ii ,; '/ :\ ■.' SYNONYMS DISCKIMINATED. SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED A COMPLETE CATALOGUE OF Snnonnmous Movbs tn the (iBnglisb ^^an^uugc, OESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR VARIOUS SHADES OF MEANING, AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF THEIR USAGES AND SPECIALITIES. ILLUSTRATED BY QUOTATIONS FROM STANDARD WRITERS, C. J. SMITH, M.A., CHRIST ClU'RCH, OXFORD. VICAR OF EKITII, AND LATE ARCHDEACON OF JA3IAKA. LONDON: BELL & DALDY, YOKK STKEET, COVENT GARDEN. 1S7L rniNTED liY WII.I.IAM CLOWRS AND SON'S, STAMI' AUD CHARmC CROSS. PREFACE. It has appeared to the writer of the following pages that, Avithout depreciating the labours of others in this department of Literature, occasion fairly exists for a new book on the Syhi, ijms of the English Language, which should be written in some respects from fresh points of view, and should be of a fuller character than the narrow limits commonly belonging to works on this subject. That he has succeeded by a single effort in producing a perfect English Synonymicon, he has not the presumption to suppose ; but he sends the work forth with every desire to avail himself of such fair and enlightened suggestions as may help him to improve and expand it if future editions be called for. 993 SYNONYMS DISCEIMINATED. Abandon. Forsake. Desert. Kelinquish. The etymological force of Abandon (Teutonic ban, which appears in the old French baiidon, outcry, procla- mation, as venclre a banclon; the low Latin abandonnare ; the old English bandoivn, meaning possession, juris- diction ; and the modern English ban and banns ;) has well-nigh disap- peared from this word. To abandon is now, in the most comprehensive sense, to give uj) finally and absolutely, with the implied idea, in many cases, of transference to some power or person external to ourselves. A trace of the old meaning, that of placing beyond jurisdiction or outlawry, and so disclaiming possession, aj)pears in Shakespeare : — " Madame, wife, they say that I have dreamed And slept alone some fifteen years or more. Zadij. I (for aye) and the time seems thirty unto me, Being all this time abandoned from your bed." Spenser used the form aband. No praise or blame is absolutely expressed by the term abandon, which is one of the widest in the English language, though it has a tendency to imply blame when used of persons without qualification. So to aliandon friends so^^nds blameworthy, because, under this simple expression the mind con- templates nothing but the deserted friendship. Yet it is right to abandon friends if they betake themselves to what is dishonest or disgraceful. We may abandon persons or things ; in particular, places, positions, ideas, opinions, hopes, expectations, offices, possessions, good or evil habits, as the case may be. "Where loss or in- jviry is entailed on the person aban- doned, or the abandonment is a dere- liction of duty, this moral colouring belongs not to the force of the term, which is, essentially speaking, no more than that oi final leaving, but to the circumstances of the case, as in the following from Milton : — " See how he lies at random carelessly dif- fused. As one past hope, abandoned, And by himself given o'er." It is only when all efforts to save his ship are hopeless that the captain abandons her to the rocks and waves. In times of early Christianity, men were called upon to abandon houses, lands, and relatives, in such a way as would be now not only uncalled for, but an unjustifiable desertion of them. "We may observe that a twofold idea seems inherent in abandonment (for the novm follows aU the forces of the verb). We may abandon dii-ectly or indirectly, by actively transferring or putting away from ourselves; or by merely avoiding and taking our- selves off. It is the former force which was the more predominant in the old English, the latter in the new. Forsake is the Saxon forsacan, being compounded of the prefix for, which has the negative sense of forth, or away from, as in forbid, and sacan, from sacib, sac, strife, conten- tion, connected with the English seek. Its radical force, therefore, is ABANDON. ABANDONED. tlie opposite of seek, namely, to aim at separation. la usage it implies some degree of antecedent habituutiun or association which is given up. We foi-sake relatives to whom we were naturally bound, friends with whom we once associated, habits which we had contracted, opinions which we had constantly entertained, places which we used to frequent. The term does not go beyond this breaking oif of previous habit or association ; the making that a matter of avoidance which before was matter of seeking ; and like abandon, implies, in itself, neither praise nor blame, which de- pend upon the circumstances of the forsaking : — "Then answered Peter and said, "Behold we have forsaken all and followed Thee." — Bible. There is implied in forsake a former personal connexion with ourselves ; hence we are not commonly said to forsake abstract forms of good. It would be natural to say to forsake houses, lands, or friends, but not rank, station, or wealth. Here we should use the widely-available term abandon, or renounce. To Desert (Lat. deserere, de and serere, to join or bind together, as opposed to asserere, to fasten ; fasten hand to hand and so assert a claim) is applicable to persons, places, causes, principles, or joint imdertakings. We abandon, not desert, eflForts or undertakings of our own. It always implies blame, except when used of localities. To desert a person, a principle, or a cause, for instance, is, by the force of the term, blame- worthy. Not so to desert a locality, which may be indifferent, justifiable, or compulsory. It was from over- looking the fact that jjZaces might be deserted that some have laid it down that all deserticm is disgraceful. A •' deserted fortress," a . " deserted vil- laofe." On the other htind, it is oppro- brious in the following, where the word " land " means more than lo- cality : — " No more excuses or delays. I stand In irms ])repared to combat liaiid to hand TUe base deserter of his native land." Drijdcn. Like forsake, desert implies some degree of previous habituation and reciprocal association, and is not applicable to cases in which a mere momentary relationship attaches to the thing given up ; hence we cannot say to desert a statement, or a pre- sumption, or an expression ; but we are said to desert principles as having stood by and supported them. To Relinquish (Lat. relinquere, re and linquere, to leave) is to give up under pressure of some influence, power, or physical compulsion. We relinquish as an act of prudence, judg- ment, or necessity, that which, had we been left to ourselves, we should have held. The volimtaiy and in- voluntary are blended together in relinquish. A wounded hand may be compelled to relinqviish its gi-asp. I relinquish my scheme on finctiug it impracticable, or my opinion on find- ing it untenable, or my hope on find- ing it vain. Some degree of previous struggle with ourselves has been gone through before we fiinally re- solve to relinqtiish : — " The Disdaine met him, and brought to him from Her Majesty letters of revocation, with commandment to relinquish for his own part the intended attempt." — Hacklujt. It may be observed that abandon and desert are more positive acts of the mind than forsake and relin- quish. Abandoned. Profligate. Ee- PEOBATE. TJNPraNCIPLED. DE- PRAVED. Abandoned {see Abandon) is strictly a participle passive of the verl) abandon, though used as an independent adjective. In the former capacity it follows, of course, all the meanings of its verb. As an adjec- tive, it has the meaning ' of solf- abandoned, and that to vice. It is used of persons and character, and so, reilexively, of life aud conduct. It denotes a voluntary surrender of self tu a life of self-indulgence ; self-con- trol, and the estimation of others being disregarded aud defied. The iibandoned man is emphatically not the misguided, seduced, or over- ABANDONED. ( 3 ) ABANDONED. tempted niau. Tliis systematic cha- racter of the abandoned prevents the term from being applied to solitary acts : — " Nor let her tempt that deep, nor make the shore Where our abandoned youth she sees Shipwrecked iu luxury, and lost in ease." Prior. Reprobate (Lat. reprobatus, tried and rejected) expresses that character in which a course of self-abandon- ment to vice results; one cast away without hope of recovery, the very desire and recognition of good being lost; all repentance cast off, the bitter becoming sweet and the light darkness, by a confirmed blunting of the moral perception. This state the abandoned has not of necessity reached : — " Reprobate silver shall men call them be- cause the Lord hath rejected them." — Bible. The Profligate man (Lat. profli- gare, to dash away or do'WTi) is he who has thrown away, and becomes more and more ready to throw away, all that the good and wise desire to retain : as principle, honour, virtue, possessions. Hence it follows that the very poor or obscure man, though he might be abandoned, and even reprobate, could not be profligate. For profligacy is a characteristic vice otthe great, the powerful, and the rich. We speak of a profligate monarch, nobleman, com-t, ministry, aristo- cracy ; of a cori-upt or demoralized, but not profligate peasa,ntry. Pro- fligacy is characterized by shameless- ness and defiant disregard of morals. The old physical use of the term has disappeared, as in Bishop Hall's Letter to the Pope : — "Is it for thee to excite Christian princes, already too much gorged with blood, to the projligutlon and fearful slaughter of their own subjects ?" The modem use of it appears in the following : — " Hitherto it has been thought the highest pitch of profligae;/ to own, instead of conceal- ing, crimes, and to take pride in them, in- stead of being ashamed of them." — Eoliwj- broke. The Unprincipled man is not necessarily abandoned or profligate. He may be, in matters of sensual in- dulgence, abstemious, and in matters of expenditure even penurious. But as the abandoned man sins against sobriety and self-control, so the un- principled man against justice and integrity. The abandoned man injui-es himself primarily, and others only indirectly ; the imprincipled man is ready to erect his own interests on the ruins of the interests of others. The term unprincipled has a twofold meaning, first, wanting in good prin- ciple, or marked by an absence of it ; in which sense it is applicable to acts, plans, or proceedings, as well as to persons ; and secondly, not acting on good principle, or the acting on its contrary, towards others, in which it is applicable to persons only. The first employment appears in the fol- lowing, for the word is not of ancient standing in the language : — " Others betake themselves to State affairs with souls so unprincipled in virtue and true generous bi-eeding, that flattery, and court- ships, and tyrannous aphorisms appear to them the highest points of wisdom." — Milton. The second in the following : — " "UTiilst the monarchies subsisted, this un- principled cession was what the influence of the elder branch of the House of Bourbon never dared to attempt on the younger." — Burke. Depraved is a term which points to external circumstances, or con- tinued practices, which have gradually perverted the nature {pravus, bad, dis- torted, crooked). Depravity is per- version of the standard of right ; and the term is employed not only of morals but of manners, taste, and the arts, and even of depraved humours of the body, which phrase illustrates the radical meaning of the term, as coi-ruptly departing from the state of wholesome function. ' " When reason and understanding are de- praved, and as far corrupted as the very passions of the heart — when then the blind leads the blind— what else can we expect, but that both tall into the ditch ?'— Sherlock. By the constant keeping of evil com- pany a man's taste and character will of necessity become depraved. There is danger that he may become un- ABASE. ( 4 ) ABASE. principled in liis dealings; tliat he miiy abandon liimself to allurements and temptations ; that he may go on to exhibit an o^jen profllcjacy of con- duct ; and finally sink into the con- dition of a reprobate, whom conscience ceases to encourage or to warn. Abase. Humble. Degrade. Disgrace. Debase. Humiliate. Dishonour. There was a time when the word Abase (Fr. abaisser, has, low) was used in a purely physical sense, as by Shakespeare : — " And will she yet abase her eyes on me ?" To abase is, now, to bring low, or lower, in such a way as that the per- son lowered shall be deeply consciotts of the lowering. But this is not of necessity on account of heinous guilt or conduct disgraceful. That of which the person abased is primarily con- scious is unworthiness in reference to the estimation of others or his own. It may even be meritorious to abase or humble oneself. (Of these two abase is the stronger term.) This never could be said of degrade or dis- grace. The penitent man humbles himself, the contrite man abases him- self. In either case a conquest is gained over pride, or arrogance, or self-will. " He that exalteth himself shall be abased, and he that huinbleth himself shall be ex- aUed."— Bible. To Humble (Lat. humilis, humble, Inmius, the ground, connected Avith the Greek x^^at, on the ground); commonly bears refei'ence to some former condition of exaltation or estimate of self, as the proud man may be humbled by reverses of for- tune. When a man is so humbled that his state becomes externally manifest, or is reflected in the con- dition and circumstances of theperson hunil)lcd, he may further be said to be humiliated, that is, brought both to a sense and a condition of humility. So strong a part does this external element play in the word, that one who is only self-conceited may be humiliated by being thrown suddenly into an undignified and ludicrous position. The proud man is humbled, the conceited humiliated. The case is a little different with the noun Immiliation, which is sometimes em- ployed as an independent noun instead of employing as a noun the participle humbling. In the phrase " a day of fasting and humiliation," the term conveys the idea of external self- humbling. To Disgrace is to deprive of re- spect (Lat. gratia, favour). He who disgraces himself dejjrives himself of the respect of others. Disgrace is to the feeling of respect what dishonour is to its outward tokens. Hence dis- grace is rather in a man's self, dis- honour depends rather on others ; so that while eonscience may excite in us a feeling of disgrace, we can have none of dishonour except it be in- flicted upon us by others. Yet in the term disgrace there seems to be a blending of the two ideas of the Latin gratia and the English grace, namely, internal comeliness and external fa- vour. The minister who is capri- ciously dismissed by his sovereign is said to be disgraced. Yet it is plain that he is so in no other sense than as being merely thrown out of favour, while, as regards his own character, he is rather dishonoured than dis- graced. The general who is taken captive after a gallant resistance never could be disgraced, though he might by an ungenerous victor be dishonoured or insulted. " It was not meet for us to see the king's dishonour." — Bible. We have exemplifications in the two following of the twofold idea of grace, from which the double aspect of dis- grace flows : — " And with sharp quijis joy'd others to de- fate, Thinking that their disgracing did hihi grace." Spenser. "He that walkotli uprightly is secure as to his liouour and credit ; he is sure not to come oil' disgracefullfi either at home, in his own apprehensions, or abroad, in the estima- tions of men." — Barrow. Degrade bears reference to some standard or level, moral or social, beneath which the person degraded, or who degrades himself, is supposed ABASH. ( 5 ) ABATE. to Have fallen {de,, down, and gradus, a step) ; nor is the term confined to persons. In this point it differs from disgrace, which is applicable to per- sons, and not to things. So we might say: — " Art is degraded when it is only regarded as a trade." " The lifting of a man's self up in his own opinion has had the credit in former ages to be thought the lowest degradation that human nature could well sink itself to." — Locke. To Debase is to deteriorate or make base the intrinsic nature in regard to worth, dignity, or purity, and is only employed of material value in the case of coin. " The coin which was adulterated and de- based in the times and troubles of Stephen." —Hale. " Even reason itself, which, if we have any original faculties, is surely one of them, is sub- ject to the same law of habit, as the means of improvement or of debasement." — Beattie. Abash. Confound. Contuse. To be Abashed (Old Fr. esbahir, connected with the English bay. to gape or stand at bay as a wild beast) is to be under the influence of shame, and therefore will vary according to the degree and character of the shame felt. The over-modest are abashed in the presence of superiors, the guilty at the detection of vice or misconduct. Abase stands to the reason and the judgment as abash stands to the feel- ings. The former implies a sentence of unworthiness passed against one- self, the latter shows itself in the downward look, the blushing cheek, or the confused manner, and may even be the pure effect of natural modesty. " But when he Venus viewed without dis- guise. Her shining neck beheld and radiant eyes, Awed and abashed, he turned his head aside. Attempting with his robe his face to hide." Conijreve. To be Confused (Lat. confundere, confusus, to pour together, or con- found) denotes a state in which the faculties get more or less be- yond control, when the speech falters, and thoughts lose their consistency, though practical power is to a certain degree retained. " Confused and sadly she at length replied." I'ope. To be Confounded, though an- other form of the same verb, is a far stronger word, denoting an utter in- ability to exercise, to any practical purpose, the powers of thought and speech ; the reason being overpowered by the shock of argument, or testi- mony, or detection. To confuse is in itseK a milder term than confound. Things are confused when they are in a state'of promiscuous disorder. They are cctofounded when their very iden- tity is lost, and they are undistin- guished or indistinguishable from one another. " So spake the Son of God, and Satan stood^ Awhile as mute, confounded what to say." Hilton. Abate. Lessen. Diminish. Decrease. Of these the simplest and most widely applicable, and therefore the least specifically characteristic is Lessen (A. S. Idssa, masc, lasse, fem., less), meaning, to make, or to grow, less, as in force, bulk, number, quan- tity, or value. " St. Paul chose to magnify his office when all men conspired to lessen it." — Atterbury. Diminish (Lat. diminuere, minus, less) is the exact Latin equivalent of the Saxon lessen, but is commonly- substituted for lessen in the intransi- tive sense. The receding object di- minishes rather than lessens. " I will diminish them that they shall no more rule over the nations." — Bible. Abate (Fr. abattre, to beat down) refers to force only, the idea of which is always latent if not explicit. A storm, pain, mental emotion or ex- citement, the vigour of youth, abates. Of old the word had a strong active force in a physical application; as to abate, that is. beat d, to prick, the point round which the circle is described) denotes that which is a departure (or analogous to it) from movement in a natural orbit. Exceptional (Lat. cxcipcre, exccptns, to except) is applied generally to any- thing which strikes common obser- vation as unlike what it is familiar with in similar cases. Of these the two first are terms adopted by modern physical science, to the types and productions of which they apply. Ecceuti-ic and exceptional are ap- plicable to other matters. The former term was astronomical before it be- came moral or descriptive. An ec- centric body is one which moves in a circle which, though coinciding in whole or in part with another in area or volume, has not the same centre ; hence deviating from ordinary me- thods, or usual appearance or prac- tice; iiTegular, odd. It is opposed to concentric. The primary and secondary ideas appear combined in the following : — ■ " For had I power like that which bends the spheres To music never heard by mortal ears, Where in her system sits the central sun And drags reluctant planets into tune, So would I bridle thy eccentric soul. In reason's sober orbit bid it roll." Whitehead on Clinrchill. Exceptional is taken from the French exceptionnel, and not found in the older English literatitre. Erratic (errare, to wander) differs slightly from eccentric when spoken of human conduct, to which it is con- fined (while eccentric may be em- ployed of the personal appearance), in denoting want of moral silf -control, which shows itseK in the sudden doing of eccentric things. The ec- centric character is inoffensive and simply odd ; there is danger that the erratic person may involve himself or others in mischief. This force has been acquired in recent times. " The season of the year is now come in which the theatres are" shut and the card- talilos forsaken, the regions of lu.xury are for awhile uupeojiled, and pleasure leads out hor votaries to groves and gardens, to still scenes and en-atic gratifications." — Mambler. Aberration. See Madness. Abettor. Accessary. Ac- complice. An Abettor (probably having for its root the sound bet, an old cry, iu ABETTOR. ( 7 ) ABHOR. lioixnding dogs on to game) is oue wbo in any way promotes the execu- tion of a scheme without talcing a direct part in it. If he do so, he be- comes, according to circumstances, something more than an abettor. He is an Accessary (Lat. accessarms, acceclere, to approach, join oneself to) if he assists directly, but m an extraneous capacity. An Accomplice {ad and compUcare, to fold together), if he is intimately bound up in the project and responsibility of the scheme as a prime mover. It is in this way that in treason there are no abettors, the law not allowing the supposition of indirect agency in the case, but regarding it as necessarily direct. Advice, promises, rewards, or even the observance of silence, and a forbearing to oppose, may con- stitute an abettor ; but no one can be negatively an accessary or accom- plice. Generally speaking, it may be said that abettors urge and promote; accessaries aid or assist; accom- plices design and execute. In law, an "accessary before the fact " is one who procures, counsels, or commands another to commit a felony. An "accessary after the fact" is one who, knowing of the felony, assists, comforts, or conceals the felon. It deserves to be remarked that these terms are by usage almost universally restricted to had or unlaio- ful deeds and causes, although Wool- aston, in his "Religion of Nature," speaks of "abetting the cause of ti-uth." The older use of Shakespeare is still the common one : — " And Tou that do abet him in this kind Cherish rebellion, and are rebels all." " An accessory is he who is not the chief actor in the offence, nor present at its per- formance, but in some way concerned therein, either before or after the fact committed. — Bkickstone.' Dry den, in the following passage, uses the term in the sense of a partner in guilt : — " Link'd hand in hand the accomplice and the dame „ Their way exploring to the chamber came. The ordinary use is that of Johnson in the following : — 'And thon, the curs'd accomplice of his treason, „ Declare thy message and expect thy doom. Abhor. Loathe. Detest. Abominate. Of these the plainest is Loathe (A. S. Iddhian, to hate), which is also the most purely physical, being m the first place employed to express nausea or physical disgust. The sick man loathes his food. When employed of moral objects, it is so by a strong metaphor or analogy : — " A wicked man is loathsome, and cometh to shame. The word translated loathsome properly denotes such kind of persons to be as nauseous and offensive to the judgments of others as the most loathsome unsavoury things are to their tastes and smells. Bishop Wilkins. To Abominate (Lat. ahominr/r, aha- viinatus, ah, from, and omen) is lite- rally to discard or protest against,^ as ominous or foul ; a close association existing between the physically foul and the morally evil. Abominate occupies a place midway between loathe, which is strongly physical, and detest, which, as we shall see, is emphatically moral; and in either case denotes that kind of strong dis- like which would excite protest and avoidance. Abhoe (Lat. ahhoirere,to shudder at) differs from abominate in being more expressive of strong involuntary recoil, while abominate is more reflective and voluntary. The person who abominates would destroy, or remove ; the person who abhors would shrink from, and avoid. " That very action for which the swine is ahominated and looked upon as an unclean and impure creature, namely, wallowing m the mire, is designed by Nature for a very .rood end and use, not only to cool his body, but also to suffocate and destroy noisome and importunate insects." — iZai/, " Wisdom of God." " Abhor that which is evil, cleave to that which is good." — Bible. Where the recoiling of abhorrence is illustrated by its opposite idea, that of voluntary adherence. Detest (Lat. detestari, testis, a witness) denotes a purely sponta- ABIDE. ABILITY. neons and energetic hatred and de- nunciation of what is bad in prin- cjple ; not the feelings only, but the judgment being concerned in it. It is a perversion of the word, though a common one. to apply it to what is physically impure or personally disagreeable. We abominate what is oflfensive, we abhor what is essen- tiiilly uncongenial to us, we detest what is contemptible or evil, we loathe what is nauseous and disgust- ing. Detestation is that kind of hatred which does not rest in feeling, but tends to find energetic expres- sion in words. "By reason of his cruelty he hecame de- testable not only to his own subjects but also to his neighbours round about." — Usher. Abide. Sojourn. Dwell. Ee- SIDE. To Abide (A. S. ahidcvn) expresses no more than a personal halting or staying. It is wholly indefinite, and may be temporary or permanent, according to circumstances ; we may abide in a place for a time or for Life. It implies, however, some antecedent state of unsettlement. The radical idea seems to be that of remaining fixed, in which sense it is purely used in such phrases as to abide by a decision, that is, to adhere to it with moral fixity of piirpose. Sojourn (Fr. sejour, sub, and diur- nus, dies, a day) expresses a personal stay necessarily temporary. Hence it is commonly connected ■s\dth some locality which is not one's own or one's home. A sojourner is, by the force of the term, a stranger. To Dwell (Dan. dvdfe) indicates a permanent stay in a place which, to some extent at least, has become one's home. The idea of permanent resting may be illustrated, as in the case of abide, by other applications of the term, as when a speaker is said to divell upon a word, or a singer on a . note. To Reside (Lat. residere, re and sedere, to sit) is a more dignified term, which carries with it a certain noticjn of civilization and society, with elegance of living and rights of property. The poor man dxvclh in an humble cottage near the hall where the lord of the domain resides. " Abide with us, for it is toward evening, and the day is far spent." — Bible. " Now the sojourning of the children of Israel who dtreli in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years ;" The two words sojourn and dwell, at once indicating considerable duration, which, however, did not do away with their strangership. " His Grace (Henry VHL), therefore, willing and minding to revoke you all by little and little, except you, Sir Gregory, being his ambassador, there continually >'v- siding." — Burnet. Ability. Skill. Capacity. Capability. Cleverness. Talent. Genius. Of these. Ability (Fr. habile, Lat. habilis, from habere, to have, having or possessing resources, handy) is the most generic, inasmuch as it may be physical, moral, intellectual, conven- tional, legal, or casual. It deserves, however, to be observed that, while the adjective able is employed in the widest manner in specific connection, as, " he is able to commit passages rapidly to memory," or, " he is able to lift a great weight," this adjective, when not so connected, is never used (any more than the noun ability) to mean physical power. For instance, we could say, " I doubt yoiu- ability to move that stone." But we could not say, "he moved the heavy stone vrith comparative ease, being a person of great ability." Ability, in its mental meaning, is partly a gift of Nature, partly a product of training. " Na- tural abilities," said Bacon, using the term in the plural, '• are like natural plants, that need pruning by study." In its widest sense, ability means the power of doing, the possession of needful means or needful facidties for the performance of an object, as opposed to inability ; or tlie power of applying knowledge to practical pur- poses. Quickness of mind combined with readiness in contriving means to an end. whether material or mentid. is called Clevekness (Prov. Dan. Jduver, klcvcr). Cleverness in ABILITY. ( 9 ) ABJECT. tilings of pure pliysiciil treatmeut is clexterittj. [See Dexterity.) It is remarkable that cleverness is not a term of English, literature: the old adjective clever Laving been only of late put into the form of a noun. That cleverness in things physical whicli requires not only adroitness of manipulation, but judgment and dis- cernment, the result of experience, is Skill (A. S. sc'dian, to se^jarate or distinguish). The old meaning of skill was discernment, such, accu- rate knowledge as sees and allows for difference. So tlie old phrase, "it skilletb not," that is, it makes no difference. Hence, it came to mean a px'ofessed art, which was called a skill, and finally it was restricted, as mentioned above. Skill is neither of purely abstract knowledge nor of mere physical habituation, but lies mid- way between the two, and prac- tically comprises both. " The ship would quickly strike against the rocks for want of skilfulness in the l>ilots."-^Search, Light of Nature. Capacity (Lat. capax, capio, to take or hold) is potential rather than actual, and may be no more than un- developed ability. It is employed commonly of the intellectual nature, though not •excluded from the moral nature (as a capacity for virtue), and is not employed at all of the physical powers of men. Generally speaking, capacity stands to understanding as ability to action ; though the same person may possess both. So the capacity of a great general would lie rather in his power of remembering, interpreting, and calculating the movements of the enemy, in grasp- ing and recognizing the character and resources of a country in refer- ence to the movements of the cam- paign ; his ability, in his actual direc- tion of those movements, and in the disposition and employment of troops in action. " An heroic poem," says Dryden, " resem- bles the accomplishment of some great un- dertaking, which requires the duty of a soldier and the capaciti) of a general." Capability, when employed pas- sively of things and not persons, means specific practicability; as a plot of ground intended for land- scape gardening may be said to have great capability for the purpose. When applied to persons, it may be said generally, that as capacity is the iuherent faculty of understanding, so capability is the inherent faculty of action, especially of mental action. So we should say of a hopeful stu- dent of philosophy, that he had capa- city, the main end being knowledge ; of a hopeful student of oratory, that he had capability, the main end being action. " Sure he that made us with such large dis- course, Looking before and after, gave us not That capability, and godlike reason, To rust in us unus'd." Shakespeare. Talent, a term bon-owed from the Scripture parable on the subject, and Genius (Lat. genius, a supposed tutelar deity, born and dying with every person, and directing his ac- tions) difi'er, in that talent is the capacity of learning rules, and the capaliility of readily acting upon them ; genius is that innate intui- tion which is hardly conscious of rules, and can in a measure, by na- tural force, supersede the use of them. " Like many other men of talent, Fielding was unfortunate." — Sir W. Scott. " Homer was the greater genius, Vii-gil the better artist." — Pope. In the oldest Englisn, as m Chau- cer, the word talente, of which the accent was on the final syllable, is used in the sense of desire or propen- sity, the Latin aff'ectns. This comes, no doitbt, from the idea of weight, bias. For the Greek ruXavTov meant a certain weight as well as a certain Value of metal. So Gower : — " But not to steal a vestmente, For that is nothing my talente," i.e., pro- pensity. Talent may be hid, requiring to be searched for ; genius develops itself. Genius creates, talent learns and exe- cutes. Talent needs opportvmities : genius makes them for itself. Abject. See Mean. ABJURE. ( lo ) ABJURE. Abjure. Kecant. Eetract. Revoke. Eecall. Eenounce. Eepudiate. All these terms refer to the verbal undoing of what has been or might be maintained or professed. To Ab- jure (Lat. abjurare, to give np with an oath) retains much of the character of its Latin original, and expresses a deliberate and solemn giving up. Hence, it applies to what is or may be solemnly maintained, as princi- ples of belief or conduct, allegiance to a sovereign. Yet it must be ob- served that, in order to abjure a thing, it is not necessary to have actually held it. We abjure what ^ye declare ought not to be held. So in this country we abjure allegiance to the Pope not the less for having never rendered it. It implies a pro- test against the thing abjured; whereas we may renounce what we regard as trifling, or what we still value, though we renounce it; as also we may recant in form, not in heart. " A Jacobite who is persuaded of the Pre- tender's right to the crown cannot take the^ oath of allegiance, or, if he could, the oath of abjuration follows, which contains an express renunciation of all opinions in favour of the exiled family." — Foley. To Recant (Lat. recantare, re, back again, and cantare, to chant or repeat a form of words) refers not so much to any inherent solemnity of what is given up as to the formalihj and publicity of doing it. A man may change his opinions in secret, but he recants them openly. So en- tirely does the idea of publicity occupy this word, that the recantation might be feigned and hollow, so long as it be openly made. Moreover, the idea of change of opinion, real or pro- fessed, is implied in recant, which abjure, as we have seen, does not necessarily imply. " ]I(iw soon would ease recant Vows made in pain as violent as void." 31ilton. To Retract (Lat. re, back, and tractare, from trahere, to draw) is a taking back for the purpose of un- doing the practical effects of what has been said. Hence, we retract pro- mises on which others have calculated, expressions by which others may have been wounded or misled, and opinions, only so far as we may have stated them in the hearing of otheis. Though Henry IV. of France ab- jured Calvinism, he would not retract the promise of protection he made to the Calvinists. "1 would as freely have retracted the charge of idolatry as I ever made it." — Stillingfleet. A recantation is in words of mouth, a retractation may be in wi-iting. Revoke and Recall are the same word under a Latin {revocare, to call back) and an English form; but, though identical etymologically, they are employed with some little differ- ence. Recall is more generic, more conversational and ordinary, less for- mal and authoritative than revoke. We recall generally, or, in particular, inaccurate or objectionable expres- sions ; but formal acts, authoritative decrees, commands, and solemn pro- mises, are revoked. Renounce (Lat. renuntinre, re, back, and nuntius, a messenger) is a wide term, applicable to anything which bears a close relationship to oneself, whether mental or external ; as liopes, designs, claims, one's friends, the world. It is to proclaim against all personal connection, ac- tual or possible, between oneself and the thing or person renounced. Obligations and duties may be re- nounced as well as pleasures or pos- sessions. It is an act of direct or in- direct preference of something over the thing renounced. "A solemn renunciation of idolatry and false worship under the general title of the devil and all his pomps." — Waterkmd. Unlike all the foregoing, Repu- diate (repudiare) is essentially rela- tive, and can only be where an actual relation has been established towards wafrovi without, either by individuals or" in the course of nature or of circumstances. We may renounce opiuicms entertained irrespectively of others, but we can only repudiate them when others have fastened upon tis the charge of holding them. ABLE. ( II ) ABOMINATE. It is relative renunciation uiidcr a. feeling of indignation. The idea of repudiating obligations or delits is recent. " Servitude is to be repncl kited \i\i\\ greater care by us than domination is eticcted by them." — Prynne. Able. ' See Ability. Ablution. See Washing. Abnormal. See Aberrant. Abode. See Abide and Habi- tation. Abolish. Abrogate. Eepk^l. Eevoke. Annul. Cancel. Of tliese, Abolish is the most general, and, indeed, is applicable to many things to which the rest are inapplical^le. It implies the exercise or operation of extinctive power. Anything which is entirely done away with, so that it is as if it had never been, may be said to be abo- lished. (Fr. abolir, Lat. abolere.) As a synonym with the above terms, it denotes the total doing away with laws, customs, and the like, by any power gradual or sudden, personal or impersonal ; as a specific act of legislation raaj^ abolish a right, or the silent influence of fashion may abolish a custom. The application of the term to persons is now obsolete. "The ahoUtion of Spiritual Courts, as they are called, would shake the very foun- dation on which the Establishment is erected." — Wa, ■burton. On the other hand, each of the re- maining synonyms bas its specific application. Repeal (Fr. rappeler, Lat. reap- pellave) is literally to call back, but is applied characteristically to the acts of a number, as an assembly or coun- cil may repeal a law or a resolution, or a social community may consent to repeal a custom. An irresponsible ruler would hardly be said to repeal, because the word wears an air of legality. " I leave him and the noble lord who sits bv him to settle the matter as well as they can together. For if the repeal of American taxes destroys all our government in America, he is the man ; and he is the worst of all the repealers because he is the last."— i;«/ve. To Abrogate, thougb primarily ap- plicable to laws {ahrogare, to I'epeal in the genei'al assemblies of citizens at Rome, literally to ask off or back), has been extended to customs as hav- ing the force of law. The essential force of abrogation is the exercise of authority to undo what aiithorityhad pre^d(:)usly established or recognised. " It appears to have been an usual practice in Athens, on the establishment of any law esteemed very useful or popular, to l)rohibit for ever its abrogation and repeal." — Hume. To Revoke {jccvocare, to call back) stands to iudividual and personal, as repeal stands to collective, authority. As a despot does not repeal, so a par- liament does not revoke. As laws and customs are abrogated or repealed, so edicts may be revoked, and, in- deed, any formal expression on the part of individuals ; as to revoke an epithet or a promise whether in word or wi-iting. " A devise by writing may be also revolied by burning, cancelling, tearing, or obliterating thereof by the devisor, or in his presence and with his consent." — Blackstone. Annul (Lat. ad, to, nihil, nothing) expresses no more than the render- ing inoperative what before had force, whether by law, custom, or consent. " Your jpromises are sins of inconsideratipn at best, and you are bound to repent and annul them." — Sa-ift, To Cancel is relatively to annul (cancelU, grating, which the diagonal lines of erasure resemble), that is, to undo the force of something which affected the condition of another, as a promise, or a contract, or an obliga- tion. It is like the erasure or tearing up of a bond. A thing may be an- nulled virtually, as by the force of circumstances which neutralize or invalidate it, but it is cancelled l:)y some deliberate or specific exercise of power striking out what had ojje- rative force. " Shake hands for ever, cancel all our vows." — Drayton. Abominable. See Execrable. Abominate. See Abhor. ADORIGiyAL. ABRIDGMENT. Adoriginal. See Indigenous. AiiORTivE. See Ineffectual. Abound, See Teem. Above. Over. Beyond. Upon. These terms all Lave both a phy- sical and a figurative meaning. Phy- sically, Above indicates a superiority of physical altitude; as the sun is above the earth, an inierval being siqjposed, without exact verticalitj'. Over indicates what is expressed by above, with the addition of the idea of verticality ; as a cloud hangs over the sea. Upon denotes what is ex- pressed by over, with the addition of contact or the absence of the interval supposed by above ; as " the cro^vn is placed ujion the king's head." Be- yond relates to the horizontal ; or to the measurement of length and not height, though it may chance that this length is measured verti- cally, and may or may not imply adjacency; as the river and the country beyond; the ivy has grown beyond the first story of the house. This analogy is preserved in the me- taphorical ixses of the word; so, if w^e said that the general was above the captain, we should mean that he was of higher rank in the army ; over the captain, would mean that he exer- cised authcn-ity in regard to him SY>e- cifically. When one misfortune comes iipon another, it is as if there were no respite or interval between. When a thing is hcijond conception, it is as if the stretch and grasp of the mind were insufficient to reach so far. Abridge. Abbreviate. Cur- tail. Contract. Of these Abridge and Abbreviate are the same word etymologically, the Latin abhreviare becoming the Fi'ench abrcyer {brevis, short). Yet abbre- viate is hardly ever nsed but in the simple sense of to shorten, with a somewhat politer force, while abridge is applied with more plaj' of metaphor, as to abridge powers and privileges. We sjieak peculiarly of al)bi-e\iating words in writing, as Dr., Lieut.. Est|. " Tliis book was composed after two old examples of the same kind in the times of Ethelbert and Alfred, and was laid up as sacred in the church of Winchester, and for that reason, as graver authors say, was called Liber Domus Dei, and by abbreviation, Domes- day Book." — Sir W. Temple. To abridge is to shorten by conden- sation or compression ; to abbreviate is to shorten Ijycutting or contracting. In literary abridgments we have the same substance in smaller' compass ; and if the abridgment is well made, the oi'iginal runs a risk of being neglected for it. Differences deserve notice between abridge. CuBXAiii (Fr. court, short, and tailler, to cut), and Contract (Lat. contrahere, to draw together). When used of things not purely physical, abridge refei's to number and duration, curtail to ex- tent, and contract to power of exer- cise. Hence, for instance, pleasures or privileges are abridged and con- tracted when they are made fewer or shorter, cui-tailed when the sphere of their exercise is in any way dimi- nished, contracted also when the in- herent power of enjoyment is lessened in individuals. Commonly also, the exercise of ijersonal power curtails, and the force of circumstances con- tracts, privileges or enjoyments. It should be observed that, nrilike abridge and abbreviate, which mnjaccidentaUij involve diminution of value, incom- pleteness, or deficiency, these are necessarily involved in cui"tail and contract. We may say, generally speaking, th.a.t pleas^vres are abridged; privileges or expenditure curtailed ; powers contracted ; but they are em- ployed to a large extent interchange- ably. " Tliat man should thus encroach ou fellow- mau, Abridje him of his just and native rights." Coaper. "Have the burdens of the war compelled them to curtail any part of their former ex- penditure ?" — Burke. " lu all things desuetude doth contract und narrow our faculties." — Gov. of the Tongue. ABRIDGaiENT. COMPENDIUM. Epitome. Digest. Summary. Abstract. Dr^vught, Synopsis. These are all literary terms. An Abridgment is anj^thing which pur- ports to give the substance of a largi^r work in a shorter form. Some such ABRIDGMENT. ( ^3 ) ABRUPT. alji-iclgments are formed by tlie siinj)le omission of portions wliicli are re- garded as subordinate ; some hj a condensation of the style ; bnt the sul)- stance of the original is, in an abridg- ment, siipposed to be unaltered. It is the same thing shortened, and is itself a worh. It will be seen by the fol- lowing that abridgment may l;)e re- garded as a generic term including the others. " An nhridjment or ahstrnct of anything is the whole in little ; and if it be of a science or doctrine, the abridgment consists in the essential or necessary parts of it contracted into a narrower compass than where it was ditiused in the ordinary way of delivery." — Locke. A Compendium, on the other hand {compendium, con and pendo, a sparing, or saving), is not of a worh, hat of a subject ; purporting to give as much as need be known of some branch of science or knowledge in a concise form, and is also a work ; as a compendium of universal history. " All those excellent persons of whose acts and sufferings we have a compendium or aliridgment in this chapter." — Bishop Hall. Like abridgment, and unlike com- pendium, summanj and abstract bear reference to an antecedent form of which another and shorter form is reproduced ; but, unlike abridgment, they may be a reproduction in which the form has been much altered by the reproducer, who may have assimi- lated the subject matter and have re- expi-essed it in a style of his own. Of these. Summary [summa, a sum or total) professes to give the heads and general results, as in the headings prefixed to chapters ; Abstract [ah- strahere) the general tenor and drift ; these are not ivories. " The Sermon on the Mount, which is a summary of a Christian's life." — Bp. Taylor. Digest {digerere) has for its ob- ject arrangement or re-arrangement of given materials in a more orderly or convenient shape, as of the Roman laws by order of Justinian. " If we had a complete digest of Hindu and Mahommedan laws, after the model of .Jus- tinian's celebrated Pandects, we should rarely be at a loss for principles and rules of law applicable to the cases before us." — Sir W. Jones. A Draught commonly precedes the work, and is of the nature of a sketch or outline, intended for the guidance of another who is to fill it up and finish it. " And thus poetry and the writer's art, as in many respects it resembles the statuary's and the painter's, so in this more particularly, that it has its original draughts and models for study and practice." — Shaftesbury. Epitome is a word formed from the Greek i-mTe^vfiv (to cut into, or cut short), with the view of expressing that which gathers iip the substance and essential points of a matter, and prunes and shapes them into a con- cise compass. We may observe, as regards present use, that as compen- dium is of science, so epitome is of history. "This sentence (St. Matthew vii. 12) I read unto you is very fitly jjlaced towards the close of our Saviour's admirable Sermon on the Mount, as being in great measure the epitome and sum of what the Divine Preacher had there e.xpressed more at large." — Bishop Atterbury. Synopsis (a Greek word meaning a collective view) differs from the pre- ceding in not aiming at any style or consecutiveness,and in giving nakedly and disjointedly a view of all needful matters of fact, as in a chart or table. " Not to reckon up the infinite helps of in- terlinearies, breviaries, synopses, and other loitering gear." — Milton. Abrupt. Kugged. Rough. These terms may be taken in their order to express the same thing in gradually lessening degrees. That which on a large scale is precipitoiis, on a lesser is Abrupt {ahrvptus, broken, or broken away). Abruptness on a smaller scale is Ruggedness (Sax. hreoli and other forms) ; and this on a smaller again is Roughness. An abrupt style or manner is that which passes from one point to another by jerks, and without easy transitions. Such abruptness is shown in the coml)ination of manner and words; as an abrupt salutation, an abrupt departure. " Or if thou hast not broke from comiiany A'irupt/y, as my ]iMssion now makes me, Thou hast not lov'd." . Shakespeare. ABSENT. ( M ) ABSOL UTE. Of rugged and rough in their secon- daiy senses, we may observe that the former is an epithet of appearance, the hitter of character and bearing, yet not exchisively so. Scott, in his " Christian Life," speaks of that un- manly sharpness and ruggechiess of humour which renders us perverse and untractable in our conversation. In this sense it is loss coarse and violent than roaghnoss, which carries with it the idea of overbearing. " To take a cause out of your hands into mine I do but mine office. You meddle further than your office will bear you, thus ro'njhli/ to handle me for using of mine." — Burnet. Absent. Abstracted. Di- VEBTED, Distracted. Absorbed. Engrossed. Of these the simplest is Absent {absmn, abesse, to be absent), which denotes either the occasional or the habitual state of one whose mind is inattentive to what is going on imme- diately before him. It may be the result of habits of abstract thought, or the opposite, namely, an impatience of pui-e reflection, or casual inatten- tion. " What is commonly called an absent man is commonly either a very weak or a very affected man." — Chesterfield. Abstracted, on the other hand (abstrahere, abstractus, to draw away), implies the influence of something sufficiently strong to draw off the mind from present things, and fix it in a state of wi-apt contemplation of others. It differs from Distracted in being a single influence, while dis- traction {distrahere) may be manifold, and it has not the uneasiness and disturbance belonging to distraction. Moreover, distraction implies an in- fluence in contradiction to some pro- posed matter of thought, for which the mind is accordingly incai^acitated, while in abstraction it is wholly given to it. " Whether dark presages of the night proceed from any latent power of the soul during her abstraction, or from the o]ieration of subordinate spirits, has been a disj)ute." — Addison. " As for me, during my coutinemcut to this melancholy solitude, I often divert myself at leisure moments in trying such experiments as the unfurnishedness of the place and the present distntctedness of my mind will permit me." — Boyle. Diverted is a term of lighter meaning, and is applicable to cases of mental recreation or amusement, in which the mind is turned aside (diver- tere) from studious thought to matters less serioiis. Absorbed (absorbere) and Engrossed [yross, the main body, Fr. gros, from the Latin eras- sus, and so Literally absorbed into the main body of a thing) differ from the preceding as denoting not a draw- ing off' from present matters, but an intense or excessive contemplation of them. Absoii^tion excludes distrac- tion and diversion of the mind, which is swallowed up with present employ- ment. Engrossment of mind is rela- tive absorption; that is, absorption to tlte disregard of other matters which may possibly have more or less of claim upon the attention. So it may be well to be absorbed, but it is not altogether well to be engrossed. " Circe in vain invites the feast to share, Absent I wander and absorpt in care." Pope. " Too long hath love engrossed Britannia's stage, And sunk to softness all our tragic rage." Tid.cll. Absolute. Despotic. Arbi- trary. Tyrants^cal. Of these Absolute {absolutus, ab- solvere, loosed, or free from restraint) denotes simply the possession of un- limited and iiTesponsible power, with- out implying anything as to the way in which it may be exercised. " An honest private man often grows cruel and abandoned when converted into an abso- lute prince." — Addison. Despotic may be used either in the abstract of the power, or rela- tively of the way in which it is exer- cised. Despotic power may have been acquired with the consent or through the instrumentality of others, as in the case of the Greek 8fa.7r6TT]s or Tvpavvost who commonly owed his elevation to soiiie party in the state. When employed in a moral seute of ABSOL VE. ABSTAIN. ctaracter and proceedings, the des- potic character is he who expects implicit obedience to his commands. " Wh.atever the will commands the whole man must do, the empire of the will over all the faculties being absolutely overruling and despotic." — South. The Akbiteary character (arbit- riuvi, the mil or pleasure) expects submission where nothing but hi^^ own will constitutes the principle of government ; hence, as imperiousness belongs to the despotic, fickleness is associated with arbitrariness. " By an arbitrary proceeding I mean one conducted by the private opinions or feelings of the man who attempts to regulate." — Burke. Tyrannical, in modern parlance, relates not only to the disposition and proceedings of the governing party, but to the result upon the governed. It associates the suffering or oppression of the latter with the domination and caprice of the former. ^ " These poor prisoners eat nothing but rice and drink water, and are tyrannically insulted over by their rigid creditors till the debt is paid." — Dampier's Voyages. " Every wanton and causeless restraint of the will of the subject," says Blackstone, " whether practised by a monarch, a nobility, or a popular assembly, is a degree of tyranny." I Absolve. Acquit. Exonerate. } Clear. Exculpate. To Absolve (Lat. absolvere, to loose) had originally a religious force, which it has not yet entirely lost. It refers to the loosing of solemn obli- gations, and the setting free from the consequences of sin and guilt, or from such ties as it would be sin and guilt to violate, as oaths, promises, and the like. " Compelled by threats to take that bloody oath. And the act ill, I am ahsoh'd by both." Waller. Acquit bears reference to a specific charge only (Fr. acquitter, from the Latin quietus, to release with quiet of mind to the person released). " Those who are truly leai-ned will acquit me in this point, in which I have been so far from offending that I have been scrupulous pei-haps to a fault in quoting the authors of several passages which I might have "made my own." — Addison. To Exonerate is less foi-mal than acquit, and is used of cases in which blame is imputed without any public indictment ; it indicates, however, some superiority, real or assumed, in the person who exonerates. So the magistrate acquits, but it is only as a man that he exonerates (ex and onus, a burden). It is used of obligations. " I intreat your lordships to consider whether there ever was a witness brought before a court of justice who had stronger motives to give testimony hostile to a defen- dant for the purpose of exonerating himself." — State IVials. Exonerate implies a purely moral, acquittal a magisterial, decision. To Exculpate (ex and culpa, a fault) denotes a process of evidence and argument of which the result is to prove unworthy of blame. A man may be exculpated, or he may excul- pate himself; he may also be exonerated by himself or by another. " In Scotland the law allows of an exculpa- tion, by which the prisoner is suffered before his trial to prove the thing to be impossible." — Burnet. Exculpation is a riddance of the guilt, exoneration from the charge and liabilities, of an offence or obligation. To Clear is to prove absolutely innocent, and, like acquit, exonerate, and exculpate, denotes the antecedent blamelessness of the party ; whereas absolve, except where it is used in the simple sense of to free from an obli- gation, denotes an antecedent offence. The innocent are cleared, the guilty are absolved. " Although innocency needs no defence as to itself, yet it is necessary for all the advan- tages it hath of doing good to mankind that it appear to be what it really is ; which can- not be done unless its reputation be cleared from the malicious aspersions which are cast upon it." — Stillingjleet. Absorb. See Absent and Im- bibe. Abstain. Forbear. Eefrain. Of these, Abstain is the most general, meaning simply to hold aloof ABSTINENCE. ( i6 ) ABSTINENT. from anytliing (ahstinere), wbicli may be with a gi-eat struggle, or ^dth almost no effort. Some degree of enticement, however, it is necessary to suppose, otherwise the case is one of mere avoidance. " He that can apprehend and consider vice, with all her baits and seeming pleasures, and yet abstain, and yet distinguish, and yet prefer that which is truly better, — he is the true wayfaring Christian." — Milton. FoEBEAR (literally, to bear or keep, and for (with the sense of negation) — to withhold) and REFRAIN [re, back, and /)•«.;(»»(, a rein or bridle) differ in the degree of the impulse, in the na- ture of it, and so, to some extent, in the object affected. We for the most part refrain from doing that which pri- marily affects ourselves ; we forbear from doing that which primarily af- fects others. A more essential distinc- tion is, that refrain expresses an effort of the will, by which we leave an act undone. Forbear expi-esses an ante- cedent reflection or judgment on its consequences, which induces us to abstain from doing it. " In pretence of forbearance they resolve to torment him with a lingering death." — Bishoj) Hall. The force of refrain appears more plainly in the reflective use of it. "Then Joseph could not refrain himself before all them that stood by him." — Bible. Abstinence. Fast. These terms are technically distin- guished. Abstinence [ahstinere) is a refraining from certain sorts of food. " The temperance which adorned the severe manners of the soldier and the philosopher was connected with some strict and frivolous rules of religious abstinence ; and it was in honour of Pan or Mercui-j', of Hecate or Iris, that Julian on particular days denied himself the use of some particular food." — Gibbon. Fasting (allied to fast, meaning firm) is to refrain from food alto- gether. " From hence may an account be given why the inhabitants of hot countries may endure longer fasting and hunger than those of colder; and those seemingly prodigious, and to us scarce credible, stories of the/ds^m/s and abstinence of the Egyptian monks be rendered probable." — Jiai/ on Creation. Abstinent. Sober. Abste- mious. Temperate. Moderate, Abstinent {see Abstain) ex- presses the power and the habit of abstaining from indulgence of appe- tite. " Be abstinent, show not the corruption of thy generation. He that feeds shall die, therefore he that feeds not shall live." — Beaumont and Fletcher. Abstinence is the power of refraining altogether; temijerance, the power of enjoying with moderation. We are temperate in what is good, we abstain from what is not good. It supposes a state of self-discipline, so that some are abstinent from feeling their in- ability to be Temperate (Lat. tem- perare, to moderate). When absti- nence is employed on matters of food and drink, it is called Abstemious- ness, a word most probably of kindred origin. " Promis'd by heavenly message twice des- cending, Under His special eye Abstemious I grew up, and thriv'd amain." Milton. Sober (Lat. sohrius, opposite to ebrius) denotes the character which by its natural gravity is constitu- tionally untempted to excesses of any kind. " Sobriety is sometimes opposed in Scrip- ture to pride, and sometimes to sensuality." —Gilpin. Temperate denotes the character which is well balanced in its appetites, and to which moderation, though it be the residt of effort, is yet congenial. Moderation (Lat. moderare, vwdtis, a limit) and temperance are very nearly alike, but moderation is a somewhat wider term, referring both to the desires and to the gratification of them ; so we might say a person of moderate desires, temperate habits, and sober disposition, character, or life. " What goodness," says Bishop Hall, " can there be in the world without moderation, Avhether in the use of God's creatures or in our own disposition and carriage ? Without this justice is no other than cruel rigour, mercy unjust remissness, pleasure brutish sensuality, love frenzy, anger fury, sorrow desi)crate mopishness, joy distempered wild- ABSTRACTION. ( 17 ) ABSURD. ness, knowledge saucy curiosity, piety super- stition, care wracking distraction, courage mad rashness." — Hall, Christian Moderation. " Temperance" says Woolaston, in his " Religion of Nature," " permits us to take moat and drink not only as physic for hunger and thirst, but also as an innocent cordial, and fortifier against the evils of life, or even S(}metimos (reason not refusing that liberty) merely as matter of pleasure. It only con- fines us to sucli kinds, quantities, and seasons, as may best consist with our health, the use of our faculties, our fortune, and the like, and show that we do not think ourselves made only to eat and drink here." Abstraction. See Absent and Estrangement. Abstruse. Curious. Kecon- DITE. As applied to matters o£ knowledge or learning, that is Abstruse {ahs- trusus, tlirust away, and so hidden) which is removed from common or easy understanding, as abstruse ideas, abstruse learning, or abstruse reason- ing. Recondite [reconditus, hidden) is that which lies out of the beaten j)ath of inquiry, and so is known to few, withoiit being of necessity -pev- plexing to the understanding, like the abstruse. A matter is recondite in itself, but it may also be abstruse from the way in which it is put. The Curious (c?m-«, care in inquiry) denotes that which is the result of minute inquiry, and strikes us when discovered with a mingled feeling of unfamiliarity and use. Abstruse in- vestigations in recondite branches of learning or science often bring to light curious results. Unlike the ab- struse and the recondite, the curious is accompanied by a strange feeling of surprise and pleasure, the unfa- miliar being brought into juxtapo- sition with the familiar. Unlike the others, curious is applicable to the strange in objects of nature and art. " Let the Scriptures be hard, are they more hard, more crabbed, more abstruse than the Fathers ?" — Milton. " It is true our bodies are made of very coarse materials, of nothing but a little dust and earth. Yet they are so wisely contrived, so curiously composed." — Beveridge. " To qualify the Christian to make a judi- cious application of these rules, no skill is requisite in verbal criticism, no proficiency in the subtleties of the logician's art, no acquisitions of recondite learning." — Bis/ioj) Ilorsley. Absurd. Foolish. Irrational. Preposterous. Absurd {ah and surdus, deaf, or dis- sonant) denotes that which j ars again st common sense and received notions of propriety and truth, as when an argument is reduced to an absurdity, on which every man's judgment is competent to determine ; or men form absurd, that is, practically im- probable expectations, or conduct themselves in an absurd manner, that is, one in which even common persons would observe a palpable unfitness. Hence it follows that the ridiculous, or the ludicroiis, are not of the essence of the absurd, though the absurd, when exhibited in matters of de- meanour, dress, action, and the like externals, will be probably attended with such ludicrous effects. "That we may proceed yet further with the atheist, and convince him that not only his principle is absurd, but his consequences also as absurdly deduced from it, we will allow him an uncertain e.xtravagant chance against the natural laws of motion." — J'entley. Irrational {in, not, and ratio, reason) is employed to express some- times the entire want of the faculty by nature, as in the phrase the " irra- tional animals," sometimes a defi- ciency in its exercise, and, like the rest of these synonyms, is applicable to persons, to principles, and to con- duct. It is a more serious term than absurd, involving more serious re- salts, as a dereliction of that reason which is the distinctive light and guide of men. " These are all of them suggestions ot internal sense, consciousness, or reflection, which we believe because we believe them to be true, and which if we were not to believe them, would bring upon us the charge of irrationality." — Beattie. As irrational denotes the contradic- tion of reason, so Foolish denotes a deficient or heedless exercise of it, even on a small scale. So the conduct of children is never called irrational, though it is often foolish. c ABUNDANT. ( i8 ) ACADEMY. " It is foolishly imagined in France that to deprive one great man of his dishes of silver and gold, and another of his money, will be of advantage to the poor." — Fox. As the irrational is unsound in prin- ciple, so the foolish is unsound iu purpose and motive. As the absurd contradicts every-day notions of fit- ness, so the Pkeposterous (p-ce, be- fore, and post, behind ; the putting, as it were, of the cart before the horse) contradicts every-day notions of right relationship ; hence, to say that a thing is preposterously absurd, is to say that it has such gross unfit- ness as might be demonstrated to amount to a contradiction of the common sequences of cause and effect. " What's more preposterous than to see A merry beggar — mirth in misery ?" Drijden. Abundant (Latin ah and unda, a wave). See Copious. Abuse. Misuse. As verbs and synonyms (of which the root of both is the Latin uti, to use), these words seem to be in the following manner distinguished. To Misuse is simply to use in a wi-ong way ; to Abuse is to misuse in such a way that hurt accrues to the thing misused or to some other. To mis- use may be the consequence of in- experience ; to abuse is always inten- Uonal. Misuse, then, has reference rather to the mode of employment, abuse to the purpose or result. In misuse, one offends against reason, order, propriety, interest, method; in abuse, against justice or honesty. In misuse, there is derangement ; in abuse, excess. Excess is the charac- teristic in the idea of abusing one's powers, or the patience and forbear- ance of others. It deserves, however, to be remarked that in the case of abusing one's own powers, this may be from imprudence, or even from generosity; that is, in cases where the anxiety to serve or benefit others has made us forget the care and con- sideration due to ourselves. " The gravest and wisest ])ersons in the world may be abused by being put into a fool's coat." — Tillotson, " How much names taken for things are apt to mislead the understanding, the atten- tive reading of philosophical writers would abundantly discover, and that perhaps in words little suspected for any such misuse." — Locke. Abuse. See Invective. Abusive. See Scurrilous. Abyss. Gulf. Academy. School. College. University. Seminary. Academy is a term bon-owed from the Grreek aK^Srj/xeia, or aKadrjfila, a gymnasium in the suburbs of Athens, where Plato taught. Hence, the Pla- tonic schools were called academies ; and societies of learned men have since been called academies, as the Royal Academy of Painters in Eng- land. It is therefore an affectation to call a school for young boys an academy. It is evident that no com- mon living together is involved in the simple idea of an academy, which is constituted simply on the principle of a community in learning or art, and denotes more tha,n their first rudiments, " In a conference of the French Academ;/, one of the Academicians desired to have their opinion on the conduct of Paul Veronese, who, though a painter of great consideration, had, contrary to the strict rules of art, in his picture of Perseus and Andromeda, re- presented the principal figure in shade." — Sir J. Reynolds. This is rather expressed by the modern term school, which conveys the idea of youthful students and the discipline of elders, except when the word is used in the sense of a school of art ; as of painting, meaning a suc- cession of artists of the same style. Even here, however, the preceding painters are regarded as " masters," and their imitators as " pupils." School is also derived from the Greek (o-xoXjj, which meant leisure). As in the word academy (as at pre- sent used) common study is implied in school, but not of necessity com- mon living together. "This place should be at once both school and university, not needing a remove to any other house of scholai-ship, except it be some ACCEDE. ( T9 ) ACCEDE. peculiar college of law or physic, where they mean to be practitioners." — Milton. In College, on the other hand [col- legium, a collection or society of per- sons), there is common living as well as common study. " When we consider the greatness of our wants in this kind, we should be tempted to wish for a college destined for the supplial of a sufficient number of able missionaries in constant succession, brought up from their early youth in such a discipline as may be judged best fitted for such a service." — War- burton. A Seminary (seminariuon) is a graceful term, which expresses the idea of a nursery or seed-plot in which the young are trained up, and so live under discipline as well as systematic instruction. There is also the addi- tional idea of some institution, profes- sion, or state of life, to which the seminary is subordinate, and from which the young plants are after a while transplanted. " Those pious benefactors to mankind did not mean to establish seminaries to prepare men for the world, but to teach them to despise it." — Knox, Essays. A college, like academy, is some- times used for a formally constituted body which is not educational, as the College of Cardinals. A college in the educational sense is supposed to be under a more public government than school and academy, which may be strictly private. An aggregate of colleges may form an Univeksity, which, however, is not thereby con- stituted, but rather by being a place of learning universally {universitas). It has commonly a corporate existence and rights, which are recognised by the state to which it belongs. An university may consist of one or of more than one college. " As it resembled a royal court in regard of those many noblemen and persons of qua- lity that lived in it, so one might esteem it an university for those many accomplished men in all kinds of knowledge and good learning that were his domestics." — Strijpe. Accede. Yield. Assent. Ac- quiesce. Consent. Accoed. Agree. Concur. Coincide. CoiiPLY. Conform. Submit. Of these, the simplest and most comprehensive is Agree (Fr. agreer, from gratus, agreeable, and from the present sense of which, namely, to accept, the English agree is a devia- tion), the rest being so many modes of agreement. For agreement may be equally between persons and things, and may imply either harmony of will or mere external similarity, or, in short, anything which is not dif- ference or disagreement. " Knowledge," says Locke, " seems to me to be nothing but the perception of the con- nection and agreement, or disagreement and repugnance of any of our ideas." To Yield (Sax. gildan, gelclan, to pay, yield) is to confonn in conse- quence of some external pressure or some force of entreaty or argument. " 1 was not born to yield, thou haughty Scot." Shakespeare. It is practical, as to Assent {assen- tire) is purely mental, and denotes a concurrence with approval as an act of the judgment. " Subscription to articles of religion, though no more than a declaration of the subscriber's assent, may properly enough be considered in connection with the subject of oaths, because it is governed by the same rule of interpretations." — Paley. To Acquiesce (ad and qides, rest) is to concur vsdth what is said or done by another in some degree short of a full and hearty concurrence, even with the mere absence of opposition. " Submission to God's will, and acquies- cence in the event disposed by Him." — Barrow. To Consent (consentire) is to concur for some practical purpose, to agree to act according to the wiU of another. " My poverty, and not ray will, consents." Shakespeare. While to Accord {ad and cor, the heai-t) denotes an internal harmony and agreement in sentiment, opinion, or character. When one statement accords with another, it is that the meaning, not the form, of one is com- patible with the other. " It strikes me as a very observable in- stance of providential kindness to man, that such an exact accord has been contrived be- tween his ear and the sounds with which, at least in a rural situation, it is almost every moment visited." — Cotcper, c 2 ACCEDE. ( 20 ) ACCELERATE. Of tlie above synonyms, it will be seen that accord, concur, and coin- cide, are involuntary ; while accede, yield, assent, acquiesce, consent, comply, conform, and submit, are voluntary, that is, imply a direct in- clination of will, and are acts of the mind. Agree is sometimes volun- tary, as to agree to do a thing ; some- times involuntary, as when two things agree. Indeed, agreement may be predicated of number, quan- tity, size, weight, opinion, feeling, fact, &c. To Concur [con and ciirro, to run) is to agree in matters of opinion or judgment, as when one judge concurs in the decision of another. So we accord with the sentiments of others, and concur in their views. In short, any things may be said to concur which combine in the same point, or tend to produce the same result. " The seriousness of his temper and piirit}- of his morals a?ic en'cJ with his unappeas- able thirst of knowledge to give the presages of future eminence in that profession." — Hurd, Life of Warhurton. To Coincide denotes an external parity or commensurateness, and so is u.sed (coincidere, to fall in toge- ther) of facts, statements, and views, not of the harmony of feelings, which belongs to accord. It might be used of thingspurely mathematical, as two triangles may coincide. " A perfect coincidence between truth and goodness." — South, Comply and Consent (the former from compUcare, to fold together) very nearly coincide ; but compliance implies far more strongly than con- sent, the surrender of one's own will to that of another ; we comply with the wishes of another, simphj as svch ; but we might consent to do a thing on its being shown to be for our own interests, or if a sufficient inducement were held out to us. " He that complies against his will Is of the same ojunion still." — Iludihrus. Conform {con and forma, a form) denotes, as the structure of the word expresses, an external, or, at least, formal agreement. We conform only in matters of externals, or in such ojiinions as are necessarily connected with them, as in modes of worship, or the doctrines which lead to them, or the opinions, and yet more strictly, the habits and customs of society. The difference between conformity and compliance ajspears in the fol- lowing of Locke : — " I think those who make laws and use force to bring men to church-conformity in religion, seek only the compliance, but con- cern themselves not for the conviction of those they punish." Submission [snbmittere] is stronger than yielding. It is the giving uj^of oneself altogether, the substitution of another's will for one's own. To yield may be negative, but to submit is positive. " And courage never to submit or yield." Hilton. Submit is capable, as the others are not, of an absolutely physical signi- fication, when used transitively. Accelerate. Hasten. Speed. Expedite. Despatch. Quicken. Urge. Instigate. Of these, hasten, speed, q^iicl-en, are iised both as active and neuter verbs. Expedite, despatch, accelerate, and itrr/e, only actively. It is as active verbs that they are here considered. Accelerate {celer, quick) has much the sense of the simpler Eng- lish form quicken (quick, alive, livefy, rapid), which is the most generic of all. Accelerate refers to some pro- gress alreadij begun, and is applied not to the object itself but its move- ment. In this respect it differs from hasten, which may be employed where no movement has as yet be'^un, in the sense of shortening the^ in- terval before something takes place, as to hasten a pei-son's departure. It has a character more purely me- chanical than hasten. Urge is em- ployed {urgere) in matters in which the operation of persons is concerned, and is only poetically used in the sense of propel mechanically. We say, however, to urge a consideration, argument, plea, and the like. It con- veys the idea of hastening, from a feeling of the danger or imdesirable- ACCELERATE. ( 21 ) ACCEPT, Tie3S of delay. Speed in this sense is sauiewhat old-fashioned, but is used when the idea of prosperous or suc- cessful furtherance is intended, with- out of necessity an increase in the rate of movement, Expedite and Despatch [ex^jedire, and dis and 2Jan- (jere) are employed of transactions in business, but expedite refers rather to the hastening of the process, de- spatch to the attainment of the end. So that both ')nay concur in the same phrase, as to expedite the despatch of business. Instigate (Lat. instigare) is only used towards persons, and commonly in an unfavourable sense. We urge to honest exertion, and in- stigate to crime. It may be observed that though the verb accelerate does not admit of the accusative of the object, as to accelerate a horse, it admits the accusative of abstract movements, as to accelerate the speed or the pace. We also sometimes say to accelerate a conclusion. This is no more than to accelerate the pro- cess of the completion of which the conclusion is evidence. It is an act of judgment which induces us to ac- celerate a thing. It is a sustained eagerness which makes us hasten it. lb is a favouraljle wish for the result Avhich makes its speed it. It is con- sideration which makes us expedite it, and impatience which makes us despatch it. It is conviction which makes us urge it, and distrust of the readiness or energy of another which leads lis to instigate or urge him. " Motion may be in an endless variety of directions. It may be quick or slow, recti- lineal or curvilineal. It may be equable, or a-celcrated, or retarded." — Rekl. " The two Houses, finding things in this posture, hastened the departure of their commissioners to the Isle of Wight, with jiowers and instructions to treat with the king." — Ludlow. " Speeder of Night's spies, And guide of all her dream's obscurities." Chapman's Homer. " Your imperial majesty's just influence, which is still greater than your extensive power, will animate and expedite the eSbrts of other sovereigns." — Burke, " Ere we put ourselves in arms, dispatch we The business we have talked of." Shakespeare. " Like a fruitful garden without a hedge, which quickens the appetite to enjoy so tempting a prize." — South. " My brother did urge me in his act." Shakespeare. " He hath only instigated his blackest agents to the very extent of their malignity," — Warburton. Accent. Emphasis. Stress. Of these. Stress (Old Eng. stress, a shorter form of distress, from dis and stringere) expresses simply that effort at greater force in pronuncia- tion of which emphasis and accent are different kinds. Metaphorically, stress is used of ideas, as to lay great stress upon such and such a fact or argument. Accent is of syllables only, emphasis is of words. The object of Accent {accentus) is grammatical, for the purpose of distinguishing words, that of Emphasis (eV and cj)diva, to exhibit) is rhetorical, for the purpose of aiding the sense and drawing an idea into prominence. It may be studied and deliberate, or the result of emotion or feeling. " Agreeably to this (short pronunciation of our words) is a remarkable peculiarity of English pronunciation, the throwing the accent farther back, that is, nearer the beginning of the word, than is done by any other nation." — Blair. " The voice all modes of passion can express, That marks the proper word with proper stress ; But none emphatic can that actor call, Who lays an equal emphasis on all." Lloyd's Actor, Accept. Keceive. Take. Of these, to Take, which is the most purely physical (Sax. tacan), is employed in the twofold sense of spontaneous assuming and of ready receiving at the hand of another ; in other words, to assume with or with- out the intervention of another per- son. This twofold force does not belong to either Receive or Accept, which are different forms {recipere, and ac- ceptare, from accijjere) of capio, to take. To receive implies not of neces- sity any voluntariness on our part, as we may receive a blow or an insult. Accept implies some voluntariness on our part, which may amount to the ACCEPTABLE. ( 22 ) ACCESS. greatest readiness and pleasure. The difference may be illustrated by re- ceiving an apology or an invitation, and accepting it. It is to be noted that accept is not used in this sense of persons, whom we always receive, sometimes gladly, sometimes ungra- ciously : while accept is an active and conscious recejdion. So much of the Ijvirely passive is there in receive, that an inanimate object may be said to receive an impression. We receive wliat is given us, we accept what is offered us. We receive thanks, and accept services. Receive denotes no more than not refusing. We ought to be always grateful for benefits Ave have received, and to be very slow in rejecting what we have once accepted. " And toward the education of your daugliters I here bestow a simple instrument, And this small packet of Greek and Latin books, If you accept them, then their worth is great." Shakespeare. " Justification always supposes two parties, one to give, and another to receive, whether without any act at all on the receptive side, as in the case of infants, or whether accom- panied by receptive acts, as in the case of adults, who may be properly said t-o accept and assent to, as well as to receive and en- joy." — Waterland. Acceptable. Grateful. Wel- come. That is Acceptable [see Accept) which is gladly to be received as a relative good, that is, which coincides with our circumstances and require- ments. But this only within limits, for it is not a strong term. The ap- propriate belongs essentially to the acceptable. We should be speaking ironically if we said of any gift of great value that it was acceptable. That is acceptable which is suitable in itself and pleasant to receive. The acceptable is determined as much hy the judgment as by the feelings. So Reid says : " If the mind is at any time vacant from every passion and desire, th€r« are still some objects that are more acceptable to us than others." Grateful (gratus) expresses gone- rally what is sensibly delightful or con- sonant with the feelings. Hence, un- like acceptable, it may be predicated of things which are not gifts at all, nor are of the nature of possessions. A do- nation of money is gi-ateful to a poor man, but so also is the cool breeze to the fevered patient. As the accept- able excites satisfaction, so the grate- ful excites joy or pleasure. " Hope's grateful stimulus produces a pleasing and salutary flow of the animal spirits, and difi'uses a temperate vivacity over the system." — Cogan on the Passio7is. Welcome, as the word plainly in- dicates, is that which comes to us gladly, but includes, like grateful, many things which are not gifts, as for instance, events, persons, and in- telligence. " ivelccmie hour." Mitton. Acceptance. Acceptation. These are two different derivatives of the same word (see Accept), but differently employed. Acceptance is active, and denotes the act or process of receiving, " Such with him Finds no acceptance, nor can find." Milton. Acceptation is passive, and denotes the mode in which the thing or word is received. So acceptance precedes acceptation. The acceptance of a word would mean the recognition and reception of it into the vocabulary of a language ; its acceptation would be its force and meaning after it had been so received. " Friend, quoth the cur, I meant no harm. Then why so captious, why so warm? My words in common acceptation Could never give this provocation." Gay. Access. Appeoach. Both these words are employed of drawing near, and of the line of move- ment by which it is effected ; but Ac- cess (Lat. access^is, accedere) bears reference rather to the capabilities. Approach (Fr. approcher, proclie, prope, near) to the way of drawing near. In approach, the question is as to the right or wrong line or me- thod, or the safety or expediency of making it at all. In access, it is as to the ease or difficulty of finding or procuring it. ACCESSIBLE. ( 23 ) ACCOMPANIMENT. " They anon With hundreds and with thousands trooping Ciime Attended, all access was thronged." Milton. But approacli is used in more varied senses than access, wliicli commonly means capability of reaching. Ap- proach is the act of drawing near, and is applicable to time as well as space ; or, in a secondary sense, bears the meaning of resemblance. It may be observed also that access is a com- plete, approach a partial, act. "By thy approach thou mak'st me most unhappy." Shakespeare. Accessible. See Access and Affable. Accession. See Access and In- crease. Accessory. See Abettor. Accident. Chance. See Chance. Accident (Lat, accidens, from ac- cidere, to befal) is relative. Chance (cadentia, cadere, a befalling). The word chance has two distinct mean- ings ; one the absence of assignable cause, the other the absence of design, the cause being nevertheless plainly observable. It is in the second of these that it is more strictly synony- mous with accident. Accident. Contingency. Ca- sualty. Incident. All these terms express the occur- rence of events in the producing of which our own design had no part. Of these accident and casualty are more closely personal than contingency and incident. It is to be remarked that though the term accident means in itself no more than a befalling, it is never used without qualification to express the chance occurrence _ of a positive good, in which point it re- sembles Casualty, which always im- plies loss or misfortune (Fr. casualite, from cassis, see Chance). A casualty is entirely independent of ourselves ; as, for instance, the death of another at a certain moment, or our own. An accident may be partly referrible to our own acts or neglect ; but there are casualties which no prudence could foresee or pi-event. A Contingency (Fr. contingence, Lat. contingere, to touch upon) is a dependent or re- sultant occurrence, an event which flows out of antecedent circumstances, themselves fortuitous, and so itself a fortuitous combination. Incident {incidere), like accident, betokens a befalling, but without of necessity involving the idea of chance, an event regarded irrespectively of what led to it, but not necessarily precluding the ascertainment of its cause ; as an incident in a voyage or a history. It belongs as an additanient to some larger transaction or course of events which comprises it. The adjectives formed from these substantives, acci- dental, contingent, incidental, casual, follow their force, with the exception of the last. The notion of harm which belongs to castialty is not at- tached to casual, which means simply introduced collaterally, without being to the purpose of the main matter in hand, yet found to coincide with it, as a casual remark in the course of conversation. We see how the term accident was on the turn in Shake- speare's time from an unexpected occurrence to an untoward one in the Une. " Of moving accidents by flood and field." " The remarkable position of the queen, rendering her death a most important con- tingency." — HaUam. " The cause why the children of Israel took unto one man many wives, might be lest the casualties of war should in any way hinder the promise of God concerning their multitude from taking effect in them." — Hooker. " A writer of lines may descend with pro- priety to minute circumstances and familiar incidents." — Blair. Accidental. See Casual. Acclamation. See Clamour. Accommodate. See Adjust. Accommodating. See Civil. Accompaniment. Concomitant. Adjunct. An Accompaniment (see Accom- pany) is that which goes by nature. ACCOMPANY. i 24 ) ACCOMPLISH. oi' may be made to go, witli anotlier tiling by reason of its fitness or liar- mony. It serves to make more com- plete. " We have the snme roprosentatinn of Ifvmen inancpith;ilaniium, t lie usual indispen- s.ililc accom}xmimento{a wedding." — Warton. A Concomitant {con and comes, a companion) is that whicb follows another by its natural or vioral force and tendency, or belongs to it in time. "The length of this account, I flatter iny- solf, will be excused, as it contains a ft-w ( uiidus particulars which are not foreign to the sulijcct, and which concomitantly illus- trate the history of the arts." — Walpole. An Adjunct is that which is joined to another thing, not being of the essential nature of it, or may with ad\'antage be attached, though it is in itself separate {adjunctus, participle pass, of adjxingere, to adjoin). "The nature, properties, adjuncts, and effects of God's law." — Barrow. Accompany. Attend. Escort. To Accompany (to be a companion {com and jjctnis, bread, literally a messmate) is used both of things and persons. When applied to per- sons, it indicates an equality of station between the two. To Attend [ad and tendo, to tend) denotes an in- feriority in him wJio attends. To EscOKT (Fr. escorter, Lat. ex and corrigere, to correct or set right) im- plies accompaniment or attendance upon persons for the sake of pi-o- tection from danger or insult. It is not used with strict correctness of the protection by a single person. "When applied to things, accompany indicates rather a simultaneous, at- tend a consequent, association. So we say such a thing is attended with serious consequences, where we could not employ accompanied. This force the word has in common with the noun attendant, which means often not only an inferior companion, but one who waits or folloivs iipon an- other. One accompanies another out of regard, or to show him honoxir, or as an act oi friendship, implying pleasure in his society. One escorts from fear of danger on another's be- half to whom we entertain deference; one attends him out of a more dili- gent regard, or as discharging a diity, which consists in being ready to take his orders or supply his wants. The subordination implied in attend- ance may be voluntary, as when a friend out of friendship attends another in sickness. " The Persian dames (So were accustom'd all the Eastern fair) lu sumptuous cars accompanied his march." Gloiier. " All knees to Thee shall bow, of them that bide lu heaven or earth, or under earth, in hell, When Thou, attended gloriously from heaven, Shalt in the sky appear." Milton. The term escort, which is not one of long standing in the English lan- guage, is used of a single person escorting in the following, from Francis's translation of Horace. " To-day shut out, still onward press, And watch the seasons of access. In private haunt, in public meet, Salute, escort him through the street." Accomplice. See Abettor. Accomplish. Effect. Exe- cute. Achieve. Perform. To Accomplish (Fr. accomplir, Lat. ad and complere, to fill) denotes the complete fu.lfilment of a plan pro- posed in some measure by oneself. One is not said to accomplish the designs of another, but one's own. This is done by no adherence to a fixed course, but by the employment of any resources of which we may be possessed, and any instruments of which we can avail ourselves. " So shall my word, that goeth forth out of my mouth, not return unto me void, but it shall accomplish that which I please." — Bible. In this respect it differs from Exe- cute {exequi, to follow out) which implies a set mode of operation and subservience to another. " Would it not redound to the discredit of an e;n-thly prince to permit that the atten- dants on his person, the oflicers of his court, the executors of his edicts, should have the least injury offered them — sJiould fare scantily or coarsely, should appear in a sordid srarb ?" — Barrow, ACCORD. ( 25 ) ACCOST, To Effect is near akin to accom- l^ish, but we are said to accomplish ;iu object and to effect a i^urpose. To . effect commonly implies some degree i of difficulty contended with in the subject-matter, while accomplishment is commonly the result of persever- ance and skill. '• The Christian dispensation was necessary tn fulfil the purposes of God to man, and to -'.'-< tliat which the divine counsels had ilLcreed in relation to him." — Hnrd. To Achieve {achever, chef, a head, to bring to a head) is to accomplish under special circumstances of diffi- culty, but differs from to effect in that some degree of excellence is at- tached to the idea either in the striv- ing, or the end striven for, or both. " Xo exploits so illustrious as those which have been achieced by the faith and patience, r by the courage and prudence of the ancient I saints. They do far surpass the most famous K achievements of pagan heroes." — Barrow. To Perform (per and forma, a form), like to execute, is methodical and regular, but performance is more protracted than execution. We may execute well, but it is a deGned worh ; we may perform well, but it is a de- fined part. On the other hand, we accomplish, achieve, and effect, in matters in which we are thrown upon oar own resources and show our- selves sufficient to help ourselves. " Some men are brave in battle who are weak in counsel, which daily experience sets before our eyes. Others deliberate wisely, but are weak in the performing part." — Drijden. AccoED. See Accede. Accordance. See Melody. Accordant. See Consistent. Accordingly. See Conse- quently. Accost. Salute. Address. Greet. Hail. Accost is from the Latin ad, to, and costa, a side, to come to the side (>r up to a person. It had in Old English writers the form accoast, which was employed as a geogra- pliical term. '■ So much of Lapland as accoasts the sea." Fuller. The term denotes of necessity the use of words in a somewhat iivpre- meditated addressing of oneself to another, whom chance circumstances have thrown in one's way. Hence in accosting there is an abruptness which is to be justified by familiarity or necessity. " If you would convince a person of his mistake, accost him not upon that subject when his spirit is ruffled or discomposed with any occurrences of life, and especially when he has heated his passions in the defence of a contrary opinion." — Watts. Salute {sahis, health) is to exhibit on meeting some sign of friendship or respect, which may or may not consist in or be accompanied by words; among acquaintance it is hardly a voluntary act, and is required by the usages of society. It is mo- mentary, and not sustained, like ac- cost and address. " The most common salntation was by the conjunction of their right hands, the right hand being accounted a pledge of fidelity and friendship." — Potter's Antiquities of Greece. To Address (Fr. s'adresser, directus), unlike accost, may be without per- sonal meeting, as by letter. It is more sustained than accost. So we might accost a j)erson for the j)ur- pose afterwards of addressing him at length. It involves some matter which is to be placed before him for C(jnsideration. Both accost and sa- lute belong to the moment of first meeting. The verb address is some- times applied directly to the person, sometimes to the thing addressed. " The shortest and best prayer which we can address to Him Who knows our wants and our ignorance in asking, is this, ' Thy will be done.' " — Bolingbroke. Greet (Saxon, gretan) is to salute with some demonstration of personal feeling. This is commonly favour- able, as to greet with smiles; but usage employs the term in i-eference to the contrary, as the appearance of an unpopular orator, for instance, is greeted with yells and hisses. It is demonstrative recognition. " The churches of Asia salute yoii. Aquila and Priscilla salute you much in the Lord, with the church that is in their house. All tlie brethren greet you. Greet ye one an- ACCOUNT. ( 26 ) ACCOUNT. other with an holy kiss. The sah't'dion of me Paul with mine own hand." — Bible. Hail (connected with heal and health) is in English what salute is, as derived from the Latin, but the etymological force is quite lost, so that the word now merely denotes such an accosting as shall arrest the attention, as when a vessel hails another at sea. It is short and de- monstrative address. " I prayed for children, and thought barren- ness In wedlock a reproach. I gained a son, And such a son as all then hail'd me happy. \\ ho would be now a father in mv stead ? 'Jliiton. Account. See Sake. Account. Bill. As synonyms these words express in common a rei^resentation or state- ment of charges in money. Ac- count {compiitare, to compute, of which count is an abbreviation) enters more into details than a Bill (Old Fr. hille, a label or note of the value of anything). Hence bill has commonly but one side to it, embodying a charge of one person against another. An account may have two sides to it, when a balance is finally struck in favour of one side or party in the account. " To love's account they placed their death of late, And now transfer the sad account to fate." Pamiell. The term bill has borne the dif- ferent senses of a statement in writ- ing of different things, as a bill of indictment, of exchange, of costs, of charges. In the last sense it is fa- miliar enough. " Ordinary expense ought to be limited by a man's estate, and ordered to the best, that the bills may be less than the estimation abroad." — Bacon. Account. Narratr^e. Nak- RATioN. Description. Kelation. liECORD. History. Tale. Me- moir. Story. Of these Account is peculiarly specific, and refers to some individual event, or to a subject viewed in its unihj. Yet in itseK it is very general, and may be of any such matter, as of a political or domestic occurrence, an historical transaction, or a natural phenomenon. It is not a term of high historic dignity. "We could not say " Thucydides' account of the Pe- lojjonnesian war." It bears the broad sense of a detailed or systematic re- presentation, a£ when Bishop Jewel Bays — " For this cause chiefly we thought it good to yield up an account of our faith in writing." Accounts may be vague, coming in fi-om various and unverified sources. Narrative, description, and relation, imply a naiTator, describer, and re- later. A Narrative {narrare. to relate) is of a compound transaction, giving its details in the order of occurrence and with a certain rhetorical style. Narration differs from it only as the subjective from the objective, that is, the narration is the narrative viewed in connection with the mind and act of the narrator. An accoimt ought to l^e correct, a naiTative full, clear, elegant, yet concise. " In the narration of the poet, it is not material whether he relate the whole story in his own character, or introduce some of his jjersonages to relate any part of the ac- tion that had passed before the poem opens." — Blair. Relation (Lat. o-eferre, relatus), which is French in its character, con- nects the matter closely with the speaker. It is such an account as is given by an individual of facts which he has himself experienced, or at least reproduces as having assimi- lated or made them his own. A true relation is consonant with personal observation ; it is faithful. History is a formal and connected account of many events in series, for which some degree of importance is claimed as illustrative of men and nations ; an account standing to a history as an item to a genercd sum. So we might say the account of the plague of Athens given in the history of Thu- cydides. " Secondly, we have likewise a most an- oiont and credible histurri of the begin- niuij of the world. I mean the historjj of ACCOUNT. ( 27 ) ACCOUNTABLE. Moses, with which no book in the world in point of antiquity can contend." — Tillotson. The presumption at least is, that a history is true. This is not neces- sarily the case with Story, which may be fictitious ; where it is not fictitious, there is stiU implied an inferior degree of dignity and im- portance. The word itself is a shorter form of history. " A storij in which native humour reigns, 'Tis often useful, always entertains." Cowper. In Tale (which is connected with tell) the subject-matter is commonly fictitious ; not of necessity, but be- cause the primarij object is not truth, but sentiment or amusement, or some other by-purpose, as in tale-bearing, or tale-telling, which is likely to be a compound of truth and falsehood. A piteous tale may be trvie or false, but its sentimental character is ex- pressed by tale. " In thy faint slumbers, I by thee have watch'd. And heard thee murmur talcs of iron wars." Shakespeare. A Description {describere, to write down) professes to be a portraiture in language, giving the fact or the ob. ject as it strikes the eye or the mind, with fidelity of representation. It need not therefore be of the nature of a story in itself, though it becomes a kind of story to him to whom it is given ; as a description of the appear- ance of a person, where the sequence is the order of representation, and not of occurrence. Its excellence consists in fine and life-like accu- racy. Spenser used the form discrive. " How shall frail pen discrive her heavenly face, For fear, through want of skill, her beauty to disgrace." A Hecord (recordari, to remember) aims at no style, nor at anything but a placing of fact in registration, in such a way as that it may be referred to at some future time. " The judgment itself and all the proceed- ings previous thereto are carefully registered and preserved under the name of records in public repositories set apart for that parti- cular purpose." — Blaclistone. A Memoir or Memoirs (Fr. me- moire, Lat. 'iiiemoria, memory) is a connected though not necessarily complete or exhausting account of incidents, which are given either as the most prominent or the most ac- cessible. Memoirs are the materials of history. Accountable. Answerable. Responsible. Liable. Amenable. Obnoxious. , Accountable (see Account) means literally liable to be compelled to give an account. It is sometimes, like responsible, used in the abstract sense of being possessed of reason, and being master of one's actions. As a synonym with the above-men- tioned, it denotes in a marked manner a personal service or relationship, which is subordinate to some suj^erior power, as a steward is accountable to his employer. " The first point to be endeavoured after is to impress upon children the idea of ac- countahlcness, that is, to accustom them to look forward to the consequences of their actions in another world." — Faley. This specific subordination does not belong to RESPONSIBLE (Lat. re- spondere, to give an answer), which is far more general, as when one says of another that he holds a responsible office, we may mean one of great per- sonal influence and dignity, but one of much moral, not necessarily personal or political, responsibility. " He has been pleased to ask, ' Is the doctor willing to be responsible at last for the nature, quality, and tendency of all his notions ?' " — Waterland. Answerable, which is in Eng- lish what responsible is in Latin, com- monly implies a liability voluntarily incurred, as when a man makes him- self personally answerable for the con- duct or obligations of another, or is answerable for the consequences of his own acts. Accountable and answer- able express the fact ; responsible the nature and condition. "If I pay money to a banker's servant, the banker is answerable for it." — Black- stone. Hence, there is in answerable a ACCREDIT. ACCREDIT. latent force wliiob does not belong to re.si)onsil)lo, that of being liaUe to 2yt(iiisJiment in ease of failure in trust ( )r duty. It is this sense whicli comes out more strongly in Obnoxious (Lat. obnoxms, liable, answerable). It commonly denotes that the stage lias been reached when the possible position of the answeralile has become actual, and punishment or resentment may be expected in consequence of the liability incuiTed. " Our obnoxiousncss to the curse of the Lnv for sin had exposed us to all the extre- mity of misery, and made death as due to us as wages to the workman."— ^Sott^A. Amenable (Fr. amener, to lead or guide) means lial)le to some thing or person which has an inherent power to bind or compel, as laws, rules, authority. It sometimes has the further sense of a natural willing- ness to recognise such, power, as when one is amenable to discipline, advice, or reason. " The sovereign of this country is not ame- ri/ihle to any form of trial known to the laws." — Junius. Liable (Fr. Her, ligare, to bind) expresses in a simple and compre- hensive manner a relative capability of being acted upon, and not only has nothing of the moral dignity ' of responsible, but is applicable even to merely physical influences, as liable to be tarnished by damp. It is used of certain common obliga- tions, as to be liable for the debts of another. This woixld mean that a power would be forthcoming to com- pel their payment. To be answerable for them would mean that this power )-esulted from some relation to the debtor, natural or assumed, on the ])art of the third party. I am liable by law. I am answerable by my own acts or self-incurred obligations. " In geometry we are not liable to adopt the same paradoxical conclusions as in algebra, because the diagrams to which our attention is directed serve as a continual check on our reasoning powers."— /Siewarf. AccEEDiT. Entrust. Dele- gate. Commission, Depute. These words express in common the idea of roijosing trust or authority in another for a purpose of one's own. The simplest and most gene- ral is to Entrust, literally to place in a position of trust, of which the others are varieties. "We may en- trust persons with offices, property, and even secrets. " He (the Lord of all the families of the earth) will enter into a severe scrutiny how we have employed all those talents that He hath cnti-usted us with." — Sharp. Accredit is to place in the posi- tion of acting as one's representative, and of showing himself to be so in a formal and public manner if neces- sary, as by giving him credentials. It is a term of diplomacy. (Lat. accrecUtare, credere, to believe or trust.) " I am better pleased indeed that he (the reviewer) censures some things, than I should have been with unmixed commendation, for his censure will (to use the new diplomatic term) accredit his praises." — Cowper. It differs from Delegate (Lat. delegare, to depute) in being more general, and implying a greater free- dom of responsible action, while dele- gate implies a specific appointment for a certain purpose, beyond which the powers of the person delegated do not extend. " This change from an immediate state of procuration and delegation to a course of acting as from original power, is the way in which all the popular magistracies in the world have been perverted from their pur- poses." — Burke. Depute is more restricted still, the duty being more defined and pointed ; the deputy has little or no discretion, and merely does what the other is not present to do in person. To Commission diff"ers from de- jmte, in that the latter may refer to a continuous charge or " vicarious office. To commission does not go beyond a single act or work. There is not so strong ii character of per- sonal representation in commission as in depute. A commission, for in- stance, may be one of investigation or inquiry in the public interest. " The assembling of persons deputed from liorsous at great distances one from another. ACCRUE. ( -9 ) ACKNOWLEDGE. is trouble to them that are sent, and charge to them that sead." — Sir W. Temple. " We are to deny the sxipposition that he (Moses) was a private person at that time of killing the Egyptian, but that he was even then commissioned by God, Governor of Israel ; and, consequently, in the right of a governor, might revenge the wrong done to his subjects." — South. Accrue. Supervene. Eesult. The idea common to these terms is that of one thing coming npon another. In Accrue (Fr. accroitre, Lat. accrescere) that which accrues comes by the natural tendency of its cause to induce it, as wealth accrues from industry, that is, there is in industry an inherent tendency to produce wealth. Accrue is also a relative term. It involves the idea of some person to whose benefit or harm the thing accrues. " Good men consult their piety as little as their judgment and experience, when they admit the great and essential advantages ac- cruing to society from the freedom of the press, yet indulge themselves in peevish or passionate exclamations against the abuses of it." — Junius. Supervene (Lat. siqjervenire, to come upon another thing) expresses the fact of sequence without any palpable connection of cause and effect, bu.t rather implying that the second occurrence came un- expectedly, as a man broke his leg by a fall, fever supervened, and he died. Result [resilio, resulto, to spring back), on the other hand, de- notes that the second occurrence is what might naturally be anticipated from the first. See Result. " His good will, when placed on any, was so fixed and rooted, that even supercening vice, to which he had the greatest detesta- tion imaginable, could not easily remove it." — FcWs Life of Hammond. Accumulate. See Heap. Accurate. 8ee Exact. Accuse. See Charge. Achieve. See Accomplish. Achievement. See Exploit. Acknowledge. Own. Con- fess. Avow. See Kecognize. To Acknowledge is, as the word expresses, to admit that one has know- ledge. Its element of publicity it has in common with the other synonyms. It denotes the public recognition of certain sorts of relationship, as to ac- knowledge a fault, or to acknowledge a son, a favour, a debt. These rela- tionships are of the nature of simple facts, and stop short of actual claims of property or possession, which are expressed by to Own, as to own a son (Old English owen, an adjective, as in my " own," from which the verb is derived). Hence, to own is the more comprehensive of the two. It is to acknowledge before another what is referriljle to oneself. Both to ac- knowledge and to own commonly imply some degree of ignorance, douljt, or previous concealment, as in tbe case of faults acknowledged or owned, which before were only imputed. We acknowledge and own in cases where our evidence supplements the suspicion of others. On the other hand, to Confess (Lat. confiteor, confesses) may be of some action of which the persons to whom we speak may be absolutely ignorant, as in the voluntary confes- sion of a penitent to a priest. If the action be known, but not the author, the declaration would be an owning of it, or acknowledging the fact of one's authorship of it. The essence of acknowledging an offence, however, consists in declaring our own con- sciousness of it ; so that we may ac- knowledge a fault even after we have been known and j)roved to have com- mitted it. If both the doer and the deed were known, we should hardly use the term confess. Yet a prisoner is said to make a fuU confession even after he has been judged and sentenced. This is probably because his confes- sion is regarded as perfecting the evidence against him, or making his crime a matter of absolute knowledge. We confess actions, we acknowledge facts, we own our participation in those facts. It may be added that acknowledge and own are applied to matters of less grave moment than confess. We confess sins and crimes. ACQUAINT. ( 30 ) ACQUIRE. we acknowledge and o^vn errors, mis- takes, faults, and minor offences. " To acA'?io«7et/(/6' and con/t'ss our manifold sins and wickedness." — Book of Common Prayer. " I foHow'd Nature's laws and must avow I broke my bonds and tied the fatal blow." Dryden. " ' And now my dear,' cried she to me, ' I will fairly own that it was I that instructed my girls to encourage our landlord's ad- dresses.' " — Goldsmith. To Avow [avouer) is to own, acknow- ledge, or confess with frankness. We do not avow wliat we are ashamed of ; but we avow our motives, reasons, opinions and the like spontaneously, as holding them to be right ; we confess spontaneously, as admitting to be wrong; we acknowledge and own what we are charged with. Acquaint. See Inform. Acquaintance. Familiarity. Intimacy. Acquaint is from the old French coint, a form of cognitus, hnoimi, in Latin. Acquaintance is that slight knowledge of another which springs from occasional intercourse. The word acquaintance has, however, a generic force which may be modified, so that we may speak of a slight or an intimate, a superficial or an accurate acquaintance with persons or subjects, liter atvire or authors. "Contract no friendship, or even acqvaint- ance with a guileful man. He resembleth a coal, which, when hot, burneth the hand, and when cold, blacketh it." — Sir W. Jones, Translations. Familiaeity ifamiliaris, belonging to the family, famiUa, a household) is the result of continued acquaintance and daily intercourse, which brings us in contact only with the outside of a person's character and circumstances, and produces freedom of demeanour without any deep sympathy with, or close knowledge of him. Familiarity is often employed of such close acquaint- ance as is either barely permissiltle morally, or somewhat contrary to the customs of society, as in the case of easy intercourse between persons of unecLual standing. " All this was before his (Horace's) ac- quaintance with Maecenas, and his intro- duction into the court of Augustus, and the familiarity of that great emperor." — Dryden. Intimacy {intimus, most close) implies such sympathy and knowledge supported by friendship, sustained in- tercourse, and interchange of thought and feeling. Acquaintance and famil- iarity may be also used of facts and processes or circumstances. Intimacy is confined to persons, though we say an intimate knowledge or acquaint- ance. " If it were so needful before the Fall, when man was much more perfect in him- self, how much more is it needful now, against all the sorrows and casualties of this life, to have an intimate and speaking help, a ready and reviving associate in marriage." — Milton. Acquiesce. See Accede. Acquire. Obtain. Gain. Win. Earn. Attain. Procure. To AcQUlEE {acquirere) is a contin- uous process, in which we get some- thing by our own efi"orts and abilities. Industry and talent are commonly requisite for acquiring, and we use the term of solid and beneficial results (bvit sometimes of the contrary, as to acquire a bad name). " No virtue is acquired in an instant, but step by step." — Barrow. To Obtain (Fr. ohtenir, Lat. obtineo) implies less of continuousness in the efforts to get the thing obtained, which may even be done through the means of others; as when a young man ob/«M?s avaluable appointment through interest, without having acquired by patience and industry the qualifica- tions of the position. One may obtain by patience, by energy, by honour- able or dishonourable means, by en- treaty, fraud, force, or luck. " Some pray for riches, riches they obtain." Dryden. Gain (Fr. gagner) implies personal effort, which has resulted in the valu- able or di'sirable. " What shall it profit a m;ai if lie gain the whole world and lose his own .soul ?" — Bible. ACQUIRE. ( 31 ) ACRIMONY. I So we acquire learning, we obtain oiir object, whatever it may be, we gain rewards, distinction, public favoiu-, a livelihoood, advancement. To Win (Saxon ivinnan) is to gain with the notion of specific chances against us or against competitors. To have gained is satisfactory, to have won is happy or lucky also. It may be even purely lucky, as to win a toss. So a general gains a battle, or obtains the victory abstractedly ; but he wins the day as against his adversary and all the chances of war. Hence it follows that there is attached to the idea of winning an exercise of skill or tact, which does not belong by any means so prominently to obtaining, gaining, or acquiring. "And whereas religion is the greatest Kinner of men's affections, he (Essex) endea- voured to allure unto him the Puritans and their ministers, whom the queen did not at all like of, and withal the Papists, by seeming to pity their afflicted condition."— Camden. To Earn (Saxon earnian, gearnian) is a relative term, and signifies the getting of a thing by exhibiting such an amount of qualification as leads or entitles to it, as a labourer earns his wages by rightly doing tlie right amoimt of work, or a soldier earns distinction or promotion by doing his duty, or by his bravery. Like acquire, it is sometimes used in an unfavour- able sense. " You then who are initiated into the mysteries of the blindfold goddess, inform me whether I have a right to eat the bread I have earned by the hazard of my life or the sweat of my brow." — Burke. To Attain (Lat. attinere), which is used as an intransitive as well as an active verb, indicates a mark proposed beforehand, or abstractedly, which has been reached. All degrees of effort are implied in it, and sometimes no effort at all, as, " he has attained the age of forty years." When used as an intransitive verb, it is commonly found associated with some expres- sion indicative of degree, as to attain to perfection, or to attain to a high degree of excellence. " While we are curious in tracing the pro- gress of barbarism, we wonder more that any arts existed than that they attained no degree of perfection." — WaljJole. Procure (Lat. proc\irare) denotes acquirement through a careful itse of means to the end, and applies to such things as are regarded as needful or desirable to possess ; so we should say, to obtain honour and to procure the necessaries of life. " Such dress as may enable the body to endure the different seasons, the most unen- lightened nations have been able to procure." — Johnson. Acquirement. Acquisition. Both are from the same Yerh,acquir(r, to acquii-e ; but the former regards the process, the latter the result. We sa,y the acquirement of learning or good habits (or loosely, even bad habits), and the acquisition of wealth, because when they denote residts, acquisition is applied to material or physical, acquirement to moral and intellectual, things. The acquirements of litera- ture, the acquisitions of fortune. " It (the Gospel) is not confined to per- sons whose intellectual excellences are superior to their neighbours, or who exceed others in understanding and the acquire- ments of the mind." — Watts. " His cook, an acquisition made in France, Mifht put a Chloe out of countenance." Churchill. Acquit. See Absolve. Acrimony. Asperity. Ani- mosity. Tartness. Harshness. Acrimony (Lat. acrimonia, from acer, sharp) denotes a deep-seated bitterness of feeling, which shows itself in langu.age and manner. It may or may not he personal, and may be gene- rally excited by the recollection of cir- cumstances, as, " he could not allude to the event without acrimony." Acri- mony is the result of disappointment or wi-ong, real or supposed, or personal dislike, or may be roused by ill-tem- pered disputations and criticisms. Acrimony is a kind of habitual bitter- ness of character showing itself in small things. It is the mark of a small mind. As a scientific term, it is applied to a certain character of the humours of the body or of plants, which corrodes other bodies, as the acrimony of the bile or of the jiiices of certain herbs; hence its secondary meaning of a ACRIMONY. ( 32 ) ACT. Litiug sharpness produced by an em- bittered spirit. " Those milks (in certain plants) have all an acrimony, though one would think they should be lenitive." — Bacon. " Like a lawyer, I am ready to support the cause ; in which give me leave to sup- pose that I shall be soon retained with ardour, and, if occasion be, with subtelty and acrimony." — Bolingbroke. Animosity, on the other hand, is essentially personal, it is an active and energetic dislike (Lat. animosvs, vigorous). It commonly springs from some j)ersonal or party feud, as the animosities of race and of religion. It is a violent, irritable, and inconsiderate hatred. " How apt nature is, even in those who profess an eminence in holiness, to raise and maintain animosities against those whose calling or person they pretend to find cause to dislike." — Bishop Bull. Asperity {asper, rough) relates rather to the manner than to the dis- position. It is a rotigh way of dealiug with others, which is not incompatible with kindness of heart, and is widely different therefore from acrimony and animosity, which are essentially rm- charitable. Asperity is opposed to mildness, as when a reproof just in itself is conveyed with asperity. " I hope it is no very cynical asfcriti/ not to confess obligations where no beuetit has been received." — Johnson. Harshness is much the same thir g in English as asperity derived from the Latin. We commonly use the term not of the manner or nature generally, but of some incidental act or word, and it conveys for the most part the idea of neecllessor imivarranied severity, proceeding from want of feeling, as a harsh observation. "No complaint is more feelingly made than that of the harsh and rugged manners of persons with whom we have an inter- course." — Blair. Tartness is that sligltt asjwify which is more unbecoming than bitter, and indicates inconsiderateness and self-conceit. It is the fault especially of some women and of children. When used of words and acts, it denotes a pungent readiness, as in the following : " One jeeringly saluted him, Good mor- row, bishop quondam ; to whom Bonner as tiirtlij replied. Good morrow, knave semper." —Fuller. Act. See Operate, Act. Action. Deed. Act and Deed are etymologically almost the same thing, act {actiim, acjere) meaning deed (or thing done). They are, however, \aewed from different points. The deed is the simple result, viewed as it were historically ; the act is the result \dewed in connection with the power and will of the doer. Deeds are good or bad; acts are voluntary or involuntary. In many cases action and act are convertible, but some dis- tinction between them is observable. Act is never used of things mechan- ical; when so used, action is equiva- lent to mechanical movement, as the action of a steam-engine. An act is the simple exertion of physical ov mental power ; an action is a com- plex exertion of the same, and is more continuous, and occupies more time. To poke the fire is an act ; to recon- cile friends who have quarrelled is a pi'aiseworthy action. Hence the action often comprises several acts under itself which go to make it up. The act emanates simply from power. The action involves the mode in which the power is exercised. Momentary intentions and impulses show them- selves in acts, especially hasty deci- sions in rash acts ; but, as the life and character of a man, such are his actions. When we speak of the moral character, or of any quality as specifi- cally manifesting itself in something done, we use the term act, not action. So generally, good or bad actions ; but specifically, an act of faith, of charity, of prudence, of folly, of desperation. " 'Tis a rule that great designs of state should be mysterious till they come to the very act of performance, and then they should turn to performance." — Hoicell. " The Lord is a God of knowledge, and by Him actions are weighed." — Bible. A. deed is the result of an act, or an act regarded externally in its issues and consequences, and with reference to what is visible and ACTION. ( ZZ ) ACTUAL. tangible about it. It is remarkable that the acts of bodies or commu- nities are uot called deeds, wbich belong to individuals only. In many cases act and deed may be used inter- changeably. Yet it is no tautology to say, This is my act and deed. It is my act so far as I myself and no other does it. It is my deed, inas- much as the thing is completed in form and validity. " The monarch, blinded with desire of wealth, With steel invades his brother's life by stealth ; Before the sacred altar made him bleed. And long from her concealed the cruel deed." Drijdcn. Action. 8ee Attitude and Battle. 