plains. During the dry season the ground is parched; deep cracks come in the earth; vegetation dies and is blown about by the winds; not a green thing, nor a living creature, is to be seen. The earth is a desert. "When the sun returns from its southern journey, bringing its welcome raiuj all nature is quickened; the apparently dead and dry roots re- vive and send up living shoots, and, in a brief period, there is a sea of waving grass and flowers. Some of the gra.ss is soft and pliable as silk and of the most nutritious qualities. It seems to melt away in the mouths of cattle that come in countless herds to feed upon it. Skirting the low-banked streams and channels on the borders of the plains are thin fringes of the palm, whose leaves are used for thatching houses and making hats and fans. These palms, seen through the hazy air of the plains, appear like distant ships. On the Lower Orinoco are dense tropical fores*^.« in which grow the lignum vitfe, whose wood is so hard that it turns the edge of the sharpest tools. Brazil wood, a valuable timber from which coloring matter is extracted, is so common that fences are made of it. On the Upper Orinoco grows the cow-tree, which Is thus described by Humboldt: "On the parched side of a rock grows a tree with dry and leathery foliage, its large, woody roots scarcely penetrating into the ground. For several months in the year its leaves are not moistened by a shower; its branches look as if they were dead and withered ; but when the trunk is bored, a bland and nourishing milk flows from it. It is at sniirise that the vegetable fountiiin flows most freely. At that time the blacks and natives are seen coming from all pai-ts, pro- vided with large bowls to receive the milk, which grows yellow and thickens at its surface. Some empty their ves.sels on the spot, while others carry them to their children. One imagines that he sees the family of a shepherd who is distributing the milk of his flock." The Pampas. — Standing on the pampas, which cover most of the region known as the Argentine Republic and much of Uruguay, the traveler sees a seemingly interminable ocean of grass and flowers. The grass is coarser than that found on the llanos, the clover, which grows wild, resembling low shrubs. On bright days distant fields of thistles, which grow so tall and thick as to afford retreats for bands of robbers, and whose stems are used for fences and huts, seem to him like forests of timber; and coarse, reedy grass around dreary marshes becomes a troop of horsemen. Lakes of clear water spread out before him to disappear when he presses forward to slake his thirst. In the southern part of this region the plains are high and the vegetation scant. The pampas form vast pasture grounds on which feed millions of cattle and horses. On the river above Buenos Ayres are whole forests of peach trees, in bloom in the month of August. The wood of the peach is so plentiful that it is used for fuel. On the delta and low borders of the stream grow dense thickets of seibo trees, a thorny plant whose branches are covered with gorgeous purple flowers, aud whose wood is used for making bowls aud other dishes. El Gran Chaco. — North of the Salado River is a famous region known as the "El Gran Chaco," or resort of wild beasts, the hunting ground of Indian tribes that here find a refuge from the Spaniards. In the rainy season the wide plains pre- sent the appearance of an ocean studded with islands. In one district are groves of palms, in another the mimosa, and so on. Near the streams the forests are so dense that the ground can scarcely hold the vegetation which springs from it. The Andes. — We have seen how the vegetation of the east- ern slopes in the Torrid Zone changes with the elevation from the most luxuriant palm and banana groves to hardy plants of the Cold Temperate and even the Polar Zone. The Pacific slope, in the region of the trade winds in Peru and Northern Chili, is a long, arid plateau, much of it an utter desert. Here and there it is crossed by narrow, deep valleys, made rich and green by THE VEGETABLE IVORY PLANT. streams formed by the melting snows of the mountains. Not a drop of rain falls on the parched earth, but, from June to October, thick mists afford moisture sufficient for the growth, in favored places, of a little verdure, which withers on the first sunny day. The long, high plateaus between the mountain ridges have little vegetation save meadows of coarse grass oSering scanty food to the llama and alpaca. The closed valleys of this region have a delightful climate, and the grains, fruits, trees, and other plants of the Temperate Zone are raised. Further south, the westerly winds give an abundance of mois- ture to the western coasts, while the eastern slopes are parched. Scarcely a tree can be found on the slopes toward the pampas in the latitude of Santiago, while the western shore and islands are green and beautiful clear down to Magellan, where the rug- ged lands are covered with dense thickets of beeches and other hardy trees of the Temperate Zone. Further north, the mountain valleys of Colombia are cele- brated for their fertility. One may find a home in a high valley 50 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— EUROPE— ASIA— PLANT LIFE. where the frost nips, where the wheat plant thrives, the apple, white clover, and dandelion bloom, or he may descend to an altitude where the plants of the Warm Temperate Zone are seen. Taking up his abode still further down the stream, where the valley broadens into low plains, he may dwell amidst broad leaves, in a land of perpetual summer and the richest perfume. "A moist atmosphere, laden with the mingled scents of the plants, escapes from the forest and spreads itself afar. In foggy weather travelers have recog- nized, at one hundred miles out at sea, their proximity to the coasts of Colom- bia by the perfumes diffused abroad." At the fall of Tequandama, in Colombia, the water plunges from the zone of apple trees and rye, and falls into that of the palms of Mauritius. Queries. — What is the difference between a savanna and a prairie? What are aquatic plants? The expression "zigzag-fashion" means what? Why are some plants called "parasites?" What is meant by "bland and nonrishiug milk?" EUROPE. (Plakt Life.) In Europe, nor, indeed, anywhere in the Old World, shall we find the vast forests or the gorgeous vegetation of tropical South America; but every country has its characteristic plants. Scandinavia has its forests of coniferous trees; Denmark its beeches, the most luxuriant in the world; England its oaks and its meadows; Germany its lime trees, its spruces, and silver firs of the Black Forest, the noblest specimens of their kind in Europe; Russia its birches; the Alps their clumps of walnut or chestnut, their forests of larches, their rhododendrons and gen- tians; France its elms and beeches; Spain its cork oaks, and Italy its cypresses, olive trees, and maritime pines. Cork is the bark of a species of oak which grows from 20 to 40 feet high. When the trees are four or five years old the outer bark cracks off in large flakes. When intended for the market this bark is stripped a year or two before it would fall off, and if care is taken the tree is not injured, and the process may be repeated once in five or six years, one tree often yielding crops for a century or longer. The bark is removed from the tree by means of a large knife with a curved blade. It is packed in bales and sent to market in that form. As seen on the chart, the plants of Europe may be divided into several zones. In the extreme north and northeast, the vegetation consists of mosses and Jichens. In the southern pen- insulas, which are sheltered from the cold north winds by the Alps and other mountain ranges; where the climate is tem- pered by the warm Mediterranean, and by the African deserts, grow palms, evergreen oaks, mulberries, oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, and vines. The pomegranate is a fruit of fine appearance that grows on a shrub. Some varieties are sweet and others slightly acid. The fruit is very refreshing in hot climates. The flowers are fine. The shrub makes a rapid growth in our South- em States. Middle Europe yields almost every variety of product be- longing to the Temperate Zone. Between the Baltic and the Ural Mountains are immense forests of pine and other cone- bearing trees. North of the Black Sea and the Caspian are steppes, with grass like that of the pampas, but with too little moisture for the growth of forests. In the south of the main body of Europe the low valleys and plains contain vineyards, grain fields, orchards of prunes and pears, and groves of walnut, chestnut, and mulberry trees. Ascending the mountains, we pass from forests of oak, and of beach, and from wheat fields, to spruces, pines, and the hardier grains; thence to shrubs, Alpine flowers, and snow. Those plants which require a mild winter are found much further north on the Atlantic coast, than further inland. Ire- land, the Emerald Isle, is named for its green fields. ASIA. (Plant Life.) "Within the boundaries of a continent that nearly touches the Equator, whose northern shores are but 12° from the pole, and whose plateaus are the loftiest in the world, we may expect to find almost every variety of vegetable life. In the extreme north, there are level, marshy wastes, scarcely above the sea, on which coarse grass and mosses grow during the short summer, when the surface of the ground is thawed to the depth of a few inches. Further south, in Middle Siberia, are extensive forests of pine, fir, spruce, birch, larch, and other hardy trees, but on their northern borders they are so stunted and feeble that the larches are mere shrubs, with branches spread over the ground. In Southern and Western Siberia the steppes are, in some parts, clothed with grass; in others, they are wastes of sand or of salt. On some of the wastes, far from running water, the plants clothe themselves with hairs and thorns, and distill gums and oils that lessen evaporation. The saksaul is perfectly leafless, and yet produces both flowers and fruit. So close is its grain that it sinks in water and emits sparks when struck with an axe. The desert regions of Western Asia, in the warm temperate belt, are the native home of some of the finest fruits. Here flourish choice apples, pears, plums, peaches, the grape, the pomegranate, and, above all, the melon. For most of these fruits, so delicious to the taste, we are indebted to the oases in these lands, — fertile islands in wastes of sand. Here, too, are fragrant rose gardens, and, where the land is irrigated, grow corn, cotton, hemp, and madder. In the same belt, on the eastern coast, in China and Japan, we find tea gardens, mulberry groves, the camphor tree, and many a rice field. The camphor laurel is a tree of considerable height, with evergreen leaves and yellowish-white flowers. Its fruit resembles a black currant. Every part of the tree has a strong odor of camphor. To procure the camphor, the wood is chopped fine, steeped and boiled in water, the steam carrying off the camphor, which is deposited in a still, in minute grains. LIFE ON THE GLOBE— AFRICA— PLANT LIFE. 61 Within the tropical belt of the mainland and islands to the south and east, we find coifee, the opium poppy, cotton, rice, and sugar; the teak, the sago palm, the bamboo, and the banyan. Here are the strong spices, the clove, the nutmeg, and the gin- ger, and here the pepper and the cinnamon. The teak is a noble tree, much used for ship building. The wood resembles mahogany, is lighter than oak, equally strong, and far more durable. Many ships built of teak have been found seaworthy after plowing the ocean for more than a century. Its flowers and leaves are used for coloring, and for medicine. In the great highland region of Central Asia we see a scanty vegetation. There are no forests except on the mountains, where grow the spruce and poplar. The little land suitable for cultivation is in the valleys, where water comes from the melt- ing snows, or from rain that falls on the slopes. A belt of oases stretches along the foot of the mountains in Turkestan. The grasses spring up in the valleys and favored places, and these are by far the most valuable vegetable products in Thibet and on the whole great Mongolian Plateau, most of which is a desert covered with rocks or drifting sands. AFRICA. (Plant Life.) The extreme northern part of Africa is in the same plant zone as the peninsulas and the islands of Southern Europe. The date palm is the tree of the desert, growing on the bor- ders and springing from the dreary wastes of sand or rock wher- ever there is a little moisture. It grows to a height of 30 to 60 feet, and is crowned with 40 to 80 leaves or frondsStolOfeetlong, beneath which hangs the fruit, or dates. The tree is highly prized, furnishing food to millions of the human race. The natives of North Africa, Arabia, and Persia use the fruit, green and dry, as a chief article of diet. Wine and vinegar are made from it. The crisp leaves at the top of the stem fur- nish "palm cabbage," which is highly esteemed as food. Palm wine is made from the .sap. The roasted seeds are used for coffee and for oil, and the refuse as food for cattle. Baskets, bags, and mats are made from the leaves, the fibers of the stems are tvristed into cordage, and the stem itself is used in building. The large oases in the desert produce the plants and fruits of the "Warm Temperate and of the Tropical Zone. South of the desert, in moist, equatorial Africa, we find a luxuriant vegetation. Along the low coasts and in many places on the streams and lakes are dense forests. In the interior are park-like regions, with large trees without undergrowth, or broad steppes with a growth of grass and flowers several feet in height. The land is exceedingly fertile, and, where cultivated, THE DATK PALM. produces medicinal plants, rice, maize, cotton, and sugar-cane. On the table-lands grow wheat, barley, and oats. Among the trees of this belt are the acacias, or gum-bearing trees, the palm- oil tree, the shea or butter tree, the bombax or cotton tree, the baobab, and the netteh, which is spread over the whole of Sou- dan, and whose fruit resembles a bean pod, and from April to June contains a sweet, pulpy substance which furnishes much of the food of caravans crossing that region. The palm-oil tree is, by far, the most important of the many species of palm growing in Central Africa. It is a thick-stemmed tree, the leaves of which begin a few feet above the ground, and as the tree grows the first leaves wither and give place to others higher up, which in turn wither as the tree becomes older. When it attains an age for bearing fruit, its graceful leaves spread in all directions, and at the point where they branch off from the stem a huge bunch of red or yellow plums appears, each bunch containing from 800 to 1,000 oil- yielding plums, and weighing in some cases 50 pounds. The oil is of deep orange red, and has a pleasant odor, as of violets. It is shipped to Europe and America, where it is used in the manufiicture of soap, candles, glycerine, and as a lubricant. The "shea" or "tree butter" is derived from the oil or fat contained in the olive-like seeds of the butter tree. The seeds are dried and then boiled to extract the butter, which is more solid and pleasant to the taste than that from cow's milk, and will keep for a year without salting. This butter forms an important article of food and of commerce. South of the Congo, the dense coast forests disappear. The land rises by a series of benches to the great central plateau, 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the sea. Eemarkable changes in the vegetation accompany the successive elevations. On the first or dry coast bench are prickly shrubs, euphorbias, and giant baobabs, with their short trunks, sometimes 100 feet in circumference, their branches loaded with gourd- like fruit. On the next plateau are taller, shadier trees and shrubs, and tall, broad-leaved grasses, which give the country a different aspect. On the highest plateau, creepers clasp the larger trees, covering them with a mass of foliage and flowers. Still further inland, where trees become scarce, gigantic grasses, growing from 5 to 15 feet high, cover the vast plains. The groundnut, or, as we call it, the peanut, a lovely creeping plant, finds its best home in this part of the continent. The region of the Kalihari Desert is remarkable for its plants with tuberous roots which lie buried deep in the parched soil ready to spring up when the rainy season comes on. One kind, called the Makuri, is seen in parts of the desert where long-con- tinued dry heat has parched the soil. It is a creeper, and, like the potato, deposits under ground a number of tubers, some as large as a man's head, at spots in a circle a yard or more from the stem. The natives strike the ground about the plant with stones, till, by hearing a difference of sound, they know the water-bearing tuber to be beneath, dig it out and drink its juice. In years when more than the usual quantity of rain foils, vast tracts of the desert are covered with wild watermelons, which seem designed to save up the supply of water for the season of drought.* In the region of Cape Colony, though there are no large for- ests, the heaths, an order of shrub plants, number 300 or 400 species and give great beauty to the landscape. In the months of September and October the countless varieties of bulbs and orchids cover the earth with blossoms that resemble a shower of gaudy butterflies. Then there are plants with hooked horns and prickles which lay hold of the clothing and invite the trav- eler to "wait a little." Wheat, maize, oats, and barley, and the strawberry, pear, guava, and European fruits thrive under culti- vation. The eastern coast of tropical Africa has valuable forests, and is capable of producing large quantities of cotton, rice, sugar, cloves, cocoa, pepper, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, cinnamon, copal gum, and other products of warm, moist regions. * See Livingstone's Travels, 62 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— AUSTRALIA— THE SEA— PLANT LIFE. Madagascar. — The vegetation along the coast of the great island of Madagascar is wonderfully luxuriant, but there are wide regions in the south which are but sandy, shadeless plains. A remarkable plant growing in many parts of the island is the "Traveler's Tree." It lielongs to the family of plantains, and sends out leaves on two opposite sides only, spreading like a huge fan. The stalk of each leaf is six to eight feet in length, and the rich, green l)lades five or six feet more. Even in the driest weather the leaf stalks of the full-grown plant always contain at least a quart of water which the thirsty traveler may djaw by piercing the base of the stalk. Queries. — Is the date palm found in the New World? What is meant by " luxuriant vegetation ? " What are tuberous roots? Why do the heaths of South Africa bloom in the months of September and October instead of April and May? Cloves are what part of the plant? Has the name "cloves" any connection with the verb cleave? AUSTRALIA. (Plant Life.) Viewed from the sea, the foliage of the Australian wood- lands is of a somber color, and without the contrasts in shade seen in our own forests, where the variety of trees is so great. The vivid green of spring, the softer hues of summer, and the changing tints of autumn are unknown. Nearly all the foliage hangs vertically from the branches, and one may ramble in the woods without being in the shade. A single variety of plants often extends over vast areas, and this, in part, accounts for the monotonous appearance of the landscape. Yet one finds spots of varied and exuberant vegeta- tion, with stately trees, countless flowering shrubs, and lovely twining plants. It is said that, "America has its prairies, Asia its steppes, Africa its deserts, and Australia its scrubs," or, as we might say in this country, extended areas covered with brush. The "Mallee" scrub is a dwarf species of the eucalyptus. The fol- lowing description is from the writings of the English natural- ist, A. E. "Wallace: "The appearance of the 'Mallee' is something like a bushy willow, or osier, the stems growing close together, like reeds; so close that there are often 10 or 12 in a square foot of ground. They grow 14 feet high without a branch, and when a road is cut through a scrub of this kind it appears like a deep trench, or as if inclosed by high walls. The aspect of such a country is very gloomy. From an eminence you see nothing but a dark-brown mass of bushes as far as the eye can reach. The surface is generally unbroken, seeming like a heaving ocean of dark waves, out of which, here and there, a tree starts up above the brushwood, making a mournful and lonely landmark. On a dull day the view is most sad, and even sunlight makes it little more cheerful, for seldom bird or living thing gives variety to the scene, while light only extends the prospect and makes it more hopeless. In the southeastern part of South Australia there is a tract, about 9,000 square miles in extent, covered with an unbroken expanse of this scrub, and similar tracts of it occur over every part of the southern half of Australia." Other scrubs are formed of bushy acacias, armed with such long spines, or thorns, that it is impossible to penetrate the mass of vegetation. There are immense level, sandy tracts, which are dusty in the dry season but boggy in the wet, covered with woody vegeta- tion called "heath," which reaches a height of about two feet. Among these plants are many with bright-colored flowers, some of which are ornaments of our green-houses. When spring comes, the heath is one wide sea of bloom. No plant of Australia probably covers so wide a surface as the spinifex, or porcupine grass, which is spread for hundreds of miles over sandy, treeless plains, rendering them almost impa-ssable to men or beasts. Fortunately it does not grow in the south, and is unknown in the settled sections. The streams are bordered by noble gum trees, belonging to the genus eucalyptus, which often attains a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 3 to 6 feet. The timber belts often mark the courses of rivers, as they wind for long distances through the scrub, giving a peculiar feature to the landscape. The leaves of the eucalyptus are leathery, and one edge is always turned toward the sky so that both surfaces have an equal amount of light. They are called gum trees because they abound in resin, which is used for medicinal and other purposes. The timber is excellent, some varieties being used for ship building. A few species of the eucalyptus form dense forests on the mountains. "In the Dendenong range, about 40 miles east of Melbourne, the ravines contain numerous trees 420 feet high, and one fallen tree was discovered which was 480 feet in length, probably the tallest tree in the world." * The most singular trees are the beefwood or the shea oak, with long droop- ing branches entirely destitute of leaves. The wood is soft but tough, and }ii\s the color of lean, raw beef. These trees are found in the wastes of the interior, but are much more plentiful in the south and west. Some of the heaths are covered with grass trees. These trees have a rough stem and grow some 10 or 12 feet high. From the top springs a Vmnch of droop- ing, wiry foliage, from the center of which rises a slender rush-like spike, which, in winter, is covered with white star-shaped flowers. Throughout the year some varieties of plants are in bloom, and the "bush" is always more or less fragrant. The acacias, of which there are several hundred species with rich, yellow blossoms, make the landscape very beautiful in the early spring. Many of the deep, sheltered mountain valleys in New South Wales have a moist, warm climate, and here are found palms and the Indian fig, with its winding branches and clinging para- sites. On the mountains in this region grows the "flame tree," whose large bunches of red flowers make the slopes conspicuous for miles out at sea. The "fire tree" of West Australia, whose orange-colored blossoms make it seem like a tree ablaze; the stenocarpus of Queensland, 50 feet high, and, in the season of bloom, covered with orange-tipped crimson stamens; and the rock lily with a flower stalk 30 feet high, bearing a crown of flowers several feet in circumference, are most interesting plants. The various grains, fruits, and vegetables of Europe and America have been introduced and cultivated with success; cot- ton, wheat, and the grape are important products. Many plains and slopes are covered with nutritious grasses. THE SEA. (Plant Life.) The sea has many delicate and beautiful plants, and others that are coarse in their structure. Some float freely on the waves, while others cling to the rocks near the shore. They are not uniform in color, like the plants on land, but are vio- let, orange, green, yellow, pink, or brown, with every interme- diate hue. Some of its plants. grow in warm water and others in cold. None but microscopic plants exist in the deepest parts of the ocean. Sea-weeds abound to a depth of 15 fathoms; they are rare below a depth of 50 fathoms, and disappear in water deeper than 200 fathoms. Along some coasts, as among the islands ofi' Alaska and British Columbia, around the Falkland Islands, and in the Straits of Magellan, sea-weeds are so thick as to impede the progress of ships by fouling their rudders and winding around their propellers. The stems of one kind of sea-weed are like cables, attaching themselves to the rocks so strongly that large boulders are lifted to the surface before the weeds can be torn from them. They are sometimes 700 feet in length. Gulf- weed, as it is called, is one of the most widely distributed plants of the ocean. It floats ux)on the water, without roots, lives and bears seed. The Sargasso. — Within the circle formed by the currents of the Atlantic is a sea of weeds called the Sargasso, covering * Consult Staoford'B Compendium of Geogta,phj.—Autti ilia. LIFE ON THE GLOBE— DISTEIBUTION OP ANIMALS. 53 thousands of square miles. The plants composing this sea are not, as was once supposed, drifted there by the circling waters, but are developed and grow floating on the surface, and without roots. They give the ocean the appearance of a vast marsh colored greenish-yellow. The companions of Columbus were filled with fear when their little ships encountered the long runners of these weeds, which held them back, and threatened to put an unhappy end to the voyage. DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. The land, the water and the air alike teem with living crea tures. Every hillside, every meadow, every tree or tuft of gra.ss has its inhabitants. Innumerable creatures find shelter under stones, bark, and decaying leaves. There is life in every direc- tion we turn our eyes. * * * * "The flowery leaf Wants not its soft inhabitants. Secure Within its winding citadel, the stone Holds multitudes. But chief, the forest boughs. That dance, unnumbered, to the playful breeze, The downy orchard, and the melting pulp Of mellow fruit, the nameless nations feed Of evanescent insects. Where the pool Stands mantled o'er with green, invisible Amid the floating verdure, millions stray. Each liquid, too, whether it pierces, soothes, Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste, With varying forms abounds. Nor is the stream Of purest crystal, nor the lucid air, Though one transparent vacancy it seems. Void of their unseen people." Nature spreads her table for these countless millions of creatures. Most of the land animals live upon plants, eating either their leaves, fruit, shoots, flowers, stems, bark, or roots. Hence, the animals of every country are dependent on its plants for their support. Even the carnivora, or flesh-eaters, would perish were there no plants to sustain the creatures they devour. In the sea, where plant life is relatively less abundant, nearly all the animals are camiverous. "The sea is a field of carnage." From what has been said, it will be seen that the habita- tion of each animal, large or small, must be limited to the region where its food is found. An animal that lives on acorns may have a range as wide as the oak. A moss-eating ani- mal is found in a region where moss grows. An animal whose food is some variety of palm must inhabit the palm zone. Animals of Different Zones. — From all this, it follows that there are zones, or belts, of animal as well as of plant life. The cireumpolar regions of North America, Europe, and Asia are Inhabited by the same species. Herds of reindeer and musk oxen feed on the moss and shrubs; the polar bear makes his supper of fish or fowl; seals bask in the scanty rays of the Arctic sun, or dive for their scaly food. There are white foxes, wolves, sables, ermines, walruses, and whales. Snowy owls, falcons, buntings, ptarmigans, and other white- feathered birds cleave the air. During the short summer, immense flocks or sea-fowl haunt the coasts. On all the promontories, and in all the inlets of Hudson Bay, Alaska, Greenland, Nova Zembla, the Hebrides, the Shetland, the Faroes, Spitzbergen, and Nor- way, the ledges and rocky islets are crowded by birds as far as one Ciin see. When they set off' for food they darken the air, and a random shot brings down dozens. The females, covering their broods, may be dispatched with a stick. The quadrupeds of these regions are clothed with the wannest fur, the birds with the choicest down, and some creatures, like the seal and the whale, are protected by layers of blubber or fat. The foxes, sables, ermine, and seals sup- ply us with fur. The eider-duck with soft down, and the whale with oiL In the Cool Temperate Zone are great numbers of fur-bearing animals. The forests, lakes, and streams swarm with them. It is the best home of the marten, the otter, the mink, the fox, the ermine, and the beaver. The wolf and the brown bear are also found. Most of the animals of the jwlar or cold belt conld not endure the heat of even the Temperate Zones. Robes of fur are too warm for the tropics. The white bear in the menagerie would melt without his cake of ice. The seal and the Arctic whale could no more sport in the tropical seas than in the flames. Going southward from the regions of cold, the abundance and variety of animated creatures increase more and more. In the Temperate Zones are found the greatest number of useful animals, such as the ox, the cow, the horse, and the sheep. The grouse and the turkey are among the game birds. Larks, thrushes, and nightingales are the Jenny Linds of song. The eagle and the hawk are birds of prey, and every boy knows the wild "tenants of the wood," the fields, and the streams. How different is the Torrid Zone where, as a writer observes, "The colossal elephant and the unwieldy rhinoceros crash through the primeval forests; the lion, the tiger, and other pred- atory beasts prowl through the thickets seeking for their prey; on vast plains countless herds of antelope browse in fancied se- curity, or dash swiftly past at the approach of danger; gigantic snakes lie coiled in horrid folds among the bushes, or hang from the trees awaiting their victims. The air and the trees swarm with birds of gorgeous plumage, and insects of strange forms and brilliant colors. Nor are the waters of this zone less bounti- fully provided with inhabitants; every form with which we are acquainted in our own seas is here represented, but with still greater profusion and variety." * But animals have the power of locomotion, and many of them are not confined to one locality, but range over vast regions in quest of food, or, as they are impelled by the change of seasons, sometimes crossing the boundaries of the zones. Who has not watched water-fowl on their way to the northern lakes and streams, when spring was breaking the icy bonds? The birds that gladden us with songs when summer is here, fly southward on the approach of winter. They follow the summer and have no winter in their year. Then there are the wild pigeons that sometimes darken the sky for days when on their way to dis- tant feeding or nesting grounds. Among insects, vast swarms of locusts or grasshoppers come from the deserts to devour every green thing. In Europe the swift swallow and the cuckoo wing their way in summer beyond the Arctic Circle, but before winter sets in they have crossed the sea to the mild air of Northern Africa. " In September the stork abandons the thatched roof of the German peasant to perch on the cupolas of Egypt or Tunis, but in spring, when the air of Africa becomes too hot and dry, finds its way back to its German nest on the roof." Among the larger animals, the bison, which once inhabited our western plains, pressed far to the north during the short summer, when the plains and slopes of the high latitudes were green, but swept southward in vast herds on the approach of winter. Ifroves of wild reindeer crop the moss and coarse grass of the low coasts of Northern Siberia in summer, but move to the south when the snows bury their food. Only a limited number of animals are fitted to spread over wide regions, or to endure great diversities of climate. The majority are confined to their own district, beyond which they cannot stray. Some species live in forests, others in marshes or swamps, others on open plains; some require the moist, hot air of the tropics, while others need the chilling blasts of the poles. Animals that can endure great differences of temperature, or * Comult Jotuuon's Natural History. 64 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— NOETH AMEEICA— ANIMAL LIFE. that can live on many kinds of food, may find obstacles to their diffusion. Snow-covered mountain ranges may prevent them from reaching other regions where they could find an abun- dance of food and shelter; barren deserts may stretch between their present abodes and other lands equally as well adapted to their existence. Bodies of water often intervene to keep ani- mals, as well as plants, of opposite shores distinct. The oceans are barriers which no quadrnpeds, and but few birds, can cross. Man has aided in the wide distribution of the most useful animals. The ox, the cow, the horse, the domestic sheep, the goat, the cat, the dog, the barn-fowl, and even the honey bee, were conveyed across the deep by him, and have found homes in the New World, in Australia, and in New Zealand. The dog lias a wider range than almost any other animal. He can live in the Frigid Zone, where he draws his master swiftly over the snow ; in the Tem- perate Zone, where he shares the hunter's toil, and watches the bleating flocks; and in the Torrid Zone, where he keeps his indolent master company, or with his hairless body draws the fever from his master's frame. The same quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and insects are not found in all portions of the Temperate or of the Torrid Zone. Huge animals are not seen in every tropical forest; the same varieties of insects do not hover over every tropical pool. The thrush, the nightingale, and the lark do not sing, nor does the bald eagle soar in all lands of the Temperate Zone. Then, again, the mountains, plains, and forests of a conti- nent, though crossed by the same parallel, are often inhabited by different animals, dependent on the vegetation of the sev- eral regions. For these reasons we shall do well to take a sur- vey of the animal life of each of the continents. NORTH AMERICA. (Animal Life.) Among the animals peculiar to North America are the griz- zly bear, the pouched rat, the mocking bird, the bluejay, the blue crow, and the rattlesnake. That portion of the continent where the winters are long and severe has a large number of fur-clad animals. Some of these live wholly upon the land, and others about the lakes and streams where their food is found. The musk ox and the rein- deer are seen during the short summer feeding on the moss and stunted plants of the far north, but in winter they retreat to the forest regions further south. The seal is very abundant on the coast and islands of Alaska and of Labrador. After the ice disappears, innumerable water- fowl congregate about the lakes and streams. These northern regions are famous breeding places for several varieties of birds and the sea ledges are sometimes covered with nests. The mnsk ox Is peculiar to the polar regions of North America. It is about one-third the size of the common ox, one of them weighing from 300 to 400 pounds. The horns are broad at the base, covering the brow and crown of the head. The hair is mostly brown, and so long that it hangs below the middle of the leg. The legs are short, but the animal runs fa.st, and easily scales rocky ledges impassable to horses. They live in herds of 20 or 30, and are much huntetl by the Rsquimaux. The flesh, when lean, has a strong musky flavor, but is relished by the inhabitants of those regions. In the temperate portion of the continent are found the bison, nearly or quite extinct, the grizzly and black bear, the panther, the moose, the elk, and the deer, the Eocky Mountain sheep, the antelope, the red and gray fox, prairie and timber wolves. Among the smaller quadrupeds are beavers, otters, muskrats, minks, raccoons, badgers, opossums, weasels, hares, porcupines, wobdchucks, gophers, prairie dogs, and squirrels. There are numerous reptiles, of which the rattlesnake is the most widespread and dangerous. The alligator, of the southern bayous and streams, attains a length of 14 or 16 feet. There are several hundred species of birds, many of them peculiar to this continent. The wild turkey, now disappearing, the grouse, the partridge, and the quail are found. The bald eagle, the hawk, the buzzard, the crow, the vulture, and the owl are among the rapacious birds. Herons, cranes, and rails are seen. Swans, wild geese, pelicans, and ducks are the chief water-fowl. Larks, robins, thrushes, bluebirds, humming birds, kingfishers, orioles, cedar birds, whip-poor-wills, grosbeaks, cat- birds, and jays are a few of the smaller birds. Fish are found in almost endless variety; the chief sorts are brook and lake trout, shad, salmon, whitefisli, which are pe- culiar to the Great Lakes; herring, halibut, mackerel, bass, pike, pickerel, perch, and bluefish. I'KAIRIE-DOU VILLAUK. The prairie dog, or Wish-ton-wish of the Indians, lives in burrows on the prairies of the Missouri and Platte rivers, and also further south in Texas and New Mexico, and on the borders of Sonora and California. Often hundreds of families are collected in villages, or "dog-towns," as they are called by trappers. At the opening of each hole is a small mound on which the dog, or, more prop- erly, squirrel, may be seen stretched up and looking about. Burrowing owls and rattlesnakes resort to the holes of the prairie dogs, whether as welcome guests or otherwise the naturalist has not fully decided. Besides animals similar to those found further east, the Pa- cific Highlands have a number peculiar to that region. Among them are the grizzly bear, the big-horn, or mountain sheep, and the prong-horned antelope, the only kind found on this conti- nent. The Columbia and other streams are noted for their salmon. There are 180 varieties of edible fish in the waters of the Pacific coast. In the sterile regions where the sage brush grows one meets with the sage cock, or the ' ' Cock of the Plains," a species of grouse, and the jack rabbit. In the region of the Colorado, where the true canon country is reached and the grasses and flowers give place to sage, to cacti, and bare rock, the game changes, the deer and elk give pUice to the coyote, rattlesnake, and centipede. Major Powell says: ' 'Among the buttes on the lower terraces rattlesnakes crawl, lizards glide over the rocks, tarantulas stagger about and red ants build their play- house mountains. Sometimes rabbits are seen and wolves prowl in their quest, but the desert has no bird of sweet song and no beast of noble mien." The eastern slopes of the liocky Mountains forming the Great Plains were once the feeding ground of that noblest of American animals, the bison. It is but a few years since millions of these creatures were seen by the traveler, and wagon trains crossing the plains were sometimes delayed for hours, waiting for herds to sweep past. The animals were so numerous as, occasionally, to dam large streams at their fording places. Hunters from all parts of our own country, and even from Europe, pursued the bison, slaughtering thousands for mere sport, and it is now nearly or quite extinct. The feeding grounds of the bison are becoming the great pasture region of the continent. Herds of cattle, and flocks of sheep, each numbering hundreds, or perhaps thousands, now range in the mountains, plateaus, and valleys along the slopes and on the bordering plains from Texas to Canada. LIFE ON THE GLOBE— NOETH AMEEICA— ANIMAL LIFE. 55 The wild ani- mals of the tem- perate regions of Mexico are similar to those further north. One hears the bark of the wolf and the coyote on the plains. Herds of cattle, droves o horses, and flocks of sheep are seen. A great variety of brilliant colored parrots and humming birds are found in the low, hot re- gions near the coast. The puma, or American lion, the jaguar, and the ocelot are the largest flesh-eating animals. Noxious insects, like the ta- rantula and the scorpion, are common. The cochi- neal insect is an important article of commerce. This tiny creature feeds on a species of cactus resembling the prickly pear. It is so small that 70,000 of them are cal- culated to make hut a pound, when prepared for sale. The insects are gathered by brushing them from the plant by means of a soft brush like the tail of a squirrel. They are killed by scalding or by heating in ovens. Cochineal is used for dyein" scarlet and cnmson. ° The cochineal plant was cultivated by the Mexicans hun- dreds of years l)efore the country was known to Europeans. It is now grown in the West Indies, in Peru, and in the Canary Islands. From the Great Plains eastward to the Atlantic countless numbers of horned cattle, horses, sheep, and swine have taken the place of the larger game animals, which are now seldom seen except in un- settled forest regions. AJsiftiALS ui- &ULIH AMKBICA, 56 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— SOUTH AMERICA— ANIMAL LIFE. SOUTH AMERICA. (Animal Life.) South America has comparatively few animals in common with other continents. No ox, horse, sheep, or goat is a native of the continent. The wild cattle and horses, now found in vast numbers on its treeless plains, were first introduced by Euro- peans. It is especially rich in birds, some of which are of large size, and many are of beautiful plumage. Reptiles are numer- ous, and insect life is immensely varied and abundant. Its most formidable beasts of prey are the jaguar, or South American tiger, which is found almost everywhere, and the puma, or lion, a much smaller beast than the lion of Africa. Visiting the regions of the Orinoco and of the llanos when the vegetation is green, we see millions of cattle feeding on the nutritious herbage. Prodigious numbera of birds have migrated hither from all quarters. Cranes, herons, storks, and ibises, of various sizes and colors, are sometimes seen in colonies extend- ing for miles. Some of these birds are snow-white, some a deli- cate blue, others gray or pink, and many a brilliant scarlet. One kind of crane is called the soldier, from its erect bearing and martial air. " The pools are the resort of myriads of ducks, which, when disturbed, rise in such numbers as to darken the sun. During the moulting season, when the ducks are unable to fly, the people of the country are said to visit the lagoons and drive home all the wild ducks they desire for food." The marshes harbor the anaconda, an enormous water-snake, and the woods, the boa-constrictor. These snakes cause havoc among the herds of the llano farmers. Calves and colts straying near the pools fall an easy prey to such monsters. Alligators swarm in the rivers, and venomous serpents lie concsaled in meadows and thickets. Besides delicious turtles and edible fish, the waters contain many strange creatures. The sting-ray has a long spine near the end of its tail which may pierce the foot of the bather; the caribe resembles a goldfish in form, and is armed with three-edged, saw-like teeth, with which it tears the wounds of cattle that venture into the streams. It is the pest of Venezuelean rivers. The electrical eel abounds in the slimy bottoms of still pools, and stuns horses that come to quench their thirst. In the dry season, when the vegetation on the llanos is dead, all this is changed. The horses and cattle have gone to the mountain slopes, where the pastures are green, the birds have flown, and the reptiles lie buried in the mud. All await the return of the sun, and with it the rain. In the densest forests of the Amazon, the number of indi- vidual animals is not so great as in the more open regions. They are numerous only in favored spots. Large tracts seem almost untenanted, while others swarm with life. Travelers speak of the awful stillness and somber shade of these prime- val woodlands. " At times there echoes in the midst of the deep silence a sudden shriek of anguish or alarm, for a moment arresting the beating of the heart. It is the cry of some luckless herbivorous creature that has unexpectedly fallen a prey to some member of the feline order, or become entangled in the coils of a lx)a- constrictor. Morning and evening the numerous apes of the howler tribe set up a horrible din, increasing tenfold the inhospitable character of the forest." All the numerous species of monkeys are climbers, and, with one exception, none of them are ever seen on the ground. They are born to play, eat, and sleep in the tree-tops. Lizards and frogs exist in great variety, and many of them are climbers. In places, as in the Gran Chaco, brilliant parrots, in incredible numbers, keep up their incessant clatter. More than 400 varie- ties of humming birds of every hue dart from flower to flower on the tropical forest slopes of the Andes. Bates, the naturalist, who spent eleven years on the banks of the Amazon, collected 14,712 animals, 8,000 of which were new to men of science. Insects exist in great abundance. Fireflies light up the forest, locusts deafen the ear with their shrill sounds, and gay butterflies frequently fiU the air in all directions. When there is a strong land breeze blowing off the coasts of Brazil, clouds of butterflies and other insects are sometimes blown out to sea, and Darwin tells us that the seamen cried out, "It is snowing butterflies." "So large was the flock that no space could be seen, even with a telescope, which was free from them." The pampas are noted feeding grounds for horses and horned cattle. The nandu, or South American ostrich; the little oven bird, so called because it builds its nest like au oven, and other small species of birds are found. The armadillo is also at home in this region. MONKEYS AM) ALI.HiATOK. The llama, the alpaca, and the vicugna dwell in the Andes region, where flies the condor, and the puma prowls in quest of his prey. The llama, the alpaca, and the vicugna are three very iraportiint animals of the same genus, dwelling in the higlier Andes. The formr" is a beast of bur- den, capable of working in the thin mountain air, where the pressure is only 8 or 10, instead of 15, pounds to the square inch. Mules are used to convey merchandise to an elevation of about one mile. The packs are then placed on the llamas and carried over the higher slopes and the great plateaus. The alpaca resembles the llama, but is rather smaller. Its body is covered with long, fine, straight wool, much used iu manufactures. These animals are domesticated and kept in flocks. The vicugna is extremely wild and active, and is considered untamable. It is somewhat smaller than the aljKica, and its fine hair is more valuable. It is obtained by hunting and slaughtering the animal. Several varieties of turtles are very abundant on the Orinoco and the Ama^ zon. Early in the month of March they assemble on the few islands where they breed, when thousands are to be seen ranged iu lines along the shores. The animal digs a hole three feet in diameter and two in breadth with its hind feet, which are very long and furnished vrith crooked claws. The laying of the eggs begins soon after sunset, and is continued throughout the night. One tor- toise lays from 100 to 116 eggs. The egg ground is divided into portions, and the natives remove the earth-covering with their hands, and carry the eggs in baskets to the camp. LIFE O'S THE GLOBE— EUROPE— ANIMAL LIFE. ■•-.%+^ fur-bearing are the most important in tiie north. Bears, wolves, several kinds of deer, and the wild boar are still found in the great forests of the central countries. The chamois is the most noted and beautiful animal of the Alps. Here, too, are the eagle and the lammergeyer, or lamb-killer. Barbary apes are found in Spain. The reptiles of Europe are small and generally harm- less. The birds do not compare with those of South America in brilliancy of plumage, but there are many sweet singers to make glad the homes of rich and poor. The nightingale, or "night singer" of the Saxons, the finest of European song-birds. Is not larger than the bluebird of America, and is very plain in appearance. Its delightful song is heard chiefly in y; the still nights of May and June, but it also sings during the p day. Though so small a bird its voice may be heard a mile. ' ' They are abundant iu the pleasure grountls around London, in the parks and gardens of Paris, and Florence rings with them during the vocal sea^ son." The bird spends its winter in the warmer parts of Asia and Africa, but migrates as far north as Sweden, in April or May. Cod, herring, and salmon abound in the northern coast waters; and the sar- dine, the anchovy, and the tunny are found iu the Mediterranean. Questions. — Of the animals represented, how many are useful to man? Which one is most useful? Is the African elephant used as a beast of burden? In what countries is the camel of most service? For what is the eider duck valued? About which of these animals has Sir Walter Scott written? What is the meaning of the word lammergeyer? What bird of our own country resembles the lammergeyer? In what way has the artist shown the character of the chamois? Which of the animals are carnivorous? Which are herbiv- orous? How many are found on more than one continent? How many are peculiar to Africa? To Asia? To Europe? Why did the artist plaice the lion in that position? What use may the man have for his spear? 68 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— ASIA— AFEIC A— ANIMAL LIFE. ASIA. (Animal Life.) Most of our domestic animals had their native home in Asia. From that land came the cow, the horse, the ass, the goat, the sheep, the pig, the cat, the peacock, and the barn-fowl. Cattle, horses, asses, and goats ai e found on the steppes and vast pla- teaus, wherever there is sufficient herbage. Flocks and herds form the chief wealth of all Middle Asia. The yak and the cashmere goat are sgen on the table-lands of Thibet. Goats inhabit most p.arts of tlie world, and live on scanty herbage where other domestic animals could scarcely lind a footinji;. Their flesh and milk are wholesome food; their undressed skins furnish warm clothing for a large part of tlie mountain shepherds and peasiiiits of Europe and temperate Asia. Many an infant in those lands is nursed by a goat. Kid gloves and the finest morocco shoes are made from goat skins. The most expensive shawls, costing from $500 to $1,000, are made from the hair of the cashmere goat. Skins of the goat with the hair on form the knapsack of the soldier, the wig of the lawyer, the bishop, and the judge. The horns of the goat make excel- lent knife-handles, and the tallow furnishes candles for many a cottage home. Their salted and dried hams make tlie best "rock venison," and superior cheese from goat's milk is the boast of many a mountain dairy. The yak, or "grunting ox," is extensively bred in Thibet and the adjacent parts of Central Asia, and is very useful to the inhabitants of those elevated regions. There are several breed.s, as the "plow yak," the "noble yak," and "wild yak." Tlie color of the animal is black, the back and tail often white, the hair is thick and long, and the tail long, silky, and beautiful. The horns are like those of a common ox. The legs are short, but the animal is as tall as a large ox. Over his shoulder hangs a great mass of hair, which has the appearance of a hump. The beautiful tails are dyed red and used for military standards and to ornament the caps of the Chinese. It is a sure-footed beast, and bears ita rider over dangerous passes and along the brink of yawning gulfs. Ita flesh is Siiid to be superior to venison. The largest wild animals inhabit the forests south of the Himalayas. In this region the elephant is used as a beast of burden. There are the Bengal tiger, a terribly ferocious beast, the great yellow lion, the rhinoceros, the hyena, the orang- outang, crocodile, and pythons of monstrous length, and many species of poisonous snakes. Monkeys and parrots abound. In the cold north are birds and fur-bearing animals like those in Europe and North America; but the sable, the civet, marten, blue and silver fox, and other creatures, highly valued for their fur, are rapidly disappearing before Siberian hunters and trappers. AFRICA (Animal Life.) In the Atlas region on the north are found the domestic animals, including the camel and the dromedary. Among the larger wild animals are the graceful gazelle and the antelope. The eagle circles round the mountain peaks; the swallow skims through the air, fattening on the swarms of musquitoes; the cuckoo's note is heard; the stork, from Europe, spends the winter there, building its nest on the terraces of houses, the belfries of churches, or in the minarets of the mosques, and dining on grasshoppers, frogs, lizards, and snakes. The boom of the heron is heard in the swamps, the swan sits gracefully on the water, and the grebe, whose costly satin feathers are used for trimming ladies' dresses and for muffs, dives in the waters of lakes and bays. The camel is the beast of the Great Desert. Further south, in tropical Africa, the rhinoceros is found in the jungles, the hippopotamus in the shallow lakes, pools, and streams, on whose banks grows the coarse food he eats. The elephant and the giraffe delight in the more open forests. In the deep shade dwell the monkey, the chimpanzee and the man- like gorilla, and numberless parrots and other bright-colored, noisy bl rdS. «^ ,^,^,^^ having one hump. On the great plains and in the scrub region extending far to the south are the striped zebra and the quagga, and no less than sixty species of antelope, some of them of great size and beauty. The antelope is seen in herds, sometimes numbering 100,000. The buffalo is found in South Africa, but it has never been tamed and used as a beast of burden as in some parts of the Old World. The crocodile is seen in all the large rivei'S and lakes of the continent. HUNTINO THE GORIILA. The ostrich is the most remarkable bird. It delights to dwell in the regions bordering the great deserts, but it has been tamed, and "ostrich farming" is now an important industry in South Africa. The ostrich is six to eight feet high. Its feet consist of two toes ; the head and neck are nearly naked; the plumage is loose, and the quill feathers of the wings and tail are remarkable for their length. These are the well-known ostrich featliers which are so highly prized as ornaments. Ostriches live in small flocks and feed upon grass, grain and the tops of plants. The nest is a hole scrajied in the ground, in which several hens lay their eggs, the points of the eggs being turned downward. During the day the hens tiike turns in sitting, but the stronger male bird goes on the nest at night, to pro- tect the eggs or young from prowling jackalls. cats, or other enemies. Each egg weighs about three pounds, and they are considered very palatable food. The distant cry of the ostrich is often mistaken for the roar of the lion. It runs more rapidly than the swiftest horse, and its speed is lessened but little with a man on its back.* The social weaver birds are found in large numbers in Southern Africa, north of the Orange Eiver. Hundreds unite in building a roof or thatch of grass, under which they con- struct a huge nest with a compartment for every bird. There are many entrances, each forming a regular street, with nests on both sides. The nest is usually built in the top of a tall tree, but, where trees are not found, shrubs are sometimes selected. Among numerous insects, termites, a kind of ant, which build tall, cone-like houses, often mistaken for the huts of na- tives, are the most remairkable. They boldly attack almost every living creature, and destroy everything except stones and metals. Locusts fly in immense swarms, and no green thing is left on a field where they light. They are used as food by many tribes, and with the wild honey, which is abundant in some parts of the continent, form no mean diet. • Consult Johnson's Natural History. LIFE ON THE GLOBE— AUSTRALIA— THE SEA— ANIMAL LIFE. 59 AUSTRALIA. We found Australia very pecu- liar in its vegetable life, and we shall find it even more peculiar in the character of its animals. It has no "The great red kangaroo is five feet high and sometimes weighs 200 pounds. They are hunted with dogs trained for the pur])Ose, and run very swiftly. When brought to bay they will sit upright against the trunk of a tree and often rip open a dog with the • large nail of the middle toe." There are twenty-three varieties of hats, of which one called the "flying fox," or fruit-eating bat, is the largest and most remarkable. , Their wings are several feet in extent. They pass the day suspended by the hind feet, from branches in the thick shade, or in the crevices of rocks, but leave their abodes of gloom during the still night, while the inhabitants are asleep, and devour large quantities of fruit in gardens and fields. There are several species of "flying opossum," beautiful creatures, whose skins are used rugs. They have a membrane joining the fore and hind leg, which they spread as they fly, the same our flying squirrels. Some varieties are nearly three feet in length to the tip of the tail, and others very small. No other temperate climate of the world equals Australia in the variety of form, the beauty of plumage, and the peculiar habits of its birds. Its parrots and cockatoos are numerous, and more beautiful than those of most tropical countries. It has its honeysuckers, that live on the sweeta of innumerable flowers; and bower birds, that con- struct bowers of twigs and branches, and decorate them with colored feathers, lx)nes, and shells. Then there is the jungle-fowl, or mound-builder, which gathers an immense heap of sticks and other vegetable matter, on which her eggs are laid. Sand is then piled over them, and they arc left to hatch by the heat of the sun. Some of the mounds are 15 feet high and 60 feet in circum- ference. Song-birds are abundant, and their notes equal those of our favorites. The wonderful whistler, the musical magpie, or piping crow, gives the most charming music. Australia is said to have 630 distinct species of birds, while North America, lying in three zones, has but 720, and Europe but 500. Of lizards there are 140 varieties, and some 70 varieties of snakes, many of which are venomous. There are 300 kinds of land shells, most of which are of curious shape or elegantly colored. THE SEA. (Animal Life.) native oxen, deer, or ante- lopes; no cats, wolves, or bears; no elephants, rhi- noceroses, or pigs; no apes or monkeys; no weasels, hedgehogs, squirrels, or porcupines. The different domestic animals of the Temperate Zone are now widely introduced. Many cattle and millions of sheep graze on the hills and plains. The marsupial, or pouch-bearing, animals are nu- merous. Some are as tall as a man, and others nearly or quite as small as a rat. The largest often weigh as much as a sheep. They are born very feeble, and are at once placed in a pouch of loose skin with which the mother is provided. The kangaroos are the most re- markable of the marsupials. Of these there are more than forty small, and nine large species. The sea is crowded with living creatures, some of which are far larger than any animals on land. Whales have been caught that weighed nearly 200 tons. Scoresby saw a rorqual whale in the polar seas which measured 120 feet in length, and not less than 60 feet in girth. Animals of great .size, such as walruses, sea-cows, dolphins, and sharks, are very numerous, and some of these monsters are found in schools of thousands. But it is the multitude of creatures that throng the deep, rather than their size, that fills us with the greatest surprise. "The sounds and seas, each creek and bay, With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals Of fish that with their fins and shining scales Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft Bank the mid sea; part single or with mate Graze the sea^weed, their pasture, and through groves Of coral stray; or sporting with quick glance, 60 LIFE ON THE GLOBE— THE SEA— ANIMAL LIFE. Show to the sun their waved coats dropped with gold; Or, in their pearly shells, at ease, attend Moist nutriment; or under rocks their food In jointed armor watch; on smooth, the seal And bended dolphins play; part huge of bulk, Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait, Tempest the ocean." Schools of herring, mackerel, and other food fishes, number- ing millions upon millions, gather in the cool waters ofif many coasts, to become the prey of thousands of men, who garner the harvests of the deep. But man is not the worst enemy of these animals. "The sea is an immense field of carnage, where the creatures which are born in infinite myriads, serve also as food to millions and tens of millions of furious devourers. When the herrings penetrate into the North Sea, it seems as if an immense island had risen, and that a continent was about to emerge; but this island or continent of fishes is beset and eaten on all sides. "Each detachment of the mighty army, about 30 miles long, and from 6 to 6 broad, is accompanied by legions of great sea animals, which press in bands around the serried columns, and never cease swallowing herrings by hundreds. Birds, flying in clouds above the scene of the immense slaughter, plunge down on all sides to select their victims." — Redus. Some parts of the sea are so filled with living creatures that its color is changed by them. Off the coast of South America, Darwin saw large tracts, colored yellow, bright red, and chocolate, by minute creatures, some of them so tiny that a small drop of water, when viewed by the microscope, was seen to contain many hundreds. E"orth of the Canaries, in 1856, a traveler saw a swarm of medusfe covering a space forty-five miles wide. Off the headlands of Granada, these animals at times so crowd the surface of the sea as to color it yellow for many miles from the coast. Seamen near the coast of Greenland find bands of water, hundreds of miles in area, colored brown, or olive-green. Navigators in the Indian Ocean have found tracts as white as milk, each drop an animated world, or, as the Peruvians say, "living water." ThemedusMB bear the popular names, "jelly fishes," "sea blubbers," and sea nettles. They are not what are commonly known as fish, but minute creivtnres that throng the sea from the Equator to the poles. Some can be seen only by the aid of the microscope, while others form jelly-like masses that float on the waves. Many species of medusa; shine with phosphorescent light. Some appear in the depth like balls of fire, or like ribbons of fiame moving througli the water. Others sparkle like diamonds on the rocks and sea weed; some float in shoals, di.splaying the lovely hues of the rainbow; while others, like orbs of silver, glitter as they float on the rolling current. As the darkness comes on, the voyager sees sheets of yellow or greenish light trembling on the water; the waves tipped with flame; whirlpools of sparks at the vessel's prow; waves of flame on either side, and a long river of fire in the track of the ship. This is called phosphorescence of the sea. In the port of Havana the least object that agitates the surface of the water is said to appear like a point of flame, and raises around it a series of luminous wavelets. Rowboats sailing over the waters leave behind them the trace of a fiery dragon with extended paws. In the Persian Gulf the waves are often so luminous during the night that the Arabs attribute the reflections to infernal fixes shining through the rocks beneath. Animals of the sea have their zones as well as those of the land. In the polar seas, stretching as far south as Labrador, on the eastern coast of North America, and including Behring Sea on the west, the species of animals are not so numerous as in the Torrid Zone, but the number of individuals of any species is usually very great. When the ice of the rivers flowing into the polar ocean breaks up in the spring, some varieties of flsh from the sea fairly crowd the waters. Of the animals inhabiting this region the seal, the walrus, and the whale are most useful, furnishing fur, oil, ivory, and whalebone. In the Cold Temperate Zone, following, to some extent, the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, are found a great abundance of cod, herring, mackerel, and other food fishes. In this belt are the coast waters of New England, Canada, the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Iceland, the British Isles, and the coast of Nor- way, all swarming with excellent fish. The same fish belt touches the northern portion of our western coast from Cali- fornia to Alaska and the Japan Islands, and Asia in the higher latitudes. In the Torrid and the Warm Temperate Zones crossing the Atlantic and Pacific, and including the whole of the Indian Ocean, the marine animals are the most varied in form and brilliant in color. The waters teem with living creatures. Here corals construct their myriad islands, and moUusks, or shell fish, appear in countless forms. In the Southern Hemisphere the animals of the sea change with the zones, but less is known of that portion of the globe. It must not be supposed that we can bound the different animal zones of the sea by parallels of latitude. Some creatures live in water that is very cold, others delight in that which is warm, and others still, in water of moderate temperature. A cold current, as that from Greenland, may be followed far to the south by whales, walruses, or seals, whose best home is in the colder regions; and a warm current, as tlie Gulf Stream, may carry some of the life of the tropics to the north. Then, too, animals must live where their food is abundant, and we do not find them wandering at will over all parts of the sea, but confined to their feeding grounds the same as animals on land. It is probable that animal life, though most abundant near the surface, exists at all depths in the ocean. Some creatures are adapted to deep and others to shoal water. Certain species of fish are known to live at a depth of about three miles. Deep- sea fishes are usually of a very dark or dull color, and some of them are sightless, possessing mere rudimentary eyes. They are born to dwell where the sun's rays never penetrate. LIFE ON THE GLOBE — MANKIND. 61 MANKIND. The human family is divided into several races. The divi- sion is based on differences in color, features, industrial habits, mental and moral qualities, and social institutions. The five races recognized by most writers are the Caucasian, or white, the Mongolian, or yellow, the Negro, or black, the Indian, or red, and the Malay, or brown. Each race is sub- divided into groups, families, or tribes, differing from one an- other somewhat, but having the same general characteristics as the race to which they belong. The Caucasian race takes its name from the Caucasus Moun- tains, near which many suppose it to have originated. The skin is light, the skull large, the face oval, the forehead ex- panded, the chin full, and the teeth vertical. The Mongolians have a yellow complexion, broad face, low, retreating forehead, oblique eyes, and dark, straight hair. The Chinese and Japanese are the finest examples of this race. In their aative country, the negroes are mostly barharians; but in America they have shown themselves capable of great progress. The Malays have made little advance in civilization. Many of them have not risen above the lowest stage of savage life; but a few have learned to write, and have written laws. They take naturally to the sea, and often are pirates. The Indians of North America are savages; those of South America had made, in some instances, considerable progress in civilization when the conti- nent was discovered. Man in the Different Zones.— But few tribes of men dwell in the awful solitudes within and bordering upon the Frigid Zone. In this belt, including a portion of three continents, the constantly frozen ground yields but few plants suitable for food, and man is largely dependent upon the bounty of the sea. His hut of ice or rough stone is built near the coast, and we see him entering it on "all-fours," creeping along a dark passage. He has neither wood nor coal for grate or hearth, and warms himself by a lamp placed near the center of his hut. SPECIMENS OF THE FIVE CLASSES OF MANKIND. The Negro race is black or dark brown, with woolly hair, low forehead, thick lips, flat nose, and prominent cheek bones. The Indian race is of a copper color, with coarse, straight, black hair, high cheek bones, aquiline nose, large mouth, and lean, muscular frame. The Malay race is brown, with black hair, low forehead, short, broad nose, and projecting jaws. The Caucasian and Mongolian races are supposed to be nearly equal, each comprising about two-fifths of mankind. The Negro race includes about one-seventh, the Indian, about one-hundredth, and the Malay, about one twenty-fifth of the entire human family which numbers nearly 1,440,000,000. In all historical ages the Caucasian has been the leading race of the world. From it have sprung great scholars, inventors, and discoverers. It takes first rank in governmental, educational, and religious systems; and in most things that contribute to the highest welfare of mankind. The Mongolian ranks next to the Caucasian. In China and Japan it has reached a high state of civilization, and rapid progress is being made, especially in the latter country. BSQUIMAU.X. In his leathern kyak, or boat, he ventures among the float- ing ice to spear a fish or a seal, the latter furnishing most of his food and clothing, as well as oil for his lamp. The dog shares his master's toil, drawing him over fields of ice and snow. During the long polar winter, the sun itself hides its face for a time, and the Esquimau gropes about in the twi- light, famine often staring him in the face. We are told by Lieut. Greely, and other arctic explorers, that the people who inhabit these desolate regions are so strongly attached to their native land that they sicken when obliged to leave it; that they are loving, truthful, and generous; that the fomily, living together in one little room, are "all the world to one another," and that a few simple pleasures fill their cup of joy. In very many portions of the Torrid Zone one has only to shake the branches of a tree, or to pull roots from the ground, in order to supply himself with wholesome and delicious food. He may tap some plant or pluck some watery fruit to quench his thirst. He constructs a simple hut of bamboo stems, and thatches it with palm leaves to shelter himself from sun and rain. Little clothing is needed. O *- a 2 88 be rt *^ t; Of o a o aS o a £^j O 1^ C5 O ju a t3 cfi ggS3 o ^ ^ S o >-■ is % > S ■§ ft tc_g |-3'i "So 2 a Hi •5 s 58 =3 ^ .* ^ o. x; \c a "K 2 GO W 5; S 5 S) o V. -3 t3 H .s 5 CO U H ^ ?, Di bC &< -a: ^ 8 E C_) ^.a » "S ft a ^■s 5 ? ^€ ^ ^ > P" «a CJ >' ^ Pa LIFE ON THE GLOBE— MAISTKIND— TEST QUESTIONS. 