8ee Busy and Dili- Active, GENT. Activity. Bee Energy and Alertness. Actor. Player. Performer. Of these, Performer is the least specific, inasmuch as the performance may be not of a dramatic character at all, as a performer on a musical instrument. {See. Accomplish.) " It is usual, I believe, to thank the per- formers in a new play for the exertion of their several abilities." — Sheridan. The difference between Actor and Player is that the latter is incom- patible with high art. So we should say an actor of celebrity, a strolling player. A player is essentially pro- fessional, and acts for hire ; an actor might exhibit his talent in private theatricals, or for mere love of the art. Hence when persons perform, as it were, insincere parts on the stage of life, professing what they do not feel, or dissembling for their own ends, we call them actors, not players. In the following the poet purposely uses the lower word — " All the world's a stage, And all the men and women mevely plai/ers." Shakespeare. Not so the following — " Like a dull actor, now I have forgot my part. And I am out even to a full disgrace." Shakespeare, Actual. True. Positive. Veritable. Pieal. Certain. Of these, True is the simplest (Saxon treowe), and Veritable ex- presses, in a more learned way (Veritas, truth), that which may be ascertained to be true on inquiry or evidence, as opposed to the feigned. Truth is ex- pressed whenever subject and pre- dicate are rightly united in an affirm- ative or negative proposition. " Our ideas being nothing but bare appear- ances or perceptions in our minds, cannot properly and simply in themselves be said to be true or false, no more than a single name of anything can be said to be true or false." — Locke. The use of veritable is a little strained on purpose in the following— " This emperor was so wise in all things, that among them that were merry he was of great mirth ; and in verities he was very icritahle." — Golden Book. More simply in this — " Where the real works of nature or veri- table acts of story are to be described, digres- sions are aberrations." — Brown's Vulgar Error?, Positive implies that the truth is so ascertained as to exclude all pos- sibility of doubt or qiiestion, being a matter of demonstration, as distinct from inference (ponere, jjositus, to lay down). Actual belongs to that which has passed out of the state of mere probability or possibility. As a term of the scholastic philosophy, it was opposed to potential. It is the con- ceivable realized. As actual is opposed to possible, probable, or conceivable, true to false, positive to dubious, or illative and veritable to supposititious, so Real is opposed to imaginary. It belongs to that which has an ex- istence of its own, and not only such as our fancy might attribute to it. That is Certain of which the neces- sary cause has happened or wiU hajj- pen. The cause being ascertained, tlie effect is certain. Hence, ixnUke the rest, it may be predicated of that which has not yet occurred; as the rising of the sun to-morrow is certain, that is, follows from the knowledge or experience which we possess. Cer- tainty is the subjective form of trixth, ACTUATE. ( 34 ) ACUTE. the recognition of a thing as sure. (See Sure.) " How insensibly old age steals on, .iml how often it is actually arrived before we suspect it." — Coicjxr. " 'Tis positive 'gainst all exception." Sha/iespeare, " Our simple ideas are all real. All agree to the reality of things." — Locke. " I hope before I have done to make it evident that this way of certainty by the knowledge of our own ide;is goes a little farther than bare imagination ; and I be- lieve it will appear that all the certainty of general truths a man has lies in nothing else." — Locke. " That something has really existed from eternity is one of the certainest and most evident truths in the world, acknowledged by all men and disputed by none." — Clarke. AcTCJATE. Impel. Induce. AcTtJATE (Lat. actus, au impulse) refers to such motives as are felt to be sufficient to lead us to a line of conduct. It involves a deliberate choice of action, whatever the nature of such action may be. " He that studies to represent one of known and eminent merit to be a mere fool and an idiot, gives himself the lie, and be- trays that he is either actuated with envy or corrupted by a faction." — Bentiey. To Impel {hnpellere, to drive on) expresses rather the involuntary yield- ing to a force irresistible or unresisted, as to be impelled by passion or by threats. "A bloodhound train, by Rapine's lust im- pelled." Falconer. Induce {inducere, to lead on) ex- presses a milder constraint, and such as results from reason, judgment, or persuasion, as one may be induced to do so and so by a consideration oi all the circumstances of a case. It is applicable not only to matters of pi-ac- tical jireference, but also to mental action, as to be induced to expect, h(jpo, or believe something; wliile impel and actuate belong only to courses of conduct practically. " Oder a man a gratuity for doing any- thing, for seizing, ibr example, an oH'endei-, he is not obliged by your oiler to di> it. Kov would he say he is, though he may be induced, persuaded, prevailed upon, tempted." — Paley. Acute, Keen. Shrewd. Sa- gacious. Sharp. See Keen. Sharp and Acute are much the same (acutus, acuo, to sharpen). Sharp (Saxon, scearp) expresses the lowest order of human quickness of percep- tion, like the animal's ; while acute expresses sharpness of obsei'vation and understanding. Keen (Saxon, cenc) belongs more to sensation or quick perception of things, as a keen insight into the nature of a case, or a keen sense of the ridiculous. Sharji, acute, and keen are employed of matters of pure sensation, or in which the idea of mental perception is entirely subordinate, as sharj) pain, acute disease, a keen sense of shame ; where it Avill be seen that the two former belong more naturally to phy- sical, the last to moral pain. " Many other things belong to the mate- rial world, wherein the sharpest philosophers have not yet obtained clear ideas." — Watts. " Chrysippus, the acutcst of all the Stoics, was at first a racer." — Bentiey. " Their weekly frauds his keen replies detect ; He undeceives more fast than they infect." JJryden. Shrewd is originally the perfect participle of the verb to shrew, and has passed through several meanings before reaching its present. It signi- fied first, disposed to scold, then to find fault, and lastly to be critical or discerning. It still savours of its origin, and the shrewd person is he who is practically clever at analyzing motives, and accounting for conduct by a kind of intuitive power. Saga- cious {sagax) is less objective, and has less to do with others and more with oneself. It is a higher quality, involving practical wisdom of con- duct, the manifestation of certain faculties of practical understanding inherent in the nature. Sagacity is practical intelligence. It is penetra- tive and separative, but, unlike shrewd- ness, goes on from pei'ception and discrimination to action. It detects the hidden, unravels the complicated, tracks the intricate, solves the diffi- cult, elucidates the obscure. ADAGE. ( 35 ) ADDRESS. " Some of the obsei-vers on board the Cen- turion shrewdly suspected from the ajjpear- ance of his armour, that instead of steel it was only composed of a particular kind of glittering paper." — Anson's Voycujes. " A quickness in the mind to find out these intermediate ideas (that shall discover the agreement or disagreement of any other), and to apply them right is, I suppose, that which is called sagacity."— Locke. Adage. See Provekb. Adapt. See Fit. Add. Annex. Append. To Add (Lat. addere) is simply to put one tiling to another, and is appli- cable both to number and quantity. The process of addition presupposes a material mass, a numerical siim, or a logical aggregate, as to add to a heap of gold, or to two hundred, or to the conifoi-t and happiness of man- kind. " AH the praises and commendations of the whole world can add no more to the real and intrinsic value of a man than they can add to his stature." — Swift. To Annex {annectere, annexinn, to tie or bind together) is not used of number, and implies the inferiority, subordination, or relative smallness of the thing annexed, as a province to an empire, or a condition to a grant. The term wears a legal air. " With regard to the other adjacent islands which are subject to the crown of Great Britain, some of them are comprised within some neighbouring county, and are therefore to be looked upon as annexed to the mother island, and part of the kingdom of England." — Blackstone. To Append (Lat. appendere) is to join in such away that the purpose of that to which it is joined may be more fully answered. It implies a poste- riority of relationship, and may even be the result of after-thought. The latter case is more distinctly expressed by subjoin ; but append admits, as subjoin does not, of a piirely physical application. We may append a seal to a watch-chain, or a codicil to a will, or a clause to a document, which shall have a modifying force in ampli- fication or restriction. " There is a further purpose appended to the primary one." — J. Taylor. Adduess. See Dexterity and Tact. Address. Speech. Oration. Harangue. Of these. Address (Lat. ad and dirigere, to direct) derives a spe- cific character from the character of the person or persons to whom it is made. This may be an individual or an assembly. The address may be purely spoken, or read, or wi-itten ; and recognizes a peculiar capacity in the object of the address. It is a formal statement in reference to some subject or occasion. The address should be appropriate, clear, and tempered io the quality, character, and circumstances of the persons addressed, whose attention it is de- sired to interest. It must not be wanting in tact, or tedious in length ; nor over elaborate on the one hand, nor flippant on the other ; respectful, yet truthful and without fulsomeness. It is the generic term under which the others are comprised, so that the term is often used of the vwde, as well as the matter of address. " See, they approach. This grove shall shroud me till they cease their strain, Then I'll address them with some feigned tale." Mason. A Speech is essentially imwritten, and is a kind of unwritten disserta- tion upon some subject to which it owes its unity, without being specifically directed to any person,, but only uttered in their hearing, as bearing upon topics of common interest to speaker and hearer. It should be ready, fluent, neat. In the case of speeches in Parliament, the speech sometimes rises to the dignity of an oration ; on the other hand, speeches from the hustings are commonly harangues. " Every circumstance in their speeches and actions is with justice and delicacy adapted to the persons who speak and act." — Addison. In a play, a set form of words of some length is called generally a speech, even though it should be a soliloquy. An address always implies some other to whom the address is made. D 2 ADDUCE. ( 36 ) ADEQUATE. An Oeation (oratio) is a formal public speech, laying claim to a lofty and refined character, being neces- sarily, what speeches are occasion- ally, the result of premeditation and study, which is only due to its gravity and dignity, for the term is applied, not like si^eech, to ordinary, but only to extraordinary occasions of rheto- rical effoi-t. " And after the procession, the king him- self remaining seated in the quire, tlie Lord Archbishop, upon the grace of the quire, made a long oratiun." — Bacon. Harangues (Fr. harangue, pos- sibly connected with ring) are such speeches as have for their object the raising of the feelings, or the giving vent to them, and so are not subject to the rules of an oration, but admit of any style, however discursive, and are untrammelled by the laws of taste. They ai'e modes of address often re- sorted to on occasions when orations would be thrown away or imlistened to. " The author of the Ecclesiastical Polity had in so many books of his own endea- voured to harangue up the nation into fury against tender consciences." — Marvel. Allege. Assign. Adduce. Advance. Adduce {adducere, to lead to) is simply to bring in what generally hears tipon a statement or a case to be established, as an argument, a quotation, or even, abstractedly, a consideration. " The price had, it seems, before the tax, been a monopoly price, and the argument adduced to show that sugar was an improjier subject of taxation demonstrated, perhaps, that it was a proper one." — Adam Smith. To Allege (Fr. allegxier, Lat. al- legare) is to bring forward something which is of the natui-e of a pha, ex- cuse, or justification, and therefore implies some kind of antecedent charge or burden of proof. " Courageous chief! The first in flight from pain, hadst thou alleg'd To thy deserted host this cause of flight. Thou surely hadst not come sole fugitive." 2nitwi. To Assign (Lat. assignare) is spe- cifically to point out something by way of cause, origin, or account to another. " The only adequate and assignable reason of the diflereuce is, that the latter have a source to draw from which was unknown to the former." — Bishop Porteus. To Advance (Fr. avancer, avant, ah ante) is voluntarily to put forward something against which we chal- lenge argument, and which we are prepared to defend. In argumenta- tive attack we advance, in defence we allege. " I have heard of one that having advanced some erroneous doctrines of philosophy, re- fused to see the experiments by which they were confuted." — Johnson. Adequate. Sufficient. Com- petent. Proportionate. Com- mensurate. Adequate (Lat. adcequatus, cequus, equal) means Kterally made equal to, or brought to the level of another thing. It expresses the equalisation, not of quantities, but of forces, powers, or resources. It is the coming up to some mental or ideal requirement in reference to a practical, intellectual, or moral standard. "To fear God, that is wisdom, that is, is the proper and adequate wisdom suitable to human nature and to the condition of man- kind."— ^«fe. Sufficient (Lat. suffi^ere) bears reference to some pre-existent demand, or some future purpose, or both, which the sufficient is enough to meet or supply. " Sufficient unto the day is the evil there- of."— ^i'j^e. Competent {competere, to be able) is used of mental endowments and attainments, or of personal qualifica- tions or attributes, as a competent person, a competent knowledge. Peo- PORTIONATE (Fr. proportion, Lat. pro- portio) is not necessarily personal, and indicates the jvist relationship of one tiling to another in magnitude, quantity, or power. Commensu- rate {con and mensura, measure) ex- presses a coincidence or equality in measure or extent of a fixed charac- ter, while proportionate might denote a concurrent relationship, according to ADHERE. ( 37 ) ADJUST. circumstances, whicli may make it variable. Proportionate is equally- applicable to physical and moral things, while to use commensurate of equality of length or space woiild be forced and pedantic. The idea of pro- portion is not identical with that of commensuration. In the commensu- rate there are only two terms, in the proportionate there are at least three, perhaps four. A is commensurate with B. But, in proportion, as A is to B, so is C, or as A is to B, so is B to C, or as A is to B, so is C to D. Proportion presupposes a rule of re- lationship. Commensurateness only asserts, as it were, a geometrical co- incidence. The rental of a man's house is commensurate with his in- come, would mean that all his income went to pay his rent. His rent is in proportion to his income, presupposes a rule that what a man pays in rent ought not to exceed a certain j^or^ioii of his income. Hence, in commen- surateness, there is no idea but that of totality; in proportion there is that of division and distril^ution also. " There is, I think, not one of the liberal arts which may not be competently learned in the English language."— /roud. Claimed kindred tlioro, and had his claims ulluurd." GohhuuVi. There is more freedom and volunt- ariness in grant than in either allow or admit. So that the term com- monly refers to such concession as is antecedent to all argument whatever, as in the following — "1 talio it at tlio .•same time for granted ADMITTANCE. ( 39 ) ADORE. that the immortality of the soul is sulll- tiently established by other arguments."— Uteele. Admittance. Admission. Of these, Admittance refers more simply to tlie mere act of allowing to enter. Admission in a moral sense to tlie reception with some sort of sanction; hence admittance is com- monly purely local, as to grant a person admittance to a building. Admission commonly bears the mean- ing of a right of admittance, or the power of demanding an entrance. It is the right of admission which pro- cures the admittance. The admittance of light into an apartment. The ad- mission of the truth of a charge. " Of the foolish virgins who watched not, neither had trimmed their lamps, but went too late to buy oil when the bridegroom came ; 'tis observed that they found no more place of admittance than if they had been slothful still."— C/((;-A'G'. " Our bishops are made in form and order as they have been ever, by free election of the chapter, by consecration of the arch- bishop and other three bishops, and by the admission of the prince." — i>'isAo/j Jeircl. Admonish. Advise. Caution. Warn. Admonish (Lat. admonere) respects the moral conduct, and is the act of a superior. It bears reference to some- thing done in the past, or likely to have been done, thus in sense closely approaching censure, and to some- thing also likely to be done in the future, from w^hich the person ad- monished is sought to be kept ; thus approaching to warning. The per- sonal expression of authoritative ad- vice constitutes admonition. " It has long been charged by one part of mankind upon the other, that they will not take advice, that counsel and instruction are generally thrown away, and that in defiance both of admonition and' example, all claim the right to choose their own measures and to regulate their own lives."— Adventurer. Advice (Fr. aviser, Lat. advidere) bears reference solely to the future, and ispositive in its effects, as admonish is negative, andprompts rather than deters. " The person who pretends to advise does, in that particular, exercise a superiority over us, and can have no other reason for it but that in comparing us with himself he thinks us defective either in our conduct or our understanding ; for these reasons there is nothing so difficult as the art of making advice agreeable." — SjKctator. To Warn (Saxon xvarnian) bears simply upon the hurtful, as a possible event of the future, and not upon the past ; and upon the moral only so far as it is prudent. Caution (Lat. cuvere, to beware, cautus) is less posi- tive than warn, which is a simpler and more matter-of-fact word. So we might caution anothei- against probahle inconvenience arising from a certain step, and warn him against certain evil accruing from it. In caution we draw the attention of another inainhj to his oivn conduct, in warning mainly to certain perils or injuries external to himself. Admoni- tions come only from persons, but events may serve as cautions and warnings ; for admonition enters more into the moral reasons of things. Advice considers the interests of others. We caution against acts. We warn against dangers. " Cautioning us to take heed lest we be overcharged with surfeiting and drunken- ness." — Tillotson. " As two broad beacons set in open fields Send forth their flames far ofi" to every shire. And learning gire that enemies conspire, With fire and sword the region to invade, So flam'd his eyne with rage and rancorous ire." Spenser. Adore. Reverence. Eevere. Venerate. Worship. Adobe {adorare) expresses primarily the honour which is paid to a divine Being whose superhuman power con- stitutes it an object of prayer. It is by an exaggerated metaphor that the term is employed to designate the warmest devotion to other persons or objects. It involves a higher and more purely intellectual estimate of its object than worship, which is also more purely external. So the lowest forms of religion consist in the worship of material objects, while the highest consists in the sincere and intelligent adoration of the one supreme God. It is a conception of power which leads ADORE. ( 40 ) ADORN. to worship, of purity also wliicli loads to adoration. We adore God for His l^erfection. We adore tlie creatui-e in spite of its imperfections. We adore ■when we pay the tribute of divine ad- miration as to a being of a higher nature. It is sometimes employed to denote no more than the fei-\'ent love of an infei-ior, as good princes are sometimes said to be adored by their sul)jects. Adoration of God is pri- marily the rendering to Him the homage of reason, which, however, so naturally expresses itself in outward homage that the term is sometimes employed to express this directly. " Rejoicing, but with awe, In adoration at His feet 1 fell Subniiss." Milton. To Reverence (Lat. reverentia) is to pay that homage which is due to inherent sanctity of character, whether divine or human, and is the more external manifestation of that feeling which is expressed by revere. Between reverence and Yeneeate (Lat.i'enen/ri) there seems to be this diiference, that the object of veneration is not so far removed from ourselves as the object of reverence ; that is, there is more of worship in reverence, as of the name of God, and more of esteem in vene- ration, as of the good and aged. Worship (Eng. worth, worth-shi2}) is a word which has gone through many degrees of meaning, from that of paying respect, as in the title worship- ful, to that of rendering divine honours. It is now confined to the latter sense, and to the ext/arnal character referred to above. Revere is more intimate to the feelings, and may denote what is preser\'ed as sacred in the mind, iude- p(>udently of any signs of respect at all, as to revei-o the memory of a friend. It is possible to reverence even material objects for the sake of thosj persons to whom they have belougi.'d or those persons or things with which they have been closely associated. " The .lews made him an object of terror more than of awe and revercmv, and their religion was a system of the rankest supersti- tir)n, for nothing can be more true than what St. Austin quotes somewhere from Vario that thev wlio are religious n-rc/r, :iud tlie superstitious f.-Mr, dud."— AW/h,//,/-,,/;,-. " Veneration is a higher degree of respect, in which the miud seems to be more forcibly struck with wisdom connected with the sterner virtues. Hence, we speak of cha- racters which are more venerable than amiable." — C'ogan. " Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt thou serve." — Bible. Adorn. Decorate. Embellish. Of these. Adorn (Lat. adornnre) expresses the addition of beauty in the truest and gravest sense. The word implies that the process is one of taste and value. It may be used of things jiJtrehj moral as a character adorned by many virtues. No such moral weight belongs either to Deco- rate {deeu.^, an ornament), or to Em- bellish (Fr. emhellir, Lat. heUus, neat, handsome). When a thing or person is adorned, it is as if an increase of beauty were extended over the whole object into which it penetrates, and the entire character of which it en- hances. " At church, with meek and unaffected grace, His looks adorn'd the venerable place." Goldsmith, Decoration implies the external addi- tion of what is materially ornamental, and is in a general sense what em- bellishment is in the pai-ticular sense of more purely adventitious decora- tion. When decoration loses the character of natural grace, and becomes purely artificial, with the purpose of attracting attention, we use the term embellishment. The rustic beauty decorates herself with wild flowers ; the tradesman em- bellishes his shop-front to attract attention. Embellishment may be otherwise than material, while de- corate is only material, as a narra- tive may be embellished by clever and striking anecdotes, or adorned by passages of eloquence. There is in the term emlx'llish a tendency to mean foreign and adventitious deco- ration. " I have lipen told by them tliat have seen both, that our churcli did even then exceed the Romish in ceremonies and decorations" —Marvel. " Milton, thougli he fot.hed this beautiful cireumstame fiom the Iliad and .Eneid, ADROIT. ( 4> ) ADVANTAGE. does not only insert it as a poetical emhrl- liahment, like the authors above nientiout'il, liut makes an artful use of it for the proper carrying on of his fable." — Spectator. Adkoit. Clever. Skilful. Expert. Dexterous. Adroit (Fr. adroit, Lat. ad and dirigere, directus) is literally the faculty of going straight to an ob- ject. Adroitness is that apt and ready management which comes espe- cially of natural agility. It is some- times used metaphorically of other matters than physical manipulation, as an adroit answer. It implies an unfixedness of subject-matter. So we could not say, adroit upon a musical instrument. It denotes ver- satility, and so may be negative in its character. We may elude or pai-ry as well as thrust adroitly. " May there not be a great deal in the in- genium versatile, in the skill and adroitness of the artist, acquired as yours has been by repeated acts and continual practice ?" — Bishop Home. Clever {See Ability) denotes an abiUty to adapt or invent with readi- ness means to an end, and points primarily to natural qualifications, as Skilful (Sax. scilian, to separate) to those which are acquired. Cleverness is only in common things. SkiU is acquired cleverness, or the adroitness of practice. Expert (Lat. exterior, expertus) denotes also that cleverness of manipulation which is the result of practice. But as viental practice is needful to give skill, as in the physician, so vianual practice alone may give expertness. Dexterous nearly resembles adroit (dexter, the right hand), but bears reference to the specific use of some implement, as dexterity in the use of the bow, while adroitness may be predicated gene- rally. Clever is very commonly used in the sense of one who makes active use of his faculties in conversation or study, handling his thoughts like tools with skill, dexterity, and de- spatch, as in the following of Gold- smith — " But no matter, I warrant we'll make up the party. With two full as c'evcr and ten times as hearty." " The distribution of land and water, say the philosophers, is admirable, the one being laid against the other so ski/fully that there is a just equipoise of the whole globe." — Goldsmith. "There were no marks of expertness in the trick i)layed by the woman of Endor upon the perturl)ed mind of Saul." — Cogan. " They smooth the plank very expedi- tiously and dexterousUj with their adzes, and can take oil" a thin coat from a whole plank without missing a stroke." — Cook's Voyages. Adroitness. See Dexterity. Adulation. See Flattery. Adulterated. See Counter- feit. Advance. See Proceed and Promote. Advancement. See Promotion. Advantage. Benefit. Profit. These terms are synonyms in so far as they denote something by which a person is bettered; that is, they are all relative forms of good. But the good is viewed from ditierent points of view. An Advantage (Fr. avantage, avant, Lat. ab, ante, is that which places a person in a better state in reference to society or his place in it, as the advantages of a good education. Benefit [benefacere) is something good which is conferred by another or comes to us as the result of some process directed to the pur- pose, as a rich man may heap benefits upon a poor man, or one may walk for the benefit of one's health. Bene- fits commonly bear reference to matters of the body or the estate. Profit {proficere, to make way) is some real and substantial addition to the sum of our well-being. It' is a relative term, like benefit. As benefit implies a person conferring the bene- fit, so profit implies something which is the source of the profit. Advant- age is gained, benefit is conferred, profit accrues. " Whatever advantages I obtain by my own free endeavours and right use of those facul- ties and powers I have, I look upon them to be as much the effects of God's providence and government as if they were given me ADVENTUROUS. ( 42 ) AD VERSE. immediately by Him without my acting." — 'Woolastcn, " He now found that such friends as benefits had gathered round him were little estimable. He now found that a man's own heart must be ever given to gain that of another." — Goldsmith. " The revenue derived from labour is called wages ; that derived from stock by the person who manages or employs it, is called profit." — Adam iSiiiith. Adventurous. Enterprising. Of these, the Adventurous (Fr. aveidure, Lat. adventura, a happeuing, from advenire) is one who is primarily led by a spii-it of boldness, and either courts, or, at least, disregards danger. The Enterprising (Fr. entreprendre, to take in hand) is pri- marily led by a desire to achieve a bold scheme, which is in itself j;>-o- Jitahle or good. The enterprising combines calculation with boldness to a greater extent than the merely adventurous, whose character is liable to degenerate into the rash or fool- hardy. The enterprising is not deterred by peril, the adventurous loves it for itself. " I thence Invoke thy aid to mine adventurous song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above th' Aonian Mount, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme." 3Iilio)i. " Through hardy enterprise Many great regions are discovered." SjK'nscr. Adversary, See Enemy. Adverse. Contrary. Opposite, Inimical. Hostile. Eepugnant. Averse. Adverse (Lat, adversus, advertere, to turn to or against) is commonly employed of that which tends to thwart our plans or movements by an opposing force or influence, as adverse circumstances, adverse winds ; the adverse is the opposite to the favourable. " Happy were it for us all if we bore prosj)erity as well and wisely as we endure uur adverse fortune." — Southey. Contrary (Lat. contrarius, contra, against) is employed rather of the course or character of events, as contrary to one' s expectations or de- signs. The adverse is the contrary in operation. But contrary is a far wider term, embracing what opposes itself to lines of movement or force, points of locality to extremes of moral unlikeness, mental belief or supposition, logical statement. Con- trary is to operation what opposite is to position. So virtue is contrary to vice in its practical eifects and mani- festations. It is opposite to vice as a conception or in the scheme of morality. An opposite wind is one which blows from the opi)osite point of the compass ; a contrary wind is one which retards the progi-ess of the vessel. Opposite (Lat. opponere, op- positus, to place against) rather belongs to that which is widely \in- like in its nature and intrinsic pro- l^erties, without necessarily coming, or being ready to come, into active collision, which is implied in ini- mical and hostile, as two opposite charact-ers — the sluggish and the energetic. Inimical (inimicns, in, not, and aviicus, a friend) and Hos- tile (IwstiUs, from hostis, an enemy) belong strictl}^ to personal character and feeUng. Inimical is less strong than hostile, implying the private possession of siich feelings or qualities as would lead to opposition or a refusal to aid, while hostile denotes a more public and positive display of opposition. Repugnant (Lat. re- jjngnare, to fight against) is now al- most exclusively confined to that which excites a feeling of dislike, or is essentially discordant, so being an epithet of things, not of persons, as cruelty is repugnant to the spii-it of Christianity. "Many of them (the bones of the human bod)-) conspire to one and the same action, and all this contrarily to the laws of spe- cific gravity." — liay. " Novels, by which the reader is misled into another sort of pleasure opposite to that designed in an epic iwem." — Lryden. " We are at war," says Burke, applying the term in its .secondary and impersonal sense, " with a system which, l)y its essence, is inimical to all other governments." ADVERTISE. ( 43 ) AFFABLE. The yyvhlic display of enmity so closely adheres to hostility, that the term hostile may mean belonging to the state or condition, rather than the feelings of the enemy, as in Pope — " From the war Sate he returned without one hostile scar." '■ Ilcpngnant to the principles of human uatiire." — Stillingflcet. Averse (not Lat. aversus, from arrrtere, to turn away, but Fr. averse, from ad versus) ditfers from adverse in applying only to beings of con- sciousness and will, in reference to inclination and tastes. '• What female heart can gold despise ? What cat's averse to fish ?" Gray. Advertise. Publish. To Publish (literally, to make public, pzMicare) is the more general. So we may publish by openly speak- ing of a circumstance, or a general mass of information is published as in a book. To Advertise (Fr, avertir, from the Latin aclvertere) is to turn the attention of persons or the public to some specific fact of presumed interest, and is not taken to include oral, but only written or printed forms of notice, when the noun adr vertisement is employed. " The great skill in an advertiser is chiefly seen in the style that he makes use of. He is to mention ' the universal esteem or general reputation ' of things that were never heard of."— Tatler. " Every freeman has an undoubted right to lay what sentiments he pleases before the public. To forbid this is to destroy the free- dom of the press ; but if he publishes what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, he must take the conse(iuence of his own temerity." — Blackstone. Advice. Counsel. Both Advice (Fr. avis, Lat, advi- dcre) and COUNSEL {consilmm) are given for the practical direction of conduct. They ditfer in the source from which they are derived. Ad- vice is imparted by one who is, ov affects to be, possessed of superior knowledge. Hence advisers may be official or professional, as being con- versant with some particular depart- ment of affairs, as a legal or medical adviser. Counsel is given by those who are, or affect to be, of superior wisdom or experience. The trained man is qualified to give advice, the sage or wise inan to give coimsel. Advice is less reciprocal than coun- sel, for advice is often offered gra- tuitously, but counsel is generally felt to be needed. Advice is com- monly individual, counsel collec- tive. " We may give advice^ but we cannot give conduct." — Franklin. " Counsel is where a man saith do, or do not this, and deduceth his reasons from the benefit that arriveth by it to him to whom he saith it." From the above use of the term, we may draw the distinction that advice means giving practical information, making a man acquainted with some- thing, as letters of advice, Coimsel makes him acquainted, or is an at- tempt to do so, with grounds of i^re- ference in matters of conduct, which is sometimes included, but not neces- sarily, in advice. Advise. See Inform. Advocate. See Pleader. ^RA. See Date. Affable. Courteous. Con- descending. Accessible. Affable (Lat. affabilis, from affari, to address) is literally, easy of ad- dress. By usage, a superior in whom no pride makes him difficult of access, who is naturally disinclined to shut himself up in his own dignity, is said to be affable. His demeanour springs from his nature, as that of the Cour- teous man (literally, he who has the manner of the court) springs from training and good breeding, Aft'iu- bility is essentially in a superior; but courtesy may be between equals. Affable is not used objectively. A courteous reception ; an affable man- ner. Courteous expresses no more than the gracefully respectful ; affable extends to the look, the voice, the conversation, the demeanour at large. One might be pimctiliously courteous, yet by no means affable. Indeed, a AFFAIR. ( 44 ) AFFECT. studied coiu-tesy is sometimes sub- stituted for affability, in the case of those who wish to keep others at a distance. Condescending is a term which denotes no more than such a stooping to the condition of inferiors as is compatible with a great amount of actual pride, and often carries with it an assumption of the meritorious or the elevated, in short, an arrogant politeness. Accessible commonly denotes a readiness to communicate where communication is desired, as on matters of business with persons high in office. "This led him (Charles) to a grave re- served deportment, in which he forgot the civilities and the affnhUity that the nation naturally loved, to which they had been long accustomed." — Burnet. " We cannot omit to observe this courtly (shall I call it) or good quality in him, that he was courteous, and did seem to study to oblige." — Strype. Affaib. Business. Concekn. There is a loose conversational use of these words, in which it may be well to distinguish them, though in this loose sense they are hardly dig- nified enough to have any literary connection. We speak of an Affair (Fr. affaire, Lat. afficere) Avhen we refer to something which has hap- pened, without caring to be specific in reference to it, but allude to it in a light and superficial manner. The same character belongs to the word Business (that which busies or occu- pies the time), but with an implica- tion of the part or parts which the agents have had in it. A sad affair is a sad event ; a sad business is one m which the state and doings of certain persons are unfortunately involved. Concern (Low Lat. concernere, to regard) is an event in its bearings upon the feelings or interests of per- sons connected with it. Affect, Concern. Influence. As Affect {affcctare, from afficere) expresses that which takes effect upon the condition, so Influence {infiuentia, a late Lat. word in this sense, formed from injluere, to flow upon) is, when used of persons, ap- plied to motives, feelings, and con- duct; while Concern {see above) ii applied to matters of interest. Con. cern is therefore only used of j)ersong y and their state, while affect and in fluence are also used of physical agencies; as we might say, the temperature of the air affects or influences the thermometer ; but applied to persons, the distinction given will generally hold good. H^ was little affected by the argument^ would mean that his state of mind or feelings underwent little change He was little influenced by it, would mean that his acts or resohitions were but little likely to be altered in con- sequence. He was much concerned with what he heard, would mean that his feelings were wrought upon and his interest enlisted. Things ar affected directly or indirectly: they are influenced slightly or strongly. That which affects usually operates in a palpable manner, while influences are often extremely subtle. " Incorporal it (light) cannot be, because it sometime affectcth the sight of the eye with otlence." — Ralegh. " The fall of a cottage, by the accidents of time and weather, is almost unheeded, while the ruin of a tower which a neighbour- hood hath gazed at for ages with admira- tion, strikes all observers with concern." — Burd. " It shows the anxiety of the great men who influenced the conduct of aftairs at that great event to make the revolution a parent of settlement, and not a nursery of future revolutions." — Burke. Affect. Assume. Pretend. These words have in common the idea of taking to oneself and ex- hibiting, as really belonging, that which in some way or degree is not so. To APFECt [see above) implies the forced, studied, and sustained assumption of something which is more than a matter of externals ; as to affect a love of art, or a manner, when that manner is the index of something else, as to affect a certain style of conversation or of living. " Few know thy value, and few taste thy sweets, Tlioi\gh many Imnst tliy favours, ax^Anffect To understand and choose thee for thoir own.' Cou-jjcr. AFFECTING. ( 45 ) AFFINITY. T(> Assume, on tlie other hand, m;iv mean, and commonly does, a mere external taking to oneself of that which is not naturally or truly one's own, as to assume [assumere, to take to oneself) the demeanour or the attire of one's superiors in rank — . an assumption of superiority. Nothing has been more common in all lages than to see faction and ambition assum- the mask of religion." — Porteus, To Pretend {prcet&ndere, to hold forward to observation) is less ex- ternal titan assume, and more fictitious titan affect. One affects what is not suitable or natural, or which does not sit easily upon one ; but one pretends that which, though put forward as true, is in fact false. Yet this attaches by no means so strongly to the noun pretension. We might say, he has considerable pretensions to learning, without at all implying that they were groundless. If I assume indif- ference in a case in which I am not really indifferent, this is by a false air or manner. On the other hand, I might pretend it in words, without any other outward tokens. In the one case I deceive the observation, or seek to do so ; in the other, I mislead the mind. " It is the shallow unimproved intellects that are the confident pretenders to certainty, as if, contrary to the adage, science had no friend but ignorance." — Glanvill. Affecting. Affection. See Pathetic. LOYE. These words are largely inter- changeable, yet there are differences. For instance, Affection is towards objects not far removed from one- self in nature and circumstances, so that it implies either community or equality of state. A mother has affec- tion for her child, and friend for friend. So far love might have been employed as well; but though man may love God, it would be un- natural to say that man could have affection toward God. Affection longs to benefit, to tend, to protect. Love aspires also to obtain, and enjoys even the mere presence of its object. Love (Saxon lufc) is such a strong mental or sensual drawing to an object as varies in every degree of purity and right; affection is com- monly more orderly, regular, and constant. " When we remark that a person has an affectionate heart, we mean to applaud his being under the infiuence of the best affections of a social and relative nature." — Cog an. " In peace love tunes the shepherd's reed, In war he mounts the warrior's steed, In halls in gay attire is seen, In hamlets dances on the green. Love rules the court, the camp, the grove, And men below and saints above, For love is heaven, and heaven is love." Scott. Affinity. Eelationship. Con- sanguinity. Kindred. Of these, the first stands to the second as species to genus. Affinity (Lat. ad and finis, a boundary) is a kind of relationship, namely, that kind which follows upon an internal resemblance, or essential community of nature. This may be natural, con- ventional, or artificial. There is an affinity between the husband and the wife, in consequence of the marriage tie ; it is well if there be also an afiinity of sentiment and taste. " Some have thought the cameleon's name not unsuitable unto its nature ; the nomina- tion in Greek is a little lion, not so much for the resemblance of shape as affinity of condition." — Brown's Vuhjar Errors. Relationship {referre, relatus) ex- presses, in the broadest and most ab- stract way, the union of two things in reference to some third term, as the relationship of a son to a father in the matter of consanguinity, or the relation of the base of a triangle to its sides, or of a speech to its subject- matter. "The most universal public relation by which men are collected together is that of government ; namely, as governors and governed, or, in other words, as magistrates and people." — Blackstone. Consanguinity {con and sanguis, blood) is blood relationship. " Am I not consanguineous ? Am I not of her blood ?" — Shakespeare. Kindred (kind, in the sense of community of nature) is that sort of AFFIRM. ( 46 ) AFFLICTION. relationship or affinity wbicli may bo supposed to produce sympathy or fcUow-feelino^. as the pbihinthropist claims mankind as his kindred. So words may have an etymological affi- nity; they may also have a kindred si (J n if cat ion. Blackstcine regards con- sanguinity and kindred as virtually identical. He says — " Consanguinity or hindred is defined by the writers on these subjects to be vinculum personarum ab eodem stipitedescendentium — the connection or rehition of persons de- scended from the same stock or common ancestor." Affirm. See Assekt. Affix. Attach. Affix {fionis, participle oifigere, to fix) is more commonly used in a purely external and physical sense, as to affix a placard to a wall ; and sometimes metaphorically, as to affix a stigma to a person. The notion is that of something arbitrarily placed upon another without any inherent unity. To Attach (Fr. attocher) is to affix because of a feeling that the one thing ovgM to go with the other by way of necessary use or natural fitness, as to attach horses to a car- riage, or the idea of disgrace to certain professions. "We see two sorts of white butterflies fastening their eggs to cabbage-leaves, because they are fit aliment for the caterpillars that come of them. 'WHiereas, should they ajfix them to the leaves of a plant improper "for their food, such caterpillars must needs be lost." — Jiai/. " There is no man but is more attached to one particular set or scheme of opinious in philosophy, politics, and religion, than he is to another. I mean if he hath employed his thoughts at all about them. The question then we should examine is, how came we by those attachments f — Mason. Affix is never used in any moral sense, as attach may be, in the sense of affectionate relationship, as to be attached to one's home or country. Physically that whieh is affixed rests with the body if stationary, or moves bodily with it if it be in motion. But a thing attached may have some free- dom of motion, while that to which it is attached is fixed. To attach in- volves connection, but not necessarily contact, which is involved in affix. Affliction. Distress. Trouble. Grief. Sorrow. Affliction (Lat. affligere, afflickis, to strike hard) is a deep and gi-ievous malady of mind or body, which is in no apparent way the consequence of our own actions. So it is commonly said that man inflicts, and God af- flicts. It includes both the event and the state of mind produced l^y it. " I do remember now ; henceforth I'll bear Affliction till it do cry out itself, Enough, enough, and die." Shahespcare. Distress (Lat. distringere) implies such a feeling of mind or body as is accompanied by great anxiety and an interference with the powers of the mind, and a difficulty or an inability to act. It is in its worst forms a thing of distraction, .struggle, and restlessness of soul. " Distress of nations with perplexity."— Bible. Trouble (Fr. trouble, twhnlare, turba, a crowd) is such distress as ruffles the current of life, and pre- vents the usual discharge of duties. " Our people greatly rejoiced of their great good hap to have escaped so many hard events, troubles, and miseries, as they did in that voyage, and had great cause therefore to praise the Almighty, Who had so merci- fully preserved and delivered them." — Hac/t- lui/t. Grief (Lat. gravis, heavy) and Sorrow (Ang. Sax. sorg) are veiy nearly alike ; but while grief expresses rather a poignant state of mental suffering, sorrow is more reflective, and is commonly tinged with regret. It contemplates the event as it might have been, or regrets the fact of its occurrence; and being more reflec- tive than grief, it is less selfish, and is often foxmd mingled with com- passion on account of others, and remorse on oiu* owti. " Grief is sometimes considered as syno- nymous with sorrow, and in this case" we speak of the transports of grief." — Cogan. Grief complains, affliction suffers. AFFLUENCE. ( 47 ) AFTER. sorrow mourns. Affliction is sliavp and deep, and, being prolonged, affects the course and character of life. Distress is embarrassing, dis- tracting, severe. Trouble is sadden- ing and burdensome. Grief is violent and demonstrative. Soitow, deep and brooding. On the other hand, affliction is allayed, grief subsides, sorrow is soothed, distress is miti- gated. Affluence. See "Wealth. Afford. Yield. Produce. Bear. Of these, Yield (Saxon geldan, to yield or pay) is the simplest and most general. The tree yields fruit, the mine yields metal, the sea yields fish. The term yield, however, always im- plies value or ivorthlessness in the thing yielded. The other terms denote each some peculiarity in the way of yielding. To Afford (Old Eug. afeerd, connected with, fomm, market) is now taken to signify a relative or proportionate production. The sea yields fish, would mean that the fish come out of it in consequence of man's efforts to procure them as valuable. The sea affords fish, would mean that they are naturally forth- coming to meet certain wants, whether in sufficient or insufficient quantities. It is a relative yielding. I cannot afford to pay so much, means, there is no power in me to pro- portion the supply to the demand. To Produce (Lat. producere, to bring forth), strictly speaking, belongs to the operation of natural laws bring- ing the thing into existence. So the sea does not i^roduce fish as the vine produces grapes, or, metaphorically, drunkenness produces misery. It might be admissible to say the mine produces minerals, but it would be much better to say it yielded or afforded them, for it is the forces of Nature which really produce them ; while they are yielded or afforded to man's efforts at procuring them. " The quiet lanes of Surrey, leading to no great mart or general rendezvous, afford calmer retreats on every side than can easily be found in the neighbourhood of so groat a town." — Gilpin. The root idea of yield is to give up in answer to the seekingof another, as ap- pears in the following from Si)enser : — ■ "There he tormenteth her most terribly. And day and night afllicts with mortal pain, Because to yield him love she doth deny, Once to me yold, not to be yold again." " The divine will is absolute. It is its own reason. It is both the producer and the ground of all its acts." — South. That which is affject of anyone to become an eminent metaphysici.iii, UKithematician, or poet, but to render him- self happy as an individual." — Stewart. AIR. ( SI ) ALARM. ' The chief end or happiness of a thing."— ^y ilk Ins. '' Not present good or ill, the joy or curse, But future views of bettor or of worse." Pope. "The main scope and design of all divine revelation hath been the gradual discovery of this great mystery of the mediation." — Scott. i Air. Manner. Mien. De- meanour. Air (Lat. acr) is talcen to denote tlie general or unatialyzed impression produced by tlie movements and as- pect of another. It seems born with US, and strikes at first view; wliile Mien applies more specifically to tlie movements and tlie dress (Fr. mine). Air and mien differ from manner and demeanour, in that these latter are more strongly relative, that is, concern the person as he comes in contact with others. The Manner (Fr. maniere) is the regulation of the movements in intercourse with others. It is influenced by education and training, while Demeanour (Old Fr. demener) is a graver word, im- plying the part which the character and disposition or feelings bear in influencing the manner in regard to oneself and others. One gives one- self an air, one affects a manner, one wears a mien, one exhibits a de- meanour. Demeanour is commonly specific and relative bearing of cer- tain persons at certain times or cer- tain occasions. It is that bearing which persons assume consciously or unconsciously as being fit and ap- propriate : the demeanour of a judge on the bench, of a victor to his cap- tive, of a friend to a friend or an enemy. Slight changes of feeling may affect the manner. A total change of mind or of opinion in regard to one who had been one's friend, will alter one's whole demean- our towards him. An air is com- posed, a manner studied, demeanour regulated. " It is certain that married persons who are possessed with a mutual esteem, not only catch the air and way of talk from one another, but fall into the same traces of thinking and liking." — Sjxctator. " Tin,' boy is well fashioned, and will easily fall into a graceful manner." — Steele. The term mien is used by Boyle in the sense of expression of the eyes. "I observed in his eyes a mien, a vivacity and sprightliness." And by Gray in the sense of atti- tude and gesture. " With thund'ring voice and threatening mien." Hymn to Adversitij. " Their demeaning of themselves when they were come to the highest or thrown down to the lowest degree of state." — North's Plutarch. Alarm. Terror. Fear. Fright. Consternation. Trepidation. Panic. Apprehension. Alarm {alVarme, to arms) retains its etymological character of sudden- ness. Of all these terms. Fear is the most comprehensive (Sax. fib; a sudden coming). It expresses the natural feeling produced by the in- stinct of self-preservation at the actxial nearness or supposed nearness of the perilous, or, in a milder way, of the odious. When this nearness is rather sujiposed than manifest, we use the term Apprehension (Lat. appre- hendere, to lay hold). Terror (Lat. terror) is a strong confusing sense of fear. As alarm implies a distinct view of the nature of the danger, so terror is vague and indistinct, being in this way allied to apprehension or the dread of possible harm, as at the sight of an apparition. The object, however, which excites terror is always near and palpable. Fright is the sudden confusion of the senses by an external appearance which produces in an instant an unreflecting fear. Trepidation and consternation are terms which regard the fear in its personal effect upon ourselves. Tre- pidation (Lat. trepidare, to tremble) produces agitated movements and a ti-oubled and confused state of mind, while Consternation (Lat. conster- nare) is that state of powerlessness which is the combined restilt of terror and amazement. Panic (of which the god Pan was supposed to be the author, especially in striking terror ALERTNESS. ( 52 ) ALIENATION. into tlie Persians at the battle of Ma- raLlion) is commonly taken, in aeconl- anoe with the origin of the term, to denote that sort of fear which is at once sndden, indefinite, and con- tagious among a multitude, though used also in reference to an indi- vidual in the sense of an unaccount- able fear. " All men think all men mortalbut them- selves — Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread." Yoaiif]. " Terror is that species of fear which rouses to defend or to escape." — Cogan. " Fear is a painful sensation produced by the immediate apprehension of some impend- ing evil." — Ibid. " The pain of death is most in apprehension." Shakesixarc. " When lo ! the doors burst open in a trice, And at their banquet terrified the mice ; They start, they tremble, in a deadly fright, And round the room precipitate their flight." Francis' Horace. " Consternation : this species of fear is a strong foreboding of tremendous evils which are likely to follow misfortunes which have already taken place." — Cogan. For trepidation, see Agitation. In the following the term panick is used of groundless fear in an indi- vidual. _" But the serpent said unto Adam, Tush ! this is but a panick fear in you, Adam ; you shall not so surely die as you conceit." JI. More. The origin of the term is given below. "The first author of it (the general shout) was Pan, Bacchus's lieutenant-general, in his Indian expedition, where, being encom- passed in a valley with an army of enemies far superior to them in number, he advised the god to order his men in the night to give a general shout ; which so surprised the op|..i.site army, that they immediately fled from their camp; whence it came to pass that all sudden fears impressed upon men's spirits without any just reason were called by the Greeks and Romans panic /c terrors." — Fatter' s Greece. Alertness. Alacrity. Agi- Lixr. Activity. These differ first, the two first from the third, in that Agility (agihis, from ago) denotes purely physical activity of body and limbs, as in the monkey or the acrobat. Activity, another derivation of the same verb, is applied to both body and mind, and denotes such a general combination of life and movement as answers the prac- tical business in life. Alertness [aVcrta, on the mound or ranqjart, the situation of the sentinel) and Alackity (Lat. alacritas) very nearly resemljle each other. AJertnes.s comes from natural or constitutional promptitude, while alacrity comes rather from the impulse of the will set upon its task. So a person not naturally remarkable for alertness may show alacrity in complying with tlie request of another. Briskness (Welsh hry> l>ind. It is nearly synonymous ^\ith Confederacy {con and fa'dus, a league) ; but the latter is sometimes also employed to denote the result of the league or the persons or states which form it. Alliances, leagues, and confederacies admit of every degree of formality and solemnity in their sanctions. The bonds of re- lationship and of friendship, the ad- vantages of superior knowledge and experience, and the assurance of as- sistance in time of need, are the ordi- nary motives to alliances. The object of a league is commonly the reduction of a common enemy, or a defence against his attacks. It is an union of force and design to carry out a particular scheme or enterprise, in hope of reaping the fruit of it. A confedei'acy is an union based on mutual interest and suppoi-t, and is seldom used but in a political sense, while the others are as often used in a moral sense. But in this latter, league does not admit, like alliance, of a pure and favourable sense, but suggests the idea of being animated by no other principles than those of force and interest. League and con- federacy are only applicable to per- sons and powers, alliance also to things, as the alliance of the princi- ples of the world with those of the gospel, or of the efforts of art with those of nature. Alliances are for the great, the powerful, and the wealthy. Confederations for those under trouble, or oppression, or diffi- culty of state, leagues for the de- signing and malicious. An alliance is sought for satisfaction sake. Con- federation for action, league for vic- tory, success, or gain. The life of alliance is harmony, of confederation concert, of league the impulse of a common spirit. The alliance unites, the confederation associates, the league binds. Friendship will form an alliance, patriotism a confedera- tion, division and discontent a league. The wise ally themselves. The pru- dent confederate themselves. The oppressed league themselves. " Adrastus soon with gods averse shall join In due alliance with the Theban line." Pope. " And let there lie 'Twixt us and them no league, no amity." Denham. " We find nothing like a combination among the apostles as to matters of doctrine ; and if there had been, it would have ren- ALLOT. ( 54 ) ALLOW. dcred the faith wliich they delivered more suspicious, iu that they durst uot trust parti- cular jiersons with delivery of it without an autecedeut confederacy among themselves." — Stilling fleet. Allot. Appoint. Destine. Apportion. Allot (literally to give in lot) is applied to things and to persons only when collectively considered, Ap- point ipunctns, a point) and Des- tine (Lat. destinare) also to things. The nature of the act of allotting and of appointing is immediate, that of destining is in abeyance, or takes full effect in the future and under reser- vation. Allot is proportionate, with- out being of necessity distributive, inasmuch as the allotment may be to one or to many persons. To allot is a final act, but to appoint implies some further purpose for which the appointment is made. To allot, whether used of time or space, is more general than to appoint. We allot a certain space for a garden, or a certain time for study ; we appoint a specific hour or place of meeting, or an individual to a specific office. To Ap- portion is to allot according to pro- portion (portio), and a standard or ju-iuciple of distributive giving es- tablished beforehand. " As no man can excel in everything, we must consider what part is allotted to us, to act in the station in which Providence hath placed us, and to keep to that." — Mason, " Man hath his daily work of body oi* mind Appointed, which declares his dignity, And the regard of heaven on all his ways ; While other animals inactive range, And of their doings God takes no account." Milt07i. " Mark well the place where first she lays her down. There measure out thy walls, and build thy town. And from thy guide Boeotia call the land. In which the destin'd walls and town shall stand." Addison, Ovid. " God having placed us in our station, He having apportioned to us our task." — Barrow. Allow. Permit. Suffer. Tolerate. It ought to be observed that Allow bears two distinct meanings. This is best accounted for by considering the French allouer to be the representa- tive of the two Latin words allocare and allmulare, so that it would have the double sense of to pennit and to afford. Permit (Lat. permittere] is used rather in the passive, while allow has a more active sense. If I allow him, I give him some degree at least of sanction, however small. If I per- mit him, I merely do not prevent him. To Suffer {snfferre) is more passive still, and may he against the natural inclination ; on the other hand, it may be purely negative, as the indolent master suffers his pupils to l)e idle. Tliere are in allow, permit, and suffer, three degrees as regards the exercise of the Avill. I allow what I myself sanction or mil, I permit what another wills, and I suffer that about which I am content to have no will. Tolerate (tolerare), on the other hand, implies the endurance of that which is opposed to my will or incli- nation. "Without the king's will or the state's alloiciiHcc." — Shakespeare. " If by the author of sin is meant the pei'initter, or not a hinderer of sin, and at the same time a disposer of the state of events in such a manner for wise, holy, and most excellent ends and purposes, that sin, if it be permitted or not hindered, will most certainly and infallibly follow, I say, if this be all that is meant by being the author of sin, I do not deny that God is the author of sin (though I dislike and reject the phrase, as that which by use and custom is apt to cany another sense): it is no reproach for the Most High to be thus the author of sin." — Ed- wards, Freedom of the Will. Allow. Grant. Bestow. Afford. (See also Admit.) The synonyms which here foUow Allow, belong to it in the sense of aUocare, as the former to the sense of allaudare. The leading idea in alloio is proportionatencss. or mea- sured giving; in Grant (Old English grnunt), favor, or willing giving; in Bestow (a compound form of stoic), siihstantial benefit, or valuable giving ; and in Afford [afeerd, connected with. fo^~um, market), ^ersoHrtZ sparing, or relative giving. A fatlier aJlons his son a certain sum yearly ; kings ALL UDE. i 55 ) AMBASSADOR. grant pensious ; gifts and lioiioiirs are sometimes bestoived upon tlie nn- worthy ; relief is afforded to the poor or tlie sick. " If it (my offence) be weighed By itself, with aggravations not surcharg'd, Or else with just allowance counterpoised, I may, if possible, thy pardon find." Milton. " This mutual convenience introduced commercial traffic and the reciprocal transfer of property by sale, grant, or conveyance." — Blackstone. "Almighty God, though He really doth, and cannot otherwise do, yet will not seem to bestow His favours altogether gratis, but to expect some competent return, some small use and income from them." — Barrow. " Great Dryden next, whose tuneful muse affords The sweetest numbers and the fittest words." Addison. Allude. Eefer. These words are often used indis- criminately, but they are by no means identical in meaning. To Allude (Lat. alludere) is indirect ; Refer {referre) is positive and direct. If I quote an author, for instance, not by name, but by description, style, sub- ject, or period of wi-iting, I allude to him; but if I attribute anything to another, specifically and plainly, I do not allude, but refer to him. Allu- sion is often so vague that confusion arises from ignorance of the person or point alluded to. The fault of re- ference is not obsciuity, but inexact- ness. A wi-ong reference, an ob- scure allusion. " The people of the country, cdludinfj to its foam (Buttermere Lake), call it Sour Jlilk Force." — Gilpin s Tour. " But to do good is not only our greatest duty, but our greatest interest and advan- tage, which is that that Solomon chiefly re- fers to in the text." — Sharp. Alluee. See Entice. Ally. See Confederate. Almost. Nearly. Neakly is more strictly applied to matters of quantity, time, and space. Almost to questions of progression or degree. So if we said, he is nearly ten years old, we should mean that hio age was sepai-ated from ten by a small interval ; almost ten, would mean that in a little he would reach it. It may be observed that while nearly is used grammatically with a negative, almost is not so used. Also. Too. Likewise. Be- sides. Too is a slighter and more familiar word than also, which is more formal. Besides expresses an addition, com- monly by way of afterthought. Be- tween Also and Likewise there is this difference : also cannot he used as a synonym for likewise, if there be only a similarity of position gram- matically, andnocommunity of nature. So, he is a prince and also a musician, may be said, because it is only a logical or grammatical unity which is expressed, the same person being a subject of two proj)ositions ; but, he is a prince and likewise a musician, we could not say, by reason of the ab- sence of any natural or essential unity of the two. Alter. See Change. Altercation. See Quarrel. Always. See Ever. Amalgamate. See Coalesce. Amass. See Heap. Amazement. See Wonder. Ambassador. Envoy. Pleni- potentiary. Deputy. Minister. Ambassador is from the Low Latin ambasciator, borrowed from the ancient German. He is a minister of the highest rank, resident in a foreign country even in times of j)eace, and keeps vip, by the style of his living, the dignity of the country which he represents; while an Envoy (Fr. envoi, a sending of persons or things) is commonly not resident, but sent on a particular occasion. The term applies especially to the ministers of monarchs. Minister (Lat. minister) being the generic term for foreign political representatives. The envoy, too, like the ambassador, exercises his functions in a simaptuous manner. AMBIGUOUS. ( 56 ) AMEND. The Plenipotentiary, as bis name implies, is one vested with full powers to treat with a foreign gv ivtTument, esijecially where its relations are pre- carious. Personal influence, diplo- matic talent, and loyalty are needed in the plenipotentiary. The Deputy (Fr. dqnde) has much less power, is sent xipon a sjiccific mission, which he is bound to execute with dignity, strictness, and despatch. Ambas- sadors and envoys speak and treat in the name of their sovereigns; but the first are invested with a representative quality; the second are authorized ministers, but not representative in the full sense of the term. No such high rank and power is ever enjoyed by deputies, who appear and speak on behalf of some subordinate society or private body. The title of minister comprises the functions of ambas- sador and envoy ; that of deputy assimilates itself to those of an agent. Magnificence of living belongs cha- racteristically to the ambassador; cleverness in negotiation constitiites the merit of an envoy ; natural talent and aptitude for business are desired in a deputy. "The commerce of the Turkey Company first occasioned the establishment of an ordi- nary ambassador at Constantinople." — Adam BmitL "As when some faithful envoy, who at large Receives commission for a weighty charge, Chides his neglect, recalling to his thought Some valued purpose midst his zeal for- got, And, ere he sees his lord, with eager care Bends eveiy po>ver the omission to repair." Hoole, Orlando Furioso. " The V>r{iis\\ phnipoteniiariesvieve directed to give the same assurances to the Dutch ministers at Utrecht, and withal to let them know that the queen was determined by their late conduct to make peace either with or without, but would much rather choose the former." — Swift. " WTien I was at Apamea, some of the principal inhabitants of several ditt'erent citiw complained to me of the e.xcessive a]i])oint- ments that were decreed to their deputies." — Mclnwth, Cicero. Ambiguous. Equivocal. Ambiguous (Lat. ambiyvns, from ambo, both, as if telling both ways) is a form of expression which leaves the sense doubtful. Equivocal (ceqtms and vox) is the character which belongs to a term as ha\'ing two meanings. So, ambiguous is negative, equivocal is positive. In an ambigvious sentence I do not see the grammatical force; in an equi- vocal, I do not know the intention or mind of the speaker. Ambiguity is thus less often the result of design than equivocation, which is some- times used as a synonym for prevarica- tion ; so that the speaker desires his hearers to accept a term in one sense, w^hile he is ready to fall back upon another if it suit his purpose. " Taking advantage of a sentence or word that might be ambiguous or doubtful." — Sir T. Elyot. " The equivocal title of the apostolical, given to the Eoman creed." — Waterland. Ambition. See Competition. See Accountable Amenable. and Docile. Amend. Cobkect. Eefobm. Emend. Eectify. Of these, Amend and Emend are really the same word — emendare, to which, in the French amender, another form has been loosely prefixed. The root is menda, a fault. In conmion usage, amend means positively to better, and emend negatively to re- move faults. Emend is used of lite- rary subjects, amend more com- monly of moral. To Correct [cor- rigere) is to bring to a conformity with moral or artificiiil rule, by atithoritatively removing faults, and, by an extension of meaning, by puu- ibhing them. To Reform [refoniuire) is to correct in a more ■continuous and lasting tnanner, and has reference ' to the time to come, as well as to what is past. In reference to persons, it has the sense of reclaim from wTong- ncss of life ; and to institutions, from inherent defects. Correction desig- nates that kind of action by which one sets to work to destroy or redi'ess de- ficiencies of any sort, for the piu'pose of bringing back the matter to a standard which has been deviated from. Amendment denotes a change AMENDS. ( 57 ) AMPLE. brouglit about in sometliing wliicli to some extent lias been well done. Reform denotes the state of a thing re-established in its right order or condition. A correction of faults will constitute an amendment of character, which, if carried out and completed, may result in an en- tire reform. To Rectify {^rectum facere, to make right or straight) refers, on the other hand, only to the past, in the sense of adjusting what is wrong or fidse in fact, and has no application to continuity of habit. It ai)plies to intellectual as well as moral subject-matter, as to rectify the errors or exaggerations of a state- ment. " Graunt me, good Lord, grace of amende- ment." — Fiers Ploujhman. " Under what manner therefore shonld I now submit this book to be corrected and amended of them which can sutler nothing to be well r'—Tyndall. "The practical definition of what the popular branch of our legislature was at this dav he took to be precisely this : an assembly freely elected, between whom and the mass of the people there was the closest union and most perfect sympathy. Such a House of Commons it was the purpose of the con- stitution originally to erect, and such a House of Commons" it was the wish of every reformer now to establish." — Fitt, Speech on Parliamentary Reform. " I hardly left a single line in it without giving it what I thought an emendation." Mason. " I must beg leave to assure certain modern rectifiers of prejudices, that the fathers are not commonly led away by a vain supersti- tion, as they affect to represent them." — Warburton. Amendment and reformation apply to things or persons in their totality. Correction, emendation, and rectifica- tion are of specific parts or points. AaiENDS. See Compensation. Amercement. See Fine. Amicable. FniENDLy. These words are etymologically equivalent — amicus, in Latin, being ecpiivalent to the English friend. But Amicable is the more formal word of the two, and so indicates less warmth of feeling _ personnlly. Friendly is positive in its force, while amicable often means no mure than negatively the absence of quar- rel. So it often refers to the externals of conduct, or to a conventional friendship ; as the " amicable ad- justment of former disputes." "We are bound, in Christian duty, to live amicably with all ; but it would be, perhaps, impossible to feel friendly towards all, in equal degree. Friendly, is with the feelings of friends. Ami- cable, after the manner of friends. " Even those that break the peace cannot but praise it ; how much more should they bid for it that are true friends to it, and to that amicableness that attends it ?" — Bishop Taijlor. " There are several texts in the New Test- ament which interpret the love of our neighbour to mean universal benevolence or friendliness towards the whole kind as op- portunities may offer." — Waterland. Ample. Spacious. Capacious. These words convey in common the idea of extent or largeness. But Ample (Latin am2:>lus) is always rela- tive to some standard of want or necessity. Anything which is more than barely sufficient is ample, whether in quantity, nvimber, space, or degree of any sort. Spacious {spatiwn) expresses what is of super- ficial largeness, and Capacious (Latin ertpfta;) largeness in measvu-es of internal extent. In the ample one has satisfaction; in the spacious, free- dom ; in the capacious, roominess. Ample is equally applicable to things moral and physical — ample_ powers, ample quantity. Spacious is appli- cable only to physical extent, except by metaphor ; while capacious is ap- plicable to the physical and the intel- lectual. That is ample which more than meets requirement. That is spacious which gives no idea of cir- cumscription. That is_ capacious which, containing much, is not easily over-filled, nor checks the process of depositing or storing. " How may I Adore Thee, Author of this universe, And all this good to man, for whose well- being So ampli/, and with hands so liberal, Tliou hast provided ?" Milton. AMUSEMENT. ( 58 ) ANALOGY. " In that spacious place, ships of the greatest burthen may ride afloat." — Bam- 2Jiers Voyages. " No figure is so capacious as this (the sphere), and consequently whose parts are so well compacted and united, and be so near one to another for mutual strength." — Jiay oil Creation. Amttsemestt. Diversion. En- TEUTAIN.'ilENT. Sl'OKT. EeCEEA- TION. PasTIJIE. An Amusement (Fr. amuser, to detain or auinse) is any continuons employment which gives pleasure and ease to the mind, whether pur- posely sought or not. It is employ- ment without the sense of labour, and with no special object beyond itself. It is a lull of the mind, and a release from mental efforts and serious reflections. Diversion (Latin divertere, to turn aside) is an amuse- ment, viewed relatively to the more serious business of life, from which it is a deviation. Hence it is more strongly counteractive than amuse- ment, and may imply a higher degree of excitement, such, for instance, as amounts to positive merriment ^\Tien one is amused, the time passes unmarked ; when one is divei'ted, it passes marked only by lively and agreeable sensations. We are amused by a tale, diverted by a comedy. One does not say that the tragedy diverts, because it is too serious, nor amuses, becaus<3 it is too earnest. He must be well-nigh weary of life whom nothing can amuse ; he must be deep in melancholy whom nothing can divert. One may amuse one- self in solitude; one is divei-ted in company. It is not well to give way to a fondness for diversions, for it is likely to create a habit of incapacity for amusement, as draughts too strong destroy the relish for tliose which are w'eaker, and exciting pleasures make conmion pleasures tame. An En- TEKTAINMENT (Fr. entrctciiir) is the keeping up in the mind of the feeling of amusement by means which are social, and more or less of a refined character, as a play, or even a ban- quet. Sport (an abbreviation of disi^ort, and that from dL-^jyortare, to active, but not necessarily so ener- getic, comprising all degrees of carry about) is more purely physical and constitutional, and denotes those active forms of amusement which belong natm-ally to the young and the robust, as the " spoils of the field." Recreation (Lat. recreare, to recreate) is, like diversion, counter- jssarily aU de relaxation, from active amusement to a seasonable abstinence from aU employment. It belongs to the stu- dious and industrious, with whom recreation is a relief from past laboui-s and a ^jreparation for resuming them. The Pastime is, as its name implies, a means of pleasantly passing the time. It is the active amusement which beguiles the leisure hour, which otherwise might^hang tediously. It is a happy relief to the industrious to enjoy recreation ; it is better that the indolent should be foxmd a pastime than that he should be left to his own idleness. " High above our heads, at the summit of the cliff, sat a group of mountaineer children amusing themselves with pushing stones from the top, and watching as they plunged into the lake." — Gilpin's Tour. " They must act as their equals act ; they must, like others, dress, keep a table, an equipage, and resort to public diversions. It is necessary according to their ideas." — Knox, £ssays. " But the kind hosts their entertainment gave, With hearty welcome and an open face. In all they did you might discern with ease A willing mind, and a desire to please." Drydcn. " In areas varied with mosaic art, Some whirl the dirk, and some the javelin dart ; Aside, sequestered from the vast resort, Antinous sate, spectator of the sport.^' Pope. " So that of necessity they must either apply their accustomed Labours, or else re- create themselves with honest and laudable pastimes." — More's Utopia. Analogy. Eesejiblance. Analogy (Gr. avaXoyia) is often used familiarly, as if it meant mere moral resemblance or similarity. Strictly sjieaking, however, analogy implies a third term, or four terms, as ANATHEMA. ( 59 ) ANIMAL. follows: — As A is to B, so is C; or as A is to B, so is C to D. Analogy, therefore, is similarity of relations. When we argue from example, we argue from the likeness of things; when from analogy, we argue from the likeness of their relations. If I argue that, because the seed dies in the eai-th before it springs up anew, therefore it is probable that the human body will rise again aft«r death ; this is, as to the character of the idea, a resemblance, as to the argument, an analogy ; the principle being that, as the same God is the author of a natural and a spiritual world. He may be expected to act toward each upon similar and com- mon laws. " The schoolmen tell us there is an analogy between intellect and sight, forasmuch as in- tellect is to the mind what sight is to the body, and that he who governs the State is analogous to him who steers a ship. Hence a prince is analogically styled a pilot, being to the State what a pilot is to the vessel." — Bishop Berkeley. " To do good is to become most like God. It is that, which of all other qualities, gives us the resemblance of His nature and perfec- tion." — Shar-p. Anathema. See Cuese. Ancestoe. See F.oeefather. Ancient. See Old. Anecdotk Stoey. An Anecdote is literally (Gr. uviKhoTos) an incident which has never been given out or published, and so in private keeping. It is the relation of a characteristic matter of fact relating to individuals, and, therefore, stands to Story (a shorter form of history) as species to genus. (See Account.) "Antiquity has preserved a beautiful in- stance, in an anecdote of Alexander, the tyrant of Pheres, who, though he had so in- dustriously hardened his heart as to seem to take delight in cruelty, insomuch as to mur- der many of his subjects every day, without cause and without pity, yet at the bare re- presentation of a tragedy which related the misfortunes of Hercules and Andromache, he was so touched with the fictitious distress which the poet had wr.ni;j,ht \\y in it, that lie Ijurst out into a flood of tears."— 5^cvkc'. " Intent he heai's Penelope disclose A mournful story of domestic woes." Pope. Angee. See Weath. Angle. See Coenee. Angey. See Passionate. Anguish. See Pain. Animadyeet. See Blame. Animal. Betjte. Beast. Animal (Fr. aniinal, from anima, the life) comprehends every creature endowed with that life which is supe- rior to the merely vegetative life of plants, and, therefore, includes man. It is, however, sometimes made to express other animals than man, a further distinction being drawn between the rational and the irrational animal life. " Animate bodies are either such as are endued with a vegetative soul, as plants, or a sensitive soul, as the bodies of animals — birds, beasts, fishes, or insects — or a rational soul, as the body of man, and the vehicles of angels, if any such there be." — Ray on Creation. Brute (Lat. bnttim) and Beast (Lrat. hestia) stand related eacb in its own character to man. " We cannot teach brute animals to use their eyes in any other way than that in wdiich nature hath taught them." —Beid. " Inspiring dumb And helpless victims with a sense so keen Of injury, with such knowledge of their strength, And such sagacity to take revenge, That oft the beast has seemed to judge the man." Cowper. Brute is the animal regarded in reference to the absence of that in- telligence which man possesses, beast (except where the word is used in the sense of cattle) in reference to that savage nature of which man is, or ought to be, devoid. So we say, the indolent or senseless biiite, the cruel or savage beast. Hence, while the term animal is applicable to the insects, neither brute nor beast is so, as not coming into moral comparison with man. Applying the terms figura- tively to the moral characters and dispositions of men, the term animal ANIMATE. ( 60 ) ANNOUNCE. denotes one who follows the instincts of bis lower nature, to the neglect of his moral and intellectual nature. Beast is applied to one who grovels in sensuality ; brute, to one whose nature seems deadened to fine feeling, as the selfish or cruel brute. Animate. Ins f ire. To Animate is literally to put life or soul into a thing {anima, life, or soul). To Inspire is to impart an influence to the nature of another, as if by a breath [hispirare). The dif- ference lies in what is supposed to be communicated. The lower influence is expressed by the word animate, so that the term is applied to the mere imparting of life, or the appearance of life. The soul animates the body ; the marble of the sculptor appears animated. The higher, more ener- getic and finer faculties of life are said to be imparted by inspiration, as to be inspired with a sublime courage or devotion. Animation quickens the physical and inferior, inspiration the mental, moral, and spiritual impulses of human nature. So animate lends itself the more easily to express evil influences, as to be animated by a spirit of revenge. " Wherevei- we are formed by Nature to any active purpose, the passion which aui- 111 tes us to it is attended with delight or a pleasure of some kind." — Burke. "Her hearty words so deep into the mind Of the young damsel sunk, that great desire Of warlike amis in her forthwith they ty-nd. And generous stout courage did inspire." Spenser. Animation. Life. Vivacity. SriRiT. Animation and Life are em- ]ili)yed alike to express the appear- ance of one actuated by the lively iminilses of nature. Yivacity diflers from animation (vivax, vhms, alive) in expressing itself rather by the manner, speech, and movements ; while animation may be confined to the counteninicc. Spirit stands to action as vivacity stnnds to mnvcmctit. and animation to aspect. It is that vivacity which sustains itself in dif- ficulty or danger, and is accom- panied by self-assertion when needed. Animation is in the soul, vivacity in the temperament, spirit in the heart. " Heroes in animated marble frown, And legislators seem to think in stone." Pope. " They have no notion of life and fire in fancy and words." — Felton. " Their attitudes, their vivacity, their leaps out of the water, their frolics in it, which I have noticed a thousand times with equal attention and amusement, all conduce to show their excess of spirits, and ai-e simply the eft'ects of that excess." — Paley. " With all the warmth of a zealot in the cause of virtue, he (Juvenal) pours his majestic verse, and amid the most spirited invective and the finest morality emits many a luminous irradiation of poetry beautifully descriptive." — Knox, Essays. Animosity. See Acrimony. Annals. 8ee History. Annex. See Add. Annotation. See Note. Announce. Proclaim. Pub- lish. Declare. Things which are of the nature of intelligence are Announced. As the term is applied to tidings as well as to persons, it often bears reference to something already expected. It im- plies some degree of formality. A marriage, for instance, is anuoimced in the newspapers ; an invited guest is announced. Announcement may be to many, to few, or to one (Lat. annuntiare, nuntms, a messenger). Proclaim (Lat. proclmnare) applies to everything which is or may become matter of public interest, and is made in the hearing of many, as tidings, oj^inions. edicts, and the like. Things arc proclaimed by the voice, an- nounced in Tsa-iting or other ways. As announce refers sometimes to what has been anticiijated. so iJso it may I'efer to something which is to take i^lace after an interval of time, as to announce an intended departure ; while proclaim and Publish refer xisually to tlujigs presonl, or which ANNO V. ( 6i ) ANSWER. liave lately j)ast. In such pLrases as to proclaim or publish aii intention, tlie subject is in fact present. In Declare tberc is implied not so mucb the purpose of publicity, as of clearness, as distinct from reserve. We declare what we desire shall be Avell known, understood, or believed ; so that we may declare a thing to no more than one other person. There is a close alliance between publish and proclaim ; but publish implies any means for putting a matter in the possession of the public; pro- claim implies i-ather a formal, per- sonal, and sometimes official and authoritative mode of doing it. We proclaim our own acts or intentions. We publish what interests or concerns others. We announce in order to ap- prise ; we declare in order to remove doubt. " Her " (Queen Elizabeth's) " arrival was announced through the country by a peal of cannon from the ramparts, and a disphiy of fireworks at night." — Gilpin's Tour. " Now had the great Prodaimer, with a voice Moi-e awful than the sound of trumpet, cried Repentance, and Heaven's kingdom nigh at hand To all baptiz'd." Milton. " For the instruction, therefore, of all sorts of men to eternal life, it is necessary that the sacred and saving truth of God be openly published unto them, which open ptiblication of heavenly mystei-ies is by an excellency termed preaching." — Hooker. " But the attorney answered them that he is not the declarer of his intentions ; he must be judged by the book, by his words, above all, by the effect."— -Sta^e Trials. Annoy. Molest. Tease. Annoy is from the French ennuyer, a compound verb, of which odium (and not nocere, as commonly given) is the root. Molest is from molestia, inconvenience, and this from moles, a mass or weight. Tease is the Saxon tcesau, to pluck. We are annoyed by anything painful, provided the pain be not excessive ; and annoyance may be either physical or mental. We may be annoyed by an excessive glare of light, or by the conduct of a friend towards us, when it has been reported to us. " Common nuisances are such inconvenient and troublesome offences as annoij the wIhiIi; community in general, and not merely soiin! particular person." — Blackstone. Molest, on the other hand, is always pJiysical, and commonly implies •the repetition of physical annoy- ances, as to be molested by insults, or begging applications, or the visit.s of a lly or wasp. We are never molested by circumstances or facts in the abstract. "Save where from yonder ivy-mantl.-l tower, The moping owl doth to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign."— Gr«//. Tease is very like molest. We are teased by the repetition of unpleasant trifles, which by their recurrence cause personal irritation. " But as a whelp starts up with fear When a bee's humming at his ear; With upper lip elate he grins Whilst round the little teazer spins." Fenton Annoyance. See Displeasure. Annul. See Abolish. Answer. Eeply. Eejoinder, Kesponse. Words given in return for words is the idea common to all these terms. An Answer (Saxon andswaren) is given as being required or expected. So an answer to a question or a speech is made in answer to another, such being the preconcerted arrange- ment. Reply (Fr. repUque, Lat. replicare, to fold or bend back) is a formal answer to an argumentative assertion, and commonly implies what is not implied in answer, namely, a contrary statement to the preceding. An answer is commensurate with the terms of a question or interrogation ; a reply is not so restricted, and does not necessarily presuppose interroga- tion at all. " When a man asks me a question, I liave it in my power to answer or be silent, to answer softly or roughly, in terms of respect or in terms of contempt." — Beattie. " The plaintiff may plead again, and re])ly to the defendant's plea. The plaintiff in his replication may totally traverse tlie plea." — Blackstone. ANSWERABLE. ( 62 ) ATOLOGY. A Rejoinder (Fr. rejoindre, to rejoin^ expresses not, as reply, a formal and lengthened eoiinter-state- nient, but one within a short com- pass and of a pointed character. Response (Lat. respondere, respon- sns) denotes not an antagonistic, but an accordunt answer, as on hearing one's name called out, or as in the case of the harmonious responses of the Liturgy. " Rejoinder to the churl the king disdained, But shook his head and rising wrath re- strained." Pope. " Tertullian takes notice that the responses in baptism were then somewhat larger than the model laid down by Christ, meaning than the form of baptism, and he refers the en- largement of the responses to immemorial custom or tradition." — Waterland. Answerable. See Account- able. Antagonist. See ENE^nr. Antecedent. See Precedent. Anterior. See Preceding. Anticipate. See Prevent. Antipathy. See Hatred. Antiquated. See Old. Antique. See Old. An-xiety. See Care. Apathy. See Indifference. Ape. See Mock. Aperture. See Opening. Aphorism. See Proverb. Apology. Defence. Justifi- cation. Exculpation. Excuse. Plea. An Apology (Greek airoXoy'in'] had originally the simple meaning of de- fence, as Jewel's "Apology for the Church of England." As at present employed, the term implies the nature of something said by way of amends. In this way it would differ materially from both Defence and Justifica- tion, as imphjing wrong comviitted, which they, of course, deny. Again, we apologize for what has been done to another, we defend or justify what we have done ourselves. Again, between a defence and a justification there is this radical difference, that we defend ourselves, and we justify our conduct ; the defence may there- fore possibly consist in the denial of the charge; whereas justification necessarily admits it, but gives it a new character. Where the defence admits the allegation, it doe's not ex- tend beyond a palliation of the charge, or at most a demonstration of its allowableness (Lat. de/endere). A jus- tification may go no farther ; on the other hand, it may prove positively a high degree of truth and right (Justus and faceve, to make just or right). Exculpation (ex and cidjya. a fault) is the act of an inferior be- fore one who has a right to censure or piuiish. Its object is to show that no blame attaches to him for what he has done or left undone. The recognition of this is also sometimes called exculpation. Excuse, on the other hand (excusare). never amoxmts to this. It admits the fact charged, but endeavours to show that it ought to be leniently dealt with, on the ground of extenuating circumstances, and is often the line adopted by jDleaders when defence, justification, or exculpation seems impossible. An excuse may be against an obligation as well as a charge. A Plea (Lat. jdncitum) is a specific point of self- defence. It is. as it were, an item in the general si;m of any of the former. So that we may put in successively first one ]Aea and then another. Tech- nically speaking, the allegation of the plaintiff is answered by" the plea of the defendant. " For in the book that is called mine Apoloijtj, it is not required by the nature of that name that it be any answer or defence for mine own self at all ;" but it sufficeth that it be of mine own making an answer or defence for some other." — Sir T. More. " Defence in its true legal sense signifies not a justification, protection, or guard, which is now its popular signification, but merely an opposing or denial (from the French verb, defendre) of the truth or validity ot the complaint." — Blachstone. " And pettish Jonas, after he had been cooled in the belly of the wliale and the sea, yet will be bearing God down in an argu- ment to the justi/i/iwj of his idle choler. ' I do well to be angry to tlic death.' " — Bishop J loll. APOPHTHEGM. ( 63 ) APPARENT. " So that if I chose to make a defence of myself on the little principle of a culprit pleading in his exculpation, I might not only secure my acquittal, but make merit with the of the BiW."— Burke. WTien tlie invited guests in tlie parable " began vnth one consent to make excuse," tliis was a plea against an obligation, and so not directly, l>nt only indirectly, a justification of con- duct. " And there are few actions so ill (unless they are of a very deep and black tincture indeed) but will admit of some extenuation, at least from these common topics of human frailty, such as are ignorance or inadvertency, passion or surprise, company or solicitation, with many other such things, which may go a great way towards an excusing of the agent, though they cannot absolutely justify the action." — South. [" They towards the throne supreme Accountable, made haste to make appear With righteous plea their utmost vigilance. And easily approved." Milton. Apophthegm. See Proverb. Appal. See Dismay. Apparel. See Dress. Apparent. Clear. Visible. Manifest. Plain. Obvious. Evi- dent. Conspicuous. Apparent (Lat. apparere) is_ xised in two senses; eitlier clear, visible, in opposition to concealed or dubious, or, secondly, seeming, as o^jposed to real. It is in the former of tliese senses in wliich it is a synonym with the above. It is the most inexpressive of aU. That is apparent which the bodily eye or the understanding dis- cerns. YisiBLE {visibilis, from videre, to see) is used purely in a physical sense, and admits of every degree, from the barely discernible to the conspicuous. That is visible which is not invisible. The Conspicuous (Lat. conspicuus) is also applied only to the physical, and means the pro- vdnenthj visible. The cause of this prominence, however, may be moral, as a person may be conspicuous l:)y reason of taste in dress, not because he is more distinctly dispernible, but because he draws attention. Clear {clams) is both physical and moral, and denotes the absence of indistinct- ness, obscurity, or confusedness as regards sight, sense, or sound. A}^- pnrcnt is applieal)le not only to tlie ol)jects tliemselves, but their pro- perties. The star is visible, perhaps also conspicuous, but its size and brightness are apparent. Plain [planus] is applied both to the objects of sight and sound, and to the sub- jects of the understanding. As that is clear which is lucid in itself, so that is plain of which ordinary j^er- ception may take cognizance, so as to require no eft'ort to discern it. A thing may be stated so clearly as to be plain to the meanest understand- ing. Manifest (Lat. inanifestiis, manus and fendo, struck with the hand) is that which is palpably plain, aud, as it were, exhibits itself without question. A man taken off his guard will often manifest his true character, though he may habitaully conceal or keep it in check. A manifest contra- diction is one which needs no criti- cism, but which spontaneously or by its own inherent force makes itself apparent. Obvious (Lat. obviam, on the road) retains the force of its etymology. It is applied to what we cannot help understanding, and is not used of merely physical subjects. An obvious remark partakes commonly of the nature of a truism. Evident (Lat. evidens) is more commonly used in a moral or intellectual acceptation, and denotes what is easily recog- nizable as a fact or truth. The appa- rent is opposed to the undiscemed or unperceived ; the clear is opposite to the indistinct ; the visible is opposite to the invisible ; the manifest is oppo- site to the disguised or suppressed ; the plain is opposite to the obscure and difficult ; the obvious to the ques- tionaljle ; the conspicuous to the un- observable ; the evident to the doubt- ful. " When there is no apparent cause in the sky, the water will sometimes appear dappled with large spots of shade." — Gilpin's Tour. " Others are furnished by criticism with a telescope. They see with great clearness whatever is too remote to be discovered by the rest of mankind, but are totally blind to all that lies immediately before them." — Rambler, APrARITION. ( 64 ) APPEASE. " Maker of heaven and earth, anil of all things visible and invisible." — Nicene Creed. " You heard not he was false, Your eyes beheld the traitor manifest." Dryden. " So that being filled with the Holy Ghost, as we read in Acts ii. and the 4th verse, they forthwith spolje with other tongues, and so clearly, plainly, and intelligibly, as both to convince and astonish all who heard them." — South. " The hero's bones with careful view select, Apart and easy to be known they be, Amidst the heap, and obvious to the eye." Pope. " They affect singularity for want of any- thing else that is singular, and finding in themselves strong desires of conspicuousncss, with small abilities to attain it, they are re- solved, with Erostratus, that fired Diana's temple, to be talked of for having done so, to acquire that considerableuess by their sacrilege which they must despair of from their own parts." — Boyle. " No idea, therefore, can be undistinguish- able from another, from which it ought to be diil'erent, unless you would have it dillereut from itself, for from all other it is evidently different." — Locke. Appakition. See Ghost. Appear. See Seem. Appearance. Aspect. Appearance (apparere, to appear) is used for the fact, the character, and the semblance of appearing. It is in the two latter points that it is a syno- nym Avith Aspect (aspicere, aspectus). The appearance of a thing is total, its aspect is partial. The whole of a subject, or an object with all its pro- perties or attendant cii'cumstances, is its appearance. Its aspect is some one characteristic side or face, which it presents to us as a point of view. The appearance of a thing is what it looks Uhe, the aspect is what it seems to mean or to indicate. The heavens have a clear or cloiidy appeai-ance, but they have a serene or stormy aspect. The appearance is a conclu- sion in itself, the aspect suggests further conclusions. " Marcus, I know thy generous temper well ; Fling but th' appearance of dishonour on it. It straiglit takes fire and mounts into a blaze." Addison. "The true aspect of a world lying in its rubbish. " — Burnet. Appease. Allay. Alleviate. Eelieve. Pacify. Mitigate. Soothe. Assuage. These exj)ress different modifications of the idea of making quiet, calm, or still. To Appease (Fr. apaiser, 2X1 Ix, peace) is etymologicaUy the same word as the English pacify. It denotes the bringing to a calm or quiet state when the previous cause of the disturbance was intrinsic. It api^lies accordingly to moral cases, and not physical. The sea or the storm calms or abates, but is not appeased. The wi-ath or the cravings of men and beasts are appeased. In order to appease, something is exacted or paid. " We, like unskilful or unruly patients, fondly imagine that the only way to appease our desires is to grant them the objects they so passionately tend to." — Boyle. Pacify {pacem, facere) has the same sense as appease, but is employed of lesser disturbances ; while violent anger or craving wants are appeased, importunity, discontent, or restless- ness is pacified. " Not one diverting syllable now, at a pinch, to pacify our mistress." — U Estrange. Pacify applies to the feelings of men, and not to the force of things. Of alleviate, mitigate, and relieve, the two first express a more limited action, than the third. Pain or grief is said to be Relieved {relevare, levis, light) when it is either partially or entirely removed. When it is Alleviated (ad and levis, light), or Mitigated [viitis, bland, lenient), it is only par- tially removed. " The calamity of the want of the sense of hearing is much alleviated — comparatively speaking, it is removed by giving the use of letters and of speech, by which they (the deaf) are admitted to the pleasure of social conversation." — Jlorsky. " By the practices of hnly mon he also showed that the reign of that ceremonious law was mitifjahle, that in some cases its obligation might be relaxed, and its observ- ance dispensed with." — Barrow. " The inferior ranks of people no longer looked upon that order as they had done be- APPELLATION. ( 65 ) APPRAISE. fore, as the comforters of their distress and the relievers of their indigence." — Adam ISmitli. Mitigate is used only of tilings, relieve both of things and persons. Alleviate is applied to suffering and distress regarded as a pressing bur- den, mitigate to the emotions of anger, and severity of action or treat- ment. To Allay is to lay a thing, or set it at rest. It stands to the fervid and vehement as appease to the vio- lent and boisterous, in other words, to the feelings rather than the passions. Thirst, or what is ana- logous to it, as, for instance, curiosity or ambition, is allayed. On the other hand, Assuage {suavis, soft) applies to both feelings and passions. We assuage grief, pain, and wrath. We relieve and mitigate, but do not ap- pease, grief and pain. Soothe (A. S. gesCidhian) is said of pain or passion. It indicates a reduction of it without removal, and is commonly temporary as well as partial. "Gentle stroking with a smooth hand allays violent pains and cramps, and relaxes the suffering parts from their unnatural ten- sion." — Burke. " But to assuage Th' impatient fervour which it first con- ceives Within its reeking bosom, threatening death To his young hopes, requires discreet delay." Cowper. " Sacred history has acquainted us with the power of music over the passions ; and there is little doubt but the verse, as well as the lyre of David, was able to soothe the troubled spirits to repose." — Kndx, Essays. Appellation. See Name. Append. See Add. Applaud. See Peaise. Application. Attention. Study. Study (Lat. shidiwn, from studere, to desire) is the close mental observa- tion of anytbing for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. Application and Attention [applicare and at- tendere) are faculties or habits of mind which belong to study. Attention denotes the use, exercise, and devotion of the mind to the subjects of study. to the exclusion of regard for other matters. Application includes at- tention, and expresses the entire sur- render of the student in sustained attention to the employments of study, to which his time as well as his atten- tion must be given. Stiidy must l)e systematic, application diligent, atr tention close. Young pei'sons and many others are capable in some degree of attention, but their levity prevents them oftentimes from giving application, and their inexperience does not show them its necessity. Habits of study are formed in their earlier stages l)y converting the at- tention of the young into application, by indirect methods, such as by mak- ing the subjects of learning attractive and interesting in themselves, or by the adventitious enhancement of them by prizes for competition. "Had his application been equal to his talents, his progress might have been greater." — Jay. The word does not occur in Old English literature in this sense. " That very philosophy which had been adopted to invent and explain articles of faith, was now studied only to instruct us in the history of the human mind, and to assist us in developing its faculties and regulating its operations." — Warburton. Appoint. See Allot, Nomi- nate, Prescribe, Constitute, and Ordain. Apportion. See Allot. Appraise. Appreciate. Esti- mate. Esteem. Value. To Appraise and to Appreciate are diiFerent forms of the same word, of which pretkim, price, is the root. Material goods are appraised for the purpose of ascertaining their market value. Things are appreciated at their moral value, as character, con- duct, acts of persons. To Estimate {a;stimare) is to get at the intrinsic value of things by calculation, and accordingly often means a rough valuing. Unlike the rest, it is appli- cable to what does not yet exist, as to estimate a future cost. As estimate appHes to both material and moral things, so Esteem only to moral. APPRAISE. ( 66 ) APPREHEND. Yalite is the most general and simple of all tliese synonyms, and means to set a value (valere, to ^be worth), which may be variable. The ■word is sometimes used to signify to set a high value, as to appreciate is taken to mean not only to afiix a price or value, but its just and due amount. Esteem and value, when employed without qualification, imply a favourable estimate. The same is also implied in appreciate, but not m appraise and estimate. One appre- ciates persons or things for their social value and utility; one esteems persons or characters for their moral value or merit. How often are the good esteemed! It would seem strange that they should not be so ; they do not excite the provocations of human nature, they are inoffen- sive and kind. Yet how seldom are they appreciated for those hidden virtues or self-denials into which the world does not care to inquire! Appreciate is often used where there is danger of overlooking. " The statute, therefore, granted this writ, by which the defendant's goods and chattels^ are not sold, but only appraised, and all of them (except oxen and beasts of the plough) are delivered to the plaintiff at such reason- able appraisement and price in part satisfac- tion of the debt." — Blackstme, It is seldom employed of faults or errors, as in the following from Gib- bon: " A sin, a vice, a crime, are the objects of theology, ethics, jurisprudence. Whenever their judgments agree, they corroborate each other, but as often as they differ, a pru- dent legislator appreciates the guilt and punishment according to the measure of social injury." In contrast with this Bishop Hall uses the term as follows : he says that the golden vials of incense of the angels in the apocalypse represent "both their acceptable thanksgivings, and their general axypreciai'wns of peace and welfare to the Church of God upon earth." "Their wisdom, which to present power consents. Live dogs before dead lions editiudes." Daniel. " Esteem is the value we iilnco \\\m\\ some degree of wortli. It is higher than simple approbation, which is a decision of judgment. Esteem is the commencement of affection." — Cogan. "Authors, like coins, grow dear as they grow old ; It is the rust we value, not the gold." I'ope. Apprehend. Conceive. Sup- pose. liiAGiNTi. Presume. As- sume. To Apprehend {apprehoulere), lite- rally, to lay hold of in the mind, is employed to express what does not profess to be the result of accui-at-e knowledge, or a judgment maturely formed, but such a belief as we are inclined to entertain upon our present state and stock of information. It is the expression of a strong apparent probability, and relates to facts, not principles or generalizations. To Con- ceive [concipere) denotes a maturer act of judgment, yet one short of actual determination or absolute con- viction. It relates to principles or truths, and needs the help of imagi- nation. In Suppose {supponere), Imagine (Fr. imagine^-, imago, an image), and Pkesume [praesiimere, to take beforehand), the uncertainty of mind is voluntarily stated. If I say, I imagine, I am prepared to have it shown that the matter has no exist- ence but in my imagination. If I say, I suppose, I mean that what I say is not to my knowledge based upon authority or evidence, but a sort of rational guess. If I say, I presume, I mean that I suppose it based upon something, the evidence of which I have forestalled, by which it might be shown to be true. If I say, I Assume [assumere), I mean that I take something for proved or granted which has not in fact been so, and the force of which I have simply appro- j)riated, on the ground of its being true, though I do not, and perhaps could not, prove it. We may observe that a presumption is an antecedent IH-obability final in itself ; an assump- tion is no more than the arbitrary adoption of what is required to com- plete an argument. One does not apprehend what seems unlikely in reason or fact. One cannot conceive ■what is contrary to experience and APPREHEND. ( 67 ) APPROPRIATE. established order. One cannot sup- pose what neither argument nor ob- servation is likely to verify. One cannot imagine that what has no ex- istence in the common course and nature of things will occur or has occurred. One cannot presume what is contrary to analogy. It is worse than waste of time to assume in ar- gument what yoiir adversary would never concede. Imagine is a term of peculiarly varied applicabiUty. It bears at different times the meanings of think, conceive, create, combine, conjecture, estimate, presume, believe with ground, and believe groundlessly, or, as it were, dream. It follows all the senses of imagination, as presume aU the senses of presumption. Pre- sumption, though always founded ui^on reason, being a reasonable fore- stalling of proof, nevertheless varies widely in degree of force or truth. Some presumptions are mere conjec- tures, others amount, especially where several combine, to the establishment of a moral certainty. A presumption which has force is an instalment of the proof, being in course of transforma- tion from probability into certainty. " It was once proposed to discriminate the slaves by a particular habit, but it was '^w9,\.\y apprehended that there might be some danger in acquainting them with their own numbers." — Gibbon. " It was amongst the ruins of the capital that I first conceived the idea of a work which hits amused and exercised near twenty years of my life." — Ibid. " Upon supposal that such and such things continue in their being, and that God withal affords them His ordinary concurrence, such and such effects will certainly follow." — Smith. " Many men who now are conscious and willing to acknowledge that they act con- trary to all the reasonable evidence and con- viction of religion, are nevertheless very apt to imagine within themselves that if the great truths of religion were proved to them by stronger evidence, they should, by that means, be worked upon to act otherwise than they do." — Clark. "When the fact itself cannot be demon- stratively evinced, that which comes nearest to the proof of the fact is the proof of such circumstances which either necessarily or usually attended such facts, and these are called presumptions." — Blackstonc, " The consequences of assumed principles." — Whewell. Apprehension. See Alarm and Fear. Apprize, See Inform. Approach. See Access. Approach. Approximate. These verbs are both formed from the Latin livope, proxinius, the former metliately through the French proche, near. They differ in the degree of nearness expressed. Wlien two things Approach, the interval between them is materially lessened, or small. But they may be said to Approximate if the interval is in any degree lessened, though it may after all be so great as to be enormous. An approximate calculation, for instance, is so distant as hardly to be a calculation at all, but only the best that can be made of it. " Let matter be divided into the subtilest parts imaginable, and these be moved as swiftly as you will, it is but a senseless and stupid being still, and makes no nearer approach to sense, percei)tion, or vital energy than it had before." — Hay on Creation. "The largest capacity and the most noble dispositions are but an approximation to the proper standard and true symmetry of human nature." — /. Taylor. Approbation. See Praise. Appropriate. Suitable. Pe- culiar. Particular. Appropriate is to suitable as the subjective to the objective, the api)ro- priate being the suitable in concep- tion, and never employed of physical or mechanical fitting. So Suitable {suite, sequence, Lat. sequi, secutus) is the wider and simpler term ; that is suitable which is in any way adapted to a thing, that is appropriate which accords with the conceptions formed of it [proprius, proper). Suitable is a purely practical term. Appropriate is a term of taste. Suitable may be between two physical or two moral terms. Appropriate always implies at least one moral. The terms might often be used interchangeably. An apposite remark might be styled suitable or appropriate ; but appro- priate is never affirmed directly of persons. So we should say of some ArPROPRIATE. ( 68 ) APT. one elected to a i:)ublic office, he is a fit or suitable, not appropi-iate, person for the appointment. " In its strict and appropriate meaning, especially as applied to our Saviour's para- bles, it (parable) signifies a short narrative of some event or fact, real or fictitious, in which a continued comjjarison is carried on between sensible and sj)iritual objects; and under this similitude some important doc- trine, moral or religious, is conveyed and enforced." — Bishop J'orteus. Peculiar and Particular (pe- cuUarls and partlcularis) both ex- press what is the property of something else in a marked and characteristic way ; but peculiar re- lates to the person or object restric- tivebj. particular does not. For in- stance, the peculiar privileges of man are those which are i)roper to his nature, or belong to him as man. The particular pi-ivileges of man would mean those which might be specifically enumerated whether pecu- liar to him or not. " Raphael, amidst his tenderness and friend- shij) for men, shows such a dignity and conde- scension in all his speech and behaviour as are suitable to a superior nature." — Addison. " Beauty, which either waking or asleep, Shot forth peculiar graces." Hilton. " Young olerkes that ben likerous To reden artes that ben curious, Seken in every halke and every heme. Particular sciences for to lerue." Chaucer. Appropriate, Usurp. Arro- gate. Assume, Of these, the widest in signification and most varied in force is the last. Assume [assumere] is, literally, to take t•.?, art, and facere, to make) and Fictitious {fingere, to feign) are nearly allied. As artful means done with art as opposed to simplicity, so artificial means done by art as opposed to Nature. The artificial is the dexterous pro- duction of imitative art. The ficti- tious is the creation of what has no natural existence. An artificial tale of distress, for instance, would be one of which the circumstances well imitated what was natural or probable. A fictitious tale would mean one of which the incidents had no existence but in the deceit- ful ingenuity of the narrator. In the idea of the artificial there are two elements, either of which may appear with special prominence, — 1, that of art, as distinguished from Nature, and 2, that of exhibiting a consider- able degree of art, as distinguished from simple. Dryden uses it in the former sense, when he says — " In the unity of time you find them so scrupulous, that it yet remains a dispute among their poets whether the artificial day of twelve hours, more or less, be not meant by Aristotle rather than the natural one of twenty-four." In the second by Tillotson : " These, and such as these, are the hopes of hypocrites, which Job elegantly compares to the spider's web, finely and artificially wrought, but miserably thin and weak." Artist. Artisan. Artificer. Mechanic. All these bear reference to art. The man who applies the resources of art to constructive manufacture is the Artificer. It is thus that the Creator has been styled the gi-eat Artificer of the universe. There seems to be little drfferenee between the Artist and the Artisan, as re- gards their profession, beyond the dignity of their employments. He who exerci.ses any fine art toell is called an artist. He who exercises auy mechanical art well is cjilled an artisan. It is in the superior skill of labour that an artisan difiers from a Mechanic (ixrixavfj, Lat. mnchina, a machine), the uuvhanic being one who emjiloys instruments other than AS. ( 73 ) ASCRIBE. agricultural in his work. Thus a gunmaker would be an artisan, a shoemaker a mechanic. The artist may be unprofessional, as an amateur artist. " Art can never give the rules that make an art. This is, I believe, the reason why itrtists in general, and poets principally, have hten contiued in so narrow a circle." — l^urke. "If workmen become scarce, the manu- facturer gives higher wages, but at first lequires an increase of labour ; and this is willingly submitted to by the artisan, who can now eat and drink better to compensate his additional toil and fatigue." — Hume. " Another lean unwash'd ar-tificer Cuts oft' his tale, and talks of Arthur's death." Shakespeare. " An art quite lost with our mechanics ; a work not to be made out, but like the walls of Thebes, and such au artificer as Amphion." — Brown's Vulgar Errors. The professor of the principles of mechanics, as distingu.ished from the workman, is called a mechanician. As. See Consequently. Ascend. Mount. Arise. Kise. Climb. Ascend {ascendere) and Mount [monter, from the Latin mons) are employed as both transitive and in- transitive verbs, while Rise and Arise (Sax. risan, arisan) are used only as intransitive. It is in the in- transitive sense that the two former are synonyms with the latter. The simplest of all is rise, of which the rest may be considered as modifica- tions. To rise is irrelative, to arise is relative to something out of which a thing rises. This appears in the secondary tise of the term, to spring from a certain cause. To arise is also definite and limited, while rise is indefinite and progressive. A person arises from his bed, and the point of rising is gained when he stands ui^- right. A bird rises in the air, that is, goes higher and higher indefi- nitely. Rise, like arise, is used in a figurative as well as physical sense. It then expresses a gradual increase or enhancement. "It is not their nominal price onlv, but their real price, which rises in the progress of improvement. The rise of their nominal price is the effect, not of any degradation of the value of silver, but of the rise in their real price." — Adam Smith. " No grateful dews descend fi-om evening skies, Nor morning odoui-s from the flowers arise." J'ojjc. " He ascended into heaven." — Apostles' Creed. " The idlest and the paltriest mime that ever mounted upon bank." — Milton. " Its hooked form is of great use to the rapacious kind in catching and holding their prey, and in the comminution thereof i)y tearing. To others, it (the mouth) is no less serviceable to their climbing as well as neat and nice comminution of their food." — Berham. Mount, like rise, is progressive, but it expresses only the process after its commencement ; while rise expresses also the commencement. We might say, the birds rose, meaning that they took wing ; btit we could not use mount in this sense. In mount will be always found to underlie some implied degree of rising which is not considerable, as in ascend. It is gra- duated rising above the lower, while ascend is ungradnated, and towards the higher. The balloon ascends, rises, or monnts ; the tide rises or mounts, but is not said to ascend. This appears yet more plainly in the transitive use of mount and ascend. We ascend a mountain, bnt not a horse, because the latter action has a definite stop and limit. To ascend the hill is merely to go higher and higher up it ; to mount it, is to get to the top of it. Ascend conveys the idea of some considerable degree of altitude. To Climb (A. S. climban) is to ascend step by step in a series of personal eff"orts. Ascendancy. Influence. Ascribe. Impute. Attribute. These words belong to the process of assigning canse, and apparently are nsed in accordance with the nature of the cause assigned. Causation may be regarded as physical, moral, or mixed. Mixed causation, or human production, is expressed by Ascribe, ASj ( 74 ) ASA'. as I ascribe such a book to sucli an author; moral causation, or human motive, by Impute, as I impute such conduct to his generosity, or his cruelty, or his ignorance, as the case may be ; physical and moral caiisa- tion, by Attribute, as I attribute the loss of the ship to the violence of the storm; or I attribute his be- haviour to his ignorance. Ascribe is also used in the simple sense of refer, ivithoid any idea of causation, but property, as to ascribe glory to God ; that is, to express as an attribute of His nature. ' Behold Sir Balaam, now a man of spirit. Ascribes his gettings to his parts and merit ; What late he called a blessing now was wit, And God's good providence a lucky hit." Pope. " Nor you, ye proud, impute to those the fault, If memory o'er their tomh no trophies raise, Where, through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault. The pealing anthem swells the note of praise." Gray. " It is a practice much too common in inquiries of this nature to attribute the cause of feelings which merely arise from the mechanical structure of our bodies, or from the natural frame and constitution of our minds, to certain conclusions of the reasoning faculty." — Burke. Ask. Eequest. Beg. Be- seech. Supplicate. Entreat. Implore. Solicit, Adjure. Crave. To Ask (A. S. ascian, acsian), not taking the word in the sense of in- terrogate, is the simplest term for making a request. "And I beseech you come again to-morrow. What shall you ask of me that I'll deny. That honour sav'd may upon asking give ?" Shakespeare. Request, being Latin (requirere, questus). is a more polite word for the same thing. Nevertheless, the latter is sometimes used with an implied sense of authority amounting virtu- ally to a command. Request is not a strong term, implying neither ur- gency of want nor vehemence of word. " lieqiiestiiuf him to accept the same in good part, ;u> a testimony and witness of tlieir coul hearts, zeal, and tenThe law authorizes a magistrate to im- pose such and such a penalty; that is to _ say, would bear him out if any question as to his right were to arise. But it also empowers him to do it ; that is, he is free to act for himself in the matter, his power being given as well as recognized by the law. We also empower by giving faculties or abilities ; we authorize when we per- mit another to use those which he already possesses. *' Since God evidently designed the regular course of nature for the support and comfort of man, we seem authorized to conclude that He will apply its irregularities and disorders to his punishment, correction, and admoni- tion." — Bish'p 1 orttus. "From Chii.-,t and those cojnmiss ioncd hy Him we learn what the wisest men and even angels had desired to look into." — Hurd. " For let a vicious person be in never so high a command, yet still he will be looked upon but as one great vice empowered to cor- rect and chastise others." — South. Await. See Expect. Awaken. 