63 Nature provides everything at the proper time, and man prefers to depend on her bounty rather than use his hands or brain. Forethought is unnecessary, for no winter or time of scarcity is coming. The Torrid Zone is the best home of sav- ages, and millions of them people the continents and islands of this belt. In the Temperate Zones there are alternations of heat and cold; the seasons come and go; the climate is bracing, and man is incited to constant activity and forethought. He needs food, clothing, and shelter, but must labor to obtain them. Nature will supply all his wants, but she compels him to use his mind and hand. Doing this, he ceases to be a savage. Regions Most Favorable to Progress. — In the Frigid Zone life is a long struggle with the cold; by no effort can one bring a supply of food from the ground. There can be no diversity of industries, for there is but one way to gain a liv- ing. Ice closes the avenues of trade, and nothing is gained by contact with the world. Little progress can be made in this region of slanting sunbeams. In the Torrid Zone man is the heir of luxury. He is sur- rounded by abundance, and labor seems useless. He prefers to take his ease, and leaves his mind uncultivated, all his powers unused. He is too indolent to improve. In the Temperate Zones everything urges man to "be up and doing," and he finds happiness and progress in the exer- cise of all his faculties. In these vast belts, including the greater portion of the land surface of the globe, man is not, as in the Frigid Zone, confined to one or two industries, or modes of ' ' getting on in the world. " He may sow and reap the varied har- vests of the fields; orchard fruits and vineyard clusters may ripen under his hand; bleating flocks and lowing herds may crop the green pastures; forests may yield their lumber, and mountains their ores; cunning shuttles may fly, hammers may beat, and sails may be spread on lake and sea. From this it will be seen that the temperate climates are most favorable to human progress. Our own country, most of Canada, the countries of Europe, China and Japan in Asia, are in the North Temperate Zone. From this zone went forth the civilized people who rule in Mexico, South America, and other tropical countries. Civilization did not have its birth in the realm of frost, nor in lands of perpetual summer, save in a few favored localities. It is the child of that zone in which we live. Geographical Distribution of Labor. — Looking over the world, we find that there are many industries, and that the peo- ple of one section are largely engaged in agriculture; of another, in manufacturing; of a third, in commerce, and so on. These diflferences in occupations are not accidental, but usually de- pend on physical features or climatic conditions. Some regions are naturally adapted to grain raising, or fruit growing; others to mining, lumbering, or fishing. As a rule, the people of any section engage in those branches of business which the physical geography of their section enables them to pursue to the best advantage. Queries. — How many things are required to make a good agricultural coun- try? What is needed to make a great manuiacturing region ? What branches of business are likely to be of most importance in mountainous countries? What geographical advantages must a city have in order that it may become great f * Exercises. — Point out on the several maps those regions yon think most favorable to agriculture; to mining; to lumbering; to manufacturing; to fish- ing; to stock raising; to commerce. In every instance give reasons for your conclusions. In a certain portion of the North Temperate Zone we find a level country with a deep, rich soil. There is an abundance of wild grass, and timber sulfi- cient for building. Navigable rivers and lakes are also found. What, probably, is a leading occupation of the people who inhabit this region? Give a reason for your conclusion. Point out such a section. There is a mountainous country with forests of hardwood and pine on all the slopes. In the mountains are found large quantities of coal and iron. What may be some of the leading industries of this country? Why? Find such a section on the map of North America. In a region of plains, plateaus, and mountain valleys, there is a moderate growth of nutritious grass, but, on the whole, very little rain. Streams course the valleys and cut across the plains. The winters are comparatively mild, and in some parts the grass cures where it stands and retains its nutritious qualities during the cold months. For what occupation has nature fitted this section? Point out such a section. In a cool portion of the North Temperate Zone is a country with rugged coasts and numberless inlets. There is little land suitable for cultivation, but the waters swarm with cod, herring, and other fish. How may the people of this country get a living ? * The benefit of exercises of this character cornea from the thinking the pupil is required to do. His couclusions are to be reacned by making an application of what he has learned. In deciding on the agricultural capabilities of a region he will think of the climate, the surface, the soil, as indicated by native plants; the probable rainfall, aa indicated by the streams, etc. Other points may be decided in a similar manner. TEST QUESTIONS AI^D EXERCISES. TUK FOLLOWmQ WILL TEST THE PUPIL'S KNOWLEDGE OF SOME OF THE PEINCIPLES EXPLAINED IN PEKCEDING SECTIONS. Mathematical Geography. — ^Why should the sailor climb to the topmast ■when he wishes to see the distant shore? Why does the sun rise earlier to us than to people living west of us? On the map or globe, find two places in oj)- posite hemispheres where the clocks strike 12 M. at the same instant. Find two places whose difference in time is one hour. Six hours. Twelve hours. In traveling, I notice that my watch is constantly losing time. In what direc- tion am I journeying? Where, on the earth, will the sun be directly overhead at noon, on the 21st of June? On the 22d of December? Find two points on the earth's surface where the sun rises but once a year. How many degrees are these points apart? How many miles round the earth on the parallel of 45°? In what way does the curvature of the earth's surface determine the cli- mate? How many zones would there be if the earth were flat? Physical Geography. — Imagine the coasts of Africa to be deeply indented by seas, gulfs, or bays, and state how such a change would affect the climate of the continent; its people; the commerce of the world. A colony migrates from the lower plains of the Torrid Zone to a plateau in the same zone, 10,000 or 12,000 feet above the sea. State what changes must he made in the dwellings, the clothing, the food, and the occupations of these immigrants in order that they may live in this elevated region. What would be the effect on the dimate, the plant life, and the inhabitants of South America, if the Andes were on the eastern instead of the western border of the continent? How would the re- moval of the Cascade, and the Sierra Nevada Mountains affect the climate of the Pacific Highland region? What would be the effect if the waters of the entire sea were of uniform temperature? If all portions of the atmosphere were equally heated ? If the earth were to rotate from east over to west, what would be the direction of the equatorial current? Of the trade winds? Of the return trades? What effect would this reversed motion have on the rainMl of different coasts ? What effect on the climate of Western Europe? Sketch the outlines of each continent and print, in their proper places, the names of the most useful plants, including trees. In the same manner, indi- cate the regions where the most useful animals are found. Point out, on the globe or map, the waters where the different food fishes are caught. Is it probable that men became wanderers, or nomads, from choice? What jwrtions of the earth seem unfavorable to a fixed population? Why are they so? Shall we find schools, churches, papers, books, railways, etc., in regions where the inhabitants are constantly roving? Could you tell the chaiactei of a people by having a list of their occupations? POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. STATES OF SOCIETY. There are three states of society, which may be represented by the hunter, the shepherd, and the farmer. In the lowest, or savage, state, men own no property except what they can carry with them from place to place. They dwell in tents or rude huts and live on such food as they can get by hunting or fishing, or upon fruits or roots that grow wild or with little cultivation. They live from hand to mouth, providing nothing for a "rainy day." In the pastoral, or half-civilized, state, people own horses, cattle, sheep, camels, or other domestic animals, but have no individual interest in the soil. They are dwellers in tents and rove from place to place to find fresh feed for their stock. In the highest, or civilized, state, men own the soil and have fixed homes. They clear the forests, break the prairies, drain the swamps, construct highways, railroads, and canals, establish manufactories, carry on trade, print papers and books, and provide for education. GOVERNMENT. Civilized men have formed states, called Eepublics, King- doms, or Empires; and there are two principal forms of gov- ernment, styled Monarchy and Democracy. Democracy is government by the whole people; but, as all the people who occupy a large country cannot assemble to make and execute laws, power is usually bestowed on men chosen by the people, to serve for a limited time. A state in which the government is carried on by repre- sentatives elected by the people is a Bepublic. A Monarchy is a government in which the power is in the hands of a ruler, or monarch, who inherits his right to reign. A Monarchy is absolute when the sovereign, or ruler, makes such laws as he pleases; and limited when he is required to govern according to fixed principles contained in the constitu- tion of the country, and the legislative or law-making power is shared by the crown and a popular assembly. Uncivilized men are usually governed by leaders called chiefs. The men who form a government, a state, a nation, or a tribe must have land or territory on which to dwell, and we find the land surface of the earth divided into countries owned or occu- pied by nations or tribes. Some countries have natural boundaries, such as mountain ranges, or large bodies of water ; others are separated by polit- ical boundaries, or such as have been agreed upon by the nations concerned. The capital of a country is the seat of government; and the metropolis is the city where the largest amount of business ^ is transacted. RELIGION. However high or low in the scale, nearly all men believe in some unseen power, superior to themselves, whose favor they are desirous of securing. There are few, if any, who have not some faint notion of a life beyond the grave. "While the shades of religious belief and the practices under those beliefs are almost endless, the prevailing systems of religion may be classed as follows: Christianity, Judaism, Mohammedism, Brah- minism, and Buddhism. Christians are divided into three bodies: Protestants, Eoman Catholics, and the Greek Church, including about 380,000,000, or less than one-third of the race. The Jews number about 8,000,000; the Mohammedans, 160,000,000; the Brahmins and Buddhists together, 680,000,000; and other religions 212,000,000. The Jews believe in one God, but do not accept Christ as his Son, or regard him as the Savior of the world. They look upon the Old Testament as a sacred book, but reject the New. Brahminism was the religion of the people who conquered India fifteen centuries before Christ, and it is the prevailing religion in that country to-day. Its three principal gods are Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Siva, the destroyer. The Vedas are the oldest of its sacred books. Its castes are an essential part of the system. Buddhism was founded about five hundred years before Christ. It began in India, in opposition to the system of caste among the Brahmins. Buddha represents intelligence; Dharma, matter; Sanga, the mediator between them. It is tlie religion of about one-fourth of mankind. Mohammedans are followers of Mohammed, who was bom A. D. 571. The Koran is the Mohammedan Bible. NORTH AMERICA. MAP STUDIES. REVIEW EXERCISES. Physical Features. — Locate and describe the coast waters, peninsulas, capes, islands, highlands, mountains, Central Plain, lakes, and rivers. Climate. — In what zones does the continent lie? State how the climate is affected by mountain ranges; by inland waters; by ocean currents; by prevail- ing winds; by rainfall. What portions of the continent have a maritime and what part a continental climate? Plant Zones. — In what plant zones does the continent lie? From memory, write a list of the most valuivble plants found in each of the zones, and state whether indigenons, or otherwise. Probable Industries. — Point out those sections of the continent which yon judge to be best suited to agriculture; to mining; to manufacturing; to hunt- ing; to lumbering; to commerce; and give reasons for your conclusions. General Questions. — How many political divisions are included in North America ? Name them in the order of their size, beginning with the largest. Point out the natural and tlie political boundaries of the several countries. What countries are crossed by mountains? By the Great Central Plain? How many groups of islands are shown on the map ? Name five large islands in the order of their size. EXERCISES.— Locate and bound the several coimtrles. Locate the chief cities. Sketch, from memory, the outlines of the continent, and the bound- aries of the several countries. 64 NORTH POLt ■^i¥ "■fe^ \Gf ^/ 6ekV .^'^^^^i.^ ^L*; *""■«-., 3--"^? ^ 'PJ'C '■BeaM J-"' I'ff. ^ati>|'"'r , / ^^I'l, W)^ ««''?^ ^if//® rJS*''*'<'>/TCKlSE**" H *J^Miimeai)olis «J^^ '^'■30, ""i, T Kansas City '*«-*„ '*b ■/---Oil POLITICAL MAP OF KORTH AMERICA Scale of Miles isi >**" ^^ T fl9- U rr T\ %,eu^irt- J. y mnnipeg '^-^ jixht^ *, o ■*■ ^- ^ ^ ^ . , , »»'• .«,v)^ icil'^ SL Louis 'i£ /)»«' i„w»» ^, e<*" Little KocW*-^/ V*Cfc^ \ "^^^ *t*ol''^" J®* oV/eans V o Galveston -,,ife.v.-.t4 i:t "*^5>*;5^rv^- ^ '^ ^ mpico Mertd»_ jH**"^" Ifff^^*' ^-fJ^J-iBE^^ '9s«o„ "' 6\J' /J'^ ,.of"r >' ^ -i° Longitude West from Washington LoAgiCude Eaat 66 NOETH AMEEICA— UNITED STATES— DESCRIPTION. DESCRIPTION. History. — Christopher Columbas, a native of (Jenoa, in Italy, sailing from Spain in 1492, under the patronage of the sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, discovered the West Indies. In 1498, he discovered the continent of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco, and, in 1502, the coast of Central Amer- ica. He supposed the lands he had found were outlying por- tions of Asia, and died in ignorance of his discovery of what has been called the New "World. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, seeking a short route to India, sailed from Bristol, England, in 1497, taking a more northerly course than Columbus, and discovered Labrador and Newfoundland. In the following year the younger Cabot ex- plored a large portion of the eastern coast of the continent. Abont A. D. 1000, Norsemen from Norway discovered Greenland, and it is said that they visited Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and what is now known as the coast of New England. America takes its name from Amerigo Vespucci (S-marre-go ves-poo^hee), a Florentine, who accompanied Hojeda, a Spanish commander, as astronomer, and explored a part of the coast of South Americii in 1499. On his return he published an account of his voyage. The Spaniards, seeking gold, colonized the southern part of the continent. The central portions were slowly peopled by the British and French. The aborigines include two races. The Indians were thinly scattered over the continent; and on some of the islands and coasts of the north were a few Esquimaux, supposed to belong to the Mongolian race. UNITED STATES. DESCRIPTION The United States is a federal republic composed of thirty- eight states, ten territories, and one district. In extent of territory it ranks fourth among the countries of the world. Inhabitants. — By the census of 1880 the population was 50,155,783. Over four-fifths of the inhabitants are whites of European descent, the English, Irish, and Germans outnumber- ing other nationalities. The negroes number abont 6,580,000. They are found chiefly in the South, where they were formerly held as slaves. The Chinese, who are most numer- ous on the Pacific coast, number over 100,000. There are about 340,000 In- dians, mainly confined to the Indian Territory and the Pacific Highlands. The bulk of the inhabitants occupy the eastern part of the country and the central plain. The center of xwpnlation is constantly moving westward. In 1790, it was just across the Chesapeake, east of Baltimore. It is now some dis- tance west of Cincinnati. Government. — The goVerument of the United States has a legislative, an executive, and a judicial department. The legislative department, or Congress, consists of a Senate and House of Eepresentatives. The Senate consists of two members from each state, chosen by its legislature for a term of six years. The House of Eepresentatives is composed of members elected by vote of the people, for a term of two years. At the present time, each state is entitled to one representative for every 154,000 inhabitants. The President is the chief executive officer. He is elected for the term of four years. The people of each state choose as many electors as the state has members in Congress, and the electors choose the President and Vice President. The judicial department, or Supreme Court, consists of a chief justice and eight associate judges, who are appointed by the President, with the approval of the Senate. Congress makes laws with the approval of the President. "When the President returns a bill without his approval he is said to veto it. Congress may pass a bill over the President's veto by a two-thirds vote of each HouSe. UNITED STATES— EELIGION—INDUSTEIES. 67 The general government regulates national affairs. It main- tains the army and navy, defends the country, concludes treat- ies, regulates foreign commerce, coins money, has charge of the public lands, provides postal service, etc. The constitution is the supreme law of the land, in accord- ance with which the government is carried on. No law is valid when contrary to this document. The Supreme Court decides the constitutionality of laws when cases are brought before it. Each state has its own constitution, a governor, a legisla- ture consisting of two houses, and a supreme court. An organized territory has a government like that of a state, but the governor and judges are appointed by the President of the United States. Such a territory is allowed one delegate in the lower house of Congress. He may speak on any subject before the house, but he cannot vote. Territories having a suf- ficient number of inhabitants may be admitted as states, and then are members of the Union. The general government has left the interests of education to the several states, but it has helped to establish common schools in the newer ones by a grant of public land, and by the same means has provided for the endowment of a college in each state for instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts. Nearly all the states have made liberal provisions for edu- cation. Common schools are maintained at public expense, and, in some cases, high schools, normal schools, and universi- ties. In no other country are the public schools more hand- somely endowed. Religion. — There is no established church, and freedom of religious belief and worship is secured to all by the Constitu- tion of the United States. Industries. — As we have seen, the industries of a country depend very much on its physical geography. Recalling what we have learned of the different sections of the United States as a part of North America, we shall have little difficulty in deter- mining the leading occupations of the people. See Industrial Map, pages 92 and 93. In the Great Central Plain with its broad valleys, undulat- ing uplands, and almost boundless prairies, with a wonderfully fertile soil and a climate favorable to the growth of a large num- ber of useful plants, we find that agriculture is the chief occu- pation. In the south are sugar, cotton, and rice plantations; in the middle belt grow hemp and tobacco; further north are vast fields of corn, wheat, and other grains. On the dry, grassy plains bordering the Rocky Mountains, from Montana to Texas, and in the mountain valleys, is the great pasture region where horned cattle and sheep are num- bered by millions, and are constantly increasing. In the Pacific Highlands, where the precious metals are abundant, and many other minerals are found; where vast re- gions are almost rainless and otherwise unsuited to agricul- ture, mining is the great industry. West of the Sierras and Cascades, in the rich, warm, and well-watered valleys, and on countless irrigated slopes, are orchards, vineyards, orange groves, and wheat fields. Fruit raising, grain and wool growing are also important occupations. In the great forests of Washington and Oregon and in the timbered region of Northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, and Maine much attention is given to lumbering. The Atlantic Highlands, with their inexhaustible beds of coal, iron, and building stone, their salt and oil wells, their valuable timber, rapid streams, and noble harbors, support a large population, engaged in mining and manufacturing. Along the Atlantic and the Pacific coast, where there are oyster beds, where salmon and shad teem in the rivers, and schools of cod, herring, and mackerel crowd the sea, men find fishing a profitable employment. In a country like ours, where one section produces grain, another cotton, a third manufactured articles, and so on, there must be an exchange of products, or commerce. The inland, or domestic, commerce of the United States is carried on by means of many natural water-ways, canals, and railroads, the latter forming a complete net-work extending from ocean to ocean. Foreign commerce centers in the great seaports, and immense steamships are extensively used in this trade. Two-thirds of the imports and nearly one-half of the exports pass through New York. Boston, Philadelphia, Balti- more, New Orleans, and San Francisco are also important ship- ping ports. Exports. — The leading exports are cotton, breadstuffs, pro- visions, the precious metals, petroleum, and tobacco. Much of our cotton goes to supply the mills of Great Britain. Large quantities of flour, lumber, and manufactured goods go to South America and the West Indies. Imports. — Iron, tin, and dry goods are imported from Eng- land; silks and wines from France; teas, porcelain and raw silk from China and Japan; coffee from Brazil and Java; sugar and fruits from the West Indies; hides and horns from South America. Groups of States. — For convenience of study, the United '^ States may be divided into the following sections: New England States.— Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island. Middle Atlantic States.— New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia. Southern States.— North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Ar- kansas, Indian Territory. Central States.— Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Michi- gan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Pacific States and Territories. — California, Oregon, Colo- rado, Nevada, Montana, Washington, and the territories of Wyoming, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Idaho, and Alaska. Historical Notes. — The original thirteen states, which were colonies of Great Britain before the Revolutionary War, are New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, llaryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. At the close of the war the United States extended to Florida on the south, and as far west as the Mis- sissippi. The first states admitted after the formation of the Union were Ver- mont, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, and Mississippi. The United States did not originally comprise much over one-fourth of the present area. Florida was obtained from Spain in 1819 The territory west of the Mississippi was secured by purchase from Louisiana in 1803; by the annex- ation of Texas in 1845; by cessions from Mexico in 1848-53; and by the pur- chase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. Pacific or 120° meridian TiMe MOUNTAIN Oft 1p5» MERIDIAN TIME MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — Including Alaska, how many states and territorieB are there in the United States? Name the largest state. The smallest. Which is the largest territory ? How do the states east of the Mississippi compare in dizo with the states and territories west? Does the larger portion of the United States lie east or west of the Mississippi? What states lie on the Atlantic slope? What is the general direction of the tiy«i8 of that slope? What states ate crossed by the Appalachian rauges, oi THE CLOCK DIALS SHOW THE MEAN TIME ON THE ME the Atlantic Highlands? What states and territories are included, wholly or | in part, in the Pacific Highland region? What rivers drain this region ? What states and territory lie on the Pacific? What state and territories i are crossed by the Rocky Mountains? What states and territories are drained i wholly or in part by the Mississippi and its tributaries? What states are] drained by rivers other than the Mississippi, flowing into the Gulf of Mexico? What states are bordered by the Great Lakes? What states form a part of the i Great Central Plain? What states are without mountains? What states form the east bank of the Mississippi ? The west bank ? What states are crossed by the Missouri? By the Ohio? RIDIANS AS COMPARED WITH GREENWICH MEAN NOON. Na.e and locate nine gr^t citi. of the g^ited S^^| J^^^^-^ ^^^SI ^^^^^^^'^^0^^^^^^'^'^^^^!^ 'Nt™a*^r ^"So° ' » i^ th": '^ZZrJ:'l.t^ZnXr^2 tnes, ana state the reasons for yonr conclusions. of the Woods? Reckoning by the meridians, what is the distance in miles from EXERCISES.- Sketch the eastern coast of the United States; the GuU ""m^TsnL^CgL^e^rwLhfngtonr S^^^^ Of the eastern coast; the Paclflc coast: the northei. boundax^. Which coast is most In- bonndary of Maine?' What is the latitude of Cape Sable, Florida? Of the dented? Sketch the Appalachian ranges ; coast range; Sierra Nevada and northern boundary of the United States west of Lake of the Woods? Cascade ranges; the Rocky Mountams; sketch the Mississippi, Missouri. In what phmt zones does the United States lie? What grains, vegetables, and Ohio; the Rio Grande, and fruits are best suited to the northern portion? To the middle belt? To General Ques- tions.-In what phys- ical region of the L'nited States does this section lie? How many stat«s in the group? Name them in the order of their size. What is the character of the coast? What are the natural advan- tages for commerce? What part of New England is most uneven? What is the general slope? What can yon say ef the number of lakes and streams? Which portion contains the largest number of lakes? How does the latitude of Northern Vermont compare with the latitude of St. Paul? Boston with Chicago? What effect does the sea have on New Eng- land climate? What portions of New England are most thickly peopled? EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the coast waters, capes, mountains, largest lakes, rivers, and states.* Locate Important cities. Sketch boundaries, mountains, chief rivers, and locate important cities. DESCRIPTION. Name. — New England received its name from Capt. John Smith, who explored a portion of its coast in 1614 and drew the first map of the country. Though its six states taken together are smaller than Minnesota, it is one of the most important sections of the Union. Surface. — It is a land of low rounded mountains, of count- ♦ See "Hints to the Teacher," In the preface. less hills, of clear, beautiful lakes, of rapid streams, and indented coasts with a large number of excel- lent harbors. "'"^ Agriculture. — There are some fertile valleys, like that of the Connecticut, but most of its rocky soil is better adapted to graz- ing than tillage. Potatoes, corn, and oats are leading cultivated crops; but grass, hay, horses, sheep, cattle, butter, and cheese constitute the wealth of its farms. Most of the flour, and much of the beef and pork are brought from the West. Minerals. — Marble, granite, slate, and other building stones are abundant, and the products of its quarries are very impor- tant. Forests of pine, spruce, and hemlock are found in the north. Commercial Advantages. — Its numerous harbors along the . rugged coast of the east, and the more level coast of the south, with many railways, aflford excellent facilities for commerce. Manufactures. — The Merrimac, Saco, Androscoggin, Kenne- bec, Penobscot, Blackstone, and many other streams furnish excellent water-power. Manufacturing cities and villages are thickly scattered over a large portion of its surface, making it the greatest manufacturing region of the United States. The manufactures include fabrics of cotton, wool, leather, metal, and wood, together with firearms, machinery, tools, and other articles almost without number. Much of the raw material used in manufacturing is brought from abroad. Ship loads of cotton come from the South; hides and wool from South America and the West; iron and coal from Pennsylvania; and raw silk from Japan and China. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are mainly of English stock. 70 72 NEW ENGLAND STATES— THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. They are noted for industry, energy, and enterprise. Many of her sons and daughters have left their native hills to people new states. Common schools, normal schools, academies, and col- leges are established and liberally maintained. Institutions of Learning. — Harvard University, at Cambridge, Massachu- setts; Yale College, at New Haveu, Connecticut; Brown University, at Provi- dence, Rhode Island; Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire; Wil- liams College, at Williamstown, Massachusetts; Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, Maine, and the University of Vermont are noted institutions, whose graduates fill places of honor and trust throughout the world. Smith College, at North- ampton, Massachusetts, and Wellesley College, both lor women, are widely known. Maine, the "Pine Tree State," possesses many fine harbors. Over one-eleventh of its surface is covered by lakes and rivers. The St. John alone drains a hundred lakes and ponds. The state is noted for its lumbering, its ship building, and its ice trade. Cities. — Portland, the largest city, has a fine harbor and an extensive trade" — When ice closes the St. Lawrence, it is a starting point for steamers bound for Liverpool and Glasgow, and is then the great outlet of the St. Lawrence Valley. Bangor is a large lumber market.^Bath is noted for ship building. — Lewis- ton and Biddeford manufacture cotton and woolen goods. New Hampshire, the "Granite State," is famed for its beautiful scenery. It is sometimes called the "Switzerland of America." Cities. — Manchester and Nashua manufacture cotton and woolen goods. — Portsmouth has a good harbor, and one of the United States navy yards is located there. — Concord manufactures fine carriages. Vermont, the "Green Mountain State," takes its name from the mountains which the forests of fir and pine render perpetu- ally verdant. It is noted for its fine horses, cattle, and sheep, and for its quarries of slate, marble, and soapstone. Lake Champlain and Lake George, on the west, are celebrated for their fine views, and for having been the scene of several battles in Colonial days. Cities. — Burlington is a large lumber market. — Rutland, the largest town, and Middlebury have quarries of white and variegated marble. — St. Johnsbury is noted for the manufacture of weighing scales. Massachusetts, the "Bay State," is among the foremost states in manufactures, producing every variety of cotton and woolen fabrics, iron and steel goods, woodenware, furniture, boots and shoes, jewelry, and glassware. It takes the lead in fisheries, and is second only to New York in commerce. It was the first state to oppose the British government at the time of the Eevolution, and the first to establish free schools. Cities. — Boston is the metroix)lis of New England, and is noted for its com- merce, its public schools, libraries, and literary institutions. In foreign com- merce it ranks next to New York and New Orleans. Thousands of tradesmen and professional men of the city live in beautiful suburban towns, which are connected with Boston by rail. Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River are the chief seats of the cotton and woolen manufactures. — Worcester has a great variety of manufactures, and is a railroad center. — Lynn is noted for its shoe factories. — Springfield is the seatof a United States arsenal. — New Bedford is the greatest whale-fishing port in the / world, though the trade has greatly fallen ofi" since kerosene came into general use. — Newbury port is engaged in cod and mackerel fisheries. Plymouth is re- membered as the landing place of the Pilgrim Fathers in 1620. — Lexington and Concord are famed for early Revolutionary engagements. The Hoosac Mountains, in the western part of the state, have been tunneled for the Boston & Troy Railroad. The tunnel is nearly five miles in length. Rhode Island is the smjallest and most thickly peopled state in the Union. It received its hame from an island in Narra- gansett Bay. Cities. — Providence, one of the two capitals of the state, is the second city in New England. It is a great manufacturing center. — Newport, the other capi- tal, is a famous summer resort. ' _ . , Brown University, located at Pfovidenc^ was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams, the noted advocate of^religious'*niftl.l)olitlcal freedom, who was banished from Massachusetts. '^ . *,. Connecticut is noted for' the great variety of its manufac- tures. It makes more sewing machines, pins, clocks, and plated- ware than any other state in the Uiiion. i Cities.— New Haven, the "City of Elms,/' is the seat of Yale College. — Hartford manufactures firearms and machinery. THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATIJS. MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — How many states are included in this group ? Name them in the order of their size. I.s the coast favorable or unfavorable to foreign commerce? What states are crossed by mountain ranges ? What great rivers break through the mountain ranges ? Do the long estuaries at the months of the rivers indicate low or high coasts? What is the climate of this section? What portion has the mildest climate? Is this map drawn on a larger or smaller scale than the map of New England? Which state is without mountains? How do the states of this section compare in size with those of New England? Which is further north, Philadelphia or San Francisco ? EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the coast waters, islands, moun- tains, chief lakes, rivers, and states. Locate important cities. Sketch the boundaries, mountains, lakes, chief rivers, and locate im- portant cities. DESCRIPTION. Surface. — As this section is crossed by the Atlantic High- lands, the greater part of the surface is hilly or mountainous. A low, sandy belt, quite narrow in the north, but broader in the south, stretches along the Atlantic, and q, narrow lowland belt borders the Great Lakes. ' Agriculture. — On the whole, the land is much more fertile than that of New England, and almost every branch of agricul- ture is carried on, according to the climate, soil, and market demands. Grains, vegetables, orchard fruits, and berries are grown; and in the grass and hay belt of the northern half, stock raising and dairying receive much attention. ;> Minerals. — The great natui-al wealth of the section comes from its extensive mines of coal, iron, and zinc; from its quar- ries, its brine springs, oil wells, and mountain forests of pine and spruce in the north, and hardwoods in the south. Manufactures. — The numerous, rapid streams, and the great supply of coal, together with-tji© aTbiuiidaiiQe and cheapness of the raw material, give unusual 6ilti(SUra^«ment to manufactur- ing, and this group of states takes the lead of all other sections in the value of its manufactured articles. The principal manu- factures are iron goods, machinery, ghiss.taill products, leather, lumber, boots and shoes, cotton and woolen goods. 79 tongitade "W^sti from 17 Qreenwlcli OTTAWA 75 K^ tf-'^o. ■'^o c j: /&^ ^^,y "*"*"«'»» 3««» if 3^ Scale of 31ilf« 10 30 30 iO 60 Stiatfora MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 10 20 <0 60 80 Lm|dBayp / /'~T^ -5 V \0j Guelpho W x^ 1/ 2?>' Cluiry Chatham / M--*- SOUTHWEST PART OF VIRGINIA Same SraTe as ^ "^9^ large :Map -x^ 4-^'^^ Salem o fi^#' S'JRoclty Mount ChaQ 3oyator Erist,]] , ^ ■I'lchbui V-t'-'cnour 'jVcoma ^^^^^^ - — --rimirTMBmTrMinir--'-iiirriiiirr-- ,^^^p3^- THE * r^m$. CENTRAL STATES. ^ H^^^ DESCRIPTION. Surface. — As this produce grains, vegetables, and fruits. Machinery may be used mi group of states lies in the to the best advantage in raising and securing farm crops. Great Central Plain, the Forests.— Though the timber of the prairie states is mainly surface is generally level confined to the river bottoms, to northern hill slopes, and to or gently rolling. The occasional upland tracts, the states, as a whole, are well sup- only elevations worthy pHed with forests. Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Missouri have of note are the low moun- much valuable hardwood. Immense forests of pine, cedar, bal- tain ranges in Southern gam, spruce, and tamarack are found in N'orthern Minnesota, Missouri and Southeastern Ken- Wisconsin, and Michigan. tucky; the hills of Northern Minerals.— Minerals are widely distributed. The coal fields Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minne- ^^^^j. ^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^ . sota, and the Black Hills of Da- square MUes. i^„f„ Ulinois about 45,000 '^^^^- Missouri " 23,000 Soil. — The section includes ^''"f^-, [[ ??'^^ Kentucky ' 14,000 the vast prairie region of the Up- Ohio " 12,000 per Mississippi Valley. It is re- ^^al.'ZZ'Z'"'"^Z^Z'^ZlZZZlZZ[Z'.[Z'Z '' rooo markable for the fertility of its Michigan " 7,000 soil, and the ease with which it Iron is found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Missouri, can be cultivated and made to and Ohio. Copper is abundant in the Lake Superior region in 81 86 longitude "West U from Oresnwich CENTRAL STATES EASTERN DIVISION. o I >te.ltrariell/^ °l)econih ^ \ Vr MADISON B. *^ TPralrieauChlen f ** . ■ YwteviDeo ("^nnerol Point TiFalls lortagecrx ^-^^ I SarabLo" -fcrieaverlaOm AT^"" "^'■ r — ' °JHoricon > ? ^ - . V, J TTauTj^ha oSnneral Point S^/'^ y^ ^ ', Janetvilley „ Racine" uduoubX. , V - apl oitrj < Milwaukee PMuskegon ^orecnvflle. /? ■ '^'■"SrlfJ""" lonia,-/0^o^\| t4pid^ ^ \ ^-^ f , |''*i^)-, Charlotte °\ S Howell" South Haven/ ^\ Battle \^ Itf i ^>-«x-°Crcelc 7t_i /Kalamazoo "'""Klc.,—^ Jackson -J— ' JjiPeer FUnt rortKuronoJ^- j ^ '*°'^'" "-' ■ -Princeton Vx-^TLaSallp :Keiraunedo f'^ \ *-a oaue ,_, ^oU -. i N Uraidwood „ ^"Dalva / JoStreator ^ s_y i Canton fTekin W^ Macombo '^ \ /^ Bloominglon I o |Talpamiso KeokukV a ^# Havana o Soberly Beardsto ^Quincy / SPr'iNgVfiELD ^annibalV^ / „ | % ^ ^f2^2:jor:s>amr/i^„o taim>; 1 ^r^rliajia *^ I ^Plyn "Warsav .^. Ifapoleon t „ - Ft. Wayne cK> (> ^iabaSl ^^ \ [ yjlonro© .ABhtabulj f5 "Cleveland >eUaice Tostoria Fi idley ° (tifBa TV'arren o Youngstowno ^ lo'axton ! lecatHr Pona o /llattoon Carllnvnc„ , „, , J^"<=^"'=M Jffihgiani /I 'andaliaj? ^ ^ Be'llen-|leL#* ""^"iJ?"* *^ I atc(loo/ / I ^ o Jit. Vernon C Carml'] I ^-n^,™)! o/Greencastl iarlestoa<^""'J r /^ ,^^— ■"'"^Laf^vette ^^"W ■ Sidney ^ •x^r o'Tranltfo-t ' ^-.r'''^: — T^, i -A:.aer«>n /«^^f2^ [ ^i'V^" I JCrawforasvillc- !\ INDIANAPOLIS^ Brazil °/Green o i Torre/Haute / ^^ fji- Colum"bu: ISuHivan V iMadiaon K. '^"W^slungton *' Covi^»on\N\wpo^t 1^1 ^/^^ W 20 jj* Oami>olls<»\iA .PortsmouthJ/_ «) IVo '., \i7 '^"^'Sharlestom [aysville Cynthiona / ' \,y '-1 Cynfhlana^ f <^ AstlanJ' NewAIbaiy,^ Georgo)o>™^ "parl/^ A /^Louisville fFBANKFOBT \ llle -/^'V^/ , , S „ „Mt,sfeaing _ ^.^ - o ShawneetoMTie ^f Carbondale oT 3| Q|»v<^.,..<^etrtt>i>olis C ty iPaducah' ir^ fendersoAv "Uwensboro r.-*; ^ * 'a*. ^ i E oHopicinsviu:; °^*?:;*: « °"°"_jt53^ ISJO Columbus 'yv'/l S"a««Tl'<'ine oTraiiklin '©s— 7^^ \ Lexington '\^- oBardstown \ t-^.r\r^ •A Harroatbargo ^'^-^ ^^i Elizabethtown o '5V t ».„ o ^-A T %.7Wbanoi BanvUlc r\ o Glasgow' W^**!!!!^ / Lmorid s J^iMg^ ••\-.-l \f'M^ ::£Si!M 'J-'iCcAnZ V 7 E Xongituae ■West 5 from ■Was.iingtoa THE CEXTEAL STATES. 83 Michigan, and lead, in Missouri, Illinois. "Wisconsin, and Iowa. Granite, limestone, sandstone, and other building stones are found. Several of the states hare valuable salt springs. Rivers and Lakes. — The many rapid streams, and the large supply of coal and wood afford excellent advantages for mann- focturing. The Great Lakes, the 3dississippi, Uie IGsBonri, the Ohio, and other navigable rivers are routes for domestic trade and also grand outlets to the sea. HaUmhmprax the people of these states a fertOeaoil, accilaittaiba, IbSB atons of miiienb, ao^e mter-power; aod snpeong wlmilyifareoi- BCfce, and we find Ihea extcMivcly tn^fgrA in fcrwa fc liuuboiug, miiriii R Agriculture. — Farming is the leading industry. Grain, hay, live stock, fibrous plants, vegetables, and fruits are produced in great abundance. Millions of bushels of wheat are raised. Soine irf' the wbest is ground in wcsteiB mills, bat n laige poctian is scat t» iswtun cities or aanss tbe sen, IIm hi to te made intoflooE. Cbmis^arewidd^giowntkaB wheat. It is used dnefly tat feeding and &ttcmng stodc Commerce. — The com- merce of the Central States, carried on over the water-ways and extensive railroads, consists largely in the export of wheat, flour, corn, beef, pork, wool, and dairy products. Education. — Liberal provision is made for educatioiL Th* common schools compare favorably with those of the East, and the numerous normal schools, colleges, and universities receive a generous and increasing support. Ohio ranks first among the states of the Union in its clip of wool, and second in its petroleum, iron and steeL It has more than 20,000 manufactories, the production of iron, steel, and glass fabrics taking the lead. Manufacturing and mining receive more attention than in any other state of this group. Cities. — Cincinnati, tfae "Qaeen Ctj," is one of the most important inland cities of tbe United States. It has a laige trade in grain, pork, and piorisiMH, and is a mann&ctaiing and eommerdal center. There are many public libi>- ries, benerolent institntions, and learned societies. Spring Grore Cemetety is a beaotafiil bniial plaee, Tinted hj thoosands of stm^ea. Oevelaad, Hie "Foiest (Sty," is one of the fire principal ports on the Great Lakes. It contains sereial fine paAs, adorned with fonn- tain^ and one paik kas an dt^ant m i iu i imrn t to Com- 1PIBR7. Lake Tiew C tmataf ei m taina a ^l end i d Barking the lestiag place of IVesidcHtJaaMS A.Gaifidd. Kentucky produces twice the tobacco of any other state, and nearly half the hemp raised in the United StatesL It is lar«r*-lv eD?a?ed in strx-k srrow- The chief impor: .-, and other mmi&etiired aztides. Maim&ctiires. — MannCMtarii^ is pniSDed on an extensive sale. Flour, hunbo*, in» goods, mtttdmrj, furniture, woolen and cotton lEibries are aaMH^ the leading artides produeed. People. — The intiahitants are mainly uudgnuitB frm Bev fingland and the Middle States, or thdr descendants; but Ger- many, SweddB, ITonray, Denmaik, Irdand, and other countries «. \ ^ I v/^ jW^llJ^v D X k\o T rt.KIceJ Cannort 2 P^mftnaT St. "Vlnce: ■ -T t-TliiceriF '~ Grafton„ ^ Warren w CENTRAL STATES ^e^me 'v^^ESTEIlN DIYISION. 1 Scale of KHes f'"-^,? o 50 100 150^ t A Wfek*""' ^^ Xa] Gf"! :* ,tO» ■On &i*n Seavtr o ^ 55 Beave ? Twoj ,fi Duiithj -2^ ^'x^ .r? ^APOSTLE 1». '^Ontonagon ^r^Abe^Jeen fColunobia^^^j' rti^^ )PIERR[ A . i^^^fe/s Valentine ..^ |i^i». Kew mS^ N Farlba3lt nandreau eligt __^^ ') ^ West Poin. ndriaO * iuk, Centres St c\o* :>Lac« River fcAJioka Taylors TaBs )stiMwat^r ^V>. o ''%^po^^^^■rlp^^^ |^r>, Glencoe° stone— -"■^ Yj^riastingB ^,> — sb*kop« ^''^^^^ed \Wing WabftBhaii^, XaesoD . All>ertl6a/sp^K'»»lW I^usftora'^ ~^ ' Austn_._Fj-ESlm2 — — l."' T CreBCOo IXansingA ^^ l-SpiritM^V X \ \t{^\ Urecora^ .5fl8j2££^ e c—r jv > W'^'^^^oVA „. X%^'"''^<>'-cfci./drie(iuChie' ,Emm4lti{buVg ° \ Vf Ch'^l^V/i <^ gfaine au i-u. lleoV Vv\ ] \. ■heroltee, *2_ i IJ»i4p'<"'° \ JoWV^pyy ', - sa; 1 1 )s^<*l?y Vwate^lob \D'''>''quel \ ■grater Cltjt^ C«aar>><^ ,TJ Tfaftiliester ^*\ a (;al«?aft Palls .^ p-,^ \}lontlceUo •zi e- -Vi-i 1 IJ.Doage ir -w- I ^V /"xjf Eldora Y* -wj- >j \* »^-si^oj* ■*- r^ \ S^'^ \q^°°^ ^5-^T. city Cu]bert^^^,_^ _^G Ashland Plattemottl UNCO Hastings ° ^ J o oFalrmount Neljraska City- «'>.. "WllbuA , Irowo .(J, Z?fa ^ Tecam6eli„ I ^^e ^^ 3eatrlc4(^ ° Belo: t ''^^J^S^ ClayV ** V. Centra L^-b\jrgV;\»rt' {>• jff f A^ V I vNewfcno oQriBnoll >,lo^^aclty * -so-i "I } DE8 iJl^ES^iTV- , o4«4°^?l«S'=i*„^ ^„i,,J^eston? Osceola _ *,J^ (JiT^imeia Creston/ ysceoitt -i-^^ TV I Boafora = Ua?y^ Eiawatha o o Sene(» j3b/. ■ " il I I^uUlan»5^t>\, me°= JciarkavUlB X^ Camerin^->i£ o \ oJaacoui (jl.-- j, . o .1 :;eS8rooitneia; «" li^annibaTSCtP; .eavenwor^ia J /^4<^C,*iV>t":j!5sH ^^^»' WyandoU?a^o^ -^^^ V^o "ColW^"* \, !^;:;H^p!ea,±Hia*'^0 Boo^^^ pmton,,<,,arle. o I-arned council ^^BurlXgame O^"'""! (HolU" .° ^ "^ei^ X^^^SSSSV^xV^ ^ oJAity S °°"''"'' IfWf JEFFERSON CY^^aaHmsto^ v° Phet^n;;Ci^nporla I' ^^Y^l!!!;^ c^ ^^He^o ' Vichlta\ Wei ington o' i T E^ X A s' 1 Calc wello tArkansas Cy I — « sTT^^fitTGenevicve^ Girardeau 2L Xongitude West 19 from Washington 17 I 86 THE CENTRAL STATES. is poorly watered, and is best suited to grazing. The region of the Bad Lands, in the north- west, is entirely worthless. There is but a limited supply of limber, and that is found along the streams. Tree planting has received much attention, and the prairies have been greatly beautified by groves. Cities.— Lincoln is the seat of the State University.— Omaha, the metropolis, is favorably situated for trade by river and rail. South Dakota has a large area of fine farming and grazing lands. Although its resources are but partially developed, the state produces vast quantities of wheat, corn, oats, barley, and flax. Stock raising is an important and growing industry. Gold, silver, tin, and other metals abound, and are extensively mined, in the Black Hills. Lignite coal fields are extensive here. Cities.— Pierre, the capital; Sioux Falls, Huron, Mitchell, Watertown, Yankton, and Deadwood are among the chief towns. North Dakota includes much of the famed Red River Valley, where are some of the largest wheat farms in the world. Wheat is the great staple, but other grains are produced. The western portion of the state is a part of the "Great Plains," and is best suited to grazing. Lignite coal is found in large quantities in the western part of the state. Cities.— Bismarck, the capital; Fargo, Grand Forks, Jamestown, and Graf- ton are among the leading towns. Minnesota is famed for its beautiful lakes, its river scenery, its park-like prairies, its bracing air and healthful climate. Agriculture is the great industry on the prairies of the south and west. Stock raising and dairying are receiving much at- tention, and improved breeds of horses, horned cattle, sheep, and swine are already introduced. Flax is cultivated in the southwest, and wheat is the staple of the Red River Valley. Lumbering is extensively carried on in the forests of the north. The iron ores of the Vermillion Lake region are unsurpassed for richness, and large quantities are being mined. Cities. — St. Paul, the capital of the state, is a great railroad center. It has a very extensive wholesale trade and rapidly increasing manufactures. Minneapolis is the leading manufacturing city of the Northwest. It con- tains some of the largest flouring mills in the world. Duluth, on Lake Superior, is becoming a great commercial center. It ex- ports wheat, and vast quantities of coal are brought to its docks from eastern mines. SALMOM CANNING, WASHINGTON rZff. THE PACIFIC STATES DESCRIPTION. This section includes about one-third of the territory of the United States. It is famed for its mild climate, the grandeur of its physical features, and the richness of its gold and silver mines. People. — Its white population is mostly made up of immigrants from the older states. There are many uncivilized Indian tribes, and some Chinese are found, mainly in California. Industries. — As we have learned, the leading occupations are mining, stock raising, lumbering, fruit, and grain growing. Minerals. — The precious metals are widely distributed throughout the monn- other industries. Every state and territory has its gold or silver, or both. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and other min- erals are also found, and, in many localities, mines are worked with profit. Gold occurs in veins of quartz penetrating the rocks, or in gravel beds, where it has been carried by rivers or floods. Where it occurs in veins, the quartz holding it must be crushed to a fine powder by powerful machinery in order to release the gold. Stamp mills are used in crushing, the large masses being first broken to the size of one's fist in a rock-breaker. A strong current of water, passed over the pulverized quartz, carries off the lighter particles of rock, leaving the particles of gold behind. When the gold is found in gravel it is often beneath deep banks of earth and rock, which must be removed. Water is conveyed in ditches for many miles to the hills al)ove the deposits, from whence it is carried in strong iron pipes to the gravel beds, which are sometimes 300, or even 500, feet below. The powerful stream of water is directed against the bank through nozzles attached to the iron pipes. The force of the water wears away and removes earth and stones, carrying them along sluices pre- pared for the purpose. The gold is left in the bottom of the sluices, the lighter earth and stones being ' swept along. This is hydraulic mining. The method first spoken of is quartz mining. Both processes are very expensive and require great skill. Stock raising ranks next to mining in importance. The Great Plains, pla- teaus, mountain slopes, and valleys pasture millions of horned cattle and sheep, and every year increases the number. Countless trains of live stock and vast quantities of wool are sent to eastern markets. Hi Longitude "West 110 from Ureeawicli loc THE PACIFIC STATES AND TEEEITOEIES. 89 The winters are so mild that most oi the cattle go through without the care and shelter required furtlier east. The grass is cured right where it stands, the cattle feeding upon it instead of hay cut in the usual way. The other industries named are confined to narrower limits. Over a very large portion of this section irrigation is neces- sary to successful tillage. The farmer, the gardener, and the fruit grower alike depend on mouptain streams for a supply of water to mature their crops. In many localities no such streams are found and the soil cannot be cultivated. Irrigating canals, or ditches, are often many miles in length, and the cost of digging and maintaining them is sometimes very great, so that they are usu- ally dug and controlled by wealthy companies, and the water is leased to land owners along the route, each paying according to the (juantity used. It is car- ried over the fields in small channels leading out from the main canal. Facilities for Trade. — There are few navigable streams, and most of the domestic trade is by rail. Places away from rail- roads usually receive their supplies by wagon or mule trains from the nearest station. The five great trunk lines of rail- way crossing the continent are rapidly extending their branches in all directions. Education. — Education is receiving much attention where- ever the population is sufficiently dense. Montana is a mountain territory, with some fine valleys. Bunch grass, so excellent for cattle, covers the hillsides and plains, and grazing is a large and profitable industry. There are gold, silver, iron, and copper deposits, and its mines are a chief source of wealth. Cities. — Helena and Butte City are trade centers of rich raining districts. Wyoming is said to have 35,000,000 acres of fine stock lands. Laramie Plains, an excellent grazing region of great extent, are from 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea. Mineral resources are abundant. Coal is mined to supply the railroads, and is shipped to settlements east and west. Cities. — Cheyenne is a distributing point, and Laramie City is the center of a great stock-i-aisiug region. Yellowstone National Park is a district mainly in Wyoming, having an area of about 3,fiOO square miles, "set apart by Congress as a perpetual reservation for the benefit and instruction of mankind." Among the wonders are rugged mountains, deep caiions, rushing streams, waterfalls, hot springs, and geysers. Colorado, the "Centennial State," is noted for its numerous lofty mountain peaks, two hundred of which are visible from Mount Lincoln. "Walled in by mountains are basin-shaped pla- teaus, called parks, once the bed of lakes, whose valleys are very fertile. Irrigation brings abundant crops. Some of the irrigating canals are very large and long. One is fifty-four and another thirty-three miles in length. Mining, smelting, and reducing the precions and other met- als are the largest industries. Wool growing and stock raising receive great attention. Cities. — Denver is 5,000 feet above the sea, and commands a view of Pike's, Long's, and other noted snow-capped peaks. The city contains many palatial residences. — Leadville is a great mining center. New Mexico was settled by the Spaniards in 1550. The inhabitants are chiefly of Indian and Spanish parentage, a mixed race speaking the Spanish language. As much of the country is an arid plateau, incapable of irrigation, most of the settlers are found along the valleys of the Eio Grande, whose waters are all drawn off to moisten the parched fields during the dry season. The precious metals are abundant, but the mineral re- sources are undeveloped. Wool growing is a favorite pursuit. Cities. — Las Vegas is famed for its hot mineral springs. It exports large quantities of wool. — Santa Fe is the oldest town in the United States. Arizona has a hot and dry climate, especially in the south. Yuma has had in a single summer 100 days when the ther- mometer stood above 100° in the shade, and Tucson 51 days. Minin'gand wool growing are leading industries. The Navajo Indians keep large numbers of sheep. Indiau tribes, Aztec or Toltec, occupied the country long ago, and reared walled towns of which ruins remain. Jesuit missionaries were here before 1600. Arizona and New Mexico belonged to Mexico until 1848. Prescott is in a rich mining region. Utah received its name from the TJtes, a tribe of Indians that formerly lived in the territory. It is now chiefly settled by people who belong to a religious sect called Mormons. The territory is very rich in iron, as well as lead and the precious metals. Little land can be cultivated, but excellent crops are raised on the fertile portions. Many articles are manufactured for home consumption, and the mineral resources are being rapidly developed. Grejt Salt Lake is about 100 miles long and 50 broad. Its waters contain so much salt that no fish can live in them. Large quantities of salt are pro- duced by evaporation. Salt Lake City is the metropolis. It has broad streets watered by moun- tain streams, beautiful shade and fruit trees, a fine museum, and a tabernacle, or place of worship, that cost |500,000, and will seat 8,000 people. Idaho has gold or silver in every county of the territory. The river valleys are fertile, but other portions of the country are better adapted to grazing than tillage. Mining and stock raising receive most attention. Boise City derives its support from rich placer and quartz mines in the mountain districts. Water for irrigation is carried to every lot in the town. Washington has some of the finest harbors and roadsteads in the world, and its forests are the best in the United States. Bituminous coal is mined at several points. Large crops of wheat, vegetables, and fruits are raised. Most of the eastern part is well adapted to grazing. The rapid streams afford much water-power. Salmon and other food fishes are abundant. Puget Sound, with its bays and inlets, covers some 2,000 square miles, and furnishes the safest and best harbors on the Pacific coast. Lumber, wheat, coal, fish, and fruit are exported from its wharves. Walla Walla, the largest town, is in the midst of a fine agricultural country. MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — In what part of the United States is this division situated ? Compare the scale of the map with the scales of the other sections. In what physical region of North America does it lie ? How many states and how many territories in the group ? Mention the largest state and the largest territory. What divisions are washed by the Pacific? How many deep in- dentations along the coast? What is the general character of the surface? Does the surface indicate sluggish or rapid streams? Are the streams more or less numerous than in other sections of the United States ? Into how many great bodies of water do the rivets of the section flo w ? Point out the principal slopes as indicated by the rivers ? What is the latitude of San Francisco ? Los Angeles? Of the northern boundary ? Which is fur- ther north, Los Angeles or St. Louis ? San Francisco or Chicago ? Salem or St. Paul ? What is the climate of the section? Does the population seem dense or thin ? EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the coast waters, chief mountains, lakes, great rivers, states and territories. Locate capitals and other im- portant towns. Sketch a map of the section, as the teacher directs. 90 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TEEEITORIES. Mines of gold, silver, quicksilver, and other metals are pro- the year 1882 the total yield of that metal was $1,155,000,000. ductive. From the discovery of gold iu 1848 to the close of Quicksilver comes from the mountains near the coast. THE PACIFIC STATES AND TEREITORIES 91 California manufactures large quantities of mining and agri- cultural machinery, lumber, leather, iron goods, woolens, flour, glass, and hundreds of articles besides, used by the people of the Pacific slope. The common schools are well sustained, and teachers are better paid than in almost any other state. Normal schools, colleges, and other institutions for higher education are in suc- cessful operation. An observatory, largely endowed by James Lick, a wealthy citizen, contains one of the finest telescopes in the world. Cities. — San Francisco is the largest seaport on the Pacific coast from Cape Horn to Asia. Lines of ocean steamers ply to Panama, Mexico, Oregon, Wash- ington, Ala.ska, Australia, Honolnla, China, and Japan, and a large trade is car- ried on over the transcontinental railways. Its manufactures are extensive and varied. The fine private residences, grand hotels, extensive parks, and beauti- ful bay are attractive features. Sacramento has an extensive trade with the mining and agricultural districts. — Oakland is noted for its beautiful dwellings and gardens. — Los Angeles is a popular resort. Oregon has many fertile valleys, some of which are large and unusually productive. The Willamette Valley is the most noted and contains the greater part of the population. It is 150 miles in length and from 30 to 60 miles in width. Middle Oregon is a rolling table-land, dry and arid. In the fertile sections wheat of fine quality and excellent apples and other fruits are grown in abundance. The wool clip is large. The forests of pines, firs, cedars, and spruces, near the coast, supply much lumber and the finest of masts and spars. The salmon fisheries are of great commercial importance. Portland is the commercial center. Lines of steamers connect it with San Francisco, Puget Sound, and Alaska. Grain, flour, wool, and lumber are among its exports. Nevada is a highland state and is noted for the dryness of its climate and the richness of its silver mines, which yield one-fifth of all the silver produced in the United States. Some of its valleys are fertile, but it can never become an agricul- tural state. Wool growing and stock raising receive some at- tention. The number of mines and quartz mills in operation is very large, and mining overshadows all other industries. Virginia City, 6,000 feet above the se.a, is a depot for miners' supplies. It is built on the site of the Comstock Lode, a vein of gold and silver bearing rock that has produced more bullion than any other mine in the world. Some of the shafts in this lode are 3,200 feet deep. Alaska is equal in area to one-sixth of the United States, or to nearly twelve states the size of New York. Its coast is lined with islands, a single group numbering 1,100. It is re- markable for its fur-bearing animals, and for the food fishes that teem in its bays and rivers. Millions of fur seals are found on the islands in summer, and the fox, beaver, and marten alx)und on the mainland. Halibut, salmon, cod, herring, and mackerel are the most valuable fishes. Forests of spruce, hemlock, and yellow cedar stretch far to the north, and coal is found in many places. The popula- tion consists of Indians, numbering about 30,000, and a few whites. AEEA AND POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TEERITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. COMPILED FROM U. S. CENSUS AND SPOFFORD'S AMERICAN ALMANAC. STATES. Alabama Arkansas California *Colorado Connecticut Delaware *Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana *Iowa ♦Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland , ♦Massachusetts . .. Michigan ♦Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana ♦Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina. , tNorth Dakota... Ohio Square Miles. 52,250 53,850 158,360 103,925 4,990 2,050 58,680 59.475 56,650 36,350 56,025 82,080 40,400 48,720 33,040 12,210 8,315 58,915 83,365 46,810 69,415 146,080 76,855 110,700 9,305 7,815 49,170 52,250 70,956 41,060 Population 1880. 1,262,505 802,525 864,694 243,910 622,700 146,608 342,617 1,542,180 3,077,871 1,978,301 1,753,980 1,268,562 1,648,690 939,946 648,936 934,943 1,941,465 1,636,937 1,117,798 1,131,597 2,168,380 39,159 740,645 62,266 346,991 1,131,116 5,082,871 1,399,750 175,000 3,198,062 STATES. Oregon Pennsylvania... ♦Rhode Island.... South Carolina. tSonth Dakota... Tennessee Texas.. Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia.. ♦Wisconsin TEEEITOKIES. Arizona ♦Columbia District Idaho ♦New Mexico Utah Wyoming Alaska Indian Territory Other Agency Indians. Outside Indians United States... Square Miles. 96,030 45,215 1,250 30,570 78,398 42,050 265,780 9,565 42,450 69,180 24,780 56,040 Square Miles. 113,020 70 84,800 122,580 84,970 97,890 577,390 64,690 3,602,990 Population 1880. 174,768 4,282,891 304,284 995,577 300,000 1,542,359 1,591,749 332,286 1,512,565 75,116 618,457 1,563,423 Population 1880. 40,440 203,459 32,610 131,985 143,963 20,789 33,426 79,024 164,503 64,321 50,497,057 Questions and Exercises. — How many states are larger than your state? How many are smaller? Which is the largest territory? How many states of the size of Iowa might be carved out of all the territories? Which state has the largest number of inhabitant!, to the square mile? Name the four states that stand next in order. Classify the states and territories according to their leading industries; as, agricultural, mining, manufacturing. Group those states and territories which have large coal fields; those which have extensive forests; those which are engaged in stock raising; in cotton growing. How does life in an agricultural community diflTer from life in a manufacturing, or a mining region? Take an imaginary journey to New England, the Gulf States, the great plains, the mining districts, and write an account of what you see. * Census of 1885. f Estimated. PACIFIC OR 120° MERIDIAN TI-ME MOUNTAIN OR 105° MERIDIAN TIME CENTR, MAP STUDIES. Locate the several industrial regions of the United States. Take tne sections in order and state why agriculture is a leading pursuit in one, lumbering in another, and so on. Which half of the country hag nearly all the navigable rivers? What section has the longest navigable rivers? Trace the longest inland route over which a steamer may sail. Name the navigable rivers of the Pacific Highland region. Why are the rivers of the Atlantic coast navi- gable for 80 short a distance ? Sketch the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence, and locate the chief commercial ports. Sketch the Mississippi system of rivers.and locate the great trade centers. Sketch the Pacific coast, with its navigable rivers, and locate commercial centers. Sketch the Atlantic seaboard, and locate the great seaports. What sections of the country are best supplied with railroads? How many great trunk lines THE CLOCK DIALS SHOW THE MEAN TIME ON THE Ml of railway reach the Pacific coast? Through what states and territories does each pass, an( where does each terminate? Mention the most important railroad centers in New England. Ii the Middle States. In each of the other sections of the United States. How many of these centen are seaports? How many are lake ports? Howmany are on navigable rivers? What ones are no on any water route? What great inland cities are connecte Pi B r sr. o S S" o 1 p t 1 S p. o "-« 1 f^ B p. B 'S S3 Pi Pi a < p- p 96 CANADA— DAN^ISH AMERICA— MEXICO. New Brunswick. — Large forests are still found, and lum- bering is a leading industry. Liberal provision is made for education. Prince Edward Island. — Fishing, lumbering, and ship building are the chief pursuits. Quebec. — Quebec is noted for the grandeur of its river scenery, for its clear and beautiful lakes, and its waterfalls. The winter climate is severe. Montreal, the commercial capital of the Dominion, is at the head of ocean ship navigation. It has many fine edifices, among which the Custom House, City Hall, Market, McGill University, and the Notre Dame Cathedral, which seats 10,000 people, may be named. Near the city is the stupendous Victoria Bridge, which crosses the St. Lawrence. It is a mile and a half in length, and sixty feet above the water at its center, allowing vessels to pass under it. Quebec, the capital, is one of the most strongly fortified cities in the world. Ontario is the wealthiest and most populous of the Domin- ion provinces. Its agricultural products are varied and abun- dant. It ranks among the first wheat-producing countries of the world. The forests are of great extent, and its mineral wealth, including iron, copper, silver, salt, marble, and oil, is very great. Cities. — Ottawa is the center of a large lumber trade. Its government buildings and normal school are fine edifices. — Toronto is the largest city. It has an excellent harbor, several railways, and much commerce. Manitoba is a prairie province, with a fertile soil. It is noted for its abundant yield of wheat. The population is rap- idly increasing. Winnipeg, the capital, is the agricultural and commercial center. Northeast Territory contains valuable forests in the,south, but the north is a desolate region, thinly peopled by Indians. Assinniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca are newly organized provinces, recently opened to settlement. They include prairies and forests, and much valuable grazing land. Keewatin and Northwest Territory have some fertile land in the south, but most of the north is a dreary waste. Timber is found on the Mackenzie and the Upper Yukon. British Columbia is a country of mountains, lakes, and streams, and is called the Alpine province of the Dominion. The Cascade Mountains are covered with forests, yielding tim- ber, which is exported to Australia and other countries. The gold mines of Praser River, the coal fields of Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands are well known. Salmon, cod, and herring are found in the waters. There are excellent harbors on the coast. Victoria, on Vancouver Island, is beautifully situated. Newfoundland is not a part of the Dominion of Canada, but a province of Great Britain. It has a governor general appointed by the Crown, an executive council, and a legislative assembly. The island is nearly the same size as Ohio. It contains forests and considerable land suited to agriculture, but fishing is the chief employment. The famous Grand Banks abound in cod and other fish. These banks form the most extensive fishing grounds in the world. They are 600 miles in length and 200 miles in breadth. The cod fishery opens in June and lasts until November. Labrador belongs to Newfoundland. Seals, as well as cod, herring, and salmon are numerous in its waters. Steamers and sailing vessels from the United States, Nova Scotia, and New- foundland hover on the coast during the fishing season. DANISH AMERICA. Danish America consists of Greenland and Iceland. Most of the inhabitants of Greenland are Esquimaux, many of whom have been converted to Christianity by Moravian mis- sionaries. They live along the coast, principally on the west. Their winter houses are usually under ground. The popula- tion is about 10,000. The climate is severe, but, owing to the long days of sum- mer, barley and a few vegetables ripen on the southwestern coast. Seal skins and oil, whale oil, eider down and furs are ex- ported. Iceland is famed for its hot springs and geysers. The Great Geyser, near Mt. Hecla, throws a column of water to the height of 100 feet. The inhabitants are of Norwegian descent. They are intel- ligent, and profess the Lutheran religion. The governor is appointed by the king of Denmark, to whom the island is subject. Many sheep, horses, and cattle are raised on the fine pas- tures in the south. Fishing is an important industry. There are no forests, but driftwood is brought by the ocean currents. The polar bear sometimes floats in on a cake of ice. Reykjavik (Rik-yah-vik), the capital, has a library of 10,000 volumes, holds a great annual Mr, aud has steam communication with Copenhagen and Leith. MEXICO. "' DESCRIPTION. Mexico is a republic, with a constitution similar to that of the United States. Ilr consists of twenty-seven states, one ter- ritory. Lower California, and the federal district of Mexico, the seat of the general government. Its territory would make more than twenty states the size of Indiana. Inhabitants. — The population is composed of Indians, ne- groes, whites, or Creoles, who are of Spanish origin, and mesti- zoes. The Indians are much the most numerous class. The pure whites form a very small part of the community. The mestizoes, or half-castes, stand next to the Indians in point of numbers. B 3- s a f ■*5 fls 03 P CO a era > If o ^ ^ C/5 •-^ H «4 e « o C^ p CO D CO ''I o o 8 ^ ^ P- e ^ 5- w § » a 3' C5 » 5- :^ S s ^^ § § S = p •o !?§. y, I9 1 ^fL *d B N ^ 1 S g o -^1 1 o 8' 9 £t ? 3 S V S 3, p CR, ;> S ^ 1 CO "-1 ^1 9 p § g a ■2 2. u. n ^ s i^ § ^ "■• P jj 9 sr p c*- > 3 c p. ^O (t s (> 5' i p 3 g 0, p. CO p a ?r SI p S 3 a- "^ S 2> p> S W n" ■ p •< O Ji ct- ffl p p O ,_, s !?; S' & £3 3 a> 1 1 ■¥ o 98 MEXICO— EDUCATION— RELIGION. The Indians and mestizoes generally fnmish the honse servants, the mule drivers, the small farmers, the scattered peasants, the herdsmen, the wandering beggars, and the banditti; but they sometimes rise to be artisans, tradesmen, priests, and officers of the state. The negroes, who are the least numerous class, perform most of the heavy work in the cities, and are often engaged in cattle herding or on large plantations. The Creoles are most numerous in the towns. They call themselves Anreri- cans, and are the landlords, merchants, physicians, lawyers, and artisans. They learn easily, but are fond of pleasure, passionate, fickle, and indolent. A few European tradesmen are found in the chief cities. Education. — Education has been neglected, and three- fourths of the people can neither read nor write. The present government has done much to establish schools; and there are now several thousand public schools, besides special schools of law, medicine, agriculture, mines, commerce, and fine arts. Religion. — All religions are equally protected by the state, but most of the people are Roman Catholics. The country is noted for its insurrections and frequent changes of rulers. The people, as a whole, lack enterprise. Property and life are insecure, and labor is Silver is by far the most important metal, the mines having produced more than half the supply of the world. For a time, thousands of mines were given up as unprofitable, but the introduction of improved machinery and the open- ing of railroads have revived the mining interest. Enormous beds of pure sulphur, far superior to that of Naples or Sicily, in the Old World, are found in the crater of Popocatapetl. The crater is 5,320 feet in diameter, and has a depth of 1,600 feet. Hitherto, the sulpliur has been lifted from the interior by machinery; but, it is said, a tunnel is to be made, and a car track laid toward the very heart of the mountain, over which the sulphur may be conveyed to the base, much more rapidly, and at moderate cost. Salt is abundant on the arid steppes and plains. Commercial Routes. — The lack of common roads, railroads, and water-ways has greatly hindered the progress of the country, but several thousand miles of railroad are now in operation, and other lines are in progress of construction. One of the principal routes extends from Vera Cruz to Mexico. There are no navi- gable rivers, and the best harbors are on the Pacific coast. Exports and Imports. — The chief exports are the precious metals, sisal hemp, which is the fiber of the agave, lumber, coffee, vanilla, cochineal, cattle, tobacco, India-rub- considered degrading. In some of the cities, even mothers of the better class are accustomed to place their children in found- ling hospitals to relieve themselves of the care of bringing them up. Agriculture. — As we have learned, the soil produces nearly all the important plants of the tropical, the semi-tropical, and 'the temperate zones, according to elevation; but the land is not skillfully tilled, and the natural resources of the country are undeveloped. Cotton, coflFee, tobacco, and grain are cultivated on the table- lands. There are many large ranches, on which horned cat- tle, horses, and mules are raised in great numbers. The mule is the chief beast of burden. Maize is cultivated on all the farms. Its meal, when made into tortUlas, is the common food of all classes, taking the place of bread. Minerals. — Mexico has immense mineral wealth. Silver, gold, copper, salt, sulphur, iron, and the finest marble are found in abundance. ■' ■'^TrAGS OF rH£ /'£0'v 5- , ber, indigo, sar- saparilla. The imports are cot- ton, linen, woolen, and silk goods, machinery, hardware, and pro- visions. Towns. — The Mexican towns are generally built on the upland plains. They have broad, straight streets, and flat-roofed, one-story houses, without chimneys. A high gateway leads to the front entrance, and the rooms of the house open on to a veranda. Above all other buildings towers the cathedral, with its dome often richly ornamented with many-colored tiles. The Alamedas, or public pleasure grounds, are a common feature. These are gardens laid out with taste and adorned with fountains; and containing an exuberant growth of trees, shrubs, and flowers, such as are found in sub- tropical lands. On the streets one sees a motley crowd — whites, Indians, negroes, and half- breeds of every hue. There are gaily dressed Creoles on horseback and on foot, Indians with their pack mulos, negroes with their burdens, priests with their robes, beggars soliciting alms, and lazy leperos ready to steal, to gamble, or to waylay. Cities. — Mexico is 7,470 feet above the sea, and is overlooked by lofty vol- canoes. It contains many fine public buildings, and occupies the site of the ancient Aztec capital, destroyed by Cort«z in 1521. — Vera Cruz and Acapulco are the chief seaports. CENTRAL AMERICA. Countries and People. — Central America includes five re- publics and the British colony of Balize. The surface, climate, soil, and productions are similar to those of Southern Mexico, and one finds the same mixed population. The people of the white race are far outnumbered by those of the dark races, but they form the governing class. Ruins. — Here, as in portious of Mexico, are many remains of an ancient civilization, now overgrown with forest trees and the densest tropical vegeta^ tion. The dead city of Copan, in Central Guatemala, contains walls, fragments of buildings, monuments covered with sculptured figures and hieroglyphics that none can reale at home. Naval Power. — Great Britain is the mightiest naval power in the world. Its commerce is protected hy a fleet of 2.58 ships of war, most of them ironclad, and propelled by steam. They carry over 60,000 men, boys, and marines. England and Wales. — That portion of England lying to the southeast of a line drawn from Plamboro Head to Portland Bill is chief- ly devoted to agriculture and commerce. In the more hilly and mountain" ous part, to the northwest, are the great mining and manufactur- ing districts and extensive pasture lands. In the agricultural section one sees well-tilled farms with hedges, rich green meadows, and fields of wheat, barley, oats, turnips, and flax. The pastures MAP STUDIES. REVIEW EXERCISES. Physical Features. — Locate and describe the coast waters, peninsulas, capes, islands, mountains, plains, lakes, and great rivers. Climate. — In what zones does the continent lie? State how the climate is affected by mountains, ocean currents, prevailing winds, and rainfall. Plant Zones. — In what plant zones is the continent situated? Probable Industries. — State the probable industries of diiferent portions of the continent. General Questions. — How many political divisions in Europe? How many of the countries are peninsulas? Islands? Which is the largest country ? The second in size? The smallest? What countries border on the Black Sea ? On the Mediterranean? On the Atlantic? On the North Sea? Which countries are most mountainous? What countries lie in low, or level, Europe? What countries are best situated for foreign commerce? Which country has the longest navigable rivers ? EXEBCISES.