8ee Excite. Aware. Conscious. Sensible. AvPARE (Saxon gewaere) denotes the knowledge which is needful to have for one's own sake in the regula- tion of our conduct or the considera- tion of our interests. It refers to mat- ters of ordinary, common, and prac- tical information, or to any facts as bearing upon ourselves. " Fastidious, or else listless, or perhaps Awitre of nothing arduous in a task They never undertook, they little note His dangers or escapes, and haply find There least amusement where he found the most." Cotcper. Conscious (Lat. conscius) refers to reflective, as Sensible {sentire, to feel) to perceptive, knowledge; or, in other words, I am conscious of mental, and sensible of physical, perceptions or sensations ; a-ware of facts external to myself. I am aware of a fact or a circumstance ; I am sensible of a toothache, or of some change of bodily condition, for better or for worse. The sick man is sensible of a change for the better when he feels it ; he is conscious of it when he re- flects on it. " Consciousness is the perception of what passes in a man's own mind." — Locke. " It is the good acceptance, the sensibleness of and acquiescence in the benefactor's good- ness, that constitutes the gratitude." — JBarrow. Awe. Dread, Awe (A. S. oga, ege. aige, dread) is an undefined sense of the dreadful and the sublime, not mixed with fear in the sense of apprehension of per- sonal danger; as the presence not only of powerful or venerable persons, but of certain scenes of nature, as the solitude of the desert, or the loftiness of the mountain, may fill tlie mind with awe — the sense of our own little- ness in some greater presence or power. A WFUL. ( S5 ) BABBLE. " And, to consummate all, Greatness of mind and nobleness their seat Build in her loveliest, and create an nwo About her as a guard angelic placed." Milton. Dread (Sax. cL-cecZ) contains move of personal fear, as in the presence of a latent power whicli takes effect upon one's imagination, and which by anti- cipation one fears. " Dread is a degree of permanent fear, an habitual and painful apprehension of some tremendous event." — Cogan. Awful. Dreadful, Awkward. Clumsy. Ungainly. Uncouth. Awkward, whicli is formed of aiok, and the termination of direction, ward, aivh being probably equivalent to left, denotes untowardness of move- ment, which is also expressed by Clumsy, allied to clump, in the sense of unshapen mass. But clumsiness comes of natural and general hea^n- ness and thickness of limb ; awkward- ness is specific, and expresses no more than the want of ease, grace, or effec- tiveness in movement. This may be the result simply of want of expe- rience, as the novice in the use of an implement is necessarily awkward till he has become familiar vdth. it. " Aickwardncss is a more real disadvantage than it is generally thought to be. It often occasions ridicule. It always lessens dignity." — Chesterfield. " The manufacture would be tedious, and at best but clumsily performed." — Spectator. Ungainliness is more general and absolute, and exists independently of any particular use of the body or limbs. It is a chronic clumsiness which comes of size and dispropor- tion and want of self- management. It is the misuse of manner, so_ as to gain nothing, or to miss the object of it; a waste of demeanour which, though in the idea negative, is demon- stratively objectionable. "Flora had a little beauty and a great deal of wit, but then she was so ungainh/ in her behaviour and such a laughing hoyden." — Tatler. In the moral sense. Hammond speaks of "misusing knowledge to nngainly," that is, vain, unprofitable " ends." The Uncottth (A. S. unciidh, un- known) is in matters of demeanour what the awkward or clumsy is in matters of action or movement. Strange, odd things are said by the uncouth, and unconventional things done, from want of knowledge and familiarity with the ways of the trained society in which he finds him- self. It is applicable to style of language and thought, as well as manner and dress. " The dress of a New Zealander is certainly to a stranger at first sight the most uncouth that can be imagined." — Cook. "The tmcovthness of his language and the quaintness of his thoughts will not, it is hoped, disgust the delicacy of readers unac- customed to the writings of our old divines." — Knox. Awkward has an active, clumsy a passive, or at least less active force. Action brings oiit awkwardness. Clumsiness betrays itself. An awk- ward affair is one that has gone wi-ong, and is difficult to adjust. We do not use clumsy in this sense. A clumsy excuse is one that is ill- contrived, without aptitude, forced, constrained, and unconvincing- AwKY. See Crooked. Axiom. See Proverb. B. Babble. Prattle. Chatter. Chat. Prate. To Babble (Fr. hahiUer) is to talk small talk in an easy but monotonous flow. It is a fluency which takes no note of the relative importance of matters of conversation. As the object of the babbler is rather to relieve himself than to instruct others, he is apt to become indistinct and un- intelligible in his speech, and speak in a murmurous flow. Babbling excludes reflectiveness and restraint in speech, so that a babbler some- times means an indiscriminate talker, hence a talebearer or gossip. Poeti- cally, the term has been applied to the BABBLE. ( 86 ) BAD. perpetual Inibblirg soiind of running water, as " babbling brooks." " When St. Paul was speaking of Christ and His resurrection, the great Athenian philosophers looked upon all he said to be mere h thbling. " — Beveridije. Chatter and Chat are the Frencli caqueter. It is the love of talk for the sake of hearing the sound of one's own voice. The babble is often an infirmity, and proceeds from weak- ness of mind, as in the aged._ The chatter comes from over-activity of mind in little matters. When ner- vous activity and quick perception is combined with want of mental power-, they produce that sort of eloquence Avhich is called chatter. The term chatter is employed of the inarticulate sounds of some animals, as of birds ; hence talk which consists of the rapid repetition of sounds without much sense. An old form of the word was chitter. " Birds of the air perceiving their young ones taken from their nest chitter for awhile in trees thereabout, and straight after they fly abroad, and make no moi-e ado." — Wilson's Arte of Rhetorike. " The mimic ape began his chatter, How evil tongues his life bespatter, Much of the censuring world complained, Who said his gravity was feigned." Sic if t. Chat is the social talk of elders, as Prattling and Prating (Dutch praten), the former being a modifica- tion of the latter, are applied to chil- dren. Prattling is the innocent talk of very young children, while prating is talking much and to little j)Ui-pose, As this implies forwardness in the young, the term prate is used of elders in the sense of talking about Avhat they do not vinderstand. " She found, as on a spray she sat, Tlie little friends were deep in chat." Cottoti's Fables. " This is the reason why we are so much charmed with the jiretty prattle of children, and even the expressions of pleasure or un- easiness in some part of the brute creaticn." — Sidney's Arcadia. "These praters alll'ct to carry back the clergy to that primitive evangelic poverty which in the spirit ought always to exist in them (and in us, too, however wo may like it), but in till' thill'' must be varied." — Jlurhe. Back. Backward, Behind. The two former are iised as adverljs, the latter as a preposition also. Back denotes the relative position or move- ment in regard to external objects, as to stand back, or to go back. Back- ward denotes the mode of movement in the person or object moving, as to go backwards is to go without turn- ing the back. Behind is relative to one external object in particular, as to go behind another person. Backward. See Back. Bad. Evil. Wicked. Naughty. Corrupt. Yicious. Sinful. Of these, Bad is the broadest and simplest term. It denotes that which is wanting in good qualities in any sense, moral or j)hysical, and this in any degree, hurtful, unfavourable, or only defective. A bad man, a bad air, a bad principle, a bad pear. A thing is presumed to have, when in its trvie and normal state, a distinctive nature, character, and force, by which it manifests itself aright and answers its peculiar idea or purpose. When this is so, it may be pronounced good ; when the contrary, it is bad. " Every one must see and feel that h id thoughts quickly ripen into but actions, and that if the latter only are forbidden, and the former left free, all morality will soon be at an end." — Bishop Portcus. " That which hath in it a fitness to jiromote this end (its own preservation and wdl-lieing) is called good, and, on the contrary, that which is aj)t to hinder it is called evil." — Wilhins's Natural Religion. " Self-preservation requires all men not only barely to defend themselves against ag- gressors, but many times also to persecute such and only such as are leicked and dan- gerous." — Woolaston. "Play bv voursolf, I dare not venture thither;' You and your naughty pijie go hang together." Drydcns Theocritus. " They knew them tobethe mnincorrupters at the king's elbow. They knew the king to have been always their most attentive scholar and imitator, and of a child to have sucked from them and their closet work all the im- ])otent ])rinciples of tyranny and supersti- tion." — Milton. BAD. ( 87 ) BADLY. " On the oilier hau'l, what does a vicious man gain ? Only such enjoymeuts as a vir- tuous man leaves." — Locke. " Supernal grace, contending With sinfulness of men." Alilton. Evil (A. S. efel) is now only em- liloycd in a moral sense as the po- tentially bad ; that is, having a nature or properties which tend to badness of any kind. It is applied to persons and properties, words and deeds, but not to material substances. Theo- logically, it stands to Sin as the motive principle to the act, evil being that which is contrary to the nature and will of God, and sin being the fruit of evil, or evil developed into thought or deed. So, a sinful deed is one regarded as primarily an act against God, or a transgression of the divine law. Yet the best have in them, to some extent, what is evil and sinful ; but they are not therefore to be called Wicked (probably con- nected with the Saxon wiccian, to be- witch, as if possessed with an evil spirit). The term is used of things as well as persons, in which case it is simply used reflexively, a wicked act or word being such as belongs to a wicked person. The Avicked person is so in his whole nature, a,nd sys- tematically. He lives in sin and wrong. He contradicts, whenever he desires it, any law, human or divine ; hence wickedness includes immorality and sin, or offences human and di- vine. Evil is malignant and internal. Wickedness is mischievous and active. Naughty {naught, nothing, good for nothing) had, of old, the same exten- sive application with bad, and was applicable to anything which was not what it ought to be, as " naughty figs," in the book of Jeremiah. It now denotes the minor offences which are the result of waywardness and rebelliousness, and expresses cha- I'acteristically the faults of children. Vicious and corrupt are radically much alike. Cokeupt (Lat, corrumpere, corruptus) expresses that character which is analogous to the bad and unsound in bodies undergoing de- composition ; and Yicious {vitium, vice, or unsoundness, as in the anti- quated phrase, " viciijus apples ") points to the same sort of corruption ; l)ut corrupt is now used rather of the principles, feelings, and motives which influence human conduct, while vicious applies to the conduct itself ; we should say, a man of corrupt prin- ciples and vicious life. CorrujJt has consequently a more direct applica- tion to j)rinciples of integrity. A man might be a corrupt judge with- out being vicious, in that more gene- rally extensive sense of immoral habits in which the word vicious is now employed as the opposite to virtuous. As sin is an offence against the commands of God, so vice is an offence against morality. It is plain that the same act or habit may be sinful or vicious according to the relation under which it is regarded. Badge. Cognizance. The Badge (connected with the French hacjue, a ring, and the Saxon heag, a bracelet or collar) is a personal mark of distinction used, except where the contrary is expressly stated, in an honourable sense. Where it is a party distinction, this would of course de- pend on the estimate formed of the character of the party. Cognizance (Old Fr. cognizance) has a more he- ral'dic sense. A servant might bear the cognizance of his master with his livery, but he could have no right to wear his badge. Nevertheless, the cognizance might be spoken of in re- ference to the servant who wore it as the badge of his retainership, taking the term badge in a secondary sense. " Charity, which Christ has made the very hulje and discriminating mark of His reli- gion." — Bishop Porteus. " For which cause men imagined that he gave the sun in his full brightness for his cognizaunco or badge." — ILdl, ILnnj VI. Badly. III. Badly always refers to the act of doing, and the thing done. Ill may refer also to attendant circumstances, and to matters of thought rather than execution. If we wished to disapprove a matter both in purpose and per- formance, we might say that it was ill-conceived and hadly executed. BAFFLE. BALANCE. Baffle. Defeat. Discoxcert. CoxFOuxD. Frustrate. Discom- pose. Foil. Baffle, from tlie Old French Ix'ffier, had originally the sense of mocking or disgracing, and was ac- cordingly used only of persons. It is now, like all the rest of these syno- nyms, used both of the schemer and the scheme. He who baffles does so by skill forethought, and address. The baffled finds that the baffler has been before him, and has taken just so much out of his plan as to make it ineflfectual. Hence baffling commonly implies versatility in the baffler, and repeated little counteractions. " Exiiei-ience, that groat baffler of specula- tion." — Gov. of the Jmigue. The chess-player who plays a losing game is baffled by the skill of his adversary. But he is not of necessity thereby Defeated (Fr. cUfaiter, de- ficere). Defeat is final, while baffling may be progressive, unless it be used of some owe design, said to be baffled. Baffling is then a kind of defeat, not, as defeat may be, by superior force or skill, or both, but by skill only. So that one may be baffled, yet still strive ; but when one is defeated the strife is over. •' Too well I see and rue the dire event, That with sad overtJirow and foul defeat Hatli lost us heaven." Milton. Disconcert (Old Fr. desconcerter, probably from conserere), whether ap- plied to persons or their plans, is to throw into temporary confusion, which may or may not terminate the strife. '• Far from being overcome, never once dis- concerted, never once embarrassed, but calmly- superior to every artifice, to every temptation, to every difficulty."— Jjishop I'orteus. The mau is disconcerted whose mind and purpose for a time sufiers dis- order ; he is Discomposed {din, com- ponere, to put together) whose feel- rtigs are disturbed. " Every opposition of our espoused opinions discomposeth the mind's serenity."— G/awiuY/. He is Confounded whose ideas and feehngs (vniifnmhre, to pour to- g<"tlier) are thr.jwn into such disorder tliat he can no nn.rc think, speak, or act for himself. Plans and purposes, as well as persons, are said to be con- founded. "It was upon this very account that Christians took the pains to translate and ])uljlisli them (the Scriptures), not to confound religion, but to confirm it." — Bentley. Frustrate (Lat. frustra, in vain) is to make the purpose miss its end. In common parlance, schemes and movements are baffled, eflforts are defeated, arrangements are discon- certed, designs are confounded, purposes or hopes are frustrated, and feelings are discomposed. At- tempts are foiled, or a person is foiled in his attempts. The term Foil, •which most resembles baffle (Fr. f Older, to tread), seems to imply an undertaking already begun, but de- feated in the course of execution. One may he baffled hy anticipation, but one is foiled hy counteraction. Baffle, defeat, and foil, imply relation to external powers or persons. The vest are applicable to undertakings made solely on our own account. " Is it to be supposed that He should dis- appoint His creatures and frustrate their very desire (of immortality) which He has Himself implanted ?" — Beaitie. " I have endeavoured to find out, if possible, the amount of the whole of these demands, in order to see how much, supposing the country in a condition to furnish the fund, may remain to satisfy the public debt and the necessary establishments, but I have been foiled in my attempts." — Burke. Balance. Poise. Balance [his, two or twice, and lanx, the scale of a balance) and Poise (Fr. poids. pondus, from pen- dere, a weight) both denote the es- tablishment of an equilibrium; but balance is consistent with movement, and poise is not. A man may balance himself along a roije ; but if he poises himself, it is at one point of it. Hence balance rather denotes an equilibrium of one thing against another, poise an equilibrium of the different parts of the same thing. " Him science taught by mystic lore to trace The planets wheeling' in eternal race, To mark the shiji, in floating balance'hdd. By earth attracted, and by seas i-epelled."' Falconer. BALK. ( 89 ) BAND. " Earth, upon Her centre pois'd." Milton. Balk. See Disappoint. Ball. Globe. Sphere. Orb. Orbit. Circuit. Circle. Ball (Fr. halJe) is any body wliicli is rouud, or approximates to rotundity, a ball of cotton, a snowball, tlie ball of tlie toe. It is of necessity solid, unless the contrary is stated. It is used of artificial compositions, or refers to the combination of parts into rotundity, as a force-meat-ball. " Why was the sight To such a tender ball as th' eye confin'd?" Milton. Globe (globus), on the other hand, is regarded entirely in reference to form, and not to composition. It is presumed to be perfectly, or very nearly perfect!)', round, and may be solid or hollow. '• Mercator, in some of his great globes, hath continued the West Indies land even to the North Pole, and consequently cut off all passage by sea that way." — Hackluyt. Sphere (Gr. ^(paipa) is in Greek what globe is in Latin. Like globe, sphere bears reference only to form, and not to composition. It is more strictly a geometrical-term than glube, and is defined, " a body contained under a single surface, which in every part is equally distant from a point within it, called its centre." '' Suppose a man born blind and now adult, and taught by his touch to distinguish between a cube and a sphere." — Locke. In its secondary sense, sphere de- notes a limited extent of operation or proper action and influence. " There is but little variety of other vege- table productions, though doubtless several had not yet sprung up at the early season when we visited the place, and many more might be hid fi-om the narrow sphere of our observation." — Cook's Voyages. Orb (Lat. whis) is rather a rhe- torical term of the present day, and is commonly associated with Ijrilliancy or luminousness, as the orbs of the fii-matnent, or of the eye, as luminous and spherical. The Orbit is the path described by the orb or heavenly si^here. It may be spherical or ec- centric. " And her bright eyes, theor6s which beauty moves, As Phccbus dazzles in his glorious race." JJrummond. " Only there is this difference, that the l)odies of the great system were projected at great distances from each other and in such a manner that the planets revolve in orbits almost circular, so as not to come too near to the sun, or to be carried too far from him in their revolutions." — Maclaurin. The Circle {circidus) is a mathe- matical term, and expresses, there- fore, properly, no more than a mathe- matical figure, and is insubstantial. It is used analogously in such phrases as " the family circle." It is a plane figure bound by a curved line at all points equidistant from the centre. " It is in the nature of things that they who are in the centre of a cii'cle should appear directly opposed to those who viewed them from anv part of the circumference." — Burke. Circuit (Lat. circvitus, circum, around, and ire, to go) is a regular or periodic movement within a certain sphere (not necessarily strictly sphe- rical). It is applied to the act, the space, and the outline of the revolu- tion, as a planet's circuit, to complete the circuit, and the like. To make a circuit, of a district is analogous to the drawing of a circle, not in geo- metrical exactitude, but in the fact of returning finally to the starting- point. " So the circuit or compass of Ireland is 1800 miles, which is 200 less than Casardoth reckon or account." — Stoiv. Band. Company. Crew. Gang. Society. Association. Band (Fr.' bande) is a number, not hirge, of persons bound together, having a work or design in common. They may be bound by consent, as a band of robbers, or as an organized body, as a band of soldiers. A CoM- PAI\'Y (Fr. ccmpagnie) is more general, and may refer to any association, tem- porary or transient, as a company of priests. If the design be one of com- mon interests, as for more effectively caiTying out some commercial pur- pose in common, the term company BANE. ( 90 ) BANISH. is used, as a mercantile company-; if it be of a literary, scientific, moral, or philanthropic character, upon a large and public scale, the term Society is employed, as the Zoological Society, the Humane Society, the Society of Antiquarians. If the object be not prominently put forward, ASSOCIA- TION is emi^loj-ed, which is generic. (See Association.) Crew (Old English crue) is from the French croitre, to grow, and so signifies a complement, or full num- ber. The word crew, in law, is accord- ingly commonly used to designate the entire " ship's company," including the officers. It was originally used ui both a noble and ignoble sense ; the former has been dropped, and it is now a term of disparagement, except of the " ship's crew." Gang (Saxon gang, a going) is a number of persons going in company, as a gang of thieves, also a gang of workmen, which is a company of workmen seek- iug labour in common, though the term is kept up after the work has been found. It is used in honourable and dishonourable senses. " Ye -see how all around them wait The ministers of human fate, And black misfortune's baleful train. Ah, show them where in ambush stand, To seize their prey, the murderous baiid. Ah, tell them they are men." Gray. ' The blessed angels to and fro descend From highest heaven in gladsome convr panee." Spenser. " Being sufHciently weary of this mad creic, we were willing to give them the slip at any place from whence we might hope to get a passage to an English foctory." — Durnpier's yo;/ages. " In order to furnish at the expense of your honour an excuse to your apologists here, for several enormities of yours, you would not haA'e been content to be represented as a gnu) of Maroon slaves, suddenly broke loose from the house of bondage, and therefore to be pardoned for your abuse of the liberty to which you were not accustomed and were ill fitted." — Burke. " There entei-tain him all the saints above In solemn troops and sweet societies." Milton. Bane. Pest. Ruin. Tbe Bane of anything (Saxon hana, destruction) is that which, as it were, woitnds or poisons it, inflicting serious injury upon what would be otherwise sound or pleasurable, but, though spoiling, not destroying it. Pest (Lat. pestis, plague) is that which in- terferes in a vexatious, noxious, or irritating manner. The Ruin {ruina) of a thing is that which destroys it utterly. " A monster and a bane to human society." — Ll-icliVMod. " She spake, and at the words The hellish pest forbore." Milton. " The ruin of the clock trade." — Dickens. Banish. Exile. Expel. Tkansport. To Banish (Fi-. hamirr) is literally to eject by a ban. To Expel {ex- pelJere) is to drive out. To Exile is to drive into exile (Lat. exiliiim). The idea common to the three is, there- fore, that of coercive removal of per- sons, for it is only by a figure of speech that hopes are said to be banished, or thoughts expelled. He is banished who is interdicted from any place to which he has been accus- tomed, or to which he may desire to resort. The nature of the banish- ment will depend simply upon the nature of the interdiction. Exile is that specific sort of banishment which relates to one's native country or home. It may be voluntary or in- voluntary. To exj>el is to drive out with disgrace, and relates to society in general, or some particular com- munity. Transport {trans2-)ortarc), as a synonym of the above, is to carry beyond seas to a penal colony as a penalty, the expenses of which are borne by the State. Banishment may be from circles of society, and denotes more forcible and authorita- tive, as well as more disgraceful, re- moval than exile. We may occasion- ally speak of honourable exile ; hardly of honourable banishment, save in ex- ceptional cases, where the l>anivshment was unjust, and with no fault of the banished, or where the right was on his side. In that state his sympa- thizers might call it honourable. Banishment is moral, social, and po- litical, exile only politietd. Banish- ment involves a formal public or BANKRUPTCY. ( 91 ) BANQUET. judicial decree. On the other haud, one goes spontaneously into exile. " Haste thee, and from the Paradise of God Without remorse drive out the sinful i)air : From hallow'd ground th' unholy ; and denounce To them, and to their progeny, from thence Perpetual banishment." Milton. "Brutus in the book which he writ on virtue, related that he had seen Marcellus in exile at Mitylene, living in all the happiness that human nature is capable of, and culti- vating with as much assiduity as ever all kinds of laudable knowledge." — Bolinijbroke. " One great object is pursued throughout the Scriptures from the expulsion of our first parents out of Eden, to the last of the prophets of Israel, namely, the coming of a great person under various titles, the deliverer from death and destruction, the promised^ seed that was to come of the woman, not of man, and therefore of a virgin." — Sharpe. The term transport is equally appli- cable to persons and commodities. " All these different commodities are col- lected at Manilla, thence to be transported annually in one or more ships to the port of Acapulco, in the kingdom of Me.xico." — Anson's Voyages. Bankruptcy. Insolvency, Failure. These, which are terms of the mercantile world, follow piracticiilly iu the following order : insolvency, failure, bankruptcy. The Insolvent {in, not, and solvere, to pay) is simply a person who is imahle to pay_ his debts, or meet iDecuniary liabilities and obligations generally. These may be merely of a personal nature ; that is, he may not be in business, or he may be in too low a way of dealing to be a bankrupt at all. The Failure is an act and a state consequent upon the actual or presumed insol- vency, being a cessation of business, proclaimed or known, from want of means to carry it on, and so convey- ing no reproach. Bankruptcy (Fr, hanqueroute) is the condition of in- solvency when it has passed under the recognition of the lav/. " Truman was better acquainted with his master's afiairs than his daughter, and secretly himented that each day brought him by many miscarriages nearer hmkrupjtcu than the former." — Tutkr. " Whether the insolvency of the father be by his fault or his misfortune, still the son is nut obliged." — Bishop Taylor. " The greater the whole quantity of trade, the greater of course must be the positive number oi failures, while the aggregate suc- cess is still in the same proportion." — Burke. Banquet. Feast. Carousal. Entertainment. Treat. Of these, Feast {cliesfestus, Fr. fete) is the most general, extending in some of its senses to more than the idea of eating, and meaning festival or holiday. As referring to the former, the word feast refers merely to the abundance and excellency of the viands, and the pleasure derived there- from. Banquet (Fr. banquet, hanque, a bench, literally a feast at which persons sit) conveys the idea of a sumptuous and magnificent feast, such as are given on occasions of state. Entertainment (Fr. entre- tenir) refers to other pleasures than those of the palate. An evening's entertainment may pass off wdth little or no eating and drinking. Its charac- teristics seem to be that it should be given by some one, and so implies something of hospitality, and that where it is a feast iu the ordinary sense of the term, it should display taste and furnish pleasure _ socially. A Carousal (Fr. carrousse) is a feast in which the obligation to strict so- briety is disregarded. TsEATconveys the idea of hospitality, or giving such social entertainment of any kind as is peculiarly consonant with the cir- cumstances'of the giver and receiver. Superiors give treats to their inferiors, and elders to children. It denotes innocence and simplicity of enjoy- ment (Fr. trailer). " Christianity allows us to use the world, provided we do not abuse it. It does not spread before us a delicious banquet and then come with a 'touch not, taste not, handle not.' " — Porteus. "There my retreat the best companions grace, Cliiefs out of war and statesmen out of place ; There St. John mingles with my frien'Uy bowl, '\:\\ii feast of reason and the flow of soul." Pope. BANTER. ( 9-^ ) BARBAROUS. " "The sun was set, they had done their work. The nymphs had tied up their hair afresh, and the swains were preparing for a caroustl. Jly mule made a dead pause." — t-'terne. " His office was to give entertainment And lodging unto all that came and went." i>penser. " Carrion is a treat to dogs, ravens, vultures, fish." — Puleij. Banter. Rally. We Banter (probably derived from the French hadiner) wlien we play upon auotber witli words in kindness and good-liiamonr. "We Rally (Fr. railler) when we slightly rail ; that is, speak with slight con- tempt or sarcasm of some specific fault, offence, or weakness. It seems that the two words rally, the one, railler, to rail, and the other raillier, re-allier, Lat. re-alligare, to bind to- gether anew, as in the recalling of dispersed troops, have been blended as to signification. So banter has always a somewhat mischievous force ; but rally often means such sarcasm as may induce another to act more ener- getically or less despondingly. "Where wit hath any mixtiu-e of raillery, it is but calling it banter, and the work is done. This polite word of theirs was first borrowed from the bullies in Whitefriars, Then fell among the footmen, and at last retired to the pedants, by whom it is applied as properly to the production of wit as if I should apply it to Sir Isaac Newton's mathe- matics." — Swift. "The only piece of pleasantry in Paradise Lost, is where the evil spirits are described as rallying the angels upon the success of their new-invented artillery." — Addison. Barbarous. Inhuman. Cruel. Brutal. Savage. These words indicate pretty much the same thing, as contemplated imder different jiolnis of view. Cruel (Lat. cnnli'lis] indicates that sort of J. Reynolds. To Exchange is to change one thing for another. The subjects of exchange may be of the same or of different natures ; as to exchange one book for another, or a house for a piece of land. '' What shall a man give in exchange for his soul ?" — Bible. "To truck, the Latin for any other vulgar language, is but an ill barter. It is as bad as that which Glaucus made with Diomedes when he parted with his golden arms for brazen ones." — Howell. " Vitellescus vows to fast upon the last of February, but, changing his mind, believes he vaa.j commute his fasting for alms, he resolves to break his fast and give a ducket to the poor. But when he had new dined he dis- courses the question again, and thinks it un- lawful to commute, and that he is bound to pay his vow in kind, but the last is broker, and yet if he refuses upon this new inque.-t to pay his commutation he is a deceiver of his own soul." — Bishop Taylor. " But search his mouth, and if a swarthy tongue Is underneath his humid palate hung. Reject him, lest he darken all the flock, And substitute another from thy stock." Drij den's Virgil. Barter (Old Fr. barater) refers, sti-ictly speaking, to commercial ex- change of some commodities for others of the same, or most commonly of different kinds. It is used meta- phorically, and in such cases in an un- favourable sense, as to barter con- science for gold. To Substitute {substituere) is to put one thing in the place of another, in order that the same purpose may be served. It may be observed that, though this purpose be not actually served, the term sub- stitute is still employed in reference to the intention, as to substitute asser- tion for proof. To Commute (Lat. commutare) is to exchange, either for an equivalent or for something of just value relatively. The paj-ment of tithe in kind is commuted for payments in money ; or capital punishment is com- muted for transportation for life. Truck (Fr. troquer) is a familiar term applied to the private bai-tering of articles of no great intrinsic value. BASE. { 94 ) BASIS. Interchange is distinguislied from exchange, as denoting not a single act, but a system, and rei^etition of sucli acts. " Interchancjcs of cold frosts and piercing winds."— 5/3.' Hall. Base. Vile. Mean. Low. Base (Fr. has, low). Yile (Lat. vUis, cheap, worthless). Mean (Old Fr. moien. Low Lat. viedianus, from medius, middle). Base is stronger than vile, and vile is stronger than mean. Base expresses the morally degraded ; vile the morally despi- cable ; mean the morally paltry. Low- being expi-essive rather of such petty dishonesties or meannesses as are unworthy of persons who have a mo- derate degree of self-respect. "What is base excites our abhorrence, as con- tradicting all loftiness and generosity of nature, as treachery and ingra- titude. What is vile excites disgust, as, for instance, the gaining a living by the trade of the sycophant or the informer. What is mean excites pure contempt, as x^revarication, petty dishonesties, flattery, and the like. " Si ingratum dixeris, omnia dixeris, says the Latin maxim. If you call a man un- grateful, you have called him everything that is base. You need say nothing more." — Beat tie. " Though we caress dogs, we borrow from them an appellation of the most despicable kind, when we employ terms of reproach, and this appellation is the common mark of the last vileness and contempt in every language." — Burke. The tei-m mean has passed through the following stages : — 1. Middle, or midway; then common, or ordinary, withoiit excellence or deficiency ; then with an unfavoiu-able tendency to- ward the latter, scanty, and, as ap- f)lied to persons, ungenerous or il- iberal. The " mean man " in the book of Isaiah is contrasted with the •' great man." Meanness is asso- ciated with dishonourable regard to self-preservation and self-interest, baseness with the treatment of others. "There is hardly a s]iirit upon earth so mean and contracted as to centre all regards on its own interest exclusive of the rest of mankind." — Berkeley. The epithet low, as applied to per- sons, indicates a kind of hopeless meanness, depravity, or dishonour- ableness, the result of an essential incapacity of what is lofty. ' Yet sometimes nations From virtue." ill decline so low Milton. Basis. Foundation. Ground. Base. Basis (Greek (3dais, from ^alveiv, to go) that on which a thing stands, and Base (Fr. has, Low Lat. ha.'^si(s) are used interchangeably ; but while basis always means the part on which a structure rests, base means any- thing which approximates to this, as the lower part generally. The basis of a column is that on which it rests. This, strictly speaking, is hidden fi-om view. Its base is an architectural feature of it. Base is not generally used in a recognized figurative sense, which is the case with basis, as to set matters upon a surer basis. " Every plague that can infest Society, and that saps and worms the base Of th' edifice that policy has raised." Cowper. " This university had in the conclusion ot the last century the honour of giving birth to a stupendous system of philosophy, erected by its disciple Newton on the immovable basis of experiment and demonstration." — rorteus. Foundation (Lat. fundare, to found) and Ground (Sax. grund). Ground speaks for itself. Founda- tion is employed in architecture of some large and complex structure. Figuratively, we use basis as that on which rest the proceedings of thought, argument, or transactions of men, as their princij^les, as the basis of a con- ception, the basis of a conviction, the basis of reasoning, of traffic, of diplo- macy, and so on. Ground is figura- tively used as the warrant or sub- stantial cause ; as the ground of be- lief, feeling, or action ; as ground- less suspicions, jealousies, fears, grounds for legal proceedings, and so on. Foundation is rather re- stricted to matters of belief, feeling, hopes, and the like, than used of matters of practice, in reference to which we use the term ground, or basis. In many cases the epithets BASHFUL. ( 95 ) BATTLE. groundless and unfounded may be used intercliangeably, as gi'ouudless or unfounded clamours. " From thence I draw the most comfortalilo assurances of the future vigour and the ample resources of this great misrepresented country, and can never prevail on myself to make complaints which have no cause, in order to raise hopes which have no foundation." — Burke. " Philosophers, such as grounded their judgment of things upon notions agreeable to common sense and experience." — Barrow. Bashful. Modest. Diffident. Baslif ulness is a constitutional feel- ing. Modesty is a virtue. Diffidence is an infirmity. Bashpulness (Fr. eshaliir, like abash) is excessive or ex- treme modesty. It is not unbecoming in females, and in very young persons in the presence of their superiors. It betrays itself in a look and air of timidity. " Our orators, with the most faulty tesA- fulness, seem impressed rather with an awe of their audience than with a just respect for the truths they are about to deliver. They of all professions seem the most bashful ■who have the greatest right to glory in their commission." — Goldsmith. " Modestij is a kind of shame or bashfulness proceeding from the sense a man has of his own defects compared with the perfections of him whom he comes before." — South. " There is a degree of pain in modest diffi- dence ; but it is amply recompensed by the glow of satisfaction derived from the ftivour- able opinions of others, and by the encourage- ment thus inspired that the deficiency is not so great as was apprehended, or too great to be surmounted." — Cogan. Modesty (modestia) is the absence of all tendency to over-estimate our- selves; while Diffidence {diffidere, to distrust) is the positive distrust of ourselves. Modesty has in it the ele- ments of something wholly unlike diffidence, for, though inclined to claim less than one's due, and to accord more than their due to others, the modest man is not de- terred from such efforts in the struggle of life as are needful to do justice to himself ; while diffi- dence, if it be a habit of the disposi- tion, leads to positive injustice to one- self and one's own powers. In the following passage the word diffident ig employed in its less common use of distrustful of the power of others. " But I rememl)er too that you disap- proved of the manner in which the civil war was conducted, and that, far from being satis- fied either with the strength or nature of Pompey's forces, you were always extremely diffident of their success." — Melmoth, Cicero. It may be observed that modest de- notes a permanent quality of disposi- tion ; _ diffident may express distrust occasioned by special circumstances. Battle. Combat. Engage- ment. Action. Battle (Fr. hataille) is a generic term. As an act of fighting, it is applied to individuals, small parties, armies. It commonly, however, conveys the idea of a premeditated fight between organised armies. " The Scipios battled, and the Gracchi spoke." Djer. Combat is derived from the same root {comhaUre, to fight, or beat together). It is used with a more direct reference to the reciprocal act of fighting, and is commonly em- ployed of fights between individuals or small parties engaged in the same cause, as the combat of the Horatii and Curiatii. The verb combat is used directly of the object of the combat, when it is employed in a so- condaiy sense, as to combat an oppo- nent's arguments, opinions, or rea- sons. As in Milton — - " What had I T' oppose against such powerful argu- ments ? Only my love of thee held long debate, And coiitbated in silence all these reasons With hard contest." Engagement (Fr. engager) and Ac- tion {actio, agere) stand to battle and combat as the process of the thing to the thing itself, as to accompany'tbo troops to battle, and take part in the engagement. Engagement is that part of action which refers di- rectly to the struggle with the enemy. The troops behaved well in the en- gagement, would be taken to mean that they showed coui-age in strug- gling with the enemy. To say that they behaved well in action, "would BA IVL. ( 96 ) BEAM. comprise other militaiy qualifications, as tliat they nianoeiivi-ed well under command. The action is decisive or otherwise ; the engagement is j)ro- tracted, or soon terminated. " A decisive action." — Macaulaij. " The battle proved decisive in favdur of the house of York, and ia conseciueuce of it Edward was, ia June, 1461, crowned King of England. There were killed in this cmjagc- ment 3(3,776 men." — Fawkes. Bawl. See Clamour. Be. See Exist. Beam. Gleam. Glummer. Kay. Glitter. Sparkle. Shine. These words, not excepting ray, may be used both as nouns and verbs. Their use as the latter will be suf- ficiently indicated by noticing their differences in the former capacity. They all express the steadier or less violent emissions of light, as dis- tinguished from the fitful and vio- lent, as in flame, flash, glare, and the like. Beam meant, in Saxon, tree, post, ray, and so is analogous to the Latin radius, whence Ray, which meant a wand, spoke of a wheel. Beam is more nearly allied with ray in the above list, and Gleam (A. S. gleam) with Glimmer (Germ. glimmer) and Glitter (Sax. glitan. to sparkle). The beam is larger and more powerful than the ray, com- monly speaking, though not inva- riably. So we should say, the beams of the sun or moon, and the rays of smaller luminous bodies. Again, ray expresses more directly than beam the notion of one among a number of lines of light diverging from a luminous centre. Again, beam is never applied hut to light, while ray is also applied to any sub- stance analogous to ray, as, for in- stance, forming a starlike pattern ; as the rays of the flowers called com- positas in botany ; or as an order of chivalry might consist of a star with diamond rays, meaning points. Gleam, glimmer, and glitter have much in common; but gleam is commonly used of light not very brilliant, l>at undeveloped, yet steady, and begin- ning, as it were, to make itself visible through surrounding darkness, as the first gleams of the sun at dawn. Glimmer is an unsteady gleam of light making itself visible in a tremu- lous way, or at intervals. Glitter and Sparkle are, again, much alike, with this important difi"erence, that sparkle is properly applied to luminous bodies, and glitter not so. The fire sparkles, that is, rapidly emits minute frag- ments of light; but diamonds, properly speaking, do not sparkle, but glitter, as they emit light only in the sense of reflecting it. When we say of the jewel, as we sometimes do, that it sparkles, we lend our imagination to it, and think of it as what it is not, as a tiny source of light, or as emitting what, in fact, it only reflects. Shine denotes the steady reflection or emis- sion of light. Shining talents are uniformly conspicuous, though they will exhibit themselves occasionally in brilliant efforts and successes. " I saw a beauty from the sea to rise That all earth looked on, and that earth all eyes. It cast a benm as when the cheerful sun Is fair got up and day some hours begun." Ben Jonson. " Those uncertain tjlimincrings of the light of nature would have prepared the minds of the learned for the reception of the full illus- tration of this subject by the Gospel, had not the resurrection been a part of the doctrine therein advanced." — • Watson. " Though fainter raptures my cold heart inspire, Yet let me oft frequent this solemn scene, Oft to the abbey's shattered walls retire What time the moonshine dimly gleams between." Mickle. " Bodies in respect of light may be divided into three sorts, first those that emit rays of light, as the sun and fixed stars ; secondly, those that transmit the rays of light, as the air ; thirdly, those that reflect the rays of light, as iron, earth, &c. The first are called luminous, the second pellucid, and the third opake." — Locke. " A reliance on genius, as it is called, with- out application, gives a boldness of utterance and assertion which often sets off base metal with the (/titter of gold." — Knox. " She affirmed to me that she had divers times observed the like alterations in some diamonds of hers, which sometimes would look mure sparklimjly than they were wont, and sometimes more dull than ordinary." — Boyle. "Of gold fhone his corouue." — i?. Brnnne. BEAR. ( 97 ) BEA UTIFUL. Bear. See Afford, Carry, Suffer. Beast. See Animal. Beat. Strike. Hit. To Beat (Fr. battre) is frequent, meaning to continue to give blows. It is the result of repeated aims and efforts with sucli implements as are retained in the hand, or the hand itself. To Strike (A. S. strican) is single, and may be by a missile, as to strike the target. To Hit (A. S. hettan, hetian) is to strike as the result of aim, and in consideration of the chances of missing it, as a lucky or good hit. " Thrice was I beatai with rods."— Bible. " They struck Him with the palms of their hands." — Ibid. " Just as we experience it in the flint and steel. You may move them apart as long as you please, to very little purpose ; but it is the hitting and collision of them that must make them strike Are." — Bentley. Beat. Defeat. These words are used synonym- ously. Beat, however, is of more extended application than Defeat. It is a competitor or an antagonist that is beaten. It is only an antago- nist or his plan that is defeated. Runners in a race are not defeated. " He beat them in a bloody battle." — Frescott. " Yet Almighty God Himself often complains how in a manner His designs were defeated, His desires thwarted, His otiers refused, His counsels rejected. His expectations deceived." — Bid-row. Beatification. Canonization. The former [beatmn, facere) is a privilege more privately granted by the Pope to the memory of certain persons, to be regarded after death as saiuts, whose lives have been illus- trious for piety and miracles. The latter (canon, the rule or order of the chiirch) is a more formal and pu.blic trial of the merits of the de- ceased previous to his admission to the calendar. This distinction may serve partly to explain the crowd of names of saints which connect themselves with the Ri^mau Catholic Church. Beatitude. 8ee Happiness. Beautiful. Handsome. Pretty. Lovely. Fine. Of these terms, handsome is ap- plicable only to persons and to acts in a moral sense ; the rest both to persons and other olyects of sight, whether natural or artificial. Beau- tiful (Fr. beauts, Lat. bellus) is the strongest of these, except, perhaps, lovely. But neither beautiful, pretty, nor lovely are ever applied (except sarcastically) to men, who are never permitted to be more than handsome or fine. The beautiful is a thing of rule. It comprises form, colour, pro- portion, and the like, and these must exist in detail in sufiicient num]>er. The beautiful woman, like the beau- tiful landscape, is an assemblage of admirable objects. Yet with all this she may not be lovely. This implies the superaddition to external beauty of an exquisite delicacy, and the stamp of those moral graces without which physical beauty, however strik- ing, falls short of being lovely. " In like manner, I have heard it observed by thoughtless people that there are a few women possessed of beauty in comparison of those who want it. Not considering that we bestow the epithet of be/mtiful only on such persons as profess a degi-ee of beauty that is common to them with a few." — Hume. " Beauty is an over-weening self-sufficient thing, careless of providing itself any more substantial ornaments ; nay, so little does it consult its own interests, that it too often defeats itself by betraying that innocence which renders it lovely and desirable." — .Spec- tator. Handsome (connected with hand, and the termination souie, indicative of character, as gladsome) is a term of the second class of admiration. It meant, at first, dexterous, and reflex- ively handy, and then comely, as expressing more than pretty, and less than beautiful. There are certain associations connected with the hand- some which seem a little arbitrary and hard to account for. It is easier to note them. For instance, men, women, horses, dogs, trees, dresses H BECAUSE. ( 98 ) BECOMEVG. are handsome, but not views or pro- spects, except in American phrase- ology. It always relates to persons. " The Romans were so fully convinced of the power of beauty, that the word fortis, strong or valiant, signifies likewise fair or handsome." — Fawkes. The term, when applied morally to actions, retains that second-rate quality which belongs to it as an epithet of what is admirable physi- cally. The handsome act is not of the highest description, not one of self-devotion, or heroic generosity, but of liberality, and of something more than fairness; nor, again, is handsome applied physically to ob- jects of small size. The handsome implies a certain scale beyond the Pretty (Germ, prdchtig), which be- longs to the little in form, nor is the beauty which it denotes of a high order. " If tall, the name of proper slays, If foir, she's pleasant as the light, If low, her pretthiess does please." Coii-Icy. Fine (Fi: Jin) seems to have taken to itself by usage a force not origi- nally belonging to it ; the fine, being the slender or highly finished, has come to mean, emphatically, that which is not little, but implies a certain scale of size and expressive- ness. In short, it is opposed to coarse, and so comes to mean no ordinaiy thing of its kind, and there- fore implies size and excludes little- ness. " The fne original of Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, with the staves of Earl Marshal and Lord Treasurer, from whence the print is taken, is at Leicester House." — Walpole. Because, See Consequently. Become. See Grow. Becoming. Decent, Proper, Fit. Seemly. Suitable. Just. KiGHT. Becoming expresses that which is harmoniously graceful, or attractive from fitness. The becoming in dress is that which accords with the ap- pearance, age, condition. &c., of the wearer. But though the becoming has constantly the tendency to mani- fest itseK under gi-aceful forms, the term is often applied simply in the sense of morally fit, as modesty is becoming in a youth, gravity in a judge. It always relates to persons. " For nothing is more certain than that He expecteth that we should do everything after the becominjness of human nature and in conformity to the relation we have unto mankind, and unto Himself." — Greco. The Decent, like the becoming, is external or internal (Lat. decere, to become). It seems commonly to have a restrictive or negative force rather than an active and positive one. It is that species of the be- coming which results from the ab- sence of all tendency to excess or fault, and so has no meaning of the positively graceful, like becoming. A person decently clad has clothing ap- propriate and sufficient, biit perhaps this is all. A person becomingly dressed is graceful. Decent indicates a due attention to moral and social requii-ements. " As beauty of body with an agreeable carriage pleases the eye, and that pleasure consists in that we observe all the parts with a certain elegance are proportioned to each other, so does decency of behaviour, which ajipears in" our lives, obtain the approbation of all with whom we converse, from the order, constancy, and moderation of our words and actions." — Spectator. Proper (Lat. proprhis) denotes in this connection an adaptation to an end or purpose — the ends, for in- stance, of order, taste, morality, or the circumstances of persons or cases. The proper is in its fundamental idea that which strictly belongs to the nature or use of things. In this sense it is employed by Milton, when he says — " What dies but what had life And sin? the hodj properly hath neither." Fit denotes also the same, but it denotes more; as proper indicates natural fitness, so fit comprehends artificial adaptation or qualification. Fitness is distinct from morid pro- priety or decency, and is a term restricted to matters of foi*m, pur- pose, and design. "He who studies them (the works of Na- ture) is continually delighted with new and BEG. ( 99 ) BEGINNING. wouderful discoveries, and yet is never per- plexed by their multiplicity, because order, proportion, and ftness prevail throughout the whole system." — Beattie. Seemly occupies a middle place l:)etween decent and becoming, being more than tlie first and less than the second. " I cannot understand that any man's bare perception of the natural seemliness of one action and unseemliness of another, should bring him under an obligation on all occa- sions to do the one and avoid the other, at the hazard of his life, to the detriment of his for- tune, or even to the diminution of his own ease." — Bishop Horsley. Suitable. See Appeopriate. Just (Fr. juste) is used in the sense of well-suited, and, in this sense, only morally, as a just remark, which means, not one of justice, but of fit- ness. " Many of the poets, to describe the execu- tion which is done by this passion, represent the fivir sex as basilisks which destroy with their eyes ; but I think Mr. Cowley has, with gm^iei- justness of thought, compared a beau- tiful woman to a porcupine, that sends an arrow from every part." — Spectator. Right [rectus) is used in the same way, Imt is also used of_ physical adaptation, as the box is rightly packed ; a right remark, that is, _ a true one; rightly dressed, that_ is, suitably to an original intention. That is right which goes straight to the point without deviation, error, or impropriety. " It necessarily comes to pass that what promotes the pviblic happiness, or happiness upon the whole, is agreeable to the fitness of things to nature, to reason, and to truth ; and such is the Divine character that what promotes the general happiness is required by the will of God ; and what has all the above properties must needs be right, for right means no more than conformity to the rule we go by, whatever that rvxle may be."— Faleg. Beg. See Ask. Begin. Commence. Begin (Germ, heginnan) and Com- mence (Fr. commencer) are employed with slight differences. Thus, begin sometimes refers only to_ time or order, while commence implies action. The alphabet begins, but could not be said to commence, with the letter a. So, to enter upon a new state may be expressed by begin, but not by commence; as, after walking twenty miles I began to feel tired. The same applies to an alteration of mind, thought, or opinion. I begin to think that, after all, you are mis- taken. Commence commonly applies as a verb directly to its object, which is some work or thing to be done ; and if the subject be anything else, the term commence should be dis- pensed with. It is an absurdity, for instance, to say, " at this period of the performance the audience com- menced to show signs of weariness." The opi)osite to begin is to end ; the opposite to commence is to complete. To begin is used also in the peculiar sense of being the first to do a thing, as distinguished from the act of pro- secution or joint action on the part of another. " James is most to blame, for it was he that began the quarrel." " But to begin that which never was, whereof there was no example, whereto there was no inclination, wherein there was no pos- sibility of that which it should be, is proper only to such power as Thine, the infinite power of an infinite Creator." — Bishop Ball. Like all words of Latin origin (for the Latin initium is at the root of the French commencer), commence has a more emphatic and dignified force than begin. Formal and public transactions, ceremonies, and the like are said to commence ; common and familiar things to begin. "On the 29th, the Queen removed to St. James's, passing through the park, and took her barge at Whitehall, and so to Rich- mond, in order to her progress, which was chiefly commenced to meet her beloved, the Prince of Spain." — Stri/pe. Beginning. Commencement. Origin. Original. IIise. Source. See Begin and Commence, above. Both Origin and Original come from the Latin origo and orior, to arise ; Rise from the Saxon risan ; and Source from the Freuch soivrce, and the Latin siirgere, to rise. Origin is used both for the first cause of a thing, and also for the first beginning of it. Original was once used in tho H 2 BEGUILE. ( loo ) BEHOLD. same way, and is still used scientifi.- cally ; as some believe the wolf to be the original of the dog. It is now used of that which is the source artificially, as origin of that from which a thing is naturally derived, and is opposed to copy or translation. Origin is a more abstract term than rise, which is more familiar. It is a profound speculation in what evil had its origin. Among quarrelsome per- sons, a very trivial matter will give rise to dispute. Rise sometimes means that early portion of a thing's exist- ence, in which the origin having taken place, the thing is still in a state of progressive development, as the historic " Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire." Source conveys the ad- ditional idea of that which can be referred to as the origin, whether in the mind only, by way of account, or actually for the purpose of draw- ing results, as to trace an evil to its source, to exhaust every source of pleasure ; the term source involving a continuous supply, " la the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." —Bible. " In the last lecture the nature and origin of the Hebrew elegy was explained, the form and commencement of that species of poetry was traced into the solemn dirges which are chanted at funerals by the pro- fessed mourners." — Loicth. Beguile. See Deceive. Behaviour. Demeanour. Con- duct. Behaviour is from be and have, to have oneself, as in Latin se gerere. It refers to all those actions which are open to the observation of others as well as those which are specifically directed to others. As behaviour re- fers more directly to actions, so De- meanour (Fr. demener, to lead or conduct) refers more directly to manner. He behaved himself insult- ingljyr, would mean that he was guilty of insulting actions ; he demeaned himseK insultingly, that his manner was such. Behaviour is a more posi- tive and energetic term than demean- our. When Queen Elizabeth boxed the ears of the Earl of Essex, her be- haviour was undignified and insult- ing ; but the proceeding was too demonstrative to be a question of demeanour only. " We are not jjerhaps at liberty to take for granted that the lives of the preachers of Christianity were as perfect as their lessons ; but we are entitled to contend that the ob- servable part of their behaviour must have agreed in a great measure with the duties which they taught." — Paleij. Conduct [conducere, conductus) re- lates to the general line of moral j)roceediugs and the spirit of them. Behind. See Back. Behold. See. Look. View. Eye, Contemplate. Kegard. Observe. Perceive. Scan. Behold, compovmded of be and healdan, Saxon, to hold, is to look at with fijced observation, as worthy on some account of being so viewed. It may indicate the lowest degree of such observation, and may be the result of accident : "As I was passing, I beheld such an one so engaged," and so means little more than I saw. On the other hand, " I beheld him witli gladness," implies more of in- terest. But such interest is indepen- dent, arising from the fact of meet- ing. "Theu came Jesus forth, wearing the crown of thorns and the purple robe, and Pilate saith unto them, Behold the man." — Bible. A much more exact and scrutinising observation or interest is expressed by Contemplate (Lat. contempJor, contemplatus), which indicates such a minute and sustained observation as extends to the very actions and movements. It is sometimes used of the purely ideal, as to contemplate a possibility, in which case it has a prospective force, and means nearly the same as to piu-pose or intend, " Some few others sought after Him (God) ; but, as Aristotle saith, the Geometer doth after a right line only, ws 6iar7)s tov a\ri0ovs as a Contemplatpr of truth, but not as the knowledge of it is any way useful or con- ducible to the ordering or bettering of their lives." — Hammond. To Look (A. S. locian) is the action BEHOLD. ( loi ) BELIEF. precedent to seeing. It is to direct the eye to the object for the purpose of seeing it. Nor is this object simply attained by the looking. " I am look- ing," it might be said, " in the direc- tion which you indicate, but I cannot see it." "The emotions produced by tragedy are upon this supposition somewhat analogous to the dread we feel when we look down from the battlement of a tower." — Stewart. To See (A. S. seon) is the result of voluntary or involuntary looking, and is simply physical, except when used metaphorically, as " to see fit," " to see a thing in such a light." " The organ of seeing is the eye, consisting of a variety of parts wonderfully contrived for the admitting and refracting the rays of light, so that those that come from the same point of the object, and fall upon diflerent parts of the pupil, are brought to meet again at the bottom of the eye, where- by the whole object is painted on the retina that is spread there." — Locke. In regard to the faculty of sight, as employed in its secondary sense, Reid has the following remark : — " It is not without reason that the faculty of seeing is looked upon not only as more noble than the other senses, but as having something in it of a nature superior to sen- sation. The evidence of reason is called see- ing, not feeling, smelling, or tasting. Yea, we are wont to express the manner of the Divine knowledge by seeing, as that kind of knowledge which is most perfect in us." To Eye is to regard indirectly, but earnestly, as gratifying some passion or feeling, of which we desire to give no manifestation. It is used morally in an analogous sense, as to eye a prosperous rival with jealousy. "What but taith egeing the prize will quicken us to run patiently the race that is set before us ?" — Barrow. As we contemplate to get a minute, so we vieio or scan to get a general impression. To Scan (Lat. scandere, to climb) is to get a rapid, as to View (Fr. vue, Lat. viclere) is to take a more leisurely observation. We scan by rapidly noting one point after another ; we view by taking in the whole at once. " Viewing things on every side, observing how far consequences reach, and proceeding to collect and hear evidence, till reason saith, there needs no more, is grievous labour to indolence and impatience, and by no means answers the ends of conceit and afl'ectatiou." — Seeker. " Who, finite, will attempt to scan The works of Him that's infinitely wise ?" Fomfret. To Regard (Fr. regarder) is of a moral force, and implies certain feel- ings as accompanying the observa- tion, as to regard with pleasure, or with aversion ; while Observe (obser- vare) implies no more than to look at for the purpose of noticing facts con- nected with the object or its proper- ties. " He valued his religion beyond his own safety, and regarded not all the calumnies and reproaches of his enemies, as long as he made this his constant exercise, to keep a conscience void of otfence towards God and towards men." — Stillingfleet. " But pardon, too, if zealous for the right, A strict observer of each noble flight ; From the fine gold I separate the allay, And show how hasty writers sometimes stray." Dnjden. Perceive (Lat. 'percipere) com- monly implies sight as the result of the exercise of a faculty within our- selves. " Some stars are too remote to be perceived by the eye." " Jupiter made all things, and all things whatsoever exist are the works of Jupiter, rivers iiul earth and sea and heaven, and what are between these and gods and men, and all animals, whatsoever is perceivable either by sense or by the mind." — Cudivorth. Beholder. See Spectator. Belief. Credit. Trust. Faith. Belief (A. S. lefan, lyfan, to allow) is the acceptance of a fact or state- ment as true without immediate knowledge, and admits of all degrees, from suspicion to assurance. It de- pends upon ourselves and our own judgment, and does not necessarily derive force from other persons. Credit (Lat. credere) and Trust (Germ, trost, consolation, hope), on the other hand, owe their force to something more than mere external evidence. I give credit to a state- ment because of some apparent worthiness of belief, either in the thing itself or in the person who BELIEF. BENE A TH. commnnicates it. Tmst represents nut only the purely personal element in credit, but also a conviction of the worthiness of things to be relied upon ; for instance, I trust the physician, I trust his word, and I trust his medi- cine. Trust, in shoi-t, is a practical reliance upon any object, grounded on a belief that it is worthy of it. Faith (Fr. for Lat. fides) is very like trust, and, in some cases, mightbe used for it, but it is less practical and more speculative. For instance, I have trust in God ; that is, I feel myself safe in His hands, I believe He will deal with me mercifully. I have faith in God, would imply this, but it would imply more, namely, that I believe what He tells me, simply because it is Himself who says it. Hence, it appears that belief and credit are commonly specific or oc- casional acts of the mind. Faith and trust may be mental and even moral habits. " That there is satisfactory evidence that many professing to be original witnesses of the Christian miracles passed their lives in labours, dangers, and sufierings, voluntarily undergone in attestation of the accounts which they delivered, and solely in conse- quence of their belief of those accounts ; and that they also submitted from the same mo- tives to new rules of conduct." — Paley. " Albeit, the name of f;iith being properly and strictly taken, it must needs have refer- ence unto some uttered word as the object of belief. Nevertheless, sith the ground of credit is the credibility of things credited, and things are made credible either by the known condition of the utterer or by the manifest likelihood of truth which they have in themselves, hereupon it riseth that what- soever we are persuaded of, the same we are generally said to believe." — Hooker. " In a word, every man implicitly trusts his bodily senses concerning external objects, placed at a convenient distance, and every man may, with as good a reason, j)ut even a greater trust in the perceptions of which he is conscious in his own mind." — Bishop Jlorsley. A full definition of faith in the theo- logical sense is thus given by Clarke : '■^ Faith is that firm belief of things at pre- sent not seen, tliat conviction uj)on the mind of the truth of the promises and threateu- ings of f!od made known iu the Gospel, of the certain reality of the rewards and punishments of the life to come, which ena- bles a man, in opposition to all the tempta- tions of a corrupt world, to obey God, iu expectation of an invisible reward here- after." BELIE^^E. See Think. Below. See Under. Bemoan. Bewail. Lament. These are strong words expressive of the external manifestation of sor- row, and follow in degrees of force the order given above. Bemoan, compounded of be and moan, takes its complexion from its etymology, and denotes rather a deep and almost silent grief, as if too deep for words ; Bewail, of be and wail, denotes the frequent reference in words to the subject of grief, soitow, or disap- pointment. Lament (lamentari) ap- plies to lighter causes of trouble, as to lament another's weakness of cha- racter. Bemoan is more often used of causes of permanent soitow, as to bemoan one's lot or hard fate; be- wail, of specific events, as to bewail the loss of a friend. Lament involves regret that circumstances should have been as they are when they might have been otherwise : you will have cause to lament your present con- duct. " When a poor-spirited creature, that died at the same time for his crimes, bemoaned himself unmaufuUy, he rebuked him with this question : ' Is it no consolation to such a man as thou art to die with Phocion ?' " — Spectator. " And if I must beicail the blessing lost For which our Hampdens and our Sydneys bled, I would at least bewail it under skies Milder, among a people less austere, In scenes which, having never known me free. Would not reproach me with the loss I felt." Cotcper. " Thammuz came next behind. Whose annual wound iu Lebanon allured The Syrian damsels to lament his fate In amorous ditties all a summer's day.' Jlilion. Bend. See Incline. Beneath. See Under. BENEFACTION. ( 103 ) BENEFICENT. Benefaction. Donation. Benefaction (Lat. henefucere, to benefit) and Donation (Lat. donate, to give) both express tlie act of giving or the thing given for some liberal or charitable pnrpose ; but a donation may be small or large ; a benefaction is large enough to have a material effect upon and to be of lasting benefit to the object. Hence it is frequently employed of the gift of money and lands to institutions by way of en- do^\Tnent or permanent source of in- come. "Here idle and useless (and therefore necessitous) persons ai'e taught the best lesson, labour, inured to it, and made ac- quainted with it, and then sent out with such a stock of industry as will do them more real service than any other kind of benefac- tion." — Atterbury. " They had an opportunity of distinguish- ing themselves from the lower classes by voluntary donations to the charity-box." — Anecdotes of Bishop Watson. Beneficent. Bountiful. Mu- nificent. Generous. Liberal. Benevolent. ' Beneficent (beneficere, to benefit) is a very high term. It denotes large- ness of bounty springing from the highest purity and goodness of nature, and in its highest form appertains to the Creator, and is not confined to any one kind of gifts. " Whose work is without labour, whose designs No flaw deforms, no difficulty thwarts, And whose beneficence no charge exhausts." Cowper. Bountiful (full of bounty, Fr. honte, Lat. bonus, goodness) comes next in order. It appertains to the nature which, when it gives, gives largely. " It is true, indeed, the direction of the public weal is in the hands of a single per- son, who, for the general good, takes upon himself to ease us of the whole weight ani«-s, with the face downwards, opposed to mpinus, lying on the back) denotes a moral pro- clivity or constitu.tional tendency, and is almost itniversally restricted to an unfavourable sense. We say prone to self-indulgence, not prone to self- denial. Yet this rule is not absolute. Pope says — " Malice, prone the virtuous to defame." On the other hand — "An honest, hearty simplicity and ])rone- ness to do all that a man knows f)f (iod's will is the ready, certain, and infallible way to know more of it." — Sotith. Benumbed. See Torpid. Bequeath. Devise. Demise. To Bequeath is formed of the prefix be and the verb queath (which survives in the antiquated word quoth), meaning to speak or say. It points to times anterior to written testaments, when property was de- vised by word of mouth in the pre- sence of witnesses. Beqiteath is -pro- perly applied to a gift by will or legacy, i.e., of personal property, and he who receives it is called a legatee. It is popularly extended, and even construed by the law courts to em- brace what ought to be expressed by devise. To Devise (Old Fr. devise) is properly used for the gift by will of reaZ property. Demise (Fr. demise, from demettre, to lay down) properly denotes the leaving of property at death to one who has already a claim to it, as the heir. Hence the term demise of the Crown, which is the transfer, at the death of the sovereign, of the kingdom to th« lawful suc- cessor. The idea of expectancy be- longs to the last, not to the two former. " I have often read with a great deal of pleasure a legacy of the famous Lord Bacim, one of the greatest geniuses that our own or BEREA VE. ( io6 ) BID. any country has produced. After having bi-queathed his soul, body, and estate in the usual form, he adds, ' My name and memory 1 leave to foreign nations, and to my country- men after some time be passed over.' " — Tutlcr. The term bequeath is used in so general a manner as to be untechnical ; the others are purely technical. BEREA^^. Deprive. Strip. Bekeave (A. S. bereafiain, reafian, to steal or rob) is to take away so as to leave a feeling of privation or destitution. Deprive {de;privaye) is to take away so as to leave a feeling of loss or disappointment. Strip (A. S. strijpan) denotes a sudden, violent, or arbitrary^ taking away so as to leave a feeling of spoliation. We are bereaved only of actual and substantial som-ces of comfort or hap- piness ; but we may be deprived of what is only speculative, as to be de- prived of aU groimd of hope, or source of consolation. Strip commonly ap- plies to matters of possession, j)rivi- leges, powers, or worldly goods. " Me have ye bereaved of my children." — Bible. " Mr. Pym, in a long-form'd discourse, lamented the miserable state and condition of the kingdom, aggravated all the parti- culars which had been done amiss in the government, as done and contrived mali- ciously and upon deliberation, to change the whole" frame and deprive the nation of all the liberty and property which was their birthright by the laws of the land." — Clarendon. As bereave and deprive bear a moral or an analogous, so strip combines w-ith tliis a purely j)hysical application. The two are combined in the follow- ing:— " Opinions which, at the time of the acces- sion of James, no clergyman could have avowed without imminent risk of being stripped of his gown, were now the best title to preferment." — Macaulaij. Beseech. See Ask. Besides. See Also, and Moreover. Bestow. See Give. Betimes. See Early. Except, Betoken. See Augur. Better. See Improve. Bewail. See Bemoan. Beyond. See Over. Bias. See Bent. Bid. Call. Invite. Sutvimon. Cite. Of these, Call expresses the generic sense (Lat. calare, Gr. KoXflv). It means little more than raising the voice to attract attention, even in in- articulate sounds. It implies no par- ticular relation of superiority and in- feriority between two parties. ' How often have I stood A rebel to the skies, The calls, the tenders of a God, And mercy's loudest cries !" Watts. To Invite (invitare) is to call in such a way as to leave the answer to the will and pleasvire of the other; but it may be without words at all, as by inarticulate sounds, or by signs inaudible, as by wi-iting. It implies some sort of equality between the parties, and is an act of persuasion or courtesy. " Ask of no angel to reveal thy fate. Look in thy heart, the mirror of thy state. He that invites wiW not the invited mock, Opening to all that do in earnest knock." Waller. To Bid and to Summon (Saxon hiddan, and the Latin summonere, from moneo) both imply the use of words in an authoritative manner; but the former extends to the subject- matter of all commands ; the latter to the particular command to apj)ear at a particular place. To summon is always authoritative and formal, and may also be legal and compulsory. " Sir Roger, who is very well acquainted with my humour, lets me rise and go to bed when I jilease, dine at his own table or in my chamber as I think fit, sit still and say nothing without bidding me be merry." — Spectator. " All men, both small and great, dead and living, shall be summoned to ai)])ear before a dreadful and impartial tribunal, aud give an ac'count of all their actions." — Shtrp. Cite is citarc, from ciere, and has BIG. ( 107 ) BIND. the general sense of to call by name, in which it is a synonym with quote (see Quote) ; but, as compared with summon, it expresses more vividly the authority of a personal act. A person is summoned to appear before a court ; he is cited to appear before a judge or a superior. " A synod was called by the Bishop of Winchester, the Pope's legate, to right the bishop, where the King was cited to appeal', who, sending to know the cause, answer was made, tliat it was to answer for his impri- soning of bishops, and depriving them of their goods, which, being a Christian King, he ought not to do." — Baker, Stephen. Summon applies also to such calls as are imperative, without being strictly authoritative or personal ; as to be summoned to the country by imjiortant business. Big. Great. Large. Big (Welsh haig, burden) ex- presses that size which gives the im- pression of burdensomeness or bulk, as a big box, a big mountain. It also expresses the simple idea of size in the abstract, when used relatively or comparatively, as an animal no bigger than a flea. Great has not so much of this abstract force, but implies some degree of size. When used positively, Gkeat (A. S. great) refers rather to extent, and Large (Fr. large, Lat. largus) to capacity. A building is great which is lofty and extensive ; a room is large which would hold a considerable number of persons. It deserves to be i-emarked that big is not commonly or easily applied to nou.ns expressive of num- ber, quantity, extent, and the like, but directly to the subjects of these qualities, as a big house, but not a big size, or a big number, or a big space. This function is better ex- ercised by great and large, as a great or large number, a great or lai-ge extent, a great or large amount, a great or large size. But great is used of degree in a way in which large cannot be, as, I was greatly dis- appointed ; and large of quantity, in a way in which great cannot be, as, he was largely rewarded. Big is always purely physical ; great is also moral, and applicable directly to per- sons, as a great general. Large is purely physical when employed di- rectly of persons, but may Ije used of qualities, as a man of large mind, or large benevolence. " i>«V/-boned, and large of limbs, with sinews strong." — Dryden. " Greatness of soul is more necessary to make a great man than the favour of tlie monarch and the blazonry of a herald, and greatness of soul is to be acquired by con- verse with the heroes of antiquity — not tlic fighting heroes only, but the moral heroes." — Knox, Letters. " Such as made Sheba's curious queen resort To the ?((r(/(?-hearted Hebrew's famous court." Waller. Bigot. See Enthusiast. Bill. See Account. Billow. See Wave. Bind. Tie. To Bind is the Saxon hindan. To Tie is the Saxon tegean, or tygan. They express diiferent modes of fastening by any long and flexible material. In the first place, tie is applicable to involutions and knots of the material itself, as, the string was tied in a knot. To bind indicates the circumvolution of the binding material around what is bound. The horse in the stable is tied up, but not bound vtp. When two things are tied together, that which imites them is in some measure intermediate ; when they are bound, it is not intermediate. When things are tied, the whole is in restraint as regards what is external to it ; when they are bound, the parts are in restraint as regards one another. The insane patient is bound in a strait-waistcoat ; the martyi' is tied to the stake. When used metaphorically, that is, morally, the same distinction of force appears. The moral tie is an external restraint, as the ties of kindred. The bond is internal, as to be bound in conscience. Bind. Oblige, Compel. Con- strain. Coerce. To Bind implies a condition of subjection to an already existing obli- Bixn. ( io8 ) BLAME. gation. Sucli obligation may be moral or legal, or prudential. The obli- gation arises out of the circum- stances of the indi^ddual. and not irom the exercise upon him of the pure will of another. I am hound to assist my friend in his trouble, if I can. I am bound in honour to speak the ti-uth, and in conscience to make just restitution, if I have taken un- justly or dishonestly. To be bound legally, as, for instance, by a bond, is ot course technical. " Even in those actions wherebv an offence may be occasioned, though not given, charity binds us to clear both our own name and the conscience of others."— ^is^^op Hall. Oblige (Lat. obligare, to bind) de- notes the operation of an external torce, as of another's will, but more commonly the force of circumstances It is commonly employed of those men or cases in which no strono- opposition of the will of the persoS obliged IS supposed; as, -the road was blocked up, so I was obliged to come another way." It is not so strong as bind; but though not so strong, it IS more practical; for a man may be bound to do somethin<^ wiiicii, in fact, he neglects or omits to do. But what he is obliged to do, he does. Neither bind nor obUo-g ex- clude necessarily the consent of the will. " A man is said to be obliged when he is urged by a violent motive, resulting from the command of another. Ami from this account of obligation, it follows that we can be o/j/i,jid to do nothing but what we our- selves are to gain or lose something by, for nothing else can be a ' violent motive ' to us. — Falci/. To Compel (Lat. compellere) de- notes that the wiU of the person was powerless, or was taken no accoimt ot. Compulsion may proceed from persons or from circumstances. " Before the sun has gilt the skies Keturning labour bids me rise. Obedient to the hunter's horn, He quits his couch at early morn. By want comjjel/cd, I dig the soil His is a voluntary toil." Cotton's Fables. To Constrain {constringere) differs from compel in not implying the same absolute annulling, or at least disregard of the individual's ^-ill To compel denotes a purely external torce; but to constrain may be in- ternal. I exercise force over myself when I constrain myseK; and I lend myself to moral influences when I allow myself to be constrained, from motives of compassion, for instance to act in such and such a way In short the principle of compulsion is simply force, and of constraint, ino- tive. " The love o{ Christ constrainethmQ."— Bible. Coerce [coercere), like compel, de- notes not the action in any decn-ee of mteraal motives, but only of external force. But the external force of com- pxilsion is direct, of coercion, indi- rect. In coercion, some means are employed, as the fulenim to the lever ot compulsion. Coercion is compul- sion under a moral guise, and is often the resource of persons who would shiink from the responsibility of employing the overt force of com- pulsion. " Vote for what candidate you please ; but if you vote for such ail one, you know the consequences •" this is coercion. In short, coercion is the exercise of any powerful inter- ference with the free exercise of the individual will. Yet it has a social character, and bears more especially upon such acts as men perfonn not merely as individuals, but as brought into contact with society and their fellow-men. It may be added that, unlike the other terms, which have only a positive, coerce has also a neo-a- tive force, in which it is neai-ly aUTed to restrain. " Therefore the debtor is coerced his liberty until he makes payment." — Burke. Blamr CensutvE. Condemn. Kepkove. Eepeoach. Upbraid. Eepkimand. Eebuke. Chide. Animadvert. To Blame (Fi-. hJmner, from the Lrr. /3Xoo0,;^et,.) is simply to ascribe a tault to a person. It does not ex- tend to crimes. So we should not blame a person for committing a foul murder. And so persons are blamed lor accidents and untowai-d circum- BLAME. ( 109 ) BLAME. stances, wlieu their occurrence may be ascribed to neglect, disobedience, and the like. The idea of imputing fault constitutes blame. Hence the term is applicable, among others, to such faults as consist in defect or excess of what is in itself right and good, as to blame a person for over- indulgence toward others. It is ex- ercised by any one man towards any other, without distinction of rank or right, and may extend to motives as well as acts. We may often blame our friends, whom, nevertheless, we should desire to shield from the public censure of others. Blame may be in- direct, as by adopting one policy or party we, by consequence, blame the policy of the opposite party. " A wise man may frequently neglect praise, even when he has best deserved it, bvxt in all matters of serious consequence, he will most carefully endeavour so to regulate his conduct as to avoid not only blameworthiness, but as much as possible every imputation of blame." — Smith, Moral Sentiments. To Censure (Lat. censiirci) is the formal and open expression of fault by a superior, or by one who assumes to be so for the occasion. To censure is more an act of personal authority than to blame, and is supposed to take place in the face of the person censured, whereas we may blame the absent or the dead. The consequences of conduct, and the conduct itself may be blamed, but it is only the person who is censured. A certain gravity of offence is implied in censure, which lies midway between light faults and heavy crimes. We might say, I blame such an one for l^eing over- indulgent, but we could hardly cen- sure him for it. The censure is sup- posed to carry with it some degree of punishment in its own severity, or in the character of him who expresses it. Blame is no more than the result of an opinion contrary to the conduct of another, and need not be publicly expressed, but may be secretly enter- tained. Censure expresses a kind of civil right to express blame publicly, as the Censors of ancient Rome might erase from the lists of citizens those whom they thought unworthy of the name. " Of this delicacy Horace is the best master. He appears in good-humour while he ci-nsii.-c.-! ; and tliercfore liis censure has tlie more wi'ight, as supposed to i>roceed fruiii judgment, not from passion." — I'oumj. To Condemn (condeinnare) applies to grave offences or to those avIio commit them. It is the solemn pro- nunciation of an adverse judgment, either formally and openly, or in one's own mind. " When Christ asked the woman, ' Hath no man condemned thee ?' He certainly spoke, and was understood by the woman to speak of a legal and judicial condemnation. Otherwise her answer, ' No man, Lord,' was not true. In every other sense of condemnation, as blame, censure, reproof, private judgment, and the like, many had condemned her ; all those, in short, who brought her to Jesus." — Paley. To Reprove (reprobare) is per- sonally to express one's disapproba- tion to another, commonly one's junior or inferior. It may be no more than the simple expression of it in a very few words, or even by a sign, and so differs from censure, which always enters upon the nature of the offence or supposed offence. " Reprove, rebuke, exhort, with all long- suffering and doctrine." — Bible. Rebuke (of which the origin is very doubtful as to its root idea, though the word appears in the Nor- man French rehuquer) indicates a certain manner in reproving, such as sti-aightforwardness, outspokenness, and moral courage, especially where an inferior goes out of his way to rebuke a superior, as not being afraid to do so. Reproach (Fr. reprocher, proclie, Lat. propre, near) differs from the foregoing in its whole tone and spirit. Its etymological force is to bring iiear or home. It is between persons related to each other by some kind of tie, and the subject of the reproach is commonly an assumed violation of moral obligation which has redounded to the shame or injury of the reproacher or the reproached, as a son reproaches his father with his own want of education, or to some moral harm which has redounded elsewhere, as I reproach a person with his neglect of his duties. In reproach there is a feeling of in- BLAME. BLEMISH. cliv, that is, as he explains him- self, an imitation of ridiculous characters." — Twining's Aristotle, Poetics. Irony (Gr. iipavela ) is a mode of censuring by contraries. It ridicules by pretending to admire, and con- demns by feigned approval. The modern term irony has widely de- parted from the original Greek fipciveia, which was a term of the Socratic philosophy, and meant an under statetyient of truth. The oi-igiual force, however, is still perceptible in the following : — "There are mixed in his talk so many pleasant ironies, that things which deserve the severest language are made ridiculous in- stead of odious; and you see everything in the most good-natured asi)ect it can" boar." — Guardian. Satire (Lat. satira), on the other hand, sets to work in no indirect fashion, but is a clever, lively, and sustained description of the cha- racter and acts of persons. It fal- sifies its chai-acter and transgresses its proper limits when it is anything more than subservient to the exposure of what is defective, blameworthy, or vicious in pubHc administration and conduct, or in personal morals. " Libel and satire are promiscuously joined together in the notions of the vulgar ; though the satirist and libeller difler as much as the libeller and murderer. In the consideration of human life, the satirist never falls upon pei-sons who are not glaringly faulty, and the libeller upon none but who are conspicuously commendable." — Tatler. Sarcasm (Gr. aapKaa-fios, a-dp^. flesh, a biting of the flesh) is that kind of personal allusion which is vented by indignation or spite. It represents the more virulent aspect of satire, and is barely justifiable when grounded on moral indignation ; not at all when it issues from personal bitterness or ill-will. " And when they heard of the resuri'ection of the dead, some mocked, &c., i.e., disputed sarcastically and contumeliously against it, that certainly there was no such matter." — Hammond. Sarcasm is the contemptuous and de- risive expression of uncongeniality with the character, conduct, belief, princii^les, or statements of another. Humour is, as its name denotes, that species of wit — if it be allowed to be wit at all, which is a vexed ques- tion — which proceeds from the humour of a person, and may, to some extent, as wit does not, display itself in ac- tions as well as words. Wit (Sax. wit, gewitt) may consist in a single brilliant thovight ; but humour is con- tinuous and runs in a vein. It is an equable and pleasing flow of wit, en- BURyiXG. BUSY. livening and amusing -svitliout being of necessity brilliant. The essence of wit, in the mixlern acceptation of the term, consists in the ready and telling appreciation and exjjression of the agreement and disagreement of things. It comes by natiire, as wis- dom comes by reflection and exi:)eri- ence, and learaing by study and labour. Swift drew attention to the distinction l>etween wit and humour, when he said that humour was " a talent not confined to men of n-'it or learning, for we observe it sometimes among common sei'V'ants, and the meanest of the people." It may be that wit excites a lively feeling of surpi-ise and gratification, but not a smiJe or a laugh; this is always im- plied in humour. " Tl'iY," says Locke, "lies most in the assemblage of ideas, and in putting those together ^yith quickness and varietj- wherein can be found any resemblance or congruity, thereby to make up pleasant pictures and agreeable visions in the fancy." In shoi't, humour seems to lie rather in the presentation to the mind of amusing incongi-uity or contrast, wit in that of brilliant association and comparison, which, however, will often include contrast. Goldsmith has expressed himseK veiy strongly on the diiFerence. He says — " Wit raises human nature above its level, humour acts a contrary part, and equally depresses it. To expect exalted humour is a contradiction in terms." BuKNTNG. Ardent. Fiery. Hot. Scorching. Hot (A. S. hat) denotes simply having heat in the physical or any analogous sense of the term heat. " ^loderation may become a fault. To be but warm when God commands us to be hot is sinful." — Fcit/uiin. Burning (A. S. heornan, with many other kindred forms) denotes exhibit- ing heat, or in any way or degree affecting by heat. When used morally, hot is applied to the passirms, burning to the more active desires ; the idea of l)urning being the continuous feeling or transmission of heat in a livelj- manner. Fire is hot, but the flame burns. So, " a buruiuff sense of shame." " a burning indigna- tion," but, " hot anger." " Cowley, observing the cold regard of his mistress's eyes, and at the same time their power of producing love in him, considers them as 6!(/-nin^-glasses made of ice." — Spectator. Ardent (Lat. ardere, to buni) is the Latin equivalent to the English burning, but is not so strong a term, and is applied to inclinations as well as desires, as an ardent hope or am- bition, ardent zeal. Ardent is, unlike the others, not used except poetically in any primary or physical sense. "There was one Felton, of a good family, but of an ardent melancholy temper, who had served under the Duke of Buckingham in the station of lieutenant." — Hume. Fiery is showing itself like fire, that is, tending to project itself upon others. Fieiy va-ath is that which would consume or injure others if it could. '• Fiery indignation " is that which would " devour the adver- saries." It is not steady and con- suming so much as fitful and flash- ing. " Legions of loves with little wings did fly. Darting their deadly slttows fery bright." Sj)eiiser. Scorching (Fr. ecorcer, Lat. cortex, the bark) denotes a heat which affects the surface injuriously or painfully. Scorching passions would denote not so much their mere heat, as the way in which they i-edounded to the re- morse of those subject to them. " Some of the pieces which were then brought from its repositories appeared to have been scorched with the fire which hap- pened in the town house soon after the bank was established." — Adam Smith. Burst. See Break. Business. See Affair, Em- ployment, and Profession. Bustle. See Hurry. Busy. Actfto. Officious. Busy (A. S. hyaig) means no moi*e than actively employed, except in the unfavourable sense of fond of unduly employing oneself with the con- cerns of others from curiosity or in- quisitiveness. A person of inactive habits may occasionally be suffi- BUT. ( 129 ) CABAL. ciently interested in anytliing to be busy. To be busy, whether habitu- idly or not, is to be carefully, sedu- lously, and absorbingly engaged in a work. " Despair Temlod the sick, busied from couch to couch." 3Iilton. Active (Fr. actif, Lat. agere, actus, to do) is having a tendency to em- ployment and a dislike of remaining idle. Such a disposition, if not well employed, is pretty sure to fall into mischief. To be active implies more energy, to be busy more attention. The active man distributes his thoughts, the busy man concentrates them. The former is ready for any employment, the latter dedicates him- self to one in particular. " The soul, being an active natui-e, is always propending to the exercise of one faculty or another." — Glanviil. Officious (Lat. officimn, office, duty) is that aspect of the quality of the busy man in the affairs of others which leads him to the superfluous taking upon himself to advise or to assist them. "The miserable Rachel now too late dis- covered the fatal consequences of interfering between husband and wife, and heartily re- proached herself for her officiousness in aggra- vating his jealousy." — Observer. But. See However. Butchery. See Massacre. Butt. Mark. The man who is a Butt (Fr. hut, butt, aim) is a Mark (Fr. marque), but the man who is a mark is not necessarily a butt. The word butt is a metaphor, indicating a mark for the shafts of satire or ridicule of the most contemptuous nature. A man may be a mark of envy, but he is only a butt for ridicule. " I mean those honest gentlemen that are pelted by men, women, and children, by friends and foes, and, in a word, stand as butts in conversation." — Addison. Both terms are taken from archery, the butt being the barrel, whose bung served for the central mark for aim. " A'rt. I aimed so near when I supposed you loved. Bom. A right good mnrk-mnn ! and she's fair I love." llomco and Juliet. Buy. Purchase. To Buy (A. S. hycgan, hygan) and to Purchase (Fr. ])()in-c]iat-on. Reviling {vilis, cheap, worthless) is eloqvient defamation or slander, the copious use of opprobrious or con- temptiious language. Yilification is from the same root, but reviling is direct, vilification indirect. We revile a person to his face ; we vilify him or his character generally in the eyes of the world. To vilify is simply to cheapen down to vileness, and there- fore is applicable to anything, and not restricted to persons which have a character of goodness or a reputa- tion for excellence. " Believe it that can, while he is labouring to destroy the best, the only complete system of morality that ever yet appeared, and to rilifij that Book which so truly places the whole of religion in doing good." — Water- land. Libel is written slander or defama- tion QibeUns, a little book). Cancel. See Abolish a7id Ef- face. Caxdid. See Hearty. Canonization. See Beatifica- tion. Capability. See Ability. Capacious. See Ample. Capacity. See Ability. Capital. See Chief. Capkice. Humour. Whim. Freak. Fancy. Fickleness. Variableness. Changeableness. Capeice (Fr. caprice, Lat. caper, a goat, as it were, a fantastical goat- leap) is employed both of the quality and of what manifests the quality, that is, an act of caprice. Caprice is the acting on the slightest preference of the moment, and from one moment to another without such choice as is founded on deliberation. It mani- fests itself in abrupt changes of feel- ing, opinion, or action. HuMOUB (Lat. humor, moisture) is the indul- gence of one's temper or mood at any time, and making that the principle of action. Humour may differ at different times, but caprice is ever variable. Caprice may be a matter of imagination and fancy, but humour is an actvial sensation. Humour allows feeling to usurp the place of will, while caprice substitutes fancy. The three terms, humour, fancy, and caprice, denote generally a passing lively feeling; but caprice and humour belong more to the character, fancy to passing circumstances. Humour is quite as compatible with sadness as with its contrary. The coquette has her caprices ; the hypochondriac, the tyrant, the imperious man his humours ; the child, or the childish, his fancies. " Upon his right hand was Industry, with a lamp burning before her, and on his left Caprice, with a monkey sitting on her shoulder." — Spectator. " You'll ask me why I rather choose to have A weight of carrion flesh than to receive Three thousand ducats. I'll not answer that, But say, it is my humour." Shakespeare. Whim (Welsh cliwim, a brisk motion) differs from caprice and humour, as not expressing any qua- lity or temper of mind, but something external. We call that a whim which seems to have no better ac- count than personal eccentricity. " Let every man enjoy his vhim. What's he to me, or I to him ?" Churchill A Freak (compare Scotch frah, freek, to move quickly) is a humour- ous, or, at least, lively display of per- sonal eccentricity, a merry whim. '■For many of their actions and opinions were very wild freaks of fancy and humour, and would gain men in these days (as foolish and bad as they ai-e) no better name than of lunaticks and bedlams." — Ghmvill. A Fantasy (Fi*. fantasie) or Fancy is the product of an eccentric or un- regulated imagination. It has to do, in this sense, with matters of pes- CAPTIOUS. ( 137 ) CAPTIVATE. session and enjoyment or pleasiire or their opposites, and not with the treatment of others, like humour, and caprice, though others may he affected by our fancies. It invests objects, Avithout exact attention or inquiry, with sui)posed charms or otherwise. " I dare not force affection, or presume To censure her discretion, that looks on me As a weak man, and not her/totcv/s idol." Massbujer. Fickleness, variableness, and changeableness apply to human dis- position, with these differences : Fickleness (A. S. fimV) belongs rather to the disposition, the others to the temper and mood. As Vari- ableness and Changeableness are used of weather, so they are used analogously of that which belongs to manner and behaviour ; variableness of mood, and changeableness of hu- mour. But fickleness is more deeply seated. It is that inconstancy of mind and taste which shows itseK in incon- stant preferences and attachments. " When he (Lucas) came to the English, he painted a naked man with cloth of different sorts lying by him, and a pair of shears, as a satire on our fickleness in f\ishious." — Walpole. " An eternal and unchangeable cause pro- ducing a changeable and temporary effect." — Malegh. " But, alas ! though the just grounds of my joy be steady, yet my weak disposition is subject to variableness." — Bishop Hall. Captious. Cavilling. Cen- sorious. Carping. Captious (Fr. ccqMeux) is apt to catch at faults. Another meaning has flowed out of this — difficult to suit, and so peevish. It is an epithet of the disposition. It comes of a mind trained in exact habits of thought combined with an impatience of error. It is applied to matters of taste and exact learning. It is therefore some- times a fault of the disposition purely, sometimes of the mind and disposition combined. In the latter sense it is thus employed by Stillingfleet : — " What design can the wit of man pitch upon in a captious and suspicious age that will not meet with objections from those tliut have a mind to cavil ?" Captioitsness, as defined by Locke, is of the former kind, although the ex- cessive tendency to find fault is com- mon to both ; in the latter, faults in themselves, in the former, faults by which we are personally affected. " Captiousness," says he, "is another fault opposite to civility, not only because it often produces misbecoming and provoking expres- sions and carriage, but because it is a tacit accusation and reproach of some incivility taken notice of in those we are angry with." Censorious {censor, from censeo, a controller of morals) has a graver meaning, and expresses a disposition which tends to find serious fault, and to administer reproof, whether on such matters as the captious, or on the subject of morals and conduct, more especially the latter. It comes of an austere and dogmatical spirit. "They are both very requisite in a virtu- ous mind, to keep out melancholy for the many serious thoughts it is engaged in, and to hinder its natural hatred of vice from souring into severity and censoriousness." — Spectator. " But Colotes, like a sycophant, cavilling at him and catching at his words without regard of the matter, not arguing against his reasons, indeed, but in words only, aftirmeth flatly that Parmenides overthroweth all things in one word by supposing that all is one." — Holland, Plutarch. " Lay aside, therefore, a carping spirit, and read even an adversary with attention and diligence, with an honest design to find out his true meaning. Do not snatch at little lapses and appearances of mistake in opposition to his declared and avowed meaning." — Watts. Cavilling is the carping of argument, carpiug the cavilling of ill-temper. Cavilling (from cavilluri, to banter) implies a tendency to cap- tious argument, to start frivolous objections, and find fault without good reason. Carping (from carper e. to pick or pluck) springs from ill-nature, and so vents itself upon the most welcome objects to such a natiire, namely, the words and actions of other persons, as well as their state- ments. Captivate. Enchant. Charm. Fascinate. Enrapture. En- slave. Tu Captivate (Lat. captivare, from CAPTIVATE. ( 138 ) CAPTIVATE. captimis and capio) and to Fascinate (Lat. fascinare, Gr. ^aa-Kaiveiv) ex- press something more strong than "to attract." Tliey denote such a power of attraction as exerts itself over the will of the person affected and di-aws it away from other ob- jects. A captivating person, or a captivating pursuit, is that which draws one from other persons and other pursuits by a strong influence, leading the person, as it were, cap^ tive. A captivating landscape is one which arrests our progress to stop and admire it, so charming us as to induce a feeHng of regret at turning our backs upon it. Captivation may or may not, therefore, be the result of design ; or it may be. as exercised by a woman of the world, the combined result of nature and art. There is always a more or less unfavourable air about the term captivate, inas- much as it denotes some degree of influence exercised to the diminution o± perfect liberty of thought or action. The understanding as weU as the taste may be captivated ' Xo small part of our servitude lies in the capta-ation of our understanding, such as that we cannot see ourselves captive" — Bislwp Fascination is the extreme of captiva- tion when the person lies, as it were, spell-bound under some influence of attraction. This may be external or personal beauty or manners, or an extreme feeling of interest, as a fasci- natmg employment, which so absorbs the attention as to leave no room for interest m anything else. The fas- cinating acts through the faculty of sight, and exerts a power upon indi- viduals, owing to their peculiar sus- ceptibilities, which is out of propor- tion to the intrinsic claims of the object to admiration and regard. It quickens the vision morbicUy in some alsT^'^"^' a^d bandages the eyes "Some, to the fascination of a name Surrender judgment hood-winked." Cou-per. Another aspect of captivate is de- veloped by the word Enslave, lite- rally to make a slave of. As to cap- tivate, m one sense, is to bring into captmty, so to enslave is to bring into slavery. There is the same dif- ference, therefore, as between those two. The captive is simply in his captor's power. The slave does his owner's bidding, and has sun-endered or been deprived of the independent exercise of his own will to do another's bidding. "Sensual pleasure is a great abuse to the spirit of a man, being a kind of fascination or witchcraft, blinding the understandino- and enslaving the will."— ^',s/io^ Taylor. ° Enchant (Fr. enchanter, Lat. in- cantare) and Charm (Fr. charmer, from charme, Lat. carmen, an incan- tation) have a close resemblance both m derivation and application. To enchant is a livelier word than to charm. We are charmed with what engages the senses and gratifies the taste, as beautiful scenery, sweet music, engaging conversation and manners. The tei-m is even used for the same asdelight, as, " Iwas charmed to hear such news." We are enchanted by what so charms the senses as to affect the imagination, to caii-y us out of common thoughts and common life, and perhaps place us as in a fairy land of thought. Enrapture (Lat. raptura, a seizing, from rapere, to seize) denotes a delight bevond measure, when we are beside ourselves, and transported by enjoyment. When we are enchanted we are taken out of ourselves ; when charmed it is by some object Avhich, insinuating itself into the mind, acts like those magical charms, those love philters, and the like, which are supposed to produce in us effects which we imagine to be natural, and which make us feel their power without being aware of their presence. Custom, which fa- mihansesaU things, destroys euchiint- ment. Reflection may even dissipate It at once. But both famiharity and j reflection may seem to prolong charms | which will bear the test of the judo-- ' ment and of criticism. There is id- ways a little of surprise mixed with enchantment. Affection conies in and takes part with sentiment in the case of the object which charms us. In rapture, on the other hand, there IS unrest; and, so far from bearin"- CAPTIVITY. ( 139 ) CAPTIVITY. j tlie test of reflection, tlie very use_ of I reflection shows that it is passing i away. ! " We all promise ourselves great pleasure I in our jouruey homewards, and we have great reason to believe it will be encJiantingly pleasant." — Sir W. Jmies. " Such a lovely image and representation I of the true virtue, as Plato said, could not but charm men with the strongest degree of love and admiration possible."— Clarke. " Explore thy heart, that, roused by glory's name, Pants, all enraptured, with the mighty charm." Beattie. Captivity. Confinembnt. Im- peisonment. incarceration. Bondage. Slavery. iMMURma. Servitude. Captivity is the state of a captive {captivtis, from capere to take or catch), that is, of one who has been deprived of his liberty by another, however honourable, liberal, or wide the re- strictions of such captivity may be. The captive monarch is not the less a captive because he is placed by his courteous captor at his right hand on horseback or at table. The bird is not the less a captive for the size of the cage. The term is re- stricted to such command over the persons of others as results from suc- cessful war. So every captive is a prisoner, but every prisoner (those, for instance, in the gaols) is not called a captive. A distinction is made in the English Litany, which prays for " all prisoners and captives." " Myself my sepulchre, a moving grave. Buried, yet not exempt By privilege of death and burial From worst of other evils, pains, and wrongs. But made hereby obnoxious more To all the miseries of life. Life in captivity Among inhuman foes." Milton. Confinement {con and finis, a limit) is a wider term than captivity, as it denotes other kinds of restric- tion than that of the captive. A person may be confined to the house by sickness. It is the abridgment of personal liberty for any cause or by any sort of force. As applied to persons, it may be partial, as his hands were confined, the rest of his body was free. " I thank the Almighty I am now all col- lected in myself; and though my person is in confinement, my mind can expatiate on amjile and useful subjects with all the freedom imaginable." — Johnson, Life of Savage. Imprisonment (Fr.jf3ri.sow,pre«-fZrr, pris, to take) is confinement within walls, which is the literal meaning of Immure {in and niurus, a wall) ; but immure is a narrower imprisonment, in which the stony captivity presses closely on all sides. Imprison most commonly denotes the involuntary confinement of one by another, im- mure the mere fact of close confine- ment, irrespective of any coercion which has produced it ; as to live immured in the walls of a convent may be a voluntary act. Imprison- ment is a narrowing of the state of captivity. The bird which is taken captive in the hand is afterwards imprisoned in the cage. Captivity and imprisonment both deprive of some degree of personal liberty, but not of civil rights, which takes place in bondage and slavery. The fair one does not take her lover prisoner, but captive, and yet sometimes suc- ceeds in making him her slave. The term " prisoner of war " does _ not necessarily imply confinement in a prison. He is generally a captive rather than a prisoner. " It is but six or seven years since a clergy- man of the name of Malony, a man of morals, neither guilty, nor accused of anything noxious to the State, was condemned to per- petual imprisonment for exercising the func- tions of his religion." — Burke. " For six long years immured, the captive knight Had dragged his chains and scarcely seen the light." Dryden. Incarceration (Lat. career, a prison) is an equivalent of Latin form for the more directly French form imprison, but denotes an igno- minious imprisonment, such as that of prisoners in a gaol, with as little as possible of personal liberty. So imprison admits more possible free- dom than incarcerate, and incarce- rate than immure. CAPTURE. ( 140 ) CARESS. ' " It (the doctrine of pre-existence) supposeth the descent into these bodies to be a culpable lapse from an higher and better state of life, and this to be a state of incarceration for former delinquencies." — Glanvill. Bondage (a state of being boxind), Slavery (Fi: Ssclave), and Seevi- TXJDE (Lat. servitudo, from servire, to serve as a slave), all denote the sub- jection of tlie j)erson to superior restrictive power. The terms increase in force in the following order : servitude, slavery, bondage. Servi- tude is simply compulsory sei'\'ice to a master. So tbe term is even some- times employed of free and honour- able service, in reference to any com- pulsory terms connected with it. British naval officers will speak of their period of servitude, by which they mean their service as regards a cei-tain term which they ai-e bound to complete. "A hundred were Spaniards, every one well mounted upon his horse, the rest were Indians running as dogs at their heels, and in the most miserable bondage." — Sir Francis Drake. " Beauty of every kind is formed to allure, and there is this peculiar advantage in con- templating the beauties of vegetable nature, that we may permit our hearts to be capti- vated by them without appi-ehension of any dangerous or dishonourable servitude." — A'nox. Slavery begins where servitude ends. It is that sort of compulsory life of labour which depends upon the will of another, the master owning the servant as a chattel. But even slavery has its degrees; and the ancient Romans had learned slaves who were honourably treated as lite- rary companions of their masters. Bondage is the exti-eme aspect of slavery, when the slave has become, as it were, a beast of burden, and works, it may be under the lash, as the captive IsraeHtes did in the land of Egypt. Captuke. Seizuee. Pkize. Capture [capiura, from cajpere, to take) and Seizure (Fi-. saisir) are used both of the process and the object. The process of capture in- volves art as well as force, while seizure is effected by force alone. A strong town may be captured after a prolonged siege by a powerful army, or a little bird may be captured in a bird-trap. The highwayman seizes the person or the property of the traveller. Prize relates only to the object taken and its value to the taker. It is the result of competi- tive effort, as in the galleon laden with gc)ld, the slave-ship, or the award of the school-boy, or student. The term prize is, however, sometimes used to express merely a thing of value, however obtained — as a prize in a lottery, or " I was walking along the road, and I picked up an unex- pected prize." The idea is something taken which is of value. "This was very happy for him; for in a very few years, being concerned in several captures, he brought home with him an estate of about twelve thousand pounds." — Guardian. " The Indians, having perceived by our seizure of the bark the night before that we were enemies, immediately fled into the woody parts of the island."— .4/isow. " Our inheritances are become a prize for disputation." — Burke. The capture is commonly either an object having life, or something taken in spite of voluntary efforts of resist- ance. The seizure is commonly of lifeless objects, as contraband goods. The prize is commonly, also, an in- animate object, except where the person who constitutes the prize is regarded simply for the ransom or other indirect advantage, and value. Carcase. See Body. Cardinal. See Chief. Care. Care (Lat. mra) has the following significations, which may be refeiTcd to separately : — Heed, Solicitude, Concern. Careful. See Cautious. Careless. See Ixattenti-\ti and Listless. Caress. Fondle. Caress (Fr. caresse, Lat. canis, deal') is the expression of tender feel- ing by words and actions. Fondle, CARICATURE. ( 141 ) CASE. from fond, is the expression of weak cliildisli tendei-ness, and is confined to actions. The King of France used him (the Duke of Buckingham) in so particular a manner, knowing his vanity, and caressed him to such degree, that he went without reserve into the interests of France." — Burnet. " Each time enjoined her penance mild, And fondled on her like a child." — Gny. Caricature. See Burlesque. Cargo. Freight. Lading. Burden. Cargo (Spanish cargo and cargo) is a ship-load, and in English law means all that is carried by a vessel, except live persons and animals. "To different lands, for different sins, we i-oam. And, richly freighted, bring our cargo home." Churchill. Freight is a later form of franght, that with which a vessel is fraught for transportation. As regards float- ing vessels, the cargo and the freight are the same thing, viewed diiFerently, the freight being the cargo as viewed for transportation. But freight is also used of material of land carriage. Again, the Lading (connected with load) is the freight regarded in its weight and quantity, of which con- sideration is taken by formal record and registration. " Some were made prize, while others, burnt and rent, . With their rich lading to the bottom went." Waller. Burden (see Burden), in nautical matters, is the capacity of a ship, which is ascertained by measure- ment, and determined by the builder, as a vessel of so many tons burden. Carnage. See Massacre. Carousal. See Banquet. Carp. See Captious. Carriage. Gait. Walk. De- portment. Carriage is seldom used now in any other than the physical sense, the metaphorical one of conduct being almost obsolete. It denotes the habitual mode of carrying the body, mainly, but not exclusively, while in motion. A graceful or un- graceful carriage may be shown while sitting at ta])le. It would sound antiquated to use the word as Clarendon did : " He advised the new governour to have so much discretion in his carriage, that there might be no notice taken of the exercise of his religion." The word is one of formality, and is best employed of the bearing of persons on public occasions, where some degree of j)ersonal dignity is demanded. " His gallant carriage." — Stirling. Perhaps modern use would be best satisfied by the term bearing. Gait (A. S. yeat, gat, gate, or place for going) is the manner of the walk as to the movements of the legs and feet alone, as a shambling gait. " He had very narrow shoulders, and no calf; and his gait might be more properly called hopping than walking." — Fielding. The term is one wanting in dignity. We should say an awkward, not a majestic gait. Walk (Sax. wealcan, to roll) is the manner of progress, taking the move- ments of the whole body into ac- count. This use is conversational and modern. "In length of train descends her sweeping gown. And by her graceful walk the Queen of Love is known." Drydcn. Deportment (Fr. deportement, which originally had this meaning, though the modern word signifies misdemeanour) refers to the whole use and movement of the body, as graceful or ungraceful, suitable or unsuitable. It is the carriage of the body as regards social requirements and regulations. Tet we should speak of a person's carriage in public, of his deportment in private life. "The coldness of his temper and the gravity of his deportment carried him safe through many difficulties." — Swift. Carry. Bring. Case. Cause. The Case (Fr. cas, from Lat. casm, cadere, to fall out) is a matter of fact, CASE. ( 142 ) CASUAL. and the Cause [causa) is matter of question. This distinction is not the less sound because the case may be differently stated. The case is learnt, the cause is decided. We state the case, and defend the cause. In the process of a caxtse, cases are often cited as precedents. " Yet on his way (no signs of grace, For folks in fear are ajit to pray) To Phoebus he preferred his case, And begged his aid that dreadful day." Gray. " Plead Thou my cause." — Book of Psalim. Case. See Example. Cash. Money. Specie. Money {Juno Moneta, at whose temple money was coined at Rome, whence mint) is employed for any- thing which is used as a circulating medium. In some parts of Airicn, for instance, shells are used as money. " To prevent such abuses, to facilitate ex- changes, and thereby to encourage all sorts of industry and commerce, it has been found necessary in all countries that have made any considerable advances towards improvement, to affix a certain stamp upon certain quan- tities of such particular metals as were in those countries commonly made use of to purchase goods. Hence the origin of coined money, and of those public offices called mints." — Adam Smith. Cash (Ft. caisse) is ready money, that is, coin, in distinction to any- thing the value of which depends on credit. The following quotation will show that there was a time when the English cash, like the French caisse, was employed of the bank or place where the cash was stored. "So, as this bank is properly a general cash, where every man lodges his money because he esteems it safer and easier paid in and out than if it were in his coffers at home." —Sir W. Temple. The word, however, is used in our own sense by Shakespeare and Mil- ton. " Or as a thief, bent to unheard the cash Of some rich burghei-, whose substantial doors. Cross-barred and bolted fast, fear no assault. In at the window climbs, or o'er the tiles." Paradise Lost. Specie, the same word as species, is money of stamped coin, but is not necessarily ready money, as it may consist in the coinage of a foreign country. "There was in the splendour of the Pioman Empire aless quantity of current species in Europe than there is now." — Gibbon. Cast. See Throw. Cast. See Character. Casual. Accidental. Inci- dental. Contingent. Occa- sional. Fortuitous. Casual {casus, from cadere, to be- fall) is applied to such occurrences as, coming by chance, have no imme- diate consequences beyond them- selves. The casuid is the accidental combined with the unimportant. A casual observer is simply a man who happens to look on ; a casual remark is one which happens to be made. The casual is, as it were, a solitaiy link, and not a concatenation of cause and eifect. In short, the trivial is an element in the casual, although it often happens that seeming trifles are followed by important conse- quences. " Casual breaks in the general system." — W. Irving. It is hai-dly stronger than Occa- sional, which it much resembles in meaning, as occasional is denved from the same root {occasio, cadere, to fall out) ; but occasional excludes to a greater extent the idea of chance. Moreover, the casiial may occiu* once, the occasional more than once. How- j ever trivial may be the casual cir- cumstance, it was unexpected; whereas the occasional is often ex- pected, and is generally known; thiis differing from the recurrent or periodic, which are specifically known, as "he paid us occasional risits during his stay in the neighbour- hood." That which is recui*rent with- out being regular is occasional. "This time I could not spend in idleness. I therefore very willingly set myself to translate my occasional meditations into Latin."— Bishop Nail. Accidental (another form of CASUAL. ( M3 ) CATALOGUE. cadere, accidere) is a more serious word, and denotes an effect sufficiently important to lead the mind to specu- late on tlie cause whicli produced it. A thing laay be regarded as acci- dental which, in any way happens by chance, as distingu.ished from design. (See Chance.) "Civil society was instituted either with the purpose of obtaining all' the good of every kind it was even accidentally capable of pro- ducing, or only of some certain good which the institutors, unconcerned with and unat- tentive to any other, had in view." — War- hurton. Incidental (another form of cadere, incidere) combines the idea of the casiial with that of relation, ap- propriateness, or conformity. An incidental cii'cumstance in a voyage is one which so befals as to run up into the general count and story of it. Incidental expenses in an ac- cotint are those which could not be exactly calcvilated beforehand, but, nevertheless, legitimately or neces- sarily connect themselves with it. Hence the term is sometimes used in the sense of naturally concomitant, as the anxieties incidental to high "But there is a wide difference between supposing the violence offered to them to be the direct and proper purpose of the act and the incidental effect of it." — Bishop Hurd. Contingent {contingere, to touch on or belong to) denotes a union of certainty and uncertainty, or the cer- tain effect of an uncertain or un- known cause; such as are logically expressed in a hypothetical proposi- tion, as "if the skies fall, we shall catch larks." Our catching larks is, so far, contingent upon the skies falling. " Perhaps the beauty of the world rcquireth (though we know it not) that some agents should work without deliberation (which his lordship calls necessary agents), and some agents with deliberation (and these both he and I call free agents), and that some agents should work and we not know how (and their effect we call contingents)." — Hobhes. Fortuitous (Lat. fortuitus, fors, chance) is commonly employed when the subject is one of union, aggre- gation, or combination, as the " for- tuitous concourse of atoms;" a fortui- tous union of causes produced such and such an effect, that is, two or more independent causes happened to produce an effect in common. " The old stale pi-etence of the atheists, that things were first made fortuitousli/, and after- wards their usefulness was observed and dis- covered." — Eay. Casualty. See Accident. Catalogue. List. Koll. Ke- GISTER. Catalogue (in Latin catalogus, from the Greek KordAoyos) is more than List (A. S. list, an edging of cloth), which is a narrow and long enumeration of only just such words or names as are necessary to specify the individuals or items. Catalogue gives some particulars connected with each. So a list of books would be no more than a bare enume- ration of them or the names of their authors. A catalogue of books would give also such points as the number of volumes in each work, the binding, place of jjublication, and the like. "Every man is ready to give in a long catalogue of those virtues and good qualities he expects to find in the person of a iViend, but very few of us are careful to cultivate them in ourselves." — Spectator. " Yes, 'tis the list Of those that claim their offices this day By the custom of the coronation." Shakespeare. A Roll (Lat. rotula) is the same as list ; but, as list is applicable to an enumeration of articles, roll is a list of names of persons only. " These signs have marked me extraordinary, And all the courses of my life do show I am not in the roll of common men." Shakespeare. A Register (Fr. registre, from Lat. re and gerere, to carry back) is a record of persons and transactions connected with them, given with some fulness of detail, and according to a prescribed form, as a parish register of births, deaths, or mar- riages. Milton uses the term regest : — " Others of later time have sought to assert him (Arthur) by old legends and cathedral 7'egcsfs." CATCH. 