— Locate and describe the several countries of Burope. Locate important cities. Sketch a map showing' political divisions. UNST t. Q ETTHOPE— BRITISH ISLES. lOd London, showing (1) St. James' Park, (2) Duke of York's Coliiiun, (3) National Gallery and Nelson Monument, (4) Horse Guards and Admiralty, (5) St James Palace, (6) Westminster Abbey, (7) St. Paul's Cathedral, (8) New Houses of Parliament, (9) Tower, (10) Surrey side of London. of all England are .stocked with fine breeds of horses, cattle, and sheep. The southwestern counties are famed for their orcliards. In the mineral section are hundreds of mines. In many places the earth is honeycombed, and thousands of men and boys work underground. There are immense furnaces, sending up their columns of smoke; and fitctories, turning out ship loads of goods, made from the products of the mines, or from raw material brought from other lands. Large manufacturing cities have grown up as centers of the different industries. Wales belongs to this district. It is a wild, mountainous country noted for its beautiful scenery. Its wealth is in its mines and quarries. England has many cities and villages. There are seventeen cities each with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Cities. — London, the largest and wealthiest commercial city in the world, covers 122 square miles of land, and has over 4,000,000 inhabitants. The Thames, on which it is built, is from 600 to 900 feet broad, and is thronged with shipping. Immense store-houses full of goods stand along its wharves. Seventeen bridges span the river, and a tunnel passes under it. A railway runs for miles underground beneath the streets. Among the magnificent public buildings are St. Paul's Cathedral, 514 by 286 feet; Westminster Abbey, in which, for over 800 years, England's sovereigns have been crowned, and where her mightiest dead lie buried; the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Hall, and Buckingham Palace. The Botanical and Zoological Gardens, with their living plants and animals fjx>m all climes, are interesting places in the neighborhood. Liverpool is the second city in population, and rivals London in its com- merce. It is the chief port of traffic between America and the great manufactur- ing cities in Western England. — Manchester is the center of the cotton manufac- tures. The first railway in Engliind was opened, in 1830, between Manchester and Liverpool. — Leeds is the chief seat of woolen manufactures. — Birmingham is noted for its hardware, Sheffield for its cutlery, and Newcastle for its export of coal. — Plymouth and Portsmouth are great naval stations. — Merthyr Tydvil, in Wales, owes its prosperity to its coal mines and iron works. — Cardiff is a ^oal-shipping port. Scotland. — Scotland may be divided into two sections — the Highlands and the Lowlands. The Highlands are rugged and wild. There are deep glens, with many small, clear lakes called lochs, which are often bordered by high cliffs that give them a peculiar beauty. The Highlands afford fine pasturage, and sup- port large numbers of sheep and cattle. The Lowlands are carefully cultivated. Barley, oats, and wheat are raised. Coal, iron, lead, slate, and granite are the chief minerals. The pursuits are agriculture, pastoral husbandry, mining, manufacturing, ship building, commerce, and fishing. The manufactures and exports are similar to those of England. The herring fisheries on the northern coast, and the salmon fisheries of the rivers, employ thousands of men. Cities. — Edinburgh is the seat of a great university, and has several large publishing houses. It is one of the handsomest cities in Europe, and is called the Modem Athens. It contains a grand statue of Walter Scott, in sitting pos- ture, with his dog beside him. The Castle, a strong fortress, stands on a rock 437 feet high, at the foot of which is Holyrood Palace of the Scottish sover- eigns. — Glasgow is an important seaport, with great manufacturing indtistries. In the neighborhood is the headquarters of the Clyde ship-building trade. Islands. — The Hebrides, the Orkney, and the Shetland Islands are attached to Scotland. They are rocky, but eon- tain pasture lands suitable for hardy sheep and ponies. Their waters abound in fish. Ireland. — The surface of Ireland consists of a low central plain, with mountains here and there near the coast. There are many lakes, called loughs, some of which are celebrated for their beauty. In Central Ireland are tracts called bogs, extending over nearly one-seventh of its area. Many of these are covered from twenty to thirty feet deep with peat, or decayed and compressed mosses and other vegetable matter. Trunks of pine, oak, yew, and other trees, as well as the remains of the Irish elk, have been found imbedded in the bog in a good state of preservation. Peat is cut and dried, and large quantities are used for fuel. Ireland is not so rich in minerals as Great Britain, and ag- riculture. Including dairying and cattle raising, is the chief in- dustry. Its mild, moist climate favors the production of grasses, and the rich green of its pastures has given it the name, "Em- erald Isle." Muslin, lace, and linen are manufactured. Its principal ex- port trade is with Great Britain, embracing dairy products, cattle, flax, and linen. Cities. — Dublin is one of the finest cities in Europe. It has magnificent public buildings and an extensive trade. The suburbs are celebrated for their beauty. — • Belfast is the second city in size and first in manufactures. — Limerick is noted for the manufacture of lace. MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — Which is the largest of these political divisions? State whether the coast lines indicate good harbors. Is the situation of the British Isles favorable or unfavorable to foreign commerce? Why? In what plant zones do the islands lie ? EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the countries. Locate important cities. Sketch a map of the islands. EUEOPE — NORWAY AND SWEDEN— FEANCE— BELGIUM— NETHERLANDS. Ill Norway and Sweden. — The kingdoms of Norway and Sweden have the same ruler, who may be said to wear two crowns, and both governments are represented abroad by the same diplomatic corps. In other respects each country has its own laws, institutions, army and navy. The Scandinavians are a brave, hardy race, with energy and enterprise. They are devotedly attached to their father- land, and proudly remember their ancestors, the Vikings, who went forth in ships to discover and conquer the world. Very few adults are entirely illiterate. Education is compulsory, and pub- lic instruction, especially in Sweden, is in a very satisfactory state. In Norway education is gratuitous from the age of eight to the time of confirmation. Only about one-fortieth of Norway is fitted for cultivation, but Sweden has more fertile land. Wheat, flax, oats, barley, lye, and potatoes are grown, but agriculture is not the greatest industry. A very large proportion of the inhabitants live by min- ing, lumbering, and fishing. The minerals are iron, cop- per, zinc, and cobalt. Swedish iron and steel take first rank in the markets of the world. The mountain slopes in the cential and southern part of the i^eniusula are clothed with pine, fir, and birch, furnishing fuel for smelting, timber for shipment, for house building, and wood carving, and also large quantities of tar and pitch. The fisheries of Norway are of great impor- tance. Theriversteemwithsaliiion, and flueoyster beds are found. Herring swarm on the southwest coast and the waters about the Lofoden Islands are alive with cod. The white sails of the hardy fisher- men are seen all along the coast. Cities. — Stockholm is called the Northern Venice, and is the most beautiful of all the north- ern cities. It is built on seven islands, at the outlet of Lake Malar, in the Baltic. At the north lies the university city of XJpsala. — Bergen is an important town and one of the centers of the coast fisheries. It has a large trade in fish and cod liver oil. — Christiana is a university town and a com- mercial seaport. France. — France is one of the lead- ing nations of Europe, and it ranks among the first military powers of the world. The people are fond of amusements, and are noted for their taste, politeness, and skill. There are many societies of learned men, but the peasantry are ignorant. Education is now com- pulsory, and the common schools are improving. Agriculture is a leading industry, and the choicest wines, fruits, and grains are produced. The sugar-beet is largely grown in the north and east. The vine has been cultivated for centuries. The mulberry is grown for its leaves which are the food of the silk- worm. France holds a high place as a manufacturing country. Its goods are famed for taste, elegance, durability, and cheapness. Its cottons rank next to those of England, while its silks, laces, linens, patent-leather goods, gloves, porcelain, perfumery, and wares of gold, silver, and bronze are admired by all the world. Coal and iron are the most important minerals, and the products of iron and steel are extensive. The commerce of France extends to all parts of the world. Its exports are wines, brandies, silks, cottons, gloves, laces, jewelry, olive oil, and preserved fruits. Cities. — Paris, next to London, is the largest city in Europe. It is the great center of art and fashion, and is noted for its fine buildings, libraries, art gal- leries, public gardens, and places of amusement. The city lies in a basin of the Seine, and is surrounded by heights from which one looks down on a sea of hou.ses. Lyons, the second city in size, is the seat of the silk manufactures, intro- duced by the Italians in the 15th century. — Marseilles, the great seaport in the south, and the fourth in Europe, was founded before Christ by Fhocaeans. — Bordeaux is the chief wine port. Belgium. — No other country in Europe has so dense a population as the little kingdom of Belgium, with its 485 inhabitants to the square mile. The villages are very numerous, many of them numbering 8, 000 souls. In the low, rich tracts between Brussels and the coast, the land is cut up into countless patches, too small to be called farms, and so carefully tilled that the country is like one vast garden. Grain, flax, hemp, hops, sugar- beets, garden vegetables, and grasses are cultivated, and the domestic animals are reared in abundance. Iron, coal, and other minerals are found in the more hilly regions in the southeast. Belgium is a great manu- facturing country, producing carpets, laces, cottons, wool- ens, linens, firearms, engines, and cutlery. Cities. — Brussels has been called "Little Paris." Its lace and carpets are prized in all civilized lands. There are fine streets with sumptuous dwellings. The field of Waterloo is near the city. — Antwerp is the great commercial center. — Ghent is the center of the cotton-spinning indus- try. Netherlands. — The Netherlands, or Holland, is a flat coun- try. Much of it lies below the sea level, and even the river-beds are, in some places, higher than the cultivated lands adjoining. The sea has been fenced out and the rivers fenced in by enor- mous embankments called dikes. On dikes, crossing the country in all directions, are canals which serve the purpose of drainage and of navigation. Trees are often planted along the canals, in the shade of which people travel in boats instead of wheeled carriages. The low lands between the dikes are drained by pumps, generally worked by wind power. Many shallow lakes have been drained in this way. The water is pumped into the canals and flows away. The people pay great attention to education, every village having an elementary school. Everybody works, and strolling paupers are unknown. MAP STUDIES. Locate and describe France, Belgium, Netherlands, Deimiark, the German Empire, Switzerland, Austria, Roumania, Servia, Monte- negro, Bulgaria. Locate their capitals and chief cities. 112 EUEOPE— DENMAEK— GEEMAN EMPIEE— AUSTEIAN EMPIEB. The moist, rich soil is best snited to grass, and cattle are reared in large nnm- ' bers. Butter and cheese are made and the country is one great dairy. The fields are small, and flowers, vegetables, flax, hemp, etc., are cultivated with great care. Many live by fishing for herring, cod, and oysters. The manufactures include earthenware, linen, paper, leather, oil, silks, and woolens. Commerce is extensive and a large trade is carried on with the East Indies. The foreign possessions of this little country include Java, Celebes, parts of Papua, Borneo, and Sumatra, and settlements in South America and Africa. Cities. — Amsterdam is the great commercial centea The houses are built on piles, and canals run along the center of most of the streets. Thirty thousjind Jews, representing immense wealth, reside in the city.— Rotterdam is a naval and commercial port. Denmark. ^ — This state has a government with executive power vested in a king; and legislative power in a king and EigStag jointly. One branch of the Eigstag is elected by the people. Elementary education is general, compulsory, and gratuitous to the poor. There are parochial schools, middle schools, col- leges, and a university. Denmark is said to have a larger per cent of its children in school than any other country in Europe. Nearly one-half the population live by agriculture. The farms are small and wett cultivated. Grains, vegetables, and stock are raised. The fiords abound in cod and herring, and fishing is an imporbmt industry. The manufactures are beet-sugar, ironware, paper, spirits, linen, and woolen goods. There is a mercantile marine numbering thousands of vessels, and the exports and imports are large. Cities. — Copenhagen (merchants' haven) is a strongly fortified seaport and the center of all the learned institutions of the country. It has many fine pub- lic buildings and palatial residences. — Aalborg is an important seaport. The German Empire.— The German Empire consists of 26 states, of which Prussia is the most powerful. The king of Prussia is styled Emperor of Germany. His title to the Crown is hereditary. Government. — The government is a monarchy with a par- liament of two houses, the Bundesrath and the Eeichstag. The members of the Bundesrath are appointed annually by the sev- eral state governments, but the members of the Eeichstag are chosen by vote of the people. Education. — ^The people are noted for industry and intel- ligence, and attendance at school is compulsory. There are 21 universities of high rank, many normal schools for the educa- tion of teachers, and a large number of academies and common schools. Prussia has long been famed for its interest in edu- cation. Agriculture. — Agriculture receives great attention. Schools of agriculture and model farms have been established in all the states for improvement in the methods of husbandry. Wheat, rye, and other cereals, vegetables, fruits, and green crops are cultivated. The vine is very successfully grown in the Ehine Valley. Manufactures. — Manufacturing industries are large, but many articles are imported. The woolen, linen, and iron man- ufactures are extensive. The Krupp steel works, in West- phalia, where cannon are made, are the most extensive in the world. In the splendid forests of High Germany, in the south, vast quantities of wooden goods are produced. Among the mineral products, coal, iron, and zinc are most important. As producers of zinc, Germany and Belgium surpass all the restof the world. Enor- mous beds of rock-salt are found in many provinces, but they are most abundant in Prussian Saxony. Commerce. — There is an excellent railway system, and its commercial fleet is now extensive, carrying on a large trade with foreign lands. The exports are grain, flax, linen, pottery, wool, zinc, and manufactured goods. Cities . — Berlin, one of the five great cities of Europe, is noted for its literary institutions, museums, and picture galleries Its university is one of the most celebrated in the world. — Hamburg is the third seaport in Europe, ranking next to London and Liverpool. — Bremen, the second seaport of Germany; Leip- sic, metropolis of the book trade; Breslau, a great wool market; Strasburg, with its wonderful cathedral; and Dresden, an attractive and channingly situ- ated town, are among the other important cities. Switzerland.— The republic of Switzerland consists of 25 little states, or cantons, as they are called, each governed by its own constitution. Some of the cantons are so small that no representatives are needed, as every man can help make the laws. Other states are larger and have adopted the representa- tive form of government. Great attention is paid to education. Geneva, Basle, Berne, and Zurich have excellent universities. The last has a famous polytechnic institution, with splendid museums and laboratories. Agriculture, horticulture, and wine making are the chief occupations in the lowlands. Sheep farming, with little tillage, and cattle breeding, with dairy- ing, are the industries of the liighlands. Watches, jewelry, silks, cottons, wood carvings, and cheese are leading man- ufactures and exports, and they are sent to every part of the world. Many hotels in the' Alpine regions are supported by travelers who are at- tracted by the fine scenery. Cities. — Geneva, once called the "Calvinistic Rome," is now known as a seat of gayety and a center of learning. — ^ Basle is supposed to be the wealthiest town in the republic. The Austrian Empire.— The Austrian Empire, or Aus- tria-Hungary, consists of Austria and Hungary, eacli having its own legislature and laws, but united under one sovereign and a general parliament called the Delegations. The emperor of Aus- tria is king of Hungary. People.— The inhabitants belong principally to three dis- tinct races: Slavs, Germans, Magyars, or Hungarians. Jews are also numerous. The Slavs form nearly one half the popu- lation, but they are not the most influential class. Education. — Popular education now receives great attention. Every child of suitable age is compelled to attend the common school, unless its education is provided for in some other way. There are several universities, besides middle schools, or gym- nasiums, and schools for mining and military science. A large standing army is maintained, and every able-bodied male citizen performs military service for twelve years. Although the great Hungarian and other plains are included in the empire, with the exception of Switzerland, it is the most mountainous country in Europe. The mountains are well wooded, and abound in useful metals and minerals. Though agriculture is carried on with less skill than in some other European countries, the plains are called the "Granaries of Europe." Hundreds of millions of bushels of the grains are raised. Olive and mul- berry groves, orchards, and vineyards are seen in the valleys of the south. The wines of Hungary are celebrated for their excellence. The mountain slopes furnish pasturage, where cattle, horses, and sheep are raised. Manufactures. — Linen, leather goods, woolens, iron goods, and beer are among the chief manufactures. Minerals. — There are inexhaustible stores of coal and iron, and mining is a highly developed industry. Quicksilver, gold, zinc, and arsenic are found. The mines of rock-salt and brine springs in Galicia are the most celebrated in the world. At Wieliczka, (We-litch'-ka) the bed of salt has a depth of 4,000 feet, and the galleries belonging to the mines have an aggregate length of more than fifty mileSi EUROPE — AUSTEI AN EMPIRE— PORTUGAL— SPAIN. Commerce. — The imports and ex- ports of the empii'e are extensive, con- sisting of grain, minerals, and manufac- tured articles, including glass and wine. Cities. — Vienna is one of the most brilliant capitals in Europe. Spacious boulevards surround the heart of the city, where are Ibund the imperial palace, government offices, residences of the nobles, and fine commercial houses. In the very center is the gothic cathedral of St. Stephen, whose graceful spire is 475 feet high. Manufactures of silk, cotton, porcelain, leather, and musical instruments add greatly to its wealth. Its railways radiate in aU directions. — Buda-Pesth, the capital of Hungary, is a great emporium. Portugal. — The little kingdom of Portugal, now among the weakest in Europe, was, during the first half of the 15th century, one of the great powers. The wealth of the Indies flowed into its harbora, and the com- merce of the world then centered at Lisbon. The people are polite and hospitable, but much more fond of music, dancing, and bull fights than of labor. Education is neglected, and the lower ^ classes are ignorant and very poor. .\griculture is in a low state, and the wagons, plows, and other farm tools are rude in construction. The or.inge, lemon, fig, peach, walnut, and almond are raised over the whole country. There are large native groves of cork trees and date palms; the olive, mulberry, and vine are grown. Cattle, horses, and lEr'^I^^'''^'^'P "'"6 '■'^^s^'i "1 the north. ■>^^/?/i HOUS^'^i}' — ^Progress is being made in manufactures and commerce, but these industries are in a backward state. Foreign trade is principally with Great Britain and Brazil. There are but few railroads, and the public highways are very poor. Cities. — Lisbon, with its palace-crowned heights overlooking the beautiful estuary of the Tagus, competes with Genoa and Naples for the palm of beauty. — Oporto exports wines, and is the chief manufacturing city. Spain. — Spain, once in the front rank, is now a second-class power. Many of the inhabitants can neither read nor ' write, but more attention is now being paid to education. No other country in Europe is so rich in metals and minerals, but, through want of enterprise in the inhabitants, its resources are undeveloped. Its quick- silver mines are famous, and it produces nearly half the lead of Europe. Precious stones are found in many places. Vegetables and garden plants are grown, and orchards of semi-tropical fruits are numerous and extensive, is an important industry. The chief exports are wines, silks, olive oil, raisins, cork, wool, quicksilver, lead, and salt. Cattle raising Madrid is situated on a barren plateau. Around the grand square are rows of splendid buildings, including several hotels. Fine cafes are seen along the principal streets. The Isabella Canal supplies an abundance of pure water, brought from hills more than 60 miles distant, and it also serves to irrigate the country around. Italy. — The kingdom of Italy consists of 69 provinces, all named after their chief cities. The government is a constitu- tional monarchy, with a senate appointed for life, and a large number of deputies chosen by the people. Several millions of dollars are annually given by the gov- ernment for the support of common schools, and it has also provided 20 universities and 70 lyceums for higher education. Though great progress is being made, the census shows that over 50 per cent of the people are unable to read or write. EUROPE— ITALY— GREECE— TUEKEY— THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 115 That a high state of culture exists in the upper classes is shown by Italian literature, and by the numerous museums and art galleries that form the pride of many cities. Italy is the great store-house of painting and sculpture, and men travel from all lands to see the works of the "masters of art," some of whom flourished centuries ago. The agricultural lands are divided into different regions, according to ele- vation. There are the rich valleys of the Po, the slopes and higher valleys of the Apennines, and the low plains near the coast. In some provinces great progress has been made in agriculture, but in most, antiquated tools are still used. The products having the greatest commercial value are silk, wine, and oil, oranges, lemons, citrons, and other fruits, dried and fresh, together with chestnuts, butter, and cheese. Piedmont exports silks, velvets, and woolens; choice per- fumery, and straw goods, including hats, come from Tuscany; glass and beads from Venice; corals from Naples; and beautiful wrought marbles from Carrara and Lucca. Iron, sulphur, borax, aud marble are the chief mineral prod- ucts and exports. Cities.— Kome, founded 752 B. C.,once called the "Mistress of the World," is a city of art and artists. The number of museums containing collections of art is very great, and hundreds of churches of every age contain interesting ob- jects. The papal palace, near St. Peter's, called the Vatican, is said to contain 4,000 apartments. The columns of Trajan and Antoninus are of pure white marble, 120 feet high. Outside of the present city are the ruins of a vast amphi- theater, called the Coliseum, which was capable of seating 80,000 spectators. — Naples has a beautiful situation on the Bay of Naples. A few miles away are the partially excavated cities of Herculaueum and Pompeii, which were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79. Montenegro. — Montenegro (Black Mountain) is a small, independent principality. Its people are ignorant and lead a rough life. Agriculture is in a very rude state. There is little trade In the country. Servia. — The people of this little kingdom are occupied almost wholly in agriculture, and especially in stock breeding. The land is parceled out in small plots, and, as the farmers are not able to purchase machinery, half the land is fallow and the rest is poorly cultivated. Grazing is carried on more success- fully. The raising of pigs, which fatten on the acorns and walnuts in the extensive forests, is the greatest source of wealth. Millions of hogs are annually exiwrted The villages consist mainly of mud huts. The state supports schools in the largest places. Belgnule contains an academy and a ladies' college, said to be unequaled by any similar school in Europe. Roumania. — The kingdom of Roumania may be divided into a highland, a hilly central, aud a lowland region. The highlands are rich in game, timber and minerals scarcely touched by the hand of man. The hilly central districts feed countless herds, and grazing is the great industry of this sec- tion. The lowlands form one of the granaries of Europe. All the cereals are raised and also magnificent fruits, but the people are too careless and indolent to make the most of the resources of their country. Three-fourths of the whole population belong to the peasant class, many of whom live in mud hovels, sunk in the ground, with windows but little above the roadway, and with roofs thatched with straw or cornstalks. All the small do- mestic animals live with the household. Strolling beggars and ragged gypsy children are often seen. Bulgaria. — The principality of Bulgaria has a government of its own, but pays tribute to Turkey. Agriculture and grazing are the chief industries. Roumelia. — Eastern Roumelia forms a part of Bulgaria. Greece. — Hellas, or ancient Greece, was one of the great na- tions of the earth, renowned for freedom, art, and civilization. For nearly 400 years the country was subject to Turkey, and submitted to the most degnwling oppression. In 1821 the Greeks began a hard struggle for independence, which at last succeeded through the intervention of Great Britain and other powers. The government is now a monarchy, with a legislature elected by universal suffrage. The state has organized schools of three grades, and the lowest must be attended by all children between five and twelve. The chief wealth of Greece, derived from the soil, consists in its southern fruits, including olives, figs, lemons, and dried grapes, called currants, from Corinth, a city from which they are exported- Cotton is grown in some parte. Honey is produced in large quantities. The foreign commerce of the country is quite large. The Greeks carry on the chief part of the commerce of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Athens was founded 1556 B. C. , and in the vicinity are many antiquities. Turkey.— Turkey in Europe is but a part of the vast Otto- man Empire, which extends over Asia Minor, Western Arabia, and portions of Northern Africa. The government is an absolute monarchy, and the sultan is the "Protector of the Faith" as well as the ruler of the state. There is no hereditary nobility, as in most monarchies, and any private citizen may be appointed to fill the highest oflBice. Even the sultan himself may be the son of a slave mother. The Turks are the dominant, but not the most nameioos, race. There are Slavonians, Armenians, Jews, Greeks, and gypsies. Education is in a very backward state. The implements of husbandry are extremely rude. In many provinces the wealth of the people consists in cattle, sheep, and goats. Bees and silk-worms are kept with great success. Fishing and sponge gathering are carried on along the coast. All the cereals, vegetables, and southern fruits are produced. Mining is neglected, and all the trades are pursued in the old way, without the aid of modern machinery. Turkish car- pets, leather goods, and arms are distinguished for excellence. Commerce is in the hands of other nations. Constantinople is situated on the beautiful harbor called the "Golden Horn." The streets are narrow and filthy. The glittering minarets and domes of the mosques give the city a splendid appearance from the Bosporus. The mosque of St. Sophia is famed for its beauty. The Russian Empire. — The Russian Empire includes one- half of Europe and one-third of Asia, or about one-seventh of the land surface of the globe. Its emperor, called the Czar, rules 88,000,000 subjects, belonging in Rus- sian Europe alone, to one hundred different peoples, speaking forty distinct lan- guages. He is also the head of the Greek Church, which includes the greater part of the inhabitants. On entering Russia, one finds the Tuanners, customs, dress, langu.age, and even the coins different from those of other countries in Europe. The churches and house-tops are often painted sky-blue, gold, green, or dark blue with silver stars. The peasants, or day laborers, dwell in small cabins with thatched roofs, usually without chimneys. Many of the higher classes are well educated, but the millions, who were once serfs or slaves, are ignorant, though schools are in- creasing. Lumbering and hunting are the chief employments in the great northern forests; but agriculture receives most attention in the vast fertile region of Middle Russia, and on the black lands in the south. Immense herds of cattle, horses, and sheep are seen on the grassy steppes. Many articles are manufactured for home use, and mining is a leading industry in the Ural Mountains. The chief exports are wheat, flax, hemp, linseed, timber, wool, leather, tallow and other cattle products. Trade is carried on by means of fairs. At Nijni Novgorod, the great fair continues two months, and is attended by 250,000 people from all parts of Europe and Asia. Many of the goods are brought from the far East by cara- vans of camels and by dog trains. Cities. — St. Petersburg is one of the grandest of European capitals. The river Neva, on both sides of which the city is built, is a mile wide, and there are noble quays, streets, and squares, besides grand market places and magnifi' cent public buildings. Moscow is the holy city of the Russians, with convents, churches, and chimes. The churches are adorned with towers and domes, gilded and silvered over or j)ainted in gay colors. Every dome has a gilt cross attached to the roof with heavy burnished chains, all of which glitter in the sunlight. — Odessa is a wheat port on the Black Sea. ASIA. MAP STUDIES. REVIEW EXERCISES. Physical Features. — Locate and describe the coast waters, peninsulas, capes, islands, plateaus, deserts, mountains, lakes, inland seas, and great rivers. Climate. — In what zones does Asia lie? State how the climate is affected by mountains, slopes, ocean currents, winds, and rainfall. Plant Zones. — In what plant zones is the continent situated? Probable Industries. — Name the probable industries of different regions, and give reasons for your conclusions. General Questions. — How many countries in Asia. Name the largest. The smallest. Name six islands in the order of their size, beginning with the largest. What countries are peninsulas? What countries are washed by the Pacific Ocean? By the Indian Ocean? What countries have no sea coast? What countries are partly included in High Asia? Low Asia? What countries include deserts ? Which countries are best watered ? Which countries are most favorably situated for commerce by sea? What portion of the continent is most thickly peopled? What waters will a ship cross in sailing from Shanghai to London? From Calcutta to New York? EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the countries. Locate important cities. Sketch a map of the continent, indicatingr political divisions. DESCRIPTION. European Influence. — While Europe is but a peninsula of Asia, the latter, with its vast territory and teeming millions of people, is largely subject to European power. Siberia, including one-third of the continent, is but a prov- ince of Eussia, its people bowing to its emblem, the "Bear." The British queen, styled "Empress of India," is sovereign of the great peninsula, a part of Farther India, Ceylon, and other large islands; and holds treaty rights with Afghanistan and with Beloochistan. Asia Minor and a portion of Arabia are under the "Crescent," the emblem of the sultan of Turkey. France, too, has a foothold in Anam and Cambodia. Even China and Japan, under European influence, have opened their ports to the trade of the world. Inhabitants. — Asia, supposed to be the cradle of the race, contains two-thirds of the human family, but its people are not scattered evenly over its surface. The tundras of the north, the great deserts of Mongolia, Turkestan, and Arabia; the bleak plateaus of the "Eoof of the World" are almost uninliabited, and the greater portion of Siberia, Thibet, Persia, and Arabia are occupied by a scanty nomadic population. India, China, and Japan contain nearly one-half of mankind. The condition of the inhabitants of Asia seems to depend more on climate than on the race to which they belong. North of the parallel of 60°, people live by hunting and fishing; pastoral tribes occupy the heart of the continent between the 60th and 35th parallels, and large portions of Persia and Arabia still further south; in China, Japan, India, and Farther India men live by agri- culture, and have settled and more or less civilized communities. Religion.— While Christianity is slowly spreading under the influence of missionaries, the Buddhist, Brahminic, and Mo- hammedan religions still prevail. Brahminism is professed by 180,000,000 of the people of India, and Mohammedanism by 50,000,000. Although Buddhism is the state religion of China, the learned Chinese are followers of Confucius, a philosopher, who lived in the sixth century before Christ. Cities'.— Many of the renowned, ancient cities of Asia, such as Pekin, Bag- dad, Ispahan, Shiraz, and Goa have lost their greatness. The chief cities of to-day are such as owe mnch of their growth to foreign commerce, whose "meteoric flag flies over all the seas;" Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Singapore, Penang, Can- ton, Shanghai, Tokio, and Hong Kong are examples. There are no towns that can compare with London, Paris, Vienna, or New York. Commercial Routes. — We found Europe full of railways, canals, and public roads. The British have opened 10,000 miles of railway in India, Japan has made a good beginning, and Eussia is pushing a line from the Ciispian toward Central Asia. With these exceptions, the whole continent is without railroads, and, outside of British India, there are no such pub- lic highways as are seen in Europe. There is no highway from India to China, to Thibet, to Central Asia, or to the Russian domains. India and China have navigable riveis, and the latter has many canals, but vast regions of Asia are without water-ways, and trade is car- ried on by means of caravans. There are large portions of the continent but little known to western na- tions, and much remains to be learned about those countries and peoples whose names we often hear. Asiatic Russia consists of Siberia, Eussian Turkestan, and Trans Caucasia. Most of this vast region is thinly peopled. Three-fourths of the inhabitants of Siberia are Eussian exiles and their de- scendants. Schools are few, and ignorance prevails. The products and exports are furs from the great forest belt; grains, cattle, and skins from the agricultural and graz- ing regions in the south; silver, iron, and copper from the Ural; gold and precious stones from the Altai ranges. The ivory of fossil elephants is found in large quantities along the shores of the Arctic Ocean and on the island of New Siberia, and is an article of con- siderable commercial importance. A great trade route extends from China to Russia, through Siberia, by which the tea, silk, satin, and rhubarb of the Celestials are exchanged for metals, furs, cotton goods, and cutlery fiom Russia. Dromedaries and dogs form the trains. Irkutsk, Tomsk, and Omsk are on the route. Tobolsk is the point to which exiles are sent to be distributed over the country. Russian Turkestan. — The wealth of the nomad tribes of Turkestan, living principally on the steppes, consists in horses, camels, cattle, and sheep. In the rich river valleys of the south, grains, the choicest orchard fruits, melons, flax, cotton, and silk are grown. Much of the land has to be irrigated in order to produce crops. The women weave the most beautiful carpets, and these, with cotton, silk, hides, and fruits are exported over the caravan routes. Bokhara, though nominally independent, is under Eussian influence. The city of Bokhara is famed for its numerous mosques. "No less aston- ishing is the number of colleges, schools, graveyards, and saints of all orders." The suburbs contain beautiful gardens watered from the streams. Its bazars and great caravansaries are crowded with goods from Russia and India. Trans Caucasia is a beautiful, fertile country. The noblest forests of oak and beech clothe the mountains, and grapes, figs, peaches, and apricots are among the fruits. The women are famed for their beauty. The Georgians, who form the largest portion of the population, are passion- ately fond of music. They sing and play at home, at the taverns, in the market place, and at feasts. Their work in shop and field is relieved by a concert of voices whose time is measured by the varying movements required by their labor. Turkey. — Asiatic Turkey forms an important part of the Turkish or Ottoman Empire. It is divided into provinces, among which are Asia Minor, or "Lesser Asia," lying between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea 117 118 ASIA— TTJRKET— ARABIA. EBEI ilrfl l^^l M ■11 MUEZZIN CAillNG THCPEOPLE TO PRAYERS. Mr The Turks are the ruling class, bat there are many Greeks, Jews, and people of other races, making a mixed population and a jargon of tongues. The country is badly governed, the masses of the people are igno- rant, and little encouragement is given to industry. The splendid forests and vast mineral resources in the mountains of the north are neglected. Agriculture is carried on with the rudest tools. The buffalo is often used to draw the wooden plow and to furnish milk in place of the cow, which is seldom seen. Asses and camels are tho princi- pal beasts of burden. Caravans still take the place of railways, and in the cities which are cen- ters of the caravan trade, one sees a motley crowd gathered from the four quarters of the earth. The exports include dried figs and raisins from thousands of orchanU and vineyards; attar of roses from rose gardens; silk, wool, cotton, and opium, a product of tho opium poppy; goats' hair from the famed Angora goat; sponges gathered along the coasts; and leeches from the pools and streams. Cities. — Smyrna has a fine harbor and is a commercial city. — Beyrout occupies a beautiful situation at the foot of Mt. Lebanon, celebrated for its cedars. Regular lines of steamers connect it with Liverpool and Marseilles.— Damascus claims to bo the oldest city in the world. Damascus sword blades are famed for their quality. The city stands on a fertile plain clothed with gardens and orchards.— Mecca is in a desert region. It is noted as the birthplace of Mohammed, and the city swarms -with pilgrims.— Jerusalem, the city of sacred memories, contains but 20,000 people. Arabia is regarded as one of the least inviting regions of the globe, and much of the surface has never been trodden by European feet. It is known to have great deserts of shifting sands with oases here and there. ASIA— PEESIA— AFGHANISTAN— BEITISH INDIA. 