144 ) CA VITY. "They seem to have rcfiisiered his sayings with wonderful fidelity, but not always in the order in which they come from him." — Bishop Horsley. Catch. Seize. Snatch. Grasp. Gripe. To Catch (Old Fr. cacher, to htint) is to iise sticli etfort as shall aiTest tlae movement of an object and gain possession of it. The effort may be indirectly made, as when a bird is caiiglit in a snare. It is an act of some force, but more skill and quick- ness. To Seize (Fr. saisir) is to lay bold of by force and retain possession. The thing seized may be stationary or in motion. To Snatch (Old Eng. snacJc) is to seize by a rapid and sud- den effort for the purpose of appro- priation, as seize is for detention. To Gkasp is to continue to hold with a strong hold or embrace, for the purpose of detaining, or from fear of losing. It is also employed of com- prehension by the intellect. To Gripe is to grasp with a squeeze or pinch ; and, in its secondary sense, to keep tight out of avarice. "So saying, he ccmgJd him up, and without wing Of Hippogrif, bore through the air sublime Over the wildei-ness and o'er the plain." Milton. Catch and seize have both a recog- nized secondary meaning ; the former applying to mental deception or en- snarement, the latter to the influence of emotion, as — " Admiration seized All heaven, what this might mean or whither tend." Milton. " These are the agonies but of one single person whom death snatches away in the midst of his years, his pleasures, and his hopes." — Stillingfleet. " Let the reading be pleasant and striking, and the memory will ^rms/) and retain all that is sufficient for the purposes of valuable im- provement." — Knox. " The sacrilegious gripe of those execrable wretches." — Burke. Cavil. See Captious. Cavity. Hollow. Hole. Con- cavity. Perforation. Bore. Excavation. Orifice. Every Hole (A. S. liol) is a Hol- low and a Cavity, but every hollow or every cavity is not a hole. Hole is generic, a deep hollow, in which the cavity communicates externally by a comparatively narrow or small aper- ture, or a perforation through a solid body. Hollow is the interior part of a hollow body excavated by nature or by art, as the hollow of a nut. Where the cavity communicates externally by two apertures, it is a Perfora- tion {per, through, and /oi'is, a door). A Concavity is a slight superficial cavity, as in the eye-glasses called concave. An Excavation {ex, out, and cavus, hollow) is a hollow, more or less deep, which has been formed out of a solid mass by some living or mechanical agency. The term perfo- ration is sometimes used for that which penetrates but does not pierce through a substance. This is better ex- pressed by Bore, as the bore of a gun (A. S. borian, to bore, allied to /oris). Bore is, however, used in the same way also, as to bore a tunnel through a mountain. A perforation is, how- ever, in this case a lighter thing than a bore, which denotes the laborious piercing on a large scale of solid masses or materials. A thin sheet of paper might be perforated, not bored. We should not speak of the tunnel above mentioned as a perforation, though here and there the sea, we might say, has perforated the rocks. An Orifice {orificium, os, oris, the mouth, and fucere, to make) is an opening which resembles the mouth in form and use, as the orifice of a tube or a flower, open outwardly and closed within. "Jehoiada the priest took a chest, and bored a hole in the lid of it." — Bible. "Upon weighing the heart in my hand I found it to be extremely light, and conse- quently veiy hollow, which I did not wonder at, when upon looking inside of it I saw mul- titudes of cells and cariYiV's running one within another." — Spectator. Cavity is more a tenn of descriptive science than hole, and is, of course, CA USE. ( 145 ) CEASE. also essentially distiuct from hole in the sense of perforation. " Look upon the outside of a dome, your eye half surrounds it ; look up into the inside, and at one glance you have all the prospect of it. The entire concavity falls into your eye at once." — Spectator. " Herein may be perceived slender perfora- tions, at which may be expressed a black fceculent matter." —Brown's I uhjar Errors. "The appearance, therefore, of the dry land was by the excavation of certain sinus and tracts of the earth, and exaggerating and lifting up other parts of the terrestrial matters, and by this means the water subsided into those caverns and valleys prepared for its reception." — Hale. Cause. See Create. Cause. See Case. Cause. See Origin and Keason. Caution. See Admonish. Cautious. Careful. Wary. Circumspect, Prudent. Dis- creet. Cautious (Lat. cautus, from cavere, to take heed) expresses the charac- ter which realizes the constant possi- bility of danger whether in physical or moral things. It is prndeuce in regard to danger in particular. It is apt to become excessive, and is then over-timidity, and caution may be either wise or weak. " And yet these same cautious and quick- sighted gentlemen can wink and swallow down this sottish opinion about percipient atoms which exceeds in credibility all the fictions of jEsop's fables." — Bentley. Prudence, on the other hand ipntdentia, for providentia), is active and positive, while caution is nega- tive, with a frequent tendency to inaction. While caution only deters from the dangerous, pi-udeuce prompts to the desirable, if it be safe. " Prudence is goodly wisdom in knowing of things." — Chaucer. Discreet (Lat. discretus, from diacernere) involves the natural apti- tude to discei-n between good and evil, truth and falsehood, and, on a lower scale, the desirable and the un- desirable. As pi-udence is the quality which enables us to pierce probabili- ties, and to act accordingly, so dis- cretion has to do with facts and cir- cumstances present and before us. The prudent man prepares for what is coming; the discreet man judges of present affairs. It is prudent to provide against bad weather; it is discreet not to allude to an offensive subject. " He will guide his words with discretion." —Bible. Careful (having care) expresses what is expressed by cautious, and more besides. The careful person has before him a sense of danger, error, or failure, and, so far, he is cautious ; but care proceeds also from interest, zeal, personal attachment towai-d others. The parent is cau- tious who tries to keep his child out of harm which is likely to beset him ; but he is careful even Avhen he is not thinking of danger, as in his training and education generally. Caution avoids doing the wrong thing; careful- ness seeks also rightly to do the right. "Jehoiada then occupied the priesthood, an hounurable, wise, and religious man. To his carefulness it may be ascribed that the state of the church was in some slender sort upheld in those unhappy times." — Ralegli, History of the World. " Then judge yourself, and prove your man As circumsjxctly as you can ; And having made election, Beware no negligence of yours, Such as a friend but ill endures, Enfeeble his aftection." Cowper. WARYand Circumspect are closely allied; but wary (A. S. war, tear, aware) is applicable to the vigilant cunning of mere animal self -pre- servation, while circumspect be- longs to the higher matters of pru- dential conduct and morality [cir- cmnspicere, to look around). An animal might be said to be wary, that is, to have an instinctive sense of danger ; but only a moral and reason- ing being could be circumspect. " The bear hunts them by scent till he come in sight, when he advances warily, keeping above them, and concealing himself among the rocks as he makes his approaches, till he gets immediately over them and nigh enough for the purpose."— Coo/i's Voyages. Cease. Discontinue. To Cease (Lat. cessare),. when used L CEDE. ( 146 ) CELEBRA TE. as a transitive verb, is to put a stop to, or bring to an end simply ; wben as an intransitive verb, it means in the same way simply to come to an end. The sound ceased. It is more commonly used in the intransi- tive way. As a transitive verb, it implies a former course of operative action, which is voluntarily termi- nated by the agent. This notion belongs also to Discontinue (Lat. dis and continuus). The wind ceases to blow, the man ceases talking, and discontinues his work. Between the transitive cease and discontinue there exist some shades of difference. One ceases by abandoning ; one dis- continues by interi-uptiug ; one ceases an operation of any kind, as to cease chattering ; one discontinues a set process. To cease involves a more direct act than discontinue. I cease working when I feel wearied by it. In the other, a casual interruption may have compelled me to discon- tinue it. " Cease to do evil, learn to do well." — ■ Bible. To Tkrminate {terminus, a bovmd- ary) is to discontinue at the ultimate point, and so often means to bring to an appointed end, when the thing ought not to be allowed to go farther. Hence the word is characteristically employed of discussion and dispute. It involves the interposition of power and authority, and stands opposed to prolongation. The verb terminate is used also intransitively, in which case it means to come to a stop, to meet with a boundary, or something which causes cessation. " The thought that our existence terminates with this life doth naturally check the soul in any generous pursuit." — Berkeley. " I wish that milder love or death, That ends our miseries with our breath, Would my aflections terminate ; For to my soul, deprived of peace, It is a torment worse than these Thus wretcliedly to love aud hate." Cotton. Cede. Concede. Yield. Grant. To Cede (Lat. cedere) is to give up in a formal manner, and with re- ference to recognized rights and claims on either side, as a nation cedes a territory under treaty to another nation. It is a tribute to the claims of justice, an act of dignity and right combined. To Concede, which is a compound foi"m of the above, is to give up with an implica- tion of a power to withhold. It is more commonly used in matters of debate or claim. It is, therefore, an act of discretion or courtesy, or any- thing short of abscdute compulsion. Yield is to give up under some degree of pressure at least, if not absolute compidsion. To Grant (Old Eng. graunt) is to give voluntarily, or in re- turn to petition, but not coercion or compulsion. It denotes freedom and liberality in giving or giving up. " The whole island (St. Christopher) was ceded in sovereignty to the crown of Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht."— Gramf/er. " The first is petitio prinbipii, which fallacy is committed whei-e that is assumed as a principle to prove another thing which is not conceded as true in itself." — Brown's Vulgar Errors, "The fourth disposition for peace— an yieldahleness upon sight of clearer truths." — Bishop Hall. "Both sides being desirers, and neither granters, they broke off the conference." — Sidney's Arcadia. Celebeate. Commemorate. To Celebrate (Lat. celehrarc) is to extol or honour in a solemn manner. It is used of persons, deeds, events, and days or seasons. Commemo- rate {coviviemorare) is to recal in a solemn manner. Hence it follows that we celebrate what is marked, striking, illustrious. We commemo- rate what is dear and interesting to us. The same things, from different points of view, may often be said to be both celebrated and commemo- rated. We commemorate the battle of Waterloo when w^e mark the day on which it comes round in some special manner. We celebrate it when we treat it as an illustrioiis day with festivities, public demonstra- tions, panegyi'ic speeches, and the like. The birthday c>f the member of a family is annually'' commemorated by some little observance of the day ; but the event is not illustrious enough to be celebrated. Hence, CELEBRATED. ( 147 ) CHASE. too, events of importance and inte- rest, but of a melancholy character, such as the death of a great or be- L )ved person, would be commemorated, not celebrated. It will be observed from this that celebrate refers to what is past and to what is present, commemorate only to what is past. " It may happen in the vai'ious combinations of life that a good man may receive favours from one who notwithstanding his accidental biMieficence cannot be justly proposed to the imitation of others, and whom therefore he must find some other way of rewarding than by public celebrations." — Bamhler. " You will pardon me, I hope, for speaking in this advantageous manner of my own conduct ; but as you advise me to alleviate my present uneasiness by a retrospect of my p;ist actions, I will confess that in thus commemorating them I find great consolation." — Melmoth, Cicero. Celebrated. See Famous. Celerity. See Quickness. Celestial. See Heavenly. Censorious. See Captious. Censure. See Blame. Ceremonial. See Formal. Ceremonious. See Formal. Ceremony. Form. Eite. Ob- servance. All these terms relate to the solemn, prescribed, and public acts of society. FoKM (Lat. forma) is the most generic. Form means gene- rally a definite and prescribed mode of doing a thing in all transactions of life, and applies to many matters which are not connected with social intercourse and manners, or have a character of publicity, as a form of i-eturns for registration. " Many that vehemently oppose forms are the greatest formalists." — Glanvill. A Ceremony (Lat. ceremonia) is such a form as regulates public trans- actions, or the demeanour of indi- viduals in cases where any degree of respect has to be shown, whether in mutual civility and propriety, or reli- gioiTS devotion. " Not to use ceremonies at all is to teach others not to use them again, and so diminish respect to himself, especially they are not to be omitted to strangers and formal natures. But the dwelling upon them and exalting them above the moon is not only tedious, but doth diminish the faith and credit of him that speaks." — Bacon. E/ITE (Lat. ritiis) is a ceremony of a peculiarly solemn or sacredly im- portant character, which is of a religious or gravely political nature. " It is very ])lain that baptism, whicli is by all acknowledged to be the rite of initiating us into Christianity, is in Scripture declared to be the rite whereby we are entered and admitted into the Chuixh." — Sharp. Observance (Lat. observantia, observare, to observe) is, like rite, of a religious chai'acter; but as rite is performed by ptiblic and responsible officers, observances may be kept by individuals, and even in private, as " some persons are strict in the ob- servance of Lent." Hence the term relates more commonly to the cvis- toms and times of observance, as the observance of a sabbath, than to the objects of it. We should say, not the observance, but the commemoration of Christ's resurrection ; on the other hand, Easter Day is observed. An observance is rather a way of acting than a formal, ceremonial, or definite act. Hence we speak of observing a strict silence. " Since the obligation upon Christians to comply with the religious observance of Sunday arises from the public uses of the in- stitution and the authority of the apostolic practice, the manner of observing it ought to be that which best fulfils these uses and con- forms the nearest to this practice." — I'aley. Certain. See Actual and Sure. Cessation. See Cease and In- termission. Chase. Hunt. Pursue. To Hunt (A. S. huntian) is to seek by close pursuit, by a search for objects not tvithin sight. Chase is a pursuit of objects which are within sight. The fox is htmted in the cover, and chased when he leaves it. This distinction is often lost sight of ; and we speak of a boy hunting a butterfly, instead of chasing it. To Pursue (Fr. pour suivre), like hunt, includes the idea of following after what is not L 2 CHAFE. ( 148 ) CHALLENGE. within sight. A wild animal is pur- sued by the track which he leaves; when he catches sight of his pursuers, he probably flies, and is then chased. Thus chase involves more simply than pursue the notion of driving an ob- ject before one. Pursue, as it denotes primarily the following of a conti- nuous course, is directly applicable to the course itself, as to pursue a line of conduct. One pursues when one follows after an object, in spite of danger, difiiculties, and obstacles, with sustained effort and energy. "Xow therefore let not my blood fall to the earth before the face of the Lord ; for the King of Israel is come out to seek a flea; as when one doth hunt a partridge upon the mountains." — Bible. " The glare did not continue long before it rained again, and kept us from sight of each other ; but if they had seen and chtscd us, we were resolved to run our bark and canoes ashore, and take ourselves to the mountains." — Dampier's Voijages. " Impelled with steps unceasing to pursue Some fleeting good that mocks me with the view, That, like the circle bounding earth and skies, Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies." Goldsmith. Chafe. Fret. Gall. Eub. _ Chafe (Fy. chauffer, Lat. cahfacere), like fret and gall, is used metaphori- cally. It is to excite heat in the mind, as physical heat or irritation is excited by friction. It is commonly em- ployed of the excitement of feelings of irritation, vexation, annoyance, or petty anger. To Fret (A. S. fretan, to eat, gnaw) is used of small irritations, which produce their effect by their continuance and repetition, and sad- den the spirits. Gall (Fr. galer, to rub, scratch, gale, itch, scab) is used of such vexations as have a humilia- ting effect, or, as it were, wound the pride. RuB is no more than friction, which may be wholesome and need- ful, or galling and vexatious, accord- ing to circumstances. It is seldom used except in the literal sense, though the noun rub is sometimes employed of the rough contacts of society. It is employed, unlike the others, of the person suffering, as well as the annoyance suffered, that is, the annoyance chafes, or the person chafes against the annoyance. "The inward chafngs and agitations of his struggling soul." — South. " Fret not thyself because of the ungodly " —Book of Psalms. ^ ^ "The necks of mortal men having been never before gcdled with the yoke of foreign dominion, nor having had experience of that most miserable and detested condition of living in slavery." — Ralegh. "And these are wonderfully busy and active to throw rubs and stumbl'ing-blocks in our way." — Sharp. Challenge. Brave. Defy. Dare. Challenge (Old Fi-. chalenger, Lat. calurnniari) is to provoke or sum- mon to answer for something, and therefore can only be properly used of personal adversaries. It is a call to combat, which must be appre- ciated by two persons. It is a rheto- rical analogy to speak of challenging danger. Brave (Fr. brave) is to meet with courage an opposing danger or force, whether living or not, and whether initiated by words or not. It belongs to physical and moral courage. To defy and to dare, when used as active verbs, have this difference. To Defy a person to do a thing (Fr. dcficr) implies the ex- pression of yom- own cheap estimate of his efforts. To Dare him to do it (Saxon dyrran) is to put him on his own courage or resources, with an implied notion that he will think better than make the attempt. The original idea of reproach, as lying at the bottom of challenge, suiwives in the phrase, " to challenge the truth of a statement," that is, to call it out as untrue, with a view to combat it. " Yet I am far from thinking this tender- ness universally necessary; for he that writes may be considered as a general challenger whom eyery one has a right to attack "— Bamblcr. " Face not me, thou hast braved mAwy men • brave not me. I will neither be faced nor braved. — Shakespeare. The radical meaning of defy is to reject affiance, i.e., faith given; CHAMFIOX ( M9 ) CHANCE. hence to proclaim liostility, or to renouuce. So Sir T. Wyatt's ora- tion — "What word gave I unto thee, Mason? What message? I defy all familiarity and friendship betwixt us. Say thy worst." " What ! is Brutus sick, And will lie steal out of his wholesome bed To dare the vile contagion of the night ?" Shakespeare. Champion. Hero. Combatant. A Champion (Fr. champio. Low Lat. canipio, from campus, a man of the field) is one who is ready singly to contend on behalf of another or a cause. " In a battle every man should fight as if he were the single champion ; in preparations for war every man should think as if the last event depended on his own counsel." — Idler. Hero (Lat. lieros) expresses a man of distinguished valour or daring, whether as a champion, combatant, soldier, or man of adventure. The champion is ready to fight ; the hero has fought, and has perhaps retired to live a life of peace. " The most magnanimous hero of the field will earnestly solicit the aid of a physician on a bed of sickness." — Cogan. A Combatant (Fr. comhattre, to fight) is a hand-to-hand fighter in a jDersonal engagement. The term is hardly applicable to regular and dis- ciplined fighting of armies on the modern field of battle. Individual soldiers in action are not called com- batants. "To have the combat ended by parting the combatants." — South. Chance. Accident. Fortune. Hazard. Probability. Chance ( Fr. c/j a nee, Low Lat. cacZeii- tia) is a befalling. It is used, as was observed under accident, in two dis- sinct though closely associated mean- ings ; either. 1, to express the absence of assignable caiise, or, 2, the absence of design. An instance of the former is, " By chance the tyi-ant that morn- ing was in a good humour ;" an in- stance of the latter would be, " I aimed at the red ball, and by chance I struck the white one also." In the former case no cause can be specified, though of course some cause existed ; in the latter the cause might be dis- tinctly seen and observed, but the effect was not the result designed. " It is not, I say, merely in a pious manner of expression that the Scripture thus ascribes every event to the providence of God, but it is strictly and philosoj)hically true in nature and reason that there is no such thing as chance or accident ; it being evident that these words do not signify anything really existing, anything that is truly an agent or the cause of any event, but they signify mercdy men's ignoi-ance of the real and immediate cause." — Clarke. Accident (Lat. accidere, another form of caclere, whence chance was derived) is relative, as chance is abso- lute. Accident is chance in some effect produced. In chance the ab- stract may not have become the con- ci'ete, as when we say, " Yes, but what if it should chance to turn out differ- ently ?" or, " There is a chance of its tvirning out differently ;" but an acci- dent is historical and actual. Hence it foUows that accident is very often partial chance, in which chance and design are blended ; yet the effect was not designed. Such would be the cha- racter of the remark, " He wounded him by accident in fencing." There is a complexion of the untoward in the word accident ; if the contrary is meant, we add a word, as a lucky accident. " Place, riches, favour — Prizes of accident as oft as merit." Shakespeare. Fortune (Lat. fortmia) is chance or accident as they regard human life and its hopes, employments, and un- dertakings, for good or evil, success or failure. Chance has nothing in it either of order or design. One does not impersonate it, nor attriljute to it knowledge or will. Fortune forms plans, but without choice. One attri- butes to it a will without discernment, and says that she has freaks, or acts blindfold. " Fortune a goddess is to fools alone ; The wise are always masters of their own." iJryden. Hazard (Fr. hazard) is the opera- CHANCE. ( 150 ) CHAR A CTER. tion of chance so far as man volim- tarily places himself within the range of it. " I am always willing to run some hazard of being tedious, in order to be sure that I am perspicuous." — Adam Smith. Probability (Lat. prohahilis, pro- bare, to prove) partakes of the mixed nature of certainty and chance. It is founded upon the doctrine that " like causes produce like effects." The chance or uncertainty is repre- sented by the question, " Are the causes in the present case sufficiently like to past experience ?" If so, the thing is probable. "A demonstration is the sliowing the agreement or disagreement of two ideas by the intervention of one or more proofs which have a constant, immutable, and visible con- nection one with another; so probabiUty is nothing but the appearance of such an agree- ment or disagreement, by the intervention of proofs whose connection is not constant or immutable, or at least is not perceived to be so, but is or appears for the most part to be so, and is enough to induce the mind to judge the proposition to be true or false rather than the contrary." — Locke. Chance. 8ee Happen. Change. See Barter. Change. Alter. Vary. Change (Fr. changer) which is ge- neric, as also the other two of these synonyms, is employed both as a transitive and an intransitive verb. As the former, to change a thing is to put another in its place. This loss of identity is not expressed by the intransitive form, as, he changes every day. To Alter (Lat. alter, another) is to preserve the identity while we change some portion of it, or some property of it, as its shape or colour. To Vary (Lat. variare) is to cause a thing to differ at different times, or one portion of it to differ from another. A lady varies her ap- pearance when she frequently changes her dress. Even where the same things are refeiTcd to, change is a stronger term than alter; the most trivial removal or substitution of de- tail alters a thing, yet the change may be almost imporcoptiMe. In this case changes are alterations of a considerable character. In some particular connections these distinc- tive forces are very perceptible. "We alter our opinions when they become in some respects not what we used to hold ; we change them when we abandon them altogether, and adopt others in their stead. Vf e should be said to vary a statement if we made it in different forms at different times, to alter it if we made the change but once. " I would not exclude alteration neither, but even when I chamjed it should be to preserve." — Burke. " Whether shall we profess some trade or skill, Or shall we vary our device at will ?" Spenser. Changeable. See Inconstant. Changeableness. Caprice. Character is the Greek x'^P'^'^'^P^ a furrow or groove, cut or engraved, from which several meanings have flowed, as a distinctive mark, letter, or sign, a national mode of writing, the stamp or general nature of a thing, the stamp of an individual, and the estimate in which he is held socially. These it will be necessary to notice separately, each with its own synonyms. Character. Letter. Character is to Letter (Lat. litera) as genus to species. Every letter is a character, but every cha- racter is not a letter. Character em- braces other distinctive signs stamped or engraved. "We might si^eak of hieroglyphic characters, or the cha- racters of short-hand, which never- theless are not letters. A letter is a component part of the common alpha- bet of any langiiage. "Almost all tl>e men had their names traced upon their arms in indelible characters of a black colour." — Cook's Voyaijes. " The essence of letters doth consist in their power or proper sound, which may be natu- rally fixed and stated from the manner of forming them by the instruments of si)eech, and either is or should be the same in all languages." — Wilkins, CHARACTER. ( 151 ) CHARACTER. Chakacter. Eeputation. Cre- dit. In this connection Character is used of the whole complex constitution of a man's personal qualities. It therefore exists anterior to and inde- pendent of his reputation. A common character has no reputation at all. When used of the personal stamp as regarded by others, it stUl ditfers some- what from reputation. It is moral, while reputation extends to other qualities. A man has a character for honesty or dishonesty ; he has hardly a character for talent ; in this case we should use Reputation (Lat. repiitare, to repute), because the men- tal qualities of a person are not that aspect of his nature which passes commonly before the world for judg- ment. His moral qualities affect his friends and connections, his intellec- tual qualities affect himself. Credit is that trustworthiness which is based upon what is known of character {credere, to trust), and relates both to right conduct and the truth of i^ro- positions. Credit may be given on specific occasions only ; character and reputation are permanent. Character is borne, reputation acquired, credit given. Reputation is more than or- dinary, character and credit belong to ordinary deeds, conduct, and persons, unless some specific epithet is added. " He will represent to him as often, with as much zeal as you or I should, the virtues of his ancestors, and what a glorious weight of illustrious cliaracters he has to support." — Mclmoth, Cicero. " Reputation is the greatest engine by which those who are possessed of power must make that power serviceable to the ends and uses of government." — Atterbury. " If the Gospel and the Apostles may be credited, no man can be a Christian without charity, and without that faith which works not by force but by love." — Locke. Character. See Disposition. Character. Stamp. Aspect. Nature. Kind. Sort. Assort- ment. Species. Genus. Form. Cast. Order. Air. Mould. Shape. Character in this sense is pur- posely vague. It is that view of the nature which is external and strikes the natural eye or the eye of the mind as being of a certain order. A land- scape of a barren character is one in which certain broad features of bar- renness predominate, so as to aflfect the whole. This is character in the sense of outline or general configura- tion as it strikes the eye at a single glance. " Let a man think what multitudes of those among whom he dwells are totally ignorant of his name and character." — Blair. That is, generally, what manner of man he is. On the other hand, the verb characterize has rather the sense of affixing by words an appropriate mark upon a thing or person, as : " You must know, sir, that I am one of that species of women whom you have ch'i- racterized under the name of jilts." — Spec- tator. Stamp (Germ, stampfen) is that general impression which a thing gives us of itself : it is in English what character is in Greek. It is used also in detail, as a stamp of nobility in personal appearance. The verb to stamp is in its secondary sense moral — to afiix a moral cha- racter, or at least a distinctive one; to characterize is rather logical and definitive. Circumstances may stamp a man, words characterize him. " A young maid truly of the finest stamp of beauty." — Sydney, Arcadia. Aspect (Lat. aspicere, to look to- wards) is that portion of the nature of a thing which for the present meets our observation. In the moral as in the natviral world the eye cannot see an object in its entirety, but can only in series observe its dif- ferent aspects ; the same thing may present different aspects, which never- theless belong to the series of mani- festations under which it is kno\vn and recognized. A characteristic side of a thing is its aspect. As character and stamp are objective, so aspect is subjective, that is, aspect is character as seen by and impressed on ourselves. So that two things sometimes wear different aspects to two persons. CHARACTER. CHARACTER. " Tydides stood in aspect lion-like, And terrible in strength as forest boars." Cowper, [Had. Nature (Lat. natura) is a word of •wider meaning, embracing all that makes a thing to be what it is, its essence or definition, its properties, form, tendencies, faculties, qualities, and the like. " Nature, then, according to the opinion of Aristotle, is the beginning of motion and rest, in that thing wherein it is proi)erly and principally, not by accident ; for all things to be seen (which are done neither by fortune nor by necessity, and are not divine, nor have any such efficient cause) are called material, as having a proper and peculiar natnre of their own." — Holland, Plutarch. Kind (A. S. cynd) is the nature according to its place in creation, while Sort (Fr. sorte) denotes mere assemblage on vague principles of similarity without any natural affinity, as a certain kind of animal, a certain sort of coat. When things of a sort are collected for the purpose of being more conveniently dealt with as siich, it is called an Assortment. It is, however, possible that any parcel of things may have a natural affinity, but it is not simply as having it that they are sorted. " Some of you, on pure instinct of nature, Are led by Jiind to admire your fellow- creature." Dnjden. " Shell-fish have been by some of the an- cients compared and sorted with insects." — " An adjective is by nature a general, and in some measure an abstract wordj and necessarily presupposes the idea of a certain species or assortment of things to all of which it is equally applicable." — Smith, Formation of Languages. Species and Genus are Latin scientific and correlative terms. The genus is the higher species in logic, that is, the species which approaches nearer to the abstract or sui^reme genus ; while species is the lower genus, or that which approaches nearer to the individual. So the same may be gmiis or species according to its relative position in the scale. " In the dofiijing of words, which is nothing t)ut declaring their signification, we make use of the ifriins, or next general word which tonipreiieuds it." — Lmj '.(,'. Not that this is the whole process of logical definition, for to the genus has to be added the differentia or distinc- tive property. Form (Lat. /orwia) is a particular mode of manifestation in anything which is wont to manifest itself under several like or cognate manifestations, as the same or different form of hat, the same or different form of address, the same or different form of speech. " Of bodies changed to various forms I sing." Dryden, Ovid. Cast (Dan. kaste, to throw) is used almost in the same way as Mould (Fr. moule, Lat. modulus) ; but we commonly apply cast to what is per- sonal in countenance, character, ap- pearance, and mould when we enter- tain the idea not only of shape or impression on ourselves but of forma- tive origin. " The business men are chiefly conversant in does not only give a certain cast or turn to their minds, but is very often apparent in their outward behaviour and some of the most indilferent actions of their lives." — Spectator. " My Sonne, if thou of such a molde Art made, now tell me pleine thy shrift." Gower. Order (Lat. ordo) denotes com- monly not only the characteristic nature and kind, biit a reference to a scale, as of a high or low order. The notion conveyed by such an expression as a thing of the same or a different order, is partly scientific and partly not. The word order in scientific classification commonly means a group of allied individuals more compre- hensive than the genus. As employed conventionally, relative dignity, value, or worth is implied in the term. " Men shulde it in the prestes find, Their order is of so high a kynde." Gawer. Air signifies such a manifestation of cliaracter as is made involuntarily. It is applied both to persons and analogously to things, as such and such a theory wears an intelligible air, by which we mean to grant that there may be something in it accordant with truth and common sense, if it were worth while to e.vamine it. CHARACTERIZE. ( 153 ) CHARGE. " It is certain that married persons who are possessed with a mutual esteem, not only catch the air and way of talk from one another, but fall into the same traces of thinking and liking." — Spectator. Shape is simply sucli external form or coufigiTnition as belongs or may- be conceived to belong to anything. It differs from form in this character of externality. The form of a thing resiilts from the relative aggregation of its parts, both internal and ex- ternal, that is, its solidity as well as its surface. Shape refers to the superficies, but not the substance. The form includes length, breadth, and thickness ; the shape is only what meets the eye. This difference ap- pears more strongly in the verbs than the nouns : to form a thing is as it were to create it. God formed, not merely shaped, man out of the dust of the ground. Nature forms the mai-ble, man shapes the block. He may also be said to form the statue, because he actually makes it ; as such it did not exist before. To form in- volves the use and preparation of materials ; to shape may be no more than to give them a contour super- ficially. " And eke his garment to be thereto meet, He wilfully did cut, and shape anew." Spenser. Characterize. See Describe. Charge. Accuse. Impeach. Arraign. Criminate. Indict, Of these Charge (Fr. charger) is the most generic. It is to lay upon a person a burden, hence specifically of imputed guilt, and this either formally or legally, or generally and morally. Hence it refers to many things which are not of the specific nature of crimes, as a dereliction of duty, or dishonesty, or a want of fidelity to oneself, may be the object of a charge. " I charge him with having indolently let slip many occa- sions of improving his condition." " Men do not pick quarrels with their friends, and therefore wlien we find any chan/ing the Scripture with obscurity and imperfection, we have reason to believe they have no comfort from it." — StilUngfleet. Accuse (Lat. acciisare) refers to failings, faults, or crimes by which others arc injured. It also implies more tlian a mere mouth-to-mouth imputation ; it is formal and public. I may charge a man with a crime between myself and him, but if I accuse him of it, I make the charge a matter of publicity. Criminate (Lat. crimen, a crime) is yet stronger. It is to bring against another a charge in such a way that he finds himself compelled to deal with the matter as personal and imminent. Circumstances may criminate, while only persons charge or accuse. Cri- minate has a stronger relation to the state of the person. A man crimi- nated feels himself placed in the position of a grave offender. "Their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another."— Bible. " To criminate with the heavy and un- grounded charge of disloyalty and disalTec- tion an uucorrupt, independent, and reform- ing parliament. " — Burke. Impeach and Arraign rather im- ply than express an accusation or charge. Impeach (Old Fr. empescher, Lat. ivipingere) is officially to charge with misbehaviour in office, and may relate to anything which is of the nature of an offence considering the office held. Arraign (Low Lat. arra- tionare) is to call to account, and is characteristically employed of the exercise of personal power of judg- ment. It is to call personally to account in a specific and summary manner, and may be directed against a course of conduct in an individual as well as specific matters of misde- meanour; but arraign more commonly relates to an act, impeach to a series of acts. Impeach is formal and official, arraign is informal and per- sonal. Arraign involves a decisive act of power in a superior, of bold- ness in an equal or inferior. " Censure, which arraigns the public actions and the private motives of princes, has ascribed to envy a conduct which might be attributed to the prudence and modera- tion of Hadrian." — Gibbon. " Of these the representatives of the people, or House of Commons, cannot properly judge, because their constituents are the parties injured, and can therefore only impeach. CHARGE. ( 154 ) CHASTEN. But before what court shall this impeach- ment be tried? Not before the ordinary- tribunals, which would naturally be swayed by the authority of so powerful an accuser. Reason, therefore, will suggest that this branch of the legislature, which represents the people, must bring its charge against the other branch, which consists of the nobility, who have neither the same interests nor the same passions as popular assemblies." — Blackstone. " An indictment is a written accusation of one or more persons of a crime or misde- meanour preferred to and presented upon oath by a grand jury." — Ibid. Indict (Lat. indicere, indictus) is a term regulated by tlie form of process and nature of the offence. In law it is the peculiar province of a grand jury to indict, as it is of a house of representatives to impeach. Charge. Care. Management. Administration. Control. Go- vernment. Charge in this sense denotes dele- gated care under circumstances of responsibility. Caee denotes no more than time bestowed upon an object Avith personal labour or atten- tion. To take care of a child is to keep him out of harm's way. It is the work of solicitude and affection, as charge is of responsibility and duty. To take charge of him is to do everything in connection with him which another would require. For we take care of what is our own ; we take charge of what is another's. " I can never believe that the repugnance with which Tiberius took the charcje of the government upon him was wholly feigned." — Cumberland. Management (Old Fr. menayer, from manus, the hand) is the con- current control which regulates what has progression in itself, so that it may operate in the way in which it is designed, as a house, a garden, a steam-engine, a horse, a matter. It implies subjection where persons are concerned, as the management of a school. Administration [adminis- trare) relates to offices of power and responsibility. Administration takes effect on men, management may be- long only to machines ; administra- tion is executive, management may be manipulative. Administration, however, is always ministerial, that is, consists in putting the will or power of another in force ; while Govern- ment (Lat. gubernare) involves every exercise of authoi-ity, political, civil, or domestic. The government of a country, when the term is not used of persons, is an abiding and per- petual power ; the administration be- longs to the persons who may be in office from time to time. Control (Lat. contra rotulus) is, literally, to keep a check on a roll ; hence to go- vern in movement and action where an independent wiU and power exists. Machines are managed ; men, their acts, wills, desires, are controlled. " I think myself indebted to you beyond all expression of gratitude for your care of my dear mother." — Johnson. " Scripture gives something more than obscure intimations that the holy angels are employed upon extraordinary occasions in the afiairs of men and the management of this sublunary world." — Horsley. " He (the Earl of Clarendon) was a good chancellor, only a little too rough, but very impartial in the administration of justice." — Burnet. " That which begins and actually consti- tutes any political society is nothing but the consent of any number of freemen capable of a majority to unite and incorporate into such a society. And that is that, and that only, which did or could give any beginning to any lawful government in the world." — Locke. " If the seeds of piety and virtue be but carefully sown at first, very much may be done by this means, even in the most de- praved natures, towards the altering and changing of them, however to the checking and conf rolling of our vicious inclinations." — Tillotson. Charm. See Captivate, Charming. See Delightful. Chasm, See Breach. Chasten, Chastise, Purify. Punish, Correct, Discipline. Of these the two first are formed from the Latin castas, chaste, pure, and the last from purus, pure, and facere, to make. The term Purify is applicable to the removal of what CHASTEN. ( 155 ) CHEAT. is noxious or impure in a moral, pliy- sica], or even ceremonial sense. To Chasten is to purify morally and spiritually by tlie providential visita- tion of distress and affliction, or gene- rally to purify from errors or faults, as the effect of discipline. It implies imperfection, but not guilt. " Oh, gently on thy suppliant's head, Dread goddess, lay thy chastenimj hand ; Not in thy Gorgon terrors clad, Nor circled with the vengeful band, As by the impious thou art seen." Gray, Hymn to Adversity. " He chastises and corrects as to Him seems best in His deep unsearchable and secret judgment, and all for our good." — Burton, Anatumy of Melancholy. " It was a received opinion in the ancient world that human nature had contracted a stain or pollution, and that not only parti- cular purifyings, but also some general sanc- titication was necessary to put man in a capacity of being restored to the fiivour of the Deity." — Warburton. " Yet these, receiving grafts of other kind. Or thence transplanted, change their savage mind. Their wildness lose, and quitting Nature's part, Obey the rules and discipline of art." Dryden, Virgil. " Lord, correct me, but with judgment ; not in Thine anger, lest Thou bring me to nothing." — Book of Common Prayer. Chastise, on tlie other hand, im- plies specific guilt or an offence. To Punish (Lat. punire) differs from chastise in the object aimed at. In the former it is to visit the offence uj^on the individual offender for his own good in correction and reforma- tion; in the latter it is to satisfy public justice upon a member of a community. It is to be observed that punishment is often used of the con- sequences of wrong, irrespectively of any personal authority exercised. To Correct {corrigere) is, literally, to set right. As used of punishment, correction looks no further than to the individual fault. Discipline (Lat. discipUna) has for its oljject the amelioration of the whole character and the prevention of offences, nor does it imply necessarily that any have been committed. The piTrest and best natures recognize the need of discipline in themselves. Dis- cipline aims at the removal of bad habits, and the substitution of good ones, especially those of order, regu- larity, and obedience. Chastity. Continence. Chastity (Latin castitas, castus, chaste) is the regulaticm of the sexnal desires, as by marriage, and all prac- tical rules or modes of life which tend to it. Continence (Lat. continentia) is the absolute refraining from all such indulgences under interdiction. Chastity is enjoined upon all Chris- tians. Continence is enjoined, for instance, on the Romish clergy. " It was then that some gallant spirits, struck with a generous indignation at the tyranny of these miscreants, blessed solemnly by the bishop, and followed by the praises and vows of the people, sallied forth to vin- dicate the chastity of women, and to redress the wrongs of travellers and peaceable men." — Burke, Abridgment of English Jlistory. "As then the church had also a great number of persons of both sexes who conse- crated themselves to God by a perfect conti- nence, nothing was more reasonable than to choose its principal ministers out of this upper part of the tiock." — Torlin. Chastise. See Chasten. Chat, See Babble. Chattels. See Goods. Chatteb. See Babble. Cheat. Defraud. Trick. Cheat (probably an abbreviation of escheat, but compare also A. S. ceat) respects primarily the gain to yourself resulting from fraudulent practice upon another. Defraud (Lat. /raw,?, fraud) respects the loss to him. Cheat is only applied to appropriations of minor value ; defraud to those of the largest amount. Defraud hence re- gards matters of value generally, as rights and privileges. Cheat usually regards possessions. Cheating im- plies knavery ; defraiiding a settled plan or plot against another's in- terests. "But since it is not so much worth our labour to know how deep the {)it is into wliich we are fallen as how to come out of it, hear rather, I beseech you, for u conclusion, how CHECK. ( 156 ) CHEER. we may avoid the deceit of heart ; even just so as we would j^reveut the nimble feats of some cheating juggler — search him, watch him, trust him not." — Bishop Hall. A man may be cheated out of that which he is aiming at obtaining ; he is only defrauded of what he can claim as actually his. In games of chance or competition men often cheat ; they do not defraud. "The statute mentions only fraudulent gifts to third persons, and procuring them to be seized by sham process, in order to defraud creditors." — Blackstvne. To Teick (Fr. tricher) is adroitly to deceive another, and implies more ingenuity than cheating. It does not of necessity involve any appropriation to oneself, or any loss to another, but may be dictated by mischievous as well as dishonest motives. Check. See Eestbain. Cheer. Animate. Encourage. Enliven. Exhilarate. Comfort. Console. Solace. To Cheer (from the noun cheer, and that from the Old Fr. chere, countenance, mien) is to put into good or better spirits. It respects a previous state of mental depression or despondency, and a change to a sober and quiet satisfaction at an im- proved state of circumstances. "The Christian is justly cheei-ed by the assurance he has that there will come a time when oppressed and disfigured innocen^y shall shine forth and triumph, and his good name, as well as his body, shall have a glorious resurrection even in the sight of his accusers and enemies, and all those whom their slanders did either prevail with or startle." — Boyle. To Animate {anima, life") is to pvit life, vitality, or vivacity into, and respects a previous state of dullness, slowness, indifference, or inertness. It has an influence on the looks, Avords, and movements, as when an orator in the course of his oration becomes more animated. Reflection cheers, passion animates. " Wherever we are formed by Nature to any active purpose, the passion which ani- niates us to it is attended witli dfli^lit or a pleasure of some kind." — Burhe. Encourage (Fr. encourager) is to give heart, and so res^sects a previous state of comjDarative diffidence or irresolution. It implies something proposed as an aim of action, either by the words of another, or by the mind reflecting on some external event. " Plato would have women follow the camp, to be spectators and encouragers of noble actions." — Burton. Enliven (Eng. life) is the English equivalent of animate ; but it is not so grave a word, and relates to the minor matters of feeling and manner. It has also the meaning of to quicken what was previously less lively, and may be employed of purely physical energies, as to enliven a fire, that is, to make it burn more brightly. It is also directly applicalile to works of art and descriptions or naiTatives. " By this means I was enabled to enliven the poems by various touches of partial description." — Mason. Exhilarate (Lat. hilaris, lively) denotes such cheering as has a com- bined effect on the spirits and the bodily frame. It may come of a pri- mary influence on either, as to be exhilarated by good wine or good news. It denotes an effect upon the nei-vous system, and is thus exclu- sively applicable to jjersons. " The truth is that this remedy, like strong drink to a nervous body, enlivens for a while by an unnatural exhilaration." — Knox. Comfort (Lat. con, and fortis, strong) aud Console (Lat. conso- lari) both relate to relief brought from previous trouble of mind through the aid of admoniti(ni or reflection ; but to comfort denotes the actual substi- tution of happy thoughts ; while con- sole denotes only the removal or diminution of the unhappy. Comfort and consolation address themselves to the intellectual nature. " Consolation or comfort are words which in their proper acceptation signify some alleviation to that pain to which it is not in our power to aflbrd the proper and ade- ([uate remedy. They imply rather an aug- mentation of the power of bearing than a diminution of the burden. To that grief wliiih arises from a great loss he only brings the true remedy who makes his friend's con- CHEERFUL. ( 157 ) CHEERFUL. dition the same as before ; but he may be properly termed a comforter who, by per- suasion, extenuates the pain of poverty, and shows, in the style of Hesiod, that half is more than the whole." — RaiMer. Solace (Lat. sohdium) differs from comfort and console in lieiiig never applied absolutely to bumau agents. A solace is a continuous consolation accruing from something mipersonal, as certain modes or means of occupa- tion, sucb as reflections, employ- ments, books, or a person regarded as a blessing or possession. " The ingenious biographer of the poet Gi-ay has informed us that the most approved productions of his friend were brought forth soon after the death of one whom the poet loved. Sorrow led him to seek for solace of the muse." — Knox, Essays. Cheerful. Merry. Sprightly. Gay. Mirthful. Jovial. Lively. YivAoious. Sportive. Cheerful (see Cheer) is used botb of that wbicb possesse^, and tbat wbicb promotes good spirits, as a cbeei-ful disposition, cbeerful tidings. As applied to persons, cbeerful de- notes an babitual state of mind, tbe natural bappiness of an even and contented disposition (see Cheer). Merry points to an occasional and transient elevation of spirits. Mirtb, wbicb is tbe cognate noun to merry, is less tranquil tban cbeerfuluess ; it requires tbe companionsbip _ of otbers to feed xipon — social excite- ment and tbe noise of jests and laugbter are needful for mirtb. "Whoever has passed an evening with serious, melancholy people, and has observed how suddenly the conversation was animated, and what sprightliness difiused itself over the countenance, discourse, and behaviour of every one on the accession of a good-hu- moured, lively companion, such a one will easily allow that cheerfulness carries great weight with it, and naturally conciliates the good will of mankind." — Hume. Sprightly (sprigbt. a forni of spirit) is purely a personal epitbet. Sprigbtliness is a constitutional buoyancy and briskness of mind wbicb sbows itself in tbe bodily movements. It is in tbis extended sense only becoming in youtb, and as associated witb beauty. A sprigbt ly damsel, or a sprigbtly dame. " Parents and schoolmasters may not be displeased at unlucky tricks played by their lads, as showing a sagacity and sprightliness they delight to behold. Yet they will not suffer them to pass with impunity, lost it should generate idleness and other mischiefs." —iieurch. Gay (Fr. gai) is a term wbicb denotes less of animal spirits, and expresses tbe brigbtness wbicb ap- pears outside, in tbe appearance or tbe aspect of tbings external, as a gay countenance, a gay dress, gay plvimage, a gay scene. It combines tbe ideas of cbeerfuluess and sbowi- ness. As cbeerfulness is imruffled, mirtb tumultuous, sprigbtliness buoyant, so gaiety is cbaracteristically self-indulgent. Tbe lover of gaiety despises, dislikes, and avoids tbe responsibilities, duties, and sobrie- ties of existence, and would, if i^os- sible, ignore its troubles altogetber. " Profane men stick not, in the gaieti/ of their hearts, to say that a strict piety is good for nothing but to make the owners of it troublesome to themselves and useless to the rest of the world." — Atterhury. Mirthful is, as we bave seen, only anotber form of merry ; but it points more specifically to tbe laugbter and tbe jest and tbe fun wbicb are always ready to apjpear in tbe merry. Mirtbful is more demonstrative tban merry, and involves objects or sub- jects of it; wbile merry denotes no more tban a condition of tbe spirits. Tbe merry are gay, tbe mirtbful are jocose also. " If great crimes and great miseries be made the matter of our mirth, what can be the argument of our sorrow ?" — South. Jovial is a term expressive of a constitutional babit of mind and body. It meant, literally, born under tbe genial influence of tbe planet Jupiter, and was opj)osed to sa- turnine. It denotes a tendency to sensual merriment, and a con- tempt for tbe cares and anxieties of life. " In pure good will I took this jovial spark Of Oxford, he — a most egregious clerk." Pope. CHEERFUL. ( 158 Lively is exhibiting life as con- trary to dull or lifeless. It denotes an energetic action of tlie vital prin- ciple, whether of the sense or under- standing, without of necessity imply- ing merriment or gaiety. A lively child is the opposite to a dull child, brisk, bright, intelligent, observant. Lively conversation, lively move- ments, lively descriptions. " Every jierson knows how faint the con- ception is which we form of anything with our eyes open in comparison of what we can form "with our eyes sliut, and that in propor- tion as we can "suspend the exercise of our other senses, the liveliness of our conception increases." — Stewart. YiVACious (Lat. vivax) is matured liveliness, when those faculties which are developed by after years are seen to partake of the same liveliness of youth. It indicates a power as weU us an activity of life, a capacity of keen appreciation of extei-nal things, which by no means implies perpetual merriment, but is as ready to express dissatisfaction as pleasure from the objects and experiences of life. The vivacious person lives, as it were, faster and more fully than his oppo- site, and experiences more and more varied sensations. Indeed, in Old English, the word meant long-lived, or having a tenacity to life. " He had great vivacity in his fancy, as may appear by his inclination to poetry and the lively illustrations and many tender strains in his contemplations." — Burnet, Life of Hale. Sportive is tending to sport, which is practical merriment in this case; so that the word contains an element of something bordering on mockery or amusement at the ex- pense of others, or in heedlessness. It carries with it an air of unregu- lated play of mind and speech, though less so than wanton; but is more innocent when applied, as it often is, to the natural playfulness of dumb and especially young animals. " If a history so circumstantiated as that is shall be resolved into fable or parable, no history whatever can stand secure, but a wide door will be o])ened to tlie ravings of sportive wit or wanton fancy." — WuliTlanJ. ) CHERISH. Cherish. Nourish. Nurture. Foster. Feed. To Cherish (Fr. cMrir, from cher, dear) is to treat as dear, or to hold dear; hence, to keep faithfully or constantly. It is to treat with all the care and affection of which the na- ture of the thing cherished is capable. The cherished child receives from its parent aU that it can need — food, warmth, shelter, clothing, education, advice, help. The cherished hope is kept, as it were, closely and faith- fully, and guarded against aU in- fluences and considerations that might tend to weaken or destroy it. Alas, in this sense we cherish also prejudices, errors, and illusions. To cherish is to love with tenderness and predilection. The cherished object is precious to us. We feel it to be necessary to our happiness, perhaps our existence. "He that comforts my wife is the cJierisker of my tlesh and blood." — Shakespeare. To Nourish (Fr. nonrrir, Lat. nutrire) is to supply what is needful to the physical necessities of any growing body, as a child or a plant, thus differing from Feed (A. S. feclan), which is only strictly used of 'animals (though analogously also, as to feed a fire), and means no more than to give food, whether in suf- ficient or insufficient quantities. In feeding there is no idea beyond that of supplying with what is necessary to support life. In nourishing the idea is that of furnishing an orga- nised and growing body with what is congenial to it, and with what it requires to be assimilated into its svibstance. "The chyle being mixed herewith (the lymphia), partly for its better conversion into blood by a liquor of a middle nature between them both, and partly for its more ready adhesion to all the nouris/uiblc parts." — Gretr. " When, with the flocks, their feeders sought the shade." — Philips. To Nurture (from the same root as nourish) is to train up with fos- tering care, and so implies more than the giving what is needed for the mere development of the organi- CHIDE. ( 159 ) CHIEF. zation. To nurture, however, is, after all, only a physical act, while to cherish is moral, and involves the action of the affections. We nurture plants, but we do not cherish them, unless as associated with persons or scenes, which give them an ana- logous place to that of children in our affections. We nourish children by bodily food ; we nurture them by mental food also. " Understande, therefore, in thyn hert that as a man noiirtercth his sonne, even so the Lord thy God nourtereth the." — Bible, 1551. Foster (A. S. fostrian) is to supply with everything necessary for the life and growth. As in the case of the foster-parent, we foster things which are in some measure alien to ourselves, though we are interested in them ; for instance, how marked the difference between fostering a hope and cherishing a hope. When we cherish it, we hold it as closely dear to us. We would not for the world perhaps part with it. We allow all weight to what strengthens, we turn a deaf ear to what would deprive us of it. To lose it would be to j^art with some portion of ourselves. But when we foster a hope, it is because we regard the good of the thing hoped for. We foster objects of pride and ambition, because we want to get them. We foster a feeling of anger when it suits our humour ; we cherish it when we lie in wait for the time of revenge. We cherish, not only from self-love, but out of affection or interest. We foster for our own sake alone. We cherish in order to pre- serve. We foster in order to pro- mote, increase, or strengthen. So foster is often used in an unfavour- able way, as flattery fosters pride. " Stage plays serve for nothing else but either to draw men on by degrees to idleness, or to foster, to foment them in it." — Frynne. Chide. See Blame. Chief. Main. Principal. Leading. Cardinal. Capital. Chief (Fr. chef, caput, a head) retains its etymological force, and denotes priority in rank, order, or consideration. The chief men of a city are the highest in rank and influence. The chief topics of a dis- course are opposed to those which are of minor moment. " What is man If his chief good and market of his time Be but to sleej) and feed? a beast —no more." Shakespeare. Main (A. S. mdrjen, and other forms, force, from magan, to be strong) refers to that which is the more potent or extensive, and is thus applicable, as chief is not, to sujaerior in quantity or size, as the main bulk of the army, the main pipes of an organ. Prac- tically, the terms chief and main are often interchangeable ; so we might speak of the chief inducements, or the main inducements to a certain line of conduct, only the chief would be those to which are assigned a fore- most place in our consideration ; the main would be those which exercised the greatest influence on us, or im- pressed us most with their power. Main is a less exact term than chief, not indicating so close a process of comparison or the result of our ap- preciation of strict and technical. The main points in a speech are roughly felt, and are estimated as such. " There is scarce any instance of the his- tory of the same person being written by four different contemporary historians, all per- fectly agreeing in the main articles, and differing only in a few minute jiarticulars of no moment." — Porteus. PEiNCiPAii (Lat. principalis) de- notes the most prominent in any way, and that which would naturally strike the attention first on any account whatever. The principal cities of a country are the most prominent ; such are London, Manchester, Oxford, Cambridge, Bristol, Brighton, and others, for very different reasons. Hence it does not follow that the chief cities of a country are the prin- cipal, for they may have a rank assigned them from various causes by no means proportioned to their present and actual influence or importance. " Thanketh the maister of grace which of that good and al other is authour and prin- cipal doer." — Chaucer, CHIEF. ( i6o ) CHILDISH. Leading is simply taking the lead. The term, therefore, is only employed when the things to which it applies can by the mind be regarded as motive, operative, and influential, as the leading points of a case. We say, the leading men in a commnnity, but not the leading cities of a country, as the mere notion of i)riority in series does not express the force of leading. " He left his mother a countess by patent, which was a new leading example."— II otton. Cardinal (Lat. cardinaUs, from cardo, a hinge), literally denoting that on which a thing hino-es, ex- presses the combined ideas °of ' pro- minence and importance, but is a term technically restricted to certain subjects, as cardinal virtues, num- bers, points of the compass, and signs of astronomy, or signs of the Zodiac. The term denotes primary import- ance in a class of similar things. " Conscience and alio cristene and cardi- nnlc vertues."— i'zers Ploughman. _ Capital (Lat. capitalis, from ca2mt) is etymologically equivalent to chief, but, like cardinal, is technically re- stricted. It denotes what belongs to the head and life, and so is essential. The term is not now of frequent use m this sense, but common in the sense of excellent of its kind. An indication of the old sense of the term survives in the phrase " capital " Cappitall enemies unto his grace both in heart and in deed." — Barnes. Chief. See Head. Chiefly. Peincipally. Es- pecially. Particularly. Pri- marily. Of these, Chiefly and Princi- pally are terms of relation in re- gard to a number, and therefore have a comparative force. Especially Particularly, and Primarily are terms of relation in regard to indi- viduals, and therefore have a super- lative force. If I say, " Robberies hap- pen chiefly by night," I mean that of tJie number which takes place the majority are by night. If I say, '• Such a word is used principally in sucli a sense," I mean that of the number of cases in which it is used, the majority have this signification. If I say, •' Men are but too ready to lis- ten to adverse rumours, especially where they concern their enemies," I single out the foremost case. So is it in the following instances : — " Water is everywhere a blessing, partkuJarhj in hot climates ;" " The building was intended primarily for a magazine." Chief. See Leader. Childish. Puerile. Both these terms are employed in an unfavourable sense, that is, in reference to cases where the weak- ness of the child or the character of the boy (Lat. puer, a boy) are out of place. No such disparagement be- longs to the words childlike and boyish. Childish is used of ideas, character, and conduct, as childist fancies, childish behaviour. Puerile of modes of thought and judgment, as puerile objections in argiiment; the one indicates the trifling of the child, the other the immature weak- ness of the boy, as contrasted witli the weight and wisdom of the man. As childish expresses the intellectual poverty, so childlike expresses the moral simplicity of a child. " We cannot be so childish as to imagine that ambition is local, and that no other can be infected with it but those who rule with- in certain parallels of latitude and louo-i- tude." — Burke. " Piers Ploughman used the term in the sense of childlike : "Charitie is a childish thing, as holi churche witnesseth." As at present employed, that which IS simply and absulutely weak or silly is called childish; that which, thouyh such, aims at the character of the ctm- trary, or is employed with gravity of purpose, is called puerile. " The French have been notorious for gene- rations for then- jmc rile affectation of KoiiiMn forms, models, and historic precedents." — De Quincy. CHOICE. ( ^6i ) CHOKE. Choice. Option. Preference, Selection. Election. Choice (Fr. clxoix) denotes the act and the power of choosing out of a number, with the sense, sometimes, of judgment in choice, as when we say- to show choice. Every act of choice is determined by some motive or final purpose. "This miglit have been avoided by an- choring more to the west, but I made choice of my situation for two reasons ; first to be near the island we intended to land upon, and secondly, to be able to get to sea with any wind." — CooUs Voyages. Option (Lat. 02)tio, from ojptare) is the right or power of choice, or free- dom from constraint in the act of choosing. It does not necessarily imply numbers, as it is at my option to act or not. The optional is opposed to the compulsory. " The difl'erence between the employment of language in such cases (in our speculations concerning individuals), and in our specula- tions concerning classes or genera, is, that in the former case the use of words is in a great measure optional, whereas in the latter it is essentially necessary." — Dugald Stewart. Peepeeence (Lat. prce ' and f err e) is the specific exercise of choice in reference to one or more objects of choice. " I trust it will be allowed by all that in every act of will there is an act of choice ; that in every volition there is a preference, or a prevailing inclination of the soul, where- by the soul at that instant is out of a state of perfect indifference with respect to the direct object of the volition." — Edioards on the wm. Selection (Lat. seligere) means nmch the same as preference; but preference may express only a feel- ing, and always implies personal feeling. Selection is an act of taking one or more out of a nvimber upon some principle of choice connected or not with personal feeling. " And sure no little merit I may boast, When such a man selects from such a host." Drijden. Election (Lat. eligere) is selec- tion with a view to privilege or office, and is, therefore, applicable only to persons, while both things and per- sons may be selected. The object is practically so much more important than the source in elections, that the tei-m elect is employed where only one person is concerned, and where, there- foi'e, no choice was possible, as " only one candidate presented himself, and was unanimously elected." " Experience overturns these airy fabrics, and teaches us that in a large society the election of a monarch can never devolve to the wisest or to the most numerous part of the people." — Gibbon, Choke. Suffocate. Smother. Stifle. Strangle. Choke (A. S. aceocjan, from ceac jani) is a general term expressive of the stopping up of anything through which a free passage or current ought to exist, as a garden or a river may be choked with weeds, or the pipe of a drain may be choked. As used of the human body, it means to stop the passages of respiration by the intro- duction of foreign substances. " Whose banks received the blood of many a thousand men. On sad Palm Sunday slain; that Towton field we call, Whose channel quite was choked with those that there did fall." Drayton. Suffocate is from the Latin suffo- care, from sub, under, and faux, the jaw. It is, therefore, only appli- cable, properly, to living beings. A fire may be metaplioricalUj said to be suffocated, that is, deprived of free air, which it requires, after the like- ness of living beings, but, at least, the river is not suffocated with weeds. " Think of that, I that am as subject to heat as butter, a man of continual dissolu- tion and thaw, it was a miracle to scape suffocation." — Shakespeare. To Stifle (diminutive of the old verb to stive, allied to the Latin sti- pare, to press) is commonly employed of the less gross substances,^ as smoke, dust, malaria, introduced into the respiratory organs, and interfer- ing with their action in other wajrs than by mechanical obstruction. This is not, however, its exclusive use. In the following passage it is used in the sense of smother :— CHOLER. ( 162 ) CIRCUMSCRIBE, " So he wrapped them, and entangled them, keeping down tlie feather-bed and pillows hard unto their mouths, that within a while, smored and stijlcd, their breath failing, they gave up to God their innocent souls, into the joys of heaven,"— ^w- T. More. To Strangle (Lat. strangulare) is to stop the circulation of air in the resi^iratory organs by purely external and mechanical compression. "First he (Tyndall) was with a halter strangled by the hangman, and afterwards consumed with five."— Fox, Life of Tyndall. Smother (allied to smoor, A. S. smorian, to stew) is used of such stoppage of air as is produced by an overwhelming mass from without, being so far like strangled, and un- like choke and suffocate; but, from the nature of the case, there is no local application of force, as when a person is covered by an avalanche, and so smothered to death. "She, smothered with so monstrous a weight, did sink down under it to the earth." — Sidney's Arcadia. Cholee. See Weath. Choose. See Choice. Cheonicles. See Histoey. CiECLE. See Ball. CiEcuiT. See Ball and Bound. CiECULATE. See Peopagate. ClECUMSCEIBE. InCLOSE. LiMIT. Bound. Kesteict. Include. Envieon. Sueeound. Eesteain. Enciecle. Encompass. Confine. To Circumscribe (Lat. circnm, around, and scribere, to write or mark) is to inclose within a certain limit; but the term could only be very pe- dantically used of mere superficial extent. It denotes rather limitation of range, movement, action, play ; as '' his amijition was circumscribed by his poverty." " Nor circ7imscrihcd alone Their growing virtues, but their crimes con- fined, Forbade to wade through slaugliter to a throne. Ami shut tlio gates of mercy on mankind." Gray. To Inclose (Lat. indudere, inclu' SMs) is, on the other hand, purely physical, as a to^vn within walls, a letter in a cover, lands within a fence. " Shall one, and he inclosed within your wall, One rash imprisoned warrior, vanquish all?" J'itt's Virgil. To Limit (Lat. limes, a limit) bears specific reference to movements or tendencies which are likely to pass beyond a certain number or extent. " Nothing can be more evident than the necessity of limiting the field of our exertion if we are to benefit societv by our labours." —Stewart. To Bound denotes not restriction of action or by external influence, so much as the cessation of extension, as England is bounded on all sides by the ocean. The sphere of action is bounded; actions themselves are limited. " Ye good distrest ! Ye noble few ! who here unbending stand Beneath life's pressure, yet bear up awhile, And Avhat your bounded view, which only saw A little part, deemed evil, is no moi-e." 2''homson. On the other hand, Restrict (Lat. restrincjere) implies the confinement within certain limits or to a certain number or extent of what has a ten- dency to exceed them. But restrict differs both from limit and Restrain (another form of restrict, Lat. restrin- (jere, restridus). To restrict is rela- tive, and restrain is absolute. We restrain a person from running when we compel him to walk, or hold him from doing anything he may be in- clined to do ; but we restrict him to a certain pace, or to certain limits which he must not pass. " The common law of England indeed is said to abhor perpetuities, and they are accordingly more restricted there than in any other European monarchy ; though oven Eng- land is not altogether wifhout ihem."— Smith, Wealth of A'ations. "Nor is the hand of the painter more rcstrainahle than the pen of the poet." — Bromi, 1 "ulgar Errors. For Confine, see Captivity. To Encompass (compass in, Fr. compas, Lat. compassus, a circle, from pasms. CIRCUMSCRIBE. ( 163 ) CIRCUMSTANCE. a pace) is to circumscribe a given space or locality, so as closely to surround it. While Surround it- self (prefix sur and round) does not necessarily imply this closeness. A city may be encompassed with an army, so that all ingress and egress is prevented; this is not implied in saying that it is surrounded, as, for instance, by hills. A question may be encompassed with difficulty. "Entirely encompassed the enemy's body of foot." — Ludlovj's Memoir. " But cloud iustead, and ever-during dark, Surrounds me, from the cheerful ways of men Cut off." MiUoyi. Include (Lat. inchidere) is as in- variably metaphysical as inclose is physical. " We will include you in our party," means, we will regard you as forming one of ourselves. A number, a designation, a definition, and the like, are the terms of in- elusion. "Our mayster Christ showeth that in ful- filling two of these commaundements bee all workes included." — Barnes. To Environ (Fr. environner) is a French word, which is as nearly as possible the equivalent of the English surround, but it presupposes some degree of magnitude, dignity, or im- portance in the sun-ounding things. We say the plain is environed by mountains, but we should hardly say, the table is environed by chairs. Of surromid and environ, we may ob- serve, that they do not denote of necessity any restrictive inclosure ; for instance, a mere circular pattern or design might be said to suii-ound, as the centre is suiTounded by a flowing border. " luto that forest far they thence him led, Where was their d\Yelling in a pleasant glade, With mountains round about environed, And mighty woods, which did the valley shade." Spenser. To Encircle, as its name desig- nates, implies a suiTounding with something which is exactly or ap- proximates to a mathematical circle, as " a diadem encircled her brow." It involves limitation or circumscrip- tion, but not coercion or restriction. " Young Hermes next, a close-contriving god, Her brows encircled with his serpent rod, Then plots and fair excuses filled hei' Ijrain-" Farncll, Hesiod, Circumspect, See Cautious. Circumstance, Situation. In- cident. Fact. Event. Occur- EENCE. Circumstance (Lat. circimstare, to stand around, Fr. circonstance) is literally the condition of things sur- rounding an event, from which it passed to mean one of the things themselves, and so generally a fact, particular, or incident. A circum- stance is a distinctive accessary to the principal fact or event. The cir- cumstance occasionally reacts with great force on the main fact or event, or, on the other hand, is so trivial as to be practically of no moment. An unforeseen circumstance in a cam- paign may lead to the loss of a battle. " We are now at the close of our review of the three simple forms of artificial society, and we have shown them, however they may differ in name or in some slight circum- stances, to be all alike in effect — in efiect to be all tyrannies." — Burhe. It is in the plural, circumstances, that it has the character of a syno- nym with Situation (Lat. situs), many relative circumstances making a situation. (Circumstances, in mo- dern English, has the peculiar mean- ing of situation as to icorldhj goods.) " He found himself in such circum- stances," and " He found himself in such a situation," would be nearly equivalent expressions, for the situa- tion or the case is the sum of the cii'cumstances. But situation points to a fixed state, circumstances may accompany the varying condition of the thing or person. " He was in a situation of great danger," would be equivalent to " He was in circum- stances of great danger;" but we could hardly say, " He pursued his journey in a sitixation of great danger;" in this case we should be compelled to say, " under circum- stances of great danger." " Nor did the shores and woods appear loss destitute of wild fowl, so that we hoped to M 2 CIRCUMSTANCE. ( 164 ) CIRCUMSTANTIAL. eujoy with ease what in our situation miglit be called tlie luxuries of life." — Cvvh's Voyages. Circumstance, iucident, and fact are also related in meaning. So we might say, the circumstances, the incidents, or the facts of the case ; but circumstance relates to what is accessary to fact, and forms a part or detail of it. A murder is a fact, the circumstances of it are the parts of the fact — the incidents of the deed, the details of its commission, or anything remotely connected with the fact as such. An Incident (Lat. incidere) is no more than abefalment, something which happens upon another thing, and is not neces- sarily connected with the fact as such, but has merely occurred along with it. A circumstance of the murder is essentially connected with it ; an incident of it may be such as to have no practical value in regard to it — no close relationship — as, for instance, that a bright rainljow seemed suddenly to break forth at the moment — a thing which might affect the imagination, but not the evidence. " Thy incidents perhaps too thick are sown, But too much plenty is thy fault alone." JJnjden. A Fact (Lat. factum, facere, a thing done) is a thing which has truly taken place, and may be of a complicated nature as being conceived in the ag- gregate. So the fact of a murder is not a simple, but a very complicated thing, involving all the nitmerous par- ticulars of the so-called fact, and the necessity of exact truth in all the particulars to form an exact concep- tion of the fact. " It woukl have been absurd to allege in preaching to unbelievers a fact which itself presupposed the truth of Christ's mission, and which could not have been proved with- out first taking for granted the truth of that very doctrine in proof of which this fact was to have been alleged." — Clarke. The term fact has the different senses of — 1, that which has been done or has taken place; 2, truth in the abstract, as in the phrase, " in fact ;" and 3, the rei:)reseutation of a fact in tlie first sense, irrespectively of the actual truth of it, as when a pleader is eloquent on his case, but wi-ong in his facts. An Event (Lat. eventus, from evcnire, to come forth) is a fact or occurrence regarded as a result or product of other things ; hence we speak of watching the event, or wait- ing for the i)rogress of events. "Such kind of things or events, whether good or evil, as will certainly come to pass may fall under computation, and be estimated as to tlieir several tlegrees, as well as things present." — Wilhins. An Occurrence, on the other hand (Lat. occiirrere, to meet), has no reference to any antecedents, but simply denotes what meets us in the course of our lives by chance or Pro- vidence. It ought, however, to be added that these terms may be often used interchangeably, according to the point of view from which things are regarded. For instance, a shower of rain is an event, regarded simply as a meteorological result. It is a fact, as regards any question as to whether it actually fell or not. It would be an incident in the account of a day's sport. It is a circum- stance, of perhaps vital importance, to a crop, and an untoward occur- rence to any one who, having taken no precautions against it, was wetted through by it. " When fear does not in sudden or hazardous occurrences discompose his mind, set his body a trembling, and make him unfit for action, or run away from it, he has then the courage of a rational creature." — Locke. Circumstantial. Particular, Minute. These terms diminish in force in the above order. A Circumstan- tial account would be one which gave the leading circumstances, Par- ticular, all the cii'cumstances, and Minute i^minutus, from minuere, to lessen) the most trivial as well as the most important. ■ " I conceived myself obliged to sot down somewhat circumstantiallt/ not only the events but the manner of my trials." — Boyle, " Now will we speak particnlarly of all, and first of the first, which he callet'h by the first month's name, January." — Spenser, CITE. { i6s ) CLAIM. "VanJyck liad a peculiar gfiiiius for por- traits; liis draperies are finished with a mlnnScness of truth not to be demanded in historic compositions." — Walpole. Cite. See Bid a«cZ Quote. Civil. Polite. Obliginq. Accommodating. Courteous. Complaisant. Considerate. The Civil man was originally tlie civilis, or who fulfilled tlie duties of a civis or citizen. It means now Lim who is observant of the slight ex- ternal courtesies of intercourse be- tween man and man. "Tlie people behaved very civUhj, showing us everything that we expressed a desire to see." — Cook's Voijagcs. The Polite man [poliius, from 2)olire, to polish) is polished in such courtesies, and is of higher training. The courtier is polite, but even the rustic may be civil. " What but custom could make those salu- tations ^joWo' in Muscovy which are ridiculous in France or England?" — Watts. The Obliging man {obligare, to bind or oblige) is he who is ready with more than the mere courtesies of demeanour, and takes pleasure in doing some actual sei-vice. " Gay, modest, artless, beautiful, and young, Slow to resolve, in resolution strong. To all obliging, yet reserved to all." Walsh. The Accommodating person (see Accommodate) is ready to be oblig- ing, not in the way of granting favours generally, like the obliging, bvit in meeting the particular or spe- cific requirements of the time and oc- casion in favour of others, even at the cost of a little personal inconveni- ence. Though the epithet is modern and conversational, the radical force of it may be seen in the following : — "It is an old observation which has been made of politicians who would rather ingra- tiate themselves with their sovereign than promote his real service, that they accommo- date their counsels to his inclinations." — Addison. (For CouETEOUS see Affable.) Complaisant (Fr. complaisant) occu- pies a position midway between polite and courteous — ^which^aro merely ex- ternal — and obliging — which implies actual kindness of nature. Complai- sance is a deportment indicative of a desire to please, and therefore best befits those who have superiority or power on their side. " As for our Saviour, He was a person so far from being morose or reserved in His car- riage or a lover of singularity, so far from setting up a way of conversation of His own making, distinct from the way He found in the world, that He was the most free, obliging, and civil, and, if I durst use the word, I would say complaisant person that ever perhaps appeared in the world." — Sharp. A more praiseworthy character is that of the Considerate [conside- rare), who meets the wants of others, or relieves them of trouble by placing himself thoughtfully in their place and circumstances. Of old, consider- ate meant thoughtful or deliberate. " The wisest and most considerate men in the world."— »S7tar^'s Sermons. It bears now the usual meaning of having thought for others, what would please them or what is due to them. This general character is ex- pressed in the following use of the noun consideration : — "Moses, having his mind fi.xed upon Him who is invisible, acted more from the con- sideration of Him whom he could not see than of him whom he saw to be highly displeased with him, not fearing the wrath of the king, for he saw Him who is invisible." — Stilling- fleet. " .'Eneas is patient, considerate, and careful of his peojile." — Dryden. Civilization. See Cultivation. Claim. Demand. Eight. Pre- tension. Privilege. Preroga- tive. Claim (Lat. damare, to call out) is an advance upon Demand (Fr. de- mander, Lat. demandare), being the assertion of a right to demand. The highwayman demands the surrender of the traveller's purse, on which he has no claim. The poor man claims equal rights of liberty with the rich in a free state. Claim supposes an unacknowledged right, demand either a disputed right or the ab- CLAIM. ( i66 CLAMOUR. sence of all rigbt, and a simple de- termination to have. " They were told, in answer to their daiin to the bread earned with their blood, that their services had not been rendered to the country which now exists." — Burke. "If we seriously do weigh tlie cuse, we shall find that to require faith without reason is to demand an impossibility, for faith is an eflfect of persuasion, and persuasion is nothing else but the application of some reason to the mind apt to draw forth its " — Barrow. Right (Lat. rectus) is not, like claim and demand, developed, but lies, as it were, dormant. It is tlie latent power to claim or demand upon occasion. "Altliough there be, according to the opinion of some very great and judicious men, a kind of natural right in the noble, wise, and virtuous to govern them which are of servile disposition, nevertheless for manifestation of this their rhjht and men's more peaceable contentment on both sides, the assent of them who are to be governed seemeth necessary." — Hooker, Pretension (Lat. prcetendere) is tlie liolding out tlie appearance of right or possession, without directly urging it. This indirectness is so much an attribute of pretension, that pretension sometimes speaks alto- gether for itself, as if we should say, " He has some pretensions to be con- sidered one of the best writers of the day," the pretensions being, in this case, the actual merits. " You see that an opinion of merit is dis- couraged even in those who had the best pre- tensions, if any pretensions were good." — Paley. Privilege (Lat. privilegium) is a right, immunity, or advantage pos- sessed by some, but not enjoyed by others. " Privilpgc hi Honmn jurisprudence means the esemi)tiou of one individual from the operation of a law." — Mackintosh. " As this liberty is not indulged in any other government, either republican or monarchical, in Holland and Venice more than in France or Spain, it may very naturally give occasion to the question how it happens that Great Britain enjoys this peculiar rivilege." — Hume. Prerogative (Lat. tribxis prero- (jcdiva) denotes a right of precedence, or of doing certain acts, or enjoying certain privileges, to the exclusion of others. In short, prerogative is po- litical priority of privilege. " The kings of these realms enjoy several powers wherein the laws have not interposed. So they can make war and peace without the consent of parliament, and this is a great prcroijativc." — Swift. Clamokous. See Loud. Clamour. Cry. Outcry. Up- roar. Exclamation. Acclama- tion. Vociferation. Shouting. Bawling. Tumult. Clamour (Lat. clamare, to call out) is a noisy use of the voice in continuous or reiterated pronuncia- tion. In this sense, we might speak of the clamour of the streets ; but it is commonly emi^loyed of the simul- taneous use of the tongue by a col- lection of persons calling ovit each for himself, and trying to be heard on his own account, above the voices of others ; as when the crew, on the eve of mutiny, clamorously state theii' grievances. "We may much more easily think to clamour the sun and stars out of their courses than to word the great Creator of them out of the steady purposes of His own will by all the vehemence and loudness of our petitions." —South. Cry (Fr. a-ier) is the sound of voices in articulate or inarticulate sounds, as the cry of a bird, the cry of the salesman, the cry of joy or of pain. It is to the inarticulate, es- pecially, that the word cry belongs ; while clamour consists necessarily of words. " The voice of one crying in the wilderness.' —Bible. Outcry is an expressive and unani- mous aggregate of cries in opposition or protest, as hoots and yells. It is confined to human beings, and is allowed to include words. Clamour often asserts, but outcry always pro- tests. " When they cannot out-reason the con-' science they will out-cry it." — South. Uproar (up and roar, A. S. rarian) CLAMOUR. ( 167 ) CLASS. denotes the mass of confused sound whidi proceeds from a number of persons giving vent to feelings of strong opposition. " We are in danger to be called in ques- tion for this day's uproar, there being no cause whereby we may give an account of this concourse." — Bible. Exclamation {exdamare) is no more than the sudden _ expression of sound or words, and is indicative of joy, grief, surprise, or any such emotion, in one or more. " These holy groves Pcrniit no exclamation 'gainst Heaven's will To violate their echoes." Ilason. Acclamation is loud and unani- mous exclamation in favour, and is opposed to outcry in being expressive of approval, as outcry of protest. " An amiable, accomplished prince ascends the throne under the happiest of all auspices, the acclamations and united afiections of his subjects." — Junius. Vociferation (Lat. vociferare) is any vehement and strained use of the voice, and relates to contimious and articulate sounds, while Bawl (Icel. baula, to bellow) relates to inarticu- late. When we say, " He bawled out his speech," we mean that it had the effect of an inarticulate bellowing. "The judges of the Areopagus considered action and vociferation as a foolish appeal to the external senses, and unworthy to be practised before those who had no desire of idle amusement and whose only pleasure was to discover right." — Idler. Shouting (connected with shoot) is to vociferate for the sake of the effect produced by the sound, as to shout for joy, or to shout in derision. It commonly refers to articulate sounds, which are not necessarily words, but are formed as sonorous media for the shouting, as hip, hurrah ! " The rest of the Grecians advanced with eager haste and fhry, and in the beginning of their onset gave a general shout, to en- courage and animate themselves and strike terror into their enemies." — Potter's Anti- qxtities. Tumult (Lat. tumultus) is pri- marily commotion, then the noise and disturbance resulting from it. It involves numeroxis forces working together to jn'oduce it, as the tumult of the elements, of a multitude, of the passions. "Till ill loud tumn.lt all the Greeks arose." I'ope. Clandestine. See Secret. Class. Order. Kank. De- gree. Class (Lat. classls) is a group of individuals (both things and persons) associated as having common charac- teristics. No priority or posteri- ority of rank is denoted by the term class, though such difference of rank may coexist with it, as in the classes of a school. Such are " the labouring class," " the agricultural class," " the mercantile class." " Now God Almighty, by the inexhaustible fecundity of His creative power, may have made innumerable orders and classes of rational minds, some in their natural perfec- tion higher than human souls, others inferior. — Bcntley. An Order (Lat. ordo) differs from a class in having peculiar interrelated connections or interests. The term is applied both to persons, as the order of Knights Templars, to na- tural productions, and to architec- ture, as the Corinthian order. In iDotany the order is a grou^) of allied individuals, more comprehensive than a genus. In zoology the order is a well-marked division of a class, in- cluding in itself families and genera. Rank (Fr. rancj), when taken for more than a line of things or persona arranged, is the relative j)osition of individuals or classes in regard to superiority and inferiority in social or any other distinction, as an officer of high rank, an author of high or low rank, a man of rank. Degree ( Fr. degre, Lat. gradus) is one of a series of steps in a graduated scale, and is of as varioiis application as the scale itself, as of social or literary rank, size, number, quantity, excel- lence, goodness, badness, and so on. It is an assignable point or line in any subject matter which admits of comparison of higher or lower, or of more or less within itself. " These are all virtues of a meaner rank." — Addison. CLEAN. ( i68 ) CLOAK. " Take but degree away, untwiae that string, And hark what discord follows ; each thing meets In mere oppugnancy." Shakespeare. Clean. Cleanly. Pure. Clean (A. S. clcene) is free from wliat is fonl. It sometiines means free from wliat is obstructive, dirt being always obstruction, as " to make a clean way for himself through a mob." It is used in a moral sense, as " to make a clean breast," and in old scriptural English, "pure hands" and " a clean heart." " Every sin, every moral irregularity, does as really imprint an indelible stain upon the soul as a blot falling u^jon the cleanest paper." — South. Cleanly expresses a disposition to the physically clean. " And this hath so intoxicated some That (to appear incorrigibly mad) They cleanliness and company renounce For lunacy beyond the cure of ai-t. With a long beard and ten long dirty nails Pass current for Apollo's livery. Eoscommon, Horace. Pure (Lat. 2^'>(^"t(s) is used of the more refined substances in nature, and of things moral. As clean means unsoUed, so piu'e means uncontami- nated, that is, free from heterogene- ous matter, especially from what pollutes or vitiates, as pure metal, water, air ; hence it has sometimes the meaning simplyof uncompounded, as pure sand, that is, sand and no- thing else, pure good-nature, pure mathematics, as distinguished from applied. " To the jJMre all things are pure." — Bihk. Clear. See Apparent and Bright. Clear, v. See Absolve. Clearness. See Perspicuity. Cleave. Stick. Adhere. Cleave (A. S. clifan) is to adhere at all parts of an extended surface. It was of more frequent use formerly than at present, when it is more com- monly employed in a moral sense of personal attachments, or to the per- sistent entertainment of hopes and opinions. " As creeping ivy clings to wood or stone, And hides the ruin that it feeds upon, So Sophistry cleaves close to and protects Sin's rotten trunk, concealing its defects." Covper. Adhere (Lat. adhcerere) is used of a close and persistent maintenance of the same matters. In its physical sense it implies such superficial con- tact as tends naturally, or by the inherent properties of the substances themselves, to unite them, as was adheres to the fingers. " It would be difficult to prove that God may not in certain circumstances have greater reasons for varying from His stated rules of acting than for adhering to them." — Farmer. Stick (A. S. stician) is the most familiar and comprehensive of the three, and is used in the senses of the others, that is, of both material and moral subjects. In their secon- daiy meanings, as cleave expresses persistency of affection, and adhere persistency of principle, so stick belongs to mental application and resolve. " I have stuck unto Thy testimonies." — Book of FsabTis. Clemency. See Mercy. Clever. See Ability, Apt, and Ingenious. Climb. See Ascend. Cloak. Mask. Blint). Veil. These are all figurative expressions for means employed to conceal some- thing from the knowledge of others. A Cloak (Low Lat. cloca), being a garment, indicates something con- tinually worn as it were, so as to conceal what is of the nature of a habit or practice. So religion may be employed as a cloak for dis- honesty. " Wlion the severity of manners is hypocri- tical, and assumed as a cloak to secret indul- gence, it is one of the worst prostitutions of religion." — Blair. Mask (Fr. masque) is that which hides the feelings and motives, as the CLOG. ( 169 ) CLOG. cloak conceals tlie conduct; but a mask does more than conceal. It kas an exj)ression of its own. It is in this way tkat malignant feelings are sometimes masked under a coiirteous demeanour, treacherous words, and smiles. " Thou art no ruffian, who beneath the mash Of social commerce com'st to rob then- wealth." Thomson. Blind denotes that which shall so mislead others as to jpermit certain j)ractices to he carried on unobserved, by presenting to their attention what is calculated to preclude the idea or suspicion of them. " Those who are bountiful to crimes \\i\\ be rigid to merit, and penurious to service. Their penur}^ is even held out as a blind and cover to their prodigality." — Burke. Yeil is oftener iised of what de- ceives oneself, or obscures one's own vision, as the veil which hides futurity from view, the mists and veils which rise and are spread before the vision of the prejudiced. "As soon as that mysterious veil which covers futurity should be lifted up all the gaiety of life would disappear." — BUilr. Clog. Encumber. Impede. Obstruct, Embarrass. Fetter. Eetard. Pre\t2nt. Shackle. Hinder. To Clog, an Old English word, is literally to fasten a clog on to the feet of animals, to prevent them from straying. Hence to impede move- ments generally, whether of the limbs or the mind. It denotes the presence of something heterogeneous, obstruc- tive, or against freedom of action. " It was said that the king was alienated from the Church of England, and weary of supporting Episopacy in Scotland, and so was resolved not to dog his government any longer with it." — Burnet. Encumber (Fr. encombrer, Lat. cumulus, a heap) denotes that which retards by being superfluous, and is more or less extraneous to the indi- vidual. An estate is encumbered by its own debts ; and as a man's move- ments may be encumbered Ijy any kind of useless weight, even that of his own garments, so a mind may be encumbered by useless learning. " Knowledge, a rude unprofitable mass. The mere materials with which wisdom builds, Till smoothed and squared and fitted to its place, Does but ewumber whom it seems t' enrich." Cwqier. Impede (Lat. imxiedire, pes, a foot) refers not so much to mere move- ment as to continuous and systematic movement or progress, as to impede the advance of an army, the growth of a plant, the progress of education. It implies some end or goal which is thereby set farther off. "Some error has been committed in not rightly computing and subducting the con- trary or impeding force which arises from the resistance of fluids to bodies moving any way, and from the continual contrary action of gravitation upon bodies thrown upwards." — Clarke. Obstruct (Lat. ohstruere, ohstruc- tus) is purely external. It is not, therefore, employed directly of per- sons, but of their progress, or of roads, passages, and the like. The progress of a vessel is impeded by contrary winds ; it is yet worse if the entrance into the harbour at the end of the voyage is obstructed by rocks. "'Tis he th' obstructed Y>i\ths of sound shall clear, And bid new music charm th' unfolding ear." ^'02)<-'- Embarrass (Fr. emharras) is pro- perly used only of mental impedi- ments or obstructions, that is, of such doubts, perplexities, or difficiilties in general as impede the exercise of thought, speech, or action. " You will have the goodness to excuse me if my real unaftected embarrassment prevents me from expressing my gratitude to you as I ought." — Btir?ie. Fetter (literally a chain for the feet) has commonly the meaning _ of restrictive influence or power, which admits a certain freedom of move- ment, but limits it at certain points, as to be fettered by system. " He received permission fettered by cer- tain conditions." "And truly when they are balanced together this order seemeth more an infran- CLOG. ( 170 ) CLOSE, chising than a fettering of our nature, which without it seemeth rather bound than free in revenge ; such is the dominion of our irri- tated passions." — Montcujue, Essays. Shackle (A. S. scacul, sceacid) de- notes such fettering as redounds to tlie discomfort of tlie person, vingain- liness of movement, and depriva- tion of grace in tlie thing itself. If we said, " The tenure of that fine estate is shackled by some antiquated con- ditions," we should mean that it was much deteriorated in value, and as it were deformed by them. Commonly speaking, persons are fettered by re- strictions, and things are shackled by conditions. " And it is great To do that thing that ends all other deeds, That shackles accidents, and bolts up change." Shakespeare. Hinder, from hind, is to cause to be behind. " I shall distinguish such as I esteem to be hinderers of reformation into three sorts : 1, antiquitarians (for so I had rather call them than antiquaries, whose labours are useful and laudable); 2, libertines ; 3, politicians." — Milton. Retard (Lat. iardns, slow) is to cause to be slow or slower. " Metaphysics not only succeeded physics and mythology in the manner here observed, and became as great a fund of superstition, but they were carried still farther, and cor-' rupted all real knowledge, as well as retarded the progress of it." — Bolinghroke. Prevent (Lat. j^revemre) is to go before, as if for the purpose of stop- ping. The difference between these three is, that to hinder is to stop entirely, but only temporarily ; to retard is to stop, but not entii-ely ; and to prevent is to stop entirely. Retard necessarily refers to a thing begun ; that which is hindered or prevented may not have been yet begun. It will sometimes require the interpretation of after events to know whether a thing be a hindrance or a I)revention. For instance, " I was hindered from going out of the house yesterday till the evening by torrents of rain." Had the rain lasted all day he would have had to say, " I was J)revented yesterday by the rain from eaAdng the house." All three are applicable both to personal and im- personal influences, and all these both directly to persons and their acts, as also to the progress of either. " It is much easier to keep ourselves void of resentment than to restrain it from excess when it has gained admission. To use the illustration of an excellent author, we can 2)revent the beginnings of some things, whose progress afterwards we cannot hinder." — Jlolkmd. Close. Conclusion. Termi- nation. Cessation. End, End- ing. Extremity. Extreme. Of all these sjTaonyms the simplest and most generic is End (A. S. ende), of which the rest may be regarded as modifications. End is applicable to the extreme point of a line, or any- thing which is regarded as linear, l^rogressive, or continuous, as the end of a cord, of a book, of a story, of a life. No remoteness is implied in this beyond the intrinsic remoteness from the centre, as to tie two ends of a string together. It is also used to express the idea of result or of a final point, as produced by antecedent caitses, as " the end of these things is death," or that which is the thing aimed at, or the purpose for which something else is done, in Avhich sense it is equivalent to object or final cause, as "he did it for private ends." In short, end expresses both objective and stibjective finality. *' The harvest is the end of the world." — Bible. Close (Fr. dos, Lat. clcmdere, claus^ls, to shut) is the kind of end to which a thing is regarded as naturally tending or bringing itself. The close of a book or a story seems brought about by the story or the book itself, hence such phrases as " coming to a close," " drawing to a close." " We have it, it seetns, in otir power, by the exercise of one particular virtue, to secure a pardon to ourselves for neglecting all the rest, and can blot out the remembrance of an ill-spent life by a few acts of charity at the close of it." — Atterhury. A Conclusion (Lat. conchiderc) is etymologically of the same origin. A conclusion is a superimposed close, anticipated or drawn as the result of CLOSn. ( 171 ) COALESCE. a pl•c^'ious course of action or argix- inent. The conclusion of a contest are tliose efforts wliicli bring it to an end ; tlie conclusion of an argument is that which is necessarily drawn from its premises. " I will conclude this part with the speech of a counsellor of state." — Bacon. Termination (Lat. terminus, a boundary) is that kind of end which presupposes a previous course, whether of view, of thought, of words, of action or movement, which proceeds till it is stopped by such a limit or boundary. It belongs both to space and time, and refers to any kind of intervention, as human agency or natural arrange- ments. " I had a mind to know how each of these roads terminated." — Addison. Cessation refers to action as limited or stopped by some inherent vnU, power, or influence, so difi'ering from termination, which depends on external causes, as " I listened till the sound ceased.", "A cessation of all hostilities was to begin within two months, and to continue till all was concluded by a complete treaty and ratified, provided the Spanish monarchy was then entirely restored." — ^Burnet. Ending is an imposed end, or the end of something artificial or variable. For instance, we speak of the ending of a sentence or a word ; not of the ending, but the end of human life. A termination is a fixed ending, as an ending is a variable termination. "A perfect kingdom and glorious, that shall never have ending." — Bishoj) Taylor. Extremity (Lat. extremxis) is. the remotest part of anything which has configuration, or is regarded mentally as having a defijiite area or extent. It difi'ers from end in involving such remoteness. So we speak of the end of the street, but the extremity of the town, or the extremities of the human body. The extremity of distress is a supposed boundary line to the extent of such endurance. " No less man than St. AugUstiue was doubtful whether the extremity of bodily pain were not the greatest evil that human nature was capable of suffering." — May. Extreme denotes a strained, exag- gerated, undue, or unnecessary dis- tance or departure from the mean or centre. It is remarkable that the word tends to this unfavourable force, though etymologically it is equally applicable to favourable applications. We speak often enough of " extreme folly," but not of " extreme wisdom." It conveys a sort of censure to say of any one that he holds "extreme opinions." " For though innovations which appear very plausible may be found, when examined, very dangerous, and therefore love of change is by no means to be encouraged, yet aversion to it may be carried to an extreme also." — Seeker. Close. 8ee Finish and Shut. Close. See Neae. Clothes. See Dress. Clothing. See Dress. Clown. See Peasant. Cloy. See Gratify. Clumsy. See Awkward. Coadjutor. See Assistant. Coalesce. Amalgamate. Unite. Cohere. Join. Coalesce (Lat. coalescere, to grow up together) is hardly used except aa a scientific term in its purely physical sense, which is to grow together, so that the particles of two organisations shall become compact and one. Co- alition has now a political meaning, and denotes the combination of dif* ferent persons, parties, or states, having diflPerent views or interests, for a temporary purpose. " No coalition, which under the specious name of independency carries in its bosom the unreconciled principles of the original discord of parties, ever was or will be an healing coalition." — Burke. Amalgamate (amalgam, a com- pound of mercury with some other metal) denotes the interpenetration of inorganic particles, as coalesce of organic. Amalgamation is the mrx- ing of things in themselves foreign, bu^t which are foimd to have in them sufficient properties in common to allow of their union into one masSi COARSE. ( 172 ) COARSE. " Ingratitude is indeed their four cardinal virtues compacted and amalgamated into one." — Burke. Unite (Lat. unus, one) is said of two or more tilings wliicli are so joined as to present the appearance of a sensilile or visible whole ; if the union is absolute, then the individu- ality of the parts or separate unities is lost, as the union of two regiments in the field. "We were ignorant that tlie time drew near when the squadron would be separated never to unite again, and that this day of our passage was the last cheerful day that the greatest part of us would ever live to enjoy." — Anson. Cohere (cohcerere) denotes the in- ternal adherence of parts reciprocally, as adherence is an external sticking together of whole bodies or sub- stances. In its metaphysical sense cohere means consistently to hang together in subordination to one principle or purpose ; as the several parts of a speech, or a theory, are said to cohere. " Of all things there is the greatest difli- culty in retaining numbers. They are like grains of sand which will not cohere in the order in which we place them." — Priestley. Join (Lat. jmigere) denotes a union formed by external association or attachment, which in no way detracts from the separate individuality of the things joined. Such joining may be permanent or temporary. "There were reports that the Emperor and the French King were in a treaty, and that in conclusion they would join to make war upon the King." — Burnet. Coarse is only another form of " course," as it was originally wi-itten, so meaning in course, or such as is commonly to be met with. According as it is used in the literal or the metaphysical sense, it associates it- self with two distinct sets of synonyms, as follows : CoAESE, EouGir. EuDE. Geoss. That is Coarse which is composed of relatively large particles, whether naturally, as a coarse kind of stone, or ai-tificially, as a coarse kind of linen. In this sense it is opposed to fine, in which nature or art has pro- duced a subtler textiu-e. " For habit it was anciently sackcloth and ashes : by the courscncss of the sackcloth they ranked themselves as it were amongst the meanest and lowest of men, by ashes and sometimes earth upon their heads they made themselves lower than the lowest "of the creatures of God." — 3fede. Rough (A. S. hreuh) is that of which the particles have sufficient inequality to be conspicuous to the eye or palpable to the touch : a rough sea, a rough plank. In this sense it is opposed to smooth. " While yet the rouglmess of the stone remains. Without the rising muscles and the veins." Drydcn, Ovid. Rude (Lat. rudis) denotes such a sort of roughness as belongs to un- skilled implements or productions. "Is it in destroying and pulling down that skill is displayed ? The shallowest under- standing, the rudest hand is more than equal to that task." — Burke. Gross (Fr. gros, Low Lat. grossus, from crassus) differs from coarse in not relating to the particles of a sub- stance, but to the effect produced by the whole of it. It has the meaning of coarsely bulky, or combines thick- ness of texture with xmwieldiness in the cases to which it is commonly applied. " The element immediately nest the earth in grossness is water." — -Digby on Bodies. Coarse, Eough. Eude. Gross. Uncouth. Blunt. As applied to the mind and the manners. Coarse denotes that na- tural savagery which comes of move- ments and expressions unchecked and luiremoved by the training and restrictions of refined society. It comes of such selfishness of demea- nour as civilization tends to suppress. In this sense it is opposed to refined. " Already there appears a poverty of con- ception, a coarseness and vulgarity in all tlie proceedings of the assembly and of all their instructors." — Burke. Rough is ajjplied only to the man- ners and the speech. As coarseness comes of the absence of mental re- COAX. ( 173 ) COLD. finement, so roiigliness comes of tlie ■want of polite training, except in the case of rougli speecli or words, wliich may come from the most polite on oc- casions of excitement. Hence rough- ness is compatible, as coarseness is not, with much mental refinement and purity of heart. Where, however, this latter is palpably the case, a better epithet is hlunt. " Roxujhncss in the grain Of Britisli natures." Cowper. Rude has the meaning of being personally offensive to others from roughness of manner. This maybe un- intentional, in which case it amounts to no more than omission of what polite intercourse requires ; or in- tentional, in which case it is the dis- regard or violation of it in contempt or active insult. " My censures of some reputed virtuosi that live in it are written with as harmless and friendly designs as was the seeming rude- ness of the angel to St. Peter when he struck him on the side, and hastily roused him." — Boijle. Gross refers not to social but moral and mental subjects. The gross person is he in whom the sen- sual in any way predominates, as a gi'oss eater. It is opposed to delicate, and denotes an unrestrained exhi- bition or expression of the animal part of human nature. " Bleached and purified from the grossncss and pollution of their ideas." — Warhurton. Uncouth (A. S. unciidh, unkno-wn). See Awkward. Coax. See Cajole. CoEKCE. See Bind. Coeval. Contemporary. Syn- chronous. Commensurate. The difference of force between these terms is sufficiently indicated by their derivations. Coeval being compounded of cevum, an age, and Contemporary of tempus, time. As the age is of long duration, the term coeval is employed when the sense is existing in the same age, especially if it be remote as well as long, as, " Silence coeval with eternity," " The building of such, a pyramid was co- eval with such a dynasty of Egyjjtian kings." But tempvs not having this force of long duration, we employ the term contemporary for synchronous periods that are shorter. Such are the lives of men. " He was contem- porary (it would be absurd to say coeval) with me at college." " The history of redemption is coeval with that of the globe itself, has run through every stage of its existence, and will outlast its utmost duration." — Bishop Ilurcl. "This king (Henry VIIL) was contemporarij with the greatest monarchs of Europe, namely the Emperor, the kings of Spain and France." — Strype. Although Synchronous is only, the Greek equivalent of the Latin con- temporary (crvi/, together, and XP"^°^' time), it is a convenient term to use when nothing more is intended than the simultaneity of two occurrences as a matter of history. " Sensations are impressed either at the same instant of time, or in contiguous suc- cessive instants. Hence it follows that the corresponding associations are either sijnchro- nous or successive." — Belsliam. The term Commensurate {con) together, and onensura,' a measure, may be analogously employed when the meaning is that two durations synchronize. {See Adequate.) " We can, I think, have no positive idea of any space or duration which is not made up and commensurate to repeated numbers of feet or yards, or daj-s and years, which are the common measures, whereof we have the ideas in our minds, and whereby we judge of the greatness of these sorts of quantities." — Loc/:e. Cogent. See Forcible. Cognizance. See Badge. Cohere. See Coalesce. Coincide. See Accede and Agree. Cold. Frigid. Gelid. Cool. _ Of these, Cold (A. S. cald, cecdd) simply expresses the absence of heat in any degree, whether physically, or in a metaphorical sense of the mental feelings or passions. Frigid (Lat. frigidus, frigus, cold) denotes that which is by nature ^relatively cold, as COLLEAGUE. ( 174 ) COLOUR. the Frigid Zoue. Cool denotes tlie lesser degrees of cold, and Gelid (Lat. gelidus, gelii, frost) is applicable only to conditions of natural sub- stances, the earth and the atmo- sphere. A cold nature is wanting in zeal and warm-heartedness, resei-ved, unswayed by passion or ardour of sentiment. A frigid nature com- municates its coldness by a distant, unsympathizing manner. A frigid style of speaking or writing is one which neither conveys nor excites warmth of feeling or brightness of thought. Cool is employed not so much of temperament ( like cold and frigid), as of the state of mind under certain circumstances, and is asso- ciated with the praiseworthy, as cold with the contrary. So we say, "^cold calculation," " cold indifference," but "cool determination or courage. When coolness has an unfavourable sense, it refers to specific demeanour towards others, as " cool impudence." " It is in vain that we would coldlt/ gaze On such as smile upon us ; the heart must Leap kindly back to kindness." '■ Byron. <' Then, crushed by rules, and weakened as refined, For years the power of Tragedy dechned. From bard to bard the frigid caution crept, Till Declamation roared while Passion slept." Johnson. «' To what cool cave shall I descend, Or to what gelid fountain bend ?" Marvel. "To say the truth, when the matter comes to be considered impartially and coolly,^ their faults, of whatever kind, will admit of much aWeyiation."— Bishop Hurd. Colleague, Bee Companion. Collect. Assemble. Muster. Gather. To Collect (Lat. colUgere, colledus) is to gather from different places into one body or place. «' Some ritualists say the collects are prayers made among the people collected or gathered together." — Comber. To Assemble (Lat. ad, to, and simul, together) differs from collect in being applicable only to persons, and not to things. Collected. See Calm. Collection. See Assembly. Colloquy. See Conversation. Colour. Dye. Tinge. Stain. Paint. To Colour (Lat. color) is simply to impart a hue, whether superficially or substantially, or both, as to colour the outside of a house, Nature colours the grass >vith green. It may denote an artificial process, or a process of nature. "Thither he assembled all his train." Hilton. The transitive use of the verb has become uncommon. To Muster (Old Eng. connected with monstrare) is to bring by effort or by authority to a certain place or occa- sion. It differs from collect and assemble in being applicable to one as well as many, hence, metapho- phorically, " to muster courage," and from assemble also, in being appli- cable both to things and persons. " Prone on the lowly grave of the dear man She drops, whilst busy meddling memory In barbarous successions musters up The past endearments of their softer hours." Blair. Gather '(A. S. gadcrian) has the senses of collect and assemble, and others of its own. As muster im- plies the point to, so gather the i source from, which the taking is; | hence simply to gather a flowei*, ; which expresses no collection at aU. " Not that fair field Of Enna, where Proserpin, gathering flowers, Herself a ftiirer flower, by gloomy Dis Was gathered, which cost Ceres all that pain To seek her through the world." Milton. The .term, like collect, is used in the sense of deduction or inference. " I gather," that is, I infer, " so and so from what you say." The expres- sion of the English Liturgy, " when two or three are gathered together," has been censured as tautology ; it is plainly not so. AU gathering is not collective, as we have seen. COLOUR, ( ^73 ) GOMEL Y. •' Vain is the hope by colouring to display The bright effulgence of the noon-tido i-ay, Oi- paint the full-orbed ruler of the skies With pencils dipt in dull terrestrial dyes." Mnson. Dye denotes a purely artificial process, by whicli either the surface or the entire texture may be coloured, as an ivory ball, which may be dyed red, or a silken fabric. "Weaving was the invention of the Egyptians, and dyeing wool of the LyJians." — Holland, Pliny. To Tinge (Lat. tingere] is applied to both natural and artificial pro- cesses, but implies a subordinate degree of coloxxring, as a red colour may be tinged with blue, the maiden's cheek is tinged with red. "There is constantly a cheerful grey sky just sufficient to screen the sun, and to miti- gate the violence of its perpendicular rays, without obscuring the air or tinging the day- light with an unpleasant or melancholy hue." — Anson's Voyages. To Stain, which is abbreviated from distain, and that from dis and tingere, is, properly, to colour vtdth a heterogeneous colour, or to discoloiu", as " stain the pure white with acci- dental spots." From the application or involuutary contact of foreign coloui-ing matter, the term stain has come to mean a certain kind of dyeing. In this way, as Paint (Fr. j^etndre, Lat. pingere) denotes the cover- ing of the sm-face with a pigment, so stain and dye indicate the colour- ing of the substance itself ; and stain is said chiefly of solids, as ivory, wood, glass ; and dye of fibrous sub- stances and textile fabrics. Stain is sometimes used for the accidental maiTing of one colour by another. " See what reward the grateful senate yield For the lost blood which stains you northern field." Howe's Lucan. " True poetry the painter's power displays ; Trwe painting emulates the poet's lays." Mason. Colour. See Tint. Colourable. See Ostensible. Column. See Pillar. Combat. See Battle. Combatant. See Champion. Combination. See Association and Cabal. Combine. See Connect. Combustion. See Fire. Come. Arrive. To Come expresses no more than to reach up to some point, state, or condition. " If the good man of the house had known at what hour the thief would come, he would have watched." — Bible. To Arrive {ad andi'^pa, a bank) is to come to a given destination. Periods of time, tidings, and events, as well as moving persons or bodies, are said to arrive. " In the Epistles of St. Paul, St. Peter, and St. James we find frequent mention of the coming of our Lord in terms which, like those of the test, may at first seem to imply an expectation in those writers of His speedy arrival." — Horsley. Comely. Graceful. Elegant. Comely (which is come-like) means, literally, coming or appearing as we would have it, in itself, and not in reLation to any other person, as becoming. It expresses more than becoming. A very cheap thing may, on account of colour, shape, and the like, be becoming; but comely de- notes some degree of intrinsic value. Comely is either applied directly to the personal appearance, as a comely face or figure, or to something closely connected with it by way of dress, of personal decoration. " A comely creature." — Piers Tloughnan, Graceful, on the other hand, is independent both of i)ersonal rela- tionship and of intrinsic value. It denotes simply an elegance of out- line or movement. The pendent flower, the statue of the Apollo Bel- vedere, the action of the accom- plished orator, are graceful. " Gracefulness is an idea not very different from beauty. It consists in much the same things. Gracefulness is an idea belonging to posture and motion." — Burke. Elegant (Lat. elegans) denotes acquired grace, or such grace as iiidi« COMFORT. ( 176 ) COMMERCIAL. cates tlie toiicli of artificial refine- ment. The peasant girl may be comely and graceful by nature, but not elegant, save so far as nature gives to some wbat it requires art to develop in others. It is only reflex- ively that we speak of " elegant fm-niture," or an " elegant classic." "The natural progress of the works of men is from rudeness to convenience, from convenience to elegance, ami from elegance to nicety." — Johnson. CoMTORT. See Cheer and Pleasure. Comedy. See Burlesque. Comical. See Droll. Command. Order. Injunc- tion. Precept. Command (Fr. commander, Lat. con, and manclare, to order) is the most general of these terms._ It generally indicates a person of higher station. We speak of the Divine commands,, and commandments of the Divine law. The noun com- mandment has now this restricted application. "How commaudatory the apostolical authority was is best discernible by the apostle's mandates unto the churches upon several occasions, as to the Thessalonians, 'We command the brethren.'" — Bishop Morton. Order (Fi-. orclre) comes from a person less removed in rank. The general gives commands, the inferior officers order. The master orders, not commands, his servant. In com- mand there is more of power and dignity; in order, more of specific energy or peremptoriness. A com- mand may be held permanently^ an order is given to be executed for the occasion. "A step-dame, too, I have, a cursed she, Who rules my henpecked sire, and orders me." Dryden. As command and order relate to specific acts, so Injunction (Lat. injungere) relates rather to general conduct, as an injvmction of secresy, an injunction to be careful. It has more of the moral and less of the official about it, So that, as com- mand and order are for one's own sake, so injrmction may be entirely for the sake of the other, as the father enjoins his son to be diligent. '•Though all duties expressly enjoined are Ijy virtue of such injunction equally neces- sary, yet it follows not that they are in themselves equally excellent." — South. Precept (Lat. prcecephim) is com- monly not addressed to individuals, but has a moral or didactic force, which flows not simply, or, 'perhaps, not at all, from the authority of the j)erson, but from the inherent wisdom of the thing itself. "Precepts are short — necessarily must be so — take up but little room, and for that reason do not always strike with the force or leave the impression which they ought to do." — Faleg. Commanding. See Authorita- tive. Commemorate. See Celebrate. Commence. See Begin. Commend. See Praise. Commendable. See Laudable. Commensurate. See Adequate and Coeval. Comment. See Note. Commentary. See Note. Commerce. See Trade. Commercial. Mercantile. Commercial [see Commerce) is the Avidest term, being sometimes made to embrace Mercantile (Lat. mercari, to traffic, merx, merchandize') . In that sense it extends to the whole theory and practice of commerce, as a commercial speculation, a commercial education, a commercial people. Mer- cantile respects the actual trans- action of business ; and, as com- mercial relates strictly to the ex- change of commodities, so mercantile relates to their sale vrhen brought to market. " Every man thus lives by eschangine, or becomes in some measure a merchant, and the society itself grows to be what is properly a commercial society." — Adam Smith. " Such is the happiness, the hope of which COMMISERATION. ( 177 ) COMMON. seduced me from the duties and pleasures of a mercantile life." — Johnson. Commiseration. See Mercy. Commission. See Accredit. Commit (Lat. committere) has two main meanings — to intrust, and to do. Commit. Intrust. Consign. Confide. These words have in common the idea of transferring from oneself to the care and custody of another. Commit is the widest term, and ex- presses no more than generally the delivery into another's charge, as to commit a case to an attorney, or a felon to prison. " The Lord Chancellor, upon petition or in- formation, grants a commission to inquire into the party's state of mind, and if he be found non compos, he usually commits the care of his person, with a suitable allowance for his maintenance, to some friend, who is then called his committee." — Blackstone. To Intrust is to put in trust, and denotes a higher degree of confidence, as to intrust a child to the care of a friend, or the friend himself with the care of the child. " The joy of our Lord and Master, which they only are admitted to who are careful to improve the talents they are intrusted withal." — Wilkins. To Consign (Lat. consignare, to sign or seal) is a more formal act, implying abandonment at least of present responsibility, and a more complete merging in the keeping of another, as to consign goods into the hands of an agent ; and, yet more strongly, though metaphorically, to consign a body to the grave. To Confide (Lat. con and fides, trust) coml)ines the transfer of respon- sibility implied in consign with the assurance implied in intrust. In the phrase, " to confide a secret," the responsibility is rather shared than transferred. " Congress may under the constitution confide to the Circuit Court jurisdiction of all oftences against the United States." — Story. Commit. Perpetrate. As it relates to the doing of deeds, Commit is only used in an unfavour- able and bad sense, as to commit error, a fault, or a crime. Good deeds are never committed. Perpe- trate (Lat. perpetnire) is in the same way restricted, but has only refer- ence to grosser errors or crimes. So we might say, " I committed a slight mistake ;" but the terms slight and mistake would be incompatible with perpetrate. The term is, how- ever, used of lighter matters, as to perpetrate a blunder, or a gross fault in manners, when we wish sarcasti- cally to exaggerate. " Lands and tenements commit no treason." Dryden. - " What great advancement hast thou hereby won. By being the instrument to periyetrate So foul a deed ?" Daniel. Commodious. See Convenient. Commodity. See Goods. Common. See Public and Usual. Common. Ordinary. Vulgar. Common (A. S. gemcen, with the sense of the Latin communis), from its primary sense of general, frequent, has naturally come to signify that which is cheap from its frequent occur- rence, and of no high or refined kind. The term expresses rather a negative idea than any positive defect or objec- tionableness. A common-looking per- son is one who has nothing to dis- tinguish him from the mass of people about him. " The commonness and general long recep- tion of a doctrine is not a sufficient argu- ment of the truth of it."