119 Arabia is inhabited by scattered tribes, some of whom rove with their flocks over the scanty pastures, while others have permanent homes in the fertile tracts. There are no forests, but 130 varieties of the date palm grow in the oases, supplying the chief food of the inhabitants. Coffee is indigenous, and plants producing frankincense, myrrh, gum arable, balsam, and senna have supplied the markets of the world for ages. Indigo, maize, wheat, barley, and a kind of grain called durra, are grown. The vine is raised for its fruit alone, as the Mohammedans drink no wine; and the peach, apricot, and almond flourish. Locusts abound, and they are regarded as excellent food. "The red locust, which is, I believe, the female, is the best eating, and should be plain boiled. In taste, it resembles green wheat, having a very delitate vegetable flavor. Horses thrive on them, and nearly every animal in the desert devours them. Our dogs caught and ate them greedily. A camel will occasionally munch them in with its pasture, and a hyena I .shot was found to be full of them. Locusts should be gathered in the morning when the dew is on their wings." — Blunt. Horses, mules, the ass, and the camel are the domestic ani- mals. The Arabian claims that his beautiful steed has descended from horses kept in the stables of Solomon. Cities. — Aden Js a coaling station for British steamers engaged in the East India trade. It stands on a bare rock, and is one of the most unhealthy places on the globe. — Muscat is a commercial town. Persia. — The ruler of Persia is called by his people a "Shah- in-Shah," or "King of Kings." His government is very des- potic. The settled inhabitants are mostly descendants of the ancient Persians, who were among the earliest civilized people. The nomads, or wanderers, fori» the majority, and include four different riices. The Persians have a ready wit and pleasant manner, and, whether they belong to city or country, are said to be polite and courteous. Little attention has been paid to education, but some years ago the shah visited European countries, and he has since at- tempted to establish a system of schools and other public im- provements. The eastern part of the kingdom is a saline, sandy waste with few inhab- itants. Some of the country in the we.st and near the Caspian is very fertile. The southern slopes of the Elburz Mountains are "as beautiful as wood, water, and a hot climate can make them." Irrigation is necessary in most places, and wherever water can be brought, plants thrive in the most wonderful manner. The fig grows wild. The mul- berry and olive plantations, the vineyards, the peach, cherry, pear, and apple orchards, and the rose gardens are seen as one passes through the country. Wheat of fine quality is raised in tlie highlands; rice and maize in the valleys. The melons of Persia are celebrated for their flavor. Horses, camels, sheep, and goats are reared on highland slopes and in mountain valleys. The manufactures are silks, carpets, brocades, cutlery, leather, and attar of roses. Silk is the most important of the exports. The internal trade is carried on by caravans. Teheran stands at the base of the mountains, which here rise 20,000 feet above the sea. The city is surrounded by a mud wall, and many of the houses are low and built of the same material, but they are often furnished with beau- tiful carpets. The palace of the shah is vast and elegant, and there are mosques and bazars that look well. Afghanistan. — "The land of the Afghans" is governed by a despotic ruler called the Ameer. About one-half of the in- habitants are Afghans, who are warlike in disposition. Per- sians, Arabs, Jews, and other races make up the other half. The Persian language is generally spoken, and most of the peo- ple are of the Moslem faith. Many are nomads wandering over the plains, but others cultivate the soil in a rude way. The west is a desert plain. The high mountain regions of the north are cold and barren, but the products of the valleys are similar to those of Persia. Cities. — Cabul is 6,400 feet above the sea. The valleys about it contain fine orchards. — Candahar is a fortified city, said to have been founded by Alex- ander the Great. Its beautiful gardens and orchards are irrigated by canals. — Herat is on the great caravan route from Western Asia to India. It will be seen that Afghanistan lies between the Russian dominions and British India. These great powers are jealous of each other's political influence, and one country will not allow the other to gain undue control over the ameer, much less to hold the only mountain passes through which lead the great routes of trade and over which armies can pass. To hold Afghanistan is to hold the key to India. Beloochistan.— "The land of the Beloochees" is ruled, nom- inally, by a khan, who is under British influence, but there are many roving tribes, governed by their own chiefs, that are dis- posed to live by plunder. The productions are similar to those of Afghanistan. The exports are wool, dried fruits, and vegetable oil. Trade goes over the caravan route which leads through Bolan Pass, a narrow defile 60 miles in length, through the mountains on the east. British India. — British India includes the peninsula of Hindustan, a part of Farther India, and the island of Ceylon, with a total area of 1,574,000 square miles. Government. — This region was for a long time under the control of the "East India Company," but after the mutiny of the native army, in 1857, it passed to the Crown, and in 1877 was constituted an empire, — the queen of England assuming the title of Empress of India. The sovereign is represented by a viceroy and governor general, who lives at Calcutta, and is aided by governors of provinces. Legislative councils and courts are also established, and armies of British and native troops are main- tained. Population. — The total British-born population is about 153,000 and the native population nearly 257,000,000, or five times that of the United States. The inhabitants, scattered over 300 provinces and averaging 184 persons to the square mile, are in every stage of civilization, from the most degraded savages to the learned Hindu or cultivated Englishman. Castes. — The Brahmins are divided into castes. The divisions, which orig- inally depended on color, now mean something very different. The four oi iginal castes include: 1, Priests; 2, warriors; 3, citizens, traders, agriculturists; 4, me- nials. These four classes are now divided into many others. Those belonging to one class do not associate with people belonging to another. The Moham- medans recognize no castes. Education. — There are 109,000 common and 26,000 private schools, besides a large number of colleges, universities, and schools for special instruction. The government pays annually, in one way or another, about $12,000,000 for public education, and the people pay as much more. Of the total population in 1885, over 200,000,000 were unable to read or write. Agriculture. — Nearly 70,000,000 people are engaged in agri- culture. In the temperate north, European grains, fruits, and vegetables are raised. In the south, the staples of food and commerce are rice, cotton, indigo, jute, oil seeds, opium, and betel nuts. The coffee plant, tea, cinchona, and the eucalyptus from Australia, have been introduced and cultivated with suc- cess. To irrigate the land 16,150 miles of canal have been cut, watering 7,000,000 acres. Forests. — The forests yield many varieties of timber, from the pine, cedar, and the oak of the north to the ebony, the teak, and the graceful and most use- ful bamboo of the south. They swarm with beasts and reptiles, and 20,000 men and 50,000 head of cattle are annually destroyed by wild beasts and venom- ous snakes. The natives are very skillfdl. Old looms art still seen, and the most deli- cate muslins and the finest shawls are woven by hand; but some of the old industries are dying out. Thousands are now employed in the jute, cotton, and sugar manufactories. Commerce. — To carry on the internal commerce of the country the government has constructed 20,000 miles of mac- adamized road, over 16,000 miles of railway, and 15,000 miles of canal. The rivers afford 10,000 miles of navigable water. The foreign commerce employs 5,309 ships, of which over 1,000 are steamers which pass the Suez Canal. 120 ASIA— FAETHER INDIA— THE CHINESE EMPIEE. Though most of the people aie engaged in agriculture, there are nearly a hall' million rural vil- lages, anil sixty cities with a pop- ulation ranging from 50,000 to 870,000each. Someofthevillages and cities are composed of mud houses thatched with straw; others have fine dwellings, tem- ples, and other edifices. Cities. — Calcutta is on the Hoogly, 100 miles from the sea. It is strongly fortified and is a great commercial city. It has many mos(iues, temples, and pa- godas. The European part of th(> town contaius palatial residences and public buildiiij.'s. — Bombay has an extensive trade by way of the Suez Csinal. Farther India, or the "Golden Peninsula," as it has been called, is one of the least known regions of Asia. It includes Burmah, Slam, Anam, and several smaller king- doms to the south, all governed by despotic rulers, some of whom have power over the property, and even the lives, of their subjects. The inhabitants in the north belong to the Mon- golian, and in the south to the Malay race. This la one of the most densely populated portions of the globe. Many of the people are savages, but a large portion cultivate the soil and are skillful workmen in their way. The houses of the common people are made of the bamboo and thatched with palm leaves. The Burmese profess the Buddhist religion, and great expense is lavished on the shrines and temples. The white elephant is regarded as a sacred beast. A national system of education has been established and all male youth are obliged to be taught by the priests. Farther India is without European roads, and travelers follow the navigable rivers. The elephant is used as a beast of burden. The hot, moist climate of the peninsula is favorable to vegetable growth and the primeval forests whioh cover a large part of the surface almost equal those of the Amazon in luxuriance. Rice is the great 8tai)le, and, with fish, forms the chief food of the people. The valleys of the rivers are covered with rice fields. The other cultivated plants are cotton, tobacco, indigo, cane, cloves, ginger, coffee, cinuamon, pepper, and tropical fruit of many varieties. Bangkok is a commercial city. The best dwellings are raised on piles, but many of the inhabitants live in floating houses. The king's palace is adorned with gold and precious stones. The Chinese Empire ranks third among the great coun- tries of the world. The emperor possesses unlimited authority, and is regarded as the head of the state, of religion, and of the family. Inhabitants. — The population is estimated at 404,000,000, of which about 383,000,000 live in China alone. China is one of the most densely peopled countries of the world. Nearly all the inhabitants belong to the Mongolian race. Most of the people have adopted the Buddhist faith, which is the state re- ligion; but the learned classes study and follow the moral precepts of the phi- losophers CJonfncius and Laotse. The hill tribes are nature worshipers. In the west and northwest provinces are many followers of Mohammed. Education. — In China proper, education has received such wide attention that few adults can be found who are unable to read and write. The lettered classes alone are familiar with literature, and they often devote their lives to ASIA— THE CHINESE EMPIEE— BMPIEE OF JAPAN. 121 ita stndy. Yearly examinations for literary degrees are held at the capitals of the provinces. Candidates for the highest honors are examined at Pekin. Great improvements have recently heen made in the system of education. Scientific works have been translated for the use of all classes, and a college for the study of European languages, chemistry, natural history, physiology, and other sciences has been established, and successful students are appointed to high offices under the government. In those provinces of the empire where the population is scattered, or no- madic, there is little education, and, as in India, every grade of civilization may be found. The Chief Wealth. — In Turkestan, Mongolia, and Thibet the chief wealth consists in cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Many of the inhabitants are nomads. The Thibetans have do- mesticated the yak, the horse, and the sheep, the latter carry- ing a burden of twenty to thirty pounds over the highest passes. The Cashmere goat, whose soft down, growing under the outer covering, makes the most beautiful shawls, is found in Thibet. In Manchooria rhubarb and ginseng are two plants of great commercial value. The former grows from 8 to 10 feet high, and thrives at an altitude of 10,000 feet. Corea produces the plants of the Warm Temperate Zone in great abundance. China proper has a rich vegetation. There are some forests, but in many districts little is seen except carefully cultivated patches of vegetables, fruit trees, sugar-cane, cotton, rice, pop- CHINESE MANDARIN, HIS WIFE, CHILD, AND SERVANT. pies, the bamboo, mulberry trees, and the tea plant. The ground is so occupied that there is little room for wild plants. Three plants are of great importance. They are, rice, the staple food of hundreds of millions; the bamboo, yielding material for the construction of houses and furniture; and tea, the national beverage and the great article of export. Raw silk is another source of national wealth. For centuries silk culture has heen a great industry. Nearly all the manufacturing is performed by hand, and the work is done with great skill. The Chinese excel in the manufacture of silk, chinaware, nankeens, embroidery, and carved ivory. Commerce. — The country has only two railways, but there are 20,000 imperial roads, many canals, several large navigable rivers, and caravan routes leading to distant parts of the em- pire. Tea, silks, and manufactured goods are the chief exports. Opium, steel, glass, woolens, and cottons are the leading imports. Minerals. — The high mountainous districts in the western part of the empire have great mineral wealth, including iron, the precious metals, salt, coal, and precious stones. The coal fields of China are so vast that they promise, some day, to be, next to agriculture, its greatest source of wealth. In one province alone the coal fields cover an area larger than Minnesota by 20,000 square miles. Another field, containing anthracite equal in quality to that of Pennsylvania, has an area of 16,000 square miles. China has over fifty cities each with a population of 100,000 and upwards. Canton has 1,600,000, Pekin 1,000,000, and Tientsin 950,000 inhabitants. The towns are nearly alike in style of buildings. All contain temples, towers, narrow streets, and rickety houses in large numbers. The ports of China were formerly closed to the commerce of the world; but 22 cities, situated in ten different provinces and known as "Treaty Ports," are now open to the ships of all nations. China has steam merchant vessels that run to San Francisco and other American seaports, and a steam navy to protect her coasts and maintain her rights on the ocean. Cities. — Pekin is surrounded by a high, thick wall. It consists of an outer or a Chinese quarter, and an inner quarter, in which is the imperial palace and the "Temple of Heaven," which the emperor visits once a year. With its shrines, gardens, courts, and moats, the temple measures two miles around. Besides these, the inner quarter contains government ofiices and pleasure grounds. Business men live in the outer city. Canton, Shanghai, Ningpo, and Amoy are the chief ports open to foreign commerce. Empire of Japan. — The Empire of Japan, or "Land of the Eising Sun," consists of 3,850 islets and the four large islands of Yes-so, Hondo, Shi-ko-ku, and Kiu-shiu. The total area of the emjiire is about 10,000 square miles less than that of California, and its population is nearly 38,000,000. The ruler is styled "The Mikado." He is a hereditary monarch, the 121st iu his line, which began 660 B. C. People.^ — Though the people belong to the Mongolian race they differ much in language and customs from their Chinese neighbors. No other country in Asia is making such rapid progress in what is called western civilization. Its ports, once closed, are now open to the commerce of all nations; for- eigners, once excluded, are now welcome, and the educated are desired among them. A thorough system of public schools has been provided; railways have been built, postal and telegraph lines have been established, and all classes of men are equal before the law. Even the Buddhist and other religions are losing their hold on the intelligent classes, and modern ideas are taking their place. Agriculture. — The soil is not very fertile, and much of the land is still clothed with forests; but agriculture is carried on with the greatest skill, and the finest of crops are raised. Labor is abundant, and their "spade husbandry turns the country into a beautifully kept garden in which one might hunt vainly for a weed." They manure heavily, understand the rotation of crops, and turn everything to account. Eice, with wheat, millet, vegetables, and fish, forms the staple food. The mulberry and tea plantations cover large tracts in the south. The camphor tree is the most remarkable growth of the forest, its trunk reaching a circum- ference of twenty feet. The bamboo grows very rapidly in thickets, and is put to almost endless uses. Frames of houses, screens, paper, pipes, mats, saUs of junks, and walking sticks are among the articles made of the bamboo. The houses of all classes are mostly one story, with projecting roofs and very large rooms. Mats and quilting take the place of chairs, tables, and bedsteads. The ox, horse, dog, cat, and poultry are kept, but domestic animals are very scarce. The silk-worm is by far the most valuable animal, as it is a great source of wealth. Manufactures. — The Japanese are renowned for their man- ufacture of bronze, lacquer, and paper wares. Their paintings on paper and silk, and their profusely illustrated books, are very interesting. Cities. — Tokio, the capital, formerly called Yeddo, has nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants. — Yokohama, the port of Tokio, has a grand harbor. Its chief exports are tea and silks; its imports, woolens and cottons. It is a town of recent growth. In all cities a quarter is set off for sports, and one sees acrobats, strolling players, j ugglers, and clowns performing in the streets. There are many thea- ters, and whole families squat on the floor to see the plays. Kite flying and fireworks are lavorite amusements. The Japanese bed consists of a capacious wadded garment with sleeves into which the sleeper creeps and then draws a coverlet over him. The pillow consists of a wooden box eight inches long on which is laid a paper cushion, renewed every night. AFRICA, MAP STUDIES. REVIEW EXERCISES. Physical Features. — Locate and describe the coast waters, islands, mountains, deserts, lakes, and great rivers. Climate. — In what zones does the continent lie? State how the climate is affected by mountains, ocean currents, prevailing winds, and rainfall. Plant Zones. — In what plant zones is Africa situated ? General Questions. — How many countries are represented on the map? Which is the largest? What states lie on the Mediterranean? On the Red Sea? On the Indian Ocean? On the Atlantic ? Wliat countries have no sea coast? What states are situated on the Nile? On the Congo? On the Niger? On the Zambesi EXERCISES. -Locate and describe the principal coun- tries. Sketch maps of the impor- tant countries. Locate chief cities. DESCRIPTION. The great travelers, Livingstone, Barth, Bur- ton, Speke, Grant, Baker, Cameron, Stanley, and others have done much to extend our knowledge of Africa, but we still know less of it than of any other continent. Inhabitants. — The negroes occupy almost the entire conti- nent south of the Great Desert. There are many tribes, some peaceful, cultivating the soil in a rude way, raising cattle, man- ufacturing a few articles with considerable skill, and having some trade. Other tribes are savage, living by hunting, or on such roots or fruits as grow without cultivation, and often wag- ing cruel wars with weaker tribes for the purpose of obtaining slaves or other plunder. The people of Northern Africa, including the Sahara, Abys- sinia, Egypt, and the Barbary States, belong mainly to the Caucasian race. The Berbers, or natives of the country, were conquered by the Arabs several centuries ago, but they are still numerous, particularly in the desert, where they dwell in the oases, depending on the date palm, and some other plants. The Arabs possess the Nile Valley and most of the countries along the northern coast. The Arabs of the desert are nomadic, wandering from one oasis to another with their sheep, goats, camels, and horses. A few Copts, descendants of the ancient Egyptians, are still found along the Nile. Africa has been called the "Dark Continent." Millions of its people dwell in huts built of mud or sticks. They are vrithout schools, and have no knowl- edge of the outside world. There are but few large towns, and none to com- pare with the splendid cities of other continents. Commerce. — The vast body of the continent is without rail- ways, or even highways, and its internal commerce is chiefly carried on over caravan routes stretching across vast deserts and plains. No other continent has so little trade with the outside world. European trading settlements have been established here and there along the coast, but their influence is still little felt in the interior. Egypt. — Egypt was the seat of one of the most renowned of the ancient nations, whose glory is shown by the remains of mag- nificent temples, pyramids, statues, obelisks, and sepulchers. It is nominally a state of the Ottoman Empire, paying a yearly tribujie to the sultan, but is really nearly independent under the rule of a hereditary viceroy, called the Khedive. It is the most powerful and progressive state in Africa, the influ- ence of the khedive being felt from the Mediterranean to the Equator. More than 1,000 miles of railway have been built; elementary and higher schools, in which foreign languages are taught, have been established and are supported by the government; improved tools and methods of tillage are being introduced; thousands of trees have been planted, and, owing to their influence, rain begins to fall in some places. White cotton fields, rice fields, green seas of com, pasture lands with cattle, asses, sheep, and goats are seen along the fertile valley of the Lower Nile. The chief manufactures are pottery, carpets, firearms, and palm matting. The Nile, the Suez Canal, the caravan routes, and the rail- roads are arteries of trade. In the streets of the cities one sees Arabs, Copts, Turks, Greeks, Syrians, Italians, French, English, Germans, negroes, and Jews. Strange costumes are worn, and there is a baltel of tongues. The manners, customs, and religions of all nations are brought together. Cities. — Cairo, a sea of houses over which rises the tapering minarets and cupolas of 400 mosques, the Arabs call the "Queen of the Nile Valley." The houses are all raised above the level of the ground. They are from one to three stories high, with flat terraces instead of sloping roofs, and without gables or window frames. The whole city with its 350,000 inhabitants receives its water from the Nile. Water carriers are very numerous and take their supplies in goat skins, borne on their own shoulders or on backs of donkeys. Alexandria is the chief seaport.- Khartoum is a great center of the caravan trade with Central Africa. Its chief imports are cotton goods from England. The exports are ivory, ostrich feathers, gums, and wax. 122 30 Longitude 20 "West from 10 Grcenwicll 10 Xongituae East from sy Greenwich 40 R A N C E^ ^l^C JC „ /i^ S V A 1 N i ns- r ^ ^^--^^ ruNis -^ ^° SEIIUL o Is. «<= .C^tT. Is. y7 ./ Tlralmun. ^\ \. *i£ ^ i c^^-l A S ' T^ralmun ^\ •" Inshalah rag.ajTuiS' A/, B A R C A S E .^^..v^-v 'j^_ _^_ 7.t__h;___e /„s..'*!':i^„. O B D Moti^^ourlc® yy s. "^t ». S!>ckua / o Taufleny oMabrool^ GREAT - ."^ y - .^'^ Sliiah'' •, ' /- \ jKplei /'O .<='^. ^^ TROPIC OF CANOCR ^ -v-Taoo-y 'Jv '^7 W.p.rtf^S''' ..^:;^^«^- TIntellusfcQ A S B E ^' ^ .y '>. ^ LEONE I FREE TOWfj SHUtBORO IS.<: ^ C.Mount'^ v^ (? K A W A R "iflma ^ JJewbong'ilSx >»\ SuSAjni^, '^ '.0olSbej,O EldjTjeia ? : \ IS n \ ', ©ft? : 0,.--J);-BA6H'hiMl'; -. ! .^El Fasllor\ 01 j ;1 ..O-^ >«s^^:?»:'S d-" ""^ tr c^^ cooW.siW?. tr L F oAscenaioal. '•v^;;^'^ 7- ^'o FERNANDO P)^ PRINCE'S ' ST. THOMAS I. O GaboonUX C-Lopezt^ 8t. Paul d I Loaada u Tool' Eeopolfl "V". ^ Vpt St.Heleiia<» J jnbrizette p Ambrizb KovQ ^Roaondo^ I enguela/C ^ I ^ Frio { \x ^ ^"'^.^ TROPIC OF CAPBlbORN i,g||at\ iM>^|^AQUA! My .^fr:v z ?Bong4o> ^ ,o,iaoiiom./j ' ■ , '"tjsmiila 1 ''' ^ ,' ^v ,0 GanaijeM E/ lera© -^^ az;)nzi8AR,i ? Zanzibar nS — -#- ■l#f Poi-t IiOulsMaur, Bourboal. ^ 7'^a.m EXnliaiubaiie ■'C. Corrientea ly POLITICAL MAP OP AFRICA 0* gcaJeofmieB ^. Hope town Colesbei-g* "I ^■^;'V, The two statues, the Co- lossi of Memnon, stuid , amidst the ruins of eight- 0* 'ecu others on the west hank of the Nile. The name "Memnon " was associ.it< d with thera B.C. 1400. The most northern gave out sounds wlien the rays of the rising ,sun fell upon it, s\ii)- jKwed to be salutations of Memnon to his motli- „er, Aurora. These strange sounds were heird coming from the pedesttil of the statue as late as 1821. — Give an account of the Pyramids and the Sphinx. Whatcloesthe plow-"'-^. ing scene show as to the state of agriculture? Is elephant hunting a common ^-^ff sport la Central Africa? What disguise has, the gnu hunter chosen ? 124 %d Su '^^AYA rJ/^TIVt, AFRICA— ABYSSi:^! A— THE SAHAEA— MADAGASCAR. 125 Abyssinia. — Abyssinia consists of several petty states ruled by a king. Most of the inhabitants are descendants of the ancient Ethiopians. Their prevailing color, in the north, is almost white; in the center, pure brown; in the south, nearly black. The people of the towns are shrewd traders. The wealthy classes live in idleness and their dwellings are miserable huts reeking with filth. Cattle breeding is a favorite industry, to which the pasturage of the hilly- districts and the lowlands of the south is well suited. Though there are three belts of climate and vegetation, depending on differences in elevation, and the plants of the Torrid, the Wann Temperate, and the Temperate Zones may be raised, tillage is limited to the growing of cereals and cotton, and is carried on in the rudest way. The Barbary States. — The Barbary States are — Tripoli, a province of Turkey; Tunis, virtually governed by France; Algeria, a province of France; and Morocco, an independent Mohammedan state, governed by a sultan. Grain and olives are cultivated in the north; sheep and goats are reared in the mountain districts; and in the south is Beled-el-Jerid, the "Land of Dates." The chief manufactures are morocco, olive oil, indigo, and salt. These, with ostrich feathers, dates, wool, gum, and grain are the leading exports. Since the French took possession of their provinces they have drained large marshes and lakes and dug artesian wells on the borders of the deserts, making the climate more healthful and the wastes productive. The Sahara. — Some of the oases, especially in the east, are fertile, and support a settled population, who till the soil, raising grains and fruits. In other parts, where the herbage is dry and stunted, there are nomads with their herds. The desert is crossed by caravans, sometimes numbering thousands of camels. The oases are the resting places. The distance between them requires a journey of eiglit or ten days, and from two to three months are usually spent in going from Central Africa to the Barbary States. Soudan. — Soudan is the general name for a broad belt of country, with no very definite northern or southern boundary, extending across the continent from the Atlantic coast to Abys- sinia. "It is the true home of the negro races, and consists of many kingdoms, or states, inhabited by different tribes, most of them governed by native kings." As a whole, the region is well watered, diversified, very fertile, and thickly peopled. Some of the countries, especially in Central Soudan, have regular governments, courts, and a military system. The people till the soil and man- ufacture many varieties of cloth, woven in hand looms. Their craftsmen work in iron, brass, and copper. Other tribes are. less civilized, and some are still in a barbarous state. There are many towns, some of which have 50,000 inhabit- ants. Most of the dwellings are round mud huts with conical roofs, but square clay houses with thatched roofs, and cheaper huts of matting are occasionally seen. The chief towns are cen- ters of the caravan trade. Steamers ply on the Lower Niger and have drawn much of the trade that formerly took the routes of the desert. The chief exports of Soudan are palm oil, shea butter, ivory, gold, ostrich feathers, and gum arable. European goods are returned in exchange. Slavery exists in all the countries. The Mohammedan religion prevails in the most civilized sections, and mosques are seen in many of the towns, especially in the north. Wine, beer, and other spirits are prohibited by the Koran. Mo- hammedan schools have been established. Paganism is the religion of the savage tribes. Western Africa. — Though the coast belt is intensely hot, and the climate, especially in the equatorial regions, very un- healthy, the French, English, Spanish, and Portuguese have trading settlements along the coast from Cape Verde to Orange Elver. The inhabitants are principally negroes, who live in mud huts, and most of their wealth consists in cattle, sheep, and poultry. Some raise millet, sugar-cane, and yams, and have learned weaving and other simple arts. They bring their palm oil, gums, spices, peanuts, ivory, gold dust, and ostrich feathers to the Enrojjeans to exchange for cotton goods, beads, guns, knives, and liquors. Guinea. — Guinea is a name applied to a large part of the coast. Siena Leone was purchased by Great Britain in 1787 as a home for negroes taken from slave ships. The republic of Liberia was founded as a home for slaves liberated in the United States. Senegambia comprises many small states ruled by native chiefs. It takes its name from its chief rivers, Senegal and Gambia. Eastern Africa. — This section includes the countries along the coast from the Gulf of Aden to Zulu Land. Somauli Land is in possession of the Arabs, who lead a pastoral life. The country is rich in coffee and fragrant gums. Zanguebar, "the land of the blacks, ' ' is ruled by an Arab sultan, who lives on the island of Zanzibar. Ivory, gum copal, and cloves are among the exports. The trade is in the hands of Arabs and Hindus. Mozambique is the seat of the Portuguese power. Gold dust, honey, and tortoise shells are among the exports. South African Colonies and States, — Cape Colony, Natal, and Griqualand are provinces of Great Britain. Zulu Land and Kaffraria are native states governed by chiefs, but subject to Great Britain. The Orange Free State, and the South African Republic are republics inhabited by Dutch farmers called Boers. VILLAGE IN CENTRAL SOUTHER.N AFBICA. About one-third of the population of the English provinces consists of Europeans. The natives are Kaffirs and Hottentots, the former a well-formed, manly race, whose wealth is in cattle. Sheep and cattle raising are great in- dustries in all this section. Ostrich farming — raising ostriches for their feath- ers — is receiving much attention. The diamond mines of Griqualand are very productive. The Dutch repub- lics are fine agricultural regions, and are rich in minerals. Wool, hides, tallow, diamonds, copper, and feathers are important exports. The Congo Free State is a vast region, the scientific ex- ploration of which was begun by the International African Association in 1877. The work was intrusted to an executive committee, whose chairman is the king of Belgium, and went forward under the direction of the great African explorer, Henry M. Stanley. Seventy-nine treaties were made with na- tive chiefs, twenty-two settlements were established, and the work was vigorously pushed along the Congo and its tributaries. Under a treaty of the Western Powers, convened in Berlin in 1884, the whole Congo region is open to the trade of all nations. The country is thickly peopled by dark tribes, some of them tilling the soil, others rude savages. There are vast regions of Africa stiU unexplored and without a name. Madagascar is inhabited by Malays. The government is a monarchy. The products are cotton, rice, sugar-cane, cocoanuts, and tropical fruits. The Cape Verde, Canary, Madeira, and Azores are groups of volcanic islands with tropical vegetation. Cotton, rice, coffee, sugar-cane, oil, wine, and fruits are cultivated. It may be considered in four divisions: Ma- so named from the Malays, who form the bulk of the native popxilation; Austral- asia, which signifies "Southern Asia;" Mi- cronesia, meaning small islands; and Polynesia, many islands. Oceania is peopled chiefly by three races, the Malays, some of whom are partly civilized; the Papuan Ifegroes, who rank among the lowest of the human family; and by many European colonists. The Chinese-Mongolians form an important portion of the population in the cities and villages of Malaysia. Malaysia is the richest of all the great island groups of the earth, V rivaling Brazil in the number and variety of its vegetable products. The native inhabitants may be divided into two great classes — the savage and the semi-civilized. The savages have no writing, no regular goTemment or religion, and wear scanty clothing, but they build houses, till the ground, make pottery and canoes, and even work in iron. Other Malayan tribes have written languages, regular governments, and a religion. They wear clothing, weave cotton and other fabrics, and use many tools and weapons. ^Nearly all the groups south of the Philippines, including Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, OCEANIA. MAP STUDIES. General Questions. — In what ocean are these islands situated ' Is the map drawn on a large or a small scale? "What is the distance across Australia in .i straight line from east to west? From north to south? Wliat is the distance from Australia to New Zealand? To the Sandwich Islands? From the Sand- wich Islands to the Philippine Islands? What is the length of New Guinea? Of Sumatra? Mention the chief islands of Australasia. Of Malaysia. Mention some of the groups of Polynesia, of Micronesia. EXERCISES.— Locate and describe the coast waters, mountains, rivers, lakes, and divisions of Australia. Sketch Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and locate chief towns. DESCRIPTION. Oceania is a term used to denote the world of islands, the sixth ▼reat division of the globe, stretching nearly 9,000 miles from east to west and 5,000 from north to south. ' 127 128 OCEANIA— AUSTEAL ASIA— POLYNESIA— MICRONESIA. and parts of Borneo and Sumatra, belong to the Netherlands and con- stitute the Dutch East Indies. They form a territory more than four times as large as California, and have a population of 22,000,000, ranking next to the British Indies in extent and in trade. Gold, diamonds, tin, coal, and salt are abundant, and coffee, tea, rice, pepper, cinnamon, indigo, camphor, and spices are exported. Java is the most populous and important of the islands, and Batavia, its capital, is a fine city and the center of trade. The Philippines were discovered by Magellan in 1521, and named for Philip II., of Spain, to which country they still belong. They number 1,200 islands, and are among the most beautiful on the globe. "Half concealed by cocoanut palms lie the towns and villages, amidst the vivid green of the rice fields and sugar plantations; while the woodlands and gardens are beautilul with the dazzling hues of their blossoms and fruits. But even here lurks the serpent with its fang, clouds of locusts come to devour, and the frightful pestilence thins the inhabitants." — A. S. Wallace. The women of the most civilized tribes weave cloths of the fibers of the banana and pineapple, some rivaling the finest Indian muslin. A single dress of pifia has been known to bring $1,500. Cotton and silks are also woven. The looms used are very rude in construction. Sugar, manilla hemp, and cordage, coffee, and mother-of-pearl are exported. Manilla is the great emporium of trade. Australasia. — The four principal islands of this division are Australia, TTismania, New Zealand, and New Guinea. The first three are provinces of Great Britain. Taken together, all the islands of Australasia are about the size of the United States. The popula- tion is nearly 4,000,000. The gold fields of Australia are the most important in the world. The yield of its gold mines in 1885 was over $83,000,000. Copper, tin, and coal are extensively mined. Magnificent lines of steamers keep up regular communi- cation with Europe and America, and the colonies own a large number of sailing vessels. An ocean telegraph cable extends to Europe by way of Java and India. Railroads and telegraph lines connect the chief cities. The leading exports are wool, The native inhabitants belong to the lowest type of mankind. They are sooty in color, have curly hair, which they ornament with bamboo combs, bits of bone, and plumes. Nose and ears are also adorned with bones, sticks, or feathers thrust through them. The face, arms, and breast are sometin>es tatooed. Little clothing is worn, and they live in rude huts or holes in the ground and subsist on roots, fruits, fish, lizards, and insects. ^^^ On some of the islands the natives are more advanced, and they make fish- nets, shell fish-hooks, unglazed ]K)ttery, wooden ))Owls, tools and weapons of stone and shell, and fcvsteful wood and tortoise-shell carvings. Australia.- — The island-continent is about as large as the United States without Alaska. It is divided into several prov- inces, each under a governor appointed by the English Crown, and two Houses of Parliament elected by the people. The first colony was established in 1788, at Botany Bay, a penal settlement. The present population is 2,300,000, more than one-third of which is in Vic- toria and one-fifth in Melbourne and Sydney. The greater portion of the island is uninhabitable. Over 66,000,000 sheep feed on its pastures, and wool is the great agricultural product. Cattle, horses, and pigs are raised in immense numbers. Wheat and other grains are extensively grown, and the vineyards yield large quantities of wine. wheat, and gold. Cities . — Melbourne and Sydney are large cities, with many fine public buildings, parks, and gardens. Tasmania was discovered in 1642, by Tasman, a Dutch navigator. Its productions are similar to those of Australia. New Zealand i.s one-half greater than New England. It has a fine cli- mate, and is well adapted to grazing and agriculture. Its exports are gold, wool, flax, and timber. The \ i \ pine of New Zealand is very fine and flexible, and is highly valued for ship building. Papua, or New Guinea. — The only European inhabitants are mis- sionaries, who are trying to improve the savage natives. The Dutch claim large portions of the island. Polynesia. — Polynesia includes several archi- pelagoes, with a few smaller groups. The inhabitants are far superior to the natives of Australasia, and by some writers are regarded as distinct from the Malays. The Friendly Islanders are described as follows: "They are cleanly in their habits, and have a taste for neatness and order. Though without metals, their manufactures are very beautiful. They make the most delicate mats, and bark cloth thin as the finest paper, and ornamented with graceful patterns in various colors. Cups, plates, bowls, and bottles are made of wood and cocoanut shells, beautifully carved. . . "Their canoes, sometimes 100 feet long, are marvels of ingenuity. Iheir houses are oval, with central pillars and ratters to support the thatched roof. The clothing consists of the ordmary bandage for the men, and a neat petticoat of leaves for the women. Micronesia —North of the Equator the ocean is studded with countless small islands. The Sandwich Islands, the most important group, are washed by the "soft, blue, and sunny waters" of the Pacific, and fanned by balmy airs. The natives have been converted to Christianity, and have many schools and churches. The govern- ment is a monarchy. The products are sugar, coffee, rice, and taro, a root much used for food. 2 2 ® § ^- s; 3 CO ai3^=^ „ » 2- S^ n. c*- * cT a S3 " g. ft. a 5 on » s-sg- f^-^ S* o "> 2 5^ ft ll'Si^P' £.3 3 8^^ 5= O ?:i3§!^?^ <<» So 3* C+- 03 S P J "-I ' ct- p' a "-2. o s- r ^M*^aj^f^33i ^ "^ o 3. S o oo S- ^ — M ^ ^S -I oog. 3-32^ o o B '-^ a 3 ^ 3 rt- a 3 S-Q g (f 2, g .^3. I P S 3^ ►J 3> p o W a d I— ( M CO B^\ ■ -Z,4 8 3.B 3 S. § 5' «• 3 < S3 I &i - ^ ■-O -O ® Q n s= ^ O P -1 pf 3 ^. 3 5 ^ CO M p o 2 ?" ■ B ° » >2 2 o 2 ^ 2. S 3 "> ?; - =2»^ 3 3- o * g.o gg.g f^ ^'i-^ (COM X -- B^ o ' < 3 sj 3--.0 -t. o :^ d ft "-^ — 3 . g g o a 3 > 2. i o ^' £ 3.0-0 Ct HI m p ►? tp o g;o o * 033^ ^ O <* O J^ O '^ o ■■* rt-iS ^ ^v 3 O ^. C §.» g O ^ ^>^ftr- "3 P 3- » -^ O] Ct- He] B s:»=.o 2 3 ? ^ O »^ H H O W % tg iR V} TEST QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES. Name the continents in the order of their population. Name them in the order of their civilization. Point out those regions of the globe where the inhabitants are savages, and stivte how the people are clothed ; how their dwell- ings are constructed; what food they eat; what ornaments are worn; and what weapons are used. Point out the regions where most of the inhabitants are nomads, and give a general idea of the habits, dwellings, property, education, government, and religion of the people. Point out those portions of the earth where the people are most intelligent. What five countries of the world have the most extensive territory? Name the six most densely populated countries. Name two countries which together contain three-sevenths of the total population of the globe. Name all the countries that have a republican form of government. Name the chief limited monarchies; the chief absolute monarchies. Make a list of those countries where wheat is a leading product; Indian com; rice; cotton; coffee; tea; sugar; wine; tropical fruit; silk; spice; tobacco. Make a list of those countries which are largely engaged in stock raising; in wool growing; in lumbering; in mining; in manufacturing; in commerce. What countries are noted for their fisheries? For their furs? Iron mines? Coal mines? Saltmines? Oil wells? Silver mines? Goldmines? Diamond mines? What countries take the lead in the manufacture of cotton goods? Woolen goods? Iron goods? Fancy goods? Carpets? In foreign tnwle ? What ten countries have the most miles of railway ? What country has as many miles of railway as all of the other countries of the world together? What countries have the most miles of railroad to the 1,000 square miles of territory 9 What countries depend largely on caravans? On river and lake routes? Every important country is to be represented in a "World's Fair," at New York. With the map before you, state what products each country will be likely to contribute, and trace a route over which they may be sent. (The con- tributions should include products of agriculture, of the forest, of the waters, of mines, of manufactories — whatever will best represent each country. One pupil may work up Asia, another Oceania, and so on.) How many great cities of the world are north of the parallel on which Lon- don is situated? Draw four lines to represent the parallels 30°, 40°, 50°, and 60° north latitude, and locate the chief cities of both hemispheres on the belts formed by these lines. What two parallels include the largest number of cities? Mention ten large cities in the order of their population. What countries are famed for their institutions of learning? Where are the finest cities? The most extensive libraries, and works of art? What countries provide schools for all the ijeople, without regard to class or wealth? EXERCISES.— From memory, sketch the United States and Canada, indicating' the great industrial regions and chief centers of trade. Sketch the most important countries of Europe ; of Asia, Africa, South America. Sketch ten Important islands. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. For area and population of United States see page 91. liength of principal rivers, area of Great Lakes, and height of chief mountains of North America, page 19. mountains of the globe, page '62. Comparative height of principal RAILWAYS OPEN IN THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD, 1885-1886. COMPILED FROM STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK, 1887. EUROPE. Countries. Austria-Hungary Belgium Bulgaria Denmark Finland France Germany Great Britain & Ireland, Greece Italv Netherlands Norway Portugal Boumania Bussia. Servia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Total for Europe Length in Miles. 13,957 2,758 268 1,21.1 819 19,000 23,538 19,169 327 6,610 1,482 976 948 • 1,051 16,024 241 6,741 4,307 1,778 537 120,744 Miles per 1 ,000 Sq. Miles of Territory. 68.0 242.0 7.0 88.0 5.6 93.0 111.0 159.0 13 58.0 117.0 7.8 26.0 22.0 8.0 13.0 30.0 25.0 111.0 8.4 18.0 ASIA. Countries. Asia Minor Asiatic Russia British India Ceylon China Cochin China Dutch East Indies Japan Total for above countries Length in Miles. .S69 616 12,376 178 8 90 591 349 14,621 Miles per 1,000 Sq. Miles of Territory. 0.5 0.08 .9 .7 3.9 0.9 2.4 AFRICA. Countries. Algeria Cape Colony and Natal Egypt. Mauritius Reunion Senegambia. Tunis Total for above countries Length in Miles. 1,124 1,773 1,280 92 78 329 256 4,9; Miles per 1,000 Sq. Miles of Territory. 6.8 7.0 2.4 130.0 81.0 3.4 6.0 6.25 NORTH AMERICA. Countries. Barbadoes Canada Costa Rica Cuba Guadeloupe.. Guatemala Honduras Jamaica Martinique Mexico Nicaragua Salvador Trinidad United States Total for North America Length in Miles. 26 10,836 176 937 19 72 69 94 121 3,601 89 29 51 128,967 145,087 Miles per 1,000 Sq. Miles of Territory. 156.0 3.1 7.6 21.6 26.4 1.5 15 21.5 318.0 4.8 1 8 4.0 29.0 42.0 16.2 SOUTH AMERICA. Countries. Argentine Republic Brazil Chili Colombia, United States. Ecuador Guiana, British Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela Total for South America Length in Miles. 3,318 4,414 1,421 141 76 21 45 1,002 263 102 10,833 Miles per 1,000 Sq. Miles of Territory. 2.90 ..W 4.80 .28 .30 .19 .49 2.10 3.60 .16 1.5 AUSTRALASIA. Countries. New Zealand Ta-sraania Australia Total for Australasia Length in Miles. 1,664 2.i7 6,060 7,971 Miles per 1,000 Sq. Miles of Territory. 16. 8. 2. 2.6 LENGTH OF PRINCIPAL RIVERS, AND AREA OF RIVER BASINS. SOUTH AMERICA. Name. Amazon. La Plata Orinoco.. Length. 3,600 2,300 1,550 Area of Basin. 2,275,000 1,242,000 340,000 EUROPE. Name. Volga... Danut>e. Dnieper. Don Dwina.. Rhine... Length. 5,300 1,800 1,120 1,100 1,000 830 Area of Basin. 600,000 811,000 195,000 170,000 130,000 90,000 ASIA. Name. Length. Obi Yenisei Yang-tse-kiang Lena Amoor Hoang-ho Brahmapootra.. Ganges , Indus Me-Kong Euphrates 3,000 3,400 3,320 2,760 2,650 2,800 2,300 1,600 1,850 2,.500 1,750 Area of Basin. 1,250,000 1,010,000 9.50,000 800,000 786,000 714,000 4.'i0,000 410,000 402,000 400,000 250,000 AFRICA. Name. Nile Niger.... Zambesi Congo... Length. 4,000 2,500 1,600 3,500 Area of Basin, 1,425,000 800,000 900,000 1,160,000 AUSTRALIA. Name. Murray.. Length. 1,500 Area of Basin. 600,000 130 AEEA AND POPULATION OF THEPEINOIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. COMPILED FEOM THE STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK AND THE ALMANACK DE GOTHA. NORTH AMERICA. Countries. Canatla, Dominion of. United States (including Indians). Mexico.' , Central America West Indies Bermudas Newfoundland Greenland Iceland Square Miles. 3,170,392 3,501,404 743,948 179,6; 7 94,279 19 42,718 837,.')23 39,756 Population. 4,324,810 50,497,057 10,460,703 2,534,586 4,412,703 13,812 197,332 9,780 72,445 SOUTH AMERICA. Countries. Argentine Republic Jiolivia Brazil Chili Colombia, United States of.. Ecuador (luiana, British Guiana, French Guiana, Dutch Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela Faliciand Islands Galapagos Square Miles. 1,125,086 842,729 3,218,166 293,310 504,773 248,370 85,400 46,865 46,058 91,980 500,0(10 72,000 439,120 4,837 2,950 Population. 3,072,763 2,325,000 12,922,375 2,520,442 4,000,000 1,004,651 269,330 36,760 68,381 293,844 2,621,844 4.'i2,O00 2,073,245 1,394 60 EUROPE. Countries. Austria-Hungary , Belgium Denmark France Germany ; Great Britain and Ireland Greece Italy Montenegro Netherlands , Norway Portugal Roumania Russia Servia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Square Miles. 240,415 11,369 14,784 204,030 208,624 121,571 20,018 114,380 3,657 12,727. 122,323 34,595 50,159 2,095,504 18,781 193,171 170,927 15,908 130,935 Population. 39,224,511 5,853,278 1,980,259 38,218,903 46,852,780 35,241,482 1,979,453 29,699,785 236,000 4,336,012 1,806,900 4,708,178 5,376,000 87,8i0,490 1,826,000 16,634,345 4,682,769 2,846,102 9,277,040 ASIA. Countries. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Turkey Arabia. Persia Afghanistan Beloochistan Briti.sh India Farther India (Siam, Anam,Bur.) Chinese Empire Japan Bokhara Trans Caucasia Square Miles. 6,548,600 729,380 950,000 628,000 260,000 140,000 1,574,460 699,000 4,179,.559 148,456 »4,000 95,000 Population. 16,000.000 16,174,056 4,300,000 7,653,000 4,000,000 1,000,000 256,982,000 31,300,000 404,180,000 37,868,000 2,040,000 4,173,000 AFRICA. Countries. Morocco Algeria Tunis Tripoli, Including Fezzan EKypt Abyssinia. Cape Colony , Natal Orange Free State Liberia. Sierra Leone South African Republic Madagascar Mozambique Other Countries (Elstimated).. Square Miles. 219,000 122,000 42,000 345,000 1,153,000 158,000 231,000 21,000 70,000 15,000 468 114,000 228,000 80,000 Population. 5,ooo,ooe 3,817,000 2,100,000 1,000,000 6,817,00(1 4,000,000 1,252,000 425,000 134,000 1,068,000 60,000 750,000 3,500,000 600,000 176,000,000 OCEANIA. Countries. Australia Tasmania New Zealand New Guinea Java Borneo Celebes Sumatra Philippine Islands.. Fiji Islands Sandwich Islands.... Square Miles. Population. 2,945,000 2,300,000 26,000 134,000 104,000 619,000 300,000 1,000,000 51,000 20,931,000 280,000 2,000,000 73,000 4,000,000 168,000 2,.500,000 115,000 5,661,000 8,000 128,000 6,677 80,000 POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. NORTH AMERICA. DOM. OF CANADA. Montreal 141,000 Toronto 87,000 CJuebec 6.3,000 Halifax 37,000 Hamilton 36,000 Ottawa. 28,000 UNITED STATES. New York 1,206,000 Philadelphia 847,000 Brooklyn 567,0ii0 Chicago 503,000 Boston 36.3,000 St. Louis 331,000 Baltimore 332,000 Cincinnati 255,000 San Francisco 234,000 New Orleans 216,000 CENTRAL AMERICA. Guatemala 59,000 San Salvador 13,000 San Jose 12,000 MEXICO. Mexico (1882) 300,000 Leon 120,000 Guadalaxara 80,000 Puebla 75,000 Guanaxato 66,000 WEST INDIES. Havana 230,000 Santiago de Cuba 45,000 Matanzas 37,000 Kingston 35,000 SOUTH AMERICA. U. S. OF COLOMBIA. Bogota 100,000 Medellln 40,000 Panama 35,000 VENEZUELA. Caracas 70,000 Valencia 36,000 Maracaybo 32,000 GUIANA. Georgetown 37,000 Paramaribo 23,000 Cayenne 10,000 BRAZIL. Rio Janeiro 358,000 Bahia 140,000 Pernambuco 130,000 Para 40,000 San Paulo 40,000 ECUADOR. Quito 80,000 Guayaquil 40,000 PERU. Lima 102,000 Callao 34,000 Arequipa 30,000 BOLIVIA. La Paz 26,000 Cochabamba 16,000 CHILI. Santiago _ 200,000 Valparaiso 95,000 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Buenos Ayres 400,000 Cordova 50,000 Rosario 42,000 PARAGUATT. Asuncion 20,000 Villa Rica 13,000 URUGUAY. Montevideo 105,000 EUROPE. ENGLAND. London 4,150,000 Liverpool 586,000 Birmingham 434,000 Manchester 376,000 Leeds 339.000 Sheffield 310,000 Bristol 220,000 Salford 211,000 Hull 191,000 Newcastle 155,000 SCOTLAND. Glasgow 67.5,000 Edinburgh 236,000 Dundee 142,000 Aberdeen „ 106,000 IRELAND. Dublin 353,000 Belfast 208,000 Cork 80,000 FRANCE. Paris 2,345,000 Lyons 402,000 Marseilles 376,000 Bordeaux 240,000 Lille 188,000 Toulouse 148,000 Etienne 118,000 SWITZERLAND. Geneva 68,000 Basle 62,000 Berne 44,000 Lausanne 36,000 Zurich 25,000 ITALY. Naples 463,000 Milan 295,000 Rome 274,000 Turin 231,000 Palermo 206,000 Genoa I,'i9,000 Florence 13.5,000 Venice 130,000 GERMAN EMPIRE. Berlin 1,316,000 Hamburg 306,000 Breslau 299,000 Munich 262,000 Dresden 246,000 Leipsic 170,000 Cologne 162,000 Konigsburg 151,000 Magdeberg 114,000 Hanover 140,000 THE NETHERLANDS. Amsterdam 373,000 Rotterdam 174,000 The Hague 138,000 DENMARK. Copenhagen 286,000 Aarhuus 25,000 NORWAY. Christiania 129,000 Bergen 47,000 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Vienna 1,104,000 Buda-Pesth 423,000 i'rague 162,000 Trieste 144,000 Lemberg _ 110,000 131 RUSSLA. St. Petersburg 930,000 Moscow 754,000 Warsaw 407,000 Odessa 155,000 Riga J.. 169,000 Kishenev 130,000 Cracow 129,000 SPAIN. Madrid 398,000 Barcelona 249,000 Valencia _ 145,000 Seville 134,000 BELGIUM. Brussels 417,000 Antwerp 198,000 Ghent 143,000 Liege 135,000 TURKEY. Constantinople 874,000 Adriauople 100,000 Salonica 60,000 BULGARIA. Rustchuk 26,000 Varna 24,000 SERVIA. Belgrade 42,000 ROUMANIA. Bucharest 221,000 Jassy 90,000 Galati 80,000 GREECE. Athens 84,000 }»atras 26,000 PORTUGAL. Lisbon 247,000 Oporto 106,000 SWEDEN. Stockholm 216,000 Gottenburg 91,000 ASIA. AFGHANISTAN. Cabul 65,000 Herat 50,000 Candahar - „ 60,000 ARABIA. Muscat 60,000 Aden 60,000 Mecca 50,000 Medina 20,000 JAPAN. Tokio 903,000 Osaka 354,000 Kioto 255,000 Yokohama 70,000 CHINESE EMPIRE. Canton... 1,500,000 Pekin (Est. 1886) 1,000,000 Tientsin 930,000 Hang Chow 800,000 Foo Chow 600,000 Shanghai 600,000 BRITISH INDIA. Calcutta. 872,000 Bombay 773,000 Madras 405,000 Hyderabad .<;6S,000 Benares 200,000 Delhi 174,000 Cawnpore 151,000 FARTHER INDIA. Bangkok 600,000 Saigon 120,000 Mandalay 100,000 Singapore 60,000 SIBERIA. Tiflis „ 104,000 Tashkent 100,000 Samarcand 36,000 Irkutsk „ 35,000 Tomsk 84,000 PERSIA. Teheran 200,000 Tabris 165,000 Meshed k 60,000 Ispahan „ 60,000 TURKEY. Smyrna _ 200,000 Damascus _ 200,000 Bagdad 180,000 Aleppo 120.000 Beyrout _ 60,000 Trebizond ». 45,000 132 POPULATIOlf OP THE CHIEF CITIES OP THE WORLD— OP THE UNITED STATES. POPULATION OP THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD.— CONTINUED. AFRICA. EGYPT. Cairo 375,000 Alexandria 232,000 Khartoum 60,000 Damietta 44,000 THE BAEBARY STATES,. Tunis 145,000 Algiers 71,000 GUINEA COAST. Coomassie 60,000 Abomey 50,000 Lagos 35,000 St. Paul de Loanda 20,000 MonrOTia 15,000 INDIAN COAST. Zanzibar 80,000 Gondar 20,000 Mozambique 15,000 MADAGASCAR. TananariTO 100,000 Port Louis 70,000 CAPE COAST. Cape Town 46,000 Durban 17,000 OCEANIA. AUSTRALASIA. Melbourne 365,000 Sydney 280,000 Adelaide „ 68,000 Auclcland 57,048 Dunedin 46,000 Ballarat 41,000 Sandhurst „ 89,000 MALAY'SIA. Manila 270.000 Batavia IM.OOO Surabaya 100,000 Samarang 60,000 SANDWICH ISLANDS. Honolulu 21,000 FIJI ISLANDS. Levuka 30,000 POPULATION OF THE PEI:N'0IPAL CITIES AI^D TOWI^S OF THE UNITED STATES. ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1880. Aberdeen, Dak 5,600 Adrian, Mich 7,849 Akron, 16,512 Albany, N Y 90,758 Alexandria, Va 13,659 Allegheny, Pa 78,682 Allentown, Pa » 18,063 Alliance, O 4,636 Alpena, Mich 6,153 Alton, 111 8,975 Altoona.Pa 19,710 Amsterdam, N. Y 9,466 Andover (tp.), Mass 6,169 Annapolis, Md 6,642 Ann Arbor, Mich 8,061 *Anoka, Minn 4,629 Appleton, Wis 8,005 Ashland, Pa 6,052 Ashtabula, 4,445 Atchison, Kan 15,105 Athens, Ua 6,039 Atlanta, Ga 37.409 Atlantic City, N. J 5,477 Attleboro (tp.). Mass 11,111 Auburn, Me 9,565 Auburn, N. Y 21,924 Augusta, Ga 21,891 Augusta, Me 8,665 Aurora, 111 11,873 Aurora, Ind 4,435 Austin, Tex 10,960 Baltimore, Md 332,313 Bangor, Me 16,866 ♦Baraboo, Wis 4,168 Batavia, N. Y 4,845 Baton Rogue, La 7 ,197 Battle Creek, Mich 7,063 Bay City, Mich 20,693 Bayonne, N. J 9,372 Belfast, Me 6,308 Bellaire, 8,025 Belleville, III 10,683 Bennington (tp.), Vt 6,333 Biddeford, Me 12,651 Binghamton N. Y 17,317 fBismarck, Dak 8,000 Bloomfield (tp.), N.J 6,748 Bloomington, III 17,180 Boston, Mass 362,839 Bowling Green, Ky 6,114 Bradford, Pa 9,197 Braidwood, 111 6,524 ♦Brainerd, Minn 7,110 Bridgeport, Conn 27,643 Brldgeton, N. J 8,722 Bristol, Pa 5,273 BrookUne (tp.), Mas.s 8,057 Brooklyn, N. Y 666,663 Brunswick (tp ), Me 6,384 Buffalo, N. Y 165,134 Burlington, la 19,450 Burlington, N.J 6,090 Burlington (tp.),Vt 11,365 Cairo, 111 9,011 Calumet (tp.), Mich 8,299 Cambridge, Mass 62,669 Camden, N. J 41,659 Canandaigua, N. Y 6,726 Canton, 12,268 Carbondale, Pa 7,714 Carlisle, Pa 6,209 Cedar Rapids, la 10,104 Champaign, 111 5,106 Charleston, S. C 49,984 Charlotte, N. C 7,094 Chattanooga, Tenn 12,892 Chelsea, Mass 21,782 Chester, Pa 14,997 Chicago, 111 603,186 Chicopee (tp.),Mass 11,286 ChiUicothe, 10,938 Cincinnati, 255,139 Circleville, 6,046 Cleveland, 160,146 Clinton, la 9,052 Clinton (tp.). Mass 8,029 Cohoes, N. Y 19,416 Coldwater, Mich 4,681 Columbus, Ind 4,813 Columbia, Pa 8,312 Columbia, S. C 10,036 Columbus, Ga. 10,123 Columbus, 51,647 Concord, N. H 13,843 Corry, Pa 5,277 Council Bluffs, la 18,063 CoTingtoD, Ky 29,720 * Crawfordsville, Ind 6,251 Creston, la 6,081 Cumberland, Md 10,693 Dallas, Tex 10,358 Danbury (tp.), Conn 11,666 Danville, III 7,733 Danville, Pa 8,346 Danville, Va 7,526 Davenport, la 21,831 Dayton, O 38,678 tDeadwood, Dak 4,500 Decatur, 111 9,547 Dedham (tp,). Mass 6,233 Delaware, O •. 6,894 Denver Col 35,629 Des Moines, la 22,408 Detroit, Mich 116,340 Dover.N. H 11,687 Dubuque, la 22,254 ♦Duluth, Minn 17,418 Dunkirk, N. Y 7,248 Dunmore, Pa 6,151 Easton, Pa 11,924 East Orange (tp.), N. J 8,349 Ea.st Saginaw, Mich 19,016 Eau Claire, Wis 10,U9 Elgin, III 8,787 Elizabeth N. J 28,229 Elkhart, Ind 6,953 Ellsworth, Me 6,052 Elmira, N. Y 20,.'541 Elyria, 4,777 Emporia, Kan 4,631 Erie, Pa 27,737 Evanston, (tp.). Ill 6,703 Evansville, Ind 29,280 Fall River, Mass 48,961 tFargo, Dak 9,000 *Faribault, Minn 6,459 •Fergus Falls Minn 4,284 Fishkill (tp.). N.Y 10,732 Fitchburg, Mass 12,429 Flint, Mich 8,409 Flushing, N. Y 6,683 Fond du I^c, Wis 13,094 Fort Madison, la 4,679 Fort Scott, Kan 6,372 Fort Wayne, Ind 26,880 Fort Worth, Tex... 6,663 Franiingham (tp.), Mass 6,235 Frankfort, Ky 6,958 Franklin, Pa 5,010 Frederick, Md 8,659 Fredericksburg, Va 6,010 Freeport, 111 8,516 Freemont, 8,4^6 Galena, 111 6,451 Galesburg, 111 11,437 Gallon, 6,635 Gallipolis, O 4,400 Galveston, Tex 22,248 Gardiner, Me 4,439 Georgetown D. C 12,.578 Glen Falls, N. Y 4,900 Gloucester, Mass 19,329 Gloucester C, New Jersey.... 6,347 Gloversville, N.Y 7,133 tGrand Forks, Dak 7,000 Grand Haven, Mich 4,862 GrandRapids Mich 82,016 Green Bay, Wis 7,464 Hagerstown, Md 6,627 Hamilton, O 12,122 Hannibal, Mo 11,074 Harrisburg, Pa 30,762 Harrison, N. J 6,898 Hartford, Conn 42,015 Haverhill, Mass 18,472 Hazleton, Pa „ 6,935 Hempstead (tp.), N. Y 18,164 Henderson, Ky 6,366 Hoboken, N.J. 30,999 Holyoke, Mas-s 21,915 Horncllsville, N. Y 8,195 Houston, Tex 16,513 Hudson, N. Y 8,670 tHuron, Dak 3,500 Hyde Park, 111 15,716 Indianapolis, Ind 75,056 Iowa City, la 7,123 Ironton, 8,857 Ishpeming, Mich 6,039 Ithaca, N. V 9,105 Jackson, Mich 16,106 Jackson, Miss 6,204 Jackson, Tenn 5,377 Jacksonville, Fla 7,650 Censos of 188S. Jacksonville, 111 10,927 Jamaica (tp.), N. Y 10,089 Jamestown, N. Y 9,357 fJamestown, Dak 4,000 Janesville, Wis 9,018 Jefferson City, Mo 5,271 Jeffersonville, Ind 9,357 Jersey City, N. J 120,7 .'2 Joliet, 111 11,657 Joplin, Mo 7,038 Kalamazoo, Mich 8,047 Kankakee (tp.),m 6,782 Kansas City, Mo 55,785 Keene, N. H 6,784 Kenosha, Wis 6,039 Keokuk, la 12,117 Key West, Fla 9,890 Kingston, N. Y 18,344 Knoxville, Tenn 9,693 La Crosse, Wis 14,505 Lafayette, Ind 14,860 Lake (tp.). Ill 18,.t96 Lancaster, 6,803 Lancaster, Pa 25,769 Lansing, Mich 8,319 Lansingburg, N. Y 7,432 La Porte, Ind 6,195 Lawrence, Kan 8,510 Lawrence, Mass 39,151 Lawrenceourgh, Ind 4,668 Leadville, Col 14,820 J,*avenworth, Kan 16,546 Lebanon, Pa 8,778 liBwiston, Me 19,083 Lexington, Ky 10,656 Lincoln, III 5,639 Lincoln, Neb 13,003 Litchfield, III 4,326 Little Falls, N. Y 6,910 Little Rock, Ark 13,138 Lock Haven, Pa 6,845 Lockport, N. Y 18,522 IjOgansport, Ind 11,198 I.ong Island C, N. Y 17,129 Los Angeles, Cal 11,183 Louisville, Ky 123,758 Lowell, Ma-ss 59,475 Lynchburg, Va 15,959 Lynn, Mass 38,274 Macon, Ga 12,748 Madison, Ind 8,945 Madison, Wis 10,324 MahanoyCitv, Pa 7,181 Maiden (tp.),Mass 12,017 Manchester, N. H 32,630 Manchester, Va 5,729 Manistee, Mich 6,930 Manitowoc, Wis 6,367 ♦Mankato, Minn 7,845 Mansfield, O 9,859 Marblehead (tp.), Mass 7,467 Marietta, O 6,444 Marlboro (tp.),Mass 10,127 Marquette, Mich 4,690 Marshall, la 6,240 Marshall, Tex 6,624 Marshalltown, la 6,.')00 Martinsburg. W. Va 6,335 Marysville, Cal 4,321 Massillon, 6,836 Mattoon, HI 6,742 Maysville, Ky 5,220 McKeesport, Pa 8,212 Meadville, Pa 8,860 Medford (tp). Mass 7,573 Memphis, Tenn 33,592 Meriden (tp.). Conn 18,.'i40 Michigan Citv, Ind 7,366 Middletown (tp.). Conn 11,7.'>2 Middletown, N. Y 8,494 Millville, N.J 7,660 Milwaukee, Wis 116,587 •Minneapolis, Minn 129,200 tMitchell, Dak 4,000 Moberly, Mo 6,070 Mobile, Ala 29,132 Moline, 111 7,800 Monmouth 111 6,000 Monroe, Mich 4,930 Montgomery, Ala 16,713 Morristown, N. J„ 6,418 Mt. Vernon, 6,249 Muncie, Ind 5,219 Muscatine, la. 8,296 Muskegon, Mich.. 11,262 Nashua, >r. H 13,397 Nashville, Tenn 43,350 (Tp. denotes township.) Natchez, Miss Natick (tp.), Mass •Neenah, Wis New Albany, Ind Newark, N. J Newark, New Bedford, Mass New Berne, N. C New Brighton, N. Y New Britain (tp.), Conn New Brunswick, N. J Newburg, N. Y Newburyport, Mass Newcastle, Pa New Haven, Conn New ijondon. Conn New Orleans, La Newport, Ky Newport, R. I Newton, Mass NewYork, N. Y 1 Norfolk, Va Norristown Pa North Adaiiis, Mass Northampton (tp.), Mass Norwalk, Conn Norwalk, O Norwich, Conn Oakland, Cal •Oconto, Wis Ogden, Utah Ogdensburg, N. Y Oil City, Pa Omaha, Neb Orange, N. J Oskaloosa, la Oshkosh, Wis Oswego, N. Y Ottawa, III Ottumwa, la Owego, N. Y Owensboro, Ky Paducah, Ky ... Paris, 111 Parkersburg, W. Va Passaic City, N.J. ..,...« Paterson, N.J Pawtucket, R. I _ Peekskill, N. Y Pekin, 111 Pensacola, Fla Peoria, 111 Perth Amboy, N. J Peru, Ind Petersburg, Va Philadelphia, Pa Phillipsburg, N. J Phcemxville, Pa Piqua, O Pittsburgh, Pa.. Pittsfield (tp.). Mass Pittston, Pa I-lainfield, N.J Plattsburg, N. Y' Plymouth (tp.), Mass Plymouth, Pa Pomeroy, Pontiae, Mich Port Huron, Mich Port Jervis, N. Y Portland, Me Portland, Ore Portsmouth, N. H Portsmouth, O Portsmouth, Va Pottstown, Pa Pottsville, Pa Poughkecpsie, N. Y Providence, R. I Quincy, 111.. Quincy (tp.). Mass . Ilacine, Wis Rahway, N. J Kaleijjh, N. C Reading, Pa •Red Wing, Minn.. Richmond, Ind Richmond, Va •Rochester, Minn... Rochester, N. Y Roekford, 111 Kock Island, 111 Rockland, Me Rome, N. Y Rutland (tp.), Vt.... Saco, Me. Sacramento, Cal 7,058 8,479 4,910 16,423 136,508 9,600 26,845 6,443 12,679 13,979 17,166 18,049 13,538 8,418 62,882 10,.'i37 216,090 20,433 15,693 16,995 ,206,299 21,966 13,063 10,191 12,172 13,956 6,704 21,143 34,555 4,880 6,069 10,341 7,315 80,518 13,207 4,698 15,748 21,116 7,834 9,004 6,525 6,231 8,036 4,373 6,582 6,.032 61,031 19,030 6,893 6,993 6,845 29,259 4,808 6,280 21,656 847,170 7,181 6,682 6,031 156,389 13,364 7,472 8,125 6,246 7,093 6,066 6,560 4,509 8,883 8,678 83,810 17,577 9,690 11,321 11,388 5,305 13,253 20,207 104,857 27,268 10,.570 16,031 6,455 9,265 43,278 6,870 12,742 63,600 6,313 89,366 13,129 11,6.59 7,599 12,194 12,149 6,389 21,420 Saginaw, Mich. 10,525 Salem, Mass 27,563 Salem, N. o 5,056 Salt Lake C, Utah 20,768 San Antonio, Tex 20,550 Sandusky, 15,838 San Francisco, Cal 233,950 San Jose, Cal 12,.567 Santa Fe, N. Mex 6,635 Saratoga Sp., N.Y 10,820 Savannah, Ga. 30,709 Scbenectai.y, N. Y .' 13,6.55 Scranton, Pa 45,8.^0 Sedalia, Mo 9,561 Selma, Ala 7,520 Seneca Falls, N. Y 5,880 Shamokin, Pa 8,184 Sharon, Pa 5,684 Sheboygan, Wis 7,314 Shenandoah, Pa 10,147 Sherman, Tex 6,093 Shreveport, La. 8,009 Silver Cliff, Col 6,(M0 Sing Sing, N. Y 6,678 Sioux City, la 7,366 tSioux Falls, Dak 8,000 Somerville, Mass 24,933 South Bend, Ind 13,280 Springfield, III 19,743 Springfield, Mass 33,340 Springfield, Mo 6,522 Springfield, 20,730 St. Albans (tp.), Vt 7,193 Stamford (tp.), Conn 11,297 Staunton, Va 6,664 St. Charles, Mo 6,014 •St. Cloud, Minn 4,360 Sterling, III 5,087 Steubenvllle, 12,093 •Stillwater, Minn 16,437 St. Johnsbury (tp.), Vt 6,800 St. Joseph, Mo 32,431 Stockton, Cal 10,282 Stoningtou (tp.). Conn 7,355 St. Louis, Mo 350,518 *.St. Paul, Minn 111,397 Streator, 111 5,157 Syracuse N. Y 61,792 Tamaqua, Pa 6,730 Taunton, Mass 21,213 Terre Haute, Ind 26,042 Tiffin, O 7,879 Titusville, Pa 9,046 Toledo, 60,137 Topeka, Kan 1,9,4.52 Trenton, N. J 29,910 Troy, N.Y 66,747 Tucson, iiriz. 7,007 Union, N.J 5,849 Urbana, 6,252 Utica, N. Y 33,914 Vallejo, Cal 6,987 Valparaiso, Ind 4,461 Vicksburg, Miss 11,814 Vincennes, Ind 7,680 Virginia C, Nev 10,917 Waco, Tex 7,296 Waltham (tp.). Mass 11,712 Warren, 4,425 Washington, D. C 147,293 Waterbury, Conn 20,270 Waterloo, la 6,630 Watertcwn, N. Y 10,697 Watertown, Wis 7,883 tWatertown, Dak 6,000 Westchester, Pa 7,046 Westfield (tp.l. Mass 7,,587 West Troy N.Y 8,820 Weymouth (tpj, Mass 10,670 Wheeling, W. Va 30,737 Wilkcsbarre, I'a 23,339 Williamsport, Pa 18,934 Wilmington, I>el 42,478 Wilmington, N. C 17,360 •Winona, Minn 16,624 Woburn (tp.). Mass 10,931 Woonsocket, R. 1 16,050 Wooster, 6,840 Worcester, Mass 68,291 Wyandotte, Kpn 6,149 Xenia.0 7,026 tYankton, Dak 6,000 Yonkers, N. Y 18,892 York, Pa I.V>40 Y'oungstown, 15,431 Ypsilanti, Mich. 4,984 Zanesville, 18,113 f Estimated. PEONOUNOING YOOABULART. In the words which follow, final a, when the syllable is unaccented, has the sound of final a in Amcri-ca, and the teacher should make a careful distinction between this sound and that heard In word« where it is joined with h, as in Ne-ahu'-za, and has the sound of a in ah or art. Aberdeen Ab-er-deen'. Abomey Ab-o-may'. Abyssinia Ab-is-sin'-e-a. Acapulco Ah-kah-pool'-ko. Acarai Ah-kah-rah'-e. Aconcagua Ah-kon-kah'-gwah Adt'laioe Ad'-e-lade. Aden Ah'-den ( A'-den). Adirondack Ad-i-rou'-dak. Adrianopie Ad-re-an-o'-pl. Adriatic Ad-re-atMk. JEgean E-je'-an. ^tna Et'-na. Afghanistan Af-gahn-is-tahn'. Agra Ah'-grah (A'-gra). Agulims Ah-gool'-yas. Aix-la-Chai)elle...Akes-lah-sha-per. Ajaccio Ah-yaht-cho'. Alabama Al-ah-bah'-ma. Alaska A-Ia-s'-kah. Albany All'-ba-ne. Albemarle Al-be-niarl'. Aldertiey AU'-der-ny. Aleutian (Is.) A-lu'-she-an. Alexandria Al-ex-an'-dre-a. Algeria. Ai-jee'-re-a. Algiers Al-geeri;'. Allahabad Ahl-lah-hah- bahd'. Alleghany Al'-le-ga'-ny. Altai All-ti'. Altamaha AU-ta-ma-haw'. Altorf All'-torf. Amiens Am'-e-enz(Ah-me- ang'). Araoor Ah-moor'. Amoy A-moi'. Anadir An a-deer'. Auaui A-nani'(A'-nam), Andaman An-en nines Ap'-pen-nines. Appalachian Ap-pa-la'-che-an. Apure Ah-poo'-ra. Arabia Ar-a'-be-a. Aragou Ar'-a-gon. Aral Ar'-al. Ararat Ar'-a-rat. Archangel. Ark-an'-jel. Archipelago Ar-ke-pol'-a-go. Arctic Ark'-tik. Arequipa Ahr-e-kee'-pah. Argenteuil Ar-zhan-tool'. Argentine Ar'-jen-tine. Aroostook A-roos'-took. Argyle Ar-gyle'. Arica Ah-reek'-ah. Arizona Ar-e-zo'-na. Arkansas Ar-kan'-sas. Armenia Ar-mee'-ne-a. Ascension As-sen'-shun. Ashantee Ash-an-tee'. Asia A'-she-a. Assam As-sam'. Assinniboin As-sin'-e-boin. Atacama Ah-tah-kah'-mah. Assyria As-sir'-e-a. Astrakhan As-tra-kan'. Atbara At-bah'-rah. Athabasca Ath-a-bas'-ka. Athens ...Ath'-ens. Auckland Awk'-land. Augsburg Awgs'-burg. Austerlitz Aws'-ter-litz. Australasia Aws-tral-a'-she-a. Australia Aws-tra'-le-a. Austria Aws'-tre-a. Auvergne 0-vairn'. Ava A'-va (Ah'-vah). Avignon Ah-veen-vong'. Ayr Air. Azof. Az'-of. Ajiores A-zores', Baalbec Bawl'-bek (-bekO- Bab-el-Mandeb....Ba'-bel-man''-deb. Baden Bah'-den (Bad-). Bagdad Bag'-dad (-dad'). Bahamas Ba-ha'-maz. Bahia Bah-e'-ah. Bahr el Azrek Bahr-ol-az'-rek. Baikal Bi'-kal. Baku Bah-koo'. Balearic (Is.) Bal-e-ar' ik. Balize Bah-leez'. Balkan Bahl-khan'. Balkash Bahl-kash'. Balmoral Bal-mor'-al. Banda Oriental Bahn'-dah-o-re- en-tal'. Bangkok Bang-kok'. Bannockburn Ban'-nok-burn. Barbadoes Bar-ba'-doz. Barca Bar'-ka. Barcelona Bar-ce-lo'-nah. f Basel Bah'-zl. t Basle Bahl. Bassorah Bah.s'-80-rah. Batavia Ba-ta'-ve-a. Baton-Rouge Bat-un-roozh'. Bavaria Ba-va-re-a. Bayonne Bah-yon'. Beaufort Bu'-tort. Bechuanas Bet-choo-ah'-naz. Behring Beer'-ing. Belod-eT-Jerid Bel-ed-el-jo-reed'. Belfast Bel-fast' (Ber-). Belgium Bel-je-um. Belle Isle Bel-ile'. Belleville Bel'-vil (-vecl'i. Beloochistau Kel-oo-cliis-tahn'. Benares Ben-ah'-roz. Ben-coolea Ben-koo'-len. Bengal Ben-gawl'. Ben^uela Bon-ga'-lah. Benicia Be-nish'-e-a. Benin Be-neen'. Ben l.nmond Ben-lo'-mond. Ben Nevis Ben-no'-vis. Ben Wyvis Ben- wi'- vis. Bergen Burg'-en. Berkshire Burk' sheer. Berlin Ber-iin' (Ber'-). Bermudas Ber-mu'-da. Berne Berne. Berwick Ber'-wick (-rik). Beyrout Ba'-root (Bi'-). Biafra Be-af'-ra. Bilbao Bil-bah'-o. Birmingham Bur'-ming-ham. Biscay Bis'-ka. Blanc (Mont) Mong-blong'. Blanco Blan'-ko. Bogota Bo-go- tab'. Bohmerwald Bo'-nier-wawld. BoLs le Due Bwah-le-du. B'jkhara Bo-kah'-rah. Bolan Bo-lahn'. Bolivia Bo-liv'-e-a. Bologna Bo-lone'-yah. Bolor Tagh Bo-lor'-tagh'. Bombay Bom-ba'. Bonaven turo Bo-na^ven-tu'- rah Benin Bo-neen', Boothia Boo'-the-a. Bordeaux Bor-do'. Borneo Bor'-ne-o. Bornou Bor-noo'. f Bosphorus Bos'-fo-rus. \ Bosporus Bos'-po-rus. Bothnia Both -ne-a. Boulogne Boo- lone'. Bourlron Boor'-bon{-bong'). Brabant Brah-bant'. Brahmaoootra Brah-ma-poo'-tra. Bras d' Or ...Brah-dore'. Brazil Bra-zeel' (-zil'). Brazos .Brah'-zos. Bremen Breni'-en. Brescia Bresh'-e-ah. Breslau Bres'-law. Bretagne Bre-tahn'. Brighton Bri'-ton. Britain Brit'-tn. Brittany Brit'-ta-ne. Brocken Brok'-en. Bruges Broo'-jez, Brunn Broon. Bnissels Brus'-sels. Bucharest Boo-ka-rest'. Bucharia Boo-ka'-re-a. Buda Boo'-dah. Buenos Ayres Bo'-nus a'-riz (Bu'-). Bug Boog. Cal>es Kahb'-ez. Cabul Kah-lwol'. Cadiz Ka'-diz. Caj^liari Kalil'-yah-re. Cairo Ki'-ro. Caithness Kath'-ness. (i)alais Kal'-is. (Calcutta Kal-kut'-ta. Calicut Kal'-i-kut. California Kal-e-for'-ne-a, (Dallao Kal-yah'-o. Cambay Kam'-ba'. Cambodia Kam-bo'-de-ai Cambridge Kame'-bridge. Cameroon Kam-er-roon'. Campagna Kam-pahn'-yah. Campeachy Kam-pe'-che. Canada Kan'-onia. Canaries Ka-na'-reez. Canaveral Kan-yah'-ver-al. Candahar Kan-dah-har'. Candia Kan'-de-ah •- Canso Kan'-«o. Canton Kan-ton'. Cape Breton Kape-brit'-tn. Caprera Kah-pra'-ra. / Capua Kap'-u-a. * Caraccas Ka-rak'-kas, Cardiff. Kar'-dif. , Cardigan Kar'-de-gan. Carlisle Kar-lile'. Carlscrona Karls-kro'-na (-kroo'-). Carlaruhe Karls'-roo. Carpathian Kar-pa'-the-an. Cartagena Kar-ta-ge'-na. Cashgar Kash'-gar (•^ar'J. Cashmere Kash'-mere (-mere'). Caspian Kas'-pe-an. Cassiquiare Kas-se-ke-ah'-ra. Ca.stile Kas-teel'. Cattegat Kat'-te-gat. Caucasus Kaw'-ka-sus, Cawupore Kawn-pore'. Cayenne Ki-en'. Cayuga Ka-yu'-ga. Celebes Sel'-e-b^s. Cenis Sen'-is. Cenis (Mont.) Mong-se-nee'. Cevennes.... Sa^ven'. Ceylon See-Ion {-lone'). Chaleur Shah-loor'. Chamouni Shah-moo-nce'. Champlain .Sham-plane'. Chapala Sbah-pah'-lah. Charlotte Shar'-lot. Chary txiis Ka-rib'-dis. Chattahooche Chat-ta-hoo'-che. Chelmsford Chems'-ford. Chelsea Chel'-se. Cheltenham Chel'-ten-ham. Cherbourg Sher'-burg. Chesapeake Ches'-a-peek. Cheviot Chiv-e-ut. Chicago She-kaw'-go. Chichester Chitch'-es-ter. Chili Chil'-le. Chiloe Che-lo-a'. Chimborazo Chim-bo-rah'-zo. Chincha Chin'-chah. Cholula Cho-loo'-lah. Christiania Kris-te-ah'-ne-a. Chuquisaoa Choo-ke-sah'-kah. Cincinnati Sin-si n-nah'-ti. Coblenz Kob'-lents. Coburg Ko'-boorg, Cochin Ko'-chin. Cologne Ko-lone'. Colorado ....Kol-o-rah'-do. Columbia Ko-lum'-be-a. Comayaga Ko-mi-ab'gwah. Como Ko'-rao. Comorin Kom'-o-rin. Congo Kong'-go. Connanght Kon'-nawt. Connecticut Kon-net'-e-kut. Connemara Kon e-mar'-ah. Constance Kon'-stance. Constantinople Kon-stan-te-no'- pl. Copenhagen Ko-pen-ha'-gen. Coquet Ko'-ket. Cordillera Kor-dil'-le-rah. CoriloVa Kor'-do-va. Corfu Kor-foo'. Corrientes Kor-re-en'-tes. Corsica Kor'-se-ka. Corunna Ko-run'-na. Costa Rica Kos'-tah Ree -kah. Coteau Ko-to'. Cotopaxi Ko-to-pax'-e. Cracow ., Kra'-ko. Cremona Kre-mo'-na. Crete Kreet. Crimea Krim-e'-a. Cromarty Krom'-ar-te. Cronstadt Kron'-stat. Culloden Kul-lo'-den. Curacoa Ku-ra-so'. Cutch Kutch. Cuzco Kooz'-ko. Cyprus Si'-prus. Dakota Da-ko'-tah, Dahomey Dah-ho'-ma. Dalhousie Dal hoo'-ze. Damascus .Da-ma.s'-kus. Damielta Dam e-et'-ta. Dantzic Dant'-sik. Danube Dan'-ube. Dardanelles Dar-da-nels'. Darfur Dar-foor*. Darien Da' re-en. Deccan Dek'-kan. Delaware Del'-a-ware. Delhi Dei'-le. Dembea, Dcm'-be-a. Demerara Dem-e-rah'-rah. Denmark Den'-mark. Derby Dnr'-be(Dar'-be). Derwent Der'-went. Desaguadero Des-a-gwah-da'-ro Despoblados Dcs-po-blah'-do. Des Moines De-moin'. Detroit De-troit'. Dieppe De-ep'. Dnieper Neeir-er. Dniester Nees'-ter. Dominica. Dom-e-nee'-kah. Dongola Dong'-go-la. Douro Doo'-ro. Dovrefield Dov-re-fe-eld'. Drakenberg Drah'-ken-berg. Drave Drave (Drahv). Dresden Drez'den. Drogheda Drog'-e-da (Droh'- he-da). Drontheim Dront'-im. Dubuque. Du-book'. Dumfries. Dum-frees'. Dunedin Dun-ed'-in. Dunfermline Dun-furm'-Hn (-fur'-J. Dunkirk Dun-kirk' (Dun'-). 133 Durham Dur'-am. Dusseldorf Dus'-sel-dorf. Dwina. Dwi'-nah, Ebro E'-bro. Ecbatana Ek-bat'-a-nah. Ecuador Ek-wah-dore'. Edinburgh Ed'-in-bur-ruh (-burg). Egypt E'-jipt. Eurenbreitstein..,.A-ren-brite'-8tine. Elba El'-ba. Elbe Elb. Elburz El'-ljoorz. Elepbanta El'-e-fan'-tah Elgin EI' gin. El Paso El pah'-so. Ems Ems. England Ing'-gland. Enniskillen En-uis-kil'-len. Erie E'-re, Erin E'-rin. Erzeroum Ur'-ze-room (Urz- room'). Erz-gebirge Ert.s-ga-becr'-ga. Essiquibo Es-se-ke'-bo. Etna Et'-na. Euphrates U-fra'-tez. Everest Ev'-e-rest, Exeter. Ex'-e-tcr. Falmouth Fal'-mouth. Faroe Fah'-ro (Fa-). Fayetteville Fa'-et-vil. Fiji Fee'-jee. Fernando Po Fer-nan'-do-po. Ferrara Fer-rah'-rah. Fezzan Fez-zahn'. Finisterre Fin-is-tair'. J'"i!iland Fin'-Iand. Fxnster-Aar-IIorn F 1 n'-s t e r-a h r'- horn. Flamborough ......Flam'bur-ro. Florence Flor'-ence. Florida Flor'-e-dah. Fontainebleau Fon-tane-blo'. Foo-chow-foo Foo-chow-foo'. Formosa For-mo'-sa. Fremont Fre'-mont. Fribourg Fri'-burg. Frio Free'-o. Funchal Foon-shal'. Fundy Fun'-de. Funen Foo'-nen. Galapagos Gal-a-pa'-gus. Galena Ga-le'-na. Galicia Gah-lee'-she-a. Gallas Gal'-laz. Gallinas Gal-lee'-nas. Gallipoli Gal-lip'-o-le. Galway Gawl'-wa Gambia Gam'-be-ah. Ganges Gan'-jeez. Garonne Gah-ron'. Geneva Je-nee'-va. Genoa Jen'-o-a. Georgia Jor'-je-a. Ghauts Gawts. Ghent Gent. Ghizeh Gee'-zeh. Gibraltar Jib-rawl' tar. Gihon Je-hon'. Girgeh Jeer'-jeh. Glasgow Glas'-go. Gloucester Glos'-ter. Goa Go'-ah. Gobi Go'-l>ee. Golconda Gol-kon'-dah. Gondar Gon'-dar. Gottenburg Got'-en-burg. Gottingen Got'-ting-eu. Grampians Gram'-pe-ans, Granada Grah-nah'-dah. Grand Chaco Grahn chah'-ko. Grand Manan Grand-nia-uan'. Grand Pre Grang-pra'. Gratz Grets. Greenock Gree'-nok, Greenwich Green'-idj. Grison Gre-zon' (zone'). Guadalaxara Gwah-da-lax ah'- rah. Guadalquivir Gwah-dal-ke- veer'. Guadeloupe Gaw-de-loop'. Guanaxuato Gwah-na-hwah'- to. Guardafui. Gwar-daf-wee'. Guatemala Gaw-te-mah'-lah, Guaviarc Gwah-ve-ah'-ra. Guayaquil Gwi-a-keel', Guernsey Gurn'-ze. Guiana Ge-ah'-nah. Guinea Gin'-e. Haarlem Hahr'-Iem. Hague Haig. Hainan. Hi-nan'. Halle Hahl'-le. Hamadan Ilah-mah-dahn. Ilamburg Ham'-burg. Hammerfest Ham'-mer-fest. Hampshire Hamp'-shecr. Hang-chow-foo....nahng-chou-foo'. Hartz Harts. Hatteras Hat'-te-ras. Hawaii Hah-wi'-e. Hayti Ha'-te. Hebrides Heb'-ri-deez. Heidelberg Hi'-del-burg. Heligoland Hel'-e-go-Iand. Heshugfors Hel'-sing-fors. Henlopen Hen-lo'-r»en. Herat Her-aht'. Herculaneum Her-ku la'-no-um. Hereford Her'-e-ford. Hertford Har'-ford. Hesse-Ca,s8o'-na. Ionian I-o'-no-an. Iowa I'-o-wa. Ipswich Ips'-wich. Iran E-rahn'. Irkutsk Ir-kootsk. Irrawaddy Ir-ra-wod'-de. Irtish Ir'-tish. Ispahan Is-pa-hahn'. Italy It'-a-le. Itasca I-tas'-ka. Iztaccihuatl Ees-tak-se-hwatl', Jaffa... Jaf'-fah fi'af- fah). Jamaica Ja-ma'-ka. Japan ; Ja-pan'. Java Jah'-va. Jaxartes Jax ar'-teez, Jelalabad Je-lah-lah-bahd'. Jersey Jur'-ze. , Jerusalem Jer-oo'-sa-lcm. Joannes Jo-an'-nees, Joliet ...Jol-le-et'. JoruUo Ho-rool'-vo. Juan de Fuca Ju'-ahn-«e-foo'- kah. Juan Femandes...Ju'-ahn-fer-nan'- dez. Judea Ju-dee'-a. Juggernaut Jug'-gur-nawt. Jungfrau Yoong'-frow. Jura Joo'-ra. Jutland Jut'-land. Kaffraria Kaf'-ra-re-ah. Kalahari Kah-lah-hah'-re. Kamtchatka Kahmt-chat'-kah. Kanawa Ka-naw'-wa. Kangaroo Kang-ga-roo'. Kankakee Kank-a-kee'. Kara Kah'-rah, Karakorum Kah-rah-ko'-rum. Kelat Ke-lat'. Kenia Ke'-ne-ah. Kennel>ec Ken-ne bek'. Khartoum Kar-toom'. Khiva Kee'-vah. Khyber Ki'-ber, Kiel Keel. Kiev Ke-ev'. Kilimandjaro Kil-e-nian-jah-rr. Killkenny JCil-ken'-ne. Killarney Kil-lar'-ne. Kilmarnock Kil-mar'-nok. Kiolen ....Ky'-o-len. Kirghiz Kur-geez'. Kiusiu Ke-oo'-seoo'. Konigsburg Ken'-igs-burg. Kordofan Kor do-fan'. Kosciusko Kos-se-us'-ko. Kremnitz Krein'-nitz. Krishna Krish'-na. Kucnlun Kwen-Ioon'. Kurdistan Koor-dis-tau'. Kurile Koo'-ril. Laaland —Law'-land. Labrador Lalvra-dore.' Laccadive Lak'-kadiv^ Ladrones Lab-drones'. Lahore Lah-hon/. Lanark Lan'-ark. Lancashire Lank'-as-sheer, Lancaster Lank'-a»-ter. Laos Lah'-os. La Paz Lah-path' (-pas). La Plata Lah-plah'-tah. LaPuebla Lah-pweb'-lah. La Rochello Lah-ro-shel'. 