— South. As that is common in which many persons partake, so that is Ordi- nary (Fr. oi'dinaire, Lat. ordo) which is apt to meet iis in the common order or succession of things, as " an ordinary face." Hence it takes its character for praise or blame, ac- cording to the subject with which it is associated. No such character belongs to the phrase, " the ordinary forms of law." " Men of ordinary judgment," would mean whose judg- ment would make them fit judges, as being of an average goodness. On N COMMONL V. ( 178 ) COMPANION. the otlier liand, to say of a book that it was an ordinary performance, woiild express disparagement. "Nature bestowed upon Pythagoras a form and person more than ordinarily comely." — YuLGAR {vulgaris, vnlgus, the com- mon people), though it had not originally this decidedly unfavourable sense, as in the old jjhrase " vulgar," that is, common, " tongue," is always now employed with some tinge of depreciation, if not of actual dis- praise. Yulgar reports are such as are circulated among common people, and such as may be supposed to interest them in particular. In a stronger sense, vulgar indicates de- pravation of taste and manners. "Verses which a few years past were thought worthy the attention of children only, or of the lowest and rudest orders, are now admired for that artless simplicity which once obtained the name of coarseness and vulgarity." — Knox. Commonly. See Fbequently. Commonwealth. See State. Commotion. See Disturbance. Communicate. See Impart. Communication. See Inter- course. Communion. See Intercourse. Community. Society. Community (Lat. communis) is a section of society. _ Society (Lat. socius, a companion) is as wide as the human race. A common interest or nature constitutes community. It is evident, then, that society may be used in an abstract and universal sense ; but community (except in the sense of a sharing, which is not to the present purpose) has a particular sense. Moreover, there is a differ- ence between a society and a com- munity. A community is a society having reciprocal rights, privileges, or interests. A society is not held together by such strictly organized constitiitions. A number of persons associated for a common object would be a society, as " The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge," which is not of the nature of a com- munity, as the members are not of the nature of a polity, nor have any I'elation to each other, except as re- lated to their purpose in common. " And thus the community perpetually re- tains a supreme power of saving themselves from the attempts and designs of anybody, even of their legislators, wlienever they shall be so foolish or so wicked as to lay and carry on designs against the liberties and properties of the subject." — Locke. " God having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with an inclina- tion and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the greater instrument and common tie of so- ciety." — Ibid. Commute. See Barter. Compact. See Agreement. Companion. Associate, Com- rade. Colleague. Mate. Partner. Companion (Lat. con, together, and pmiis, bread, as if it originally meant a messmate) is a term which may be applied to any person who keeps company with another for a longer or shorter time without such connection being habitual, or even of necessity an equality between the two. " All through my travels my dog was my faithful companion." " Alas ! my soul, thou pleasing compcinion of this body, thou fleeting thing that art now deserting "it, whither art thou flying?" — Tatler. Associate (Lat. socius) denotes habitual and volimtary compa- nionship on the ground of per- sonal community of feeling. Com- rade (Lat. camara, camera, a cham- ber) is used of companionship in certain of the lighter relations of society, dependent upon and subordi- nate to a common rvile of life. So a comrade is an associate who is not so piirely by personal choice. Play- fellows at school, or soldiers of the same regiment, are comrades. "In the meantime the other two squad- rons were calm spectators of the rout of their comrades." — Anson's Voyages. COMPANY. ( 179 ) COMPENSATION. Mate (Icel. viaii, equal, companion) is to the graver relations of life wliat comrade is to the lighter, and denotes a common employment in which each takes a part. It is applicable to the relation between two persons, while comi-ade always implies a number. "I Will way me to some withered bough, and there My mate, that's never to be found again, Lament till I am lost." Shakespeare. Colleague (Fi'. coUegue) is one who is iinited with another in the tenure of an office, or the discharge of an official duty. "Being yet very young, saj's Plutarch, I was joined in commission with another in an embassy to the proconsul, and my colleague, falling sick, was forced to stay behind, so that the whole business was transacted by me alone." — Dryden. Partner is commonly one who takes part in a social community of interest, whether grave or gay, as a partner in biisiness, a partner in the dance, a partner for life. "No faith, no trust, no friendship, shall be known Among the jealous partners of a throne ; But he who reigns shall strive to reign alone." Eoire's Luc in. Company. See Assembly, Band, and Troop. Comparison. See Similitude. Compassion. See Mercy. Compatible. See Consistent. Compel. See Bind. Compendium. See Abridgment. Compensation. Piemuneration. Eecompense. Amends. Satis- faction. Kequital. Eeward. Meed. Guerdon. To Compensate is to furnish an equivalent for anything lost or parted with by another (Lat. comjyensare, from peiidere, to weigh or pay). It commonly supposes that the loss has been in favour, or, in some way, in the cause of the person making the compensation ; but this is not essen- tial. So one might, as an act of charity, give to a poor person as a compensation for a loss which he had unfortunately sustained. " Not having any certain knowledge of a future state of reward (though the wisest of them did indeed hope for it, and think it higlily probable), they were forced, that they might be consistent with their own prin- ciples, to suppose the pi*actice of virtue a suffi- cient reward to itself in all cases, and a full compensation for all the sufferings of the world." — Clarke. Remttneration (Lat. re and munus, a gift) is commonly taken in the specific sense of compensation for personal services done to the remimerator. "Human legislators have for the most part chosen to make the sanction of their laws rather vindicatory than remuneratory, or to consist rather in punishments than in actual particular rewards." — Blackstone. Recompense and Reward stand to each other in this relation, that recompense (Fr. recompense) is a reward equivalent to the thing done. Reward is, literally, that which regards or is related to the thing (regarder). An industrious boy at school is rewarded, not recompensed, by a prize. On the other hand, if the boy were to set his reward against the efforts and self-denial he had made and exercised in order to gain his prize, he might say, " I am weU recompensed for all I have done." " Thou who hast taught me to forgive the ill, And recompense as friends the good mis- led, If mercy be a precept of Thy will, Keturn that mercy on Thy servant's head." Dryden. " Which good and evil, pleasure or pain, attending an observance or breach of the law by the decree of the law-maker, is what we call reward and punishment." — Locke. Meed is not a term of familiar use. It is a reward which we fairly earn by our own exertions ; something bestowed or rendered in consideration of merit, and which does not, like reward, imply any substantial value, as the " meed of praise," but rather something which derives its value from its honourable character. " As he pronounces lastly on each deed, Of so much fame in heaven expect thy meed." Milton. N 2 COMPENSATION. ( i8o ) COMPLAIN. Guerdon is a French word, and combines the two notions of a volun- tary gift and a reward. It is that which is received and recognized as a recompense from one who was not absohitely bound to recognize the thing done, and may or may not be of intrinsic value. " Verse, like the laurel, its immortal meed. Should be the guerdon of a noble deed." Cvwpcr. Amends and Satisfaction both belong to cases in which the person cmnjplains of loss. Amends (Fr. amende) relates rather to the thing, satisfaction (Lat. satis and facere, to do enough) to the j)erson. Amends restores the balance of deprivation, satisfaction the balance of discontent. So we may make amends not only to persons, but abstractedly, as to make amends for idleness by increased efforts after- wards ; but satisfaction is j)iu-ely per- sonal. " Then let us seek Some safer resolution, which, methinks, I have in view, calling to mind with heed Part of our sentence — that thy seed shall bruise The Serpent's head — piteous amends." Hilton. "For the transgressions of man, man ought to make satisfaction, but he could not." — Sheridan, Sermons. Requital {requite), which, like quit and acquit, is from quies, rest (something given to set the mind of the debtor at rest), is simply the giv- ing of something in return for some- thing done towards ourselves. This may be anything but a reward or a recomj)ense. It is dictated simply by gratitude, and is not conferred. The requital is of the fuUest possible value in the case of the truly grateful. It is mean or even injurious in the absolutely ungrateful. It is a matter of evil for evil in the vindictive. It is simple punishment in cases where it consists of deserved suffering coming from those who have a right to inflict it, "Every receiver is debtor to his bene- factor ; he owes him all the good he receives from him, and is always obliged to a tliauk- ful acknowledgment, and, whenever he hath opportunity, to an equivalent requital." — Scott, Christian Life. Competent. a7id Qualified. Competition. Adequate Emulation. Ei- VALRY. Ambition. Competition (Lat. con and petere, to seek) is not a matter of feeling, but of action. It is the attempt to gain something desirable with or against others who are aiming at the same thing. " But they ought to consider that when these two parts of religion come in competi- tion, devotion is to give way to charity, mercy being better than sacrifice." — Tillot- son. Emulation (Lat. cemidatio) is a matter of feeling, which often prompts to competition. It is a desire of exceUing, and a natural tendency to make eftbrts in that direction. It is always relative to others, whom the emulous person desires to equal, imi- tate, or excel. And in this way it differs from Ambition, which is not ' relative directly to others {ambitio, from amhire, to go about canvassing for office). The emulous person is thinking of others who are running the same course ; the ambitious person thinks only of the goal and the prize, or only indirectly of others who have to be passed in the course. '* A noble emulation prevailed among the companions to obtain the first place in the esteem of their chiefs, among the chiefs to acquire the greatest number of valiant com- panions." — Gibbon. Rivalry {rivalis, from rivits, a liver, hostUe tribes being often thus separated) has always a selfish object. It consists in trying to get something for oneseK which is of the nature of a possession against one or more others who are trying for the same thing. " Keen contentions and eager rivalries." — Jeffrey. Complain. Murmur. Eepine. Lament. Deplore. Expostulate. Eegret. Eemonstrate. Complain (Fr. complaindre, Lat. plangere, to beat, strike the breast) is to find fault sadly. It is plain COMPLAIN. ( iSi ) COMPLAIN. that this may be either with the course of things themselves, or with the conduct of other persons. A complaint in either case is expressed openly, and implies that what has befallen one has been imdeserved or unjust, from whatever quarter it may have come. When it relates to the conduct of another, it conies from a superior, or from one who is suf- ficiently on an equality to have a right to complain to some superior. "Save where from yonder ivy-mantled tower The moping owl doth to the moon com- plain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign." Gray. MtTRMtTR (Lat. tnnr'murare) is the siipi^ressed expression of discontent against a superior power or the ii-re- sistible force of circumstances. " What if God, willing to show the riches of His mercy, calls and accepts of some at the very last hour of the day, and rewards them equally with those that came in at first ; have we anything to reply against such a proceeding, or to carp at His justice, or murmur at our brother's felicity ?" — South. Repine. Unlike complain and murmur, repine (re and inne, to con- tinue pining) implies no outward expression, but an inward discontent which preys on the spirits, and re- lates to the general lot or condition. "Hepining is sorrow united with a de- gree of resentment against some superior agent, where the mind dares not to break forth into strong expressions of anger." — Cogan. Lament (Lat. lamentari), like com- plain, is necessarily expressed. It denotes sorrow for something which is regarded simply as a misfortune. Tn regard to the conduct of others, it is used in cases where the circum- stances of the case or the speaker are not considered sufficient to entitle him to complain. "Thammuz came next behind, Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured The Syrian damsels to kanent his fate. In amorous ditties all a summer's day." Milton. Regeet (Fr. regretter) regards matters of fact, and denotes soitow that something should have happened as it has, and a wish that it should have been otherwise. It is used, like lament, to express a modified complaint of another, but it is equally aj)plicable to oneself. One may re- gret one's own conduct, as well as that of another. The essential idea of regret is that of looking back with dissatisfaction. If it be on what has occurred without ourselves, then regret is sorrow ; if it be connected with our own acts, then regret is repentance. ' " Alike reijrettcd in the dust he lies, Who yields ignobly or who bravely dies." Pope's Homer. Deplore (Lat. deplorare) is as extensive in its meaning as regret, and stronger specifically. It is to express deep and poignant grief for anything as an event or matter o£ fact, as to deplore a loss, to deplore another's conduct, or one's own. It is an expression not only of dissatis- faction, but of despondency. As com- pared with lament, it may be observed that, as lament is the more earnest expression, deplore is the deej^er and more prolonged. A man laments a comparatively slight mistake ; he de- plores what tkreatens to involve him in ruin. " To find her, or for ever to deplore Her loss." Milton. Though the force of lament is de- monstrative, yet usage would tolerate such a phrase as to lament in secret. We could hardly say to deplore in secret. The lighter force of lament, as compared with deplore, appears in the adjectives lamentable and deplo- rable. A deplorable thing is a real evil, a lamentable mistake is pitiable, and pity is akin to laughter and ridicule. Remonstrate (Lat. remonstrare, to show again) and Expostulate (Lat. ex and jyostulare, to require) much resemble each other, inasmuch as they denote the complaint of another's conduct, which is expanded into reasoning with him ; but remon- strate is the milder term of the two. The person who remonstrates with another is more on an equality with COMPLAINT. ( 182 ) COMPOUND. mm than the expostvilator, wlio is in a superior position, reasons less, and dictates more. Remonstrances and expostulations may be made either before the act by way of dissuasion, or after it. In the latter case the object is to produce an impres- sion of dissatisfaction or repentance. There seems to be a further difference in nature of the force employed in each case. Expostulation is a more direct appeal to the person himself, and therefore includes the employ- ment of any means which may in- fluence him. Remonstrance is rather an aj)peal to the case, and indirectly to the person's sense of its injustice, impropriety, or the like. They re- fer exclusively to matters of right and wrong, not to matters of truth and falsehood, excej)t so far as they are associated with or flow out of moral causes. We do not exj)Ostulate or remonstrate against ignorance or false opinions, though we might do so against persons for neglecting opportunities of fuller or exacter knowledge, and the results of this. " We must use expostulation kindly." — Shakespeare. " It is the proper business of a divine to state cases of conscience, and to remonstrate against any growing corruptions in practice and especially in principles." — Waterlund. Complaint. See Disease, Complaisant. See Civil and Affable. Complete. See Entire. Complete. See Finish. Completion. See Consumma- tion. Complexity. Complication. iNTRicAcr. Compounding, Complexity and Complication are both derived from the Latin con, together, and plicare, to fold. Intri- cacy is from triae, small entangle- ments, as the feathers on the legs of birds. Comijlexity is the efi'ect pro- duced by complication, whether on the bodily eye or the eye of the understandiug. Complication is a confused involution of things. Intri- cacy represents the difficulty of j&nd- ing a definite line of thought or movement on account of the com- plexity or complication of things. In a wood, in consequence of the com- plication of the foliage, the task is one of complexity, and it is an intri- cate matter, to find the right path. Complication is of tener used of words and circumstances, as " complicated sentences," " his affairs are in a com- plicated state ;" complexity, of ideas, as a complex proposition; intricate, of matters which have to be iavesti- gated, mastered, or understood, as " an intricate point of law." Com- plexity is a more abstract term than complication, which is more specific. So complexity is employed of the in- herent tendency of things to become complicated, as by Burke : " Men are every now and then put by corn- plexity of human aflairs into strange situa- tions." " A comjilication of diseases." — Macaulay. " Many who toil through the intricacy of complicated systems are insuperably embar- rassed with the least perplexity in common aflairs." — Eamhler. Compounding (Lat. componere) denotes the j)hysical amalgamation of homogeneous substances, and is not a moral term; except as com- pound has also the sense of the Latin componere, to allay (strife), to com- pound a difference (^componere litem). Compliment. See Flatteey. Compose. See Settle and FOKM. Composed. See Calm. Compound, adj. Complex. (See Complexity.) As compared with each other, these two adjectives differ in that while Complex denotes involution, Com- pound only denotes a more extei'nal kind of amalgamation or combination. A granmiatical form may be com- pound (the word compound is an instance of it), bitt it is not complex. This is reserved for metaphorical use, as in the subjoined employment of it by Locke. COMPOUND. ( 183 ) COMPRISE. "But tlie opinion of Buchnunn is more probable, that the town uuw i:allo(l Dundy is a foiiqiuuad word of Down and Tay." — Sijuts- lOOud. " As these simple ideas are observed to exist in several combinations united together, so the mind has a power to consider several of them united together as one idea, and that not only as they are united in exerual ob- jects, but as itself has joined them. Ideas thus made iip of several simple ones put to- gether I call complex, such as are beauty, gratitude, a man, an army, the universe." — Compound. Compose. These two words, formed from tlie same root (Lat. componere), serve to i-epresent, tlie first the physical, the second the m.etaphysical process. The words are often used inter- changeably, yet this distinction holds good. " Of what is this pudding com- posed ?" is a question which would carry the mind to the receipt for it, and the intention of the person who made it ; " Of what is it compounded .P" to the actual ingredients only. So an artist composes his subject, and com- pounds his colours. " In like manner, if by knowing that colours are nothing else but various mix- tures of light and of darkness in bodies, our discourse assures us that by several com- poundings of these extremes, reds, blues, yellows, greens, and all other intermediate colours may be generated." — Digby. COMPEEHEND. See CoMPEISE and Understand. Comprise. Contain. Compre- hend. Include. Embrace. In- volve. Imply. Comprise (Fr. compris, Lat. com- l^rehendere) is always used meta- physically, that is, expresses compre- hensiveness or inclusiveness as ap- preciated by the mind. It is a term commonly ai^plicable to the indi\d- dual objects included under an ab- stract or collective noun, that is to say, to comprise is to include by the metaphysical force of a term. For instance, we could not say, ' ' Six trees are comprised in that field," but we might say, " Those six trees comprise all the timber on my estate." If we meant to say that Walter Scott's works were part of the library of an acquaintance, we might say, " The library contains or comprises Scott's works;" but we should not mean quite the same thing. In the former case we simply state that in this par- ticular whole is contained something as a part. In the latter we predicate of the library an extensiveness, which in this case has proved adequate to include those particular works. The term comj^rise adds to the idea of inclusion that of adequate or com- mensurate including. " Whatever was by them decreed either in the declaration of Christian belief or refuta- tion of heresy, may all be comprised, as judi- cious Hooker well noteth, in four words, ' truly, perfectly, indivisibly, distinctly,' truly God, perfectly man, indivisibly one person, distinctly two natures." — Bishop Home. If we meant to enumerate aU that was involved in the term library, we might say a library comprises book- shelves as well as books, or, singly, that book is comj)rised in the list. Contain (Lat. continere) denotes what is within another thing as a simple matter of fact, and not of in- ference or impHcatiou, as the vessel contains oil, that man's writings con- tain many original ideas. There is, however, commonly a specific rela- tionship or community between the thing contained and that which con- tains it. This appears in the term contents, which is not the case with comprise or include, which may relate to things which in use and nature are entirely foreign among them- selves. Yet contain is generic, and may be taken as the universal term, of which the rest are modifications. " And when he (Cranmer) came to the last part of his task, he boldly owned his books, avowing the truths in them contained, and disclaimed the lioman doctrine." — Strype. Comprehend (Lat. comprehendere), like comprise, and unlike contain, can only be used metaphysically ; but it denotes the extent of an imposed term, not an inherent or spontaneous force. Comprehension is the result of purpose; while comprisal flows from the nature of the thing compri- COMPRISE. ( 184 ) CONCILIATE. sing. Rules compreliend particular instances, laws comprehend certain cases, a word compreliends several meanings. Tlie character of con- tain is physical, of comprise meta- physical, of comprehend geometrical. " The virtues required in the heroic poem, and, indeed, in all writings published, are comprehended all in this one word, discretion." — Huhbcs. Include (Lat. includere) is meta- physical, while the physical meaning is expressed by another form of the same word, inclose. It is to contain in the relation of the logical whole to the parts, that is, of the universal to the particular. " Our Master Christ showeth that in ful- filling two of these commandments be all works included." — Barnes. Embrace (Fr. bras, the arm) is a metaphorical term, meaning to in- close as if in the arms. It is a livelier term than include, and com- monly denotes a distant, indirect, or unexpected including. " Not that my song, in such a scanty space, So large a subject fully can embrace." Dryden. Involve and Imply are commonly used of one particular only. In- volve (Lat. in and volvere, to roll) denotes that which exercises such a force uj)on another thing as to draw it after itself of necessity. " Such a scheme involves the necessity of a large expenditure of money." Im- ply (Lat. iviplicare) relates only to the force of words or the virtue of ideas, as involve to the necessities of things. Imply is opposed to express. An implied promise is one fairly to be understood or inferi-ed from the words used, though not reducible to a distinct statement. An involved promise is one which is necessitated by what has been said or done. Gene- rally speaking, words imply, and cir- cumstances involve. If one thing involves another, it so contains it that the two must go together by an indissoluble connection. War in- volves the expenditure of blood and treasure. The premises of a syllo- gism involve the conclusion, which, on the other hand, is evolved from them. " We cannot demonstrate these things so as to show that the contrary necessarily mvolrcs a contradiction." — Tillotson. " Where a malicious act is proved, a mali- cious intention is implied."— Sherlock. Compel. See Bind. Compliant. See Obedient. Composed. See Calm. Compunction. See Kepentance. Compute. See Calculate. Cobirade. See Companion. Concavity. See Cavity. Conceal. See Hide. Concealment, See Seceecy. Concede. See Cede. Conceit, Self-. See Arro- gance. Conceive. See Apprehend. Conception. See Fancy and Idea. Concern. See Solicitude. Concern. See Affair, Affect, and Interest. Concert, n. See Concord. Concert. See Contrive. Conciliate. Eeconcile. To Conciliate (Lat. conciUo, from concilium, a union) is to gain the af- fections or goodwill of another for oneself. To Reconcile (from the same root) is to restore others to goodwill. Reconcile has also the l^eculiar sense of bringing a person into acquiescence with that which is distasteful. Reconcile is used only of persons, while conciliate may be applied to qualities, as to conciliate regard and esteem. To conciliate amounts, in some cases, to recon- ciling to oneself, for to conciliate is to gain over, and this may be one who was previously either indifferent or an enemy. " The rapacity of his fother's administra- tion had excited such universal discontent, that it was found expedient to conciliate the nation." — Hallam. " First be reconciled to tliy brother, and then come and ofl'er thy gift." — Bible. CONCISE. ( 185 ) CONCORD. Concise. Succinct. Condensed. Concise (Lat. concisus, cut oif short, from concidere) is iised o£ style in speaking or writing, and means expressing mucli in a few words. " To tell you the truth, I was once in- clined to be somewhat angry at the short- ness of your letters ; but I am now so well reconciled to your concise manner, that I condemn my own as downright loquacity, and shall make your epistles the models of mine." — Mehnoth, Cicero. Succinct (Lat. snccingere, sue- cinctus, to gird or tuck up) lias the same signification, but is api)lied more frequently to the subject matter, while concise belongs to the style; so we should say, a concise I style and a succinct narrative. " A strict and succimt style is that where j you can take away nothing without losse, and that losse to be manifest." — B. Jonson. Condensed (Lat. condensare, from densus, close) relates rather to the mode of treatment by which a matter is brought, and, as it were, compressed into a smaller space than it might have occupied. " The secret course pursued at Brussels and at Madrid may be condensed into the usual formula — dissimulation, procrastina- tion, and again dissimulation." — Motley. Conclude. See Finish. Conclusion. See Close and Infeeence. Conclusive. Final. Deci- sive. Ultimate. These terms agree in expressing that character of what is said or done which leaves no room for subsequent modification or procedure. Conclu- sive (Lat. concludere) is commonly used of that which terminates argu- ment or debate by its overwhelming or iiTcsistible force, as a conclusive proof, conclusive evidence. " But this objection, when thoroughly examined, will not be found by any means so pressing or conclusive as at first sight it seems." — Hohhes. Final (Lat. finis) to that which brings with it an intentional end. The term final is most commonly foimd associated with the end or purpose of intelligent beings, or as recognised by them, the final being generally that on which the mind dwells as the end. Hence, especially, words, decisions, resolves, and the like, are final, as shutting up further thought, speech, or action. A con- clusive answer leaves no room for question. A final answer is followed by a determined silence. " Neither with us in England hath there been till very lately auj final determination upon the right of authors at the common law." — Blackstone. Decisive (Lat. decidere) is that which has the power of promjjt and summary determination, as a decisive proof, a decisive victory. The de- cisive terminates action, as the con- clusive terminates argument. " A decisive, irrevocable doom." — Bate's Sermons. Ultimate (Lat. ultimus, last) de- notes that beyond which all attempts to go are stopped, as an ultimate con- cession is one which there is no probability of seeing extended ; ulti- mate truths, that is, truths which must be taken as axioms, being in- capable of further analysis. " Whence comes it (the mind) by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety ? whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge ? To this I answer in one word, from expe- rience ; on that all our knowledge is founded, and from that it ultimately derives itself." — Locke. Concomitant. See Accompani MENT. Concord. Harmony. Unison. Concert. Concord (from con, together, and cor, cordis, the heart) denotes the union of wills and affections. " Love quarrels oft in pleasing concord end." 3Iilton. Harmony (Gr. dpfiovla) is a con- tinuous concord or state of such agreement manifesting itself exter- nally. A u.nited family, by the con- cord which subsists among its mem- bers, lives a life of domestic harmony. CONCUR. ( iS6 ) CONFEDERATE. " In us both one soul, Hannony to behold in wedded pair, More grateful than harmonious sounds to the ear." Milton. Concert {con and severe, to gi'asp) applies also to designs and actions, wliicli is the carrying out of such designs ; " It was concerted to begin the siege in March." — Burnet. While Unison (Lat. unus, one, and sonus, sound) relates to such con- geniality as may exist in the less gi-ave matters of feeHng and taste. " A work which warms our passions, and hui-ries us on with the rapid vehemence of its style, may be read once or twice with pleasure ; but it is the more tranquil style which is most frequently in unison with our minds." — Knox, Essays. These are all secondaiy applications, -with the exception of the last, of which the primary meaning is union of design or action, and its musical meaning the secondary one. It came afterwards to be confounded with consort. So Spenser — " For all that pleasing is to living ear Was there consorted in one harmony." CoNCUK. See Agkee. CoEsrcEDE. See Agkee. CoNCURKENCE. See Accede. Concussion. See Shock. CoNDE:\tN. See Blame. Condensed. See Concise. Condescending. See Affable. Condition. See Cikoumstance, State, and Stipulation. Condolence. See Mekcy. Conduce. Contribute. Tend. Of these, Tend (Lat. tendere) is used of anything the natiu-e of which is such as to be likely to bi-ing about something else by a junction with that thing. Hence it is used of a single cause, as idleness tends to poverty. It denotes a relation between cause and effect, not invariable, but variable and i^robable, or such as jjartially, if not completely, effects a certain end. " The laws of our religion tend to the uni- versal happiness of mankind." — Tillotson. Conduce (Lat. comlucere) expresses more distinctly than tend the sepa- rate existence of cause and effect. We say a thing is apt to tend to something else, but we do not say, apt to conduce. It either does con- duce or not. " All agree that Moses' main end was the abolition of idolatry and preservation of the unity. The institution of the Sabbath is shown bv Spenser and others to be, of all the ceremonials, the very rite most conducive to this end." — Warhurion. The term conduce is employed of that which leads to a favourable or de- sirable end, not to the contraiy. We speak of things as conducive to happiness, not to misery. CONTEIBTJTE (Lat. contrihuere) de- notes partial causation, which is shared with other things of hke ten- dency, while one thing alone may conduce to bring about a result. " Quoth she, I grant it is in vain For one that's basted to feel pain ; Because the pangs his bones endm-e Contribute nothing to the cure." Hudibras. Conduct. See Behaviour. Conduct. See Lead and Di- rect. Contedekacy. See Alliance. Confederate. Ally. Confederate {con and fcedus, a treaty) is used of individuals in a bad sense. " He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. And all are slaves besides. There's not a chain That hellish foes confederate for his harm Can wind around him, but he casts it otf With as much ease as Samson his green withes." Coicjjer. As an adjective a confederate state or power differs from an Ally (Fr. allier, Lat. aUigare, to bind), in that confederation may be permanent, while alliance is temporary. We speak of the " German Confedera- tion," and of the alliance between the English and French in the Crimean CONFER. ( 187 ) CONFOUND. war. An ally is not iised of indi- viduals except in a jocose way, or on a great scale, as one monarch may be an ally of another. "By this extraordinary and unexpected success of his aUij (Gustavus), Cliarles failed of the purpose for which he framed the alliance. " — Hume. Confer. See Give. CoNEEEENCE. 8ee Conversa- tion. Confess. See Acknowledge. Confide. See Commit. Confidence. See Hope. Confine. See Boedee and Cie- CTJMSCRIBE. Confined. See Narrow, Confinement. See Captivity. Confirm. Corroborate. The idea of giving additional strength is common to both these terms, and that in other than the physical sense, but they differ in their mode of application. Confirm (Lat. con and Jinnus, strong) is used both of the minds of persons and of the subjects ; corroborate, only of the subjects themselves. My statement has been confirmed, or I am confirmed in my belief. Facts, opinions, state- ments are Cokeoboeated (Lat. con and rohtis strength). Generally speak- ing, to confirm is to make more sure, to corroborate is to make more strong. When a statement is doubtful, it may be confirmed; when testimony is weak, it may be corroborated. I am con- firmed in what is internal or relative to myself, as an opinion, a conviction, a resolution, or even a suspicion. That is corroborated which I put forth before others, and advance as liable to doubt or gainsaying. Conflagration. See Fire. Conflict. Contest. Conflict (Lat. confligere, conflictus) is used of any two opposing forces in sustained collision, as the " conflict of the elements," " conflicting hosts." Contest {contestari) is an open and premeditated struggle on the part of man for some proposed prize or vic- tory. It may be intellectual, while a conflict is physical, except when it is used in a metaphorical sense, as a conflict of opposite emotions or opinions. A contest is a strife for a common object. A conflict is a violent meeting of two forces or in- dividuals. A contest may be, and often has been, decided by a conflict. In the Wars of the Roses the houses of York and Lancaster were the contend- ing parties, and the battles in which they engaged were conflicts. A man may be defeated in a contest, but he may perish in a conflict. "And whenever the patrons of liberty shall give this advantage to the enemies of it, as much of that popularity which the first lose the others will gain, and so, the contest becoming more equal, force alone must de- cide." — Warburton. " The starry cope Of heaven, perhaps, or all the elements At least had gone to rack, disturbed and torn With violence of this coiiflict." Milton. Conform. See Accede and Comply. Conformation. See Form. Confound. See Abash and Baffle. Confound. Mix. Confuse. Blend. Mingle. These two, Confound and Con- fuse, may be regarded as modes of the third to mix. To Mix (Lat. mis- cere) is to produce or exhibit an entire interpenetration of many parts or particles, whether homogeneous or not. In the mixture the parts may absolutely lose their individuality, as in liquid substances, or uot abso- Ivitely, as in mixing difterent kinds of seeds. The term mix is hardly em- ployed in any other than a purely physical sense. Mingle is a varia- tion of mix, and denotes that kind of mixture in which the individuals or parts retain_^ their individuality, or are still recognisa)>le, as when per- sons mingle in the dance or the crowd. Blend (Germ, blendan, to blind, or dazzle) is to mix imper- CONFRONT. ( i88 ) CONFUSION fectly yet barmoniously, so tliat tlie individuality, as in colours, is dis- cernible, but under a modified form. But, except in the case of colours and sounds and flavours, blend is used of abstract quaKties and ideas. Con- found {confimdere, confusus) and con- fuse are derived from different parts of the same Latin verb, but used the former of more things than one, the latter of one thing. They apply to the mind and ideas as well as to oId- jects of vision. A person confuses an account when he gives inverted, vague, or contradictory relations, so making it obscure. He confounds one ac- count or circumstance with another when he mixes into one details be- longing to_ both. When we confuse we throw into indistinctness; when we confound we falsely identify. In the former we wrongly put one or more things among others; in the latter we stibstitute them wrongly for others. Things may mis or be mixed in almost any proportion ; but things mingled with others are com- paratively few, or a minority. "Our critic confounds the nature and order of things." — Wai-burtoii. " But as he wrote at second-hand and from hearsay only of things which he himself had not seen, he is observed to have jumbled his facts together more confusedly, and to de- scribe them more inaccurately, than the rest, who related them from their own know- ledge." — Middleton. The following from Bishop Horsley may show that the term mix is not happily employed but of material compounds : — " Who is he that shall determine in what proportions the attributes of justice and mercy, forbearance and severity, ought to be mixed up in the character of the Supreme Governor of the universe ?" "Curiosity SfencZs itself more or less with all our passions." — Burke. " Fire mingled with the hail." — Bible. Confront. Face. To Confront {con, together, and frons, the forehead or face) is usually personal, implying two persons at least, as to confront one witness with another, or he was confronted by several witnesses, or the witnesses confronted one another. To Face (Lat. fades) denotes one person or one party which is ready to encoiinter some specific difficulty, danger, or object of fear, not necessarily per- sonal, as to face the enemy or the storm. _ Confront is also a more energetic and positive term than face. He who faces danger is ready to meet its consequences. He who confronts it has shown signs of opjoosition, and, in some sense, loegun the attack. " We four, indeed, cott/;-o«icJ here with four In Eussian habit." Shakespeare. It may be observed that confront has a sense which does not belong to face, namely, to bring face to face. " A lie faces God and shrinks from men." — Baco7i. Confuse. See Abash and Con- found. Confused. See Indistinct. Confusion. Disorder. Dis- turbance. Commotion. Confusion (Lat. confumlere, con- fusus) _ denotes that abnormal state in which things which ought to be separate or distinct are tumultuoiisly, in-egularly, or obscurely mixed to- gether. It can only apply, therefore, to matters in which the individuals, parts, or particles ought to be dis- tinctly separate, as the confusion of voices in a mob, a man's affairs are in confusion, confusion of thought, confusion of papers. Disorder (Fr. cUsordre) is the violation of order or arrangement, and so takes place in matters where position, location, or adjustment are needed, as in the tu- multuous march of armies, a dis- orderly crowd, a disordered dress. Confusion necessarily involves dis- order; but there may be disorder without confusion. Confusion is of the whole. Disorder may be of the whole or only some of the parts. Confusion stands to distinctness as disorder to arrangement. So a thing may be disordered in the sense of disarranged, without any such wrong intermixture of separate parts as belongs to confusion. The haii- of CONFUTE. ( 189 ) CONFUTE. tlie head may be in disorder, not in confusion. An army in disorder lias lost its ranks. Wlien confusion reigns in it the soldiers cannot hear the voice of their commanders, which, if heard and obeyed, might put an end to the disorder. Disorder is more external than confusion, so that oftentimes the former is the result and manifestation of the latter. In the councils of a government con- fusion may reign for some time be- fore puljlic disorder (which must sooner or later be the case) mani- fests itself as the consequence. The term confusion is utterly opposed to every principle, moral, mental, or artistic. "We never could bring the term into contact with anything otherwise than faulty. On the other hand, disorder may be regulated and designed for the purpose of effect. " If we luibroke Sustain their onset, little skilled in war, To wheel, to rally, and renew the charge, Confusion, havoc, and dismay will seize The astonished rout." Smollett. " When you behold a man's affairs through negligence and misconduct involved in dis- order, you naturally conclude that his ruin approaches." — Blair. " We have seen that inordinate passions are the great disturbers of life." — Ibid. Disturbance {turba, a crowd) is the violation of peace or quiet, phy- sical or otherwise ; as the sea is often disturbed violently, but can never be thrown into confusion or disorder, having no distinctness or sequence of parts. Disturbance is of those things which, presumably or desirably, are in tranquillity. Com- motion (Lat. commoveve, comviotus) differs from disturbance in denoting the action of a multitude of indi- viduals or parts ; while distvirbauce may be of one, as. " My occupation was disturbed," " By a violent com- motion of the elements the stillness of the night was disturbed." Com- motion adds the influence of excite- ment to the force of disturbance. Confute. Eefute. Oppugn. Impugn. Dispkove. To Confute (Lat. confutari) ap- plies both to the arguer and the argument. It is to overwhelm by de- cisive argument. Refute is to rejyel by the same kind of argument, and so applies to what is personally al- leged against one, as chai-ges, ca- lumnies, and the like, to which con- fute is not applied in the same sense. When a thing is confuted, it is re- duced to an absurdity, neutralised, and, as it were, annihilated. When it is refuted, it remains where it was, but its application is invalidated. Confutation deprives of force and of truth. Refutation does not weaken or destroy, but repels effectually. Opinions, statements, arguments, pa- radoxes, fallacies are confuted by being, as it were, melted down to nothing. Charges, accusations, in- sinuations, slander are refuted by proving their relative untruth. Dis- prove is now never used of per- sons, but only of statements, sup- positions, and the like. An argu- ment is confuted by showing its fallacy. Calumny is refuted by proving the innocence of the calum- niated person. A fact or the assertion of it is disproved by showing it to be untrue. Oppugn and Impugn, from oppiignare and mipugnare, both denote a hostile attitude in argument. They both fall short of the rest, in that they denote only reasoning, not con- clusive reasoning. To oppugn is to exercise hostile reasoning against a person or his statements ; while im- pugn is rather to call in question the truth of what he states. So we might perhaps better say, " He was publicly oppugned in the senate," and, " The truth of his statements was im- pugned." To oppugn is a term of stronger force than impugn, and denotes a determined and total oppo- sition, while impugn is applicable to questions of detail and lesser mo- ment. " I have no desire to oppugn the statements you have just made, but pardon me if I impugn the ac- curacy of one observation in j)ar- ticular." " They only read the gazettes of their own writers, so that everything which is called an answer is with them a confutation." — Dryden. " Some of his blunders seem i-ather to de- serve a flogging than arty'wia^ibw." — Macaulay. CONGRATULATE. ( 190 ) CONQUER. "They said the manner of their impeach- ment they couhl not but conceive did oppugn the rights of Parliament." — Clarendon. " Unless you grant some fundamental and eternal truths, I see not how it is possible for us to confute divers theological eri-ors of Pagans and other infidels, whose rejection of the authority of the Scriptures does not allow us without indisci'etion to impugn them with arguments from them." — Boyle. "That false supposition I advanced in order to disprove it." — Atterhury. CoNaRATHLATE. FELICITATE. Felicitate (Lat. felix) had, of old, the sense of to 'iiuike liappy, as well as to consider or call liappy. The former force it has since lost. It differs from Congratulate {con- gratulari) mainly in the degree of force and sincerity. Congratulate is, therefore, rapidly taking the place of felicitate, inasmuch as we natu- rally tend to give ourselves credit for genuineness of motive. Felicitate is a word of formal politeness. Con- gratulate implies a sharing of the joy produced by another's good fortune. Good manners felicitate, a good heart or true friendship congratulates. We do not demand the same warmth in felicitations. On the other hand, a cold congratulation must be forced. "That fawning villain's forced congratu- lations." — Johnson. As felicitations are manifestations of politeness, they may be offered where congratulations might seem to pre- sume an equality of condition. " I sincerely rejoiced to hear of your ad- vancement to the purple ; yet on these occa- sions I did not think myself warranted to break in upon you either with my acknow- ledgments or felicitations." — Anecdotes of Bishop Watson. Conjecture. See Guess. Conjuncture. See Crisis. Connect. Combine. Attach. Unite. Connect (Lat. connedere) com- monly implies a third thing as a medium whereby two others are joined ; as two houses are connected by a covered way, leading from one to the other, so we speak of things as closely or distantly, dii'ectly or indirectly connected. In this respect it differs from Unite (Lat. unus, unire, unitus), where, if the individu- ality of the united objects is not, as it sometimes is, lost, there is at least a disregard of the connecting medium. Attach (Fr. attacker), except when used of affection, commonly implies the fastening of the smaller, lighter, more movable, or less important, to the fixed and immovable, or at least the heavier, less movable, and more important. So the seal is attached to the watch, not the watch to the seal. Combine (Lat. con and binus, two, two each) is not used in a physical sense. It denotes the union or com- prehension of two or more things in some common principle, or under some common object or purpose, as to combine exercise with recreation in a country walk. " A right opinion is that which connects distant truths by the shortest train of inter- mediate propositions." — Johnson. " Few painters have obliged us with finer scenes, or have possessed the art of comljin- ing woods, lakes, and rocks into more agree- able pictures than G. Poussin." — Hurd on Horace. "As our nature is at present constituted, attached by so many strong connections to the world of sense, and enjoying a comnumi- cation so feeble and distant with the world of spirits, we need fear no danger from cultiva- ting intercourse with the latter as much as possible." — Blair. "This was the cause of men's uniting ihera- selves at the first in politic societies, which societies could not be without government, nor government without a distinct kind of law from that which hath been already de- clared." — Hooker. Con^tection. See Intercourse. Conquer. Subdue. Vanquish. 0\TSRCOME. Surmount. Subju- CoNQUER (Fr. conquerir, to acquire by power) is applied to persons, countries, and any terms expressive of difficulty or opposition, or to sub- jects in which such difficulty or oppo- sition is implied ; as David conquered Goliath, William I. conquered Eng- CONQUER. ( 191 ) CONSCIENTIOUS. land, to conquer resistance, to con- quer evil passions. It denotes the placing under one's own power or control after a series of eiForts or systematic resistance. Subdue (Lat. suhducere) is niucli the same, but points not so mucli to tlie struggles of the victor as to the state of the conquered in a final and surer reduc- tion. It applies also to the inner spirit. To conquer is sometimes em- ployed in the simple sense of getting the better of, as to conquer one's own prejudices or passions, aversion, and the like. " It has been observed of Greece, that when it was subdued by the Romans, itself mh- dued its conquerors, softened their savage temper, and refined their manners ; and afterwards, of the Romans themselves, that wherever they conquered they in some degree civilized the world." — Law, Tlicory of Heliijion. Vanquish (Fr. vaincre, Lat. vincere, to conquer) is used of combats com- monly with n personal enemy. "Shall a stripling David gloriously tri- umph over giants, while I basely am va7i- quishcd by dwarfs ?" — Barrow. Subjugate (Lat. suh and jiiguni) is to bring imder the yoke, that is, to conquer and retain under continued pressure. Poland is subjugated by Russia, while its spirit remains un- subdued. Overcome and Surmount (Fr. surmonter) are employed of con- tinued resistance from impersonal adversaries, though overcome is used of personal as well. Overcome is applied, not only directly to diifi- culties and obstacles, but to things which have the nature of difficulties and obstacles, as scruples, prejudices ; surmount, directly to the difficulties and obstacles themselves. It is pos- sible to overcome by stratagem as by force. " To work in close design by fraud or guile What force effected not ; that he no less At length from us may find, who orcr- coines By force hath ovei^coyne but half his foe." Milton. "Finding difficulties which his reason can- not surmount, he becomes contemptuous and sceptical." — Gilpin's Sermons. Conqueror. Victor. Every Conqueror is a Victor (Lat. victor, vincere, to conquer), but every victor is not a conqueror, inas- much as the term victor is employed of other struggles than those of war or personal antagonism, as, for in- stance, of competition. The victors in the Olympic games were not con- querors, for they did not make them- selves masters of the persons or ter- ritories of men. An old form of con- queror was conquereur, which meant much the same as the present term annexer, as appears from the follow- ing from Blackstone : — " What we call purchase, perqulsitio, the feudists called conquest, conquestus or con- quisitio ; both denoting any means of acquir- ing an estate out of the common course of inheritance ; and this is still the proper phrase in the law of Scotland, as it was among the Norman jurists, who styled the first pur- chaser (that is, he who brought the estate into the family who at present owns it) the conqueror or conquereur, which seems to be all that was meant by the appellation which was given to William the Norman." — Black- stone. It may be well to warn the reader, in case Blackstone should have meant to derive purchase from perqulsitio — which seems only too probable — that there is no etymological connection between these words, purchase being the French poiirchasser, to chase or seek after, afterwards, specifically to procure by money. In addition to the difference observed above, it may be remarked, that a victor vanquishes in a single strife or contest, a con- queror gains a complete success and subdues his opponent. Alexander was victor at Arljela, and the con- queror of Asia and Darius. "In love the victors from the vanquished fly; They fly that wound, and they pursue that die." Waller. Consanguinity. Conscientious. See Affinity. Scrupulous. Scrupulous (Lat. scrupnlns, a grit, or little stone, which gives pain in walking, or makes the path sharp) is in one way more comprehensive CONSCIOUS. ( 192 ) CONSEQUENTLY. than Conscientious (Lat. conscire iibi, to be conscious, conscientia, con- science), and in another less so. If a person were found scrui)ulous in all things, it might then be said, that con- scientiousness is one form or aspect of scrupulousness; but the fact is, that scrupulousness is often of a diiFerent character from conscienti- ousness. It leads men sometimes to be exact in one direction, and to attend to minute matters, omitting weightier, as the Pharisees, according to the representations of the Gospel, must have been exceedingly scrupu- lous, and unconscientious also. The sciaipulous man may be nice from other motives than conscience, as, for instance, from politeness. "Let us consider the world therefore as God's great family, and ourselves as servants in that family, as acting immediately, what- ever our situations are, under our great Master, and of discharging the several offices which He hath assigned with a conscientious regard to our duty." — Gilpin. " The scrupulousness of the parents or friends of the deceased persons deprives us oftentimes of the opportunities of anato- mizing the bodies of men." — Boyle. Conscious. See Awaee. Consciousness. See Feeling. Consecrate. Dedicate. De- vote. Hallow. Of these, the three former relate to a specific object or pui-pose ; the last is general or abstract. To Hallow is to regard as holy, or to keep as holy ; as the name of God is hallowed, and certain days are hallowed. An object of sacred recollection in the mind is hallowed, as " hallowed me- mories" of the dead. Of old, the term hallow was used in the sense of the modem consecrate by formal rite. " To dedicate and haloice the monastery of Seynt Denys." — Fabyan. It denotes now the consecration by the mind of the individual. " Hallowed be Thy name." — LorcVs Prayer. To Consecrate (Lat. con and sacer, holy) is to hallow in a formal manner and with a pui-pose, being sometimes followed by the preposition to. It commonly denotes a religious act and ceremony, but, by analogy, is extended to the force of circum- stances, as, " The spot is consecrated to me by the memoiy of a deceased friend," or to reverential appropria- tion. " Think with yourselves whether it is not really a great mercy and kindness to all of us, that one day in the week is by a public law consecrated to a holy rest." — Sharp. Dedicate (Lat. dedicare) is to offer for specific acceptance, or, in a specific manner, for a certain use or to a certain person. It is a less sacred ' term than consecrate, as to dedicate a book to an illustrious person, to dedicate one's life to literature. " The feast of the dedication of churches was to be held every year on the first Sunday in October ; but the feast of the patron of the Church was to be no more observed." — Burnet. To Devote (Lat. devovere) is ear- nestly or exclusively to give for a certain use or purpose, and-so implies a continuous dedication. It implies also a final surrender away fi'om oneself. This sense sometimes rises prominently to the siu-face, so that we say, to devote to destruction, or the flames. "Gilbert West settled himself in a very pleasant house at Wickham, in Kent, where he devoted himself to piety." — Johnson. In dedicating, the uppermost idea is that of the person to whose honour or iise the thing is dedicated ; in de- voting, the surrender of the thing or person devoted. Consent. See Accede. Consequence. See Eesult, Im- portance, and Interence. Consequently. Accordingly. Therefore. Wherefore. Then. Hence. Thence. Since. Be- cause. As. So. These words all mark the drawing of a conclusion from something which has been said as premises. They are called in grammar illative par- ticles, as marking an inference, which they do in diflFerent ways. There- CONSEQUENTLY. ( 193 ) CONSISTENT. FOKE and Wherefore, equivalent to for that, and for wbicli, canse, are nearly alike ; their difference flows simply from their grammatical for- mation. Therefore points farther back than wherefore, which, being relative, tends to mean relative to what has just been said, rather than to anything more remote. We might say, " I find the proposal attended by this difficulty, and that and the other. I cannot therefore accede to it." Again, " I feared his intentions, wherefore I refused to accompany him." Then is a less emphatic word for therefore, and As or So, a less emphatic word for Because, and express the relation of cause and effect in a less marked manner. Therefore and because are more em- phatically expressions of reasoning, and would, of necessity, occur in syllogisms and mathematical proposi- tions ; as and the^i are more colloquial. Hence and Thence resemble then, the one indicating an antecedent reason more remotely expressed, the other one more remote. Therefore and Accordingly differ, in that" the former is applicable both to inference and proof, or, in other words, both to physical causation and to the con- clusions of argument. So we might say, " It rained last night, therefore the ground is wet ;" or " The ground is wet, therefore it rained last night." Accordingly could not well be used in this latter way. Accordingly is often used to express a congruity of action or proceeding, while hence and thence belong to the rigorous neces- sities of nature and logic ; as, " I found a letter at home urging me to write at once to Paris. I wrote accord- ingly." Consequently expresses a definite conclusion, but is seldom used of logical inferences. It rather relates to practical proceedings or decisions ; as, " My pocket has been picked, consequently I have no money." Because (by cause) had originally a stricter reference to physical causation. It now repre- sents the correlative of the question why ; and in the senses of physical seqiience, logical sequence, and final causation or purpose. For instance, " Why are the shadows of the after- noon longer than those of mid-day ?" " Why is this line equal to that ?" " Why did you leave the house ?" Since is less formal than because, and in its grammatical position at the beginning of the sentence, antici- pates the statement of the premise or premises of the argument. CoNSiDEE. See Meditate. Considerate. See Civil and Thoughtful. Consign. See Commit. Consistent. Compatible. Con- sonant. Accordant. Consistent (Lat. consistere) de- notes one or more of the following points : — 1, harmony, internal, of the several parts of a thing, which ac- cordingly cohere weU ; as a consistent course of conduct : 2, harmony of a thing with another thing; as tran- quillity is consistent with happiness : and, 3, harmony with itseK at diffei'- ent times; as a consistent adherence to principles. *' Show me one that has it in his powei' To act consistent with himself one hour." I'opc. Compatible (Lat. con and patior to suffer) denotes an extraneous rela- tion of one thing to another, or of two to each other. That thing is compatible with another which may exist under similar conditions, and, therefore, may share with it proba- bility as a matter of supposition. " Our poets have joined together such quahties as are by nature the most coinpa- t ible.' ' — Broome. Consonant (consonare) denotes a harmony of general character, in- dependent of any minute analysis or exact comparison. It is accordingly used not of things sharply defined, but of the drift of statements, senti- ments, expressions, general repre- sentations, states of feeling, views, and the like ; as, " Such an expression is consonant with all that I have heard of his character and beha- viour." " They all plead Scripture for what they say, and each one pretends that his opinion .... is consonant to the words there used." — Beveridge. CONSOLE. ( 194 ) CONSTANCY. Accordant {ad and cor, cordis, the lieart) is commonly used of con- sistency in specific matters of state- ment, evidence, or testimony ; as, " His evideace entirely accords with that of the other witness." "The difference of good and evil in actions is not founded on arbitrary opinions or insti- tutions, but in the nature of things and the nature of man. It accords with the univer- sal sense of the human mind." — Blair. Console, See Cheer. Consonant. See Consistent. Conspicuous. See Apparent. Conspiracy. See Cabal. Constancy. Steadiness. Firm- ness. Fidelity. Stability. Permanence. Steadfastness. Constancy (Lat. constare) is that character which is opposed to change- ahleness. It is not employed of mere immobility, but of moving or acting bodies on natures which are con- trolled by some fixed principle amid such movements. Mechanical regu- larity and uniformity of will both come under the idea of constancy. We do not speak of the constancy of the rock or the mountain, but of the movements of the heavenly bodies, and the affections of men. It is op- posed to variableness in the one ease, and to fickleness in the other. "Whilst thou livest, dear Kate, take a fellow of plain, uncoined constancy ; for he perforce must do thee right." — Shakespeare. Steadiness (A. S. stede, a place or station), unlike constancy, admits the idea of fixedness of station as well as fixedness of motion. In the one case it is opposed to tottei'ing, in the other to deviating; as, "to stand steady," " the ship kef)t a steady course," " to keep steadily to work or business," " a man of steady charac- ter." Steadiness, unlike constancy, is not related to recurrence, but to continuity. The constant may suffer occasional eclipse ; the steady is con- tinuously seen or felt. " Steadiness is a point of prudence as well as of courage." — L' Estramja. Firmness (Lat. finmis) is a more active form of steadiness. The steady man resists temptations to | wander from the line of his duties and avocations, for his character is I opposed to that of levity, as con- I stancy is opposed to fickleness; but the firm man can be steady under opposition, and in cases where sti'ength of will is specifically needed. Fu'mness is the resolute abiding by principles of action. Without firm- ness a man has no character. " With- out constancy," says Addison, " there is neither love, friendship, nor virtue in the world." Fidelity (Lat. fidelis, fides, faithful) is the steadfastness to persons, causes, or principles which flows either fi'om a sense of honour or personal attachment, or both. " The best security for the fidelity of men is to make interest coincide with duty." — Hamilton. Stability (Lat. stabilis, from stnre, to stand) is that local or moral fixed- ness which resists efforts to shake or move the object. Stability prevents variableness, and resists temptations to levity or curiosity consequent upon the variety of objects or influences. " The king-becoming graces, As justice, verity, temperance, stablencss. Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness, Devotion, courage, patience, fortitude, I have no relish for them." Shakespeare. Permanence {permanere, to en- dure) is not a moral quality at all. It denotes no more than the quality of exemption from removal or altera- tion, in spite of external influences of every kind. Operations, as well as states, which endure, may be called permanent, as " the permanent laws of nature." It is opposed to alterable and transient. Steadfastness, an- other form of steadiness, is applied particularly to the human will, and is opposed to the abandonment of or deviation from the objects and pur- poses of life, as " to adhere stead- fastly to a resolution." " But when strong passion or weak fleshli- ness Would from the right way seek to draw him wide, He would, through temperance and stead- fiistncss, Teach him the weak to strengthen, and the strong suppress." Spetiser, CONSTANT. ( 195 ) CONSUMMATION Constant. See Constancy. Consternation. See Alarm. Constitute. Appoint. _ The exercise of avithority in rela- tion to the tenure of office, or the bestowal of a certain formal charac- ter, is common to these terms ; but Appoint _ is a less forcible term. Appoint is commonly the act of an individual, Constitute involves the convergence of several authori- ties and powers. Appoint has an external, constitute a virtual or in- herent force. Almost all bishops in Roman Catholic countries are ap- pointed by the Pope, who is consti- tuted the supreme earthly head of that Church. " That which constitutes the nature of man, and doth formally difference and dis- tinguish him from all other animals, is not so much the power of reason as the capacity of being religious." — Sharp. " God desires that in His Church, know- ledge and piety, peace and charity and good order, should grow and flourish ; to which purposes He hath appointed teachers to in- struct, and governors to watch over His people." — Barrow. Constitute. See Create, Constitution. See Frame and Temperament. Constrain. See Bind. Construct. See Build. Construction. See Edifice. Consult. Deliberate. These terms denote the same pro- cess differently carried on. "We Consult (Lat. consulere, consultus) with others ; we Deliberate (Lat. deliherare, libra, a scale) within our own minds. " That the law hath been fined (defined) by grave and learned men, meaning pro- fessors of the law, is manifestly untrue; for all the laws of England have been made by the kings of England, consulting with the nobility and commons in Parliament, of which not one in twenty was a learned lawyer." — Hobbes. " I would not indeed refer a prince for maxims of equity and government to Puften- dorf and Grotius, the dull and unfeeling dcliherators of questions on which a good heart and understanding can intuitively de- cide." — Knox, Essays. Consume. Destroy. To Consume (Lat. consumere) is to destroy by absorption, and as a natural process, whether such ab- sorption be regular or violent. To consume is by no means always to waste, as, for instance, an army of such a number will consume, on an average, so much food. The same idea is kept up when we say the fire consumed the stubble. To De- stroy (Lat. destruere) is a process always of violence, and contradiction of the purpose of the thing de- stroyed, and, generally speaking, a reversion of natural processes, or an abnormal exhibition of them. The philosophical idea of destruction never amounts to annihilation, but the violent discerption of the forms and proportions under which bodies exist. " It is as if the dead could feel The icy worm around them steal, And shudder as the reptiles creep To revel ou their rotting sleep, Without the power to scare away The cold consumers of their clay." Byron. " Whatsoever is in the world is but vKi) irSis exovffa, matter so and so modified or qualified, all which modifications and quali- fications of matter are in their own nature destroyable, and the matter itself (as the basis of them is not necessarily determined to this or that accident) is the only ayevv-q- Tov Kal auwAedpov, the only necessary exist- ent."— Cudworth. Consummation. Completion. Completion (Lat. compJcre, to fill) is the filling up of a design or pur- pose. A work is completed when the plan of it is realized. Consumma- tion {smnma, a sum) is applied to matters which must reach a certain degree or extent to make them com- plete. In completion an outline is filled up ; in consummation a point is reached. Hence consummation may be the point at which many antece- dent things converge, and is so a plural result ; while complete is a single result ; as the consummation of O 2 CONSUMPTION. ( 196 ) CONTAMINATE. all Gvcc hopes, desires, and efforts. Completion is more external, con- summation more internal. It is the completion of the idea or definition. It is also nsed in the sense of a gather- ing up in one of many things ; as the event of to-day is the consummation of the hopes of many years. " It is not to be doubted but it was a con- stant practice of all that is praiseworthy which made her capable of beholding death, not as the dissolution, but as the consumma- tion of life." — Steele. "He makes it the completion of an ill character, to bear a malevolence to the best of men." — Pope. In this last example consummation might have been employed instead of completion, but the idea would have been diflferent. The completion of an ill character would have been that which gave, as it were, the finishing touch to it. The consummation of an ill character would have been that which, being once supposed or known, the character would be regarded as necessaril3' involving all requirements and so summing it up. Consumption. See Consume. Contact. See Touch. Contagion. Infection. Contagion (Lat. con and tangere, to touch) operates by mutual contact, Infection (Lat. inficere) by an in- fluence common to its subjects, or by other media than contact. This is adhered to in the moral use of the terms, as " the contagion of bad example," and " the infection of error." In the term infection the uppermost idea is the evil nature of the influence; in contagion, its com- municative and spreading character. We dread infection, and we shun contagion. " Their propensity to recount the wonder- ful exceeds all imagination. Neither their learning, judgment, nor integrity could secure them against the general contagion." — Warburton. "It is necessary for the polishing of man- ners to have breathed that air (of the court) ; but it is infectious even to the best morals to live always in it." — Dryden. Contagious. See Contagion. Contain. See Comprise. Contain. Hold. Although these words are respec- tively Latin and Saxon equivalents (Lat. continere, and Saxon healdan, to hold), they are diff"erently employed. Setting aside other meanings of hold, as to retain in the grasp, to possess, and the like, in speaking of mere capacity there are differences. To Hold is in this sense purely physical, as a vessel holds water, or a certain quantity of it ; but contain is used of abstract quantity, as that field contains (i. e., consists of) so many acres. Again, contain does not imply, as is implied by hold, the extreme limit of physical contents. When we say a coach holds six per- sons, we mean that it is capable of holding so many, and not more. If we said it contains six, we should mean that there happen to be six inside it. It might have contained three. That cask holds water, might mean that it is water-tight, or, at least, retains it. That cask contains water, could only mean water is in- side it, and nothing else. "Among artificial substances the ship (nmis, navis) is feminine, as being so emi- nently a receiver and container of various things, of men, arms, provisions, goods, &c." — Harris. " Death only this mysterious truth unfolds. The mighty soul how small a body holds." JDryden. Contaminate. Defile. Pol- lute. Taint. Corrupt. To Contaminate (Lat. contami- nare, probably connected wdth tango) is a stronger term than Taint (which comes from tingere, Fr. teindre, to dye), but not so strong as Defile (connected with foul, Fr. fattier, to press under the feet) and Pollute (Lat. polluere, poUutiis). They all indicate a partial, while Corrupt (Lat. con-umpere, corruptiis) marks a deeper and more permanent spoiling. Some of these synonyms tend more strongly than others to a purely moral application. To contaminate is to soil by defiling contact. Con- CONTAMINATE. ( 197 ) CONTENTMENT. tamination, therefore, may be best employed in cases wliere sucli ex- ternal communication witli what is bad may be supposed; as improper conversation, impure literature, vicious society, or bad example. De- file denotes such contamination as passes permanently into the inner nature, so as to render unclean. Pollute, like defile, has a ceremonial and moral bearing. It denotes the defilement of the springs of thought and action, the befoulment of the character and very soul, as the sources of a stream are poisoned, and the waters which flow therefrom are infected thereby. Yet some aflfection of the senses is the means by which this is done. Taint denotes a par- tial colouring of evil, which has not yet spoilt the character or the judg- ment. It applies to what is false as well as to what is foul ; as his mind is tainted with prejudice, he is tainted with the opinions of such and such a school. It is a milder form of conta- minate. Corrupt is an analogous term, conveying the idea of an eifect upon the mind similar to that of the breaking up of organized bodies. It is of very general application, and denotes the extreme of vmsoundness, as a corrupt taste, a corrupt life, a corrupt judge. In all the other synonyms the character or principles are regarded as spoilt by external communication. Corrupt regards the case at the point when the evil has taken root in the system. Persons themselves are said to be contami- nated, defiled, and polluted. Their purity tainted, their morals, principles, honesty, and integrity to be cor- rupted. The hands may be defiled, but the mind only is polluted. "Even when the nobility, which repre- sented the more permanent landed interest, united themselves by marriage, which was sometimes the case, with the other descrip- tion, the wealth which saved the family from ruin was supposed to contaminate and degrade it." — Burke. " Poltroons that fling dirt Do but defile, and cannot hurt." Mudibras. " And can any then behold or act these gross abominations with delight, the very relation of which is sudicient to pollute the ears that hear them, the common air that receives them, yea, the breath that utters them, and yet be innocent, be untainted by them ?" — Prynne. '' That epidemical taint wherewith King James infected the minds of men continued upon us." — Botinijbroke. "He (Cato the Elder) procured in the senate that Carneades, the Academic, and Diogenes, the Stoic, ambassadors from Athens, should immediately be dismissed, that they might not corrupt the youth." — Bentlej. Contemn. See Despise and Scorn. Contemplate. See Behold and Meditate. Contemptible. See Despic- able, Contemptuous. See Disdain- FUL. Contend. See Strive and De- bate. Contention. See Strife. Contentment. Satisfaction. Contentment (Fr. content) is less strong than Satisfaction ^Lat. satis, enough, /acere, to make). Satis- faction is a full measure coming from without. Contentment is from within, implying such a measure as we are -willing to regard as full. But contentment, from this internal cha- racter, tends to become a habit, which satisfaction, relating to things external, does not become. Where one man is not satisfied, another under the same circumstances is con- tented. It deserves to be remarked that in matters which are independ- ent of our own efforts and actions, contentment is higher than satisfac- tion, as implying a better moral state. In matters which depend upon our own efforts and actions, it is better to endeavour to satisfy oui-- selves, and not be contented with a little. Both contentment and satis- faction denote tranquillity of mind in regard to the object of one's de- sires. Contentment is more in the heart, satisfaction in the passions. The fii-st is a feeling which alwaya. CONTEST. ( 198 ) CONTINUATION. renders the mind quiet ; tlie latter is an issue wliicla sometimes throws it into trouble, although it is no longer disquieted as to the object of its de- sire. A restless or timid man is never content ; an avaricious or ambi- tious man is never satisfied. One is content when one wishes for nothing more, though one is not always satis- fied when one has procured what one wished. Satisfaction has in it an element of uncertainty. It is no surety for its own continuance. The fullest satisfaction is not necessarily accompanied by a proportionate con- tentment. " Contentment expresses the acquiescence of the mind in the portion of good which we possess." — Cog an. " The word satisfaction is frequently em- ployed to express the full accomplishment of some particular desire, which always com- municates a temporary pleasure, whatever may be the nature of that desire." — Ibid. Contest. See Conflict. Contiguous. Adjacent. Ad- joining. What is CONTIGIJOTJS (Lat. conti- guus, from con and tangere, to touch) lies wdth some extent of one side or the whole of it touching. What is Adjoining (Fr. adjoindre, Lat. ad sund jimg ere, to join) need touch only at a single point. What is Adjacent (Lat. ad and jacere, to lie) may be near without touching at all. It is remarkable that these words adhere to the physical or primary, and have not lent themselves to a secondary or moral meaning, though they may be used analogously, as in the fol- lowing: "To me there appear to be only three principles of connection among ideas, namely, resemblance, configuit;/ in time or place, and cause or effect." — Hume. " Now, touching that proportion of ground that the Christians have on the habitable earth, I find that all Europe, with her adja- cent isles, is peopled with Christians, except that ruthful country of Laplaud, where idolaters yet inhabit." — Howell, Letters. " Every man's land is, in the eye of the law, enclosed and set apart from his neighbour's ; and that either by a visible and iiiafcn-ial fence, as one field is divided from another by a hedge, or by an ideal invisible boundary, existing only in the contemplation of law, as when one man's land adjoins to another's in the same field." — Blackstone. Continence. See Chastity. Contingency. See Accident and Chance. Contingent. See Casual. Continual. Continuous. Pee- petual. Incessant. What is Continual admits of no interruption in time, though it admits of inteiwals, as continual showers throiagh the month. What is Continuous admits of no in- teiTuption in space, or what is ana- logously conceived as having extent, as continuous employment. What is Perpetual (Lat. per2ietims) admits of no termination, being in its very nature lasting. Incessant (Lat. in, not, and cessare, to cease) denotes what does not cease as a matter of fact. The nouns continuance and continuity follow the same distinc- tion. " After this He sends prophets in a con- tinual succession for several ages, who do more clearly discover God's will to them," — Sharp. " Continuatives, on the contrary, by a more intimate connection, consolidate sen- tences into one continuous whole." — Harris. " Amusements and diversions succeed in a perpetual round." — Blair. "The frosty north wind blows a thick cold sleet. That dazzles eyes, flakes after flakes in- cessantly descending." C/iapman, Homer. Continuation. Continuance. Duration. Continuation is an artificial or contrived continuance, as the con- tinuation of a history to a particular period. Continuance and Dura- tion (Lat. durare, to last) are both employed of time; but continuance is active, duration is passive, and not inherent in the thing itself, but refers simply to the accident of time. Con- tinuance is inherent extension, of which duration is the external mea- sure. CONTINUE. ( 199 ) CONTRIVE. " The great wisdom of the Divine Creator appears in that there is pleasure annexed to those actions that are necessary for the sup- port and preservation of the individuuin, and the continuation and propagation of the species ; and not only so, but pain to the neglect or forbearance of them." — Bay. " But, alas, the honeymoon of a new ministry is always of short continuance in England." — Hoadly. "That we have our notion of succession and duration from this original, namely, from the reflection on the train of ideas, which we find to appear one after another in our own minds, seems plain to me, in that we have no perception of duration but by considering the train of ideas that take their turns in our understandings." — Locke. Continue. See CoNTmuAL, Continuation, Last, and Perse- Continuity. See Continual. Contract, See Agreement. See Abridge and Contract, v. Shrink. Contracted. See Narrow. Contradict. Deny. Contradict (Lat. contradicere, con- tradictus, to speak against) denotes an opposing force of statement, but not necessarily an intention of the speaker. The force may lie either in the purpose of the speaker, or in the inherent nature of the terms em- ployed, as in propositions called " contradictory " by the logicians. To Deny (Fr. denier, Lat. neyare) is purely a personal act. Moreover, contradiction is positive, denial only negative. I contradict a statement by stating something else in its stead ; I deny it simply by refusing to admit the truth of it. Hence, to deny is employed of charges, imputations, and the like, in which we are con- cerned, not with making any state- ments of our own, but simply inva- lidating those of others ; and of requests, in which sense it is synony- moiTS with refuse. Deny is not used in this sense directly of persons, like contradict, but only of their state- ments, or the truth and force of them. "The pulpit is a sacred place, Where none dare contradict you to your face." Dodsley. As contradict is opposite to counte- nance or corroborate, so deny is op- posed to allow or admit. "That the variation may be found with a share of accuracy more than sufficient to determine the ship's course is allowed ; but that it can be found so exactly as to fix the longitude within a degree of sixty miles, I absolutely deny." — Cook's Voyages. Contrariety. See Difference. Contrary. See Adverse. Contrast. See Difference. Contribute. See Conduce. Contribution. See Tribute. Contrition. See Eepentance. Contrive. Devise. Invent. Concert. Manage. To Contrive (Fr. trouver, to find) denotes an eiiort, or a series of efforts, of inventiveness. It is to form, find, or adapt means to an end by the exercise of practical ingenuity. "The machine which we are inspecting demonstrates by its construction contrivance and design. Contrivance must have had a contriver." — Paley. Devise (Fr. deviser) expresses the more theoretical aspect of contrive, and imj)lies not so much the finding ways of using means, as finding the means themselves. We contrive ways of doing things when to some extent the materials are at hand. We de- vise schemes and plans, and bring them into existence by the device. " He (God) hath not prevented all excep- tions or cavils devisable by curious and cap- tious wits against it." — Barrow. Invent (Lat. invenire, inveiitus, to find) represents the pii'actical aspect of contrive ; the invention being the more perfect in proportion to the lasting character of the contrivance, and its enabling us to contrive at will, as in the case of the invention of gunpowder, or the steam-engine. Invention, in its fuUest sense, is the discovery of a mode in which the laws of nature may be made sei-^iceable, or facts treated as natural, as in the invention of a romance. In its lowest CONTRIVANCE. ( 200 ) CONVENE. sense it is the finding out of a suflfi- cient mode of doing a thing. Imagi- nation and fecundity of genius give rise to inventors. " The mind of man discovers every day some craving want in a body which really wants but very little. It every day invents some artificial rule to guide that nature which, if left to itself, were the best and surest guide." — Burke. Concert (Lat. con, and severe, to bind or weave), unlike the former, commonly implies the joint assistance of others. It implies conference or consultation, and is almost exclusively employed of matters of action, not of pure invention in the scientific sense, as to concert a plan or scheme. Yet Burke uses it of a single j)erson in the following : — " Furious in their adversity, tyrannical in their successes, a commander had more trouble to concert his defence before the people than to plan the operations of the campaign." Manage (Fr. menager) denotes rather a judicious or ready employ- ment of means extemporized on the occasion; such contrivance as gives to the course of things the kind of turn which we desire for compassing our end. " Ofttimes nothing profits more Than self-esteem grounded on just right Well managed." Milton. Contrivance. See Expedient. Control. See Charge and Restrain. Controvert. Dispute. Gain- say. Of these, Gainsay (A. S. gean, against, and say) denotes no more than contradict, or call in question, whether by simple denial and oppo- sition, or by more or less of reason- ing accompanying it. "To convince any froward gainsayer." — Barrow. Controvert is to make matter of controversy ; that is, lengthened ar- gument in opposition, entering point by point into the dispute. "This was the groat ]i; tlieu cuntrovcricd couccrui Dsitinn tliat wns Jesus of iS'azu- reth, whether He was the Messiah or no, and the assent to that was that which distin- guished believers from unbelievers." — Locke. Dispute (Lat. disputare) is against a personal competitor, as controvert refers directly to the matter, and only indirectly to the person ; hence dispute may apply to more than ar- gument as such, and to anything brought forward by another against oneself ; that is, to stich things as claims, possessions, titles, rights, and the like. " Therefore disputed He in the synagogue with the Jews." — Bible. In controversy there is more of oppo- sition, in dispute more of dotibt. In order to controvert, exact knowledge is wanted ; but we often dispute where we have a general and unde- fined persuasion that what we dispute is not sound or true. Contumacious. See Obdurate. Contumelious. See Obstinate. Contumely. See Obloquy. Con^^ne. Convoke. The idea of collecting persons to one place is common to these two terms ; but Convene (Lat. con, to- gether, and venire, to come) is com- monly applied to such assemblies, as are got together for some public purpose in a special manner ; as to convene a meeting of shareholders in consequence of special news. To Convoke (Lat. convocare, to call to- gether) is an act of authority on the part of one whose ofiicial relation to the body enables or requires him to call it together. Hence, where the power is lodged equally in the hands of many, convene seems the more suitable term, and convoke when peculiar power of summoning is lodged in the hands of a single per- son. Convoke and convocation have acquired an ecclesiastical, as convene a political and gener;xlly deliberative force. " The Parliament of Scotland now con- vened." — Baker. "At this time the Cardinal, by his power Ipgative, dissolved Ids conrovat ion at Paul's, convoked by the Archbishop of Canterbury, CONVENIENT. ( 20I ) CONVERSANT. ojilling him and all the clergy to the convo- cation at Canterbury." — Balier. Convenient. Commodious. Suit- able. Handy. Convenient (Lat. convenire) laas lost its old meauiug of decent or be- coming, and has come to mean little more than handy. We tise the term Handy (when not employed of the person in the sense of dexterous, but of the thing) in the senses of manage- able and close at hand. The former is the old meaning, the latter is modern. A weapon is handy which may be used easily and effectively ; a house is handy which is close by and easily reached. Convenient denotes what suits the requirements of per- sons. Suitable (suit, Fr. suite, Lat. sequi, to follow) points to inherent qualities in things. A convenient season suits the individual ; a suit- able season suits the character and object of the purpose in hand. Com- modious (Lat. commodiim) joins the two, and denotes what is convenient, inasmuch as it is suitable. It is peculiarly applicable to localities in- tended for the carrying on of common business or private matters. A house, a chair, a room, are commo- dious. It thus naturally conveys the notion of sufficiency of space, which, however, is a meaning which has flowed out of the other. Handy has a more external character than con- venient, which is also applied to more general ideas. A specific thing or object is handy; arrangements, times, and seasons are convenient. "For he that strains too far a vow, Will break it like an o'er-bent bow; And he that made and forced it broke it, Not he that for convenience took it." Hudibras. Camden uses the word commodious in its primary meaning, when he says that " Britain is walled and guarded with the ocean most commodious for traffick to all parts of the world." "Pleasure in general is the consequent apprehension of a suitable object suitably applied to a rightly - disposed faculty." — i<0'dh. " Each is Jtandj in her way." — Dnjdcn, Convent, Abbey. Cloister. Nunnery. Monastery. Priory. Of these. Abbey and Priory are no more than religious houses or monasteries, so called as being governed by an abbot or a prior. They would differ, not in their reli- gious character, but in their state and privileges. The Nunnery is a Convent {conventus, convenire, to meet) of females, and in modern par- lance is identical with convent, which is a religious house of nuns, as a Monastery (Lat. monasterium, of which the root is the Greek fxovos, a line) is a religious house of monks. The Cloister (Lat. claustrum, cluu- dere, to shut) is, strictly, that part of the religious house which was en- closed as a place of exercise and conversation. It is in their general use that the difference between the terms cloister, convent, and monas- tery deserves notice. The distinctive idea of cloister is seclusion, or in- violable retirement; that of convent community of living ; that of a mo- nastery solitude. One is shut up in the cloister ; one goes into a convent ; one retires to a monastery. In the cloister liberty is sacrificed; in the convent ancient habits are renounced, and those of a certain society adopted ; in the monastery one has vowed a kind of exile, and men live only for their souls' sake. In the ancient and true monasteries the religious divided their time between contemplation and work. They were pioneers in the work of settlement, and in the civili- zation of new and wild coimtries. The term convent is less imposing than that of monastery. The conti- nental towns abound in convents within the walls ; while here and there are seen the ruins of ancient monasteries standing alone in the fields, yet manifesting even in their decay their former grandeui', in- fluence, and importance. Conversant. Familiar. Conversant (Lat. con, and versari, to be versed) relates only to persons ; Familiar {Lat. familiaris. belonging to the familia or household), both to persons and to objects,. As regards CONVERSATION. ( 202 ) CONVERT. persons, to be familiar with anything is simply to have seen a thing so often as to know it well. In its sim- plest sense, therefore, it applies to no more than ocular recognition. Con- versant denotes, in addition, the knowledge of skill necessarily. This may sometimes also be expressed by famiHar. In such cases, to be con- versant implies more markedly the knowledge of principles ; and familiar the knowledge of facts and processes. So we may better say, " It is one thing to be conversant with the prin- ciples of the British constitution ; it is another to be familiar with the facts of English history." " He uses the different dialects as one who had been conversant with them all." — Pq;je. It must be obsei-ved that conversant is a peculiar epithet of persons, while familiar is applicable both to persons and objects. The thing is familiar to me, or, I am familiar with it. " That war or peace may be As things acquainted and familiar to us." Shakespeare. Conversation. Colloquy. Con- ference. Dialogue. Discourse. Conversation {see Conveesant) is verbal intercourse of an unpremedi- tated kind, in which any number of persons may take a part. It is in- definite as to the subject, which may be one or many. It may be more or less desultoi'y, and spring altogether from accident. It naturally supposes some equality of social position in those engaged in it. "The influence exercised by his (Johnson) conversation directly upon those with whom he lived, and indirectly upon the whole lite- rary world, was altogether without a parallel." — Macaulay. Colloquy (Lat. colloquium, con, together, and loqtii, to speak) is a species of dialogue indefinite as to number, but restricted as to subject, in which each 'person present con- tributes remarks pertinent to the matter in hand, ^vithout the rigidity of a public meeting. It commonly supposes authorised deputation for the i)urpose of discussion and coming to agreement. " In 1540 he (Simon Gryne) was joined as an assistant to Ph. Melancthon, Martin Bucer, John Calvin, &c., when they went to Wormes to the colloquy there about religion." — Wood, AthencB Oxon. Conference (Lat. con and ferre, to bring) has more of form, being a colloquy on urgent or public and national afi"airs, where some line of action has to be taken or some ex- pression of opinion published autho- ritatively. " The Hampton Court Conference." — Eng- lish History. Dialogue (Gr. 8iakoyos) is com- monly, thovigh not necessarily, _ re- stricted to two speakers. It is a sort of literary conversation, in which the things said are niade subservient by art to certain main topics. It is therefore commonly recorded, and so framed as to be worth reading. " Aurungzebe is written in rhyme, and has the appearance of being the most elabo- rate of all Dryden's plays. The personages are imperial, but the dialogue is often do- mestic, and therefore susceptible of senti- ments accommodated to familiar incidents." — Johnson. Discourse (Lat. discursus) is con- secutive speech, whether of one or more persons, upon a given line of thought. It differs from the others in the particular that it may have been primarily written, while they imply speaking without writing, and in being applicable to the continuous exposition of a single person. " Tlie word discourse is derived from a Latin verb, which signifies to run about, and by the motion of our legs and the agitation of our whole body to traverse many different grounds, or the same ground many different ways. Now the application of this corporeal image to what passes in the mind, or to the action of the mind when we meditate on various subjects, or on many distinct parts of the same subject, and when we communi- cate these thoughts to one another, some- times with greater, and sometimes with less agitation and rapidity, is obvious." — Boling- broke. Convert. Proselyte. Neo- phyte. Pervert. Convert (Lat. convertere, to change) is one who turns from one set of CONVE V. ( 203 ) CONVIVIAL. opinions to another, not necessarily, though commonly supposed to be, of a religious character. " A believer may be excused by the most \ hardened atheist for endeavouring to make I him a convert, because he does it with an eye ; to both their interests." — Addison. Proselyte (Gr. Trposr]\vTos, npos to, and epxopai, to come) is one who has come or been brouglit over from one religion to another. The term has been metaphorically extended to embrace other creeds than those of religion. The difference between the terms seem to be that convert regards the internal aspect of the change, pro- selyte the external ; or, in other words, the proselyte is simply one who has been brought over by external per- suasion to another set of opinions ; the convert is one who has essentially changed his views, perhaps as much through the exercise of his own reflec- tion and reason as from any power or influence from without. " False teachers commonly make use of base, and low, and temporal considerations, of little tricks and devices, to make dis- ciples and gain proselytes." — Tillotson. Neophyte (G-r. veocfivros) expresses no more than one who has recently entered upon a profession, whether this has involved any change of previous views or not. Pervert (Lat. pei-vertere) is a term of recent inven- tion to express a mistaken conver- sion. Convey. See Being. Convict. Detect. Convince. Persuade. These terms all denote the bring- ing home of something to another. To Convict (Lat. convincere, con- vidus) is to bring his guilt or error home to another by evidence. It is never used in any but an unfavour- able sense. Such conviction may be more or less formal and public. De- tect (Lat. detegere, detedus) relates to acts only, not, as convict, both to acts and their motives. It resembles con- vict in applying only to falsehood and wrong. To Convince is another form of the word convict, but relates to the inner belief of the individual, and not to the external result of ac- quainting others. So I may be con- vinced in my own mind of the inno- cence of a convicted person. To Persuade (persiuidere) has much in common with convince; but convic- tion is the result of the understand- ing, persuasion of the will. Con- viction is a necessity of the mind. Persuasion an acquiescence of the inclination. Logic convinces. Rhe- toric persuades. In action or matter of practice they are often combined. The man who is persuaded feels con- vinced that he is rightly so ; the man who is convinced has not set himself against the process of persuasion. Conviction, being mental, is the less active ; persuasion, being moral, is the more active. We are convinced of truths and facts. We are persuaded to acts and conduct. So strong is this difference, that the two may be in opposition, and we may (from by- motives and considerations of self- interest and the like) be persuaded to act against our conviction. "Wise men desire to see the several parts of it so far cleared up and made consistent with each other, and upon the whole to dis- cover such evident marks of a superior wisdom, power, and goodness in the frame and texture of it, as may convince them that it is truly divine and worthy of the Supreme Mind to whom we ascribe it." — Bishop Hurd. " But if the jury find him, the prisoner, guilty, he is then said to be convicted of the crime whereof he is indicted ; which convic- tion may accrue two ways, either by his con- fessing the offence, and pleading guilty, or by his being found so by the verdict of his country." — Blackstone. " For were not such miracles and oracles at last generally believed ? or if several im- postures were detected, does the author ima- gine that such detection would utterly sink the credit of all future miracles ?" — Bishop Hurd. " He that persuades a man to rob a house is guilty of the sin he persuades him to, but not in the same manner that he is who com- mitted the robbery, for it was in his power, after all other persuasions, to have forborne the fact, and to have maintained his inno- cence." — South. Convict, n. See Criminal. Convivial. See Social. CONVOKE. ( 204 ) CORPORAL. Convoke. See Convene. Cool. Bee Cold. Copious. Abundant. Ample. Plentiful. Plenteous. Copioirs (in Lat. co'piosus, from cofia, plenty) denotes the abundant giving forth as from a fund, store, or resources, as a copious supply, a copious stream, a cojaious language. It relates to the richness of the source. " The sense of the laws, I am sure, is on my side ; which are by no means sparing of the orator's time. It is not brevity, but copiousness, a full representation of every cir- cumstance, that they recommend." — Melmoth, Pliny. Abundant (Lat. abmidare, unda, a y^axe) relates, not to the source, but the sui>p]y, which is large of its kind, as an abundance of grain, of words, of wit. " He goes lightly that wants a load. If there be more pleasure in abundance, there is more security in a mean estate." — Bishop Ball. Ample (Lat. amphis) refers es- pecially to what is variable in limit or quantity, and, in the instance under consideration, extends beyond the limits of what is sufficient or requisite. " Now let us leave this earth, and lift our eye To the large convex of yon azure sky, Behold it like an ample curtain spread." Prior. Plentiful and Plenteous (Lat. plenitas, plenus, full) differ but little, but plenteous is more closely con- nected with the character of the giver, plentiful with the abundance of the gift. Plenteous belongs also to a higher and more rhetorical style. But plentiful belongs more strictly than abundant to purely physical things. We might say a plenteous, plentiful, or abundant harvest, but we could only say abundant, not plentiful or plenteous, cause of grati- tude for it. "The very word satura signifies a dish plentifully stored with all variety of fruit and graias."~Dryden, Juven tl. Copious. See Diffuse. Copy. See Example, Imitate, and Transcribe. Cordial. See Hearty. Corner. Angle. Corner (Fr. coin, Lat. cuneus) is formed by the meeting of solid bodies, Angle (Lat. angulus) by the meeting of mathematical lines. Corner refers only to the jioint of meeting, angle to the whole space included between the lines. Hence, corner has a meta- phorical force, of which angle does not partake, as a quiet or remote corner of the world. "A master cook ! why he's the man of men For a professor. He designs, he draws, Makes citadels of curious fowl and fish. Mounts marrow-bones ; cuts Mtj-angled custards." £. J&nson. " We learn from hence what is the true use and end of miracles. They are not pri- vate but public proofs, not things to be done in a corner for the sake of single persons, but before multitudes and in the face of the sun." — Bishop) Atterhury. Corporal. Bodily. Corpo- real. Material. Corporal and Corporeal (Lat. corpus, the body) both mean relating to the body, but under different as- pects of it ; corporal relating to the substance, corporeal to the nature of the body; while Bodily denotes, more generally, connected with the body or with a body ; hence corporal piuiish- ment, corporeal existence, bodily vigour, pains, or shape. Material (Lat. materies) respects all bodies, inanimate as well as animate, as the material system, material sub- stances. " For truth, the greatest of intellectual goods, is the produce of undisturbed reason ; and health, the greatest of the corporeal, is the blooming fruit of temperance ; and yet we can be content to be deprived of both for the sordid pleasure'of a riotous, uiuneaning jollity."— Warburton. " All corporal damages that chance to mortal men are by medicines healed, or by reason remedied, or by length of time cured, or else by death ended." — Golden Book. " But in reality it arose from very ditfer- ent causes, sometimes from bodily pain, which he often felt whf n he did not own it." — Portals, Life of t'edicr. CORPOREAL. ( 205 ) COUNTERFEIT. Corporeal. See Corporal. Corpse. Bee Body. Corpulent. Bee Stout. Correct. Bee Amend and, Chasten. Correct. Bee Exact. Correspond. Bee Tally. Corroborate. Bee Confirm. Corrupt. Bee Contaminate. Corruption. Bee Depravity. Cost, Expense. Price. Value. Worth. The Cost of a thing (Germ. Itost), in its extended sense, is all that has been laid out, or is to be laid out upon pro- ducing it. The Expense (Lat. ex- fendere, to pay out) relates rather to the person than the article; hence expense often means continued cost, as whatever a carriage may cost there will be expense in keeping it up. The Price of a thing is that which repre- sents its value to the owner (prixy Lat. pretimn), and must be paid to procure it. The Worth is what it will fetch, and the Value is what it ought to fetch. " The i-eal price of everything, what every- thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquir- ing it." — Adam Smith. "Already I am worn with cares and age, And just abandoning the ungrateful stage. Unprofitably kept at Heaven's expeiU'C, I live, a rent-charge on her Providence." Bri/deii. "Besides the ornaments that are thrust through the holes of the ears, many others are suspended to them by strings ; such as chisels or bodkins made of green talc, upon which they set a high value. The nails and teeth of their deceased relations, the teeth of dogs, and everything else that they can get which they think either curious or valuable." — Cook's Voyages. "But he, his wonted pride Soon recollecting, with high words that bore Semblance of icorth, not substance, gently raised Their fainting courage, and dispelled their fears." Milton. Costly. •Precious. Costume. Bee Dress. Cotemporary. Bee Coeval. Covenant. Bee Agreement. Cover. Bee Hide. CovETOusNEss. Bee Avarice, Counsel. Bee Advise. Count. Bee Calculate and Number. Countenance. Bee Face and Sanction. Counterfeit. Spurious. Sup- posititious. Fictitious. Adul- terated. Sophisticated. Counterfeit (Lat. contra, factus) relates to such deception as consists in matters of exterior, the making a false thing wear the look of the true. " Think freely on all the various pretences to revelation ; compare the counterfeit Scrip- tures with the true." — Bentley. Spurious (Lat. sptirius) denotes not issuing from the true source, or the source pretended. " I never could be imposed on to receive for yours what is written by any others, or to mistake your genuine poetry for their spurious productions." — Drtjden. Supposititious denotes that which is founded upon siipposition instead of fact. This admits of varying de- grees of falsehood or deception. The worst form is when that which is known to be not the true is substi- tuted in its place. On the other hand, no intention to deceive is im- plied in a siipposititious history, if the materials are the most authentic that could be procured. In s^^ch a case their necessarily supposititious character ought to be declared. " We shall premise this observation, or rather suspicion of our own, that there seem to be someOrphick verses supposititious as well as there were Sibylline, they being counter- feited either by Christians or Jews." — Cud- worth. Fictitious (Lat. fingere, to form or feign) applies to anything which is put forth as having independent truth and reality, while it is the pro- duct of imagination or invention. COUNTRY. ( 206 ) CRAFTY. "Thus, some make comedy a representa- tion of mean, and others of bad men. Some think that its essence consists in the unim- portance, others, in the fictitiousness, of the transaction." — Eamhler. The two last epithets are applied to sncli si;bstaiices as are not of pure composition and manufacture. That is Adulterated (adidterium) in •which the article is made to contain less of the genuine by the substitu- tion of other cheaper substances, with a view to obtaining the full price of it at less cost. That is Sophisti- cated {ao(pos, wise) of which the genuine simplicity is destroyed. It is a less mercantile term than adul- terate, and applies to matters of the mind, behef, argument, judgment, as to sophisticate the understanding — subjects to which adulterate is also applied analogously ; but we speak of persons as sophisticated, and systems as adulterated. " We have well proved that Leucippus and Democritus were not the first inventors, but only the depravers and adulterators of the atomic philosophy." — Cudworth. " He is rattling over the streets of London, and pursuing all the sophisticated joys which succeed to supply the place where nature is relinquished." — Knox, Essays. Country. See Land. Countryman. See Peasant. Couple. See Brace. Courage. Courageous. See Bold. Course. See Passage. Court. See Homage. Courteous. See Affable and Civil. Cover. See Hide. Covetous. See Niggardly. Coxcombical. See Foppish. Crack. See Break. Crafty. Cunning. Sly. "Wily. Subtle. Crafty (craft, a manual trade) has come from the idea of slciU to drop into that of cunning. Craft is the cunning of practice. It is always alive, and not only on occasions. It designs as well as conceals. It misleads as well as eludes. He may be said to be crafty who makes a cunning use of his knowledge, and is at once active and wary. " To prudence, if you add the use of unjust or dishonest means, such as usually are prompted to men by fear or want, you have that crooked wisdom which is called craft, which is a sign of pusillanimity." — Hohbes. Cunning (literally knowledge, con- nected with ken) is a low animal in- stinct, which shows itself in matters connected with the animal natui-e. " This deplorable estate could not be more feelingly expressed than it is here, by mak- ing sin, M'hich still remained in man under the law, a person, who, implacably aiming at his ruin, cunningly took the opportunity of exciting concupiscence in those to whom the law had made it mortal." — Locke on Ro- mans. Crafty belongs to the development of human character. The child may be cunning; the old man is crafty when he compasses his ends by means which are likely to pass unobserved, or to deceive as to their true cha- racter. Slyness is a combination of cunning and vigilance. It belongs to actions of an ordinary kind, and an underhanded way of performing them. "They tempted me to attack your highness, And then, with wonted idle and slyriess. They left me in the lurch." Sicift. WiLiNESS, or being full of wile (which is another form of guile), shows itself in matters of self-interest and self-preservation. A wily ad- versaiy quietly waits his opportunity of wounding, and can make oppor- tunities for himself. He is mischiev- ously artful in attack, defence, and escape. Subtle (Lat. suhtilis, suh, and tela, a web, being another form of subtile) is, as the word indicates, of fine texture, analysing motives, see- ing minute differences, and handling opportunities with keen observation. It is the most comprehensive of all, including every faculty, from the low animal craft to the highest penetra- tion of man's nature. It not only finds means for executing the pur- CRA VE. ( 207 ) CREATE. pose, but weighs and dissects the purpose itself. " Now the serpent was more snhtle than any beast of the field which the Lord God had made." — Bible. Crave. See Ask. Create. Cause. Occasion. Make. Form. Produce. Con- stitute. It is hardly necessary to observe that Create (Lat. creare) is used in the metaphysical sense of producing ©ut of nothing, as " the creation of the world." With this, which repre- sents only an effort of the human mind to express the inconceivable, we have nothing to do in a work of this kind, which deals only with the ordinary use of language. The term create is often used in a kindred sense with Cause (Lat. causa, a cause), but it involves personal agency. It is to effect by the agency and imder the laws of causation. This human agency, if not directly expressed, is indirectly implied, as busybodies create mischief, or jea- lousies are created by unnecessary reserve. On the other hand, when the natural force and sequence of things is contemplated, we use cause, as the circumstance caused great sui-prise. " The bad treatment of those who are suf- fered still to live in a society is the creating of so many malcontents, who at some time or other may make those who treat them ill feel their revenge." — Burnet. " And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam." — Bible. To Occasion (Lat. occasio, occidere, to befal) denotes the more indirect and less active kinds of causation ; the occasion is the circumstance or set of circumstances which allow the cause to operate. Accordingly the verb occasion is often employed of something connected with the cause, or the cause viewed generally and indirectly. In travelling, we might say, the delay was occasioned by an accident, but it was caused by the breaking of an axle-tree. Generally speaking, the cause is more remote than the occasion, the occasion more specifically active than the caiise. Thus, in the case of some crime committed, the temptation, the convenient circumstances, the solici- tation, or the hope of gain, and the like, might be spoken of as the cause ; but to a moralist these would rather constitute the occasion, while the cause would be deeper, namely, in the depravity of the man's nature. The following of Spenser shows how easily the two may be inter- changed : " Madman, said then the palmer, that does seek Occasion to wrath and cause of strife." Make (A. S. macian) is the most generic of all. It has the sense of to bring about by any means or by any process, and is applicable both to physical and metaphysical results, in which latter sense it is synony- mous with form and constitute, as two and two make four, implying logical causation, but not agency. "When the cause is extrinsical, and the effect produced by a sensible separation, or juxtaposition, of discernible parts, we call it making ; and such are all artificial things." — Locke. To Form (Lat. formare) is used in three main senses : 1, to give phy- sical form or shape, as to form an image out of clay ; 2, to produce in substantial shape, as the action of cold on water forms ice; 3, to give metaphysical shape, as to form an idea or notion. This does not imply distinct agency, as six will form a majority, that is, will complete the notion as well as the fact of a ma- jority. 4. To give moral shape, that is, to mould, as to form a habit of reflection; circumstances form the character. "We are so wonderfully formed, that whilst we are creatures vehemently desii'ous of novelty, we are as strongly attached to habit and custom." — Burke. Produce (Lat. producere) is to bring about as the result of a length- ened effort or process, analogous to the bringing forth of plants from seeds, and the young of animals from the parent. It may or may not imply distinct purpose, as to produce a work of literature or art CREDIT. ( 208 ) CRIME. on the one hand, or kindness pro- duces love on the other. "Trade, then, is necessary to the producing of riches, and money necessary to the carry- ing on of trade." — Locke. Constitute (Lat. constituere) is purely mental, though the conception may be based iipon a physical pro- cess. To constitute means to con- tribute aU that is needed to make up a whole, whether physical or meta- physical. If many things are needed the term applies to aU; if one thing is suflBcient, that alone constitutes, as. " That field constitutes, or those fields, trees, and hedges constitute all my landed property." "It is not more necessary to the consti- tuting of a man that a human soul inhabit in a human body, than it is to the being a true Christian that the Holy Spirit of God inhabit in the soul and body of the man." — Sharp. Credit. See Belief, Charac- ter, a7id Eeputation. Crew. See Band. Crime. Yice. Sin. Guilt. Misdemeanour. Offence. Tres- pass. Transgression. Misdeed. Wrong. Iniquity. Wickedness. Injustice. Injury. Crime (Lat. crimen) is always a deed, never a state. It is, strictly speaking, a deed violating a law, human or di-\ane. Hence, we may speak of ci-imes against God, and crimes against society ; but, accord- ing to present usage, a crime is xm- derstood to be against the state. Crime can only be used of moral and spiritual offences when religion wears a political aspect, and God is recognized as a Supreme Ruler and Judge, whose laws have been in- fringed. In this way Spenser speaks of the " crime of our first father's fall." So Blackstone says — " A crime or misdemeanour is an act com- mitted or omitted, in violation of a public law either forbidding or commanding it." And, again, that the discussion and admeasurement of the nature of crimes and punishments, " forms in every country the code of criminal law." Yice (Lat. vitiiim) is a state, not a deed, a moral fault or failing, a de- parture from moral purity or in- tegrity, imjjlying more or less of defect, corruption, or wrong in the character itself. " That this is the common measure of virtue and vice, will appear to any one who considers that though that passes for rice in one country which is counted a virtue, or at least not a vice, in another, yet everywhere virtue and praise, vice and blame, go to- gether." — Locke. Sin (A. S. syngian) is a departure from a divine law, or any law re- garded as of a divine or sacred cha- racter. Sin comprehends both crime and vice, by reason of the perfection of the Divine law ; but there are many specific sins or acts of sin which are not vices, inasmuch as they consist only of acts, and are not habits or propensities ; and there are many sins which are not crimes either, as being not acts, as sins of thought, or not violations of the law of the land, as lying. The following is the view of Hobbes : — " All crimes are indeed sm?, but not all sins crimes. A sin may be in the thought or secret purpose of a man, of which neither a judge, nor a witness, nor any man, can take notice ; but a crime is such a sin as con- sists in an action against the law, of which action he can be accused and tried by a judge, and be convinced or cleared by wit- nesses. Farther, that which is no sin in itself, but indiflerent, may be made sin by a positive law." — Eobhes on the Common Law of England. Guilt (A. S. gylt) is a state, the state of one who has infi-inged or violated any moral or political law, or, in the mildest sense, one to whom anything wi-ong. even as a matter of taste or judgment, may be attributed, as to be guilty of eiTor, to be guilty of a piece of bad taste. Guilt is the impress of evil upon the individual, and is opposed to merit, as the im- press of good in action. "An involuntary act," says Blackstone, " as it has no claim to merit, so neither can it induce any guilt." Misdemeanour is a minor crime, under the piirely social aspect of CRIME. ( 209 ) CRIME. crime. Any crime less than a felony, or any for which the law has not furnished a name, would be a mis- demeanour. In common parlance it is used in the sense of misconduct. " The consideration of this, that God takes a particular notice of our misdemeanours, should engage us to set about a particular amendment." — South. Offence (Lat. offendere, to stumble against) is indefinite. It implies a contradiction of will or a violation of law, without saying anything of the nature of the will or the law, which maybe political or personal. Offence may be even against customs, where customs have the force of social laws or regulations, as to offend against good taste and good manners. " To offend originally signifies to impinge, that is, to stumble or hit dangerously upon something lying cross our way, so as thereby to be cast down, or at least to be disordered in our posture and stopped in our progress, whence it is well transferred to denote our being, through an incident temptation, brought into sin, whereby a man is thrown down, or is bowed from his upright state, and interrupted from prosecuting a steady course of piety and virtue." — Barrow. Trespass (Fr. trepasser, Lat. trans and passus, a step) is an offence of which the essence consists in going beyond certain allowable or right limits. I ti-espass upon my neigh- bour's land, or, metaphorically, xipon his patience. Transgression (Lat. transgressus, transgredior, to step be- yond) differs from trespass in refer- ring solely to law, moral or civil, while trespass is in reference to the rights or character of another. A trespass is a personcd transgression against another. It is evident that a trespass may be of the nature of a transgression. " This action of trespass or transgression on the case is our universal remedy given for all personal wrongs and injuries without fine." — Blachstone. Misdeed is a deed of wrong, and therefore of a private character. It stands to misconduct as a part to the whole. A misdeed is very often of the nature of a minor crime and mis- demeanour, or an offence against the law, but this is accidental, not es- sential to the term. " Like caitiff vile, that for misdeed Hides with his face to rump of steed." Iludibras. Iniquity (Lat. iniquus, unequal, unfair), like vice, is used both of the habit and the act. It commonly de- notes a gross violation of the rights of others by fraud and circumvention. It is used also, however, of cases of oj)en violence, as " iniquitous war," "All governments must frequently in- fringe the rules of justice to support them- selves. Truth must give way to dissimula- lation, honesty to convenience, and humanity itself to the raging interest. The whole of this mystery of iniquity is called the reason of state." — Burke. Injustice (Lat. in, not, and jus' titia, justice) and Injury (Lat. in- juria, wi-ong) differ, in that the former relates to the actor, the latter to the object. Every injustice, there- fore, is not an injury. For instance, if we speak ill or disparagingly of another withoiit his deserving it, we do him an injustice ; but unless what we say has sufficient influence to affect his interests it will be no injury. It deserves to be remarked, that injury is used in two very dif- ferent ways, though the notion of wrong lies at the bottom of both. We may act with violence or wrong upon insensible as well as sensible objects. Strictly speaking, it is only in reference to the latter that the term injury can be directly employed ; but it is often used in respect to the former, in which case it is simply tantamount to damage, as, for in- stance, injuries done to trees by a storm. " The great, it seems, are privileged alone i To punish all injustice but their own." Bryden. " The former (private wi'ongs) are an in- fringement or privation of the private or civil rights belonging to individuals, consi- dered as individuals, and are thereupon fre- quently termed civil injuries." — Blackstmie. Wrong (connected with wrung) is a distortion of right, either in refer- ence to ourselves or to others. In the former case, it is a crime or a misdeed, according to its character CRIMINAL. ( 210 and extent ; in the latter, it partakes both of injustice and_ injury, being svich a violation of justice on the part of the agent as redounds to the detriment of the person acted upon. "The distinction of public wrongs from private, of crimes and misdemeanours from civil injuries, seems principally to consist in this, that private wrongs or civil injuries are an infringement or privation of the civil rights which belong to individuals, considered merely as individuals; public wrongs, or crimes and misdemeanours, are a breach and violation of the public rights and duties due to the whole community, considered as a community in its social aggregate capacity." — Blackstone. Wickedness (Old English wicke, wicked, connected probably with witch) is the disposition towards and practice of evil generally. It is a generic term, referring more directly to transgressions of the Divine law, and morality as included under it. "Our manifold sins and wickedness," — English Book of Common Frayer. Ckiminal. Guilty. Ceiminal respects the character of the deed, Guilty the simple fact of its commission. The criminality of an oiFence is a question of degree, to be determined by circumstances. Guilt is a question of fact, to be de- termined by evidence. It must be observed that criminal is an epithet only of things, guilty both of things and persons. "The ends of drink are digestion of our meat, cheerfulness and refreshment of our spirits, or any end of health ; besides which, if we go at any time beyond it, it is inordi- nate and criminal ; it is the vice of drunken- ness." — Bishop Taylor. "One cannot but be astonished at the folly and impiety of pronouncing a man guilty unless he was cleared by a miracle, and of expecting that all the powers of Nature should be suspended by an immediate interposition of Providence to save the inno- cent whenever it was presumptuously re- quired." — Blackstone. Criminal. Culprit. Felon. Malefactor. Convict. These are terms denoting persons who have oficnded against the laws CRIMINAL. of the country. A Criminal is one who stands indicted for a crime, or against whom a crime has been proved. " Su])pose a civil magistrate should have a criminal brought before him, accused, for in- stance, of murder, burglary, or the like, and the fiict is proved, would you not have him in that case to pronounce the sentence that the law has awarded to all such malefactors ?" — Sharp. Culprit (for culped, from the Old Fr. verb culper, Lat. culiJa, blame) is used in the same twofold force, lout is a milder term, admitting of less grave applications — as among boys in a school who have offended against morals or regidations. "Like other culprit youths, he wanted grace, But could have no self-interest in the case." Whitehead. Malefactor (Lat. male facere, to do wi-ong or badly) expresses a cri- minal, who, though seized or con- demned by the state, is regarded in reference to the moral instead of the political character of his offence. " From every species of punishment that has hitherto been devised, from imprison- ment and exile, from pain and infamy, nuilc- factors return more hardened in their crimes and more instructed." — Paley. Felon (Low Lat. felo) denotes a criminal in regard to the grade of his offence; that is, as having com- mitted a crime which amounts to a felony. Originally, a felony was such a crime as included the forfeiture of goods for its penalty, but subsequent Acts of Parliament have declared several specific crimes to be felonies. " Yes, Leila sleeps beneath the wave, But his shall be a redder grave ; Her spirit pointed well the steel Which taught the felon heart to feel." Byron. The Convict {convincere, convicttis) is the criminal or felon regarded as sentenced and undergtnng the punish- ment to which he has been sentenced, more especially that of forced labour. " Its garrison being in great measure un- armed, it was impossible that it could have o]ipos(Ml our force, or that its half-starved inhal)itants, most of whom are convicts, banished thither from other parts, could have had any other thoughts than that of submitting." — Anson's ) 'oyuges. CRIMINATE. ( 211 ) CROOKED. Ceiminate. Eee Charge. Crisis. Conjuncture. Emer- gency. Exigency. Crisis (Gr. Kplais, from Kplvco, a decision) denotes literally what de- cides or turns tlie scide. It is com- monly nsed of a turning point in affairs, before it is known whether the issue will be for better or worse ; and generally of a precarious or high- wrought state of atfairs. The differ- ence seems to be that Conjuncture (Lat. con and junctura, a joining) de- notes a compound crisis, or a state which results from the meeting of several external circumstances to form it ; while crisis is applicable to the internal state alone, as the crisis of a disease. Emergency (Lat. emer- gere, to emerge) is an unforeseen oc- currence or combination, which calls for immediate action. Exigency (Lat. exigere, to exact) is a minor emergency. " It is observed in all those actions or pas- sages which cause any great or notable change either in the mind or life of man, that they do not constantly operate at the same rate of efficacy, but that there is a certain crisis or particular season which strangely provokes and draws forth the activity and force of every agent, raising it to effects much greater and higher than the common measure of its actings is observed to carry it to." — South. " But I will rather ostentatiously display my own endeavours to assist you in this conjuncture, nor dwell upon the unworthy treatment you have received from others." — Mehnoth, Cicero. " On whom she might her doubts repose, In all emergencies that rose." Sicift. "The total collective exigencies of the state." — Burke. Criterion. See Standard. Criticism. Stricture. Criticism is a minute examination of any comx^oimd subject, as human conduct, dress, personal appearance, a literary production or work of art (but not a purely natural object, as, for instance, a landscape), with a view to ascertaining and manifesting merits and faults. Stricture (Lat. stridura, from stringere, to touch lightly) is only employed of adverse criticism, and consists in the effort to expose defects, faults, or wrong in series. It is commonly employed in reference to works of art and literature and the conduct of public men. " Criticism, though dignified from the earliest ages by the labours of men eminent for knowledge and sagacity, and, since the revival of polite literature, the favourite study of European scholars, has not yet attained the certainty and stability of science." — liambler, " To the end of most of the plays I have added short strictures, containing a general censure of faults or praise of excellence." — Johnson. Crooked. Bent. Curved. Awry. Crooked (Swedish TcroJc, a crook) denotes that which might have been conceived as straight but is not ; one deviation from the straight line, or more than one, may belong to a crooked object. It is a term of ab- ruptness, and tends, in its secondary sense, to express that which is morally wi-ong or perverted, as contrasted with what is straight or right, aa crooked ways or thoughts. " And in one of the Snowdon lakes is found a variety of trout, which is naturally de- formed, having a strange crookedness near the tail, resembling that of the perch before described." — Pennant. Bent (the passive participle of bend, A. S. bendan) denotes the ex- ercise of some power, which has caused the deviation from straight- ness, whether exercised on purpose, or purely mechanical or involuntary ; as bent by art, or bent by the storm. It expresses such deviation as oc- curs only once in the subject. If it occurred oftener, we should use some term expressive of frequent bending, as " bent about." The word belongs to substantial matter, and not to mere lines. We say " crooked paths," not " bent paths." "And yet these bows, being somewhat like the long bows in use amongst 'us, were bent only by a man's immediate strength." — Wilkins, Mechanical Powers. Curved (Lat. curvus) denotes p 2 CROSS. ( 212 ) CULPABLE. equable and proportionate flexure, wliicli is almost always the result of design, and may have grace for its object. "They have no furniture except a few little blocks of wood, the upper side of which is hollowed into a curve, and which serve them for pillows." — Cook's Voyages. Awry (connected with wi-ithe) is a kind of adverbial adjective, and not directly applied, like the rest, to the subject, but grammatically placed after it. It denotes wi-ong or defec- tive deviation or flexiu-e. As the crooked is that which might be straight, and is not, so that which is awiy ought to be straight, and is not. "He may in some points be in error, he may in many points pursue the way which wemay not think best ; yet if he be a pious and good man, his path cannot possibly be much awry." — Gilpin's Sermons. Cross. See Fketful. Crowd. Multitude. Throng. Swarm. Mob. Populace. Crowd (A. S. croda, cread, crudh) denotes such a collection of persons as gives the impression of multitude without order; rarely used of things. "Like his own Christian in the cage, Bunyan found protectors even among the crowd of Vanity Fair." — Macaulay. Mttltititde (multitudo, midtns, many), that which gives the impres- sion of numerousness, and nothing else, and is not, like crowd, restricted to human beings. " It is a fault in a multitude of preachers that they utterly neglect method in their harangues." — ITai^s. Throng applies to human beings exclusively. It expresses a voluntary pressure of the individuals composing the collection ; while crowd rather ex- presses such as is inconvenient and involuntary. Crowd merely denotes a fact, throng supposes some common object of curiosity or interest. " Not to know me argues yourself unknown, The lowest of your thronij." Milton. Swarm (A. S. swearm) is employed only of animate objects, whether lauman or otherwise, but of human beings only disparagingly. The spe- cific idea of swarm is that of multi- tudinous life and action, whether with or without a common piirpose uniting them, as a swarm of busy bees, or a swarm of idle children. " Every place swarms with soldiers." — Spenser. Mob (Lat. mohile vulgus, the fickle crowd) and Popttlace (Lat. •popidus) stand closely related. As populace is a word formed to include the masses of a country which have no distinction of rank, education, office, or profession ; so mob indicates a specific reunion of such persons ex- hibiting a characteristic coarseness or violence, more especially on such occasions of social or political interest as may have brought them together. A mob may be gathered and dispersed in an hoiu-. The populace is a per- manent jDortion of society. " Kings are ambitious, the nobility haughty, and the populace tumultuous and ungovern- able." — Burke. "He shrunk from the dangers which threatened him, and saciuticed his conscience and his duty to the menaces of a mob." — Bishop Porteus. Cruel. See Barbarous. Crush. See Bruise. Cry. See Clamour. Culpable. Faulty. Athough these terms are very nearly related, Culpable being de- rived from the Latin culpa, a fault (Fr. fimte, from Lat. fcdiere. to fail), yet culpable is always specific, while faulty is general. Faulty means generally defective, whether morally or otherwise, as a faulty chai'acter, a faulty composition. Culpable means guilty of a specific act or course of conduct which deserves lilame. The term is also used of negative acts, as a culpable ignorance, a culpable neg- ligence. Faulty is an epithet of things intellectual and artistic. Cul- pable is only of things moral. " Every man in doubtful cases is left to his own discretion, and if he acts according to the best reason he hath, he is not cu/- CULPRIT. ( 213 ) CURE. pahle, though he be mistaken in his mea- sures." — Sharp. "Created once So goodly and erect, though /aM% since." 3Iilton. Culprit. See Criminal. Cultivation. Culture. Til- lage. Husbandry. Civilization. Kefinement. Cultivation (Lat. colere, culhhs, to cultivate) is used in a physical and a metaphorical sense. It denotes the use of art and labour and all things needful to the production of such things as grow out of the soil. The term, it may be observed, is em- ployed both of the soil and of that which grows out of it. "We cultivate fields, and we cixltivate flax. The same force belongs to the metapho- rical or moral use of the term, as in the cultivation of the mind, or of special habits, or of literature, or the arts. " The mind of man hath need to' be pre- pared for piety and virtue. It must be cul- timted to that end, and ordered with great care and pains. But the vices are weeds that grow wild and spring up of them- sel ves." — Tillotson. Ctjltttre (Lat. cuUura) is com- monly employed to denote the spe- cific cultivation of some i^articular kind of prodiTction for the sake of its amelioration. In this sense the term is used of the culture of the human race or human mind (but not of moral habits), to indicate such civil- ization and training as results in the raising of the condition of the race. " The mind that lies fallow but a single day sprouts u\) in follies that are only to be killed by a constant and assiduous culture." — Spectator. Civilization {civilis, civis, a citi- zen), unlike cultivation, is employed only of races of mankind or, by a licence, of the countries which they inhabit. Civilization and Refine- ment are respectively the first and the final stage of cultivation as re-' gards the condition of men in their social capacity ; the first meaning the mere redeeming from a state of barbarism; the second a high con- dition of intellectual culture in the liberal arts and social manners. Til- lage and Husbandry, except by special design, convey no metapho- rical meaning. Tillage (A. S. tilian, teolian) applies directly and solely to the soil in reference to its prepara- tion for seed, and its preservation for the sake of the crops which it is to produce, and not to the crops them- selves. Husbandry is of much wider meaning, comprising all the branches of agricultvire, and even the theo- retical science of it, while tillage is purely manual. " Nothing is more certain than that our manners, our civilization, and all the good things which are connected with manners and with civilization, have in this European world of ours depended for ages upon two principles, and were indeed the result of both combined. I mean the spirit of a gentleman and the spirit of religion." — Burke. "This refined taste is the consequence of education and habit. We are born only with a capacity of entertaining this refinement, as we are born with a disposition to receive and obey all the rules and regulations of society ; and so far It may be said to be natural to us, and no fiirther." — Reynolds. " The very ground you cultivate affords much instruction. Without proper tillage you know it will bear nothing ; and the more it is cultivated the more it will produce." — Gilpin's Sermons. " Husbandry supplieth all things necessary for food." — Spenser. See Cultivation. See Artful and Culture Cunning Crafty. Cupidity. See Avarice. Curb. See Kestrain. Cure. Heal. Eemedy. Cure (Lat. curare, cura, care, to take care of) is employed of such deep-seated or internal ailments as need the indirect treatment of science; Heal (A. S. hdlan, to make hale or sound) of such external and tangible wounds, diseases, or injuries, as need the direct application of manual skill. Wounds and ulcers are healed. Diseases generally are cured. In their moral bearings, cure is used of what is bad or unsound in. CURIOUS. ( 214 ) CURSE. the mental or moral nature ; as to cure prejudices, to cure vices, or vicious habits, or evil propensities ; to heal of external breaches and separations, as to heal animosities, hatreds, rival- ries, or anything which, like the lips of a social wound, needs bringing together. Remedy (in Latin re- medium) is more comprehensive, and denotes the specific coimteractive setting right of anything that has gone wrong, as diseases, nuisances. evils, social injuries and _ wrongs, or even deficiencies and omissions. To remedy, however, has commonly more to do with the result or fact, while cure relates to the principles and origin of things requiring remedy. To remedy a disease is simply to re- move it, to cure it is to remove the cause. The nouns cure and remedy follow the same distinction. " The child was cured from that very hour." —Bible. " But Vane opposed this with much zeal. He said, Would they heal the wound that they had given themselves which weakened them so much ? The setting them at quiet could have no other effect but to heal and unite them in their opposition to authority." — Burnet. " Now since all wrong may be considered as merely a privation of right, the plain natural remedy for every species of wrong is the being put in possession of that right whereof the party injured is deprived." — Blackston.e. It may be observed that the verbs cure and heal are employed both of the malady or evil, and of the subject in which it resides, while remedy is used only directly of the evil itself. Curious. 8ee Abstruse and Inquisitive. Current. See Stream. CuESE. Malediction. Impre- cation. Execration. Anathema. Curse (A. S. cursian, possibly con- nected with cross) is a solemn or violent pronunciation or invocation of evil upon another. It is used in the independent sense of a vmiform cause of harm. Curse commonly im- plies the personal desire of evil ac- companying its declaration. " When men in common conversation use curses and imprecations against their brethren, as passionate and profane men are frequently apt to do, it is either with an intention and desire that mischief might befall them, which is both malicious towards man, and also irreligiously thinking light of the curse of God ; or else it is without any such desire or intention, and then it is profanely supposing God to have no regard to their behaviour." — Clarke. Malediction (Lat. male dicere) is a more formal term, and expresses generally the declaration of a curse. This may be personal, or it may be purely official, as the maledictions of the Jewish law, that is, the solemn declaration of curse as attached to certain acts, whoever they may be that commit them. " Imprecations and maledictions were made, according to the custom of the Jews, against 1 those who should presume to add or alter anything therein." — Greco. Imprecation (Lat. imprecari) is a weaker form of cursing, which prays for evil upon another, and has in it more the wish than the feeling or belief of power. Execration (Lat. exsecratlo) is a curse dictated by vio- lent personal feeling of hatred. So distinctive is this element, that the word sometimes means simply such hatred, without any idea of cursing, as to hold certain deeds in execra- tion. " I mean the Epicureans, who though in other respects they were persons of many excellent and sublime speculations, yet, because of their gross error in this kind, they have been in all ages looked upon with a kind of execration." — Wilkins. Anathema (Gr. dvd6(ij.a, anything devoted) was a term taken from the New Testament, and meant a ban or curse pronounced onreligious grounds by ecclesiastical authority, and was accompanied by excommunication, so that the person was held up as an object of otFence. "Anathema signifies persons or things devoted to destruction and extermination. The Jewish nation were ananathcma — destined to destruction. St. Paul, to express his affec- tion to them, says he could wish, to save thorn from it, to become an anathema, and be destroved himself." — Locke. CURSOR V. ( 215 ) CUSTOM. Cursory. Desultory. Sum- mary. Cursory (Lat. ciirrere, cursiis, to run) denotes such haste as implies of necessity the impossibility of more than momentary and superficial ob- servation or comprehension of par- ticulars. Desultory (Lat. desultor, a horse-vaulter) is that which wants continuity and method, and indicates an impatience of applied thought. Summary (Lat. sunima, a sum) de- notes that which is rapidly gathered up into completion, and so saves time at the expense of attention to detail. "We speak commonly of cursory glances, views, and observation ; de- sultory studies, argument, remarks ; and summary proceedings. " It is an advantage to all narrow wisdom and narrow morals that their maxims have a plausible air, and on a Icursory view appear equal to false principles." — Burke. " This makes my reading wild and desultory, and I seek refuge from the uneasiness of thought from any book, let it be what it will, that can engage my attention." — War- burton. " Nor spend their time to show their reading, She'd have a summary proceeding." Swift. Curtail. Cur^t:d. Custody. CuSTOil. Method. See Abridge. See Crooked. See Keeping. Fashion. Manner. Practice. Habit. Usage. Prescription. Custom (Fr. coxdume, Lat. con- suetudo) is an habitual practice, whether of indi\aduals or communi- ties. It differs from Habit (Lat. habere), in that habit is exclusively applicable to individuals, and denotes that the stage is reached when the custom is no longer purely involun- tary, by a repetition of acts. In law, custom has the meaning of long- established practice or usage, having the force of unwi-itten law. Ordi- narily speaking, custom respects things that are done by the majority, habit those which are done by indi- viduals. We speak of national cus- toms, and a mau of active or indolent haljits. In this way, it is a custom in England to repair to the seaside in the autumn months. To smoke to- bacco Of take snutf are habits. There will often be a close connection be- tween a habit and a custom; either may lead to the other. The custom of going to church may lead to a habit of devotion; or the personal habit of devotion may lead a person to the custom of attending public worship. Those natural customs are the best which lead to good habits among the people. " A custom More honoured in the breach than the observance." Shakespeare. Habit is the effect of custom, _ as custom is the effect of inclination. It is a good custom to rise early, as this will i^roduce a habit of doing so. " How use doth breed a habit in a man." SJutkespeare. Fashion (Fr. fag^on, Lat. facere), besides its primary meaning of shape or manner, has the secondary mean- ing of prevailing manner. A fashion is a custom temporarily established, and refers commonly to matters of social usage, as style of dress. " The innocent diversions in fashion." — > Zocke. Manner and Method are closely allied, the former, however (Fr. ma- nih-e, Lat. mamis, the hand), denotes no more than the way of doing a thing, whUe in its more extended meaning, as expressed by the plural manners, it means the peculiar and characteristic mode of living and be- having. Method (Gr. /xe'^oSo?) is scien- tific manner, as manner is natural method. When manner is scientifi- cally regarded as a process capable of rules for its right and effective conducting, it becomes method. "All method is a rational progress; a progress toward an end." — Sir W. Hamil- ton. " The temptations of prosperity insinuate themselves after a gentle but very powerful manner." — Atterhury. Practice (Fy. pratique, Gr. iTpa(T(reiv, to do) has the two senses of a regular CUSTOM. ( 216 ) DAMP. doing, and the tiling regularly done. It is closely allied to both habit and custom. Practice is customary action ; if it be the result o£ repeated acts, it is so far a habit, but, unlike custom, it refers necessarily to the acts of individuals, either separately or in the aggregate, and not to communi- ties as such. It often occurs that the same thing may be regarded as either a custom or a practice, that is, as a regular thing or a regular act in a person. Custom and practice must be based upon reason, but habit may be the result of instinct or train- ing in irrational animals. Practice embodies more of the moral than is necessarily implied in custom, or even in habit. It denotes a distinct determination of purpose. A prac- tice must be good or bad, wholesome or unwholesome, and can hardly be purely indiifereut or formal. Indeed, practice is such conduct as manifests the disposition of the person. So gaming is a custom in those countries Avhich are particularly addicted to it. It is a habit in those individuals who cannot resist it. It is a practice in those who deliberately indulge in it. " He thought to have that \)Y practice which he could not by prayer." — Sidney. Usage (Fr. usage) and Prescrip- tion (Lat. pvcescriptio, a preamble, hence, figuratively, a pretext) are terms of a legal character. Custom is jirolonged by usage till it confers rights of prescription. In its ordi- nary sense, as, for instance, " usage determines the senses of words," usage is of many, while custom may be of one. Usage implies longer establishment than custom ; hence we may speak of a new custom, but not a new usage. In the case of wishing to express a common mode lately adopted, we ought to say a new use^ a new use of the word in that sense, or a new employment. Technically, custom differs from prescription in being local, while prescription is per- sonal. " Of things once received and confirmed by use, long usage is a law sufficient." — Hooker. " The speeches on both sides indicated that profound reverence for law and prescription which has long been characteristic of English- men." — Macaulay. D. Daily. Diuknal. These adjectives, which are both formed from the Latin dies, a day {dlivrnus, belonging to a day), are the same in meaning, and only differ as a colloquial term differs from a more scientific one. So we speak of Daily occurrences or daily newspapers, and of the Diurnal motion of the earth upon its axis. "Give us this day our daily bread." — Lord's Prayer. " Half yet remains unsung but narrow bound. Within the visible diurncd sphere." 3{ilton. Dainty. Delicacy. As applied to matters of the palate. Dainty (Old Fr. dain, connected with the Lat. dignus, worthy) may be considered to be a species of De- licacy (Fr. delicat, Lat. dclicia', deli- cate). For delicacy applies to any- thing which is exquisite, whether naturally so, as a fruit, or artificially, as a choice dish. A dainty is that which is uncommon and choice at the same time. Delicacy points to the niceness of the quality, dainty to the rarity of the supply. " The delicacies, I mean, of taste, sight, smell, herbs, fruits, and flowers, Walks, and the melody of birds." Hilton. " A table furnished plcnteonsly with bread And dainties, remnants of the last regale." Couper, Damage. See Hurt. Damp. Moist. Humid. All these terms are employed to express the smallest degree of in- fusion or suffusion of liquid. Any- thing which is not dry must be m some degree damp, moist, or humid. But we iise the term Damp of that which has contracted a state of wet foreign to itself, as a damp house, dami) clothes. When we say of a thing that it is damp, we almost always BAND YISIL ( 217 ) DARK. imply that it might better have been otherwise, unless we have damped it exiDressly (Germ, clampf, fog, steam, vapour). Moist (Old Fr. moiste) means normally and naturally damp, aud therefore has not the unfavour- able sense attached to damp. If we said the ground was moist, we should prol^ably mean in a favoiu'able con- dition for vegetation ; if we said it ■was damp, we should probably mean that we ought to be careful about walking upon it. HuaiiD (Lat. Im- Diidiis) means both damp and moist, and is of more scientific application, as " the atmosphere of islands is more or less humid." The peculiar character of the adjective damp is developed in the verb to damp, which means to stifle or repress. As : " Usury dulls and damps all industries, improvements, and new inventions." — Bacon. " Set such plants as require much moisture on sandy dry grounds." — Ibid. *' Evening cloud or humid bow." Milton. Dandyish. See Foppish. Danger. Peril. Hazard. EisK. Jeopardy. Venture. Danger (Fr. danger) is the liability or exposure to evil of any kind. Danger is general and contingent, and may be remote. It is the generic term. " Such men as he be never at heart's ease Whilst they behold a greater than them- selves, And therefore are they very dangerous." Shakespeare. Peril (Lat. peridum) is always immediate and personal. A man is in danger of his property and in peril of his life. " sacred source of ever-living light, Conduct the weary wand'rer in her flight, Direct her onward to tliat peaceful shore Where peril, pain, and death prevail no more." Falconer. Hazard (Fr. hazard) is the con- dition of any good possessed and ex- posed to danger of destruction or loss. It is the risk of entire depriva- tion of the thing hazarded, and ap- plies only to things, not persons. Hence people hazard their lives, their property, their reputation ; but they do not hazard, but endanger or im- peril themselves. Hence passionate and unreasonable men call it courage to hazard their lives in their own private qviarrels, where contempt of danger is, on the contrary, neither reasonable nor just; because'^ neither is the danger at all needful to be run into, nor is the benefit pi-oposed to be obtained by it in any manner equal to the evil hazarded. The essence of hazard is its fortuitous character, so that sometimes this predominates to the exchision of all others, and we speak of the " hazard of the die," as implying the chance of gain as well as loss. This is not the case with either peril or danger. Risk (Fr. risque) is hazard of loss only. We run the risk of losing, but we never speak of the risk, but of the chance of winning. " How often, whether wrong or right, Must he in jest or earnest fight, Risking for those both life and limb. Who would not risk one groat for him." Churchill. Jeopardy (Fr. jeu parti, drawn game) may exclude aU voluntary agency, which is implied in hazard and risk, and, unlike jjeril, is ap- plicable to things of value as well as to persons. A man's property, or life, or himself, may be in jeo- pardy. " But by the way there is a great quicksand And a whirlpool oi hiAA^n jeopard ice ; Therefore, Sir Palmer, keep an even hand, For twixt them both the narrow way doth lie." Spenser. Venture (for adventure) is purely voluntary, and denotes a meeting of hazard, peril, jeopardy, or risk, with the hope that chance may be in one's favour. " Wise venturing is the most commendable part of human providence." — Halifax. Dare. See Challenge. Daring. See Bold. Dark. Obscure. Dim. Gloomy. Opaque. Of these, the most comprehensive is Dark (A. S. dearc, deorc), which DATE. ( 218 ) DATE. denotes any degree of absence of light or colouring, -witli metaphorical meanings in addition, as unintelli- gible, mysterious, difficult, unhopeful, degraded or ignorant, iniquitous, and the Hke. " For as that which sees does not cease to exist when in the dark all objects are removed, so that which perceives does not necessarily cease to exist when by death all objects of perception are removed." — Clarke. Obscure (Lat. obscurus) denotes any degi-ee or kind of darkness which interferes with the distinct perception of objects. It is opposed to what is clear, as dark is opposed to whac is liffht. In its secondary sense, as darkness stands for ignorance, so obscui-ity for uncertain knowledge. " WTien all the instruments of knowledge are forbid to do their office, ignorance and obscurity must needs be upon the whole soul." ^South. Dim (A. S. dim) denotes lack of brightness in something capable or supposed capable of it, and is opposed to bright. Dim, unHke dark, is not applicable to locality, but, on the other hand, is applicable as an epi- thet to light itself. Dimness stands to obscurity as the cause to the eftect. " Shedding a dim religious light." Milton. Gloomy (Old Eng. gloim) is a purely subjective term, denoting what has no existence but in ourselves. Any oppressive kind or degree of darkness is gloom. " His Holy Spirit doth in our religious in- tercourse with Him insinuate a lightsome serenity of mind, doth kindle sweet and kindly affections, and doth scatter the gloomy clouds of sadness." — Barroic. Opaqtje is a scientific term, de- noting that kind of substance which resists the transmission of rays of light, and is opposed to translucent and transparent. "Through this opaque of Nature and of soul. This double night, transmit one pitying ray. To lighten and to cheer." Young. Date. Period. Era. Epoch. Time. Age. Generation. Of these, the most general is Time (Lat. tempus), which means unmea- sured dm-ation, or any specific mea- sure or point of it. " This consideration of duration, as set out by certain periods, and marked by certain measures or epochs, is that I think which most propei'ly we call time." — Locke. Date (Fr. date, Lat. datum, from dare, to give, a point given) is a point, and not a dui-ation of time, bearing reference to the whole historic course of time within which it occurs. " Any writer, therefore, who mentions the rising or setting of any star, at any particular time of the year with respect to the sun, fur- nishes us with data sufficient to determine the time in which he wrote." — Priestley. Period (Gr. Trep/oSo?) is, pro- perly, a recuiTent portion of time, or such a portion as is measured by some recui-rent phenomenon, as a revolution of one of the heavenly bodies. Hence, more generally, an interval, definite or indefinite, and sometimes the end or limit of such an interval. A period is, as it were, an expanded point of time, or a stage in history, which may itself be included among other stages. " The particular periods into which the whole period should be divided, in my opinion, are these : 1. From the fifteenth to the end of the sixteenth century. 2. From thence to the Pyrenean treaty. 3. From thence down to the present time." — Bolingbroke. Era (It. and Spanish era) is used both for a fixed point of time, and for a succession of years dating from that point. It is conventional, and indi- cates a mode of computing time peculiar to some community or body of persons. " I incline to this opinion, that from the evening ushering in the first day of the world to that midnight which began the first day of the Christian era there was 4003 years seventy days and six temporary hours, and that the true nativity of our Saviour was full five years before the beginning of the vulgar Christian ahle and iricapable of it, as a dead man, dead matter. " Seek him with candle, bring him dead or living." — Shakespeare. Lifeless (or wanting life) from bodies capable of it, as a " lifeless corpse." " Nor can his lifeless nostril please With the once ravishing smell." Cowley. Inanimate (Lat. in, not, and anima, life) from bodies incaj^x Me of it; as, " Trees and rocks, and other portions of the inanimate creation." " We may in some sort be said to have a society even with the inanimate world." — Burke. Deadly. Mortal. Fatal. Using these terms, not in any meta- phorical, but in their literal and phy- sical meanings, the distinctions are as follow : Deadly means capable of producing death. " Gods ! I behold a prodigy. My spear Lies at my foot ; and he at whom I cast ^ The weapon with such deadly force is gone." Cowper's Iliad. Mortal (Lat. mortalis, mors, death) is liable to produce or suffer death. Hence it is used as a strong epithet of feelings. A mortal hatred is literally one which would kill its object. « Louis XIII. mortally hated the Cardinal de Richelieu ; but his support of that minister against his rivals was the source of all the glory of his reign, and solid foundation of his throne itself." — Burke. Fatal (Lat. fatalis, fatum, fate) actually productive of death. A poi- soned arrow is a deadly weapon, even while it remains in its quiver. Men are mortal, or receive mortal wounds, as being or having what tends to death. A blow is fatal on which death follows inevitably. " Where's the large comet now whose raging flame So fatal to our monarchy became. Which o'er our heads in such proud horror stood, ^^ Insatiate with our ruin and our blood ? Cowley. Dealing. See Intercouese and Trade. Dearth. See Scarcity. DEATH. ( 220 ) DEBAR. Death. Depaetuke. Decease. Demise. Death signifies the act of dying or tlie state of the dead. Departure (Fr. depart, the quitting life). De- cease (Lat. decedere, to depart) is etyniologically the same. Demise (Lat. demittere, demissiis) is the laying down or resigning of life and pos- sessions. Death is the simplest and broadest, being applicable to the ex- tinction of life both in animals and plants, to which the others are in- applicable. It may be calm or vio- lent, natural, or self-inflicted. De- parture is a term under which lies the idea of social life, and, in spirits of the highest faith, the hopes of re- union, as weU as a point of an-ival, or future state beyond the grave. The suicide and the aged, or the sick calmly awaiting their end, depart; not those who die on the scaffold or in battle. Decease is the term we use when we think of the death of another as an epoch of his existence, or our own, and in connection with personal events preceding, accom- panying, or following it ; yet a violent death is not called a decease. De- mise is employed of the death of illustrious persons, as peculiarly of royalty, in reference to the bequeath- ing of titles or estates to successors and heirs. *' Happy to whom this glorious death arrives, More to be valued than a thousand lives, On such a theatre as this to die, For such a cause, and such a witness by." Mealier. " Although when the Divine Providence does itself ofler us a just occasion of leaving this world (as when a man chooses to suffer death rather than commit wickedness), a wise man will then indeed depart joyfully, as out of a place of sorrow and darkness into light ; yet he will not be in such haste as to break his prison contrary to law, but will go when God calls him, as a prisoner when dis- missed by the magistrate or lawful power." —Clarke. " The Romans had the custom to deify and adore their emperors, most of them after their decease, and some of them during their lives, even though they were the vilest of man- kind." — Jortin. , " So tender is the law of supposing even a possibility of his (the king's) death, that his natural dissolution is generally called his demise, demissio regis vel coronse, an expres- sion which signifies merely a transfer of property." — Blackstone. Debar. Depeiye. Hinder. Prohibit, Disqualify. Exclude. Preclude. Forbid. Debar (bar or bander) is to shut out. It applies only to persons in reference to things rightf id, desirable, or desired, as to be debarred from privileges, possessions, rights, or an attempt to prociu-e them. To debar indicates merely an act of preventive power in reference to those things which may be exercised upon us by ourselves, by others, or by circum- stances. " Hereby the apostle not only debarred women from prophesying, but from any public function in the ecclesiastical jurisdiction." — Striipe, Deprive (Lat. deprivare) denotes the coercive taking away of what one possesses either in fact or in prospect, while debar relates to what one does not as a fact possess or attain to. " Thus a punishment of this kind was in- flicted on the rebellious Israelites. They were deprived of the extraordinary Providence, and were yet held subject to the' Theocracy." — Warburton. To Hinder (literally, to keep behind) is to debar either temporarily or entirely from some act or occupa- tion to which one was seeking to devote oneself. " Sore let and hindered in running the race that is set before us." — £ook of Common Prayer. Prohibit (Lat. prohihere] and Forbid (for having the force of nega- tion, and bid, to tell) have the force of interdiction by authority, or debar- ring by the use of words of com- mand. Forbid is less formal than prohibit, is used in the commoner matters of life, and is more direct. A father forbids his child to go out of the house. We are prohibited from promiscuous revenge not only by the Divine law, but by many con- siderations besides. Prohibit and forbid almost universally relate to DEBAR, DEBATE. Bome kind of action wliicli is kept in clieck. " To this day in France the exportation of corn is almost always prohibited ; in order, as they say, to prevent famines; though it is evident that nothing contributes more to the frequent famines which so much distress that fertile country." — Hume. " Heaven is high, High and remote to see from thence distinct Each thing on earth ; and other care per- haps May have diverted from continual watch Our great forhidder." Hilton. Disqualify (Lat. dis and quails, sncli, and /a cere, to make) is to debar by attacliing personal and inherent prohibition from some privilege, office, or dignity. " Men are not disqualified by their engage- ments in trade from being received in high society." — Southcy. ExCLtTDE (Lat. excludere) is form- ally to sliiit out, and may be an act of law and regulation by arbitrary power or inherent conditions. It relates to tlie participation of things desired or desirable, and is the generic term under which disqualification is contained as a species of exclu- sion. actually in performance or enjoy- ment. " The interdicted tree." Milton, " None but such frc mercy I exclude." Hilton. Preclude (Lat. prcecludere) is to exclude by indirect means. It is to shut out by anticipation, or to pre- vent by necessary consequence. It is applicable not only to persons, but to such things also as are merely conceivable or possible. " The valves preclude the blood from enter- ing the veins." — Darwin. Interdict {inter and dicere, to speak) is opposed to positive, being negative, command, and is commonly employed of formal or pul^lic kinds of prohibition. Interdict closely re- sembles prohibit, but points to the stopping or debarring of what was ali-eady in course of being done or enjoyed. I j)rohilut where I see, perhaps, no more than a probable caitse for the prohibition; interdict what if I were silent would certainly be done or assumed, or what is Debase. Abase. Debate. Akgue. Dispute. Deliberate. Discuss. Contend. Debate (Fr. dcbattre) is formally to sift by argument for and against. It supposes a number of opinions in every way related to the question in hand, including every shade, from the strongest affirmation to absolute denial, being brought into comparison and collision. The legitimate object of debate is to bring together the expression of various opinions for the purpose of accepting, rejecting, or modifying the matter in hand. The sxihject of debate may be purely theoretical, as the abstract truth of a proposition, or purely practical, as how best to compass an object, or both. There is, or ought to be, no personal antagonism in debate, truth and right being things of common interest ; nor is there any reason why debate should not be among friends, and carried on in harmony and una- nimity of purpose. And the process of debate is, according to its etymo- logy, to strive to conquer or refute (literally beat doAvn) the' wrong and false, for the purpose of setting up the truth and right. " As I am only giving an opinion on this point, and not at all debating it in an adverse line, I hope I may be excused in another observation." — Burke. To Argue (Lat. arguere) is to say all that can be said for or against a proposition or a case. It may be the process of one or of more persons. " When we peruse those authors who defend our own settled sentiments, we should not take all their arguings for just and solid." — Watts. To Dispute (Lat. disputare) is always antagonistic. It is to ai'gue against something as held or main- tained by another, and extends, nut only to his statements, but to any- thing claimed or \ipheld by him in any way, as his claims, rights, or pretensions. Contend (Lat. con- DEBILITY. ( 222 ) DECEIVE. tendere) is the opposite to dispute; for, as dispute is to attack and en- deavour to shake what is held or ad- vanced by another, so contend is to argue urgently in favour and support of something held by oneself. "It is very strange that those who contend so much for the Scriptures being a perfect rule of all things jiertaining to worship and discipline, should be able to produce nothing in so necessary a point." — Stillinjfleet. Deliberate (Lat. libra, a balance) has reference never to questions of abstract truth, but always to a course of action to be adopted or pursued. " If there be a real suprise, that is, that the person is not aware, or hath not time to consider what he is to do, he that hath a mind well resolved may be betrayed into what he would never have done, if he had time to deliberate about it." — Stillingfleet. To Discuss (Lat. discutere, to shake about) very closely resembles to debate, but differs in the two fol- lowing points: — 1, discuss is more commonly applied to matters of opinion, while debate belongs rather to action or proceedings ; but, 2, dis- cuss is used of cases in which the process of consideration is argu- mentative, but the object or subject is not a matter of argument at all, but only amounts to a varied ex- pression of feeling or opinion. To discuss a point of theology, for instance, does not of necessity imply either contending or disputing. It may be no more than a collation of what is said and argued upon that point, without giving in an adhesion to any conclusion or view whatever. " Pride and humility are two opposite habits or dispositions of the mind ; and there- fore the discussion and examination of the latter will of itself give us a discovery of the former." — Hale. Debility. See Enervate. Decay. Decline. Die. Perish. To Decay (Lat. decidere, to fall down) is to depart from a state of soundness, and denotes a tendency to the state of disorganization and dis- solution ; as the decay of the body in old age, tlie decay of the mind by the same cause, the decny of states and constitutions political. " Throughout the whole vegetable, sensi- ble, and rational world, whatever makes progress towards maturity, as soon as it has passed that point begins to verge towards decay." — Blair. Decline (Lat. dedinare) is down- ward tendency or movement, without any such disruption or disorganiza- tion, as " the declining years of life," " the declining sun." " The strength of the frontiers, which had always consisted in arms rather than fortifi- cations, was insensibly undermined, and the fairest provinces were left exposed to the rapaciousness or ambition of the barbarians, who soon discovered the decline of the Eoman empire." — Gibbon. Decline is often preparatory to decay. The prop declines when it bends, and decays when it rots. The progressive debility of the Roman empire was its decline. The actual dissolution of the fabric commenced with its decay. Die (Iceland. de]ja, deyja) is simply to cease to live. " Wise men die, as well as the ignorant and foo\\&h."~Bible. Perish (Lai.perire) is used when something connected with the ex- tinction of life is meant to be empha- tically dwelt upon, as its completeness, or the unhappy or violent circum- stances of it. So men often die hap- " ily, but they never perish happily, say "perish miserably," " perish utterly," and the like. " Yet one doubt Pursues me still, least all I cannot die. Least that pure breath of life, the sjjirit of man, Which God inspired, cannot together perish With this corporeal clod." Milton. Decease. See Death. Deceit. See Deception. Decei\te. Delude. Mislead. Beguile. Deceive (Lat. decipere) is gene- rally to lead into error by causing to believe what is false, or disbelieve what is true. The plausil.ile, the spe- cioris, the_ aj)parent right, true, or desirable, is that which ex(>rcist.>s over us the power of deception, wliich being one thing, looks, or is made to t DECEIVER. ( 223 ) DECIDE. look, like anotlier by misrepresenta- tion in objects or in words. " But what account shall a man give of himself for living perpetually in disguise ; for deceiving all about him, and using the s{)eech which God gave him for better pur- poses, to impose on the weakness and folly of mankind ?" — Sherlock. To Delude (Lat. deludere) is to de- ceive in the particular matters of the desirable or good. Delusion com- bines disappointment with deceit. I deceive my neighbour if I simply tell him a falsehood, which he believes. I delude him by any kind of mis- representation in matters connected ■with his feelings, hopes, or interests, as by holding out to him a hope of his gaining what I know to be im- possible for him ever to attain. "This pure metal So innocent is, and faithful to the mistress Or master that possesses it, that rather Than hold one drop that's venomous, of it- self It flies in pieces, and deludes the traitor." Massinger. I Mislead him when I draw him off from the line of right judgment or action. To delude, when used of persons, implies an intention to de- ceive ; but mislead may be uninten- tional, as when I give my neighbour what I believed at the time to be true information, but which I have since discovered to be erroneous. We ai'e deceived in our judgment, deluded in our desires, misled in our actions. Beguile (be and gi^ile, the same as wile) is to place another in a false position, to induce him to believe something to be true, and to leave him to the consequences of his erroi", especially by seductive arts. It is in- tentionally and maliciously to mis- lead another to his privation or detriment. " And the woman said. The serpent beguiled me, and I did eat." — Bible. Deceivee. See Impostor. Decent. See BEcoMma. Decency. See Decorum. Deception. Deceit. Illusion. Delusion. Deception (Lat. decijpere, to de- ceive) is used of individual instances or acts of one who deceives ; Deceit, rather of the acts as appertaining to habit or quality of mind ; as " a course of deceit," " an act of deception." Hence deception is more external, and is applicable to cases in which the guilt of deceit has no part, as an optical deception. Illusion and Delusion {illudere and deludere) ex- press, the former, something which is presented before our mental or bodily view, but which has no substantial and independent existence, while the latter implies a false view of something which really exists, but not under the conditions which we attribute to it. The same distinction prevails in re- gard to matters purely intellectual. In history, for example, to believe that any great personage, as Thomas a Becket or Henry VIII., acted uni- formly from pure and disinterested motives, would be a delusion- To believe in the historical existence of Don Quixote would be an illusion. "A fanatic, either religious or political, is the object of strong delusions ; while the term illusion is applied solely to the visions of an uncontrolled imagination, the chimerical ideas of one blinded by hope, passion, or credulity, or, lastly, to spectral and other optical deceptions, to which the word delusion is never applied." — Whately. Decide. Determine. Eesolve. To Decide (Lat. decidere) expresses an intellectual result. Determine (Lat. determinare) and Resolve (Lat. resohere) moral results. I decide according to my judgment. I determine according to my pui-pose. I resolve as combining the two, and implying a sort of pledge given to myself to caiTy out with determina- tion what I have decided upon. Re- solution betokens a choice made between action and inaction, and is opposed to doubt, reluctance, or in- action. Determination betokens a choice made between motives, and is opposed to vacillation, uncertainty. Decision is a final and in-evocable act of the will or judgment, and is op- posed to indecision or hesitation. " And it is indeed but fit there should be some dernier ressort, the absolute decider of all controversies." — Spectator. decision: ( 224 ) DECREE. "By cletcnnininf] the will, if the phrase be used with any meaning, must be intended causing that the act of the will orchoice should be thus and not otherwise ; and the will is said to be determined when in consequence of some action or influence its choice is directed to, or fixed upon a particular object." — Edwards, Freedom of the Will. " I am resolved what to do, that when I am put out of the stewardship they may receive me into their houses." — Bible. Decision. Decisive. See Eesolution. See Conclusive. Declaim. Inveigh. Of these, Declaim (Lat. cleclamare) does not of necessity imply antago- nism of speecli. We may declaim ■?/poii as well as against. It is in tlie latter use in wliicb the term is syno- nymous with Inveigh (Lat. in and vehere, to carry). To declaim is to speak. Declamation is speech in which the rhetorical is more consi- dered than the logical. It sacrifices accuracy, refinement, and consecu- tiveness to eiFect. To inveigh is spe- cific declamation against character, conduct, manners, customs, and morals. Invective may be written, declamation is always spoken. In declamation against a thing or per- son, the uppermost idea is fluency in adverse expression of opinion; in invective, the personal dislike and opposition of the speaker. Hence we are more commonly said to de- claim against wi-ongs and injuries, and to inveigh against vices and abuses. Eloquent declamation, bitter invec- tives. " Grenville seized the opportunity to declaim on the repeal of the Stamp Act." — Ba)icroft. " All men inveighed against him, all men except court vassals opposed him." — Milton. Declare. See Announce, Pko- fess, and Pronounce. Decline. See Decay and PiEFUSE. Decorate. See Adorn. Decorum. Decency. These, though both derived from the same word [decere, to become) are employed, the former in reference to social beha\aour, the latter to moral conduct. Indecorous behaviour offends against order, good manners, and good taste. Indecent behaviour indicates a coiTupt state of morals. "Negligent of the duties aui. decorums of his station." — Hallam. " Those thousand decencies that daily flow From all our words and actions." Milton. Decoy. See Entice. Decrease. See Abate. Decree. Edict. Proclama- tion. Law. Statute. Piegu- lation. eule. Decree (Fr. decrei, Lat. decernere, decretiis, to decide) may come from one or more, from a sovereign, or a court of justice. It is commonly an authoritative order addressed to sub- ordinates, being in its nature specific and occasional, not permanent or of continuous operation. An Edict (Lat. edicere, edictus) is not applicable to numbers. It is the public expres- sion of a will of an individual in poli- tical power. In decree the leading idea is absolute obligation; in edict absolute authority. Hence decree is used largely of any binding power, as the decrees of fate. "Therefore I make a decree that every people, nation, and language which speak any- thing amiss against the God of Shadrach Meshach, and Abednego shall be cut in pieces,' and their houses shall be made a dunghill, because there is no other God that can deliver after this sort." — Bible. " The silence or ambiguity of the laws was supplied by the occasional edicts of those magistrates who were invested with the honours of the State." — Gibbon. Proclamation (Lat. jproclamatlo, a proclaiming) is a published order emanating from the sovereign or supreme magistrate, and bears re- ference to specific occasions, as detei'- ruiued upon in council, and not pro- vided for by the law of the land. " These proclamations have then a binding force when (as Sir Edward Coke observes) they are grounded upon and enforce the laws of the realm." — Bluckstone, DECRY. ( 225 ) DEDUCTION. Law (Fr. loi, Lat. lex), in its widest sense, is the authoritative expression of will on the part of any rightful governing power, and, in its political sense, permanently controls every department of the State. " That which doth assign unto each thing the kind, that which doth moderate the force and power, that which doth appoint the tbnu and measure of working, the same we term a law." — Hooker. Statute (Lat. statuere staiutum, to appoint) is commonly applied to the acts of a legislative body composed of representatives of the people, and stands with ourselves distinguished from civil law, canon law, and com- mon law. " The oldest of these now extant and printed in our statute books is the famous Magna Charta, as confirmed in Parliament 9 Henry III." — Blackstone. Regulation {regida, rego, a rule) is a governing direction of a State, department, institution, or an associa- tion for a specific purpose, and may be only of a temporary character. Such, for instance, are the arrange- ments for preserving order on great occasions of public interest, and the rules by which voluntary societies are managed. We often find " rules and regulations " combined. In such cases the difference is slight. Rule, however, points rather to authorita- tive enactments as such; regulation to thejjlace of such rules in the work- ing of the system or institution. In a school a refractory boy might be reprimanded for breaking the rules. It would be a regulation that the school should open and close every day at certain hours. One submits to a rule ; one conforms to a regula- tion. " 'Tis against the rule of nature." Shakespeare. " It never was the work of philosophy to assemble multitudes, but to regulate only and govern them when they were assembled." — Cowley. Decry. Depreciate, Dis- parage. The idea of lowering by words the ciirrent value is common to all these terms. Decky (Fr. dccrier) relates primarily to the inherent value of the thing itself, Depreciate (Lat. de, down, and lyretium, price) to the esti- mate of it as formed or expi-essed by oneself. Disparage (Low Latin paragium, equality of condition or birth) to the estimate of it as formed by others. " What an insufferable impudence then are they guilty of who nowadays decry all reading, study, and learning, and rely only on enthu- siasm and immediate inspiration !" — Bishop Bull. " Others are so unhappily attentive to party considerations or personal prejudices, that if a design ever so valuable comes from a wrong quarter, instead of being ambitious to share the merit and the honour of it, they set themselves immediately to depreciate it and suggest mischievous intentions in it." — Seeker. " Nothing hath wrought more prejudice to religion, or has brought more disparagement upon truth, than boisterous and unseasonable zeal." — Barrow. I decry a thing or person when I wish to bring it down in the actual or pos- sible regard of others. This may be from the purest motives, as to decry the architecture of a public building, as believing it to be radically de- fective, inconsistent with its pur- pose, or in itself bad. I depreciate it when I have some personal motive connected with myself (as lowering its abstract estimation). I disparage it to or before others, in order that certain persons whom I desire to think less highly of it may be led to do so. To decry expresses a more sustained process than the others, and a fuller entering on the demerits of the object. Dedicate. See Consecrate. Deduce. See Derive and In- fer. Deduction. Inference. Deduction. Subtraction. A- batement. These terms all express diminution of some quantity, and difier as fol- lows : Subtraction (Lat. snhtraJierc, to draw away from under) applies to number and quantity, and is general and abstract. It simply denotes the DEED. ( -^26 ) DEFECTIVE. removal of a part from tlie whole. Deduction (Lat. deducere) is such subtraction as is performed with the piirpose of lowering the aggregate or capital sum or quantity. A trades- man subtracts a certain sum from the total of his account, in consequence of my representations to him that he ought, in fairness, to make certain deductions. So subtraction may be theoretical; deduction has always a practical purpose. Abatement (Fr. ahattre, to beat down) refers not, like deduction and subtraction, to the parts, but to the whole, of which the amount is in any way diminished, as to make an abatement of a claim. " The late king had also agreed that two and a half per cent, should be deducted out of the pay of the foreign troops, which amounted to fifteen thousand pounds." — Burnet. " That universals are nothing else but names or words by which singular bodies are called, and consequently that in all axioms and propositions, sententious affirmations and negations (in which the predicate, at least, is universal), we do but add or subtract, affirm or deny names of singular bodies." — Cudworth. Old writers, as Shakespeare, used the form substract. " They are scoundrels and svbstraetors that say so of him." Shakespeare. " A great abatement of kindness." Ibid. Deed. See Act. Deem. See Eegard. Deface. Disfigure. ,Defoem. The formations of these words explain themselves — to injure the face, the figure, the form. Deface is always a j)urposed act, denoting a superficial injury to the extent of spoiling or destroying. It may be done by the injury of the substance, or by the application of some other substance externally, so as to smear, erase, or obliterate. Disfigure and Deform do not necessarily imply the desire to injure or deteriorate. Disfigure denotes the marring of the general appearance by some defect or injury which is sufiicient to interfere with the effect produced by the whole. Deform implies something which is detrimental to the charac- ter, shape, or organization of the entire thing. For instance, a build- ing may be defaced by scrawling upon its wails, disfigured by a roof, of which the colour is out of harmony with the walls, deformed by an un- sightly cui^ola surmounting it. De- face is never used of living animals, which can only be disfigured or de- formed. Of human beings, deformity is predicated as to the body and limbs, disfigurement of the face. The face of the veteran soldier might be disfigm-ed, not defaced, by wounds. The face might be said to be deformed in the sense of being monstrously out of shape as to its features, or dis- figured by some one blemish. " With these honourable qualifications, and the decisive advantage of situation, low craft and falsehood are all the abilities that are wanting to destroy the wisdom of ages and to deface the noblest monument that human policy has erected. I know such a man." — Junius. " Nor would his slaughtered army now have lain On Afric's sands disfigured witli their wounds." Addison. " Monsters, on the contrary, or what is perfectly deformed, are always most singular and odd, and have the least resemblance to the generality of that species to which they belong." — Smith, Moral Sentiments. Defamation. See Calumny. Defeat. See Baffle. Defect. See Blemish. Defective. Deficient. Im- perfect. These words both imply failing (Lat. deficere, to faU) ; but defective relates to incompleteness of quantity or quality, deficient to incomplete- ness of action or power in reference to some purpose. Defective is specific. It presupposes some stand- ard of sufl&ciency, or some definite aggregate of parts constituting a whole, which in the present case is not reached or forthcoming. Defi- cient is general and indefinite, sup- posing an undefined standard of sufficiency in force or operation. A book is defective as to its substance, when out of its complement of pages one or more, or even a portion of a page, is wanting. It is defective as DEFENCE. ( 227 ) DEFER. to its matter when it is inadequately planned, or omits what is needful or important. It is deficient when it fails of its character and use, either by the defectiveness of its parts, or any weakness of style, or want of knowledge in the writer. So defective belongs rather to the nature of things, deficient to the requirements of per- sons. A speaker is deficient who is defective in his speech. A difference is to be noted between defective and imperfect. Defective marks a spe- cific case and positive degree of im- perfection. That is defective which falls short of the ordmanj or average standard. That is Imperfect which does not come vip to j^erfection. So man and his every faculty is imper- fect in regard to an ideal standard of perfection, by reason of the infirmity of his nature ; but he is only defective in any such faculty when he does not possess it as the bulk of mankind do. " All of them (philosophers), as has been before shown, were very imperfect and deficient." — Clarke. " And after all, the rules of religion and virtue which were drawn up by these philo- sophers have been very imperfect and de- fective." — Watts. Defence. Apology. I Defend. Protect. Guard. To Defend (Lat. defenders) implies an active repelling of some adverse influence or power, Protect (Lat. 2)rotegere, to cover over) a passive placing of something between the object and the power. A fortress is defended by its guns, and protected by its walls. A defence is successful or unsuccessful. A protection is ade- quate or inadequate. In some cases, but they are of a somewhat meta- phorical character, we use the words interchangeably. So we say, to de- fend or protect plants from frost ; but in the one case we look upon the power we have to resist ; in the other, upon the objects which we have to guard. Guard (Fr. garder) partakes of the nature of both. It is the exercise of vigilant care of the object protected, with a readiness to defend it if necessary. " God defend the right." Shake.ipeare. " The stately-sailing swan Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale, And arching proud his neck, with oary feet Boars forward fierce, and guards his osier isle, Protective of his young." Thomson. " For heaven still guards the right." Shakespeare. Defender. See Pleader. Defer. Delay. Postpone. Pro- crastinate. Prolong. Protract. To Delay (Old Fr. delayer) is simj)ly to place an indefinite term between the present and the com- mencement of the thing delayed. This may be either a voluntary act or the result of circumstances. In this point Defer (Lat. deferre) differs from delay, expressing always a voluntary act. Defer is more specific ; delay more indefinite. I may delay to do that which I have no will to do, and would fain see left imdone. I defer that which I desire to be done, but not at the present moment. Hence defer is often followed by some term specifying a point of time, such as "till" or "to." " Defer the spoil of the city till night." Shakes^xare. " My lord delayeth his coming." — Bible. Postpone (Lat. post, after, and ponere, to place) implies moi'e strongly what defer implies less strongly, and delay hardly implies at all, namely, a definite intention to resume what for the present is put off". Hence it is more formal, and applies better to official meetings for business. " The meeting, we might say, was postponed for a month, and, when it met, the consideration of that question was deferred. Some regarded this as an unseemly and unnecessary delay." " ThGiQ postponers never enter upon religion at all in earnest or elFectually." — Paleij. The idea of postpone inclvides that of something to which the thing postponed is rendered subordinate, whether an event, a circumstance, or a period. Hence the word bears some- times the meaning of to regard as of inferior moment, as in the following : DEFERENCE. ( ^'-^8 ) DEFINITION. " Nor can that rationally be said to be despised by any, or postponed to any other thing, which never was proposed to them as their option, and which it never was in their power to choose or to embrace." — Whitby. Procrastinate (Lat. ^jj-o and eras, to-mori*ow) is, litevally, to put off till to-moiTow wliat might better have been done to-day. It is to delay, defer, or postpone through indolence or general unwillingness to com- mence action. " Procrastination is the thief of time. Year after year it steals till all are fled. And to the mercies of a moment leaves The vast concerns of an eternal scene." Young. Prolong and Protract (Lat. protrahere, protractus) differ from the former in implying something actually commenced, as a period or a transaction. There is very little difference between them ; but we com- monly use protract in the sense of contriving to lengthen. So to prolong a speech is simply to extend it ; to pro- tract it would be to talk against time. Prolong applies better to what is begun, but not concluded; protract better to what is not yet begun, as I prolong my stay, I protract my de- parture. " To what purpose should I take pains for a livelihood, or so much as be at the trouble of putting meat to my mouth for the pro- longation of my life ?" — Sharp. "The other manager very complaisantly received it again, and had recourse to the old mystery of protraction, which he exercised with such success that the season was almost consumed before he could afford it a reading." — Smollett. Deference. Eeverence. Ke- SPECT. Eegard. Deference to another (Fr. dej'er- ence) marks a readiness to yield to him in matters of choice or judg- ment, rather than to enforce one's own wishes or opinions. It is grounded upon age, rank, dignity, or personal merit, " Deference to the authority of thoughtful and sagacious men." — Whevocll. Respect (Lat. respicere, respectus, to regard) is to hold in high estima- tion for moral or intellectual quali- ties, or both. It is due peculiarly to the wise and good. " We pass by common objects or persons without noticing them, whereas we turn back to look again at those which deserve our admiration, our regard, our respect. This was the original meaning of respect and respectable." — M. Miiller. Reverence (Lat. reverentia) is a profounder respect, not unmingled with fear. "Great reverencers of crowned heads." — Simft. Regard (Fr. regard) differs from the former in being the feeling of an equal or a superior, not an inferior. It is the feeling of all right-minded persons toward those whose qualities are estimable. " He should advanced be to high regard, And have our lady's love for his reward." Spenser. Defile. See Contaminate. Deficient. See Defective. Definite. Positive. In the cases in which these terms have the character of synonyms, Definite (Lat. definire, definitus) relates to the thing. Positive {posi- tivus, from ponere, to place or lay down) to the mind of the person. A definite account of a thing would be one that was clear and sufficient; a positive account one which was given with plainness of speech, and with an air of conviction and assurance by the speaker. "To be defnitely in a place is to be in it so as to be there and nowhere else." — Bishop Taylor. " Positively to foretell is to profess to fore- know, or to declare positive foreknowledge." — Edwards on the Will. Definition. Explanation. Definition (Lat. definire) in its strict sense is that which gives the logical essence of a thing, as its genus and specific difference, or, less scientifically, enumerates its acci- dents and properties. Explana- tion {explanare, to make smooth) is a more popular process, consisting in bringing home something to the DEFORM. ( 229 ) DELICATE. understanding of a nature difficult to comprehend, by the media of other things with which the mind of the person is more familiar. Definition rather belongs to words and ideas, explanation to facts and state- ments. " Definition being nothing but making another understand by words what idea the term defined stands for, a definition is best made by enumerating those simple ideas that are combined in the signification of the term defined." — Locke. " Explanations of the doctrine of the Trinity." — Burnet. Deform. Defraud. Defy. S See Deface. See Cheat. '£ Challenge. Des- Degbade. See Abase. Degree. See Class. Dejected. See Sad, Dejection. Depression, pondency. Melancholy. Dejection (Lat. dejecere, dejedus, to cast down) and Depression (Lat. dcpi-imere, to depress) both refer to the spirits. Dejection is stich a state of sadness or sorrow as affects the countenance and demeanour, giving a do-micast look. Depression is simply a lowness of spirits, and is more purely constitutional. Dejec- tion implies some source of sorrow, privation, or disappointment ; but de- pression may be produced by atmo- spheric causes. Despondency (Lat. despondere) points to a state of mind, the result of sad or dis- heartening refiectious, as upon a loss which cannot be recovered, or a failure which cannot be retrieved, or a hope which is likely to be frus- trated, or an unfavourable aspect of personal affairs. Melancholy (Greek fieXayxoXia, literally black bile) denotes such dejection or de- pression as is either constitutional or chronic in the individual, and often results from a number of impressions which cannot be resolved into any one direct cause of grief or sadness. " I have had no dignities ; thou hast with- held them, and I have not thought them even worthy of a wish. Didst thou see me sad and disjected on these accounts ?" — Jortin. " Lambert, in great depression of spirit, twice prayed to let him escape." — Baker, Charles II, "This (sincerity and integrity of heart) enables a man to look back without horror, to look about him without shame, to look within without confusion, and to look forward without despondency." — Stillingflcet. " When the mind is very deeply impressed with a sense of calamity for a continuance, and the attention cannot by any means be diverted from it, the subject is in a state of melancholy. This atiection manifests itself by dejection of spirits, debility of mind and body, obstinate and insuperable love of solitude, universal apathy, and a confirmed listless- ness, which emaciate the corporeal system, and not unfi-equently trouble the brain." — Cogan. Delay. See Defer. Delegate. See Accredit and Eepresentative. Deleterious. See Noxious. Deliberate. See Consult and Debate. Delicacy. See Dainty. Delicate. Fine. Nice. These terms are all employed both of the character of objects and of the faculties which perceive and treat them. As to the quality of objects, that is Delicate (Fr. delicat) which is refinedly agreeable, or likely to please a highly-cultivated taste, though it might have no gratifica- tion for minds or tastes not trained to perceive the beauty of what is not conspicuous, or the agreeableness of what does not force itself strongly upon the senses. When used of persons in a moral sense, the term expresses an appreciation of what is extrinsically delicate, a shrinking from harshness and coarseness, a considerateness for others, and an appreciation of the less prominent beauties and graces of things. As in delicacy there is a natural suscepti- bility of injviry, the term is some- times used purely in this sense, as a delicate constitution, delicate health. " An air of robustness and strength is very prejudicial to beauty. An appearance of DELICATE. DELIVER. delicacy, and even of fragility, is almost essen- tial to it." — Burke. Fine {Yr.fiii] has, singularly enough, taken to itself a meaning quite op- posed to the weakness of delicacy, though it is nearly identical with it in its other sense of requiring minute- ness of discrimination, or exhibiting discriminative power, as a " fine dis- tinction." There would appear at first sight to be almost a contradiction be- tween such uses of the term, as " fine cambric " and a " fine child ;" the former pointing to delicacy of tex- ture, the latter to robustness of con- stitution ; but fine, as opposed to coarse (which is the same as coiu-se, ordinary), and so meaning choice of its hind, will admit of such seemingly contrariant applications. A fine child is a child of no common form and growth ; fine cambric is of no com- mon textiu-e; a fine taste is a taste of no common power of discrimination. The fine is that which combines deli- cacy and power or grandeui-, as a fine speech, a fine landscape. "The character of his Majesty's bluff haughtiness (Henry VIII. by Holbein) is well represented, and all the heads are fnely executed." — Walpole. Nice (said to be from nescius, igno- rant, as if it indicated, as it did in Old English, xminformed, and after- wards came to mean seeking inform- ation, and so exact), when applied to objects, is not a word of higb mean- ing. It indicates such a degree of excellence or agreeableness as people in general would api^rove oi* enjoy. When used of persons and their powers of discrimination, it seems to com- bine exactness of knowledge with a certain fastidiousness of require- ment. A distinction is said to be nice which tends to over-refinement. A person -with a nice taste in music is not easily pleased with what he hears._ The old meaning of nice — silly, ignorant — appears in the follow- ing: " For he was wjce and knowthe no wisdom." — i?. Gloucester. " By his own nicety of observation he had already formed such a system of metrical harmony as he never afterwards much needed or much endeavoured to improve." — Johnson, Life of Waller. Delicious. See Delightful. Delighted. See Glad. Delightful, Delicious. Charming. Of these. Delightful relates to the state of mind, Delicious to the specific gratification of the senses, and Charming to the gratification of the mind through the senses. Anything is delightful which pro- duces gladness of mind. Hence delight is not caused simply by exter- nal objects of sense. Good news, for instance, may be delightful. A delightful country, delightful music, and so on, are such as to produce pleasurable excitement of the mind. The term ill accords with purely phy- sical enjoyment, as a delightful dish. Delicious is well-nigh confined to matters of taste, touch, and smell. It expresses that which very sensibly excites pleasure in these matters. Charming is used in a wider sense of that which delights and engages the whole nature, and commonly de- notes that state of mental enjoy- ment which is produced through the senses. A charming landscape is one which we linger to enjoy. A charm- ing person is one in whose society and conversation we feel continual delight. It generally implies an aggre- gate of attractions, while delightful and delicious refer to some one point of attractiveness or enjoyment. "The situation was delightful. In front was the sea and the ships at anchor, behind and on each side were plantations, in w-hich were some of the richest productions of nature." — Cook's Voyages. " They are like Dives, whose portion was in this life, who went in fine linen, and fared deliciously every day." — Bishop Ihylor. "This is a most majestic vision and Harmonious charmingly." Shakespeare. Delineate, See Sketch. Delds-quext, See Offender, Delin-er, Eescde, Liberate. PiELEASE, Deliver (Fr. delivrer, Low Latin DELIVER. ( -^31 ) DELIVER. deliberare, from liber, to set free) lias various senses, according to the various applications of tlie main idea; as to set free, and so release ; to set f lee from oneself, and so surrender ; to cause to go forth ; free, to disbur- den. In the sense of setting free, deliver means to rid of any kind of coercive power, which in any sense or any way interferes with the free- dom of the person, as to deliver one person from another, or from the power of another. It is even extended to what is oppressive, painful, or irksome, as to deliver from the fear of death, or from a painful necessity. " Deliver us from evil." — Lord's Prayer. Rescue (Old Fr. rescourre, from re excutere, to shake off and away) de- notes that kind of removal both of persons and things from the power and possessi'im of another, which is the result of energetic interference aud personal effort. It is possible to deliver and to rescue from danger, that is, from impending, not actual evil. Liberate, on the other hand, involves an actual restraint, confinement, or coercion. " Nineveh was rescued from the brink of destruction." — StiUingfleet. Liberate and Release (the former of the same root as deliver, the latter from the Old Fr. relaisser, to set loose) are very closely related in meaning ; so that in many cases they might be used indifferently, as to release or to liberate a prisoner from confinement ; but liberate refers only to restraint in the most direct sense of the term, though the meta- phorical use of it is common, as to liberate the mind from prejudices, where prejudices are regarded as restraining influences interfering with the mind's free action. Re- lease is more widely applied to any kind of force, as, for instance, that which oppresses, pains, or compels. So we speak not only of releasing from prison, but from an obliga- tion, debt, or bond, from torture or sickness, and, in death, from sorrow, pain, and evil. " That the public revenue of Gi-eat Britain can never be completely liberated, or even that any considerable progress can ever be made towards that liberation, while the sui-]ihis of that revenue, or what is over and al"i\u clriV.iyincr the annual e.xpense of the ]>.Mi(! otiilili.shnient, is so very small, it seems altui;i;tlier in vain to expect." — Smith, Wealth of A at ions. "So I may say I am but a prisoner still, notwithstanding the releasemcnt of so many." — Howell. Deliver. Surrender, Trans- fer. I Deliver (see above) a thing to another when I place it in his hands, so as to part with my own pei'soual responsibility and control. It is a f(jrmal act, performed either on my own or some one else's account, as when I sign, seal, and deliver a bond, or when I deliver to its intended owner or keeper a parcel with which I have been entriTsted. The act is at least voluntary, if not willing. The difference in meaning between this force of the verb deliver and that last noticed corresponds with the difference between the nouns deliver- ance and delivery. " The investitures of bishops and abbots, which had been originally given by the delivery of the pastoral ring aud staff." — Burnet. Surrender (Fr. surrendre, sub and reddere, to render) is applied to mat- ters of right or possession, with which we part in favour of another under coercion or compulsion, as to surren- der a fortress, or an expressed opinion in argument, or a claim, or oneself to any influence or power, as to vice, grief, despaii", idleness, sleep. "If we do not surrender our wills to the overtures of His goodness, we must submit our backs to the strokes of His anger." — Barrow. Transfer (Lat. transferre) is simply to convey from one person or place to another, with or without personal interest, property, or control on our own part, and is applicable to moral things, as well as to material substances, as to transfer one's affec- tion. " Transferring the honour which was due to God alone unto saints and to feigned miracles." — Udal, I DELIVER. ( 232 ) DEMEANOUR. Deliver. Pronounce. Utter. Of these, Utter (to put fortli or out) is the simplest. To utter a speech is simply to sound it with the voice, as so many words. So the word utterance is applied to mere inarticu- late sound, as to utter a sigh or a moan. Pronounce (Lat.projutuh'«re) is syllabically, distinctly, and in some cases witli formality and solemnity, to utter, as to pronounce judgment. To Deliver (.see above) denotes a careful and sustained j)ronouucing of what requires to be conveyed in many Avords. To deliver a speech would imply not only the words, but the manner of it. So we might say, " The substance was eloquent, but the words were indistinctly pro- nounced;" or, " The speech was good in itself, but badly delivered." " He (Vertue) was simple, modest, and scrupulous, so scrupulous that it gave a peculiar slowness to his delivery. He never uttered his opinion hastily, nor hastily assented to others." — Walpole. " In order to be fully and easily understood, the four chief requisites are, a due degree of loudness of voice, distinctness, slowness, and propriety oi pronunckdion." — Blair, Lectures. Delivery. Deliverance. These two forms of the same word (see above) differ in mainly regarding, the former, the point whither, the lattei', the point whence the action proceeds. Delivery means a deliver- ing to, deliverance a delivering from. So " The holiday was concluded by the delivery of prizes to the success- ful competitors ;" " A Te Deum was celebrated for the nation's deliver- ance." Delude. See Deceive. Deluge. Inundate. Over- flow. Submerge. To Deluge (Lat. diluvium) implies the pouring of a vast body of water coming from above, as a deluge of Precipitate to earth the tempest pours, The vexing hailstones thick in sounding showers, The deluged -plAXTis then every ploughman flies. And every hind and traveller sheltered hes." Hamilton's Virgil. Inundate (Lat. in and imda, a wave) implies an horizontal move- ment of the same body spreading itself laterally. An inimdation may result from a deluge. As deluge primarily regards the water which pours or covers, so inundation pri- marily regards the land which is covered or submerged. "Xonnus reports in the history of his embassy, that during the period when the Xile inundates Egypt there are very violent storms in the diflerent parts of Ethiopia." Belue, Herodotus. Overflow is an inundation caused by excess of fluid in some : specific place or channel. So, " a deluge of rain fell, the river overflowed its banks, and the coimtry far and wide was inundated, so that it remained for some weeks submerged." " Poets that lasting marble seek Must carve in Latin or in Greek. We write in sand, our language grows, And like the tide our work o'erflows." Waller. Submerge (Lat. suhnergere, to drown) denotes that the inundation has entirely drowned the land. It deserves, however, to be remarked that, while the others indicate the specific action of water, submerge is also applied to cases in which the primary action is not on the part of the water, as, when in a quantity of water a large body is purposely placed so as to be entirely covered, it is said to be submei-ged. The element overflows and inundates. Man may deluge and submerge. " Some of our own countrymen have given credit to the subimrsion "of swallows." — Fennant. And as, when scormy winds encounterinc loud, Burst with rude violence the bellowius cl.-ud, Delusion Demand, quire. Demeanour. See Air See Decepi;[on. See Ask and Ee- DEMISE. ( 233 ) DEMUR. Demise. See Bequeath ami Death. Demolish. Destroy. To Destroy (Lat. destruere) is violently to put an end to anything that existed in life or shape, or even to the life itself. Hence destroy is the generic word. Demolish (Fr. lUmolir, moles, a mass) is the specific destruction of an organized body or a structural mass. To this latter it is most commonly applied, as to de- molish the walls of a castle. Demo- lition is opposed to constimction. Destroy may or may not involve violence, as a noxious vapour or a violent blow might destroy life ; de- molish involves violence. Destruction may be sudden or gradual ; demolition is commonly rapid and decisive. De- stroy is equally applicable to things moral and physical, as to destroy hope, beauty, effect. Demolish could not be so employed, except in the way of formal metaphor. " come hither, and behold the works of the Lord, what destructions He hath brought ui)oii the earth." — Bible, 1551. " On their coming into administration, they found the demolition of Dunkirk entirely at a stand. Instead of demolition they found construction; for the French were then at work on the repairs of the jetties." — Burke. Demonstrate. See Show. Demur. Hesitate. Scruple. "Waver. Fluctuate. To Hesitate (Lat. hcesitare, from hcerere, to stick) is literally to stick at doing something, whether mentally or practically. It may proceed from a variety of causes, as prudence, fear, doubt, generosity, cowardice. " In an age of darkness he (Gregory VII.) had not all the knowledge that was requisite to regulate his zeal; and taking false appear- ances for solid truths, he without hesitation deduced from them the most dangerous con- sefiuences." — Jortin. To Demur (Old Fr. demourer, Lat. mora, delay) is a specific kind of hesitation. It is to suspend action or judgment in view of a doubt or diffi- culty. When we say, " I demur to that statement of yours," we mean to arrest the argument of the speaker on a point to which we are prepared to make objection. " A demurrer denies that by the law arising upon these facts, any injury is done to the plaintiff", or that the defendant has made out a legitimate excuse, according to the party which first demurs (demoratur), rests or abides upon the point in (question." — Black- stone. Scruple (Lat. scnqmhis, a grit or sliarp stone in the path) is a kind of internal demur, that is, when the process of thought or action arrested is not that of another but our own, and this in consequence of a doubt or difficulty suggested either by some other, or by our own minds or feel- ings. A scruple is dictated by a sense of impropriety, intellectual or moral. " I scruple not to rest it on reason rather than on passion." — Gilpin's Sermons. Waver (A. S. wafian, connected with wave, as it were, to fluctuate) refers to an antecedent opinion or resolution of our own, which we have actually formed and distrust. As demur and scruple are applicable to that which is proposed to be said or done, so waver applies to what lias been said or done. Fluctuate (Lat. fluctus, a wave) resembles waver in expressing motion and change of mind, but differs from it in implying more than one point. We waver upon one consideration. We fluc- tuate between two or more, which we are inclined to adopt successively. Waver is only applied to matters of intellectual decision, but fluctuate to states of feeling. We fluctuate not only between one opinion and another, but between joy and sorrow, gladness and depression, hope and despair, and the like. " Liberty of will is like the motion of a magnetic needle toward the north : full of trembling and uncertainty till it were fixed in the beloved point. It wavers as long as it is free, and is at rest when it can choose no more." — Bishop Taylor. " Teach me how I came by such an opinion of worth and virtue ; what it is which at one time raises it so high, and at another time reduces it to nothing ; how these disturbances and fluctuations happen." — Shaftcsburj. DENOMINATE. ( 234 ) DEER A VITY. Denominate. See Name. Denomination. See Name. Denote. See Signify. Dense. See Thick. Denial. Abnegation. Denial (Fr. denier, Lat. denegare) is logical aad practical. Abnega- tion is not logical, but only prac- tical. Denial may stand opposed either to aifirmation or to iudnlgeuce, Abnegation only to the latter, in the sense of renunciation of self, or of anything else. " You ought to converse with so much siucerity that your bare affirmation or denial may be sufficient." — Stilltngfleet. " Denying ungodliness and worldly lusts." —Bible. " Abnegation of God, of His honour, of His religion." — Knox. Deny. See Contradict, Re- fuse, and Disavow. Departure. See Death and Exit. Dependence. Eeliance. Dependence (Lat. dependere, to haug from) expresses a fact, Re- liance (re and lie, to rest one's weight upon) expresses our conscious- ness or feeling of that fact. De- pendence is conditioned existence, a result contingent upon a cause. Re- liance is trust upon a living Avill. The child depends upon his parent for all that he requires ; but it is not till he has grown to be conscious of his own dependence in this way that he can rely upon his parent's willingness to grant him what he needs. " The absolute stoical depender upon fate may starve for want of industry, die for want of physic, and be damned for want of repent- ance." — Haimnond. " The Saviour effecting everything by His power is represented under the image of a great champion in the field, who is prompted by his own courage, and a reliance on his own strength and sltill, to attemj)t what might seem im])racticable." — liishop Ilorsleg. Depict. See Describe. Deplore. See Complain. Deponent. See Witness. Deportment. See Carriage. Deposit. See Pledge. Depravity. Depravation. Cor- Depravity and Depravation (Lat. pravus, crooked) stand to each other as the ^Jrocess and the result ; de- pravity is the state of being depraved, dej^ravation the action of making depraved, or the state of having been made so. There is in human nature, we believe, an inborn depravity. This is made far worse where de- fective education and evil company have tended to the worse depravation of the iudividiial. The same twofold meaning belongs to Corruption, which expresses both the state of being, and the process of making corrupt (Lat. cornivipere, corruptus, to break up, as an organized body in dissolution). Differences must be noted between depravity and cor- ruption. These may be illustrated by the diflference between a depraved person and a corrupt person. The depraved man has been brought to a certain condition of evil practice ; the cori'upt man to a certain condition of evil principle. Corruption relates to the source of action, depra^dty to the actions themselves. A corrupt judge need not be a person of depravity of character necessarily in any other way than that of the principle of integrity, which is wanting or has been destroyed in him. Or, again, a person may have a coiTupt taste in art or literature without being a per- son of corrupt life. This shows cor- ruption to be a specific badness or depravity of principle, while depravity is general, and affects the entire cha- racter. When we speak of a i^erson of depraved taste, we, of course, con- fine the assertion to the matter of taste, without saying anything of the moral chai'acter. A corrupt taste and a depraved taste would be practi- cally the same ; but in the former case we take account of the want of true principle to decide, in the latter of the influence of bad training to pervert. CorrujDt taste would rather DErRECIATE. ( --35 ) DERIVE. I'clong^ to the artist, depraved taste to the speetator. " If refinement does not lead directly to jnirity of manners, it obviates at least their greatest dcpra cation." — lieijnolds. "A mad and desperate dcpniKitij." — ■ Shaftesbury. " As though all the false religion that ever was among the heathen was not a corrupting and depravation of the true religion of God." —Cahm. Depreciate. See Decry. Depredation. See IiObbery. Depression. See Dejection. Deprive. See Bereave and Debar. Depth. Profundity. These words supply a good illustra- tion of a large class of synonyms, and of the general difference of character between words of Saxon and words of classic formation to express the same thing. Depth expresses no more than the physical property of perpendicular measurement downward from a sur- face ; or, metaphorically, what is like this, as depth of mind, or thought, or meaning, which is such as has the properties of natural depth ; not lying on the surface ; more or less difficidt to reach ; more or less dark when reached; not meeting the eye of those who regard only the surface of things, and the like; but Pro- fundity (Lat. profundus, deep) ex- presses the abstract idea of depth, or the scientific measurement of it. It is the same thing under a more re- fined, abstract, and scientific view. The former class of words are phy- sical and metaphorical, the latter scientific and metaphysical. " A dreadful depth, how dee]) no man can tell." Spenser. "In one (Ben Jonson) we may respect the profundity of learning, in the other (Shakes- jieare) we must admire the sublimity of genius." — Observer. Depute. See Accredit. Deputy. See Ambassador. Derange. Disorder. DKiiANGE (Fr. drratiijir, rang, rank or order) and Disorder (Fr. des- ordre, Lat. ordo, rank, order) are so much alike that they may often be used interchangeal^ly, as a mass of papers'may be disordered or deranged. But from other illustrations it would be seen that derange is commonly applied to matters of mental or in- tei-nal, disorder to matters of physi- cal or external, arrangement. It is only an extension of this to say that disorder bears reference to the fact, derangement to the intention, of order. A defeat of a general will, at the same time that it throws his army into disorder, derange more or less his own plans. This distinction is not destroyed by the fact that things of the mhul are often viewed meta- phorically, that is, after the analogy of things of sense. Thus, " a dis- oi'dered imagination " is one in which the faculties, as in a machine, have lost their just disposition, after the analogy of such disturbance of the bodily functions as accompanies or creates disease. "Whether this folly (espensiveness of dress) may not produce many other follies, an entire derangement of domestic life, absurd manners, neglect of duties, bad mothers, a general corruption of both sexes." — Berkeley. " In wildest numbers and disordered verse." Lijttelton. Derangement. See Madness. Deride. See Eidicule. Derive. Trace. Deduce. Of these, Trace (Fr. tracer) is generic, meaning to draw a line, or to prosecute a given line, whether ma- tei-ially or mentally, as to trace a river from its source to its mouth, or from its mo^^th to its source, to trace a line of march. Derive (derivare), and Deduce (dedncere) indicate a tracing in one direction, that is, from the soiirce or origin downwai'ds. To derive is to trace, and so to refer to the physical cause; to deduce is to trace, and so refer to the logical cause or reason. A river deiives its waters from a cei-tain source ; a woi-d is derived from a certain gramma- tical root; a nation derives its origin from one or more historic causes, as a DEROGATE. ( 236 ) DESCR V. victory, a migration, and the like. We deduce inferences from statements, and conclusions from premises. "But this kind of writing which seems to be reformed, which is that writing should be consonant to speaicing, is a branch of unprofit- able subtleties; for pi'onunciation itself every day increases and alters the fashion, and the derivation of words, especially from foreign languages, are utterly defaced and extin- guished." — £aco7i. " From the words of Moses cited by our Saviour, the doctrine of a future state may as clearly be deduced as from any single test which can be produced out of any one of the prophets." — Jortin. " In this chart I have laid down no land nor traced out any shore but what I saw myself." — Cook's Voyages. Derogate. Detract. These words are in meaning very closely allied, and may in many cases be used indifferently ; but Deroga- tion refers to intrinsic goodness. Detraction to the estimation in which a thing is held. Derogation takes place when a thing that is esti- mable suffers deterioration; detrac- tion when a thing that is esteemed, or is capable of being esteemed, is lessened or cheapened in the estima- tion of others. Hence derogate be- longs to the influence of circum- stances, while detraction is exclusively the act of persons. For instance, we might say, " His warmth of temper derogates much from a character otherwise worthy of high respect;" or, again, " The speaker, in speaking of such an one, detracted much from his reputation by ascribing to him ill-temper, and other such derogatory qualities." " I hope it is no derogation to the Christian religion to say that the fundamentals of it, that is, all that is necessary to be believed in it by all men, is easy to be understood by all men." — Locke. " I know it has been the fashion to detract both from the moral and literary character of Cicero ; and indeed neither his life nor his writings are without the chai-acteristics of humanity." — Knox. Describe. Depict. Charac- Describe (Lat. descrihcre) is to write down an account, hence to give an account, whether in writing or spoken words. True description is the giving in words of an account analogous to that of ocular repre- sentation ; only describe goes further, and gives a representation of com- plex objects or moral events, as well as visible forms or transactions, as to describe the circumstances under which such an event took place. De- scription belongs to the external manifestations of things, and ought to be full and clear, that is, it should enumerate all particulars, and repre- sent them accurately and vividly. " How shall frail pen describe her heavenly face, For fear, through want of skill, her beauty to disgrace !" Sj cnser. Depict (Lat. dejnngere, depidus) refers to the vivid description of anything which may be brought with more or less distinctness before the mind's eye. Both describe and depict involve the representation of every detail connected with the subject described or depicted. " An idea of figure depicted on the choroides or retina of the eye." — Anecdotes of Bishop ^y(ltson. Characterize (Gr. x^P^'^'^hp^ an impression) is employed in moral description of what represents the subject by its leading feature or features. Hence a whole course of conduct, or a whole class of character in men, may be said to be charac- terized by some one sti-ong and dis- tinctive epithet, for instance, which, without delineating in detail, sets a peculiar mark and stamp upon it. " Richard Martin was worthily character- ized by the virtuous and learned "men of his time to be princeps amorum." — Wood, Athenx Oxon. See AccouKT and Description. Name. Descry. Espy. Discover. De- tect. Discern. To Descry (Norm. Fr. descrier) is to discover by the eye objects difficult of discernment by reason of distance or dimness. "When the difficulty DESERT. ( 237 ) DESIGN. arises from otlicr causes, as confusion among a number of similar olyocts, partial concealment, or the like, we employ Espy (Fr. eapicr). As descry denotes discriminative penetration of the bodily vision, so espy implies acuteness of vision or observation. Discover (Fr. decouvrir, Lat. dis- cooperire) points to the bringing to light of what was concealed or un- known. This may be either acci- dental or the result of specific re- search. To Detect (Lat. detegere, delectus, to uncover) is to remove what concealed from view, having been in most cases purposely so placed, as to detect a criminal or a crime. Such a pui-pose of conceal- ment, however, is not essential to the term, as to detect an error in a cal- culation, or a fallacy in an argument ; only what is detected is never a mat- ter of merit, but always an error, fault, or crime. Discern (Lat. discernere) is to perceive with the in- herent power of the faculty of bodily or mental identification, while descry is always physical. From this power of exact vision comes the faculty of seeing differences in olijects; and this identification of an object by setting aside its differences,_ or_ other objects which differ from it, is dis- cernment, whether in the physical or intellectual sense. "The first descrieing of the enemy's ap- proach." — HoUnshed. "Secure, unnoted Conrad's prow passed hy, And anchored where his ambush meant to lie, Screened from espial by the jutting cape That rears on high its rude fantastic shape." Byron. " The distinction of a first discoverer made us cheerfully encounter every danger, and submit to every inconvenience."— Coo/i's Voyages. " The Romans were plagued with a set of public officers belonging to the emperors court called Curiosi and Imperatoris oculi, part of whose employment was to go about ^ as detectors of frauds and misdemeanours. — Jortin. ^'kdiscerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart."— i^itfe. Desert. See Abandon and Meuit. Desert. See Desolate. Design. Purpose. Intend. Mean. These terms all refer to the condi- tion of the mind antecedent to action, and relative to it. Mean (A. S. mcenan, to recite, intend), being of Saxon origin, is the most compre- hensive and colloquial, and is em- ployed of matters of any degree of importance, signifying simply to have a mind to do a thing or to say it, as, " What do you mean by saying that ?" or, " What do you mean to do this morning ?" It is used also of the sig- nificance of circumstances, events, or actions in the sense of denote, as, "What does that shouting in the streets mean ?" Meaning relates to purpose in speech and in action. "Thei wondred what she wolde mene." — Gowcr. To Design (Lat. designare) denotes an object of attainment placed be- fore the mind, with a calculation of the steps necessary for it. It is a com- plicated intention carried into action, or proposed for it. I had no design to hui't you, means it was not a part of my aim or plan to do so. " Ask of politicians the end for which laws were originally designed, and they will answer that the laws were designed as a protection for the poor and weak against the oppression of the rich and powerful." — Burke. To Intend (Lat. intendere, to stretch towards) points to no more than the general setting of the mind upon doing a thing. I did not in- tend to hurt you, means that it was accidental; and intention is com- monly opposed to accident. It de- notes no more than the presence or action of the will as distinguished from its absence. " They that do me good, and know not of it, are causes of my benefit, though I do not owe them my thanks, and I will rather bless them as instruments, than condemn them as not intenders." — Feltham. To Purpose (Old. Fr. pourpos, Lat. propositum) is stronger than to intend, indicating a permanent resolution, to be carried out in such a way that circumstances must be made subser- DESIGN. ( 238 ) DESPISE. viont to it. I purposed to hurt you, would imply that I had been watch- ing my opportunity, and managed matters accordingly. The difference between intention and purpose is that between incipient and decisive volition. Intentions may be remote, purposes are immediate. The inten- tion is weaker than the pm-pose. " Steadfastly purposing to lead a new life." — Church Catechism. Design. See Plan. Designation. See Name. Desirable. See Eligible. Desire. See Wish. Desolate. Desert. Solitary. These terms express under modi- fications the idea of local solitude. A place is Desolate {de and solus, alone) in reference to human occupa- tion and use. A desolate country is one which gives the impression of no inhabitants to till or inhabit it. A desolate house or room, one which shows no signs of occupation, or seems, as it were, half occupied. It will be observed that, like gloomy, desolate is a subjective rather than an objective term, that is, it expresses not so much facts or appearances of natiu-e as their impressions upon our own minds. Hence it is sometimes employed exclusively of the state of the person. "Hare mercy on me, for I am desolate."— Psalms. " How is Babylon become a desolation among the nations I"— Bible. Desert (Lat. deserere, desertns, to abandon) denotes natural imfituess for occupation, and api^ies only to natural localities. A desert island is without inhabitants, because it is withuut the natural means of sup- porting them. A. desolate place may or may not have been at one time occupied, and may be partly occupied at present. "Full many a flower is born to blush un- seen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air." Ora;,. Solitary [solas, uloue) deuoles no more than removed from the haunts and occupation of human beino-s The depth of a South American forest, though peopled with animals of another kind, would be terribly solitary to a man. Solitary is appli- cable to persons as well as locali- ties, in the sense of removed from others of the kind. " It hath been disputed which is a state of greater perfection, the social or the solitary."- — Atterbury. Desolation. See Desolate and Eavage. Despair. Despondency. Des- peration. Despondency (despondere, to give np) IS the least violent, but often the more lasting of the three. It is a low state of the feelings which leads to an unhopeful view of things. "He found his Indian friend leaning his head against a post, in an attitude of the utmost languor and despondency."— Cook's Voyaycs. Between Despair and Despera- tion (Fr. desespoir, Lat. de, down, and spes, hope) there is a practical differ- ence, m that one is a passive, the other an energetic hopelessness. This is ex- pressed in common language. Men fall into despair, and are worked up to desperation. Desperation seizes the weapon. Despair sits with folded hands. " Despair is the thought of the unattain- ableness of any good, which works differently in men's minds, sometimes producing uneasi- ness or pain, sometimes rest and iudolency." Despair is, however, more compre- hensive than this. "It is." says Cogan, "a permanent fear of losincr some valuable good, of suffering some dreadful evil, or remaining in a state o± actual misery, mthout any mix- ture of hope." "Daughters of Eve, whom desperation the effect of their first false step, hath driven to the lowest walks of vulgar prostitution."— Jiishop Horslcy. Desperation. See Despair. Despicable. See Pitiful. Despise. See Scorn. DESPOND ENC Y. ( 239 ) DESTITUTE. See Dejection Despondency. and Despair. Despotic. See Absolute. Destination. Destiny. These two words (formed from the Latin clestinare) difter as the human and controUable from the super- human and i;ncontrollable or provi- dential. Destiny is used of indivi- duals and the final point of their personal history. Destination of things as well as persons, and denotes no more than the end at which a person or thing is intended to arrive, or the purpose to which a thing is put. " Which of us in setting out upon a visit, a diversion, or an affair of business, appre- hends a possibility of not arriving at his plate of destiiiation, yet at the same time does not apprehend himself at liberty to alter his course in any part of his progress?" — Search, Light of Nature. "Thus the Pagans had the same notion with that which is mentioned in Scripture of a double destiny depending upon human choice." — Jortin. Destine. Allot. Destiny. Fate. Lot. Doom. Destiny (see above) is used both of the end to which a person or thing is fore-appointed, and of the course of things which brings them to it. " But who can turn the stream of destiny, Or break the chain of strong necessity, Which fast is tied to Jove's eternal seat ?" Spenser. Fate stands to destiny as an item to a sum (Lat. fatmn, fate), and is employed, as destiny never is, of the details of life. It is seldom used in a favourable sense, as, " In travelliug it is almost always my fate to meet with delays." So far as a man's con- dition has resulted from unconscious causes, as the laws of the material world, we speak of his fate. So far as we attribute it to the ordainment of more powerful beings, we speak of his destiny. Fate is blind; destiny has foresight. The theist speaks of destiny, the atheist of fate. " I would not have that fate liijlit ujinn you which uscth to befall some, wlio from golden students become silver bachelors and leaden masters." — Jfuwell. Lot (Fr. lot, share) commonly re- fers to something connected with the whole course of life, which gives it a distinctive character for good or for ill, as " Trouble is the common lot of men." " To labour is the lot of man below ; And when Jove gave us life he gave us woe." Pope. Doom (deem, to judge) is the final close of life, regarded as a matter foreordained, and is never used in a happy sense. It is sometimes used, like lot, of the details of life itself, when it is at once unhappy and con- tinuous, as " I was doomed to spend many years of my early life in exile from my home." " Ere Hector meets his dooin,." Pupe. Destitute. Devoid. Void. Of these, Yoid (Lat. vicluus) has a physical application, although the word empty is at present a moi'e common substitute for it, as — " The void helmet." — Coicpers Iliad. Devoid is reserved for the morally empty. There is very little diff"er- ence of meaning between it and Destitute (Lat. destituere, desti- tutus) ; but devoid partakes rather of the nature of a purely negative, des- titute of a privative epithet; or, in other words, to be destitute is to be devoid of what might naturally be expected to belong, or where it might be requisite; as beasts are devoid of speech, which nature has simply denied them. A man is destitute of learning when we think of his capa- bility of acquiring it, devoid of it when we think of the simple fact that he does not possess it. Destitute is, therefore, commonly emj)loyed of the absence of the common requirements or necessaries of life, as destitute of daily food or of clothing, where we should not employ devoid. Devoid thus seems to have a more abstract usage, as we might still say, devoid of all means of subsistence. We are devoid of faculties, and destitute of means or possessions. But a yet stronger difference lies in the fact DESTROY. ( 240 ) DETER. that destitute involves the non-pos- session of what is in some way ne- cessary or desirable to possess ; while devoid is more neutral, and may be used of the absence of faulty or cul- pable qualities. " Devoid of pride certaine she was." C/iaucer. " This faire lady on this wise destitute Of all comfort and consolation." Ibid. See Consume and Destroy, Demolish. Destructive. Euinous. Per- nicious. We use the term Destructive (Lat. destrvere) when we simply think of the tendency to effect permanent termination to what had form, life, beauty, power, and the like. "Loaded with gold, he sent his darling far From noise and tumults and destructive war." Dryden. We use the term RuiNOirs (Lat. mina, from ruere, to fall) when we think of the value of that which is so destroyed, for ruin is destruction visible. Ruined rei^utation, blighted hopes, and the like, are terms recall- ing the fairness of what is lost, and not the mere loss or destruction. A destructive agency simply takes away, and may be so far good if the thing that is destroyed be noxious ; but ruinous implies the taking away in a sad and fatal way of what we should desire to live and last. "Of all these expensive and uncertain projects, however, which bring bankruptcy upon the greater part of the people who engage in them, there is none perhaps more perfectly ruinous than the search after new silver and gold mines." — Smith, Wealth of Nations. Pernicious (Lat. pemicles) is em- ployed of what harms man's inner powers, as of life, health, morals, interfering, as the word etymologi- cally implies, with the vital foi'ce of things {2')er and necare, to kill), and obstructive of wholesome energies, physical or moral. "He who has vented a pernicious doctrine or published an ill book must kunw that his gtiilt and his life deterniiuu not together." — iioulh. Desultory. See Cursory. Detach. See Disengage. Detain. See Hold. Discourage. Dis- Deter. hearten. Deter (Lat. deterrere) is to prevent from action Jjy fear of consequences, or the difficulty, imprudence, or risk of the attempt. To Discourage (Fr. courage) is to prevent from action, or to lessen energy in action by such rejiresentations as affect the spirit of the person contemplating or making the attempt. Hence discourage ad- mits of degrees, but deter is absolute. Circumstances, as well as the repre- sentations of individuals, may deter, discourage, or dishearten. Persons are discouraged in their undertakings, and deterred /;-o«i them. "So that, upon consideration of the whole matter, there is no reason why any man should be deterred from a holy and virtuous life for fear of the labour and pains of it. Because every one that is wicked takes more pains in another way and is more industrious, only to a worse purpose." — Tillotson. "A slight perusal of the innumerable letters by which the wits of France have signalized their names, will prove that other nations need not be discouracjed from the like attempts by the consciousness of inability." Rarn')lcr. Dishearten is in English what discourage is as a word of French and Latin formation {coeur, cor, the heart) ; but discourage may aj^ily to the case in which the action is in- tended only. Disheartened implies that it is actually undertaken. One is deterred from beginning ; dis- couraged in beginning or in proceed- ing ; disheartened in proceeding. Dis- heartened applies only to persons, discourage both to persons and their efforts. "His astonished and disheartened col- leagues." — Bancroft. Deter and discourage denote gene- rally the action of the judgment, dis- hearten an influence upon the spirits. One is deterred by formidable diffi- culty or opposition, discouraged l)y the representations of advisers, or a DETERMINE. ( 241 ) DEVOUT. calm estimate of the nature of tlie case; disheartened by anything that roljs us of spirit, energy, or hope. Determine. See Decide. Determination. 8ee Iiesolu- TION. Detest. See Abhor. Detestable, See Execrable. Detract. See Derogate. Detraction. See Calumny. Detriment. See Hurt and Disadvantage. Detrimental. See Noxious. Devastation. See Eavage. Develop. Unfold. Unravel. To Develop is to open out what was contained in another thing, or the thing itaelf (Fr. develojfper'). In develop these two ideas are inherent, the gradual opening of the whole containing, and the gradual exhibi- tion of the particular contained. So we might say, " Time dereloped his character," or " Circumstances de- veloped the cruelty which was latent in his character." Unlike Unfold, develop is not used of purely phy- sical processes. We speak of the de- velopment of plans, plots, ideas, the mind ; and also of the development of one species from another, of the de- velopment of the body in growth; but these are scientific terms invol- ving other ideas, as of the vital func- tions in growth. We should never speak of the development of a flag or a tablecloth. In other words, it is not used of manual or mechanical unfolding. On the other hand, in the sense of the mechanical process of gradually opening, unfold is used as well as in the other ; but in this latter develop expresses far more than imfold, and relates to the laws of expansion by which a thing unfolds in definite sequence of expansion, and in conformity with principles which conserve the type developed. Hence we speak of a true and a vicious deve- lopment. To Unravel (Old Germ. reffen, to pluck) is purely a mecha- nical effort of separating what is complicated, whether naturally or accidentally, and expresses simple disentanglement, not growth or ex- pansion. As the former indicate ordinary processes of nature or art, so the latter indicates extraordinary and counteractive processes, and com- monly implies the abnormal state of that which needs to be unravelled. "TJien take him to develop if you can. And hew the block off and got out the man." I'ope. "Several pieces of cloth, the largest we had seen being fifty yards long, which they Pinfolded and displayed so as to make the greatest show possible." — Cook's Voyages. "What riddle's this? C/n/Wt^ yourself, dear Robin." — Ben Jonson. "That great chain of causes which, linking one to another, even to the throne of God Himself, can never be unravelled by any industry of ours." — Burke. Deviate. See "Wander. Device. See Emblem. Devise. See Bequeath and Contrive. Devoid. See Destitute. Devote. See Consecrate. Devout. Pious. Religious. Holy. Of these the two former are ap- plicable only to persons, the last in the general sense of connected with or relating to religion, to things, as religious edifices, meetings, books, &c., holy places, and the like. The Devout man (Fr. cUvot) is he whose mind is given to religioiis feeling, and is apt in the exercise of prayer, divine praise, and spiritual medita- tion. The Pious man (Lat. phis) has reverence and love toward the Sujn-eme Being. As devout points to the external observances of re- ligion, so pious points to its moral sentiments. Religious is a wider term, and denotes one who, in a general sense, is under the influence of religion, and is opposed to irre- ligious or worldly, as the pious man is opposed to the impious or profane, and the devout to the indiff"erent or in-everent. Holy (A. S. lialig, with other forms), when used of persons, DEXTERITY. ( 242 ) DICTATE. is employed to denote men of es- pecial saintliuess or purity and iu- tet;rity of life, the result of the con- tinued influence of religion upon their nature. " Thus we see the dcvoutness of His mind in His frequent retirement to solitary prayer, in His habitual giving of thanks, in His refei-- ence of the beauties and operations of nature to the bounty of Providence, in His earnest addresses to His Father, more particularly that short but solemn one before raising Lazarus from the dead, and in the deep piety of His behaviour in the garden on the last evening of His life." — Paleij. " Our whole duty is made up but of three things, that a man live soberly with respect to himself, righteously with respect to his neighbours, and piously with respect to God." — Sharp. " The first requisite in religion is serious- ness; no impression can be made without it. An orderly life so "far as others are able to observe us is now and then produced by prudential motives or by dint of habit; but without sei'iousness there can be no religious principle at the bottom, no course of conduct from religious motives; in a word, there can be no religion." — Paleij. "Ye distant spires, ye antique towers That crown the watery glade Where grateful science still adores Her Henry's holy shade." Gray. Dexterity. Address. Adroit- ness. These terms are emjiloyed in a physical and moral sense, that is, are applied analogously to moral things. Address (Fr. adresse) is more mental than physical in any case. It denotes skUl practically applied, so as entirely to meet a cer- tain end, especially one proposed on short notice. It is more compre- hensive than Dexterity (Lat. dexter, the right hand) or Adroitness (Fr. droit, right or straight). Dexterity is that kind of cleverness which comes of being a perfect master by practice or experience of the means or instru- ment employed. Address may be shoNvn in improving advantages; dex- tei-ity and adroitness, which is a sharp and sudden exhibition of dex- terity, rather denote the skilful avoidance of danger, or escape from difficulty. Address is a species of manners, that is, manners as specifi- cally exhibited towards certain per- sons. Lounging, inattention, whist- ling in company indicate bad manners. Hesitation, shyness, stammering, a want of self-possession, or too much of it, show a bad address. " Whatever good from clear understanding, deliberate advice, sagacious foresight, stable resolution, dexterous address, right intention, and orderly proceeding doth naturally result, wisdom confers." — Barrow. " The dexterity of hand, indeed, even in common trades, cannot be acquired without much practice and experience." — Smith, Wealth of Natkms. "The stoic and the libertine, the sinner and the saint, are equally adroit in the ap- plication of the telescope and the quadrant." — llorsley. Dexterous. See Adroit. Dialect. See Language. Dialogue. See Con\t:rsation. Dictate. Prescribe. Suggest. To Dictate (Lat. dictare, dictatus) is to issue a command in such a way as that it shall appear to be based iTpon the will of the commander; which deems nothing too minute to be the subject of such command, as when a powerful party, being offended, dictates the terms on which the apology shall be made. To dictate is more authoritative, arbitrary, and minute than Prescribe (Lat. prce- scribere), and has to do with the words and terms and miuutite of . things ; while prescribe has to do rather with rules and general modes of dealing, as partaking less of the nature of command and more of direction or counsel. Prescribing is commonly the expression of superior wisdom, dictation of superior power only, or the assumption of it. Suggest is less authoritative than either, being a holding out of partiid truth or the indirect exhibition of counsel or com- mand, in faith that the object of it will himself supply what is practi- cally needed to complete them. All three are used of internal as well as externid promptings, as the dictates of nature, what is prescribed by reason and common sense, the sug- DICTION. ( 243 ) DIFFERENCE. gestlons of prudence. Of tlie three, it may be said, that for their force, dictation depends on the power of the person dictating, presci-iption on the wisdom of the thing prescribed, and suggestion on the sense of the person to whom the suggestion is made. "I hope God hath given to me to be mnster of my own passion, and endowed me with that reason that will dictate unto me what is for my own good and benefit." — State Trials. ^^ Prescribe not us our duties." Shakespeare. " Arthur, they say, is killed to-night, On your suggestion." Ibid. " Nothing certainly being so tyrannical as ignorance, where time and possession enable it to prescribe." — South. Diction. See Phraseology. Dictionary. Vocabulary. Glossary. Lexicon. Encyclo- DiCTiONARY (Lat. didionarium, a collection of words) is a Ust of words commonly arranged in alphabetical order, or which belong to a system, whether of language or any other, as a dictionary of botany, medicine, biography. It admits of every de- gree of copiousness in explanation of the terms from a line to an article. Lexicon is only the same word in Greek as dictionarium in Latin (ke^is, a word), and is applied to dictionaries of the learned languages of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew especially. A YoOABTJLARY (vocahulmn, a vocable or word) is a list of terms, like dic- tionary, connected vnth. some system, but not professing to be exhaustive, as a French vocabulary of words most commonly used in conversation. A Glossary (Gr. yXwa-aa, a tongue) is an explanatory vocabulary, in which cei-tain words are selected and ar- ranged for consideration in detail. An Encyclopedia [ev kvkXco TratSem) is literally instruction in the whole circle of the sciences, and therefore, unlike the preceding, is not restricted to any system or province, but em- braces the whole sphere of human knowledge, and explains not merely the meaning of words, but the branches of knowledge which they represent. Die. See Decay and Expire. Diet. Food. Eegimen. As Food expresses generally any- thing on which a living animal feeds, so Diet (Gr. bUuTa) and Regimen (Lat. regimen, from regere, to rule) are employed only of human beings. Diet is ordinary and systematic food, whether prescribed for health's sake or in any other way. Black broth was pai-t of the diet of the ancient Spartans. Regimen differs from diet, first in relating to quantity as well as quality of food prescribed, and secondly, in relating to other matters appertaining to the way of living, even to the abstinence from food or fasting. " Their failure as remedies may be reason- ably attributed to the alterations which the human frame is found to undergo in the revolution of ages by a general change of dietetic regimen." — Knox, Essays. Difference. Variety. Va- riation. Contrast. Diversity. Distinction. Contrariety. Dis- agreement, Difference (Lat. differentia) de- notes no more than the state of being unlike; and inasmuch as Nature never exactly repeats herself, the term is employed to denote the mere a,b- sence of identity, as, "It is a dif- ferent person," which is equivalent to, " It is not the same person." The term different has to be dis- tinguished from various on the one hand, and unlike on the other. Dif- ferent shows the unlikeness as exist- ing in general; various marks the dissimilarity of the species. _We might say that things are infinitely various, but not infinitely different, for this latter word relates not to abstract but to specific unlikeness. The flowers of a rose-bush wiU be of various sizes and shades of colour, and, if the species be red, will be different from the white kinds. Dif- ferent people think differently. Yai-ious is thus seen to be of less £ 2 DIFFERENCE. ( 244 ) DIFFERENCE. intensity than different. On tlie other hand, different stands to un- like as the positive to the negative. Two things, in so far as they are merely tvro, may be different without being unlike. Between two things that are different we may still draw a comparison ; but unlikeness tends to exclude comparison. Different belongs to the inherent nature of things, iiulike to the effect which they produce upon us. Blue is dif- ferent from green ; a circle is imlike a square. "Intellectual differences shall shortly cease, and then moral differences shall take place. One moment shall equal the learned and the unlearned. The knowing and igno- rant person shall at last stand upon equal ground ; but the good and bad men shall be diflerenced for ever." — Bates. Distinction (Lat. distingnere, dis- tinctus) is sharply-defined or palpably- apparent difference. Such distinc- tion may be natural, scientific, prac- tical, or scientific and natural at the same time. " A binary constellation, which, under a telescope of low power, looks like a single star, under one of greater power, resolves itself into two distinct stars." This is a purely phy- sical distinction. The distinction be- tween contrary and contradictoiy propositions in logic is technical or scientific. The distinction between the animal and vegetable depart- ments of nature is both scientific and natural. In the common phrase, " A distinction without a difference," the term is used in the sense of a mental or scientific distinction, Avhich the phrase denotes as being sought to be made, while no corresponding difference exists in fact or nature. To murder all without distinction of sex or age, means without recognis- ing these natural differences ; the phrase without distinction being here equivalent to without making or ob- serving a distinction. Distinction is applied to delicate variations, diver- sity to glaring differences, difference to hostile unlikeness. " Men, women, maids without distinction fall." — iSha/iCspeare. As difference and distinction are absolute, so Yakiexy, Vakiaxion, and Diversity are relative. They imply at least some common idea to which the objects are referred, if not some common nature to which they belong. Variety (Lat. varius, varietas) denotes difference of such a nature as strikes the observation in any aggre- gate of things, or in one thing as regards the aggregate or class to which it is refen-ed, as a variety of objects in a landscape, a variety of the species. Variation expresses a process as variety a result, and therefore may mean a purposed in- ducing of variety as weU as that which is without design. Variety can only be between two or more things or parts of the same thing ; but variation may be of one entire thing. So we might say, " There is great variety of colour in this single flower," but we should mean in differ- ent parts of it. Or, again, the flower has imdergone great variation from change of soil, that is, the whole of it. Diversity (Lat. diversus) is in- ternal, essential, or natural difference. This may be between two only or many, while variety is of many. Yet diversity falls short of Contrariety {contra, contrarius), which is repug- nant diversity. " And all variety or difference of existence must needs arise from some external cause, and be dependent upon it, and proportion- able to the efficiency of that cause, whatsoever it be." — Clarke. " The essences of things are conceived not capable of such variation." — Locke. " They cannot be divided, but they will prove opposite, and not resting in a bare diversity, rise into a contrariety." — South. Contrast (Fv.contraste) is strongly- marked opposition. This implies not necessarily similarity of nature in the things contrasted, but a capability at least of being viewed together, other- wise there would be no room for contrast. Any two or more things which in juxtaposition exhibit dif- ferent properties, or excite different feelings or impressions in the mind, may form a contrast. Disagreement (dis and agree, see Agree) is such contrariety as exists between things which ought to be at one, or between which an unity is sought to be es- DIFFERENT. ( 245 ) DIFFIDENCE. tablislied. It is used not only of matters of the human will, but in the general sense of being unsuited or at variance, as the two narratives dis- agree. " Contrasts2ca.ii resemblances of the seasons." — WhewcU. Contrast can only be employed of objects or subjects which have some- thing in common in their nature or relations. There is no contrast be- tween a man and a dog or a tree, but between a tall tree and a stunted shi-ub. " The second act of the mind is putting together such single objects in order to our comparing of the agreement or disagreement between them, by which we make propositions, which we call judging." — \Nilkvns. Different. 