134 PEONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Lassa Las'-sa. L'Assomption Las-eooK-se-ong', Lauenburg Lou'-en-burg. Lausanne Lo-zahn'. Leghorn Leg'-horn. Leipsic Lipe'-sik. Leitb Lc«th. Leitrim Lee'-irim, Lena » Le'-na. lAegfi Led. Lille Leel. Lima Le'-mah (Li'-). Limoges Lee-mozb'. Lincoln Link'-uu. Lipari Lip-a-re (Le-pah'- re). Loango Lo-ang'-go. Loire Lwor. Lombardy Ix>m'-bar-de. Lomond Lo'-mond. Loo Choo Loo-choo'. Lotbiau Lo'-lbe-an. Louisiana Ix>o-eze-ah'-na. Lubeck Lu'-bek (-bek'). Lucca Luk'-kan. Lucerne 1 r^o-aern' Luzern ji^o-sern. Lucknow Luk'-DOW. Lupata Loo-pah'-tah. Luxembourg Lux'-em-burg. Lyons Li'-onz. Macao Mah kow'. Kacassar. Mah-kas'-«ar. Madagascar Mad-a-gas'-kar. Madawaska Mad-a-wos'-ka. Madeira Ma-dee-ra. Madras Ma-dras'. Madrid Mah-drid' (Mad- rid). Maelstrom Malo'-strum. Magdalena Mag-da-le-na. Magdeburg Maj^'-de-burg. Magellan Ma-jeK-lan. Maggiore Mah-jo'-ra. Majorca. Ma-ior'-ka. Malabar Ma-la-bar.' Malacca. Ma-lak'-ka. Malaga Mal'-a-ga, Malar Ma'-lar. Malaysia Ma-Ia'-she-a. Maldive Mal'-dive. Malta Mawl'-ta, Manaar Mah-nahr'. Manchooria Man-choo'-re-a, Manhattan Man-hatMau. Manilla Ma-nil'-la. Manitoulin Man-e-tooMin. Mantua Man'-tu-a. Maraeaybo Mar-a-ki'-bo. Marmora Mar'-mo-ra. Marocco Ma-rok'-ko. Marquesas Mar-ka'-sas. Marseilles Mar-salz'. Martinique Mar-te-neek'. Massachusetts Mos-sa-choo'-sets, Matamoras Mat-a-mo'-ras, Matanzas Ma-tan'-zas. Matapan Mat-a-pan', Mauritius Maw-rish'-e-us. Mazatlan Maz-at^lan'. Mecca Mek'-ka. Mechlin Mek'-lin. Mecklenburg ) f Mek'-len-burg- Schwerin J 1 shwa-reen'. Mecklenburg 1 J Mek -len-burg- Strelitz. | ( strel'-itz. Medina Me-tii-na. Mediterranean Med-e-ter-ra'-ne- an. Mekong Ma-kong'. Melbourne Mel'-burn. Memphremagog....Mem-fre-raa'-gog. Menai Men'-a (-i). Menam Ma-nani'. Mendocino Men-do-se'-no, Mendoza Men-do'-za. Mer de Glace Mair-de-glaa'. Merida Mer'-e-da. Merrimac Mer'-re-mak. Mersey Mur'-ze. Merthyr Tydvil...Mur'-thur-tid'- vil. Messina Mcs-see'-nah. Metz Mets. Meuse Muze. Mexico Mex'-e-ko. Miaco Me-ah'-ko. Michigan Mish'-e-gan. Milan Mil'-an (Mi-lanO. Milwaukee Mtl-waw-ke. Minnesota Min-ne-so'-ta. Minorca Min-or'-ka. Miquelon Mik-o-lon'. Miramichi Mir-a-mi shee'. Mississippi Mis-sls-sip'-pe. Mi-ssouri Mis-80o'-re. Mobile Mo-beel'. Mocha Mo'-ka. Moluccas Mo-luk'-kaz. Monongahela Mo-non-ga-he'-la. Montague Mon'-ta-gu. Montana „ Mon-tah-na, Montawk _..JJon-tawk'. Montevideo Mon'-te-vid-e-o. Montmorency Mont-mo-ren'-se. Mout|)elier Mont-pu'-li-er, Montreal Mon-tre-all'. Morocco Mo-rok'-ko. Moscow Mos'-ko. Mozambique Mo-zam-beck'. Munich Mu'-nik. Muscat Mus-kat'. Mysore Mi-sore'. Nagpore Nag-pore'. Naniaqua Nan mah'-kwah. Nankin Nan-ktien'. Nanlmg Nan-ling'. Nantes Nanls. Nantucket Nan-tiik'-et. Nassau Nas'-saw. Natal Nab-lahl'. Natchez Natch'-ez. Navarino Nah-vah-ree'-no. Naze Nah'-ze. Nebraska Ne-bras'-ka. Negropont N(^'-ro-pont. Nepaul Ne-pawl'. Nerbuddah Nur-bud'-da. Neufcbatel Nuf-shah-tel'. Neva Ne'-va (Na-vah'). Nevada Na-vah'-dah. Nevada-de-Sorata.Na - vah'- dah -da- so rah'-ta. Newfoundland Nu-fund-laud'. New Orleans Nu-or'-le-anz. New Zealaud Nu-zee'-land. N^ami N'gah'-mue, Niagara Ni-ag'-a-ra. Nicaragua Nik-ah-rah'-gwah Nice Neece. Niger Ni'-ier. Nijni-Novgorod ...Nizh'-ne-nov -go - rod . Nikolaiev Ne-ko-U-ev', Nile Nile. Ning-po Ning-po'. Niphon Ni'-fon (Nif-on'). Nipissing Nip'-is-sing. Norwich Nor-ridj. Notre Dame Nol'r-duhm'. Nova Zembla No-vah-zem'-bla. Nubia Nu'-be-a. Nyanza Ne-ahn'-za. Nyassi Ne-as'-se, Oahu Wah'-hoo. Obi O'-be. Oceania O-she-a'-ne-a. Oder C-der. Odessa O-des'-sa. Oesel U'-sel. Okeechobee O-ke-cho'-be. Okhotsk O-kotsk'. Oldenburg Ol'-den-hurg. Olyntpus lim'-pus. Omaha O'-nia-haw. Onega O-ne'-ga. Ontario On-ta'-re-o, Oporto O-pore'-to. Oregon Or'-e gon. Orinoco O-rc-no'-ko. Orizaba Or-e-zah'-bah. Orkneys Ork'-nees Orleans Or'-le-anz. Ormuz Or -muz. Ortegal Or' te-cal. Ostend Os-tend'. Otranto O-tran'-to. Ottawa Ot-ta^waw. Ouse Ooz, Owhyhee O-why'-hee. Oxus Ox'-ui. Pacific Pa-«if'-ik. Padua Pad'-u-a. Paisley Paze'-le. Palermo Pa-ler'-rao. Palestine Pal'-es-tine. Palma Pahl'-niah. Palmyra Pal-mi'-ra. Palos Pah'-los. Pamir Pah-meer'. Pamlico Pam'-le-ko. Panama Pan-a-raah'. Papua Pap'-oo-a. Para Pah-rah'. Paraguay Par'-ah^wa. Paramaribo Par-a-mar'-i-bo (Pa-ra-ma-rc'-bo). Parana Par-ah-nah' Paria Pah'-re-ah. Parime Pah-ree'-ma. Paris Par'-is (Pah-re'). Passamaquoddy....Pas-8am-a-quod'- dy. Patagonia Pat-a-go'-ne-a. Pedee Pe-dee'. Pekin Pee'-kin(Pe-kin'). Peling Pa-ling'. Pembina Pem'-be-na. Pembroke Pem'-hrook. Penang Pe-nang'. Pennsylvania Pen-sil-va'-ne-a. Penobscot Po-nob'-skot. Pensaooliu Pen-s»-ko'-ia. Penzance Pen-zance'. Peruambuco Per-nam-boo'-ko. Persepolis ^.Per-sep'-o-lis. Peru Pe-rocr. Perugia Pa-roo'-jah. Peshawar Pesh-ah'-wur, Pesih Pest. Pctchora Petch'-o-ra, Peterlx^rough ...... Pe'-ter-bu r-ra. Philadelphia Fil-a-del'-fc-a. Philippine Fil'-ip-pin. Pichinca Ptxhin'-kah. Pictou Pik'-too (-tooO. Piedmont Peed'-mont. Pilcomayo Pil-ko-mah'-yo (-mi-o). Pindus Pin'-dus. Pisa Pee'-zah. Pitcaim Pit-cairn'. Plymouth Plim'-utb. Po Po. Poland Po'-land. Polynesia Pol'-e-nec'-she-a. Pompeii Pom-pa'-yee (Pom-pe'-e-i). Pondichcrry Pon-de-sher'-rc. Popocat a|KJtI Po-po-cat-a-petl'. Porto Hieo Por-to-ree'-ko. Portsmouth Port^'-mouth. Portugal Port'-u-gal. Posen Po'-zen. Potomac Po-to'-mak. Polosi Po-to-se' (Po-to'- se). Prague Prag (Prage). Prussia Prush'-y a (Proosh'-a). Punjaub Pun-jabb'. Puntaa Arenas Poon'- tas - ah-ra'- nas. Punas Poon'-yas. I'utumayo Poo-too-mi'-o. Pyrenees Pir'-e-neez. Quathlaniba Kwat-lara'-bah. Quebec Kwe bek'. Quesaltenaitgo Ka-sal-ta-nan'-go. Quito Kee-to. Pacine Ras-seen'. Raleigh Raw'-le. Rangoon Eang-goon'. Rappahannock Rap-pa-han'-nok. Ratislwn Rat'-is-bon. Ravenna Ra-ven'-na. Reading Red'-ding. Reikiavik Ri'-ki-a-vik. Restigouche Res-te-goosh'. Rheims Keems. Rhine Rine. Rhodes Rodz. Rhone Rone. Richelieu Reesh-e-loo'. Rideau Re-do'. Riesengebirge Ree-zen-ga-beer'- ga. Riga Ree'-gah (Ri'-). Rio Grande Ri-o-grand. Rio .Janeiro Ri-o-ja-nc-ro. Rio Negro Ki'-o-na'-gro. Roanoke Ro-an-oke'. Rosetta Ro-zet'-ta. Rothesay Roth'-sa. Rotterdam Rot'-ter-dam. Rouen Roo'-en. Russia Rush'-e-a (Roosh'-e-ah). Sacramento 8ae-ra-men'-to. Saghalicn Sag-bal'-i-an. Saeuenay Sag-e-na'. Sahara Sah-hah'-rah. Saida Si'-dah. Saigon Si-gon'. St. Albans Saint^awl'-bans. St. Anselme Sahnt-ang-selm'. St. Bernard Seut-ber-nard', St. Croix JSaint-kroi'. St. Etienne Sahnt-a-te-en'. St. Gothard Sahnt-got'-hard. St. Helena Saint-he-le'-na. St. Lawrence Saint-law'-rence. St. Louis Saint-loo'-is. St. Lucas Rahnt^loo'-kas. St. Malo Sent-mab'-lo. St. Marie Sahnt-ma-ree'. St. Petersburg Saint-pee'-ters- burg. St. Pierre Sahnt-pe-air'. St. Roque Saint-roke'. Salado Sah-lah'-do. Salamanca Sal-a-man'-ca. Salzburp Salts'-burg. San Antonio San-an-to'-ni-o. San Bias Sahn-blahs'. San Domingo. Sahndo-ming'-go. San Francisco San-fran-cis-co. San Joaquin Sahn-ho-ah-keen'. San Jose Sahn-ho-sa'. San Juan Sahu-hoo-ahn'. San Luis Sahn-Ioo'-is. San Marino Sahnraah-ree'-no. San Salvador Sahn-sal-va-dore', Santa Fe. « ^ahu'-tah-fa'. Santee San-tee'. Saoue Sone. Saragossa Sar-ra-gos'-fia. Sardinia Sar-din'-e-a. Saskatchewan Saa-katch'-e-wan. Sault Soo. Savannah Sah-van'-na. Save Sahv (Save). SaxeCoburg Sax-ko'-burg. Saxony Sax'-o-ne. Scandinavia Skan-de-na-ve-a. Scatari Skat-a-ree'. iS^r^-::::::;::}sow-'-.ig. Schwarlzwald Shwarts'-wahld. Scilly Sil'-le. Scotland Skot'-land. Scutari Skoo'-tah-re. Sevastopol ...Se-vas'-to-pol. Seeland Zee'land. Segovia Se-go'-ve-a. Seine Sane. Senegal Sen-e-gawl'. Senegambia Sen-e-gam'-be-a. Sennaar Sen-nahr'. Servia Ser'-ve-a. Seville Sev'-il (-illO. Sevres Sev'r. Seychelles Sa-sheelz'. Shanghai Shang hi'. Shenandoah Shen-an-do'-a. Shropshire Shrop'-sheer. Siam Si-am'. Siberia Si-bee'- re-a. Sicily Sis'-e-le. Sierra-del-Cobre....Se-er'-rah - del- cob' r'. Sierra-Gredos Se-er'-rah-gra'- dos. Sierra Leone Se-er'-rah le-o'-ne. Sierra Madre Se-er'-rab-mah'- dra. Sierra Morena Se-er'-rah -mo-ra'- nah. Sierra Nevada Se^r -rah-na-vah'- dah. Sierra Toledo Se-er'-rah-to-la'- do. Silesia Si-lee'-she a. Sinai. Si'-na (Si'-na-i). Singapore. Sing-ga-pore'. Siout Se-oot'. Sitka Sit'-ka. Skager Rack Skag'-er-rak. Skye Ski. Smyrna Smir'-na. Socotra Sok'-o-ira (-ko'-). Sofala So-fah'-lah. Solferino Sol-fa-re'-no. Somali So-maw'-le. Soodan Soo-dahn'. Soongaria Soong-gah'-re-ah. Sorel Sor'-el. Spitzbergen Spits-burg'-en. Stanovoi Stah-no-voi'. Stettin Stet-teen Stockholm St ok' holm. Strasbourg Stras'-burg(-boorO Strom boli Strom'-bo-lee. Stuttgart Stut'-gart. Suez Soo'-ez. Suffolk Suf-fok. Sumatra Soo-mah'-tra. Sumbawa Soom-baw'-wah. Sunda Sun'-da. Surat Soo-rat'. Susquehanna Sus-kwe-han'-na. Sutlej Sut'-lej. Swansea .....Swon'-se. Sweden Swe'-den. Switzerland Swits'-er^land. Syracuse Sir'-a-kuse. Tabriz Tah-breez'. Tadoussac Tadoo-sak'. Tagus Ta'-gus. Tahiti Tah-hee'-te. Tahlequah Tab'-Ie-kwah. Tallabasse Tal-iah-has'-se. Tampico Tam-pee-ko. Tanganyika Tahn-gahn-ye'-ka Tangier Tan-jeer'. Tapajos Tab-pah '-zhose. Tarlary Tar'-ta-re. Tashkend Tash-kend'. Tasmania Tas-ma'-ne-a. Taunton Tahn'-ton. Taurus Tau'-rus. Tchad Chad. Teheran Te-her-an. Tehnantepec Ta-hwan-ta-pek'. Teneriffe Ten-er-ifT. Tennessee Ten-nes-see'. Terra del Fuego...Ter'-rah-del-fwa'- go. Terre Haute Ter'-reh-hote'. Thames Temz. Thebes Theebz. Thian Shan Tc-ahn'-shahn. Thibet Tib'-et (-ef). Thuringian Thu-riu'-je-an. Tiber Ti'-bur. Tiflis Tif-lis. Tigre Tee'-gra. Tigris n'-gris. Timbuctoo Tim-buk'-too. Tipperary Tip-er-a'-re. Titicaca TitKvkah'-kah. Tobago To-ba'-go. Tobolsk To-lxdsk'. Tocantins To-kan-teens'. Tonquin Ton-keen'. ToiK-ka To-iM^-ka. Toplitz Tep'-litz. Tornca Tor'-no-a. Torquay Tor-ke' (Tor'-). Torres Tor'-res. Tortugas Tor-too'-gas. Toulon Too-long\ Toulouse Too-looz'. Tours Toor (Toorz). Trafalgar Traf-al-gar't-fal'-). Transvaal Trans-vahl'. Trebisond T re b' - e - z o n d (-zond'). Treves Treevs. Trieste Tnx'st'. Tritjoli Trip'-o-le. Truxillo Troo-heel'-yo. Tunis Too'-nis. Turin Too'-rin. Turkestan Toor-kes-tahn'. Turkey Tur'-ke. Tuscaloosa Tus-kah-loo'-Ba. Tuscany Tus'-ka-ne. Tyrone Ti-rone'. Ulm Ulm (Oolra). Upsala tlp-sah'-lah. Ural U'-ral (Oo-rahO. Uruguay Oo- roo - gwa' (-gwi'.) Ushant Ush^-aut. Utah U'-tah. Utica U'-te-ka. Utrecht U'-trekt. Valdai .Val'-da (-di). ^UleS ■■::;::;;: h-wen'.he-a. Valenciennes Vah-long-se-en' Valladolid Val-Ia-do-lid' (-leeo'-rah. Yeddo (Jeddo) Yed'-do. Yemen Yem'-cn. Yenisei.....' Yen-e sa'-e. Yesso Yes'-«o. Yoniba Yo-roo'-bah. Yosemit* Yo-.sem'-e te. Yucatan Yoo-ka-tan'. Yukon Yu'-kon. Zacatecas Zahk-a-ta-kas. Zaire Zah-eer'. Zambesi Zani-ba'-ze. Zanguebar Zan-gwe-bai' (-ga-)- , Zanzibar Zan-ze-bar. Zealand... Zee'-land. Zurich Zoo'-rik. Zuyder Zee Zi'-der-zee. ^■v KEW CAPITOL, INDIANAPOLIS. INDIANA. DESCRIPTION. Situation and Extent. — 1. The state of Indiana occupies the north central part of the eastern half of the Mississippi Basin, and a strip of the southern part of the basin of the Great Lakes. Its greatest extent is from latitude 37° 47' N. to 41° 46' N. , or 276 miles. Its greatest breadth is from longitude 84° 49' W. to 88° 2' W., or 177 miles. Its average length is about 250 miles and its average breadth about 145 miles. Its area is 35,910 square miles, or 22,982,400 acres. 2. Indiana is bounded on the north by Michigan, on the east by Ohio, on the south by Kentucky, and on the west by Illinois. Its only natural boundaries are Lake Michigan at the northwest, the Ohio Eiver on the south, and the Wabash Eiver on the west, below longitude 39° 20' N. Topography and Drainage. — ^1. The surface of Indiana is level, the difference between the altitudes of the highest and lowest points being less than 1,000 feet. The northwestern por- tion is very flat; the central slightly rolling; and the southern is somewhat hilly, which is due chiefly to the deep channels cut by streams. There are no mountains. 2. There are five principal drainage systems, viz. : the Ohio (including the Whitewater), the Wabash, the Maumee, the Kan- kakee, and Lake Michigan. These are separated by low water- sheds, all of which, directly or indirectly, come together in a table-land, in the eastern part of the state. Nearly all of the more important streams of the state head in this table-land, which has an average elevation of 1,150 feet above the sea level. Its highest point is in Eandolph County, and is estimated to be 1,285 feet above the sea level; the highest point in Indiana. 3. The extreme southern and southeastern parts of the state are drained by the Ohio and its tributaries, all of which, except the Whitewater, which unites with the Big Miami before reach- ing the Ohio, are unimportant streams. The low-water level of the Ohio at the southeastern corner of the state is 436 feet above sea level. At the southwestern corner, the mouth of the Wabash, it is 313 feet. Of this descent 27 feet is made at the falls at Louisville, in the distance of two and a half miles. 4. The whole central part of the state (about four-fifths of its entire area) is drained by the Wabash and its tributaries, the most important of which are White Eiver, Wild Cat Creek, Tippecanoe Eiver, Eel Eiver, Salamonie and Mississinewa rivers. 5. The northeastern corner of the state is drained by the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers, which unite at Port Wayne and form the Maumee. The Maumee flows into Lake Erie at Toledo, Ohio, at an altitude of 573 feet above sea level. 6. The extreme northern part of the state is drained by the St. Joseph's, the Calumet, and several smaller streams, to Lake Michigan, whose altitude above sea level is 585 feet. 7. The remainder of the northwest corner of the state is drained by the Kankakee and its tributaries to the Mississippi. Lakes. — 1. Indiana has about 45 miles of coast line on Lake Michigan, and a fine harbor at Michigan City. 2. There are many beautiful lakes in the state, especially in the northern part. These are all small and of no value to com- merce, but owing to their beauty and the healthfulness of the country about them, many of them have become popular resorts. They have sandy beds and are well stocked with the finest kinds of fish. Climate. — 1. The climate of Indiana is pleasant and health- ful. The temperature ranges from an average of 31° Fahrenheit in the winter to an average of 76° in the summer. The mean temperature is 53°. The average annual rain-fall is 42 inches, and is somewhat greater in the southern part of the state than in the northern. 2. For many years artificial drainage has been encouraged by law in Indiana, and, by ditching and tiling, a large amount of marshy land has been made tillable. On account of this drain- age the healthfulness of the country has continually improved, and malarial diseases have almost disappeared in sections where they were once prevalent. 2 THE STATE OF INDIANA. A NATURAL GAS WELL. Soil. — The soil of about four-fifths of Indiana is the deposit of vast glaciers during geologic time. Beneath this is a surface of rock, which crops out at numerous points in the state, but usually it is covered with the glacial drift to a depth of from 25 to 400 feet. The surface of this drift has been changed by the action of air and water and the decomposition of vegetable mat- ter into a fertile and easily cultivated loam, which is mixed with clay or sand in some sections. In the regions which the glacial drift did not reach, chiefly in the southern part of the state, the soil is the product of the decomposition of the surface rocks and of vegeta- tion. The alluvial bottom- lands of streams and the prairies have the richest soils, and are usually plant- ed in corn. The uplands are better adapted to wheat and other small grains and grasses. Natural Wonders. — 1. There are a number of caves in Southern Indiana, formed by the action of water on limestone. The largest is the Wyandotte Cave in Craw- ford County, which rivals the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky in its extent, the size of its chambers and the beauty of its rock formations. 2. Springs of mineral water are found in all parts of the state. Many of these possess great curative properties, and are much frequented by persons afflicted with diseases. French Lick, Martinsville, and West Baden are among the most important. Animal Life. — 1. The larger wild animals, such as buflfalo, deer, elk, bears and panthers, which once were numerous, have disappeared. Minks, weasels, foxes, raccoons, opossums, rabbits and smaller wild animals are still quite common. 2. Wild turkeys, pheasants and prairie chickens are found, but in small numbers. Hawks, buzzards, water-fowl and the smaller birds are abundant. 3. The streams and lakes of Indiana are well supplied with bass, perch, bream, pickerel, bufifalo-fish, catfish, suckers and smaller species. Carp and salmon have been introduced and are found in many streams. 4. Fish and game birds are protected by law during the nesting season. Killing song birds or disturbing their nests at any time is a penal offense. Vegetation. — 1. There are extensive prairies in Northwest- ern Indiana, but the ijreater part of the surface was originally covered by forests. The hardwood trees, such as oak, hickory, maple, walnut and beech, are most common; but ash, sycamore, poplar, willow and other trees are abundant. It is supposed that about one-third of the forests still remain. 2. Wild fruits are common in Indiana, particularly plums, pawpaws, May-apples, cherries and grapes. All the fruits and cultivated plants of the Temperate Zone thrive and are very profitable. Mineral Resources. — 1. The mineral wealth of Indiana is chiefly coal, natural gas, building stone, glass sand, kaolin and other clays. Gold and copper are found in several parts in very email quantities; they occur only in the glacial drift. 2. Indiana is the sixth state in the Union in the production of bituminous coal. Anthracite coal is not found, but coking, block and cannel coal exist in large quantities. The workable coal fields are more than 6,000 square miles in extent, and extend over and into 23 counties in the southwestern part of the state. In 1880 the number of persons employed in coal mining in the state was 4,500, and the product was 1,500,000 tons. The annual capacity of the mines is over 3,000,000 tons. 3. Enormous reservoirs of natural gas have been opened in the past two years. It has been ascertained that this valuable fuel exists in large quantities under a tract of country extend- ing north and south for 165 miles through the eastern and cen- tral parts of the state, and at several points in the west and south. Thirty-four counties are known to be wholly or partly in the gas field, and it is probable that it includes half the counties in the state. Four hundred and fifty flowing wells have been opened and the daily flow of gaa is now estimated at 900,000,000 cubic feet; 20,000 cubic feet are estimated to equal one ton of coal in heat power. The abundance and cheapness of this fuel has made the gas belt an unusually fine field for manufacture and the. manu- facturing interests of the state are rapidly increasing. The great supply of this gas is found in the rock of the Trenton period, but it exists in smaller quantities in all the strata that show re- mains of animal or vegetable life. It is supposed by scientists to be the product of decomposition of organic matter. It has great expansive force and in all active wells has a pressure of over 300 pounds to the square inch at the surface. soldiers' and sailors' monument, INDIANAPOLIS. 4. The building stone of Indiana is its most important nat- ural product. The most valuable varieties are the oolitic lime- stone, the blue limestone of the Devonian period, the gray lime- stone of the Niagara period, and the sandstone of the lower coal measures. All of these are celebrated for their strength and durability. The oolitic (egg-stone) limestone is so called be- cause it resembles a mass of fish eggs. It is composed of minute L_:.: .-■►■CH\C^^ '•-V^:<:^5:i^':.^*^>* ^..o^l>..jBc..^ 56. MonlHT.o ^ !/) «^' „• cr«-J.rii.t® '^'"- '^"""''"'►f. i L 1 L% A K e; I ILLINOIS j' H|M&11'»5, ,° ^ Walkerton ( (- o „ Haana ■Jatc ° PORT i A^Jt^ i E E E e I ^-^^ Pair OaTts „ V MedJr S P E' 5^ g SeaverlCltyo o . Jl "'» ^^», O %v'=' r^ :^^ V K hn W' -' • '" "" - * , B E N ,T O JZ M I ,??. Carlisle ydtreOamec ^»P»'K| J ifeir Pari i H IFdfinS. " M>A R S H A L L 1 eesborgh, Tipi c( aoD. © o^, , "KOSCIUSKO Meatoue ^1(cii« olaer I « | Star City MoDon c Larwill ^t»;',':.-Jwall.S i., . „, Col mbli. Clly 3 «. close ^V^FuIton e ■$ r.oyal Cen.'TeeS 'i"e P ° A S S ' ;»ver Reynoias .»© A Walton o Bunker R round ^ Otterbein .^ v^ " -! ^ ] Z Terrysvi ' '— '" - ^-L J ^ A — "jr^ KeeWs Mill _ . ^ a ° VayiieT. /T •= Tlii.rntoA ^/FOUNTAIN "A ^Barlm tonB- O O N E SOranford Y.l«t">»''®^ »ij„. MtHVlT COMEHY i '_• -Whlr>«T o ' ^ <>' -Sf 5'CoolCreeli o ye3do 1C A R R O L L \ "rloni Jrv: '' ^Sefl alia *' ^@ La VajVue ^ % :^A» \..^^^ ^ Miuiirryo S-T' o I X* >*^ TlPPECANotV <-^ _-....;,., ^. ^-'^A.^ P ° t/," Attica o lVanirort_ 'VvW' T- o 5„,e ?_® = Mi.*igai^e*V«" J,p,, •••^ "b^S^";'^ I p't"o Nwf J. \. -^.if- »Man«on ,0 ^,Pi.k:>r,l-s MiUj Z <; alladale Jwport . # o "^ iBlouiiiYngdaleo^C'Q Juda o Montezuma SKockvIlIe PARK E' '"J'l' '^""a) L ,-°Callln ' "^ ^ ^ ( intOQf ^*^ Jessup'8 Sta. o Ro9e(lale ft ^ rerre Jiauto .\i/^x\U-'''- JC L A ^ "f -JMiddlsT. Clayhty ,.°„ . . .fern , - ^"^ _ JVFatrbanks " 31«r»li»lt * ^'" lo ShelburnoS " SULLIVAN Sutllva I ^ MiroiiiSftj »Jj.Xel.aiio! *5\Paxton"8 '"RoMlnollYi Pleasant V rr- -- pir^ a tarliBlec<^ <% -&„ '^an'aK New Uuburgh irn s cl —if^ Xado ?**«;"■ lem H E N D.. . ^ ..^- lanvllleGk o)o "d Vrcadia ijSlieridan Q(!icerq_ H A M I L l OotarioTf^ iddletury ®Ugraii^«. ■■A GRANGE^ \ Salem Wi.o Wolcottvilleo IJiflsono Isweifo * Xlgonler (jTlomc SHORE Ke Allilm ° MUford" ^J*feylafe offlo ' "■'<;, ■~-^— •- NOBLE' S-«l» XaOtto, P erceton ~ TT ^ Tly' " ,^ r::!^*- a.llV.,__^»B»tlm D E K * ^l^^ *^G R ANT *? LOvJlS- Eairmount EikclElenian ^ Tfasl ^o^f^ODtaine^^lo wirrea Fox's" Vi^ Biiten ^ ■pTiiiiil Eiwoofl Carpenters o IJ.Sjlera'- , *-•• o; JH E N D^ 1 <; K.#> 0* 1. fill note -\A*\-,i--' (JreeneastltT*^ MoTj^yillef',' B L A C K I Hartford .City Greene o R D i J A _f Dunlirt iniilviUeV^fiKatoe } a-" U o Redkey ,, aiDany*.'!^ t ■ ^...--..-^ ft ty* -r< *. ■■• Wlnelie! ter | | i -^ (Jreenvilleca Castle Jc. As™ia/-'-La„<;W Eden o o^"""- J H ^N > yJ 7« ^^ /-_, Sanfordjo •^*''/ v^-°q (Jar-loaia q j ajmowp \^CIoveryie--^rooTilyn c/ywi telandU^ ,. _ Cataract iiDj Green ^ '"' ^ Goaport o '£ray8A"U e /Freedom ^^Inrtlnsvifc i Paragon . ^^ o ilorgantown ^-^ -^ JOHNSON n wood Cm iiigton sir. l'«i. '°J^»' J SH'V oC/;5.05,»c£^lhag75>-* 'Tc^ r soith- fTK;"">54",:r;"K .isT. ?/^ '**"°'^y. /,.1larli»,vll e .►.-.. (L J?,.,. '• [S p EJLj Y 'H*l/ S H FcedlWlSfer .*■ ... I Mliro, 1 ,* MONRO EcWtKs" Diioll„ „• /Solsbcfry„ ^'Slanford^clear^dE'^l^! ' G R E-Ze/'n _ E !„nuenaVls1 sQitzCitjL. L7SHsff''& i: -3 ishrod ^oj* i,^»: tlj *^<'V//, >/ 11 ■BlokBcll off „^ iLl^ "■^''- '«<■,#♦ O .§!_,* LottsV. ; LAW REN J o«,o si";* *" ^ M \VTieatland I © * "o >°». ^/>o ."^4 W A)B ASH 311. Canu^l.^ , lOO'» ^ ft ^•, '^•t-si's ««< .'V, ^.^fe, .. x: ■4 -h. «w« 40 H A N G E<°Livonia ©Peterslmrg I ^iver~ oKelleisyilll Union V." P I K ,,E yle's o O'l'landB'tj.; Princeton® ens V. ^ " ■ tf*- Branch^, s merviUe G« 1 B S Ou. N ■, Stendalt /S^llr'^— — ^...Cyotliiana .^ao^t^^^J Ste>%s V, ° o „^. V oSt. ^oes'~ pedora I .. Crohera V.oy r * _£/» ^ r„0'aT„L->c.meron pietterill/ q „^r„^ >ena»a"V. Ar r*^ OloaJ-JJ^"'' ^'. ML A \JfcB^E N C E :d«N.rd.j»r.oy »„Tl.ln,ll.„ '*° / rj^/tf/.Ti^-Ritney ^»SZ£«2±f ^^''^^^Ivorkof % '^WnSta. .^ ^C.n,j,T)ell.hurgh !e„lt»l .rsli§vtei>»«o'nfcington IBtcicoAii » Salem e L ?,.•. ^°!^« r A _ . Gentryyrile I'adesvilleqj Buairaviili p o af Y BA SpiceUad r^ew of 8hcH.j- llle J o^*"'''^y V I'l o / 'FRANK ulton ■4>- ^ o Cottage Grow o V 01 "Wf© ^ r A Y EVr T E TV c Null T.ol UNION V awasa J ^"e+I^l BlIMngslville <, ranrVt—lf I ^/-\ i :ro.kviiiJ B LF T L E ; iiiaojl{3rLe"i»Cr. y,-^/ ^j^.o.bnfsb " Jlaymond WlntersV.- Tn^TKaW - , St Louis eol-' Hope 1- » I Harts V.o ' DEARBORN oHolniaa nOi Ifoi LMoore-sHill ^ ' Xoiwneekers ■" H/AMTLTOiT D E C A T U R..''S)«Jea /gCaln'mbiu --■ )MiliirOLOMEW 'Jf E oKff"^-'' \ Pierce v/°Jtr:?c IPilJii piak \ »„,t^^ ^ -: /y«^l|" Osgood ' ' ""•»—■"' i^^£JBecl.JGr"|•y°'^'^U^2^«we'4}v.R I P t. E Y/- ,»^I-t. ^ _ ,tV« oom c jjf,t^^ig V.r^arroasbufgV-rreetownYRockfori/ »' jj Vernon .I***t' ° Bui erville 'j ' „»en«»nl Vf ^'Mooney J A C iV S 0„N Chtstnut 2 Qtv^O_^ ltro>i{ns(owa Ridge * ^j Shoals ! %(s )PaolI I WAS Hi CIS' 3 o/ 1 o HardTnspurgti ! o Charlesiow ^f-NWleene ' -^ " ■ - - - Marengo [a I o Uliarleslowi^^Y I tf" *«lfi»bnrgh- °Beirnelt»°V^^^ f •''^ Cj o I y. T^)r^nriUrV?«ll«Tf'"«l' „,2r^'"""' ^ ,.- - _ _ . „ , (.ouisMllltowno '•'o^ L .» V °tp«.OLDHA.M if l?^-°<;ifte* * ' ° " "Ek '' ^-r-^-i »my-...-?^K,Wd- "yrSw^^-'i^-^r^1» ^--^^^^^ K3 INDIANA. Xincoln yretjonla ^ono ^ cjMcputolianvlIIe T"" ' J'ulla |»-*p. q o y "*"■> = "• Cliidlero . iiJ^^L „^ \y - ^^ uarg q BOLLIT'IL \M E A D E Bheplienjflvlile r Milca. i Ran(l, McNuIly & Co , Engravers, Chicago. 85° J THE STATE OF INDIAKA. and to the breeding of stock. A state fair is held annually, at which premiums are given for the best products, and similar fairs are held in the various counties. The chief farm products in 1880 were as follows: Com ...bushels, 115,482,300 Wheat... " 47,284,853 Gate " 15,ii99,518 Potatoes " 6,232,246 Hay tons, 1,361,083 Forest product $5,554,587 Orchard product.. 2,757,359 Garden product... 578,413 FARM bCl^>E~lIAKVL:Sll..ti WHEAT. fossil shells, filled and cemented together by carbonate of lime. It is soft and easily worked when taken from the quarries, but hardens rapidly on exposure to the air. The longer it stands the harder it becomes. On account of this remarkable dura- bility it is being used in large buildings all over the country. The new capitol of the state is built of it, and the magnificent soldiers' and sailors' monument is being constructed of it. In 1880 Indiana was the fifth state in the Union in the production of building stone; 1,700 persons were employed in the quarries, and 8,500,000 cubic feet of stone were taken out. The annual production has more than doubled since that time. 5. Kaolin and glass sand are found in large quantities in several counties and are profitably mined. These industries are but slightly developed, and will be of much importance hereafter, as the deposits are of the best quality. Good clay is abundant, and brick and tile making are extensive industries throughout the state. Oilstone and shoemaker's sandstone are profitably mined in Orange County. Iron ore is found in large quantities in the coal measures, but can be profitably mined at only a few places. 6. Petroleum has been found in several locali- r ties, and there are now flowing wells in the state, but their permanence is not assured. Population. — In 1880 the population of Indiana was 1,978,301. Of these 1,938,978 were white and 39,228 colored; 144,178 were foreign born, of whom 80,756 were born in the German Empire and 40,508 in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- land; 635,080 were engaged in occupations, includ- ing 331,240 in agriculture, 110,127 in manufactures, mechanical and mining pursuits, and 56,432 in trade and transportation. Of the total population over ten years of age, less than five per cent were unable to read and seven and one-half per cent were unable to write. Agriculture. — The most important industry of Indiana is agriculture. Of the 22,982,400 acres in the state, 20,420,983 are in farms, and 13,933,938 are under cultivation. In 1880 the farm product was valued at $114,707,082, and the value of live stock on farms was $71,068,758. A State Board of Agriculture is established by law and much atten- tion is given to the improvement of agriculture The leading vegetable products in the order of their value, are corn, wheat, hay and oats. Manufactures. —Next in importance is manu- facture, in which one-ninth of the people are era- ployed. In 1880, $100,262,917 of raw materials were consumed and goods of the value of $148,- 006,411 were produced. The value added by manufacture is the difference between the two sums. Owing to the use of natural gas the manu- facturing interests are increasing with great ra- pidity. The manufactures whose product was over $4,000,000 in 1880 were as follows: Raw Materials Used. Products. Flour and grist mills $26,104,637 $29,591,397 Meatpacking 13,645,927 15,209^204 Saw mills 9,627,097 14,260,830 Foundries and ironwork 7,622,070 12,072,521 Agricultural implements 2,182,137 4,460,408 Liquors 3,103.446 5,018,797 Commerce.^ — Nearly one-tenth of the people in occupations are engaged in commerce and transportation. Commerce is chiefly domestic, but exportation and importation are steadily growing in extent. The only water transportation worthy of mention is by Lake Michigan, the Ohio Eiver and the Wabash below Terre Haute. The canals in the state are practically abandoned. The railroads furnish the principal means of transportation. There are 5,825 miles of railroad within the state exclusive of side and double track. Government. — 1. The government of Indiana is, like those of other states, republican. It is divided into three depart- ments, the executive, the legislative and the judicial. 2. At the head of the executive department are a Governor QIDIANA STATE NOBMAL SCHOOL, TEBEE UAUTX. THE STATE OP INDIANA. LIBRARY OF INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOM and Lieatenant Governor, elected by the people for a term of four years. The Lieutenant Governor is president of the Senate. The more important of the other executive officers are the Treasurer, Secretary, Auditor, Attorney Gen- eral, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Statistician, and Geolo- gist. 3. The legislative power is vested in a General Assembly com- posed of two houses, a Senate of 50 members elected for four years and a House of Repre- sentatives of 100 mem- bers elected for two years. The Governor may veto a bill but it may be passed again over his veto by a ma- jority of the General Assembly. 4. The supreme ju- dicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of five judges. It is chief- ly occupied in deciding appeals from lower courts. There are 54 Circuit Courts which hold sessions in each of the several counties during the year. They decide the mass of the civil and criminal cases. There are also five Superior Courts in the larger counties and a special Criminal Court in Marion County. The minor cases are decided by justices of the peace, of whom there is one in each township, and more if business requires 6. As a member of the United States, Indiana is represented in Congress by two senators and thirteen representatives. The state has, therefore, fifteen votes in the choice of the President and Vice President by the electoral college. In the judicial system of the United States Indiana forms a district, and, with Illinois and Wisconsin, forms the Seventh Judicial Circuit. Local Government. — The state is divided into 92 counties for purposes of local government. Each county has a sheriff, clerk, treasurer, record- er, auditor and board of county commissioners. For convenience each county is divided into town- ships. Each of these has a township trustee and an assessor of taxes. There are 1,012 townships in the state. Cities and towns have independ- ent control of their local affairs. Benevolent Institutions. — The state main- tains four hospitals for the insane, at Indianapolis, Eichmond, Logansport and Evansville; one for the blind and one for the deaf and dumb at In- dianapolis; a school for feeble minded youth at Fort "Wayne, and a home for soldiers' and sailors' orphans at Knightstown, at an expense of about $700,000 an- nually. Each county has a home for indigent and helpless people. The larger cities have public hospitals, and numerous hospitals and benevolent institutions are maintained by private support. Penal Institutions. — The state has two penitentiaries for men, at Michigan City and Jeffersonville; are- form school for boys at Plainfield, and a reform- atory for women and girls, at Indianapolis. Education. — 1. The school system of the state of Indiana is one of the best in the world. There is a permanent school fund of $9,600,- 000, of which only the in- terest is used for school expenses. This is held by the counties and loan- ed at interest at the rate of six per cent. Only three states in the Un- ion have larger funds. The annual expenditure for public schools is about $5,000,000, of which $4,000,000 is rais- ed by taxation and the remainder from interest on the permanent fund, fines, liquor licenses, etc. The value of the school property in the state is about $15,000,000. The number of school children in the state is about 750,000, and two-thirds of them are enrolled in the common schools. 2. The Superintendent of Public Instruction is at the head of the school system. He has gen- eral supervision of all school matters and re- ports every second year in regard to them. 3. The Superintendent, the Governor, the presidents of the State University, Purdue University, State Normal School, and the superintendents of public schools of the three principal cities of the state, con- stitute a State Board of Education. It has jurisdiction over the examining and licensing of teachers, commissioning high schools, etc. 4. The immediate supervision of school matters is by the township trustees, who employ teachers, locate school houses, purchase supplies, etc. In each county the trustees, together with a county superintend- ent of schools elected by them, and the presidents of school boards of in- corporated cities and towns, consti- tute a County Board of Education, which has special charge of courses of study and township libraries. In- corporated cities and towns have independent control of their schools. 5. The county superintendents have general supervision of the schools, examine and license teachers, and report annually to the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 6. The taxpayers of each school district are empowered to TWO OF MAIN BUILDINGS, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE. THE STATE OP INDIANA. VIEW OF THE OHIO EIVER, EVANSVII.LE. meet and elect a director, who takes charge of the school house and property, excludes refractory pupils from school, and makes necessary repairs under the direction of the township trustee. 7. The efficiency of the system is much promoted by teach- ers' institutes and associations, and teachers' and pupils' reading circles, the former compulsory, the latter voluntary. Allowance is made to teachers for attendance on the township institutes. 8. The state in addition to the common schools maintains three institutions for higher learning; a State University at Bloomington, Purdue University (a school of technology) at La- fayette, and a State Normal School at Terre Haute. Besides these there are seventeen colleges and universities, nine normal schools, a polytechnic institute, and numerous seminaries and schools maintained at private expense. History. — 1. The first white man who explored Indiana was Eobert Cavalier, commonly known by his title, Sieur de la Salle, or simply La Salle. He passed down the Ohio in 1670, and in 1682-3, explored the northern part of the state. 2. La Salle induced all of the Indians in Indiana to remove to Illinois, and this state remained uninhabited until 1700, when the Indians began moving east, settling principally on the Maumee and Wabash rivers. They all belonged to the Miami Nation, and were known as Miamis, Kickapoos, Weas, or Ouia- tanons and Piankeshaws. Fifty years later the Delawares and Shawnees, driven from the East, began settling in Central Indiana. 3. The French established three posts in Indiana, one called Port Miamis, at the site of Fort Wayne; one in 1720, called Post Ouiatanon, on the north side of the Wabash, opposite the mouth of Wea Creek, a short distance below Lafayette; and one in 1727, called Post Vincennes, where Vincennes now stands. They con- trolled the country until 1763, then surrendered it to the English. 4. The English remained in possession until 1779, when it was conquered by General George Eogers Clarke, for the United States, and passed under the immediate control of Virginia. In 1784 Virginia surrendered her claims to the Union, and three years later a government was established for the territory north- west of the Ohio Kiver by the celebrated ordinance of 1787. 5. In 1800 all the northwest territory west of a line drawn north from the mouth of the Big Miami Eiver was made Indiana Territory. In 1805 Michigan Territory was created, and in 1809 Illinois Territory, leaving to Indiana Territory about the pres- ent dimensions of the state. In 1811, the Indians having become hostile. General William Henry Harrison, the first Governor of Indiana Territory, marched against them and defeated their forces under the Prophet, at Tippecanoe, on November 7th. 6. In 1816 Indiana adopted her first constitution and was admitted as a state. In 1851 a new constitution was adopted and is now in force. The population of Indiana Territory in 1800 was 5,641, about 2,500 of whom lived within the present limits of the state. In 1816 the population of the state was 65,000. From 1800 to 1813 Vincennes was the capital; fiom 1813 to 1825, Corydon; and since 1825, Indianapolis. Cities and Towns. — Indianapolis, the capital, is situated hear the center of the state, on the West Fork of White River. It has a population of about 100,000, and is one of the great- est railroad centers in the world. It has extensive manufac- turing and commercial interests. The remaining cities and towns having a population of 10,000 or more in 1880 were as follows: Evansville 29,280 Fort Wayne 26,880 Terre Haute 26,042 New Albany 16,423 Lafayette 14,860 South Bend ; 13,280 Richmond 12,74iJ Logansport 11,1S8 Nearly all the cities of Indiana have grown rapidly since 1880 and increased their manufacturing and commercial inter- ests. MAP QUESTIONS. In what part of the Onited States is Indiana situated T What state bounds it on the north ? On the east? On the south? On the west? Into which of the great drainage systems of the continent do its waters flow? Why? What natural boundaries has Indiana? From the map, what part of Indiana would you suppose to lie the highest? What lowest? Why? What stream flows into the Ohio at the southeastern corner of Indiana? What at the southwestern? Into what stream does the Whitewater River flow? Name the streams on which the following cities and towns are situated, and tell into what each stream flows: Indianapolis, JeffersonTillc, Richmond, Terro Haute, Evansville, Lafayette, Fort Wayne, New Albany. Could you go by water from Michigan City to Evansville? How? What is the capital of Indiana? In what part of the state Is it situated? Name five counties in the northern part of the state and the county feats. Five in the southern part. In what county do you live? In what part of the state is it? What counties bound it? What is the county seat? How many townstiips are there in your county? Namethem. What streams flow through your county 7 What railroads pass through it? This book 15 LD BE IMMEDUTFLY REPORTED TO INDIANA SCHOOL BOOK COMPANY, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. .' :::?Ji@i];iJ!Ei