8ee Divers. Difficult. See Arduous. Difficulty. Obstacle. Im- pediment. Difficulties (Lat. difficilis, dis and facilis, easy) are generally com- plicated, Obstacles (Lat. obstare, to stand in the way) and Impediments {hnpcdire, to hinder) usually simple. Difficulties are notusually surmounted by vigour, energy, resolution, hardi- hood, and the Like, but by patience, skill, and perseverance. The cutting of the Gordian knot was an escape from, not a solution of the difficulty. In marching through a foreign country the difficulties of the general lie in many incidental things, the badness of the I'oads, the nature of the climate, the disposition of the natives, the scarcity or remoteness of provisions. A precipitous valley suddenly yawning under the feet of the soldiers would be an obstacle, that is, a ban-ier, to their progress, to be surmounted as best it might. As au obstacle is always external, so im- pediment is commonly internal, and operates continually, having the effect of retarding progress, while an ob- stacle checks it altogether till it is removed. A river might be an ob- stacle, a heavy cloak an impediment to the traveller. In common parlance difficulties are met and solved, ob- stacles surmounted, impediments re- moved. It is obvious that the same thing may be sometimes all three, according to the point of view from which it is regarded. The eloquence of Demosthenes was to Philip of Macedon a difficulty to be met with his best resources, an obstacle to his ovra. ambition, and an impediment in his political career. Difficulties per- plex, impediments embaiTass, ob- stacles deter or retard. "Was ever anything difficult or glorious acliieved by a sudden cast of a thought, a flying stricture of the imagination ?" — /South. "The want of this (a life conformable to the religion which we profess) hath been an impediment to the progi-css of Christianity, and a stumbling-block in the way of un- believers." — Jortin. "Because an obstacle by nature earthly and foul doth not receive the pure clearness of light." — Ralegh. Dlffidence. Distrust. Mis- trust. Misgiving. Suspicion. Of these, the first. Diffidence (Lat. diffidentia, dis, and fides, faith, trust) is only used of ourselves. It is a distrust of our own powers, or a slowness to give ourselves credit for having any. It may be Avith or with- out siifficient grounds. Distrust is want of trust both as i-egards our- selves and others. It relates not only to the power but the will, and to schemes, efforts, and the like. Mis- trust relates not to the power but only the will, and hence can only be properly used of animate beings. To distrust is to doubt the sufficiency, mis- trust, to doubt the integrity. If I send a messenger on a confidential errand, and then say I distrust him, I mean, or ought to mean, I distrust his powers, and fear that he will not carry out successfully what I have confided to him. If I say I mistrust him, I mean, I fear that he will in- tentionally play me false. To dis- trust is to feel absence of trust. To mistrust is to have a feeling of tvrong trust. Disti'ust is more nearly re- lated to diffidence, mistrust to siis- picion. Misgiving is entirely in- tei'nal or reflective. It is the sjion- taneous suggestion of distrust, when the shadow of doubt is, as it were. DIFFIDENT. ( 246 ) DIGNITY. cast back upon a former conviction, resolution, or act. Suspicion (Lat. m^-picere) relates to something ex- ternal to ourselves, or, at least, some- thing of which we have no direct cognisance. It is the tendency to believe without adequate proof in the existence of something which is, by usage, unfavourable, hvirtful, or wrong. "We do not suspect good. "There were some essays made faintly, diffidently, and occasionally at first like those of men who, emerging out of darkness, were dazzled as well as enlightened." — Boling- hroke. " It appears evidently that God's moving David, or Satan's provoking him, or his own distrustful heart tempting him, to number the people, are all phrases that have one and the same meaning." — Clarke. " Next stood Mistrust, with frequent sigh, Disordered look, and squinting eye, While meagre Envy claimed a place, And Jealousy, with jaundiced face." Cotton. " No man should reckon every doubting or misgiving of his heart about the safety of his spiritual estate inconsistent with that con- fidence toward God which is here spoken of." — South. " Suspicion may be excited by some kind of accusation not supported by evidence suffi- cient for conviction, but sufficient to trouble the repose of confidence." — Cogan. DrFFiDENT. See Bashful and Lo^vI,Y. Diffuse. Discunsrra. Prolix. Copious. Of these, as epithets applied to styles of speaking or writing. Dif- fuse (Lat. cliffundere, diffusus, to pour abroad) rather relates to the language. Discursive {dlscurrere, to ran about) to the treatment of the subject, and Prolix {pro and hxxus, loose) to the effect of both in combination. A diffuse writer or speaker is not spar- ing of time or space. He employs sentences which might have been condensed into fewer words, and ex- pands into imagery, illustration, and amplification of all sorts. Ditfuseness is the exti'eme of which Copious- ness (Lat. copia, plenty) is the mean, and may be the result either of weidth of thought or language, or simply of the contrary, and an inability to com- press. Discursive denotes the ab- sence of unity, system, method, and sequence. It belongs to the mind, which does not estimate the relative bearings of different portions of the subject-matter upon the central point, and treats them in undigested series. Prolix denotes any sort of protrac- tion of discourse which imparts the sense of weariness, and of superfluous minuteness or tedious length in the treatment of the subject. "A sentiment which, expressed diffusely, will barely be admitted to be just, expressed concisely, will be admired as spirited." — Blair. It is remarkable that the unfavour- able sense of the term discursive is of recent growth. In the older English writers the word is employed as the adjective corresponding to discourse — the Latin discursiis, reasoning — as in the following : — " Rational and discursive methods are fit only to be made use of in philosophers, men of deep reason, and improved minds. The generality of mankind would be utterly in- sensible of their force." — Atterhury. "But flie we now prolixitie best is." — Chaucer. "The sense of the laws, I am sure, is on my side, which are by no means sparing of the orator's time. It is not brevity, but copious- ness, a full representation of every circum- stance, which they recommend." — Melmoth, Fli7iy. Digest. See Abkedgment. Dignity. Loftiness. Haughti- ness. Dignity (Lat. dignitas, dignus, worthy) is used in the different senses of excellence or importance, high station, and loftiness of de- meanour. In this latter sense it is the honoiu-able mean of which the others are vicious extremes. Dig- nity, in its best sense, is that eleva- tion of soul without pride which shows itself in the manners and in demeanour toward others. It flows from a proper consciousness of what is due to oneself, combined with a recognition of the claims of others. Loftiness is such an air as seems to indicate a vague sense of personal DILATE. ( 247 ) DILATORY. superiority, wliicli, in ordinary per- sons, is pitiable and ridiculous, and graceful not even in tbe highest of rank. Haughtiness (Fr. hmit, high) is more offensive than loftiness, be- cause it is the result of comparison of self with others, resulting in the persuasion that they ought to be treated as inferiors. Dignity, unlike the others, conveys the idea of grace of manner. "Taller, indeed, I may perceive thau he, but with these eyes Saw never yet such dijnity and grace." Coivper, Iliad. It may be observed that loftiness is often used as a term of praise, when not applied to persons and demeanour, as in the following : — "The loftiness of his fancy, the richness of his vein, and the elegancy of his style." — Harfow. " As many more can discover that a man is richer than that he is wiser than them- selves, superiority of understanding is not so readily acknowledged as that of fortune ; nor is that haugiitiness which the consciousness of great abilities incites borne with the same submission as the tyranny of affluence." — Jolmson. Dilate, Expand. Extend. Enlarge. Distend. To Dilate, to Distend, and to Expand differ from to Extend and to Enlarge, in denoting an increase of bulk or space wi-ought on all sides, or, at least, on more than one ; while the latter may be by increase only in one direction. Again, dilate (Lat. dilatare, latus, wide) and distend (Lat. distendere) only apply to hollow bodies or space inclosed within confines. Expand (Lat. expandere), Extend (Lat. extendere), and Enlarge (Fr. large, Lat. largtis, wide) are af)plicable to superficial measure, and extend and enlarge also to number. A thing is dilated when the hollow of its centre is made wider. It is expanded when it is made to occupy more space. It is extended when its bulk or length is prolonged or increased in any one direction. It is enlarged when it is in any way, but especially by ex- ternal addition, made larger. It is distended when it is dilated by the elasticity of its parts. In dilating, expanding, and distending there is no addition of substance, which is the case in extending and enlarging. " Here, by the by, we take notice of the wonderful dilatabilitij or extensiveness of the throats and gullets of serpents. I myself have taken two entire adult mice out of the stomach of an adder whose neck was not bigger than my little finger." — Bay. " Then with expanded wings he steers his flight, Aloft incumbent on the dusky air That felt unusual weight, till on dry land He lights, if it were land that ever burned With solid, as the lake with liquid fire." Milton. "The extenders of empire are admired and commended, howsoever they do it, although with cruel wars, or by any unjust means." — Barrow. "He that is in such a condition as doth place him above contempt and below envy cannot by any enlargement of his fortune be made really more rich or more happy than he is." — Wilkins. " It is not nature's abhorrency of a vacuum, but the distension of the water, that breaks glasses when the contained liquors come to be congealed." — Boyle. Dilatory. Procrastinating. These words very closely resemble each other, and seem to express the same thing from different jsoints of view. The Peoceastinating man (Lat. pro, and eras, to-morrow) is re- garded in his habits as a man tending to postpone acting when he might or ought to have begun. The Dilatory man (Lat. differre, dilatus, to put off) is regarded in his acts, which he does tardily and after time, the result of previous procrastination. It may be observed, also, that procrastination refers to the whole of any act, while dilatoriness belongs to the details of it as well. In the execution of his work,' the procrastinating man, when he has once begun, has ceased to pro- crastinate, but the dilatory man may be dilatory while he works. There are persons who are given to pro- crastination, but who are singularly undilatory when once they have be- gun to work. "The king of Spain indeed delayed to comply with our proposals, and our armament DILIGENT. ( 248 ) DIRECT. was made necessary by unsatisfactory answers and dUatorij debates." — Johnson. "The enemy of mankind hath furnished thee with an evasion. For that he may make smooth the way to perdition, he will tell the procrastinator that the thief upon the cross was heard by our Saviour at the last hour." -—Junius. Men only are proci-astinating ; both men and measures may be dilatory. AcTi\^. Assiduous. Laborious. Sedu- DlLIGEXT. Industrious. LOUS. The Diligent man (Fr. diligent) is be who gives sustained attention to any matter which admits of per- severance and interest. This may be a matter of habit with things in general, or with some one occupation in particular, or it may be occasional without being habitual. It denotes a specific pursuit. In this respect it diifers from Industrious (Lat. m- dustria), which denotes a nature which loves work for its own sake. Diligence signifies the attention we pay to any particular object out of preference to others. Industry is the habit of laying up for ourselves a store, whether of knowledge or worldly goods. Diligence often pro- duces industry, which may be em- ployed on many various objects. The man who gleans information from many difi'erent soiu-ces is industrious; he who studies a particular subject with attention is diligent. Hence the quality of diligence is not attributed to the inferior animals, while the bee and the ant are termed industrious. The Active man (Fr. adif) loves employment, and is uneasy when he has nothing to do. He has not neces- sarily the specific aim of the diligent, or the love of grave study or hard w^ork which belongs to the indus- trious, but his constitution recoils from indolence or long repose. La- borious is employed both of the agent and the work, and is a stronger form of industrious (Lat. labor) as applied to persons. The laborious man does not grudge hard eifort where needed, especially in compen- sating for his own deficiencies. As- siduous (Lat assiduKs, assidere, to sit to) and Sedulous (from the same root) both express steady and perse- vering attention to an occupation or pursuit ; but sedulous denotes that it is natural or habitual, assiduous only denotes the fact, which may be casual without implying a habit. The as- siduous person is constantly atten- tive, the sedulous constantly busy. " Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical writer may ascribe to himself, if any merit indeed can be assumed from the performance of an indispensable ixiij."— Gibbon. " The soul, being an active nature, is always propending to the exercising of one faculty or oihev."—Glanvill. " A scholar is industrious who doth assid- uously bend his mind to study for getting knowledge." — Barrow. "Wlience labour or pain is commonly reckoned an ingredient of industry, and laboriousness is a name siccnifvino- it." Ibid. ° • ° " Be sedulous to discharge thy trust. Be zealous for souls, and careless of money." — Bishop Taylor. Dim. See Dark. Diminish. See Abate. Diminutive. See Little. Direct. Conduct. Eegulate. To Direct (Lat. dirigere, directus), as applied to the administration of affairs, is more authoritative than Conduct (Lat. conducere, conductus), while conduct is more active or opera- tive. We direct by ordering others in the way to a certain end, as to direct the movements of an army. We conduct by actually taking a practical part, as to conduct an im- portant or lucrative business. Regu- late (Lat. regula, a rule) stands midway between, with less of the command of direct, and less of the activity of conduct, as to regulate the proceedings of a public meet- ing. " And, to prevent all dangers and all disorder, there should always be two of the scholars with them, as witnesses and directors of their actions." — Coicley. "If the Jews under his conduct should endeavour to recover their liberties, and fail DIRECT. ( 249 ) DISADVANTAGE. in it, they knew that the nation would be 01 vm-ely punislied by the Romans." — Jortin. " Knowledge without its regulator, temper- ance." — Warburton. DiKECT. Eight. Straight. Right {rectus) and Straight (Lat. strictus), as employed of lines oi* lines of movement, differ as the technical from the natural. A right line is a line mathematically straight. Direct has more than a physical meaning, and denotes that which goes to the point intended with as much straight- forwardness as possible. In this sense we speak of a direct answer to a question. A direct road to a town is one which conducts to it at once withoiit leading elsewhere; this it may do without being straight, or repre- sented by a right line upon i^aper. Straight has the purely physical meaning of not crooked, and may be employed of physical objects, as a straight stick, a mode in which neither right nor dii'ect can be em- ployed. DiKECTiON. Address. Of these the former more strictly relates to things and places, the latter to persons ; the Direction of a letter is the place to which it is to be sent. The Address includes the person to whom it is to be sent. Direction. Order. The former conveys more promi- nently the idea of instruction, the latter that of authority. A master may give Directions to his servant, or a friend may give directions to another how he is to proceed in cer- tain cases, as, for instance, how he is to find a certain locality in a large town ; but Order is always authori- tative. Directly. Immediately. In- stantly. Instantaneously. Directly refers more especially to the actions of men. Immediately (Lat. in, not, and medium, a middle or interval) to the course of time. Instantly (Lat. instans, instare, in- stant) is formed to express an interval so small as to be inappreciable. In- stantaneously is the same as in- stantly, but with the specific reference to the interval between the cause and its effect. " I desired him to go, and he went directly." Immediately has a negative, instantly a positive force. I went immediately, would mean that I allowed notljing to in- tervene between the present moment and my going. It commonly follows something to which it refers, as to a sort of date or starting-point. In- stantly commonly relates to the ac- tions of intelligent agents, instan- taneously to physical causation as appreciated by the senses, as "The explosion was instantaneous;" "In- stantly upon seeing the accident I ran to the spot." Disability. Inability. Dis- qualification. DiSABiLiTYl^Fr. Jiabile, Eng. able, Lat. habilis, from habere, to have) is privative; Inability is we^ftfive. Dis- ability expresses the absence of power or fitness, physical, moral, intellectual, or social, in a subject capable of it. Inability expresses its absence in a svibject incapable of it. In this way inability is irremediable, disability may be sometimes removed by giving, or giving back, the qualifications. Disqualification (Lat. dis, qualis, such as, facere, to make) differs from disability in being more general, while disability is commonly used of spe- cific social privileges. "For they will be freed from that terrene concretion and remains of the carnal part bringing on the inconveniences, disabilities, pains, and mental disorders spoken of in the last section." — Search. " It is not from inabilitfi to discover what they ought to do that men ei"r in practice." —Blair. " We often pretend, and sometimes really wish, to sympathise with the joys of others when by that disagreeable sentiment (envy) we are disqualified from doing so." — Smith, Iloral Sentiments. Disadvantage. Detriment. The former relates to the possible, the latter to the actual. A Disad- vantage (see Advantage) is that which hindei's from the amount of good which otherwise might have been attained. A Detriment (Lat. DISAFFECTION. ( 250 ) DISAVOW. deterei'e, to rub away) diminislies the amount of good actually existing. Disadvantage commonly refers to the actions and well-being of intelligent agents, detriment to anything of the nature of a valuable possession, or which ought to be preserved in in- tegrity. " Besides, it plainly proveth the properness of their parts and tallness of their industry who thereby, and by God's blessing thereon, reached so high preferment, though disaJvan- tnged by standing on so low ground of their extraction." — F uller. " Though every man hath a property in his goods, yet he must not use them in detri- ment of the commonwealth." — State Trials, Hampden. Disaffection. Disloyalty. The former is a wider term than the latter. It denotes, generally, alienation or want of goodwill. Dis- loyalty (Fi-. hi, law) does not neces- sirdy imply disaffection, as in Eng- land, to a monarchical head, or form of government, but may be to any supei'ior, and especially to the form of government under which one lives. All disloyalty is, of com-se, disaffec- tion; but all disaffection is not dis- loyalty. If the disaffection be against an usurped government, it may spring from loyal attachment to that which is the rightful form. " Cordelia at length arrives ; an opiate is administered to the king to calm the agonies and agitations of his mind, and a most interesting interview ensues between this daughter that was so unjustly suspected of disaffection and the rash and mistaken tather." — Adventurer. "The devil and his ministers, wicked seedsmen, sowed in you darnel and cockle, treason and disloijaltj. They have made you forget your duty to your natural prince and country." — State Trials. Disagreement. See Dissent. Disappear. See Vanish. Disappoint. Balk. (See Baffle.) These terms both imply the depriv- ing another of something which he had anticipated; but DISAPPOINT (Fr. (li's(ijq)ointcr, Lat. difi ad j^i'nctuni. to prevent from coming to the point) refers commonly to what is hoped, desired, or expected, Balk (Old Eng. balh, meaning a beam, or piece of unploughed land, where the culti- vation comes suddenly to a stop) to what is planned or devised. Hence balk is hardly tised but of such things as are done on purpose, while disappoint is employed of any un- toward influence. The farmer is dis- appointed by heavy rains in harvest time. The term balk is commonly used of the stoj)ping of discreditable rather than of honourable designs. "By the inward overpowering influences of His Spirit a man's desires shall become cold and dead to those things which before were so extremely apt to captivate and command them, than which there cannot be a greater balk to the tempter, nor a more effectual defeat to all his temptations." — South. " Cut off even in the blossom of my sin, Unhouzled, disappointed, unaneled." Shakespeare. Disapprobation. Disapproval. Although these words have the same root — approhare, to approve — they are employed in a different way. Disapprobation is the feel- ing, Disapproval is the expression of it. Hence disapproval is the more public and formal. To disapprove is therefore sometimes xised in the sense of formally refusing a sanction, or annulling, in consequence of the feel- ing of disapprobation. As " The acts of the provincial governor were disapproved by the government at home ;" or, " His acts met with the disapprobation of the senate." " Now the chief gentlemen of all countries travelled to him to tender their service, which implied a disapprobation at least, if not a contempt of the two houses' carriage towards him." — Clarendon. " I disapprove alike The host whose assiduity extreme Distresses, and whose negligence offends." Coicpcr's Homer. Disapproval. See Disapproba- tion. Disaster. See Calamity. Disavow. Deny. Disown. Eepudiate. Disclaim. To Disavow (Fr. desavouer) is to DISAVOW. ( 251 ) DISCARD. refuse to acknowledge in a strong manner, with some solemnity, and in general terms. " A solemn promise made and disavowed." • — Dryden's Virgil. To Deny (Fr. denier, Lat. denegare) is to contradict specifically. A dis- avowal is commonly volunteered; a denial follows upon a specific impu- tation. We disavow facts or charges in which we are said to be personally implicated. We deny assertions and requests of others as well. Denial has the broadest possible application, being employed of anything which in any sense might be ajirmed. "And thus to rack the sacred writings, to force them, whether they will or no, to bring evidence to our opinions, is an affront to our authority which is next to the denying on't." —Glanvill. To Disown is, as the term implies, to disavow or deny, as connected with oneself personally, to refuse to ac- knowledge personal interest, author- ship, or relationship generally. " But when you say it is impossible for you upon the sudden and without the advice of counsel to own or disown books, you seem very dark to me. I cannot dive into your meaning." — State Trials. Reptjdiate (Lat. repiuliare, re and pudere, to be ashamed) is to force away from oneself what some other person or some external power would connect with us, either as a gift, claims, or responsibility. The term was of old employed in the technical sense of divorce, but with a difference, as follows : — " There is this difference between a divorce and a 7-ejmdiation, that a divorce is made by a mutual consent occasioned by a mutual antipathy, while a repudldion is made by the will and for the advantage of one of the two parties, independently of the will and advan- tage of the other." — Montesquieu. To Disclaim is the opposite of claim (Lat. clamare, to call), to waive, as a claim, to deny ownership or re- sponsibility, right, merit, or preten- sion. " To tell you the truth, my dear sir, I think the honour of our nation to be somewhat concerned in the disclaimer of the proceedings of this society of the Old Jewry and the London Tavern." — Burke. Disbelief. Unbelief, Incre- dulity. Infidelity. Disbelief and Unbelief (Sax. lefan, lyfan, to allow or permit) are thus difierenced: unbelief is nega- tive, disbelief is positive. One may have un))elief from want of know- ledge, but disbelief rejects as false. Unbelief is the absence, disbelief the refusal of credit. " There have been doubtless in all ages such as have disbelieved the existence of any- thing but what was sensible." — Cudworth. " For the miind doth by every degree of affected unbelief contract more and more of a general indisposition towards believing." — Atterbury. Incredulity (Lat. in, not, and crediilus, from credere, to believe) and Infidelity [in, not, and fides, faith) are used, the former to signify ab- sence of belief where it is possible, the latter absence of belief where belief is right. Incredulity may be, therefore, right where it denotes a rightful reluctance of assent to what ought not to be easily believed, or not believed at aU. Infidelity is by the force of the term wi-ong. It has the further sense of a breach of faith in matters not of belief, but practice — where those matters depend upon contract or promise. "There is nothing so wild and extrava- gant to which men may not expose themselves by such a kind of nice and scrupulous incre- dulity." — WiUiins. " The uncertainty of princes, the caprices of fortune, the corruption of ministers, the violence of factions, the unsteadiness of counsels, and the infidelity of friends." — Sir W. Temple. Discard. Dismiss. Discharge. Of these, Discharge {dis and Fr. charge, charge) has applications in which it is not synonymous with the other two, as of a load or cargo, an office, or duty, an obligation, in the sense not of disregarding, but per- forming it, to discharge substance, matter, fluid,' or missile. It is here taken of removal from personal con- nection with oneself. To Discard (dis and carta, a card) is, literally, to throw out of the hand as useless. It has, DISCERN. ( 252 ) DISCERNMENT. therefore, tlie force of rejection of tlie person or thing so disposed of as use- less or of comparatively little value ; while discharge is capable both of an honourable and dishonourable sense. Dismiss [dis and mittere, to send) is simply to send away or get rid of, and takes its colouring from the cha- racter of the dismissal. A servant may be dismissed for bad conduct, an untenable charge dismissed by a magistrate, an officer, arraigned before a court-martial, dismissed without any stain upon his charac- ter, or, on the other hand, dismissed the service. It has, when applied to things of the mind, a meaning closely resembling discard, that is, to abandon as worthless or insignificant ; as, you may dismiss that idea as ficti- tious, that fear as groundless, that hope as vain. In this sense, however, discard is used of habits, as to discard the follies and vices of youth, where we should not use dismiss. As ap- plied to persons, dismiss has less than discharge the idea of inferiority in the person sent away; and, on the other hand, it has more of the force of peremptor]] sending away. A king might dismiss his refractory minis- tei-s ; but he would not be said to dis- charge any but his menial servants. " A maa discards the follies of boyhood." — /. Taylor. " Before he came in sight the crafty god His wings dismissed, but still retained his rod." Dryden's Ovid. " Death is the discharger of all griefs and miseries." — Sir T. Elyot. The last quotation illustrates the wide meaning of discharge. It is, in short, to relieve of a charge or burden, which may be of many kinds, as of a trust, an obligation, servitude, a criminal accusation, a responsibility, and the like. Discern. See Descry. Discernment. Penetration. Discrimination. Judgment. Dis- cretion. All these terms relate to the prac- tical intellect. Discernment is combined keenness and accuracy of mental vision. It sees character, deeds, actions, in their differences, their peculiar motives, their true nature. It is first penetrative, then discriminative. The discerning man is not easily misled, because he is not imposed upon by appearances, nor takes one thing for another. " Syrena is for ever in extremes, And with a vengeance she commends or blames. Conscious of her discernment which is good, She strains too much to make it under- stood." Young. Penetration (Lat. penetrare) is the power of seeing deeply into things, and is that faculty, which, when habitually exercised upon diffe- rent objects, constitutes discernment ; for discernment is general, penetra- tion is in detail ; and, while discern- ment is commonly spoken of chai-acter, penetration is used of specific acts, thoughts, intentions, or motives. As the man of discernment does not con- found, so the man of penetration does not overlook, nor is easily misled. " The drawing of Sir Thomas More at Ken- sington has a freedom, a boldness of thought, and acuteness of penetration that attest the sincerity of the resemblance." — Walpole. Discrimination (Lat. discrimen, a difference) is a more directly prac- tical term. It is discernment in minute particulars, and of such a kind as leads to the acting upon the differences observed. Discernment shows a man the nature of the end to be aimed at ; discrimination will guide him in his selection of the means to attain it. "The sculptors of the last age, from not attending sufficiently to this discrimination of the difl'erent styles of painting, have been led into many errors." — *S'(> J. Keynolds. Judgment (Fr. jngement, juger, to judge) is the faculty of deciding in practical matters with wisdom, truly, skilfully, or accurately. It has to do not so much with actualities, like discernment and penetration, but with possibilities. It is the faculty of weighing the issues of things, and of deciding aright in reference to them; and is that in the genei'al of which prudence is the personal appli- cation. The twofold idea of judg- I DISCHARGE. ( 253 ) DISCLOSE. ment, as expressing first a faculty of the mind, and, sec(jndly, the good use of that faculty to practical purposes, may be realized by collating the two following passages from Stewart and Locke respectively : — " Foi- wit, lying most in the assemblage of ideas and putting those together with quick- ness and variety, wherever can be found any resemblance or congruity, thereby to make up pleasant pictures and agreeable visions in the fancy ; judgment, on the contrary, lies quite on the other side, in separating ideas one from another wherein can be found the least difference, thereby to avoid being misled by similitude and by affinity to take one thing for another." — Locke. " When we give our assent to a mathe- matical axiom, or when after perusing the demonstration of a theorem we assent to the conclusion ; or in general when we pronounce concerning the truth or falsity of any pro- position, or the probability or improbability of any event, the power by which we are enabled to perceive what is true or false, probable or improbable, is called by logicians the faculty o( judgment." — Stewart. Discretion (Lat. discemere, dis- cretus) is, etymologically, another form of discernment. It is cautiotis discernment, and has for its result the avoidance of such errors as come from want of self-control or want of judgment. It is discernment referred back to the standard of propriety in matters of self-control. "The second thing that naturally shows itself in paucity of words is discretion, and particularly that prime and eminent part of it that consists in a care of otlending." — South. Discharge. See Discaed and Fulfil. Disciple. See Adherent. Discipline. See Chasten. Disclaim. See Disavow. Disclose. Divulge. Keveal. Discover. Uncover. Tell. Disclose {dis and claudere, clausus) is to expose to view or knowledge any- thing which before was secret, hidden, or concealed. Divulge (dis _ and vidcjus, the common people) is to communicate what had been before kept or confided as a secret, or known to but one or a few. Reveal {re- velare, re, back, and veiiivji, a veil) is to make known after having l)een un- known or concealed. It differs from disclose, as applying only to matters of knowledge, while disclose is appli- cable to physical objects of sight. The matter revealed is supposed to be of value or interest to him to whom it is revealed. It may be to one or a few, while divu.lge is to many. Dis- cover {dis cooperire) is employed of such manifestations as are not the result of specific design, the know- ledge of which, therefore, was not antecedently in the possession of the discoverer. It is a sudden, unex- pected bringing before the eyes, not of others, but one's own. Uncover is at present hardly ever used, except in the sense of removing a material substance which served as a cover- ing, as to uncover the head in token of respect. When a mental or moral thing, as an opinion or feeling, is so exhibited, the term discover is used in the peculiar sense of manifesting without design, as " at an early age the youth discovered a taste for sculp- ture." Tell (A. S. telian, tellan) denotes an intention to give inform- ation in successive detail, and ex- presses such only as is communicated by words, except when used meta- phorically. To tell is to declare things purposely, with a design to inform the listener. Disclosiire may be accidental. To reveal is to make known what is concealed by with- drawing what covered it. To divulge often follows upon revealing, being a spreading abroad of the knowledge of what is revealed. The term reveal conveys a favourable, as divulge an unfavourable, impression. We reveal under a sense of duty or for the benefit of another; we divulge to liis injury in betrayal of a trust. "When stormy winds disclose the dark profound." — Pope's Homer. " Secrets which perhaps the confidence of a friend has made known to the treacherous dimhjer of them." — Knox, Essays. "The doctrines thus delivered we call the revealed or Divine law, and they are to be found only in the Holy Scriptures." — Black- stone. DISCOMPOSE. ( 254 ) DISEASE. " It is idle to say that a future state had been discovered already. It had been dis- covered as the Copernican system was ; it was one guess among many. He alone discovers who proves." — Faley. " None of the Eastern people use the com- pliment of uncovering their heads when they meet, as we do." — Dumpier . " Who can tell how oft he offendeth ?" — English Psalms. Discompose. See Baffle. Disconcert. See Baffle. Discontinue. See Cease. Discord. See Strife. Discourage. See Deter. Discourse. See Conversation. Discover. See Disclose. Discredit. Dishonour. Dis- grace. _ These words, wliicli are the nega- tions of certain opposites, are best understood by the opposites which they negative. Discredit interferes with a man's credit or respectability. Disgkace marks him as a conspi- cuous object of another's disapproval. Dishonour is the treatment with positive disrespect. A man may, therefore, discredit or disgrace him- self, but he can only be dishonoured by others. This may be deserved or not, as a foolish young king may dishonour a venerable minister. He who falls in social estimation incurs discredit; he who loses favour of society or a personal superior is dis- graced. He who is treated as un- worthy in the sight of others is dis- honoured. " I think good to deliver it (learning) from the discredits and disgraces which it hath received, all from ignorance, but ignorance severally disguised, appearing sometimes in the zeal and jealousy of divines,'^sometimes in the severity and arrogancy of politicians, and sometimes in the errors and imperfections of learned men themselves." — Bacon. " No vow the god, no hecatomb unpaid, But the dishonour of his priest resents, Whom Agamemnon menaced, and refused His daughters freedom at the richest price.' Conner's Homer. 'Till the proud king and the Achaian race Shall heap with honours him they now disgrace." Pope's Homer. Discretion. See Discernment. Discrimination. See Discern- ment. Discuss. See Debate. Disdain. See Scorn. Disdainful. Scornful. Con- temptuous. Disdainful (exhibiting disdain, Fr. cUdain, Lat. dis and dignus, worthy) denotes that kind of look or manner — for it is commonly confined to demeanour, and not to pure thought or judgment — which is the result of a depreciation or disregard of what is due to others, and a vague habit of regarding others as beneath oneself. " Let not ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys and destiny obscure; Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile The short and simple annals of the poor." Grag. Scornful (see Scorn) is an ener- getic form of this, and a positive expression 'of the ill-desert or utter meanness of others ; while disdainful expresses little more than the habitual sense of one's own supei-iority. "All but themselves they looked on with a very scornful piety, and thought that God hated them because they did." — Stillingfleet. " This posture signifying a proud, contemp- tuous behaviour, whilst the Publican stood crouching humbly, tremblingly behind." — Hammond. Contemptuous (Lat. contemnere, contemptus) is more elaborately dis- dainful, and refers to words or actions ; while disdainful hardly goes beyond the look, and is far less direct. A disdainful expression, air, smile \ a 1 scornful look ; a contemptuous epithet or remark or behaviour towards another. Disease. Sickness. Malady. Complaint. Ailment. Disorder. Distemper. Disease (dis and ease, Fr. aise) is the most strictly technical of these DISEASE. ( 255 ) DISENGAGE. terms, being applied in niodiciil science to sncli morbid conditions of the body, or of pai-ts of it, as admit of diagnostics, and is commonly of pro- longed duration. It is specific, local, and organic, as a disease of tbe heart or the skin. " Though all afflictions are evils in them- selves, yet they are good for us because they discover to us our disease and tend to our cure." — Tillotsun. Sickness (A. S. syc, Old Eng. seke) is an unscientific term, to denote the deranged condition of the constitu- tion generally, without specifying its character. "Sorrow, need, sickness, or any other adversity." — English Liturgy. A Malady {maladie) is a lingering and deep-seated disorder, which de- bilitates without iramediately jeo- pardizing the vital functions. Both sickness and malady are general; while disease is specific. " 0, wist a man how many nialadtcs Folwen of excess and of glotonies, He wolde ben the more mesurable Of his diete, sitting at his table." Chaucer. Complaint (literally, that of which one complains) is commonly applied to the less violent though continu- ous kinds of disorder. Complaint is not in this sense a term of Old English literature, but bears the sense of an expression of pain or trouble. Disorder (Fr. desordre) is a disturbance of the functions of the animal economy, and diiFers thus from disease, which is organic. " The following lines upon delirious dreams may appear very extravagant to a reader who never experienced the disorders which sickness causes in the brain." — Thompson on Sickness. Ailment is the lightest form of complaint, and expresses its slight and passing character. " For little ailments oft attend the fair." Lansdowne, Cure for the Vapours. Distemper (dis and temper, in the sense of combination or proportion) is a morbid state of the animal sys- tem. It is used of the human race commonly iu the sense of mental ailment, and in its physical meaning purely is spoken of the lower ani- mals. In a secondary sense, we speak of a diseased mind, a disordered intellect or imagination, mental maladies. Though the human sub- ject is not said to labour under such and such a particular distempei", there is an abstract and general sense in which it is so applicable, as in the f ollowLug : — " Peradventure it will be replied, that there are many sinners who escape all these calamities, and neither labour under any shame or disrepute, any unquietness of condition, or more than ordinary distemper of body, but pass their days with as great a portion of honour, ease, and health as any other man whatsoever." — South. Disembodied. See Immaterial. Disengage. Disentangle. Ex- tricate. Detach. Disengage (prefix dis and engage, Fr. engager) is the simple opposite to engage, and, therefore, relates to one detaining or engrossing force or influence at a time. Disentangle (prefix dis and entangle, allied to the Gothic tagl. hair) is to release from a condition of being intricately involved. Disentangle difl:ers from disengage in applying both to subject and object. We may disentangle the difiiculty as well as the person in- volved in it. Extricate (ex and Lat. tricce, meshes, impediments) is to liberate from complicated detention or conditions of difficulty, and relates to persons, and not things, except in a few scientific terms, as the extrica- tion of heat or moisture. Detach (Fr. detacher) relates to such simple con- nections as unite one thing to another, or to several others. We may be disengaged from an oath or an occu- pation ; disentangled from pecuniary difficulties, or embarrassing claims and connections ; extricated from imminent peril, where it comes from multiplied difficulties of escape ; and detached from a party to which we have hitherto adhered. It is in the purely physical sense that detach is commonly employed, as to detach a a seal from the chain to which it was suspended. DISENTANGLE. ( 256 ) DISGUST. "We should also beforehand disengage our mind from other things, that we may tlie more eftectually attend to the new object which we wish to remember." — Beattie. " In the disentanglement of this distressful tale (the 'Nut-browneMayde') we are hapjiy to find that all his cruelty was tende;-ue.ss, and his inconstancy the most invariable truth ; his levity an ingenious artifice, and his perversity the friendly disguise of the firmest aflection." — Warton. " His treasures were now exhausted, his subjects were highly irritated, the ministry were all frighted, being exposed to the anger and justice of the Parliament, so that he had brought himself into great distress, but had not the dexterity to exti'icate himself from it." — Burnet. "They are, in short, instruments in the hands of our Maker to improve our minds, to rectify our failings, to detach us from the present scene, to fix our affections on things above." — Porteus. Disentangle. See Disengage. DisFiGUEE. See Defoem. Disgrace. See Abase and Dis- credit. Disguise. Dissemble. Disguise (prefix dis and Fr. guise, manlier, fasliion) is to liide by a counterfeit appearance, or in any manner to cloak by wliat is fitted to mislead. Dissemble (dis and simu- lare, to simulate) has much the same meaning ; but the terms are a little diiferently employed. Disguise re- lates rather to the false or a,ltered condition of the subject of the dis- guise ; dissemble to the false im- pression produced upon other persons. Disguise is general, dissimulation specific. We may disguise negatively by i^reventing another from knowing what is in us ; but we dissemble when we lead him to believe that we have something which we have not. An enemy may disguise his hatred of another by an air of indifference. He dissembles when he assumes an air of friendship. Disguise is a matter of appearance, dissimulation a matter of action. A prince might disguise himself as a beggar; but unless he held such communications with others as to practically deceive them, he would not be dissembling. " When we are touched with some impor- tant ill, IIow vainly silence would our grief con- ceal. Sorrow nor joy can be disguised by arts. Our foreheads blab the secrets of our hearts." Dryden, Juvenal. "With him, Dissemblance went, his para- mour, Whose painted face might hardly be de- tected ; Arms of oifence he seld' or never. wore. Lest thence his close designs might be suspected ; But clasping close his foe, so loth to part, He steals his dagger with false-smiling art. And sheathes the traitorous steel in his own master's heart." Fletcher, Purple Island. Disgust. Dislike. Aversion. Distaste. Disinclination. These terms not only diff'er in point of force, but are differently applied. Dislike (prefix dis and like) is to have a feeling of positive and usually permanent avoidance, though not necessarily strong in degree. We have a dislike to what is simply un- pleasant to us from an inherent uncongenial ity with our feelings or sentiments. " To show any dislike to those who were the tav^ourites of that infamous emperor (Domitian), was construed by him into an act of treason against himself." — Melmoth, Pliny. Disgust (dis and gtistus, taste) is said primarily of what is offensive to the organs of taste ; then analogously of anything repugnant to the moral taste or higher sensibilities of our nature. Distaste, though verbally equivalent to disgust, is far less strong. It expresses natiu-al un- congeniality, which is often gradually supei-jnduced by the alienating force of habit. Disgust is the strongest but most transient, being excited hj something suddenly presented to the experience or observation. " The king (Henry VIII.) loved to raise moan persons, and upon the least distaste to throw them down." — Bicrnct. DISHEARTEN. ( 257 ) DISMAL. " For day by day themselves, My parents, urge my nuptials, and my son (Of age to note it) with disgust observes His wealth consumed." Couper, Homer, Aversion (Fy. averse, Lat. ad, and vertei-e, to turn) denotes a fixed internal dislike or distaste, and is stronger than either, almost amount- ing to hatred. Aversion is founded less on feeling, and more on senti- ment and judgment. The just and humane man has an aversion to com- mitting, no less than witnessing, an act of cruelty. It is a stronger and more definable form of disinclination. " Strictly speaking, aversion is no other than a modification of desire — a desire of being liberated from whatever appears to be injurious to well-being." — Cogan. We are disgusted with occasional exhibitions, as with acts of cruelty. If disgust is not physical, it results from the actions of men. Dislike is felt of persons and things, which is also the case with aversion; while distaste is not often applied to per- sons, but most commonly to what is habitually associated with ourselves, as employments, pursuits, modes of life. Disinclination (dis and in- cline) is an indisposition or dislike to the adoption of an act, a course of conduct, a policy, or mode of life, and may either be constitutional or the result of circumstances and con- siderations. It refers, unlike the rest, as mucli to our own will as to circumstances external to us. "Whenever they found any person of quality inclined to the king, or but disinclined to them, they immediately seized upon his person, and sent him in great triumph to the Parliament, who committed him to prison with all circumstances of cruelty and inhu- manity." — Clarendon. Dishearten. See Deter, Dishonour. See Abase and Discredit. Dishonest. See Knavish. Disinclination. See Disgust. Disjoin, See Separate. Dislike. See Disgust and Hate. Disloyalty, See Disaffection. Dismal. Dull. Dreary. Dismal (supposed to be from dies mains, evil day) has at least a mean- ing in conformity with this. A dis- mal object not only produces an unenlivening, but a kind of foreboding effect. It carries on the mind to think of other matters over which that which is dismal casts a shade, being depressing to the feelings, and inducing gloom in the mind. " I trow it was in the dinhall. Chaucer. "An ugly fiend more foul than disnxd day." iSpenscr. " A dismal description of our English No- vember." — Southey. Dull (A. S. dol) is simply not sharp, bright, or quick ; hence fur- nishing little delight, or, subjectively, not feeling it, and is not so strong as dismal. In its secondary application dismal is commonly positive; dull may be little more than negative. _ A dismal description is one that im- presses the mind with the sadness of actual occun-ences ; a dull description is no more than heavy and uninterest- ing. Dull, as an epithet of character, expresses such torpor of soul as is inconsistent with mental activity, and implies an innate deficiency of moral sensibility or mental power. " In eldest time ere mortals writ or read, Ere Pallas issued from the Thunderer's head, Dulness o'er all possessed her ancient right, Daughter of Chaos and Eternal Night. Fate in their dotage this fair idiot gave, Gross as her sire, and as her mother grave, Laborious, heavy, busy, bold, and blind, She ruled, in native anarchy, the mind." Pope. Dreary (A. S. dreorig, bloody, sorrowful from dreor, blood) conveys the idea of tedious, monotonous, long- drawn-out dullness. It belongs to an extent of time or space unrelieved by gladsome interval and change, as a dreary time, a dreary journey, a dreary waste of country. " His heart was drear, his hope was crossed, 'Twas late, 'twas far — the path was lost That reached the neighbour town." J'an:elL a niSMA V. ( 258 ) DISPEL. DisiiAY. Daunt. Appal. Dismay (connected -vvitli magan, to be able, like our Englisb word may), true to its derivation, denotes the insjjiring of a fear whicb interferes with action, destroying the spirit of energy and entei-prise; as the tra- veller may be dismayed by what he hears of the perils incident to a par- tioulai' route. It involves a state of gloomy apprehension. Daunt (Lat. domitare, to tame) is sti'onger than dismay, commonly implying not only the feeling of terror, but the aban- donment of the vmdei'taking in con- sequence of the sudden manifesta- tion of the difficult or dangerous. Appal (Fr. appalir, to make pale) expresses a temporaiy check pro- duced by the action of sudden fear strong enough to overwhelm the faculties. He who is dismayed siif- fers great mental perturbation. He who is daunted abandons his enter- prise. He who is appalled is unable to act. " So flies a herd of beeves, that hears, dis- maijed, The lions roaring through the midnight shade." I'opc. "No fear could dannt, nor earth nor hell control." Ijid. "Smiling ferocious, with impatient haste Striding, and brandishing his massy spear, Him (Ajas) viewed the Greeks exulting, with appal The Trojans, and with palpitating heart Even Hector." Cowper, Iliad. Dismiss. See Discard. Disorder. See Derange, Cox- fusion, and Disease. Disown. See Disatow. Disparage. See Decry. Disparity. Inequality. Of these, Disparity (Lat. dispar, unmatched) is a species of Inequa- lity {in, not, and cequalis, equal). Inequality is general or absolute ; disparity is relative and specific. Disparity is inequality in refeverc? to a common standard, while inequiility does not of necessity imply this. There is an inequality of age between an old man and a youth, but no dis- parity. But let some common mea- sure be introduced, as, for instance, the runniag a race, and there woidd be, in i-ef erence to their common state or undertaking, a disparity. Thus inequality involves, as it were, two terms, disparity three. "Notwithstanding which inequalit'j of number, it was unanimously resolved, in a council of war, to tight the Dutch fleet." — Ludlow. " But the disparity of years and strength Between you and your son duly consi- dered, We would not so expose you." Massinjer. Dispassionate. Unimpassioned. The term Dispassionate relates to the mind and the judgment, as not being warped, prejudiced, or in any way swerved or carried away by pas- sion or feeling (Lat. p«ss20, iYova.pati, pasms, to suffer). Unimpassioned relates to the manner, gestiu-e, voice, or speech, as not affected by or exhi- biting strong feeling. A calm and dispassionate view of a personal ques- tion is needful to a right judgment upon it. An unimpassioned style of speaking in an orator can only be compensated for by great felicity of diction and closeness of reasoning. " Whereas reason requires a calm and dis- passionate situation of the mind to form her judgments aright, she wants the whole atten- tion to look round upon every circumstance, and places her objects in all the lights where- in they are capable of standing." — Search. " The day that by their consent the seat of regicide has its place among the thrones of Europe, there is no longer a motive for zeal in their favour. It will at best be cold, un- impassioned, dejected, melancholy duty." — Burke. Dispatch. See Haste. Dispel. Disperse. {See Scatter.) Dispel (Lat. dispellere) is to sepa- rate in such a way as to cause to vanish, or to drive away, at the same time. It denutes some point from which the objects dispelled are thrust away. Accordingly, things dispelled commonly cease to be visible, or to DISPENSE. ( 259 ) DISPLEASURE. exist. Disperse, on* the otlier hand, means no more than to scatter abroad. By the providence of God the Jews, dispelled from their own land, are now dispersed among the nations. Dispel commonly relates to the involuntary, as to dispel illusions from the mind ; disperse may be purely voluntary, in the sense of to scatter systematically, as in a garden flowers of a certain colour may be dispersed or interspersed, or religious tracts are dispersed among the poor. Dis- pel is, therefore, more intensive than disperse, or may be said to express what is expressed by disperse and something more. Dispel and dis- l>erse both imply many objects, for the cloud can only be dispelled by separation into fragments. "And when the king of lightnings, Jove, dispels From some huge eminence a gloomy cloud, The groves, the mountain-tops, the head- laud heights, Shine all illumined from the boundless heaven." Cowper, Iliad. " As when two lions in the still dark night A herd of beeves disperse, or numerous flock, Suddenly in the absence of their guard, So fled the heartless Greeks." Ibid. Dispense. Distribute. Of these, the former (Lat. dis- pensare, freq. of dispendere) bears no reference to any rule of number or quantity, which is the case with the latter (distrihuere), implying that in a certain number of shares the whole of a certain thing was given away. A number of different things wovild not be Distributed. So we might read, " Every morning at the castle gate to all the poor of the neighbour- hood who might present themselves for the purpose, bread, with other provisions and money, were dis- pensed;" but if a certain quantity of one article were given to a certain number of persons, we might read, " Bread to the amount of a hundred loaves was distributed among the per- sons present." The uppermost idea in Dispense is varied and liberal giving ; that of distribute numerous and apportioned giving. Nature is said to dispense, but not to distri- bute her bounties. A dispensary issues its medicines, but in no equa- lized portions among any set number. "In every beuefoction between man and man, man is only the dispenser, but (jod tiie benefactor." — South. " He will pass sentence on the evil angels ; He will raise up the dead, and will distriliute rewards and punishments to all ]iro|»irlion- ably to their behaviour in the days of their mortality." — Jortin. Disperse. See Dispel. Display. See Show. Displease. See Offend. Displeasure. Dissatisfaction (See Disapprobation). Annoy- ance. Displeasure (prefix dis and j)lea- sure, Fr. plaisir) is a modified anger produced invariably by the actions or condnct of men, and not by any other cause, as opposing desire or command. It is commonly applied to superiors in position, as a father is displeased with his son, a master with his ser- vant. Dissatisfaction (Lat. dis and satisfacere, to satisfy) may spring from any source of disapj)ointed wishes or expectations. We may be even dissatisfied with ourselves. Dis- pleasure commonly implies too much done, dissatisfaction too little. To Annoy (Lat. in and odium, hatred) is to inflict sustained personal vexa- tion and irritation by inflxicnces reiterated. " My youth's first hope, my manhood's trea- sure, My prattling innocent, attend. Nor fear rebuke, nor sour displeasure ; A father's loveliest name is friend." Coo2)er. " To be deprived of some good which by a proper conduct might have been secured and obtained, if it be attended with dissatisfac- tion or regret, is certainly a punishment, and if it always lasts, an eternal punishment." — Jortin. " Common nuisances are such inconvenient and troublesome ofi'ences as annoy the whole community in general, and not merely somQ particular person."— Blackstone. 8 2 JD/SrOSE. ( 260 ) DISSIMULATE. See Oeder and Ad- Dispose. JUST. Disposition. Character. Tem- per. The Disposition (Lat. dlsponei-e, to dispose) is the prevailing spirit of mind, resulting from constitution. It is the aptitude or tendency of cha- racter. Character (Gr. x"P«''t'7P» an impress) is used in a variety of senses (see Character). As a syno- nym -with disposition, it is the whole moral character, of which the disposi- tion is a manifestation. Character is often used in the sense of the social estimate formed of a man, his reputation for good or ill. Temper (Fr. temperer) commonly denotes the disposition or constitution of the mind in regard to the passions and affections, or the more purely emo- tional part of our nature. Both dis- position and character are permanent. Temper is variable, unless we use the term in the sense of temperament or composition — according to the old supposition that the human indi- vidual was composed of an admixture of humours, and that his peculiar conformation lay in the predomi- nance of one or more of these humours. "Tliere is not, there cannot be a stronger proof that pride was not designed for man than that the most excellent of the human race thought it not a proper temper and disjMsition of mind for Him to appear in." — J'earce, Sermons. "■ Remember with what mild And gracious temper he both heard and judged." Mi/ton. "A man of dull intellect and thoroughly subservient character.'" — Motley. DisPROATiE. See Confute. Dispute. See Controvert, De- bate, and Quarrel. Disregard. See Neglect. Disqualification. See Disa- bility. Disqualify. See Debar. Dissatisfaction. See Dis- pleasure. Dissemble. See Disguise. Disseminate. See Propagate. Dissent. Disagreement. Ya- eiance. Difference. As relating to the conflict of opinions these words have their dis- tinctions. Difference (Lat. differre) is the simplest, and admits of degrees from the smallest to the widest varia- tion. Dissent (Lat. dissentirc, to feel differently), unlike the rest, is employed only of persons, and not of their opinions. It commonly de- notes the expression of non-agree- ment, without of necessity implying any opinion of one's own. I express dissent when I simply refuse to adopt something propounded by another; but a difference of opinion would imply that I held a distinct ojiiniou of my own. Disagreement [des- agreer) and Variance (Lat. rariare, varius) also imply the same thing, and commofdy denote a difference on some practical, and not merely an abstract matter of opinion. Per- sons are said to disagree who might be exi)ected to act together, and to be at variance where they might be ex- pected to exhibit harmony ; they are said to differ simply as a matter of fact. Disagreement, variance, and difference may be used generally of inten-elated numbers of persons or opinions; dissent expresses the spe- cific disagreement between a person or set of persons on the one hand, and an opinion or body of opinions on the other. " He (St. Cyprian) disavoweth the prac- tice of one bishop excluding another from communion for dissent in opinion about dis- putable points." — Barroto. " United thus, we will hereafter use Mutual concession, and the gods, induced By our accord, shall disagree no more." Cou-per, I/iad. "Because that King Lucius was dead, and hail left no issue to succeed him, the Bri- tons, as before ye have heard, were at variance amongst themselves." — Uolinshcd. " What was the difference ? It was a contention in public." Shakespeare. Dissertation. Dissimulate. See Essay. See Feign. DISSnil/LA TION. ( 261 ) DISriXGUISII. Dissimulation. See Disguise, Dissipate. See Waste. Dissolute. Licentious. {See Abandoned.) There is much in common between these two terms. Yet the Licen- tious man (Lat. licentia, licere, to be allowed) is not necessarily DISSOLUTE (di.'y vain ambition still to make them more ; Kach might his several province well com- mand. Would all but stooj) to what ihey under- stand." Fope. " Here I had ended ; but ex])erience finds Tliat sundry women are of sundry minds ; With various crotchets filled, and hard to please. They therefore must be caught by various ways." Dryden, Ovid. It deserves to be noted that there is a sense of various, namely, exhibiting variety of state or appearance, in which the term is applicable to a single object, as in the following : " The principle (of religion) lies in a nar- row compass, but the activity and energy of it is diffusive and various." —Bishop ILdl. See Amusement. See Difference. See Diversion. See Separate. See Heavenly and See Divide and See Daily. See Disclose. Tractable. Amen- DlVERSION. Diversity. Divert. Divide, Divine. Guess. Division. Part. Diurnal. Divulge. Docile. ABLE. Docile (literally, easy to _ teach, Lat. docllis, docere, to teach) implies more than Tractable {tractabilis, tractare, to handle). Tractable de- notes no more than the absence of re- fractoriness, docile the actual quality of meekness. A tractable animal may go in the right path when led ; a docile animal is easily led; or, again, he may be made tractable by severe training, but if naturally docile he will not require this. Amenable (Fr. amencr, to lead) is commonly used of human beings who are iviUlng to be guided by per- suasion, entreaty, and reason, with- out requiring coercion. It must be admitted that this is a modern and conversational use of the term. The older application appears in the ex- DOCTRINE. ( 264 ) DOLEFUL. ample. As docile means easy to teach, it is only by analogy that it CLiu be applied to irrational animals. But the analogy is the more easy by reason of the fact that intellectual aptitude, as in the Old English word docible, so far as it ever belonged to the term, has entirely departed from It. The elephant is at once docible and docile. " The Persians are not wholly void of mar- tial spirit, and if they are not naturally brave, they are at least exti-emely docile, and might, with proper discipline, be made ex- cellent soldiers."— W. Junes. "Indeed, the common men, I presume, were not less tractable for want of spirituous liquors." — Anso)i's Voyages. "The sovereign of this country is not amenable to any form of trial known to the hiws." —Junius. The docile is easily taiight or led, the tractable easily managed, the amenable easily governed and per- suaded. -Doctrine. DoaMA. Tenet. PitlNCIPLE. Doctrine (Lat. doctrina, docere, to teach) means any speculative truth recommended by a teacher or a school of thinkers, whether in re- ligion, science, or philosophy. "It is by an evident abuse and perversion of Mr. Locke's doctrine that Dr. Keid pre- tends that it is favourable to Bishop Ber- keley's notion of there being no material world, when in reality our author's own principles are much more favourable to that notion than Mr. Locke's."— Priestleij. ' Dogma (Gr. doKdv, to seem) is at present employed of such doctrine as IS put forth authoritatively under a rigid definition, and especially in theology. "Diodorus Siculus affirms the Chalda;ans likewise to have asserted this dogma of the world's eternity. The Chaldajans affirm the nature of the world to be that it was neither generated from the beginning, nor will ever admit corruption." — Cudworth. Tenet (Lat. tenere, to hold) is a matter of philosophy or religion which, as resting on its own intrinsic merits, is firmly held as true. The tei-m expresses doctrine in its pe- culiarity and distinctiveness. There is a milder force in tenet than in doc- trine, which is graver and more im- portant, and in dogma, which is more energetic and authoritative. "In recommending the doctrine which this book particularly enforces, I know that I am j ustified by the Holy Scriptures, by the Church, by the tenets of the most learned and vir- tuous of the dissenters, and the greatest divines of this country, who have displayed their abilities either by the press or the ])ulpit."— /iMox, Christian Fhilosophij. A Principle is a central or re- presentative truth in philosophy, science,_ art, religion, or morals, which is fundamental and general, and out of which other matters of a speculative or practical character flow, and become its practical illus- trations (Fr. princijje, Lat. princl- pi'wm). " He who fixes upon false principles treads upon infirm ground, and so sinks ; and he who fails in his deductions from right prin- ciples stumbles upon firm ground, and so falls." — SoiUh. Dogma. See Doctrine. Doleful. Kueful. Piteous. Woeful. Doleful (Old Tr. dol, New Fr. deuil) is exciting or expressing sad- ness, and is applicable to anything which has that effect, as a doleful sight or sound. Rueful (A. S. hreowan, to rue or lament) is at present more commonly used in the sense of expressing misery in the countenance. Piteous is express- ing sorrow or misery in such a way as to excite pity. Woeful means not so much exciting or expressing woe or misery as accompanied by it In the phrase, a woefid visage, it bears the former meaning, but in the phrase, a woeful day or woeful time, it signifies the latter, in which sense it is not accompanied by ruef id. A doleful countenance, sound, sight, story. A rueful visage. A piteous tale, sight, cry. A woeful narrative or event. "How dolefully this dole thou dost rehearse." Spenser. " Ruefully dismayed." Dryden. In Old English literature piteous had DOMESTIC. ( 265 ) DOUBTFUL. ;ilin()st universally the sense only of reeling', not exciting, pity, in which il is still sometimes employed, iis in Thomson : — " Him, piteous of his youth, aud the short space He has enjoyed the vital light of heaven, Soft disengage, and back into the stream The speckled captive throw." Though Spenser has — " That piteous strained voice." Domestic. Servant. Menial. The first is one species of the second. Menial (Norm. Fr. meijnal, and Old Fr. 'Hies wee, a household) is one who per- forms inferior offices of service, which the term, however, does not define. A Domestic (Lat. domus) is a servant actually employed in the house. A Sekvant (Fr. servir, Lat. servire, ser- vieiis) is a paid attendant of any kind. A farm servant or a gardener is not, strictly speaking, a domestic. " A servant dwells remote from all know- ledge of his lord's purposes ; he lives as a kind of foreigner under the same roof, a domestic, and yet a stranger too." — South. " The women servants perform only the most menial offices." — Swift. Domicile. See Habitation. Dominion. See Authokitx-, Empire, and Territory. Donation. See Benefaction. Doom. See Destiny. Double-dealing. See Dupli- city. Doubt. Hesitation. Doubt (Lat. clubius, duo, two) re- lates both to matters of belief and to matters of conduct, Hesitation (Lat. licesttare, from hcerere, to stick) only to matters of conduct. We doubt about entertaining opinions ; we sometimes hesitate to express them. We doubt for want of scientific evidence. We hesitate for want of practical know- ledge. We doubt through ignorance. We hesitate through fear, caution, misgiving. Doubt is uncertain about principles, hesitation about conse- quences. " Modest doubt is called The beacon of the wise." Sluikespearc. " But in an age of darkness he (Gregoiy VII.) had not all the knowledge that was requisite to regulate his zeal ; and taking false appearances for solid truths, he, witli- out hesitation, deduced from them the most dangerous consequences." — Jortin. Doubtful. Dubious. Uncer- tain. Doubtful (see Doubt) is used in all the senses of entertaining doubt, exhibiting doubt, admitting of doubt, characterized by doubt ; but dubious is never used in the abstract, but only in the concrete. So we might say, "It is doubtful whether such is really the case." We could not say, " It is dubious." We speak of doubtful facts of history, not of dubious facts, except in the sense of facts about which persons are dubious ; but we might say, " The most eminent his- torians are dubious as to the fact." Uncertain (prefix un and certus, certain) differs from doubtful and dubious, as not necessarily implying any tendency to discredit, but simply ex^jressing lack of knowledge suffi- cient to decide ; hence it may be used of matters of which the motive cause lies in oui-selves, while doubt refer.:! to matters beyond our control. " I doubt that it is so," would mean, " I am inclined to think it is or may not be so." " I am uncertain," would mean only, " I am not sure whether it is so or not." " Do you purpose to leave town to-morrow?" " I am un- certain." Not, "■ I doubt." " Doubt," says Taylor, " has not studied, uncer- tainty has not judged. Doubt is the hesitation of ignorance, uncertainty of irresolution. Doubt is open to inquiry, uncertainty to conviction." And so it may be said that doubtful expresses a positive, uncertain a negative state of mind. As uncer- tainty is opposed to conviction, so doubt is opposed to belief. We arc in doubt how to act ; we are uncertain whether we will act or not. Of the two, doubtful and dubious, doubtful is the more objective, dubious the more subjective. The former denotes what in its nature is inadequately DOZE. ( 266 ) DREADFUL. evidenced, the latter wliat tends to make «s doubt. When Milton speaks of " dubious light," he means such as makes those halt who walk in it. " Tlie wisdom of a law-maker consisteth not only in a platform of justice, but in the a}ij)lieation thereof, taking into consideration by what means laws may be made certain, and what are the causes and remedies of the donhtfulncss and uncertainty of law." — Bacon. " She (Minerva) speaks with the duhious- ness of a man, not the certainty of a goddess." — Pojye. Doze. See Sleep. Drag. See Dkaw. Drain. Exhaust. To Drain (A. S. drehnigean, from dnehen, dren, drop, tear) is to draw oif so as to leave empty or dry. Ex- haust (Lat. exhaurire, exhaustiis) is much the same ; but there is a slight difference in their application. Drain is used in a physical and analogous sense, as to drain a field, or a country of its resources ; but exhaust is used also in a more purely metaj)hysical way of abstract things, as to ex- haust efforts, speculation, conjecture, strength, patience. To exhaust also points more strongly to an original limitation of the supply, and its sub- sequent coming to an end. Hence drain commonly refers to some in- voluntariness of expenditure, while exhaust may refer to what has all along been spent purposely. As, " The country was drained of its resources by a protracted and expensive war." " I brought with nie twenty pounds from home, but I have exhausted my supply." The terms are used together in the following : "He himself, through terror, permitted those of Rome to exhaust and drain the wealth of England." — Camden. Drag. Hawl. Draw. Pull. Tug. Pluck. To Draw (A. S. dragan, connected ■with the Lat. trahere) is to cause to move by force employed in the di- rection of oneself or in the line of one's own movements. It varies in degree from drawing a heavy load or a tight cork to a hair trigger. But, light or heavy, it is commonly im- plied that some kind of aptitude or l)rovision exists for drawing. In this respect, draw differs from Drag, which implies a natural inaptitude for drawing, or positive resistance, as a heavy box without wheels, or a captive struggling with his captor. To Pull (A. S. imllian) is applied to such cases of drawing as do not admit of continuous draught, or indefinite change of place, but where the ■ draught is cliecked and limited, as to ixill a bell, a door, or the oar of a boat. Hawl. haul, or hale (Fr. lialer) is to pull or draw with force and sustained efl^ort, so as to transport from one place to another. TuG (A. S. teolian, teon, to pull) is to pull with gi-eat effort, as in a boat to pull tvith the stream, and to tug against it. Pluck (A. S. pluccian) is to pull with sudden force or effort, commonly resulting, but not necessarily, in the detaching of the thing plucked from that to which it was united, as feathers, fruits, flowers. D?vEAD. See Awe. Dreadful. Fearful. Fright- ful. Terrible. Tremendous. Terrific. Horrible. Horrid. Formidable. Awful. Dreadful (A. S. dned), like awful, has lost its original sense of feeling dread, or avie (see Awe), and means now only insjnring dread ; but dread is not exactly the same as fear, and so dreadful may mean inspiring a mixed feeling of fear and reverence, or of the dangerous and the sublime, as a dreadful thunderstorm. Fearful would denote no more than a sense of personal danger. Dreadful seems to convey more than fearful ; for fearful is rather that which inspires fear by its impression upon the senses, dread- ful by what we know or suspect as belonging to its natui'c or powers. So we may speak of " dreadful ac- counts of a foreign war," but not "fearful accounts." On the other hand, the news of a large army at- tacking our own country would be a fearful i-eport. " For this reason (that man may repent) it is that He hath anue-xed so many dreadful DREADFUL. ( 267 ) DREADFUL. tlireatenings against the brenkers of Ilis law, ami so many gracious promises to tiiuni tliat keep it." — Deneridge. Frightful (A. S. furhtii, fear) is said of anything whicli causes vivid alai-m by sudden impression upon the senses in sight or sound, but especially the former. "One cannot conceive so frightful a state of a nation. A maritime country without a marine and witliout commerce, a continental country without a frontier, and for a thou- sand miles surrounded by powerful, warlike, aud ambitious neighbours." — Burke. Terrible (Lat. ternhilis, terrere, to frighten) denotes what is to be dreaded for its effects upon us, though there may be in it nothing frightful. Death by accident is a frightful thing to witness ; but there are many to whom death, in its calmest aspects and happiest circum- stances, is still terrible. " How shall they be able to abide His jire- sence at that day when the gloriousness and majesty and terribloness of His appearance will infinitely exceed all that the tongue of man can express or the heart of man con- ceive?" — South. Terrible is a, far graver word than frightful. The former never lends itself to a light meaning. Whereas frightful is sometimes employed in the sense of exciting a fantastic fear by ugliness of aspect. Tremendous (Lat. tremendm, to be dreaded, tremere, to tremble) de- notes rather what is fitted by its nature or appearance to inspire a kind of fear, without implying that we ourselves have any cause to fear it, as " a tremendous cataract," " a tremendous wind," " a tremendous noise," " a tremendous size." " If anything could raise his passion, it was the nonsensical discourses of deists and Christian infidels ; and he thought he might be justly angry with such wretches that, like the giants of old, durst make war upon tremendous Omnipotence." — Glanvill. Terrific (Lat. terrere and facere, to make) is only a more learned or rhetorical form of terrible, used as a term of greater dignity. " The serpent, subtlest beast of all tlie field, Of huge extent sometimes, with brazen eyes, Terrific." Milton. Horrible and Horrid (Lat. hor- rere to dread) diifer as tlie possible from the actual : " a liorrible suppo- sition," " a horrible alternative," " horrid scenes," " horrid deeds ;" but horrible is often used in the latter sense. The idea of horror is a recoiling of the whole nature, such as makes the countenance rigid, or expresses itself in the look or posture. The horrible is more in the imagi- nation, the horrid in experience and observation. "Swift in her walk, more swift her winged haste, A monstrous phantom, horrible and vast, As many plumes as raise her lofty flight. So many piercing eyes enlarge her sight." Brjjden, Virgil. "Thus, when black clouds draw down the neighbouring skies, Ere yet abroad the winged thunder flies, An horrid stillness first invades the eai-, And in that silence we the tempest fear." Dryden. Formidable (Lat. formido, fear) relates to contingent and not neces- sary fear. Things are formidable only when we are compelled or perhaps go out of our way to encounter them ; as, " a formidable undertaking," " a formidable foe," or when we think of what might be if we did encounter them. " Before the gates they sate On either side, a formidable shape." Milton. Awful commonly excludes or hardly admits the idea of a sense of personal peril, though it implies fear or dread. It is closely linked with the exercise of the imagination and the belief in unseen presences aud powers. An awful solitude is one in which the mind is left to its own fancies, when it feels itself alone, aud is inclined to people the blank with vague creations of its own. The awful is to the imagination what the frightful is to the eye or the ear, and the fearful to the understanding. " A subject bears a reverential fear to his prince from the sense of his majesty and grandeur, and thus much more the majesty and greatness of Almighty God excites rever- ence and awfuhiess, though there were no other ingredient in that fear." — /Ittle. DREAR V. { --08 ) DRESS. Dreary. See Dismal. Dream. See Reverie. Dregs. Dross. Sediment. Scum. Eefuse. The distinctive differences between such synonyms as these are only im- portant as regulating their moral or metaphorical application. Dregs (Icelandic dreyg, trash) was used for- merly in the singular by Shakespeare and Spenser. It is corrupt matter pre- cipitated or separated from a liquid especially in process of manufacture, and, for the immediate purpose, use- less and valueless. With the excep- tion of sediment, which is never em- ployed in any secondary sense, we find all the rest so employed. The more usual applications of the term dregs are two : 1, " To drain to the dregs," that is, to exhaust in the endurance of labour, pain, punish- ment, and the like — an ancient Hebrew image ; and, 2, " The dregs of society or the people," signifying the very lowest and vilest orders. The following is a little peculiar and original : " This manner, however, of drawing off a subject or a peculiar mode of writing to the dregs, effectually precludes a revival of that subject or manner for some time for the future. The sated reader turns from it with a kind of literary nausea." — Goldsmith. Dross is the refuse matter which, as it were, falls (A. S. clros, from dreosan, to fall) from metals in smelt- ing the ore ; sometimes used of their oxydation or rust. It is a symbol of worthlessness. " ' I know, O Lord, that Thy judgments are right,' says the Psalmist, ' and that Thou in faithfulness hast afflicted me ;' the furnace of affliction being meant but to refine us from our earthly drossiness, and soften us for the impres- sion of God's own stamp and image." — Boje. Sediment (from sedere, to settle) is the matter in a liquid compound which subsides to the bottom, and which therefore, unless it be hetero- geneous, is unlike the former in not being refuse, but the insoluble or undissolved portions of it. ScuM (Old Fr. esciime, froth) is the extra- neous impurities which rise to the sui-face of liquids in boiling or fer- mentation. It is a symbol of con- temptible worthlessness and impurity. "The great and the innocent are insulted by the scum and refuse of the people." — Addison. Refuse (Fr. refus, combining the Latin refidare and recusare) means no more than waste or rejected matter, which, whether valuable or not, or available for other purposes or not, is not required for the purpose in hand. Refuse is often used also in an analogous sense of anything which has simjjly done its part, and has become superfluous, without involv- ing any strong idea of worthlessness or impurity. Drench, Soak. Steep. To Drench (A. S. drencean, dren- cun, to give to drink, to drench) is to saturate with moisture or liquid by pouring it upon the object. To Soak (A. S. socian) is to cause to lie in a fluid till the substance has imbibed what it is capable of containing. To Steep (Germ, steppen, to dip) is to immerse, commonly for the purpose of causing some alteration in it, or applying it to a sjjecific purpose after it has been so immersed, but not necessarily soaking it, of which the textm-e may possibly render it in- capable. " Mars driven from the dreadful field Tluit he had drenched with blood." Cowper, Iliad. " When they appear it is not unlikely but that they soak their vehicles in some vapor- ous or glutinous moisture or other, that they may become visible to us at a more easy rate." — More, Immortalitij of the Soul. " The prudent sibyl had before prepared A sop in honey steeped, to charm the guard." Drijden, Virgil. Dress. AttipxE Apparel. Ar- ray. Costume. Habit. Clothes. Clothing. Garment. Vesture. Vestment. Eaiment. Dress (Fr. dresser, Lat. dirlgere, to arrange) is used generically of what is employed to cover the body, re- garded as a whole, though it be of more articles than one, and of a more or less careful arrangement and DJ^ESS. ( 269 ) DRIFT. elaborate cliaraotor. Hence the term dress readily lends itself to a secon- dary meaning, that of aspect or cha- racter, as it impresses the sight or judgment. " Christianity is that very religion itself (natural religion) in a better dress" — Pearce, Sermons. Clothes (A. S. cladh, cloth) are articles of di-ess. And yet they are restricted to those which are directly so. " And Jacob rent his clothes." — Bihle. Clothing is dress divested of the idea of ornament, and regarded simply in its material, as a savage might be clothed in the skins of beasts, or a rich man in ptirple and fine linen. It is a broader term than clothes, and would include what were not in them- selves clothes. A magazine of ar- ticles of clothing would contain laces, buttons, &e. It has a very generic and abstract meaning. "With him the clothing is neither woollen, nor linen, nor silk, satin, or velvet. It is drapery. It is nothing more." — Sir J. Rcy- nolcls. Nearly allied is Raiment (for ar- ray ment), which is the representative name for dress when regarded as one of the necessaries of life, as to be provided with shelter, food, and rai- ment. " Having food and raiment, let lis be there- with content." — Bible. Attire (Old Fr. attirer, to array) denotes highly ornamental or ojficial dress, as " gorgeously attired," " meanly clad." " Earth in her rich attire." Milton. Apparel (Fr. appareil, ad and pariculus, from par, equal) is clothing regarded as a luxury of life, as rai- ment is a necessary. So we might say, " Wealth in the East often con- sists in the possession of costly ap- parel and stuffs." " Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, But not expressed in fancy, rich, not gaudy, For the apparel oft proclaims the man." Shakespeare. Array (Old Fr. a?Tai, arroi) gives the idea of various articles of dress and ornament, not called so till ranged in order upon the person, and would include such ornaments as are not articles of apparel or clothing, as, for instance, rings on the fingers, or decorations for the head. " Dry up your tears, and stick your rose- mary On this fair corse, and as the custom is, And in her best array, bear her to church." Shakespeare. Costume (Fr. coutume, Lat. con- siietudo) is a modification of the woi-d custom, and is to national dress what Habit (Fr. habit) is to the dress of sections or orders of men, as the costume of a period, the habit of an ecclesiastic. "Sergius Paulus wears a crown of laurel. This is hardly reconcilable to strict pro- priety and the costume, of which RafRiele was in general a good observer." — Sir J. Jieynolds. Habit is commonly of a plain and more or less flowing character. We do not speak of the habit of a soldier, but of a monk, or a lady's riding- habit. " Habited like a juryman." Churchill. Yesture (Lat. vestire, to clothe) conveys the idea of a costly garment of a flowing character ; while Yest- MENT is an official vesture, especially of ministers of religion. *' Upon Mv vesture shall they cast lots." — Biljle. "Bring forth vestments for all the wor- shippers of Baal ; and they brought them forth vestments."— Ibid. Garment, which is an abbreviated form of garniment (Fr. garnir, to furnish) is any article of clothing of a main character, and connected with the trunk of the body. Hats, laces, boots, and the like, though articles of clothing, would hardly be called garments. "All thy garments smell of myrrh, aloes, and cassia." — Einjlish Psalms. ^ Drift. Tendency. Drift (connected with drive) is commonly employed of the ai'gu- mentative meaning or purpose of connected words, as in a speech or DROLL. ( 270 ) DROOP. written composition, tbougli not con- fined to this. Tendency (Lat. ten- dere) is applied to subjects, as the ten- dency of certain principles, and means not the mental aim, but the moral and practical issue or consequence. " I could hardly make out the drift of his speech, but it seemed to me to have a revolutionary tendency." " But so strangely perverse is his commen- tator, that he wUl suppose him to mean any- thing rather than what the obvious drift of his argument requires." — Warburton. " This truth. Philosophy, though eagle-eyed In Nature's tendencies, oft overlooks." Coicpe>\ Dkoll. Ludickotjs. Eidicu- Lous. Comical. Laughable. Of these. Laughable, exciting or woi-thy of laughter, may be regarded as the generic term, the others ex- pressing different modifications of the laughable. " Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time, Some that will evermore peep through their eyes, And laugh like parrots at a bagpiper; And other of such vinegar aspect That they'll not show their teeth in the way of smile, Though Nestor swear the jest be hmgh- ahle." khakespeare. Dboll (Fr. drvle) denotes the com- bination of the laughable with the unfamiliar or odd. A droll person is an oddity ; a droll story is not simply amusing, but amusing from a discon- nectedness and unexpected combina- tion of incidents. " This never transported him to anything which looked like malignancy; yet in the little rubs and vexations of life 'twas apt to show itself in a drollish and witty kind of peevishness." — Sterne. LUDICKOUS (Lat. kidus, play) de- notes that -which is personally laugh- able, but without any necessary ad- mixture of contempt or pity, in this differing from Ridiculous {ridcre, to laugh), which conveys the idea of the contemptible in things and the humiliating in persons, or the petty and trifling, where some degree of gravity is claimed. " He has thorelbre in liis whole volume notliiug burlcs(iuc, and sclduni anything I ludicrous or familiar." — Johnson, Life of ]Vancr. Comical denotes what is demon- stratively and, as it were, dramati- cally laughable, admitting of sur- rounding incidents or circumstances, as " to be in a comical position," " a book with comical illustrations." " He (Daniel Whitby) was suspended, and at length made a pretended recantation, which cost him nothing but the pleasure of out- witting his governors by a part acted in a comicall WHY." — ^ocd, Athenx Oxon. Droop. Languish. Flag. ■ Pine. I Droop is allied to drop, and is ap- I plied to anything which occupies a * less erect position than ordinary. The snowdrop, as its name implies, droops, that is, hangs down its head more than the generality of flowers. The flag droops when there is not sufficient force of wind to unfold it horizon- tally. The human head or form droops under sorrow or sickness. Languish (Lat. languere) is only applicable to things possessing some kind of vital euergy, which has be- come dull or weak under a softeuiug, depressing, or sickly influence. To Flag (Icelandic ^«i:«, to droop) com- monly bears reference to growth, movement, progress, or efforts ; while Pine (A. S. imian, pinion) is only used of sentient beings, and is to languish under certain causes, as dis- tress, anxiety, disappointment, capti- vity, desire, longing, desertion, or so- litude. The plant does not pine, though it may droop and languish. " Upon her foce there was the tint of grief, The settled shadow of an inward strife, And an unquiet drooping of the eye. As if its lid were charged with unshed tears." £yro7i. "If this harmonical temperature of the whole body be distributed and put out of tune, weakness and hmguishing will immediately seize upon it." — Cnduorth. "The wounded bird, ere vet she breathed her last. With jiuijtjing wings alighted on the mast, A moment hung, and spread her pinions there, Then sudden dropt, aud left her life in air." rope, Iliad. DROP. ( 271 ) DRUNKENNESS. "Loathing from racks of husky straw he turns, And jjiniiiij for the verdant pasture mourns." liuwe, Lucun. Drop. Fall. Sink. Tumble. Drop (A. S. dreoimn, dropian, dru- piun) lias more than one sense, as to distil or fall in globules ; or, again, to descend suddenly, abruptly, and, in some cases, on purpose. To Fall (A. S. feallan) is involuntary or me- chanical, except in the phrase to fall down in worship, or at the feet of any one. It may be more or less rapid or sudden, as the apple falls from the tree, the river falls into the sea, the tide falls, or the mercury in the barometer. To Sink (A. S. sin- can) is to fall gradually and compara- tively slowly. It is metaphorically used in the sense of to be overwhelmed or depressed, to decline, decay, and decrease in bulk. To Tumble is to fall awkwardly or without design, so losing the centre of gravity. _ Many are the analogous applications in which these distinctions are pre- served, as, for instance : Words drop from the lips, or an observation is dropped accidentally ; a subject is dropped. To fall from a high estate. Words sink into the heart, or great men sink in public estimation. To tumble from the seat of power ; the cataract tumbles over the rocks. Dboss. Dregs. Drowsy. Sleepy. Lethargic. Dkowsy (Old Dutch droosen, to be sleepy) and Sleepy, or inclined to sleep [slcepan, sldpan, to sleep), are almost identical ; but drowsiness is a heavy, and often abnormal sleepiness. Persons complain of drowsiness when they wish to keep awake, and say they feel sleepy when it is time to go to rest for the night. A.n artificial heaviness, produced, for instance, by drugs or an intoxicating draught, would be called drowsiness rather than sleepiness. Lethargic, from lethargy (Gr. Xrj^apyi'a, from Xt^^tj, forgetfulness), is always abnormal, supposing some foreign influence, whether used physically of an in- voluntary and strong tendency to sleep morbidly ; or morally, in the sense of insensatenesa and invincible sluggishness, oblivion, indolence, or inditt'ercnce. " Above is ]K'rpetual gloom. The sun is not seen, nor the breeze felt. The air stagnates, and pestilential vapours ditl'use drowsiness, lassitude, and anxiety." — Adventurer. " I rather choose to endure the wounds of those darts which envy casteth at novelty, than to go on safely and sleepily in the easy ways of ancient undertakings." — Ralegh. " Does Lear walk thus ? speak thus ? Either his notion weakens, or his disceruiugs are lethargied." — Shakespeare. Drunkenness. Intoxication. Inebriation. Inebriety. Drunkenness is specifically the becoming intoxicated by strong drink, and is used to express both the casual state and the habit. Intoxi- cation (Lat. toxicum, poison, from the Greek to^ikov (papfiuKov, a poi- son in which arrows were dipped, from To^ov, a bow or arrow) includes cases in which the same effect is pro- duced by other causes than drinking, as, for instance, the fumes of to- bacco. Inebriation {ebrius, intoxi- cated) differs from intoxication in being confined to the results of drink- ing, and from drunkenness, in de- noting the process or the state, but not the habit. Inebriety expresses the state and the habit, but not the process. Intoxicate lends itself most easily of all to a secondary applica- tion ; so that it is said to be intoxi- cated with success, pleasure, and the like. "The dissolution and drunkenness of that night was so great and scandalous, in a nation which had not been acquainted with such disorders for many years past, that the King, who still stood in need of tiie Presbyterian party, which had betrayed all into his hands, for their satisfaction caused a proclamation to be published forbidding the drinking of healths." — Ludlow, Memoirs. " King was a name too proud for man to bear With modesty and meekness ; and the crown, So dazzling in their eyes who set it on, Was sure to intoxicate the brows it bound." Cowper. '' That 'tis gooJ to be drunk ouco a uiouthj DUBIOUS. ( 272 ) DURABLE. is a common flattery of sensuality, supporting itself upon physick and the healthful etlects of inebriation." — Broun, 1 ulgar Errors. Dubious. See Doubtful. Dull. See Dismal. Dumb. Mute, Speechless. Silent. Voiceless. Noiseless. Dumb (A. S. dumb) commonly sig- nifies unable to speak, whether from temporary or permanent and natural caiises, as " dumb brutes," " struck dumb with amazement." "In the first ease the demoniac or mndmnn was dumb; and his dumb}iess probably arose from the natural turn of his disorder, which was that species of madness called melancholy, of which taciturnity or dumbmss is a very common effect." — Fai-mcr. Mtjte (Lat. vivius) is commonly employed of the human race, and refers to articulate speech, which for some peculiar reason is temporarily suspended, as, " Mute in astonish- ment," " In spite of all interrogations he remained mute." Many are mute by nature who are not, strictly speak- ing, dumb ; that is, they have no imperfection of the A-ocal organs ; but, being without the sense of hearing, they have no notion of the sounds which they ought to utter. Poeti- cally, mute is used in the sense of dumb, as " mute fishes." " Hail native Language, that by sinews weak Didst move my first endeavouring tongue to speak, And midst imperfect words with childish trips Half unpronounced, slide through my infant lips. Driving dumb silence from the portal door Where he had mutely sat two years before." Hilton. Speechless (A. S. s^prcec, spcec, speech) relates only to articulate soitnds, and means destitute or de- prived, whether permanently or for a time, of the faculty of speech, " From his slack hand the garland wreath'd for Eve Down drop'd, and all the faded roses shed. Speechless he stood and pale, till thus at length, First to liimself, he inward silence broke." Milton. Silent (Lat. silere, to be silent) is very general, and relates to anything characterized by the absence, tempo- rary or permanent, of speech or sound. It is applicable not only to living beings, but anything produ- cing soxind, as " a musical instni- ment," or even localities, as " the silent woods." " But man is frail, and can but ill sustain A long immunity from grief and pain. And after all the joys that plenty leads With tij)toe step vice silenthj succeeds." Co'ipcr. " The Voiceless woods," would mean the absence of animal sounds (Lat, vox, vocis), " The Noiseless woods " (Old Fr. noise, connected with nocere, to hurt), the absence of all soiinds, whether vocal or otherwise. " The Niobe of nations, there she stands, Childless and crownless in her voiceless woe, An empty urn within her withered hands, Whose holy dust was scattered long ago," By7-on. "Like some tall palm the noiseless fabric grew," Heber, Palestine. Duplicity, Double dealing. (See Deception.) The former relates to character [dnjilea'., dvplicis. double), the latter to action. Duplicity of character may lead to Double-dealing in particu- lar cases. Duplicity is that sustained form of deception which consists in entertaining one set of feelings, and acting as if influenced by another. Double-dealing is acting in such a way as to haA^e a doiible line of con- duct, and commonly to give the im- pression of consulting the wishes or interests of others, while one is really following one's own, " I find in you no false duplicity." — Chmice): " Maskwellinthe 'Double-dealer,' discloses by soliloquy that his motive for double-dealing , was his passion for Cynthia," — Cumberland. Durable, Lasting. Perma- nent. Ent)uring. Persistent. Of these, Lasting (A. S, Icvsfan) is the most general — remaining longer in existence, and, by an cxtcrsicu of DURATION. ( 273 ) DYE. meaning, remaining long unimpaired. Lasting and durable seem to sbare between tbem tbe moral and phy- sical import of endurance. Durable stone. A lasting friendship. "The ancients depicted friendship in the bearings and strength of a young man, bare- headed, rudely clothed, to signify its activity and lastingnesa, readiness of action and apt- ness to do service." — Bishop Taylor. Durable (Lat. durare, to endure) is lasting, with specific reference to physical influences ; as a " durable material " is one which will bear wear and tear, weather, and the like. " A Gothic cathedral raises ideas of grandeur in our minds by its size, its height, its awful obscurity, its strength, its antiquity, and its durabilittj." — Blair. Permanent (Lat. pervianere, to remain long) combines the two ideas of absence of internal and of external change. A permanent monument is not only durable, but it is established so as to remain unmoved. It lasts both in time and ])lace. "The earth, great mother of us all, That only seems unmoved and permanent." Spenser. Enduring [see Durable) is em- ployed of what resists moral in- fluences of deterioration or destruc- tion, as " enduring happiness," " an enduring friendship." It involves such ideas as remaining firm under trial, suffering, perhaps, without re- sistance, but at least without yielding. " Ye have in heaven a better and an en- during substance." — Bible. Persistent (Lat. persistere, to stand long) is lasting through native tenacity, and so continiiiug or lasting in spite of influences which might have been sufficient to destroy natures less changeable or tough. It has a physical character, as a botanical term, in the sense of remaining be- yond the period when the same parts in other plants fall off. In the fol- lowing it indicates a sustaining will or purpose, as reflected in the expres- sion of the eye itself : — " Modred's narrow foxy face, Heart-hiding smile, -dnd grey, persistent eye." Tennyson. DuKATiox. See Continuation. Dutiful. See Obedient. Duty. Obligation. The distinction commonly mnde between these is that Duty (literally, what is due) rises out of permanent relationships between persons, while Obligation (Lat. ohUgare, to bind) flows from the application of moral principles to particular cases. Obli- gations in this way would often be duties, while duties would often l^e based upon obligations. An obliga- tion in its broadest sense is anything which constrains us to act, as a vow, promise, oath, contract, but is hardly applicable to the coercive power of law, or to such matters as flow from natural piety, as the duty of parents and of children. Duty is a graver term than obligation. A duty hardly exists to perform trivial things ; but there may be an obligation to do them. It is the duty of peers to at- tend the queen at the opening of par- liament. We should hardly say that to attend in their robes was a duty, though they are obliged to do this. Law and conscience dictate to a man what is his duty, and the neglect of it is a violation of right or virtue. Obligation is more practical, and is dictated rather by usage and propriety. Obligation has also very often the sense of the power that binds, while duty is the thing en- forced. A duty never can be against reason; an obligation may be even absurd, as depending upon custom. Obligation is defined by the extent of the power which obliges ; duty by the ability of the subject who performs. " As the will of God is our rule, to inquire what is our dut;/, or what we are obliged to do, in any instance is in eflect to inquire what is the will of God in that instance, which constantly becomes the whole business of morality." — Paley. "The various duties which hare now been considered all agree with each other in one common quality, that of being obligatory upon rational and voluntary agents ; and they are all enjoined by the same authority, the authority of conscience." — Stewart, Outlines of Moral Philosophy. Dwell. See Abide. Dye. See Colour. EACH. ( -^74 ) EARNEST. E. Each, ^ee All. Eagek. Eaenest. Eager (connected witli the Latin acer, sharp) denotes an excited desire or longing, and an intentness upon pursuit of some object, as hounds eager in the chase. He who is eager seeks to gain or enjoy with the least possible delay, and is proportionately stimulated to action. The term may relate to what is praiseworthy or the contrary. " The insect youth are on the wing, Eager to taste the honied spring, And float amid the liquid noon." Gray. Earnest (A. S. eoi-nost) is always used in a good sense; and though earnestness may gi-ow into specific eagerness, it by no means implies this. Eagerness relates to the ob- ject, earnest to the occupation, the state or habit. Earnestness is a combination of sincerity and energy. "We should say equally of the hypo- crite and of the sluggard that he was not in earnest in religion. "And we may learn hence that the greatest gift of prayer, and earnestness and frequency in it, is no good mark of godliness, except it be attended with sincere, constant, and virtuous endeavours." — Glaniill. Eagerness. Avidity. Gbeed- IXESS. Eagerness (see above) difters from Avidity {aviclus, greedy), in that the latter implies more of appetite and desire of possession, and is not em- ployed of anything besides matters of enjoyment and such possession ; whereas eagerness is applicable to an excited desire to gain ends of other kinds, as, for instance, the young soldier may be eager for opportuni- ties of distinguishing himself, or accept the post of danger with eager- ness, where the term avidity would be wholly out of place. Greediness (A. S. grndig, gredig, from grcklan, to cry or call like yoxing birds for food) is a low, animal, or selfish form of desire. Eagerness, as we have seen, may in certain cases be praise- worthy; but avidity and greediness are always used in an unfavotu-able sense. " For him, ye gods, for Crastinus, whose spear With impious eagerness began the war, Some more than common punishment prepare." Eoice, Lvcan. "In all which we may see an infinite avidit'/, and such as cannot be satisfied with any finite object." — Fotlierhy, Atheomastix. " To work all uncleanness with greediness." —Bible. Eaklt. Soon. Betimes. Early (Old Eng. arliche, erliche, ereliche, eerhj. erehj) is used as an ad- jective as well as an adv^erb. It is essentially relative, and implies some ordinaiy or fixed point of time, in advance of which something else takes place, as " to rise early," " an early spring." SoON (A. S. sona, suna, sones) indicates always a short interval posterior to any given mo- ment or the present moment, as " soon after sunrise," " I will go soon." Betimes (be and time, i.e., by time) denotes some space in the early part of which something else is done. It has a practical force, and commonly means in good time for all needful purposes, or for some specific object. " Samuel began his acquaintance with God earli/, and continued it long. He began it in his long coats, and continued it to his grey hairs." — Bishop Mall. " 'Tis sooner past, 'tis sooner done, Than summer's rain or winter's sun ; Most fleeting when it is most dear, 'Tis gone while we but say 'tis here." Carew. " When the first rays their cheering crim- son shed, We'll rise betirnes to see the vineyard spread." Parnell. Eaen. See Acquiee. Earnest. See Eager. Earnest. Pledge. Earnest is probably connected with the French arrhes, a pledge, Pledge with the Old Fr.])lege, phige. EARTH. ( 275 ) EBULLITION. As used figuratively, tliere is some tlirtiinction of use. Earnest is less strong than pledge. After a pledge we expect by personal right; after an earnest we expect by natural sequence. A pledge is some kind of _security actually given for the future. An eai-nest often involves no more security than that of a high proba- bility. If I say, " I pledge my word that it shall be so," I leave, as it were, a deposit in honour that I will do what I say. If I say, " His early school successes were an earnest of his brilliant career in after life," I mean no more than that they raised expecta- tions which were afterwards fulfilled. "They (afflictions) may be testimonies or earneits of God's favour ; for whom He loves He rebukes and chastens, even as a father a son in whom he delighteth." — \\ilkins. " If a pawnbroker receives plate or jewels as a pledge or security for the repayment of money lent thereon at a day certain, he has them upon the express contract or condition to restore them if the pledger performs his part by redeeming them in due time." — Blackstone. Eaeth. See Land. Ease. Quiet. Eest. Eepose. Ease (Fr. aise) means the absence of any cause of trouble. This may be either internally as regards oneself, or externally as regards what one has to do. Hence the twofold meaning into which the word runs out, of qidet and facility. In the former appli- cation ease is freedona from trouble, pain, or restraint from without or from within. We speak of ease of body or ease of mind ; in the latter freedom from difiiculty or opposition. Quiet denotes the absence of a dis- turbing cause, as harassing thoughts or noises, and is inapplicable to the bodies of men. Rest (Fr. rester) denotes primarily the cessation of motion, and, as a particular applica- tion of this, the cessation from active or laborious movement. As a syno- nym with Repose (Fr. rciios, Lat. reponere), it may mean any cessation which is a relief from exertion. "We may rest, for instance, in a standing posture ; but repose implies the placing of all j^urts of the body in a posture of rest. " What joy within these sunless groves, Where lonely Contemplation roves, To rest in fearless ease!" Zanghorne. " Secure the sacred quiet of thy mind." Dnjden, Ovid. " So forth she rode, without repose or rest." Ease. Easiness. Facility. In the sense in which it is a syno- nym with these. Ease commonly refers to specific action. Easiness to inherent quality. " He lifted the heavy weight with ease, being appa- rently assured beforehand of the easiness of the task." Facility (Lat. facilis, easy) is less objective, and more subjective. We speak of ease in reference to the task, facility in reference to a person's power of per- foi-ming it ; so that by practice and natural strength a man may perform with comparative facility a task in itself by no means easy. Ease is also more applicable to purely phy- sical undertakings, facility to mental. Ease is opposed to eflPort, facility to difficulty. The intelligent man solves a problem with facility ; the strong man lifts a weight with ease. " It must be likewise shown that these parts stand in such a relation to each other that the comparison between them may be easily made, and that the afiection of the mind may result from it." — Burke. " Refrain to-night. And that shall lend a kind oi easiness To the next abstinence." Shakespeare. " Some gentlemen are not terrified by the facility with which government has been overturned in France." — Burke. Ebullition. Effervescence. Fermentation. Ferment. Ebullition (Lat. ehullire) is the process of boiling, or the agitation of a liquid owing to the escape of bubbles caused by the conversion of a pari of the liquid into vapour. Effervescence (Lat. effervere) is caused by the escape from a fluid of gas, as in the mixture of carbo- nated alkali and aeid. Ferment (Lat. fervimentwin, fermentmn, from the same fervere) is the state, Fee- mentation, the process of ferment- ing. This consists in the decomposi- tion of the starch, sugar, gluten, and T 2 ECCENTRIC. ( -^76 ) ECOXOMICAL. the like, under fhe influence of water, air. and warmth. "When used meta- phoricallj, ebullition is employed of sudden bursts of anger or ill-temper. Effervescence is used less commonly, but emploj'ed of the natural exhibi- tion of liveliness and good spirits. Fermentation and ferment, of a state of ill- suppressed discontent or impa- tience, and esi^ecially among a num- ber of persons. But ferment is com- monly appropi'iated to the emotional, and fermentation to the material. "There are many young members in the House (such of late has been the rapid succes- sion of public men) who never saw that prodigy Charles Townshend, nor of course know what ^ ferment \\it was able to excite in everything by the violent ebullition of his mixed virtues and failings." — Burke. " The nation is in too high a ferment for me to expect either fair war or even fair quarter from a reader of the opposite party." — Dryden. " It is not a fermentative process, for the solution begins at the surface and proceeds towards the centre, contrary to the order in y^-hich fermentation acts and spreads."' — Pale;/. Eccentric. Sixgtjlak. Strange. Odd. EcCE>"TEic is only employed of persons, and, again, only of what meets the observation in reference to conduct, as the appearance, dress, and the behaviour. No peculiarity of countenance or form, however striking, would be called eccenti-ic; for eccentric implies a will, nature, or habits, "which, as it were, move in a different orbit from other people. Singular (Lat. singuJaris), on the other hand, is applied to the whole person or to any aspect of his cha- racter, to his ideas, to his whole life, or to any particular act, as standing by itself out of the common course, and even to iDhenomena, circum- stances, or occurrences. Strange (Old Fr. estrange. Lat. cxtraneus) is of equally compreheusiveapplication, but bears refei'ence to the experience of the •witness, to which it is foreign and alien ; so that what seems strange to one person may not be so to another, who can better interpret it, or has by a larger experience been made familiar with it. It is a gx'aver word than singu- lar. It is the difficulty of compre- hension or interpretation which con- stitutes the strange, whence strange is often coupled with mysterious, and is usually associated with the unde- sirable. Odd (Swedish ndda, odd, Welsh od) implies disharmony, in- congruity, or unevenness. An odd thing or person is an exception to general rules of calculation and pro- cedure, or expectation and common experience. Like singular and strange, it has a very wide application, and is not restricted to what is purely of a personal nature. It is less grave than strange, and denotes an im- pression not so much of surprise or bewilderment as of incongruity. " Genius, a bustling lad of parts. Who all things did by fits and starts ; Nothing above him or below him, Who'd make a riot or a poem, From eccentricity of thought Not always do the thing he ought." Zloyd. " Though, according to the common course and practice of the world, it be somewhat sing'ilar for men thoroughly to live up to the principles of religion, yet singuliriti/ in this matter is so far from being a reflection upon any man's prudence, that it is a singular com- mendation of it." — Tillotson. " Though the common experience, says he, and the ordinary course of things have justly a mighty influence on the minds of men to make them give or refuse credit to anything proposed to their belief, yet there is one case wherein the strangeness of the facts lessens not the assent to a fair testimony given to it." — Warhurton. " But oh, how oddhi will it sound, that I Must ask my child forgiveness." Shakespeare. Economical. Sating. Frugal. Thrifty. Parsimonious. Sparing. Penurious, Of these, Sating (Fr. sauver) means avoiding unnecessary ex- penses, whether it be with or against -the natural inclination, whether as a habit or for a particular purpose, whether with or withoiit sufficient reason. Economical iGr. oiKovofila oiKos. a house, and vtfico, to keep) implies a good deal more, as not only saA-ing of waste and unnecessary ex- pense, but careful and frugal manage- ECONOMICAL. ( 277 ) ECSTASY. ment and prudence in expenditure. Frugal (Lat. frugalis, frugi, fit for food) relates more specifically to mat- ters of consumption. So tliat one may be frugal even of time. It is opposed to lavish., and belongs es- pecially to matters of food and dress. It conveys the idea of not using *or spending superfluously, and when used of matters of con- sumption points to a simplicity of manners. Thkifty (connected with thrive) connects the ideas of frugality and industry, or such careful expendi- ture as comes of a knowledge of the value of money, and results in the competent possession of it, and in prosperity in general. Parsimo- nious (Lat. parsimonia, parcere, to spare) is commonly employed in a bad sense of excessive economy, and a closeness bordering upon niggardli- ness, or, at least, of continuovis effort at saving. Sparing (A. S. sparian, to spare) has, like j^arsimoniovis, a somewhat unfavourable sense, indica- ting a reluctance to spend where spending is necessary, or would be at least more graceful. It is more spe- cific, as parsimonious is more general and habitual. It commonly implies ampler means than the possessor is inclined to make use of. The Pe- nurious' (Lat. penuria, Gr. nevia, poverty) is one who suffers want in the extremity of his sparing. " The charitable few are chiefly they Whom Fortune places iu the middle way, Just rich enough, with economic care. To save a pittance, and a pittance spare, Just poor enough to feel the poor man's moan, Or share those sufterings which may prove their own." Harte. " He was not hitherto a saver." — Swift. " The father was more given to fnii/alitije, and the sonne to ryotousnesse." — GoldijiKj. " Domestic industry and economy, or the qualities distinguished by the homely titles of thriftiness and good housewifery, were always till the present century deemed honourable." — Knox, Essays. " Parsimoni/, and not industry, is the imme- diate cause of the increase of capital. Industry indeed provides the subject which parsimony accumulates; but whatever industry might acquire, if parsimony did not save and store up, the capital would never be the greater." — Smith, Wealth of A'atiuns. " And taught at schools much mythologic stuir, But sound religion sparingly enough." Cowper. " I ever held a scanty and penurious justice to partake of the nature of a wrong." — JJurhe. Ecstasy. Eapture. Trans- port. Frenzy. Ecstasy (Gr. eKcrTafjr]u, the mind, (fipems) is stronger than transport, and is applied to all that transport relates to, and to the higher spiritual emotions besides ;_ as the frenzy of poetry, or of inspira- tion ; the frenzy of genius, when a more than common or human in- fluence enraptures the mind ; and the frenzy of wrath. In all the rest the individual is master of his own acts. In frenzy he is supposed to be him- self acted upon by some power, which makes him an instrument, and car- ries him into siibjection. " What ! are you dreaming, son ? with eyes cast upwards Like a mad prophet in an ecstasie." Dryden. " The latent Damon drew Such maddening draughts of beauty to his soul. As for a wliile o'ervvhelmed his raptured thought With lu.\ury too daring." Thoinso7i. "With transport views the airy rule his own, And swells on an imaginary throne." Top.'. EDGE. ( 278 ) EDUCATION. " What frenzy, shepherd, has tliy soul pos- sessed ? The vineyard lies half pruned and half un- Drijden, Virgil. Edoe. See Brim. Edict. See Decree. Edifice. Building. Struc- ture. Fabric. Construction. An Edifice (Lat. oedificium, cedes, a building, and facere, to make) is commonly aiDplied to inhabited build- ings of some size and pretension, oi' to such as are at least from time to time occupied, as a palace or a catlie- dral ; not an obelisk. " Should I go to church, And see the holy edifice of stone, And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, Which touching but my gentle vessel's side. Would scatter all her spices on the stream. Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks ?" Shakespeare. Building (A. S. byldan, to build) is used in an indeterminate way, when no characteristic idea is at- tached ; as a mass of building, public and private buildings. Buildings are raised or vertical. " And Jesus answered and sayde unto hym, Sevst thou thfcso great byldingesf — Bible, 1551. Stetjctxjre {structura, strnere, to lay down) is used of almost anything which is regarded as made of parts or particles put together, whether natu- ral or artificial, and has the sense of composition, or mode of putting to- gether, or formation ; as the structure of the globe, the structui-e of a natu- ral rock, the structure of a poem or a discourse. When used in a sense more closely synonymous with building, it draws the attention to the internal putting together of the parts rather than to any purpose of it. A curiovis structure, a lofty structure, the structure is insecure. It would be incongruous to say, " The citizens needed some public structure in which to hold municipal meetings." Here edifice or building woiild be used ; but it might be added, " The plans of an eminent architect were adopted, and the result is a commo- dious and handsome structure." " But this is yet a weak piece of structure, because the supporters are subject to much impulsion, especially if the line be long." — licliquicB Wottoniance. Fabric (Fr. fahrique, Lat. fabri- care) is used not only of structures in the sense just given, but also of tex- tile substances. In the ai-chitectural sense, fabric denotes more art and design, structure more care and orderly arrangement. " The baseless fabric of a vision." Shakespeare. Construction does not imply that unity of form or plan which is ex- pressed by both fabric and structure. York Minster is a marvellous fabric or structure. A Roman mosaic pavement, or London Bridge, is an elaborate fabric. The Dutch dykes are other constructions on which the lives of thousands depend. The term construction is the abstract of which structure is the concrete. It is also the process of which structure is the result. " From the raft or canoe which first served to carry a savage over the river, to the cou- struction of a vessel capable of conveying a numerous crew in safety to a distant coast, the progress in improvement is immense." — Bobcrtson. Education. Instruction. Breeding. Training. Instruction (Lat. insh-nere, to furnish) and edxhcation are as parts to the whole. Instruction is mental, education is moral as well as mental. Education, however (Lat. educare, form of cdncere, to bring up) is more applicable to the younger portion of life, when the muid and the moral nature are unstocked and undeve- loped ; while instruction may be given or received on specific points or de- partments of knowledge at all periods. Instructicm makes men wiser ; educa- tion ought to make them wiser and better; and Bkeeding i^A.S. hrcdan. to nourish) will m;ike them more polished and agreeable. Training (^Fr. trainer) is development by instruction, exer- cise, and discipline, and is applicable EFFACE. ( 279 ) EFFECTS. to the whole nature (jf a man, or, specifically, to the faculties which he possesses. It denotes no more than a process of purposeil hahituatiou, ami is equally applicable to the physical and mental powers, so that it may include both at the same time. "If what I have said in the beginning of this discourse be true, as I do not doubt but it is, namely, that the diii'erence to be found in the manner and abilities of men is owing more to their education than anything else, we have reason to conclude that great care is to be had of the forming children's minds, and giving them that seasoning earl}^ whicli shall influence their minds always after." — Locke. "The coldness of passion seems to be the natural ground of ability and honesty among men, as the government or moderation of them the great end of philosophical and moral instructions." — Sir W. Temple. " I shall also be bold enough to affirm that among the ancients there was not much delicacy of breeding, or that polite deference and respect which civility obliges us either to express or counterfeit towards the persons with whom we converse." — Burke. " So to his steed he gott, and gan to ride As one unfitt therefore, that all might see He had not trayned been in chevalree." Sjjcaser. Efface. Obliterate. Expunge. Erase. Cancel. All these terms apply to characters impressed or inscribed. Efface (Fr. efface)-, Lat. fades, face) is to render illegible or indiscernible, as the letters from a monument, or the effigy and letters from a coin, or any representation upon a surface. It is also nsed metaphorically in the sense of removing traces, as " to etfuce recollections from the mind." But the term implies nothing of mode or purpose ; so that things may be pur- posely effaced, or effaced by the lapse of time, corroding influences, and the like. Such effacing may come short of the entire removal of the thing. Obliterate {ohliterare, litera, a letter) only applies to what conveys a symbolical meaning, as letters. A fresco painting, for instance, would be a dii-ect representation, and so might be effaced, but not obliterated ; but the term is used analogously to the effacing of letters. So we might say, not indeed, " The painting itself," but " every ti-ace of it was oblite- rated." Expunge (Lat. expungere, to prick out) is to strike out with the point of the pen, and is always de- siynedly done; while obliteration, like effacement, may be the result of undesigned influences. Erase is to scratch out (e and radere, to scrape) ; while Cancel (Lat. cancelli, lattice work) is to draw lines diagonally across wi-iting, so as practically to remove it, without actually erasing, expunging, or obliterating it. Can- celled wi'iting loses its force, but not its legibility. It is in their meta- phorical aj)plications that the dis- tinctions of these words are more clearly prominent. Memories and im- pressions are eftaced; traces, vestiges are obliterated ; offences and injuries are expunged ; gratitude, good and kindly thoughts, are erased; obliga- tions, necessity, favoiu's, debts, are cancelled. "Thus the ideas, as well as children, of our youth often die before us, and our minds represent to us those tombs to which we are approaching, where, though brass and marble remain, yet the inscriptions are effaced by time, and the imagery moulders away." — Locke. " The sin of Judah is said to be writ upon the table of their hearts, as if their memory of and affection to it could scarce be obliter- ated."— Whitby. "Is every word in the declaration from Downing Street, concerning their conduct, and concerning ours and that of our allies, so ob- viously false, that it is necessary to give some new-invented proofs of our good faith, in order to expunge the memory of this perfidy ?" — Burke. " A king is ever surrounded by a crowd of infamous flatterers, who find their account by keeping him from the least light of reason, till all ideas of rectitude and justice are e/-as<;(i from his mind." — Ibid. "The handwriting against him may be cancelled in the court of heaven, and yet the enditement run on in the court of conscience." — iSoutli. Effect. See Accomplish and Eesult. Effective. See Efficient. Effects. See Goods. EFFECTUAL. ( ''So ) EFFORT. Effectual. See Efficiext. Effeminate. See Female. Effervescexce. See Ebulli- tion. Efficacious. See Efficient. Efficient. Effectrte. Effec- tual. Efficacious. Efficient (Lat. e^cere, to eflfect) is actively operative, auJ is used of pei-sons, of things, and of causes in a philosophical sense, as an efficient cause, an efficient officer. An efficient cause is the motive principle, as dis- tinguished from the final cause or design, the material, and the formal cause. Efficient is peculiarly appli- cable to persons. Effective is producing a decided effect, as an effective remedy, an efiPective picture, an effective speech. It is not a qiiality of persons. Effectual is fiiudhj effec- tive, or producing, not effect gene- rally, but the desired effect in such a way as to leave nothing to be done. An effectual remedy is one which needs not to be repeated. It is not used of persons. Epficaciotts is possessing the quality of being effec- tive, which is latent in the thing until it is put into operation. It is not employed of persons. An effica- cious remedy is had recourse to. and proves effective if it does decided good, effectual if it does all the good desired. "The Church was not impaired. Her estates, her majesty, her splendour, her orders and gradations continued the same. She was preserved in her full efficiency, and cleared only of a certain intolerance which Avas her weakness and disgrace." — Burke. "The House of Commons will lose that independent character which, inseparablv connecting the honour and reputation with the acts of this House, enables us to al!brd a real, substantial, and effective support to his Government." — Ibid. "The extreme dishonour and- even peril of this situation roused her old age at length to the resolution of taking some effectujl measures." — Bishop Ilurd. ■ " Rules themselves are indeed nothing else but an appeal to experience; conclusions drawn from wide aud general observation of the aptness and efficaci/ of certain means to produce those impressions."— /(;j J. Effigy. See Image. Effort. Attempt. Endea- vour. Essay. Trial. Exer- tion. Experiment. Effort (Fr. effort, e, out, and fortis, strong) is a specific putting forth of strength, whether physical or mental, in performing an act, or aiming at an object. It implies external hardness or difficulty. Its o^jposite is ease. An Attempt (Old Fr. attempter, Lat. attentare) is a trying to do some- thing in particular. It may be a trial of skill or strength, as to at- tempt to scale a wall, or to untie a knot, or comprehend an expression. Efforts are strong or weti ; attempts are successful or unsuccessful, and often need fortune as well as strength. Endeavouk (Fr. en devoir, in duty, se mettre en devoir, to make it one's duty) is of wider meaning than both effort and attempt, and, indeed, com- prehends both. It is to use aU avtiil- able means and resources in one's power to bring about an object. It is labour directed to some specific end. Effort is energetic or laborious endea- vour. Essay (Fr. essayer, to try) is commonly connected with one's own natural powers, of which some trial is made, as to essay to write, to speak, to sing. When of matters wholly extraneous to oneself, it has the meaning of to test or try the strength, value, or purity ; and in matters" of effort implies some degree of the in- effectual. Trial (Old^Fr. trial, triel) is the trying or testing in any manner, as by experiment, by experience, by examination, and is applicable to one's own strength or powers and qualities, or the qualities of things external to ourselves. Exertion {exsero, to put forth) is the active exercise of any power or faculty of which we may be possessed, as to exert the mind, the limbs, or one's powers generally, as one's interest on behalf of another. It admits all degrees of effort, and even natural action without effort. Experiment is a process instituted for the sake of arriving at the knowledge of a gene- ral pri uciple or truth. Experiment is to the general law what test is to the particular case. EFFRONTERY. ( 281 ) ELDER. " From whence it seems probable to me that the simple ideas we receive from sensa- tion and reflection are the boundaries of our thoughts, beyond which the mind, whatever efforts it would make, is not able to advance one jot; nor can it make any discoveries when it would pry into the nature and hidden causes of those ideas." — Locke. " I am afraid they have awaked. And 'tis not done. The attempt and not the deed Confounds us." Sliakespeare. " It ought to be the first endeavour of a ■writer to distinguish nature from custom, or that which is established because it is right from that which is right because it is estab- lished." — Bamhler. " Yet such a tongue alike in vain essays To blot with censure or exalt with praise." Hoole. "To bring it to the trial vi\\\ you dare? Our pipes, our skill, our voices to compare ?" Drydm. " Excrlin'j.^ of the senses of seeing and hearing." — JIale. " These records of wars, intrigues, factions, and revolutions are so many collections of experiments, by which the politician or moral philosopher fixes the principles of his science, in the same manner as the physician or natural philosopher becomes acquainted with the nature of plants, minerals, and other external objects by the experiments which he forms concerning them." — Hume. Effronteey. See Boldness. Egotistical. Opinionated. Selfish. Conceited. The Egotistical man (Lat. ego, I) is full of himself in talk,^ as the Selfish mau is full of self in plans, wishes, and desires. The egotistical man acts out self-conceit. He is a centre of interest and importance in his own estimation. The Opinion- ated man is self-conceited on the particular point of his own judg- ment, and obstinately tenacious of his own opinions. Both the egotisti- cal and opinionated man are inno- cent in comparison with the selfish, who is ready not only to think of him- self first on" all occasions, but even to gratify his desires at the expense of others. The Conceited man, inll of conceit or estimation of himself, overrates his own capacity or recom- mendations. This may be in some things, and not in others, in Avhich he may form a just or even too low an estimate. " The gentlemen of Port Royal, who were more eminent for their learning and their humility than any other in France, banished^ the way of speaking in the first person out of all their works, as rising from vain-glory and self-conceit. To show their particular aver- sion to it they branded this form of writing with the name of an egotism, a figure not to be found among the ancient rhetoricians." — Spectator. "People of clear heads are what the world calls opinionated." — Shenstone. " But men are led into this mistake by laying too much stress upon etymology. For, selfshness being derived from self, they learnedly infer that whatever is done to please one's own inclination must fall under that appellation, not considering that deriva- tives do not always retain the full latitude of their roots." — Search. The old force of the term conceit, that is, a conception or thought, and thence a forced thought, as a verbal conceit, or i^lay on words, and after- wards a false or undue conception of one's own attractions or powers, appears in the following : — "That groom that conceited himself an emperor thought all as irrational as disloyal that did not acknowledge him." — Glanvill. Elder. Senior. Older. Elder (A. S. ildra, yldra, m&^c. ildre, rjldre. fem., the comparative de- gree of aid, eald, old) and Senior (Lat. senior, older) are used both as ad- jectives and substautives, older only as a comparative adjective, in the sense of older persons, or, as if older, as the Jewish elders. As adjectives, elder and senior relate only to per- sons, elder signifying uiore advanced age, and senior implying also that priority or precedence which such advancement confers or has brought with it. Older is applicable to any person or thing which has existed comparatively long ; as this man, this house, this infant is older than the other. " Hereof it came that the word (elder) was always used both for the magistrate and for those of age and gravity, the same bearing one signification almost in all languages. — E.'hyh. ELDERL Y. ( -^S2 ) ELUCIDATE. " The names of lord, siguior, seigneur, sennor, in the Italian, French, and Spanish languages, seem to have at first imported only elder men, who thereby were grown into authority among the several governments and nations which seated themselves into those countries upon the fall of the Roman Empire."— 6Vr W. Temple. " The melancholy news that we grow old." YuUHlJ. Elderly, See Old, Elect, See Choice. Elegant, See Comely. Elevate. See Lift. Eligible. Desirable. Pre- ferable. Eligible (Lat. eligere, to elect) means primarily worthy of being chosen, or qualilied to be chosen. It denotes, therefore, an alternative — that of choosing something else, or not choosing this. Desirable (Fr. desir, Lat. desiderium) is of wider application, and conveys no idea of comparison or selection. It relates to any kind of choice, not only, for instance, of possession, like eligible, but of conduct, as action, or abstain- ing from action, and, in short, of anything that is to be wished, as a desirable residence, a desirable mea- sure, a desirable abstinence from food. Preferable (Lat. j^rce and/en-e, to bear or place) is that which is com- paratively desirable or specifically eligible. " A life of virtue and religion will, notwith- standing, to a considering man be far more easy and far more eligible than the contrary way of living." — Sharp. " 0, wherefore did God grant me my request, And as a blessing with such pomp adorned ? Why are His gifts desirable, to tempt Our earnest prayers, then, given with solemn hand As graces, draw a scorpion's tail behind ?" Hilton. The older form, preferrible, would seem to be the more correct, as in the analogous word referrible. " Which hypothesis, if it appear but pro- bable to an impartial inquiry, will even on that account be preferrible to both the former, which we have seen to be desperate." — Glamill. Elocution, Eloquence. Ora- tory. Ehetoric. Elocution (e out, and loqui, to speak) turns more upon the accessory graces of speaking in public, as in- tonation, gesture, and delivery in general ; Eloquence, on the mat- ter, and the natural gifts or attain- ments of the speaker. The actor must practise elocution; but, as his words are found him, he cannot be eloquent. The orator needs elo- quence as a natural gift, which may be enhanced and rendered more elFective by a studied elocution. Ora- tory (Lat. orator, an orator) compre- hends both the art and the practice of the orator, and, in an extended sense, the combined productions of orators, as the oratory of Greece and Rome. Rhetoric (Gr. p-qropiKr} Tix^r]) is strictly the theory or science of which oratory is the practice. It is only by a kind of poetic license that eloquence is used in the sense of ex- pressiveness ; as the silent eloquence of a look, for instance. Rhetoric is commonly emj)loyed, like the adjec- tive rhetorical, in the sense of a par- ticular figure of rhetoric, or a phrase which illustrates it, and is intended to be rather efi'ective than literally and exactly true. " Soft elocution does thy style renown. And the soft accents of the peaceful gown." Bryden. " If I mistake not, our modern eloquence is of the same style or species with that which ancient critics denominated Attic eloquence ; that is, calm, elegant, and subtle, which in- structed the reason more than afliected the passions, and never raised its tone above argument or common discourse." — Hume. " Their orators thou then estoll'st as those The top of eloquence, statists indeed, And lovers of their country, as may seem ; But herein to our prophets much beneath. As men divinely taught, and better teach- ing The solid rules of civil government In their majestic unaffected style Than all the oratory of Greece and Rome." 3Itlton. Eloquence. Elucidate. See Elocution. See Explain. EL UDE. ( -'S3 ) EMINENT. Elude. See Escape. Emanate. Bee Spring. Embarrass. Bee Clog. Embellish. Bee Adorn. EaiBLEM. Sign. Symbol. Sig- nal. Device. Of these, Sign (Lat. signum) ia tlie most generic, the others being species of signs. Sign has the manifold mean- ings of a mark inscribed, as the sign of the cross ; a token, as a sign of peace ; an indication, as a sign of a man's in- tentions ; or a proof, as a sign that it rained last night. Unlike sign, Em- blem (Gr. e'fildXTjua, iv and f^aXXeiv, something thrown or laid on) is al- ways visible to the eye — an object re- presenting or symbolizing another object or an idea by natural aptness, or by association : as a circle, the emblem of eternity ; a sceptre, the emblem of power. " A Sy:mbol," says Coleridge (Gr. avfifSdWeiv, to throw or put together) " is a sign included in the idea which it represents — an actual part taken to represent the whole, or a lower form or species used as the representative of a higher in the same kind ;" as the lion is the symbol of courage, the lamb of meekness. Signal is a specific sign either conventionally agreed upon, or illustrating something else by a pre- established connection in the mind. Device (Fr. deviser, to exchange ideas, Lat. divldere, to divide or dis- tinguish) is an emblematic mark, figure, or ornament, like emblem in being illustrative, l)ut imlike it in relating not to natural connections, but to ai'bitrary associations ; as an heraldic device. Unlike emblem also is device, in including words and cha- racters as well as figures or objects of representation, as, for instance, in the form of a motto. " Why may he not be cmblem'd by 'the cozening fig-tree that our Saviour cursed ?" — Feltham. " We come now to the signatures of plants. I demand whether it be not a very easy and genuine inference from the observing that several herbs are marked with some mark or siijn that intimates their virtue, what they are good for, and there being such a creature as man in the world that can read and under- stand these sigiis and characters, hence to collect that the Autlior both of man and them knew the nature of them both ?" — Sir T. More. An emblem is always of something simple. A symbol may be of some- thing complex, as of a transaction which another and inferior transac- tion may be made to symbolize. " His laying his hand upon the bead of his sacrifice was a stjniholical action, by which he solemnly acknowledged to God that he had justly deserved to sutler that death himself which his sacrifice was suflering for him." — Scott, Christian Life. It will be observed that in con- sequence we do not speak of actions as emblematic. " God and thou know'st with what a heavy heart I took my farewell when I should depart, And being shipp'd, gave signal with my hand Up to the clilT where I did see thee stand." Drayton. A signal, unlike the rest, is always a thing specifically given or made. " A banner with this strange detice, Excelsior." Longfellow. Embolden. See Bold and Cheer. Embrace. See Comprise. Embryo. Fcetus. Embkyo (from iv, in, and jSpveic, to swell) is the rudimental state of the yoimg, whether of plants or ani- mals. Fcetus (Lat. foetus) is not used, like embryo, of plants, but of animals only, and is the development of the embryo. It is used both of viviparous and oviparous animals. Emend. See Amend. Emergency. See Crisis. Eminent. Illustrious. Dis- tinguished. Prominent. Eminent (Lat. eminere, to stand out) is only employed of persons : when things stand out conspicuously, they are called Prominent. So the eminent characters of history, and the prominent events. Persons are eminent who stand above their fel- EMISSARY. ( -^84 ) EMPIRE. lows. Tliis may be by the accident of birtb, by merit, by Ligb station, by talent, by virtue, and even by vices, if tbey be conspicuous enougb. There- fore as a social term it is plain, as a moral one it is dubious. " While otliers fondly feed ambition's fire, And to the top of liuman state asi)ire, That tVom tlieir aii'y eminence they may Witli pride and scorn the inferior world survey." Hughes. Illustrious (Lat. illustris) is used strictly only of persons, inasmuch as human acts or character can alone make things illustrious, as being the agents or the recipients of what is illustrious. Thus, we speak of illus- trious heroes, illustrious nobles, illus- trious titles. If we speak of illustrious deeds or events, it is as being done or brought about by human agency. The state or the historian render deeds or men illustrious. A striking object of Nature, foi- instance, might be famous, but never illustrious. " Comparisons should be taken from illus- trious noted objects, which most of the readers have either seen or can strongly con- ceive." — Blair. Distinguished (Lat. distinguere), in like manner, directly relates to per- sons and to deeds, and to persons for the sake of their deeds. Distinguished conveys the idea of social eminence or prominence as the result of public services rendered, or merit publicly exhibited. "Few are formed with abilities to discover new possibilities of excellence, and to distin- guish themselves by means never tried before." — Rambler. A thing or person is prominent by position, eminent by station, dis- tinguished by peculiarities of good or ill, and illustrious by the testimony and consent of others. " Lady Macbeth's walking in her sleep is an incident so full of tragic horror that it stands out as a prominent feature in the most sublime drama in the world." — Cumberland. Emissary. See Spy. Emit. Exhale. Emit (Lat. emittere, to send forth) is the wider term, as it includes the more and the less substantial. To emit is, however, not conmionly iised of heavy and dense substances ; in that case we use discharge. The cannon emits smoke, but does not emit shot. "We speak of water, flame, gas, smoke, light, steam, smell, and the like, as emitted. Exhale [exha- lare) is used only of the lightest: even of these ; as to exhale odours, va- pours, effluvia. Strictly, both emit and exhale relate to the propulsion of natural, not artificial things. It is only in poetry, for instance, that the bow emits the an-ow. " Lest, wrathful, the f\xr-shooting god Emit his fatal arrows." I'rior. "Is there not as much reason that the vapours which are exhaled out of the earth should be carried down to the sea, as that those raised out of the sea be brought up upon the dry land ?" — Bay. Emolument. See Gtain. Ebiotion. See Agitation. Emphasis. See Accent. Empire. Kingdom. Dominion. (See IiEALM.) Empire (Lat. imperiuvi) carries vdth it the idea of a vast and compli- cated government, varying in its rela- tionship and degree of power in re- gard to the many subordinate and indej^endent sovereignties or com- munities included under it. King- dom is more definitely the tei-ritory sul^ject to a king or queen ; while Dominion (Lat. dominus, a lord) has the vague meaning of politicid sub- jection or subordination of any kind, ■whether at home or abroad, and is even applicable to the lordship which man exercises over the brute crea- tion. In their figurative uses the parallel distinctions are observed : as the empire of mind or reason ; the kingdoms of animal, mineral, and vegetable nature ; the dominion of the passions. " If vice had once an ill name in the world, was once generally stigmatised with reproach and ignominy, it would quickly lose its empire, and thousands that are now slaves of it would become proselytes to virtue." — Sharp, "The great and rich /iinjdom of Granada." — Bacon. EMPLOY. ( 285 ) EMPO WER. "The safety, honour, and welfare of our ftcivereign and her dominions." — Book of Common Prai/o: Employ. Use. Employ (Fr. employer, Lat. impli- care) and UsB (Fr. user, Lat. uti, nsus) are somewhat differenced in usage. "We always employ when we iiseT bnt we do not always use when we employ. Yet the difference is very slight. Use implies moi-e entire assumption into our seiwice than emjjloy. As regards things, the terms are well-nigh interchange- able. We use or employ means ; we use or employ violence ; but as re- gards persons, we employ agents, and we use instruments. We do not use persons, except in some low sense, as machines or tools. Such respect is due to others when per- forming our behests. So a monarch negotiating with a foreign court would employ, not use, an ambas- sador. The more moral and dignified uses are expressed by employ. "Had Jesns, on the contrary, made choice of the great and learsed for tliis employment, they had discredited their own success. It might have been then objected that the Gospel had made its way by the aid of human power or sophistry." — Warburton. " I would, my son, that thou would'st use the power ; Which thy discretion gives thee, to control And manage all." Cowpcr. It may be added that to use has a general and abstract force, which is never apparent in employ. We may use simply ; we never employ but for a specific purpose. A man uses, or has the use of, his hands when he simply exercises a natural power. He employs them for purposes which by the inferior animals are effected in other ways. Employment. Business. Avo- cation. Occupation. Engage- ment. Employment {see Employ) is used in the twofold sense of employing and being employed. The same re- mark holds good of occupation and engagement. In the passive sense, employment is any fixed way of pass- lug the time, whether in dvxty or pleasui-e, or ways more indifferent. It may be active or meditative, spe- cific, or habitual. " Poets we prize, when in their verse'we find Some great emploijment of a worthy mind." Waller. Business (that which busies) is more active employment, which at the time engrosses the time and at- tention as of primary importance ; as in the common phrase, " I will make it my business to attend to it." Busi- ness is responsible employment. We choose our employments; our busi- ness claims its. " It seldom happens that men of a studious turn acquire any degree of reputation for their knowledge o£ business."— J'orteus. Avocation (Fr. avocation, a calling). The term is commonly used of the minor affairs of life, less prominent and engrossing than business, or such calls as are beside the man's duty or business of life. It very com- monly, therefore, occurs in the plural number, as " multifarious avoca- tions," "employments of every de- gree of urgency and responsibility." " In the time of health visits, businesses, cards, and I know not how many other avoca- tions, which they justly style diversions, do succeed one another so thick, that in the day there is no time left for the distracted person to converse with his own thoughts." — Boyle. Occupation (Lat. occupatio) is used of such employment as has be- come, or tends to become, habitual : as a favourite occupation, which may be one of seriousness or sport ; an occu- pation in life, meaning a trade or caUiug. " These were their learned speculations, And all their constant occupations, To measure wind and weigh the air, And turn a circle to a square." Butler. Engagement (Fr. engager) is an engrossing occupation, not compul- sory nor systematic, but casual, yet at the time leaving little or no room for other employments. " Portia, go in a while. And by and by thy bosom shall partake Tlie secrets of my heart. All my enfjaijements I will construe to thee." Shakespeare, EMrowER. See Authorize. EMPTY. ( 286 ) ENCYCLOF.EDIA. E:u:rTT. Yacant. Hollow. YoiD. Empty (A. S. emtig, damtig, emetig) lias reference to foreign or dissimilar substances; while Hollow (A. S. hoJ) lias reference to internal dis- continuity of substance ; as an empty pui-se, a hollow beech. Yacant (Lat. vacare, to be empty) belongs to what might be filled, or is intended to be filled or occupied, but at pre- sent is not so ; as a vacant chair, a vacant oflice. Void (Lat. vichms) de- notes some place so surrounded as to be unoccupied. A plot of ground, for instance, in the middle of a city unbuilt upon might be called void; it is the absence of filling up in other than a purely geometrical sense. An empty place would be in an excep- tional or casual state. Avoid place might be intended to be always void, in the sense of provisionally unoccti- pied. That which is void conveys an impression of want or emptiness which may be felt. " All empty is the tonne " (barrel"). Chaucer. "The pope had accursed the English people because they suflered the bishops' sees to be vacant so long a time." — Holinshcd. Vacant is used in an abstract and a metaphorical, not a pui-ely physical application. A vacant space, or a vacant office ; but not a vacant vessel. " Yet it has been noted that many old trees, quite decayed with an inward hollov:- ness, have borne as full burdens and constantly as the very soundest." — Evelyn. "And the void helmet followed as he pulled." Cou-per, Iliad. Emulation. See Competitiok. Enchant. See Captivate. Enciecle. See Ciecumscribe, Enclose or Inclose. See Cir- cumscribe, Encomium. See Panegyric. Encompass. See Circumscribe. Encounter. See Attack and Onset. Encourage. See Cheer and Promote. Encroach. Intrench. In- trude. Invade. Infrentge. Encroach (Old Fr. encrouer, en- croer, Lat. incrocare, Fr. croc, a crook or hook) is to come gradually, in- sensibly, or imperceptibly upon another's land, or, metaphorically, upon his rights. It is this silence and indirectness which characterizes encroachment, so that the trespass is made, and the footing established before the process was heeded. " Disobedience, if complied with, is infinitely encroaching ; and having gained one degree of liberty upon indulgence will demand another upon claim." — South. Intrench is an old term of feudal history, literally meaning to push for- ward the trench of fortified line, and so to trespass on another's territory, as when the king entrenched upon the nobles, or the nobles upon the king. The tei-m, unlike encroach, denotes a direct and decisive act, though it may be an indirect result rather than a direct purpose, as if by performiug a certain act, or claiming a certain privilege, a noble entrenched on a prerogative 'of the cro^^Ti. Men en- croach gradually ; they intrench pre- sumptuously. "It is not easily apprehended to be the portion of her care to give it spiritual milk ; and therefore it intrenches very much upon impiety and positive relinquishing the educa- tion of their children." — Bishop Taylor. To Intrude (Lat. in and trudge, to thrust) is to thi-ust oneself in an abmpt or unwelcome manner : upon the presence or society of another; while to Invade (Lat. invadere) de- notes a direct, positive, and open violation of anotlier's rights. In- fringe [in and frangei-e, to break) is positively to violate, or negatively to disregard a direct law, treaty, obliga- tion, or right. " Others have ceased their curiosity, and consider every man who fills the mouth of report with a new name as an int?-uder upon their retreat, and disturber of their repose." — Rambler. Encumber. See Clog. Encyclopjjdia. See Diction- END. ( 287 ) ENDURANCE. End. See Aim, Close, and Finish. Ending. Bee Close. Endeavour. See Effort and Try. Endemic. See Epidemic. Endless. Eternal. Ever- lasting. Endless (A. S. ende and privative termination less) is applicable to the idea of iuJBnity of space and of time, Everlasting only to infinite dura- tion of time. Eternal to clironic period mthout either beginning or end (Lat. (xternus, for ceviternus, cevum, age). Endless admits the idea of intermediate though not of final ces- sation. That might be called endless which' is perpetually recurrent, as end- less disputes. Everlasting, on the other hand, implies no intermission as well as no end. Endow. Endue. Invest. Endow (Norm. Fr. endouer, Lat. dotare) retains its etymological force, and in its metaphorical use signifies to furnish with something which is of the nature of a gift. " Man is endowed with reason," implies that reason is regarded as a faculty in the nature of a gift bestowed characteristically upon him by his Maker. Endue (Lat. induere) is to cover as it were with a vestment, and therefore means no more than permanently furnished. Invest (Lat. in and vestis, a vest) is more external than endue. We may say a lover's imagination endues or invests his mistress with every grace ; but when the idea is that of clothing with office or authority, we use the tenn invest. "We are commonly said to endow with privileges or substantial benefits, to endue with moral qualities, and to invest with dignity, authority, and power. " And yet I do not take humility in man to consist in disowning or denying any gift or ability that is in him, but in a just valuation of such gifts and endowments, yet rather thinking too meanly than too highly of them." — Bay. "Now an unintelligent being, 'tis evident, cannot be endued with all the perfections of all things in the world, because intelligence is one of those perfections." — Clarke. "And what were all his most rightful honours but the i)eople's gift, and the invest- mnit of that lustre, majesty, and honour which for the public good, and no otherwise, redounds from a whole nation into one person ?" — Hilton. Endowment. Gift. Present. In their simplest signification the distinction between these is obvious. An endowment is a gift in perpetuity, of which the usufruct is continually acci-uing ; as to give a sum of money, of which the interest may serve to endow a public institution. A Gift is usually from one who is in some sense a superior, and intended to benefit the person to whom it is given. A Present {Jj&i. presentare, to present) is commonly from an equal or an inferior, as a mark of aff"ection or respect. Of these, gift is the most generic, endowments and presents being forms of gifts. As they relate to moral and intellectual things, gifts and endowments diff"er in that a gift commonly ends as it were with itself, while an endowment gives the power of other things ; and so gift is the more specific, endowment more general. The gift of speech, the gift of eloquence ; the endowments of the understanding. Accordingly, a gift gives less the idea of something to be improved by exertion than en- dowment. The powers of the early church, such as the performance of miracles, the power of tongues, and the like, were both gifts and endow- ments—gifts of the Spirit when re- garded as supematurally given, en- dowments when regarded as facul- ties which might be exercised as occasions presented themselves. (See Endow.) Endue. See Endow. Endurance. Patience. Ee- siGNATioN. Fortitude. Endurance is, as the term ex- presses, thepoAver or act of endurinr', that is, of sufl'ering without sinking, and may be a physical or mental quality. It implies a continual pres- EXDURAXCE. ( 288 ) EXE MY. sure of a Larassing nature on the one hand, and a competent constitutional power of passive resistance on the other. " When she with hard endurance had Heard to the end." Spenser. Patience {patientia.pati.jjatiens. to suffer) is endurance which is morally acquiescent. The opposite to endu- rance is simply exhaustion, the oppo- site to patience is repining, or irri- tability and impatience. I may en- dure impatiently. The qualities of patience are gentleness and serenity in bearing that which, without being agonizing, is wearing or vexatious, whether internally or from the con- duct of others. There is a sense in which patience is active, or, at least, more than purely passive, as in the patient teacher of dull or inattentive pupils. Fortitude, on the other hand, is purely passive. " In the New Testament it is sometimes expressed by the word inrofiovri, which signi- fies God's forbearance and patient waiting for our repentance ; sometimes by the word oj'ox^, which signifies holding in His wrath, and restraining Himself from punishing, and sometimes by fxaKpoOvfiia, which signifies the extent o{ His 2Jaticnce, His long-suffering and forbearing for a long time the punish- ment due to sinners." — Tillotson. Still patience applies only to e-s41s actually hanging over us ; while Re- signation (Lat. resignare) extends to the possible as well as tlie actual, and is unresisting, unmurmuring acquies- cence in the issue of circumstances or the exercise of the will of another. Resignation is more like to patience than to fortitude, inasmuch as it implies non-resistance ; but, on the other hand, it is always passive. It applies not to passing pains or evils, but afflictions of a severe, prolonged, and seemingly hopeless character. It is a religious submission extending to the giving up of earthly hope. Fortitude and patience may be stoical or constitutional ; resignation is always on principle. " Resignation superadds to patience a sub- missive disposition respecting the intelligent cause of our uneasiness. It acknowledges b<»th the power and the right of a superior to afflict." — Cogan. FOETITUDE (Lat. fortitudo, fort's, strong) is a more energetic quality, and might be defined as jiassive cou- rage or resolute endurance. It not only bears up against the present, and is resigned to what may be in the future, but it looks as it were the future in the face, and is prepared for yet worse things. "Fortitude ei-presses that firmness of mind which resists dangers and sufferings." — Cogan. Enduke. See Last and SrrFEE. Endukikg. See Durable. Enemy. Adversary. Anta- gonist. Oppon^ent. Foe. Enemy (Fr. ennemi. Lat. iniviicus) is one who is actuated by unfriendly feelings, and in consequence attempt- ing or desiring the injury of another. An enemy may be open or secret, collective or personal. The term is employed of man's relationship to things as well as persons, as an enemy to truth, an enemy to false- hood. A Foe (A. S.fd.foh) is a per- sonal enemy, one who bears a more energetic and specific hatred than enemy. " He who does a man an injury generally becomes the rancorous enemy of the injured man." — MicMe. " Curst be the verse, how well soe'er it flow, That tends to make one worthy man my foe." I'ope. Adveesaey, Antagonist, and Opponent denote primarily personal opposition, and only secondai'ily per- sonal ill-will, which in some cases may not exist at all; as in the case of an adversaiy at fence, an antagonist at chess, and a political opponent. Adversary, antagonist, and opponent are never, like enemy and foe. used collectively, as of a hostile army. An adversary (Lat. adversarius, ad verst(s) is one who takes an opposite part, which he sustains, or a side on which he enlists himself, whether singly or with others, and on behalf of which he strives for victory. An antagonist (Gr. uirr\. against, and dyuivKTTrjs, a contender) is purely per- sonal ; in the case of antagonists, it is person against person, not party ENERGETIC. ( 2S9 ) ENERGY. against party, or cause against cause. An opponent (Lat. opponens, from opponere, to oppose) is simply one ■who tbwarts another, or seeks to stop his proceedings, without of necessity coming into conflict with him, but seeking to neutralize his acts or mea- sures. The term, however, has an almost technical sense — that of an adversary in argument ; where words are the weapons, we employ the term opponent. " Truth seems to be considered by all man- kind as something fixed, unchangeable, and eternal. It may theret'dre be thought that to vindicate the permanency of truth is to dispute without an adversary." — Beattie. " The race Of Satan, for I glory in the name, ^ Antaqonist of heaven's Almighty King." Milton. "The leading views of the earliest and most enlightened patrons of the economical system have, in my opinion, been not more misrepresented by its opponents than mis- apprehended by some who have adopted its conclusions." — Stewart. Energetic. See Strenuous. Energy. Activity. Power. Force. Vigour. Strength. Energy (Gr. evepyna), as a term of Greek philosophy, had the mean- ing of inherent or innate force. In this sense an energy may lie dormant, as " the dormant energies of nature." From this the word passes to signify power forcibly exerted, as energy of manner or of utterance. It is the manifestation ^f living power. _ In this sense i"" -^ only used of beings possessing wiil ; so vital energy, not mechanical energy. " The great energies of nature are known to us only by their cftects ; the substances which produce them are as much concealed from our senses as the Divine essence itself." —Paley. Activity (Lat. activus, agere, actus) means no more than vigorous opera- tion, or the faculty of it. This is not necessarily attended by great power, nor is it restricted to the vital ener- gies, or an exhibition of the will, or a working in any one given direction. It may be intellectual, pliysical, in- stinctive, chemical, mechanical. Ac- tivity is not so much power or energy as a mode in which a certain degree of power or energy is manifested. " Orl. He is simply the most active gentle- man in France. " Const. Doing is actiiitij, and he will still be doing." Shakespeare, Hen. V. Pow^ER (Ft. pouvoir, Lat. posse), in its primary meaning, is ability to act, regarded as latent, and thence ability, regarded as manifest or exerted. It is also capable of a passive significa- tion. Power may be predicated of the mind of man, of intelligent beings, of natural forces, or mechanical agents. The following extract re- lates to power in its metaphysical or psychological sense. " Power then is active and passive. Faculty is active power or capacity ; capacity is passive power." — Sir W. Hamilton. Mechanically, power commonly re- lates to the work to be effected, as force to that which is directly exerted by the machine. The force of an engine relates to the pressure exer- cised upon the rails, the power to the quantity or weight of the load drawn. Force (Fr. force, Lat. /or^is, strong) is active power specifically exerted. In mechanics it is the name given to whatever produces or may produce motion. In its other applications, it still relates to some external effect prodxiced. " Thy tears are of no force To mollify this flinty man." Hay ward Strength (A. S. strengdlm, streng- clho, strengcll, from strenge, strong) is the quality of being strong, which may be active or passive, while force is always active. Strength is often used in the sense of power to resist force, as the strength of a rope or a castle. It has also the meaning of measure- ment of force, as the strength of an army or an alcohol. It may be said generally that force is strength exerted. An argument, for instance, is strong when the consideration which it involves is of weight ; but it has no force till it is applied. A man collects his strength in order to strike with force. Strength is powerful in resistance, force in attack. " More huge in strength than wise in works he was." Spenser. Vigour (Lat.OTjjror,i;i(/cre, to flourish) EXERVATE. ( 290 ) ENMITY. is tliat mental or physical strength whichi-esultsfromasound natural con- dition, as the vigour of intellect, the vigour of an arm, the vigour of a plant, the vigour of an administration. Vigour, like activity, is rather a mode of power than power itself. It is the passive, as activity is the energetic condition of vital power. It is appli- cable to the exhibition of physical strength, as " the vigour of his arm," or intellectual, as of his mind, or even to a sound and healthy state of ani- mal or vegetative life. Vigour, and its derivatives, however, Avhen directly associated with power, commonly imply active strength, or the power of action and exertion, in distinction to passive strength, or power of en- durance. Men act or move, but do not suffer with vigour. " The vigour of this arm was never vain." Dfyden. Enervate. Enfeeble. Debi- litate. Weaken. Of these, Weaken (A. S. wde, weak, fi-om w'ican, to yield or totter) is the generic term, predicable of any case of lessened power, force, or strength. Enervate, Enfeeble, and Debili- tate are only employed of human powers. Enervate (Fr. enerver, Lat. nervus, nei-ve). is to impair the moral powers, as debilitate may be more specifically applied to the physical, and enfeeble to the intellectual and physical. Debility is that weakness which comes fi'om a chronically mor- bid state of the functions (debilis, a contracted form of de kahilis) ; while persons may be enfeebled by the effect of age alone, or as the tempo- rary effect of sickness. "In a word, we ought to act in party with all the moderation which does not absolutely enervate that vigour, and quench that fervency of spirit without which the best wishes for the public good must evaporate in empty speculation." — Burke. Enfeeble does not express so strongly as debilitate an organic cause of cor- poreal weakness. Disease debilitates, fear enfeebles. "Abject fear, which views some tremen- dous evil impending from which it cannot possibly escape, as it depresses the spirits, so it enfeebles the corporeal frame, and it renders the victim an easy prey to the evil he dreads." — Cogan. "Sometimes the body in full strength we find, While various ails debilitate the mind." Jew/ns. "That the power, and consequently the security, of the monarchy may not be weak- ened by diversion, it must descend entire to one of the children." — Smith, Wealth of Nations. Enfeeble. See Enervate. Engaging. See Attractive. Engagement. See Battle, Em- ployment, and Promise. Engender. See Breed. Engross. See Absf.nt. Enjoyment. See Pleasure. Enlarge. See Dilate. Enlighten. Illumine. Illu- minate. To Enlighten is to throw light upon and. more commonly, metaphori- cally, the light of truth and knowledge. Illumine [in and himenAight) is so to enlighten as to penetrate the substance. Illuminate is to throw light upon in the sense of enlighten, and also in the sense of to light up. whether by light itself, as in the festive illuminations of a city, or by rich colouring, as an illuminated manuscript. It is to be re- marked that while enlightened is used as an epithet — an enlightened person or enlightened society — we do not em- ploy illumined or illuminated in this way, but borrow the Italian word illu- minati, the enlightened. "The light itself became darkness; and then was a proper season for the great En- lightcner of the world to appear." — Seeker. ^^ Illumine with perpetual light The dulness of our blinded sight." Church Hymn. ■ "That need no sun t' illuminate their spheres." Spenser. In old English writers, however, the verbs illume, illumine, and illuminate were used interchangeably. Enlist. See Enrol. Enliven. See Cheer. Enmity. See Hatred. ENORMOUS. Enormous. See Huge. Enough. Sufficient. Enough is an adverb and an ad- jective. Sufficient an adjective only. Sufficient (Lat. svfficiens, from sii£icere, to suffice) is placed both before and after its nouns. Enouo-h can only in- elegantly be placed before it. Enough relates to wants and desires, sufficient commonly to some ulterior end or pur- pose. So a miser or a spendthrift may have sufficient for his requirements, but he never has enough, because he always desires more. Enough, there- fore, relates to internal satisfaction ; sufficient, to external demand. Enrapture. See Captivate. Enrol. See Enlist and Ke- gister. Enslave. See Captivate. Ensue. See Follow. Entangle. Implicate. In- volve. Entangle (tangle, probably con- nected with Gothic tagl, hair) is so to involve as to render extrication a matter of bewildering difficulty. It is used both physically and metapho- rically. Implicate [implicare, in and plica, a fold) and Involve {in and volvere, to roU) are used only in the metaphorical sense. The difference lies rather in the customary applica- tions of these terms than_ in any essential unlikeness of meaning. We are entangled in difficulties or difficult relationships, as vmtoward alliances and acquaiutanceships ; we are imi^li- cated in blame, faults, crime, trans- actions, the term being always em- ployed in an unfavourable sense. We are involved in things external which take strong effect upon us, as in debt, in ruin, in the untoward con- sequences of conduct or actions. The term is used also of things, while implicate is confined to persons, as the subject is involved in doubt, diffi- culty, mystei-y, obscurity; this in- volves, that is, implies, or draws after it, the necessity of something else. " It (integrity) is much plainer and easier,^ much the safer and more secure way of ( 291 ) ENTERTAINMENT. dealingr in the world ; it has less of trouble and dilficulty, oi entarujlcmcnt 7\.vA perplexity, of danger and hazard in it." — Spectator. " He is much too deeply implicated to make tlie presence or absence of those notes of the least consequence to him." — Stite Trials. "Tlie kings of Syria and of Egypt, the kings of Pergamus and Macedon, without in- termission worried each other for above two hundred years, until at last a strong power arising in the west rushed upon them and silenced their tumults by involving all the contending parties in the same destruction." —Burko. Enterprise. Enterprising. See Adventurous and IJNDERTAiaNG. Entertain. Harbour. These terms are sometimes used metaphorically of the thoughts, _ and of some sentiments, as hopes, friend- ship, enmity, and the like. In such cases, Entertain (Fr. entretenir) is . less voluntary than Harbour (con- nected with the French auherge).^ To entertain an unfavourable opinion of another may be the result of calm judgment and unhappy expe- rience; to harbour such thoughts rather implies that their soundness has not been proved, but that we readily lend ourselves to the supposi- tion with some hope that it may be true, finding, as it were, a place for it in our minds. We entertain chari- table, we harbour uncharitable thoughts. " The not entertaining a sincere love and affection for the duties of religion does both naturally, and by the just judgment of God besides, dispose men to errors and deceptions about the great truths of religion." — So'itk. The unfavourable sense of harbour in regard to thoughts has no doubt sprung from its older use in regard to obnoxious persons, as seen in the following : — "They judged that all men who suspected any to liave been in the rebellion were bound to "discover such their suspicions and to give no harbour to such persons ; that the bare suspicion made it treason to harbour tlie person suspected, whether he was guilty or not." — Buniet. Entertainment. See Amuse- ment and Banquet. V 2 EXTHUSIAST. ( 292 ) EXTICE. ExTHusiAST. Fanatic. Vi- sionary. Zealot. Bigot. EXTHUSIAST (eV, in, and ^eo'y, a deity, as if jBilled by the presence or inspiration of some deity) is one ■ulio is influenced by a peculiar fer- vour of mind. Enthusiasm is at pre- sent employed in the sense of an overweening attachment, not neces- sarily in-ational— in certain limits even admirable — for some cause or subject, as an enthusiastic lover of music. Enthusiasm then begins to be blameworthy and perilous when the feelings have ovennastered the judgment. In religion, enthusiasm is often taken to mean the influence of spii-it as superseding the ordinary processes of revelation by instruc- tion. In that sense it is spoken of in the following : — "Enthusiasm is that temper of mind in which the imagination has got the better of the judgment. In this disordered state of things, enthusiasm, when it happens to be turned upon religious matters, becomes fana- ticism." — Warbiirton. " From the consequences of the genius of Henry, Duke of Visco, did the British American empire arise; an empire which, Tinless retarded by the illiberal and inhuman spirit of religious fatuiticism, will in a few centuries perhaps be the glory of the world." — Mickle. Fanatic (Lat. fanaticus, famnn. a temple) is employed to designate one whose overheated imagination has "wild and extravagant notions, espe- ciidly upon the subject of rehgion, which render him incapable of using his judgment and dangerous to others. For enthusiasm is a soli- tary, fanaticism a social passion. A Yisionaey, as the term expresses, is one who is moved by visions and influences of the imagination, mistaken for realities. He forms, therefore, impracticable schemes, and creates for himself a present or future state of things, which persons of calm judgment know to be inca- pable of realization. " I know not whether the French did not derive their ideas of teaching things instead of words from some celebrated writers of our own country, who, with all their good sense and genius, were visionaries on the subject of education." — Knox. Zealot (Gr. fvAwr^f, from f^Xor, zeal, jealousy) and Bigot (of which the derivation is veiy uncertain, but IS probably of the same origin as be- gumeAhe Gevm.beghmt a mendicant monk of the middle ages) represent, the one actively, the superstitious pai-tizan, the other, more passively, the superstitious believer and adhe- rent. "A furious zealot may think that he does God service by persecuting one of a different sect. St. Paul thought so, but he confesses he acted sinfully notwithstanding he acted ignorantly."— (?)?/»(■«. A zealot is in action what a bigot is in opinion. " They are terribly afraid of being called bi./ots and enthusiasts, but think there is no danger of falling into the opposite extreme of lukewarmness and impiety." — Portcus. Entice. Alluee. Decoy. Se- duce. Tempt. Entice (Old Fr. enticer, connected with the A. S. stician, to stick or prick) is to di-aw on or instigate by means of a feeling internal to one- self, as hope or desii-e. Alluee (Fr. leurre, a bait for animals) is to do the same thing by means of something external to oneself, as prospect of gam. Decoy (prefix ae, and the Old English word coy, Lat. quietus. Fr. coi, quiet) is to lead on quietly into the snare, as opposed to violent and noisy modes of captui-e. As the decoy was a term employed for the bird, or likeness of one, used to lead the others into the snare, the verb to decoy has the force of leading on gradually into a snare from which there is eventually no escape, as "• to decoy troops into an ambush." To Seduce (Lat. seducere) is to di-aw aside from the path of duty, integi-ity, or chastity by false or alluring i^pre- sentatious. To Tempt (Lat. tentare, from tendere, to try) is to bring an influence, commonly no creditable one, to bear upon another to induce him to do something. It wiU be observed that entice, tempt, and allure do not absolutely imply the success of the means used, which, however, is the case with seduce and decoy. " My son, if sinners entice tliee, consent thou nai."— Book of Protcrbs. ENTIRE. ( 293 ) ENTRAP. "Among the Athenians, the Ai'L'oi)ai,nto.s expressly forbade all allurements of elo- quence." — Hume. " Man is to man all kind of beasts, a ftiwn- ing dog, a roaring lion, a thieving fox, a rob- bing wolf, a dissembling crocodile, a trea- cherous decoy, a rapacious vulture." — " An ingenuous young man takes up the book from the laudable motive of improving his mind with historical knowledge, but as he reads he finds himsnh' seduced and cheated into irreligion and libertinism." — Knox, Essays. " Adam also was tempted and overcomed ; Cliryste beeyng tempted, overcame the tcmptour." — Udal, St. Luke. Entire. Whole. Complete, Total. Integral. Perfect. Entire (Fv. entier, Lat. integer) and Whole (A. S. hdl, healthy, sound, whole) are very nicely dis- tinguished. In most cases the words are simply interchangeable. The en- tire house and the whole house are the same thing. Bnt whole relates to what is made up of parts, and a whole thing is a thing in which no part Is wanting. Entire does not relate to any idea of parts, but simply to perfect and undiminished unity. So that in cases in which the idea is not resolvable into jjarts entire is used where whole could not be. So we say, a whole orange, a whole number, the whole quantity. But, " His character or disposition was marked by an entire absence of selfishness," " en- tire ignorance," " entire confidence," " entire control," and the like. In a word, whole means geometrical unity unbroken ; entire also points to moral iudeficieucy. " Christ, the bridegroom, praises the bride, His Church, for her beauty, for her entire- ncss." — Bishop Hall. "Upon this question, what suppoi-ted or kept up this chain, would it be a sufficient answer to say that the first or lowest link hung upon a second, or that next above it, the second, or rather the first and second together, upon the third, and so on ad infi- nilum, for what holds up the whole f — Woolaston. Complete (Lat. complere, com- pletus, to fill up) is possessing all that is needful to constitute a thing, or to fulfil a purpose or a definition. "These discourses wliiili 1 liavo wriKcu concerning perceptinii, jinlgiiKMif, reasduiiiu;, and disposition, are the four integral jjarfs of logic. This sort of parts goes to make up the completeness of any subject." — Watts. Total (Lat. totalis, from totus, whole) is complete in amount, so that in matters which do not relate to mere quantity we cannot use the term._ Wc say, a complete house, meaning one furnished with every requirement of a house ; an entire house, meaning the whole and not a part of it; but we could not say a total house ; but the total sum, amount, total darkness, because the mere per- fection of quantity is all that is re- garded. Integral (Lat. integer), like entire, does not convey any idea of parts, but the simple absence of de- traction or diminution, and is ap- plicable both to abstract ideas and to the physical conformation of things. That is integral which is essential, complete, and whole, and yet itself bears relation to a larger whole, of which it is a part so truly that it could not be wanting without de- ficiency in that larger whole. Per- fect (Lat. perfectus, perficere, to make thoroughly) is a more com- prehensive word, relating not only to quantity but also to quality. A per- fect thing is not only complete in all its parts, but they are in the best condition and of the best kind. The term embraces the ideas of the ut- most possil)le excellency, physical and moi-al also. "God made thee jxt/cc^, not immaculate." 3Ji!ton. Entitle. See Name and Qual- ified, Entrap. Inveigle. Ensnare. To Entrap (literally, to catch in a trap, A. S. trappe, trappa) and En- snare (to catch in a snare, Sw. and Icelandic snara) seem to be thus dif- ferenced in their moral application : men are entrapped when they fall suddenly and unawares victims to the designs of others; they are en- snared whenever, under false impres- sions of their o-\vu. they have found their way into diflioultios, as, for ENTREAT. ( 294 ) ETICURE. instance, by tlieir own passions, pre- judices, or ignorance. To Inveigle (Norm. Fr. enveiigler, connected with the modern avengle) implies tlie i^ro- cess of gradual deception, or hiring on by little and little by any arts calcu- lated to win over to the purpose of another. As entrap and ensnare point more directly to the result, so inveigle expresses more imme- diately the process, which may be by any sort of enticement, as false views of what is to the interest of the party, coloured representations, coaxing, flattery, and the like. "The Pharisees and Herodians, as we find in the fifteenth verse of this chapter, had taken counsel together how they might en- trap our Saviour in His talk, and for that end they put several ensnaring questions to Him." — Sharp. " A sergeant made use of me to inveigle country fellows and list them in the service of the Parliament." — Tatler. Entkeat. See Ask. Entreaty. See Petition. Entrust. See Accredit. Enumerate. See Calculate, Envious. Invidious. Jealous. Suspicious. Envious (Fr. envie, Lat. invidin) denotes the feeling of unhappiuess or nueasiness pi'oduced by the con- temjilation of any good belonging to another. " Envt/ is a certain grief of mind conceived upon the sight of another's felicity, whether real or supposed, so that we see that it con- sists partly of hatred, and partly of grief." — ^outh. Invidious, though coming from the same root, has a different mean- ing, and shows that the closest syno- nyms are not always those which are etymologically cognate. It is used now, not of persons but things, and not in the sense of j)ossessing but of provoking envy, or. by an extension of meaning, ill-will. An invidious task or office is one which cannot be exercised without causing discontent, or which requires tact to avoid such a result. " Pythagoras was the first who abated of the invidiousness oi the name, and from jects, but to such matters as laws, rules, orders, inquiries, pro- cesses or suits, and what are charac- teristically tei'med institutions, that is, what are established so as to have permanent operation, as a perma- nent mode or custom, or a building devoted to the permanent provision for some object, as an cducatioiuil or charitable institution. As establish ESTEEM. ( 301 ) EVER. stands to place, so does institute to time. " And did institute, and in His holy Gospel command us to continue a perpetual memory of that His precious death until His coming again." — Jlook of Common Prayer. Found (Lat. fandare, to lay a foundation), unlike institute, is em- ployed of the processes of material construction. Analogously, it _ is used of commencing by furnisliing with some amount of permanent siy> porf capable of being afterwards ex- tended, as to found a fellowship in a university. To found is to take the first step or measures for building, erecting, or establishing. " It fell not, for it was founded on a rock." —Itible. To Erect (Lat. erigere, erectus) is used both of physical and analogous setting up of what is meant to remain standing ; as to erect a sign- post, a marble column, or a new commonwealth or diocese. It dif- fers from found,' inasmuch as it means to set up, while found means to lay down. So a house may be at the same time founded upon a rock and erected, but a throne or a flag- staff is not founded, but only erected. It always indicates a change of _ cha- racter, and, when applied to insti- tutions or offices, implies an elevation of dignity, as when a province is erected into a kingdom. " To erect a new commonwealth." — Hooker. Esteem. See Appraise. Estimate. See Appraise and Calculate. Estrangement. Alienation. Abstraction. These terms are synonymous in so far as they express in common the state of being drawn away from ob- jects in mind or person. Abstkac- TION (Lat. abstrahere) expresses no more than the being taken away from certain persons, influences, or occupa- tions, whatever may be the feeling that withdraws us, or that which we entertain to what we leave behind, as abstraction from the world, its cares, pleasures, and pursuits, only a_ suffi- cient force is implied, which is for the most part one of taste and feel- ing. Estrangement (Lat. extm- neus, Fr. Stranger, stranger) and Alienation {alienus, alius, alien) de- note a stronger and more personal feeling, which positively keeps us away through an altered state of affection. If there be any difference between them, it is such, as flows from the words themselves, alienation ex- pressing an internal disharmony of feeling caused by some act, as, " His repeated offences have alienated my regard for him ;" estrangement expressing the gradual operation of any circumstances that have caused separation of person or feeling, as, " I have been long estranged from him." A revulsion of feeling alien- ates; absence and distance may estrange. The distinctive force of estrangement and alienation is shown by the following of Jeremy Taylor : — • " If excommunication be incurred ipso facto, he that is guilty of the fact deserving it, and is fallen into the sentence, is bound to submit to those estrangements and separations, those alienations of society and avoidings which he finds from the duty of others." " A youthful passion for abstracted devotion should not be encouraged." — Johnson. Eternal. See Endless. Eulogy. See Panegyric. Evade. See Escape. Evasion. See Evade. Even. See Equal. Event. See Circumstance and Kesult. Ever. Always. Always means at all times. Ever has the additional meaning of at any time, in which it belongs peculiarly to negative and interrogative sen- tences, as "Who ever (at any time) heard the like of it ?" " No man ever hated his own flesh." Ever expresses uniformity of continuance ; always expresses uniformity of repetition. So we might sny, " He is ever at home," or, " He is always at home ;" but we could not say, " I have called several times, and have ever found him at home," but always. On the other hand, we might say, " I have E VERLASTING. EXACT. ever found him a time friend," that is, at any time when occasion has arisen, or continuallj. Everlasting. See Exdless. Every. See All. E^^:DENCE. See Proof. EvroENT. See Apparent. Evil. See Bad. Evil. III. An Evil (A. S. efel, ijfel, or hyfel) is anything that causes harm or suffer- ing. Ill (a contraction from evil) is commonly applied to minor evils, and to such as are incidental to particu- lar states ; while evil is often the re- sult of our own actions. We should hardly speak of a trivial evil, but of a trivial ill, the ills of humanity. Sin is of the nature of an evil ; mis- fortune is an ill. " Thus, after having clambered with great labour from one step of argumentation to another, instead of rising into the light of knowledge, we are devolved back into dark ignorance, and all our effort ends in belief that for the evils of life there is some good, and in confession that the reason cannot be found." — Johnson. "The ills that flesh is heir to." — Shakes- peare. Evince. See Show. Exact. Accurate. Correct. Precise. Nice. Particular. Punctual. Exact (Lat. exigere, to enforce) is applicable both to persons, their habits or stjde, and to productions of men. Exactness is that kind of truth which consists in the con- formity to an external standard or measure, or has an internal corre- spondence with external requirement. As an exact amount is that which is reqiiired, the exact time that which agrees with the sun or the clock, an exact man is he who conforms to the external requirements of time and riile. An exact statement accords with the facts to be expressed. Correct- ness applies to the st^de, exactness to the matter. He is an exact writer who attends to tiiith of fact and pre- cision of ideas ; he is a correct writer who conforms to the rules of gram- mar and the requirements of usage. " The Parliament for divers reasons thought it not convenient to comply with the king's propositions, and in answer to the Scots, de- manded of them an exact account of what was due to them, requiring them to withdraw their garrisons from such places as they pos- sessed in England." — Ludlow, Memoirs. As exact refers to an extraneous standard, so Accurate (Lat. ad and cura, care or pains) to the attention which has been expended upon a thing, and the exactness which may be expected from it. Exactness may be fortuitous ; accuracy is always de- signed. Exactness is of one pointj or one at a time ; accui-acy is of many. " The knowledge of one action or one simple idea is oftentimes sufficient to give me the notion of a relation; but to the knowing of any substantial being an accurate collec- tion of sundry ideas is necessary." — Locke. Correct (Lat. corrigei-e, correctus, to correct) applies to what is con- formable to a moral standard, as well as to truth generally, as "con-ect de- portment." Otherwise it closely re- sembles exact, but is more subjective, exact more objective. An exact account means a true account ; a correct account means an account truly given, that is, without error or omission on the part of the narrator. An exact drawing is one which repre- sents with perfect fidelity, a correct drawing one which fulfils all the rules and requirements of the art without faults, an accurate drawing one which observation and pains have made exact. " But in such lays as neither ebb nor flow, Corrcctl'i cold and regularly low. That, shunning faults, one quiet temper keep, , We cannot blame indeed, but we may sleep." Pope. Precise (Fr. precis, Lat. prcccims, cut off or cut down, and so close) denotes the quality of exact limita- tion, as distinguished from vague, loose, doubtful, inaccurate, and, in its application to persons, scrupu- lous. It has a peculiar application to words and expressions, as " The law is precise upon this point," where EXACT. ( 303 ) EXAMINATION. we could not have used any of tlie preceding terms. The idea of pre- cision is that of going straight to the point without error, vagueness, or ambiguity. It casts aside the useless and the superfluous. " JIany cases happen in which a man cannot precisely determine whei'e it is that his law- ful liberty emls, and where it is that it begins to be extravagant and excessive." — Sharp. Nice (Lat. nesclns) originally meant ignorant, after which the A. S. nese being confounded with it, it came to mean pleasing, delicate. Hence, re- flexively, delicate in operation or pro- duction, exact, fastidiously discrimi- nating. Nice denotes an union of delicacy and exactness, as " a nice distinction," " a nice point." " By his own nicety of observation he had ah-eady formed such a system of metrical harmony as he never afterwards much needed or much endeavoured to improve." — Johnson, Life of Waller. Particular (Lat. partictdaris, pars, a part or portion), as applied to persons, means attentive to things singly or in detail, and so combines the exact in observation with the nice in feeling. It relates to the matters of ordinary life and every- day choice and preference. In this sense the term is of modern applica- tion. Having passed from the thing to the person, it expresses one who pays attention to details, whether in observation, duty, or taste, as dis- tinguished from one who treats them generally, carelessly, indiscriminately, or, as it were, in the rough. PuNC- TTJAL (Lat. punctualis, pundus, a point) stands to the mode of doing things as particular to the things themselves. The punctual man is prompt and exact, especially as to the time appointed. It had originally the sense of exact or accurate, as Burnet, "punctual to tediousness in all he relates." " The undeviating and punctual sun." Cowper. Exact. Extort. To Exact (Lat. exigere, exadus) and to Extort {extorguere, extortus, to twist out) agree in expressing a forcible mode of requiring; but exact has commonly the sense of rigidly insisting upon what is duo, while extort relates to the unjust exaction of what is not due. Men exact tribute, obedience, demonstra- tions of respect ; they extort money under exorbitant charges or false pre- tences. The term is also applied to the compulsory i^rocuriug or eliciting of what others are unwilling to give, as to " extort a confession." " 'Tis no dishonour to confer your grace On one descended from a royal race ; And were he less, yet years of service past From grateful souls exact reward at last." Dryden. " Extortion is an abuse of the public justice, which consists in any officer's imlawfully taking by colour of his office from any man any money or thing of value that is not due to him, or more than is due, or before it is due." — Blackstone. Exalt. See Lift. ExAMixE. See Examination. Examination. Search. In- quiry. Eesearch. Investiga- tion. Scrutiny. Exploration. Exploitation. Inspection. All these terms agree in denoting some kind and degree of effort at the finding out of what is not known. To Examine (Lat. examen, a balance) is literally to test by a balance, and, by an extension of meaning, in any appropriate or received method. The subject of examination is always pre- sent and known, and the object of it is to procure a fuller and deeper in- sight into it, or a closer obseiwation of it, as a material substance or com- position, a fact, a reason, cause, mo- tive, or claim, the truth of a state- ment, or the simple force and mean- ing of it, a theory, or anything Avhich challenges inquiry, an offender in reference to his guilt, or a scholar for his attainments. Examination is a thing of detail, consisting of a complex inquiry or inspection of par- ticulars, for the purpose of coming to a genei'al conclusion or result as to the character or state of the object examined. " The proper office of examination, inquiry, and ratiocination is, strictly speaking, confined EXAMINATION. ( 304 ) EXAMINATION. to the production of a just discernment and an accurate discrimination." — Cogan. On the other hand, in Search (Fr. chercher, Low Lat. circare, from circum, around, to look around) im- plies the looking for something re- mote from present observation. In this way search may precede exami- nation. The botanist or the entomo- logist, for instance, first searches for specimens, and then examines them. Search is more laborious than exami- nation, and involves an object more closely related to the person. One examines for the sake of information or knowledge ; one searches for the sake of acquiring and possessing. Examination ought to be careful and accurate; search, active and indus- trious. "She was well pleased, and forth her damzells sent Through all the woods, to search from place to place, If any track of him or tidings they might trace." Spenser. Inquiry (Lat. inquirere, quoerere, to seek) is the aiming at or discovery of truth by question, either formal, verbal inteiTogation, or a recovu'se to the proper means and sources of knowledge, when the object has been shaped into a question or problem for solution. " And all that is wanting to the perfection of this art (medicine) will undoubtedly be found, if able men, and such as are instructed in the ancient rules, will make a further inquiry into it, and endeavour to arrive at that which is hitherto unknown by that which is already known." — Dryden. Research is laborious and sus- tained search after objects, not of physical, but mental observation and knowledge. It is used in the sense of accumulated results as well as the process of such inquiry, as a " man of great research." " Nature, the handmaid of God Almighty, doth nothing but with good advice, if we make researches into the true reason of things." — Howell. Investigation (Lat. in and vesti- gvmn, a footstep) is not \ised of any physical tracking, but of the patient inquiry into matters of science or knowledge along a strict path, and, as it were, step by step. The sub- ject of investigation, like that of ex- amination, and unlike search, is never absolutely unknown, l)ut it is always partially so. Investigation commonly implies the inquiry into the more hidden connections of something which is itself familiar, as to investi- gate the causes of natural jiheno- mena. Investigation is literally a mental tracking where facts or ap- pearances, being successively obseiwed and examined, lead the mind on to some complex truth or fact, which is the goal of the inquiry. " Now all this that I have said is to show the force of diligence in the investigation of truth, and particularly of the noblest of all truths, which is that of religion." — South. Scrutiny (Lat. scrutinium, scru- tari, to search) involves nothing un- known in itself, and is confined to minute examination of what is known and present. It relates to other matters than mere j^hysical sub- stances. A microscopic examination of an insect, for instance, would not be called a scrutiny. " A scrutiny of voters, and their votes." "When the object is purely material or phy- sical, we call the process Inspec- tion (Lat. insincere, to look into), as " an inspection of a regiment," " an inspection of accounts." But inspec- tion may be a single act ; scrutiny is always a complex process. " Thenceforth I thought thee worth my nearer view And narrower scrutiny." Milton. " With narrow search, and with inspection dee]i, Considered every creature." Ibid. Exploration (Lat. explorare) is to range in inquiry, or to direct one's search over an extensive area, whether geographically or metaphorically, fur the j)urpose of exacter knowledge of the whole area, or of finding some specific object of search comprised or supposed to be comprised in it. "On the report of the cowavikXy explorers of the land they relapse again into their old delirium. 'Wherefore hatli the Lord brought us into this land, to fall by the sword, tliat our wives and children should be a prey ?' " — Warburton. Exploitation is a French term EXAMPLE. ( 305 ) EXAMPLE. in reference to mining, and denotes such exploration as has for its object the making available of mines of metals and minerals; hence, second- arily, of investigation for the deve- lopment of what is nseful or valuable. Example. Sample. Pkece- DENT. Instance. Exemplifica- tion. Copy. Pattern. Model. Illustration. Case. Example (Lat. exemplum, from eximere, to take' out) is literally a portion taken out of a larger quantity, to show the nature of the whole — the sense in which we now use the word Sample. By an extension of mean- ing, it is used to signify something to be imitated or followed, as a model, copy, pattern, or precedent ; or, negatively, to be avoided as a caution, as, " to make an example of a per- son ;" and, finally, an instance serving for illustration of a rule, ^jrecept, or principle of science. The discrimi- nation to be drawn between example and Instance (Lat. instantia) is as follows : an example is a permanent instance; an instance is a specific example. An example, in the full sense of the term, is necessarily a complete setting forth of that to which it belongs. An example of injustice must contain nothing which is not referable to injustice. An in- stance of injustice may result from injustice and other things in combi- nation besides. An exampie proves a rule ; an instance does not, nor does it imply the existence of any- thing so methodical. Example has an active, instance a passive, signi- fication. An example may be a per- son or a thing. An instance is al- ways an occurrence or a thing done. An example instructs, an instance illustrates or represents. Men may be personally examples of virtue or vice, while their actions may be in- stances of virtue or vice. Yet in- stance enters more into the reason of things, while example belongs more to the nature of facts. We act upon or follow examples ; we reflect upon instances. An example might do no more than show us what we should do, imitate, or avoid. An instance would involve the reason why. " Ho cojiies from his master, Sylla, well, And would the dire example far excel." Howe, Lucan. "Whole troops of heroes Greece has yet to boast, Aud sends thee one, a sample of her host. Such as I am, I come to prove thy might." I'ope, Iliad. " l\Iost remarkable instances of suffering." —AtUrbur:]. An instance of suffering sets forth to our comprehension the nattire of that suff'ering. An example of suftering would teach us how to suffer, or to be ready to incur sufiering. We might say of a certain person, " He often does very mean things, and this is an instance of it ;" where we coidd not correctly use the term example. We might use the term Exemplifica- tion ; but this rather implies that we wanted to prove or establish to the understanding or conviction of an- other the meanness of which we speak. When we do this in a vivid manner, it may be called an Illustration (Lat. iUustrare, to make bright or clear), which term is also generally applicable to the coming home to the common understanding of some general truth in a distinct and in- structive way. The peculiarity of an illustration is that it may be not at all of the nature of a sami^le or instance, but a similar or analogous case put side by side by another for the purpose of explanation by correspondence ; or it may be an embodiment in a more concrete and practical form of what has been expressed in more abstract terms. It deals with the fact as such, not in its cause or reason. "A moral precept conveyed in words is ouly an account of truth in its effects; a moral picture is truth exemplified; and which is most likely to gain upon the affec- tions it may not be ditficult to determine." — Langhorne. " While the storm was in its fury any allusion had been improper, for the poet could have compared it to nothing more im- petuous than itself; consequently he could have made no illustration." — Drijden. Copy, Pattern, and Model stand in close relationship. A copy (Latin EXAMPLE. ( 306 ) EXASPERATE. copia, plenty, a multiplication of tte original) lias tlie double meaning of a pattern and an imitation of it, or of the thing to be imitated and the thing imitating. A pattern (Fr. patron, patron and pattern) is anything pro- posed for imitation. It has sometimes the sense of sample, as a " pattern of cloth," and sometimes of design, as " an elegant pattern." Model {viodele, Lat. modus, dim. of modidus) in addi- tion to the meanings of pattern, has that of a perfect pattern, or the best of the kind. When employed in matters connected with imitative art, copy is usually for delineation, pat- tern for embroidery or textile manu- facture, model ior plastic or construc- tive purposes. In moral and second- ary applications, to copy the conduct of another is no more than to imitate his doings. The term has no high moral signification, like pattern and model. In this application pattern is the more specific, model the more general. Pattern belongs to some department of conduct, model to con- duct and character generally or as a whole. Pattern regards the guidance of others, model the integrity and completeness of the thing or person in itself. A man may be a pattern of honesty, for instance, without being a model citizen. " The Sorbouists were the original, and our schismatics in England were the copiers of rebellion. That Paris began and London followed." — Lryden. "A housewife in bed, at table a slatt&rn, For all an example, for no one a pattern." Sicift. " Socrates recommends to Alcibiades as the model of his devotions a short prayer which a Greek poet composed for the use of his friends." — Addison. Precedent (Lat. prcccede^is, prccce- dere, to precede) is something which comes down to us with the sanction of usage and common consent, as a guide to conduct or judgment, and, in the legal sense of the term, has force in other cases ; while an example has no force beyond itself. Case (Lat. casus, cadere, a falling out) is used in a loose way of an occurrence of a certain general character, which, and not the law or principle of it, is all that occupies the mind, as a sad case, a case of fever (in medicine), a case of felony (in law). It is evident that a particular case may become a precedent. " For much he knows, and just conclusions draws From various precedents and various laws." Pope. " Yet on his way (no sign of grace, For folks in fear are apt to pray) To Phoebus he preferred his case, And beg'd his aid that dreadful day." Gray. Exasperate, Aggravate. Ir- ritate. Provoke. Both persons and feelings are said to be Exasperated, but more com- monly the former (Lat. exasijerare, from asper, rough). It is to provoke bitter feeling, or to aggravate it. To Aggravate (Lat. aggravare, gravis, heavy) is to make heavy, and so to make worse, to make less tolerable or excusable, and is only properly ap- plicable to evils or offences, though it has come to be used in the sense of irritate and exasperate. In this latter sense it is to be presumed that the idea is to make to feel a burden or a grievance. Irritate (Lat. irritare), unlike the others, is employable in a physical sense, as "to irritate the skin;" but there is always a conec- tion with persons and their feelings, to both of which the term is directJy applicable. To irritate is less strong than the others, and denotes the ex- citement of slight resentment against the cause or object. To Provoke (Lat. ^rovoc«re) is stronger, and ex- presses the rousing of a feeling of decided anger and strong resentment by injury or insult, such as nattirally tends to active retaliation. To exas- perate is stronger still, and denotes a provocation to unrestrained anger or resentment, based upon a determined resentment or ill-will. Susceptible persons and persons of nervous tem- perament are easily irritated. Proud persons, as over-estimating what is due to their ease, dignity, consideration, or comfort, are provoked. As irrita- tion may come from circumstances, so provocation is the result of treat- ment, or supposed treatment, by other persons. Persons of ai-dent tempera- EXCAVATION. ( 307 ) EXCELLENCE. ment, strong in tlieir loves and liates, are most capable of being exasperated. "To exasperate you, to awaken your dor- mouse valour." — Shakespeare. " Cornelius Rufus is dead, and dead too by his owB act ! a circumstance of great aggra- vation to my affliction." — Mehnoth, Pliny. " Dismiss the man, nor irritate the God. Prevent the rage of Him who reigns above." Pope. "The reflection calculated above all others to allay the haughtiness of temper which is ever finding out provocations, and which renders anger so impetuous, is that which the Gospel proposes, namely, that we ourselves are, or shortly shall be, suppliants for mercy and pardon at the mercy-seat of God." — P.deg. Excavation. See Cavity. Exceed. Excel. Surpass. Transcend. Outdo. To Exceed (Lat. excedere, to go beyond) is a relative term, implying some limit, measure, or quantity al- ready existing, whether bulk, sta- ture, weight, distance, number, or power, moral, mental, or mechanical. It is also used intransitively and ab- stractedly, as "The temperate man will be careful not to exceed ;" but even here the measure of sufficiency and sobriety is understood. To Excel (Lat. excellere) is never employed but in an honourable sense. It is to go far in good qualities or laudable actions or acqu.irements, or, specifi- cally, as a transitive verb, to go be- yond others in such things. To Sub- pass (Fr. swrpasser) is to go beyond another, or others, without the re- striction, like excel, to what is laud- able, but in anything which admits of degree of power and movement in the human mind, character, and actions, especially in competition. It is used directly both of persons and the particulars above mentioned, and is used both subjectively and objectively; of things and our esti- mation of them. Transcend (Lat. transcendere, trans, beyond, and scan- dere, to climb) is to excel in a signal manner, soaring, as it were, aloft, and surmounting all barriers. It belongs less to persons than to quali- ties and subjects of thought. To Outdo is a simple Saxon compound for the Latin or French surpass. It is accordingly a familiar term, with an application also familiar. Hence it has sometimes the undignified force of get the better of another in no very honourable way, as a syno- nym with outwit. To outdo is simply to do something better than another, and to reap some personal advantage by the fact. As excellence is always good, so excess is always evil, no matter what the nature of the case ; a force which belongs to the noun, and not to the verb, which is appli- cable to both good and evil. _ To ex- ceed the limits of truth, justice, pro- priety, or to exceed another in virtue or attainments. In short, exceed is a term of praise or dispraise, of favour- able or unfavourable force, according to the nature of the case, by which the term has to be interpreted. " Excessive lenity and indulgence are ulti- mately excessive rigour." — Kmx, Essays. " Who all that time was thought exceeding wise. Only for taking pains and telling lies." Dryden. " Though the comprehension of our un- derstandings comes exceeding short of the vast extent of things, yet we shall have cause enough to magnify the bountiful Author of our being." — Locke. "To mark the matchless workings of the Power That shuts within its seed the future flower. Bids these in elegance of form excel, In colour there, and those delight the smell." Cowper. Excel. See Exceed. Excellence, Superiority. Excellence is an absolute term. Superiority (Lat. superior) is a relative term, denoting the being more excellent than others or an- other. But superiority is also appli- cable to diiferences of social or official grade, while excellence is applicable only to physical, mental, and moral qualities. " Him whom Thou, profusely kind, Adorn'st with every excellence refined." Peat tie. "The sense of all which is to oblige us to treat all men as becomes us in the rank and X 2 EXCEPT. ( 308 ) EXCITE. station we are placed in, to honour those which are our superiors whether iu place or virtue ; to give that modest deference to their judgments, that reverence to their persons, that respect to their virtues, and homage to their desires and commands, which the degree or kind of their superiority requires." — ilcott, Christian Life. Except. Besides. Unless. Except (Lat. excipere, ex, out, and capio, to take) is exclusive, Besides (literally by the side) is additive. " There was no one i:)resent except him," means, take him away, and nobody was there. " There was no one present besides him," means, he was there, and alongside of him was no- body. Except and Unless (prefix un and less) were formerly used inter- changeably, but the distinction is now drawn as follows : except relates to some general rule, fact, or case, to which it introduces an exceijtion. Un- less denotes a diminution, which being given something else takes j^lace ; for instance, " Unless we make haste, we shall be destroyed," is tanta- mount to, — our present case, minus making haste, equals destruction. Excess. Superfluity. Ee- dundancy. Excess (Lat. excedere, excessus) de- notes what is beyond an average, or a fixed or a j ust amount. " Since hoth the ill and good you do alike my peace desti-oy, That kills me with excess of grief, this with excess of joy." Walsh. Superfluity (Lat. supei-, above, and fluere, to flow) has reference to purposes and requirements. That is superfluous which is moi-e than is wanted, or is rendered useless by its abundance. An excess of rain would be a fall of rain exceeding the ave- rage; a superfluity would be such a quantity as could not be put to ac- count. " How farre are they of from good scholers that can not finde in their hartes to depart with a title of the aboundaunce and superjhtitie of their temporall goodes to helpe their neighbours neede." — Tyndall. Redundancy (re, back, andunda, a wave) is superfluous abundance. It is, however, applied especially to cer- tain matters of supply, as of natural supply, a redundancy .of bile ; of one's copiousness of words or expressions, as a redundancy of language. An exuberance of supply is redundancy. " Wars seem to be in a manner a natural consequence of the over-plenitude and I'e- dundancy of the number of men in the world." —Hale. Excessive. Immoderate. In- temperate. For the idea of Excess see Exceed and Excess. It relates to mere amount, and is not necessarily con- nected with moral agents. This is the case with Immoderate (Lat. in, not, and moderare, modus, a measure, to moderate), and Intemperate (Lat. iu, not, and temperare, to temperate), which difi^er in that the former is applicable both to agents and quan- tities, the latter to agents alone. That is immoderate which exceeds just, reasonable, or ordinary bounds generally ; intemperate ajjplies to the unrestrained indulgence of the de- sires, or undue licence given to the will, or the acting or speaking with- out self-control. Immoderate is sta- tical, belonging to quantity, as immo- derate ambition ; intemperate is dyna- mical, belonging to force and action, as intemperate speech, enjoyment, licence of feeling or language. "Excessive lenity and indulgence are ulti- mately excessive rigour." — Knox, Essays. In old-fashioned English immoderate was used in the simple sense of ex- cessive. " The ivMioderateness of cold or heat." " Whence multitudes of reverend men and critics Have got a kind of intellectual rickets, And by th' immoderate excess of study Have found the sickly head t' outgrow the body." L'utler. "The people at large, who behaved very unwisely and intemperately on that occasion." — I'Urke. Exchange. See Barter. Excite. Awaken. Bouse or Arouse. Incite. Stimulate. To Excite i,Lat. excltare) is to call out into greater activity what before EXCLAIM. ( 309 ) EXCUSE. existed in a calm or calmer state, or to rouse to an active state faculties or powers which before were dor- mant. The term is also used of purely physical action. We excite heat by friction. Awaken (A. S. aivaccian, awecian) is to rouse from a state of sleep, or, analogously, _ to rouse anything that has lain quiet, and, as it were, dormant, as to awaken suspicion, and is applicable only to intelligent subjects. Rouse (A. S. rasian) is to awaken in a sudden or startling manner, so as to bring into an energetic state by a strong im- pulse. To Incite (Lat. incitare) is to excite to a specific act or end which the inciter has in view. To Stimu- late is to quicken into activity [sti- inulus, a spur) and to a certain end. Men are incited when their passions are roused ; they are stimulated when they are indviced to make greater exertions, as by a hope of reward or any other external impulse. They are awakened out of indifference, roused out of lethargy and torpor, incited by the designing influence of others, stimulated by, new motives of action. " Hope is the grand exciter of industry." — Barrow. " When their consciences are thoroughly awakened by some great affliction, or the near approach oY death and a lively sense of another world." — Tillotson. " His present fears rather than any true penitence roused him up." — Waterland. " The absence of Duke Robert, and the con- currence of many circumstances altogether resembling those which had been so favour- able to the late monarch, incited him to a similar attempt." — Burke. Men are incited to what otherwise they would not have given their efforts. They are commonly stimulated^ to something which they are pursuing, or intending to pursue, but with want of energy. "The nature of imperfect animals is such that they are apt to have but a dull and sluggish "sense, a tiat and insipid taste of good, unless it be quickened iyv\.A>-tmmlated, height- ened and invigorated by being compared to the contrary evil." — Cudworth. Exclaim. See Clamour. . Exclude. See Deuab. Exculpate. See Adsolve and Apology. Excursion, See Jaunt. Excuse. See Apology and Pretence. Excuse. Pardon. Forgive. We Excuse (Lat. excumre, ex and causa, a cause) whenever we exempt from the imputation of blame, or, by an extension of meaning, regard as not absolutely calling for blame, and so admitting of being viewed leniently. When used reflectively it sometimes means no more than to decline, or to take such exemption to oneself. In- stances of these uses are as follows : " I excuse his conduct, considering the extraordinary provocation under which he acted." " I have received his invitation, but intend to excuse myseK" (or to send an excuse), the force of the phrase being to relieve oneself from the blame of neglect by an apology. We excuse a small fault, we Pardon {Yv. pardonner) a great fault or a crime. We excuse com- monly what relates to ourselves. We pardon offences against rule, law, morals. We excuse, ordinarily speak- ing, when the circumstances of the case are such that a kindly nature is justified in viewing them leniently. We pardon as a summary act of power, generosity, or mercy. Kings pardon criminals, and friends may excuse each other. Pardon is always from a superior. Excusing may come from a superior or an equal. We also excuse from obligations which are not moral, but only social, official, or conventional, as if the Queen should excuse the attendance on some particular occasion of an officer of state. " Homicide in self-defence upon a sudden affray is also excusahle rather than justifiable by the English law." — Blackstom. " His (the king's) power of pardoning wms said by our Saxon ancestors to be derived a lege sure dignitatis; and it is declared in Parliament by Statute 27 Hen. VUI. that no other person hath power to pardwi or remit any treason or felonies." — lOid. Forgive (Eng. fore and give) EXECRABLE. ( 310 ) EXERCISE. differs from both in relating only to offences against oneself. It is etymologically the same as pardon, meaning to give in snch a way as to forego, i.e., the memory and the punishment of the offence. Omis- sions and neglects or slight com- missions may be excused. Graver offences and crimes pardoned, per- sonal insults and injuries forgiven. " Forgive us oui- trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us." — Lord's Prayer. Kindness prompts to forgiveness, mercy to pardon. We are never hindered from forgiving; but the nature of an offence may be, in the eye of the law, such that we may have no power or authority to pardon it. Execrable. Abominable. De- testable. That is Execrable which raises a lively feeling of hoiTor or indigna- tion, as being worthy of reprobation (Lat. exsecrari, ex, out, and sacer, sacred), that is, literally cast out as unholy or generally detestable. That is Abominable {see Abominate) which excites a distinct feeling of personal desire of avoidance from any motive but fear, as an " abomin- able nuisance." Hatred and con- tempt combined make the abominable in persons. It is employed of things in the sense of intensely disagree- able. Detestable {detestari, de and testis, a witness) is properly used of such abstract properties, or persons in reference to them, as deserve moral reprobation on principle, as detestable vices, cruelty, cowardice, tyranny, or tyrants. " The object of a battle was uo longer empty glory, but sordid lucre, or something still more execrably flagitious." — Kno.c. " Where all life dies, death lives, and nature breeds Pei-verse, all monstrous, all prodigious things, Abominable, inutterable, and worse Than fables yet have feigned or fear con- ceived, Gorgons and hydras and chimeras dire." Miiton. " Under the strong image of the unfitness and ahominahleness and detestableness and pi-o- faneness of any uncleanness or impurity appearing in the Temple of God, the odious- ness of all moral impurity, of all debauched practices whatsoever in any person who pro- fesses himself to be a worshipper of God, is set forth after a more lively and aflectiug manner." — Clarke. Execration. See Curse. Execute. See Accomplish. Exempt. See Free. Exercise. Practise. Exert. Exercise (Lat. exercere) is actively to employ a power or property in- herent in or belonging to ourselves, whether physical, mental, moral, or social; as to exercise oneself, one's arms or legs, patience or cruelty, authority or office, power or influ- ence. It is less sustained than Prac- tise (Fr. p)ratiquer) and more sus- tained than Exert (Lat. exserere, exsertum). To exercise forbearance would imply a particular case, to practise forbearance would imply that it was natural, or exhibited ha- bitually by way of self-discipline. We may be said to practise not only mental or moral qualities but occu- pations, trades, arts. We exert force, strength, violence, ability, in the ab- stract, or anything within us which is of the nature of an active faculty, as the mind, the powers of invention or imagination, the faculty of reason- ing, understanding, and the like. It commonly relates to some sijecific end or design. In order to exercise we must exert repeatedly. We exert the voice in order to be audible to those who are deaf or distant; we exercise it in order to attain power, flexibility, clearness of enunciation, and the like. " But we learn from Scripture further that His providence extends even in the minutest instances to each of us in particular, and that not the smallest thing comes to pass but by His appointment or wise j)ermission ; that His continual superiutendency may be ever exercised towards us for our good'" — Seeker. "Discourse on subjects of little or no im- portance is as necessary at times for the re- laxation of our minds as exercise without business for the refreshment of our bodies. It is a proper exertion of that cheerfulness EXERT. ( 31 ' wnich God hath plainly designed us to^ show on small occasions as well as great."— SecAe/-. Tlie idea of practice is the active con- formity to some established rule, law, method, or custom. It is therefore in its nature imitative, and a thing of discipline whether in morals, man- ners, calling, art, or science. " As this advice ye practise or reject, So hope success or dread the dire effect." Fupe, Ilovier. ExEET. See Exercise. Exertion. See Effort. Exhale. See Emit. Exhaust. See Drain. Exhibit. See Show. Exhibition. See Show. Exhilarate. See Cheer. Exhort. Persuade. Exhortation (Lat. exlwrtari) has for its end something practical either to be done or to be abstained from. It is ordinarily the act of a superior in wisdom or position. Persuasion (Lat. persuadere) is the act of an equal or of one who for the occasion puts himself upon an equality. The power of persuasion, therefore, is more purely moral, having in it more of one's own assent and less of another's entreaty or impelling. Exhortation is commonly on sterner matters, as matters of necessity or duty; per- suasion, on matters of seK-interest : but persuasion is not of facts or of the abstract truth of propositions. Of old, persuade was used m the sense of inculcate by argument or ex- postulation, " Persuading the things concerning the kingdom of God." It is now only employed of such m- ciilcation as is successful to move another. " Every man that will make himself eminent in any virtue will be a light to the world ; his life will be a constant sermon, and he will often prove as effectual a benefactor to those about him by his example as others are by their counsels and exhortations." — Sharp. " We will persuade him, be it possible." — • Shahespeai-e. Exigency. See Crisis. Exile. See Banish. EXIST. Exist. Be. Subsist. Live. Be is called the substantive verb, as expressing substance or being. It is the A. S. heon, beonne, to be, beom, eom, I am. Parts of what gram- marians call the conjugation of the verb to be, are, in fact, radically different derivatives ; as, is, was. Ana- logous instances occur in other lan- guages, as in Latin, esse, fid. This verb, except very seldom, as in Shake- speare's, "To be, or not to be," is employed to express relative, modi- fied, or concrete, and not abstract and independent, being, as, " To be happy," " I am miserable," " Her- cules was a hero," "Three and two are five." Being thus subjective, the verb is applicable to what has no objective existence at all. Thus a thing very often is which does not exist, as, " The philosopher's stone is a chimera," in other words, has no existence. The common use of the verb to be is that of a copula, or the logical link between subject and predicate. In the way of a mere copula, the verb Exist (Lat. existere, to stand out) is not used, but always has a force beyond it, even where it may seem that to be might have been substituted for it, and denotes being in its totality, as a truth ov fact, and not a mode or relationship. To exist is emphatically opposed to the imaginary, unreal, or pretended. To Subsist is a philosophical term, expressing existence as based upon its "formal cause," which was the basis of its existence, as the "ma- terial cause" was the basis of our conception of that existence. So characteristic was this idea of a substratum, that the term is apphed to the mere vegetative life of animals as supiyorted by what tends to nourish them, as, " Tigers subsist on flesh, _&c. To Live (A. S. libhan, Hfian, leofian) is to exist with the functions of vitality, comprehending every grade from the lowest degree of mere sen- tience without reflection, conscious- ness, or will, as in the plants, to the creatures endowed with these. "Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, 1 am hath sent me unto you."— Bible. " Whatever CJcibts has a cause, a reason, a EXIT. EXPEDIEXT. ground of its existence, a foundation on which its existence relies, a ground of reason why it doth exist rather than not exist, either in the necessity of its own nature, and then it must have been of itself eternal, or in the will of some other being, and then that other being must at least in the order of nature and causality have existed before it." — Clarke. "Every person hath his own subsistence, .Vhich no other besides hath, although there be others beside that are of the same sub- stance." — Hooker. " In Him we live and move and have our being." — Bible. Exit. See Departure. Exonerate. See Absolve. Exorbitant, See Inordinate. Expand. See Dilate. Expect. Await. To Expect (Lat. expectare, to look out for) is a mental act, to Await (Old Fr. ivaiter, gaiter, New Fr. guetter, to watch, etre mix oguets, to be on the wait or watch) is a moral act. We expect when we have ar- rived at the conclusion that some- thing future will really happen in all probability. We await it when we look upon it as certain, and have pre- pared ourselves to meet it. We may expect what may or may not interest us personally; but we await that •which, when it comes, will affect ourselves. The old man expects to die happy if be awaits death with serenity and hope. " Though virtue is unquestionably worthy to be chosen for its own sake, even without any expectation of reward, yet it does not fol- low that it is therefore entirely self-sufficient, and able to support a man under all kind of sufferings, and even death itself, for its sake, without any prospect of future recompense." — Clarke. " jEneas heard, and for a space resicfned To tender pity all his manly mind. Then rising in his rage he burns to fight ; The Greek awaits him with collected might." Pope, Homer. Expedient. Eesource. Shift. Contrivance. Expedient (Lat. expedite, to hasten), Shift (A. S. scift, a turn- ing), and Contrivance (Fr. con and trouver, to find) ai-e internal and artificial. Resource ^(Fr. ressoxn-ce, Lat. resurgere, to rise up again) is, or may be, external and natural. A contrivance indicates mechanical in- genuity, or at least operative skill, which may or may not have been called for under special circum- stances. It is used both of the act of contriving and the thing con- trived. An expedient is a con- trivance more or less adequate but irregular, and sought for by tact and adaptation to the peculiar cir- cumstances of the case. It is a kind of unauthorised substitute for more recognised modes of doing thiugr. A shift is an expedient which does not profess to be more than tem- porary and A-ery imperfect, a mere evasion of difiiculty. A resource is that to which one resorts. It is often, therefore, that on which the others are based. So it may be a test of skill in contrivance to find an adequate expedient in limited resources. Shift is in the common- est matters, and usually relates to objects trivial and external, con- trivance to matters of more import- ance, and expedient to those even of the highest. "Like tricks of state to stop a raging flood, Or mollify a mad-brained senate's mood, Of all expedients never one was good." Bryden. " Threatenings mixed with prayers, his last resource." ' Ibid. " I'll find a thousand shifts to get away." — Shakespeare. "Government is a contrivance of humnn wisdom to provide for human wants." — Burke. Expedient. Fit. Expediency (see Expedient) is a kind of Fitness (counected with the old word feat, well-formed\ namely, that kind which is personally advan- tageous. That which is expedient is necessarily fit, for that cannot con- duce to an advantageous end which is unsuitable or improper; but unless that which is fitting be required, and be conducive to the welfare or beueftt of the person, then, however fitting it may be, it will answer no profit- able end, and so will not be expe- EXPEDITE. dient. Fitness regards every kind of appropriateness, as moral fitness ; ex- pediency regards only adaptation to self-interest. " It is expedient for you tli;it I go away." —Bible. " He, and He only, is tlie competent, projicr, and vinerring judge upon wiiat persons and on what conditions it is fit for Him to bestow His favours." — Clarke. Expedite. See Accelerate. Expedition. See Quickness. Expel. See Banish. Expend. See Spend. Expense. See Cost. , Experiment. See Effort. Expert. See Adroit. Expiation. Atonement. Expiation (Lat. expiare, ex and piare, to seek to appease) is to extin- guish guilt by suffering or penalty. Atonement adds to this the idea of satisfaction or reparation to an in- jured party (atonement, at one, the making one or reconciled). The malefactor, for instance, expiates his crimes on the gallows. If this were spoken of as an atonement, it would be under the view of reparation, being thus made either to the parties he had injured, or to humanity, or to the state. " It was a common and received doctrine among the Jews that for some sins a man was pardoned presently upon his repentance ; that other sins were not pardoned till the solemn day of expiation, which came once a year ; that other sins which were yet greater were not to be expiated but by some grievous temporal affliction." — SJiarp. " To atone or make him at one again with the olYender." — Beveridge. Expire. Die. To Expire (Lat. expirare, to breathe out) is appropriately used of animals which breathe the breath of life. Of these it may be said that they live and that they die or expire. All living things either die or expire. All things that die or expire are not living things, for to die is used ana- logously, as" " to let a secret die within the breast," and of tener with the addi- 3 ) EXPLANATION. tion of the word out or away. Treog live and die, but do not expire. Tlio flame of a candle, and the periods of time, neither live nor die, yet are said to expire. " Oh why do wretched men so much desire To draw their days unto the utmost date, And do not rather wish them soon expire. Knowing the misery of their estate ?" Upenser. "In the day that ye eat thereof ye shall surely die." — Bible. Explain. Elucidate. Illus- trate. To Explain (Lat, explanare, planus, level) is simply to make intel- ligible by removing obscurity or mis- understanding. To Elucidate [eln- cidare, e, out, and lux, lucis, light) and Illustrate {illustrare) are to make more fully intelligible. The field of explanation may be broad or narrow, as to explain a word, or a chapter of the Bible, while explanation in itself is extended and minute. The field of elucidation is commonly broad. We do not speak of elucidating words, but subjects. Illustration is vivid elucidation by certain specific and effective means, as similitudes, com- parisons, appropriate incidents or anecdotes, and the like, graphic repre- sentations, and even artistic draw- ings. Explanation, however, depends as much on the mind and views of the explainer as upon the thing explained. A subject could only be elucidated or illustrated in one way, but it might be explained in different and even cou- trariant ways, according to the ex- plainers. " I demanded of him who was to exphnn them. The Papists, I told him, would explain some of them one way, and the Reformed another. The Remonstrants and Anti-re- monstrants gave their different senses, and probably the Trinitarians and the Unitarians will profess that they understand not each other's explications." — Locke. "Proof and further elucidation of the matters complained of." — Ilurke. "To prove him and illustrate his high worth." — Siiakespeare. Explanation. See Definition ami Explain. EXPLANATORY. ( 314 ) EXPOUND. ExPLANATOEY. See Explicit. Explicit. Express. Expla- natory. Explicit (Lat. exj^licare, ea-plicatus, to unfold) denotes the entire unfold- ing of a thing in detail of expression, and so as to meet every jooint and obviate the necessity of supplement. Explanatory is, on the other hand, essentially supplemental, and the necessity of explanation often arises from matters not having been made suflBciently explicit. Express (Lat. exprimere, expressus) combines force vrith clearness and notice of detail. Explicit calls attention to the com- prehensiveness and pointedness of the particulars, express to the force, directness, and plainness of the whole. An express declaration goes forcibly and directly to the point. An explicit declaration leaves nothing ambiguous. Philosophically, it is opposed to im- plicit. " The baptismal creed, I say, must of ne- cessity contain explicitly in it at least all the fundamentals of faith." — Clarke. " As to any other method more agreeable to them than a congress — an alternative ex- pressly proposed to them— they did not con- descend to signify their pleasure." — Burke. " Yet to such as arc grounded in the true belief, these explanatory creeds, the Kiceue and this of Athanasius, might perhaps be spared; for what is supernatural will always be a mystery in spite of exposition." — Dryden. Exploit. ment. Exploit (Fr. exploit, Lat. expli- care, explicatmn, to unfold) is a term of chivalrous character, indicating a deed of which adventurousness and strength are the characteristics. A Feat (Nor. Fr. feat, Mod. Fr. fait, Lat. factum, a thing done, a deed) is the same thiug on a smaller scale, and admitting a larger admixture of the elements of skill or cleverness ; as the exploits of Alexander the Great, a feat of horsemanship. Achieye- . MENT (Fr. achever, to bring to a head, chef, caput, a head) points not only to the greatness of the deed but to the qualities which have led to it, which may have been less showy than force Feat. Achieye- and skill, and have comprised perse- verance, patience, and industry. "The spirit-stirring form Of Ccesar, raptured with the charm of rule And boundless fame, impatient for exploits." Dyer. " The warlike feats I have done." — Sluihe- speare. " But loving virtue, all achievements past, Meets envv still to grapple with at last." Waller. Exploitation. See Examina- tion. Explore. See Examdtation. Explosion. See Eruption. Expostulate. See Complain. Expound. Interpret. {See Explain.) Expound (Lat. expono) denotes sustained explanation ; while a mere word or phrase may be explained, a whole work or parts of it may be ex- poimded. Exposition is continuous critical explanation. Interpret (Lat. interpres, an interpreter), beyond the mere sense of verbal translation from one language to another, con- veys the idea of private or personal explanation of what is capable of more than one view. Hence inter- pretation is more arbitrary than ex- position and more theoretical than explanation. Expound relates only to Avords in series, interpretation is applicable also to anything of a sym- bolical character, as to interpret a dream or a prophecy. It has also, in common with exj^lain, an application to anytliing which may be viewed in different lights, as the actions of men. In this way, to explain conduct would rather be to account for it ; to inter- pret it would be to assign motives or significance to it. Explanation deals with facts, interpretation with causes also. " The Pundits are the expounders of the Hindu law." — Sir W. Jones. "Are there not many points, some needful sure To saving faith, that Scripture leaves obscure ? Which every sect will wrest a several way, For what one sect interprets all sects may." Dryden. EXPRESS. ( 3^5 ) EXPRESS/OX. See Explicit, Signify. Testify, Express. Express. Intimate. All these terms are employed in the sense of communicating- to others what is in one's own mind. Not only words, hut gestures, movements, m;iy serve to Express, which is simply to manifest in a plain manner. Even silence is sometimes expressive. As express is generally said of feelings and opinions, so Signify (Fr. siy- nijier, Lat. signum, a sign, and facere, to make) is said of wishes, intentions, or desires ; this also may be done in various ways, by looks, words, writ- ing, or other acts, as to signify assent by a nod. Signify implies more strongly than express the exist- ence of some person affected, while express is more abstract, as, "His countenance expressed disappoint- ment," that is, would have done so to any who might have witnessed it. Testify (Lat. testis, a witness, and facere, to make) is commonly em- ployed of inner feeling as made evi- dent to others, as to testify joy, sor- row, approbation, one's sense of an- other's merit, and the like ; " His countenance testified satisfaction," that is, generally, where signified would have implied some person or persons on whom the expression took effect. To signify is in short a matter of communication, testify of demon- stration, express of declaration. To Intimate (Lat. intimus, innermost) is to express without fulness, but with sufficient aptitude and clearness, avoiding all superfluity of declara- tion. Hence the term is well em- ployed of such manifestations of feeling as are indirect, as, "His courtly reception of the delegates seemed to intimate that he was not unfavourably inclined to the object of their mission." When one person intimates a thing to an- other, it is commonly something in which that other is personally inte- rested. " When St. John Baptist came preaching repentance unto Israel, the people asked him, saying, 'What shall we Jo?' meaning in what manner they slioukl cyress their re- pentance." — Sharp. " No one ever saw one animal by its ges- tures and natural cries si(/ni/i/ to anothei-, This is mine, That is yours, I am willing to give this for that."— Smith, Wealth u/ Nations. " In vain Thy creatures testify of Thee, Till Thou proclaim Thyself." Cowpcr. A demonstrative expression is com- monly set over against something of an opposite character. Testify, like protest, wears an air of denifmstra- tion against; but this is accidental, not essential. " Mr. Plott, who, as he since informed me, had prevailed with them to propose tliis treaty, earnestly pressed me to lay hold on the opportunity, intimating by his words and gestures that if I refused it I should not have another." — Ludlow, Memoirs. Expression. Term. Word. {See Phrase.) Word is the more general, but could not be called the generic ex- pression here, because an expres- sion may consist of more than one word. Word (A. S. toord) is the spoken expression (which may be re- duced to writing) of a conception or an idea. A Term (Lat. terminus), in its logical sense, is anything which may form the subject or predicate of a proposition, and caUed the term from the fact that it occupies a posi- tion at one or other end of it; as, " Every man is mortal ;" here every man is the one term, and mortal the other. In reference to the practical distinction between these, word re- presents generally an utterance of our thoughts or feelings ; term is the same thing viewed in connection with a certain class of expressions or sub- jects, as " a scientific term," " a geo- grai^hical term," and so on, implying that it has a specific stamp ; so we say in reasoning, " It is above aU things necessary to defiue the terms employed." On the other hand, it would be utterly superfluous to de- fine all the loords. In this Avay, term is restricted to the main parts of speech, nouns, verbs, and adjectives. In a looser way, it is simply syno- nymous with word. Expression (Lat. exprimere, expressus) in this con- nection means not so much a word EXPRESSIVE. ( 316 ) EXTENUATE. or term, though it may mean this, as a mode of speech. Hence expres- sions are very often phrases or collo- cations of words. Any number of words which serve to convey an idea or statement, whether one or more, may be called an expression. Even an interjection, as giving utterance to a sentiment, emotion, or feeling, might be called an expression of it. In the choice of words is shown the purity of language, in the choice of terms the precision of speech ; on the choice of expressions depend the bril- liancy and effectiveness of style. " He (Charles II.) never read the Scriptures nor laid things together further than to turn them to a jest, or for some lively ex- pression. " — Burnet. " The ideas the terms stand for." — Locke. " Man had by nature his own organs so fashioned as to be fit to frame articulate sounds which we call words." —Ibid. ExPEESsivE. See Significant, Expunge. See Efface. Extend. See Dilate and Eeach. Extensive. Large. {See Big and Beoad.) Extensive (Lat. extenders, exten- S71S, to stretch out) only applies to superficial spreading. Large (Fr. large, Lat. largus) is much more com- prehensive and variously applicable : 1, to superficial extent, in which it is synonymous with extensive, as a large field or an extensive field ; 2, of size or bulk, as a large stone ; 3, of quan- tity, as a large supply; 4, number, as a large number, or assembly; 6, of cubic contents, as a large bag. Both large and extensive are em- ployed in secondary senses ; large in that case denoting abundance of source or supply, extensive denoting wideness of operation. A large heart, large bounty, extensive benevolence. " One great cause of our insensibility to the goodness of the Creator is the very ex- tensiceness of His bounty." — J'aleij. "Circles are praised not that abound In largeness, but the exactly round. So life we praise that does excel Kot in much time, but acting well." Waller. Extent. Limit. Extent is superficial spreading in one direction, or several, or all. LiMiT_ (Lat. limes, limitis) is the bounding or restraining of such ex- tent. The former term, therefore, is expansive in its force, the latter restrictive; the one partakes of the nature of a positive, the other of a negative idea. " What antic notions form the human mind, Perversely mad, and obstinately blind, Life in its large extent is scarce a span, Yet, wondrous frenzy, great designs we plan, And shoot our thoughts beyond the date of man." Cotton. " Ye friends to truth, ye statesmen who survey Tiie rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay, 'Tis yours to judge how wide the limits stand Between a splendid and a happy land." Goldsmith. Extenuate. Palliate. These terms are all applicable to moral conduct and the lessening of its guilt. To Extenuate (literall}', to draw out to fineness, ex and tenuis, thin) is to diminish the conception of crime or guilt by the allegation of pleas or the consideration of atten- dant circumstances. To Palliate (Lat. pallmm, a cloak) is to seek to lower the intrinsic guilt or evil of the thing itself. It is an instance of the departure of a term from its etymo- logical meaning; to palliate not sig- nifying any longer to hide a crime by throwing a cloak over it, but to soften down the enormity of it. Wrong is extenuated by attendant circumstances ; it is palliated by so- phistry. Palliation is never the same thing with justice, but extenuation may be. Palliation is restricted to crime ; extenuation is extended to guilt and punishment, and even to ills generally. When Ave speak of a palliation of evils, it is as opposed to lasting remedies. "Astotlie other matters objeeted against me, which in their turn I shail mention to you, remember once more I do not mean to extenuate or excuse." — Burke. EXTERIOR. (317 ) EXTRAORDINARY. The original sense of palliate occurs curiously in the following : — "Horace had his Ma;cenas, and Virgil his Augustus, and it is the accustomed manner of our modern writers always to palliate themselves under the protection of some worthy patron." — Boulton, Medicine. Exterior. External. Out- ward. Extraneous. Extrinsic. Foreign. Outward is strictly toivard the oiitside, as " outward bound," and, by an extension of meaning, of or be- longing to the outside. It is thus the generic term, and may mean on the surface or contiguous to it. Ex- terior and External (Lat. extra, ■without) both imply coiDiection, while Extraneous (Lat. extraneus, from the same root) implies no connection with, but detachment or remoteness from, the surface. Exterior is op- posed to interior, external to interntil. The skin is an exterior, the dress an external, covering. That which is external is connected closely with the outward parts ; that which is exterior goes to constitute them. That is ex- traneous which affects us from a dis- tance, as " extraneous aid." Extra- neous is an ej^ithet of qualities, not substances. Extrinsic (Lat. extria- secus) has the sense of external in such a way as to form no essential or inseparable part, as, " The intrinsic faculties of the mind may be im- proved in power by the extrinsic aids of mental training ;" " The external need of di-ess is one thing, the extrin- sic suj)erfluity of ornament another." Foreign (Lat. /oris, /oraHeits, out of dooi's) is wholly beside the mark, and has no connection or relevancy at all. " In speech of man the whispering which they call susurrus in Latin, whether it be louder or softer, is an interior sound, but the speaking out is an exterior sound." — Bacon. " The next circumstance to be remarked is that whilst the cavities of the body are so configurated as externally to exhibit the most exact correspondency of the opposite sides, the contents of these cavities have no such correspondency." — Paleij. " ' If the eye,' says He, ' be single, thy whole body shall be full of light.' That is, nothing extraneous must cleave to or join with the eye in the act of seeing, but it must be solely and entirely to itself and its bare object, as naked as truth, as pure, simple, and unmixed as sincerity." — South. *' More observe the characters of men than the order of things ; to the one we are formed by nature and by that sympathy from which we are so strongly led to take part in the pas- sions and manners of our fellow-men. The other is as it were foreign and extrinsical." — Burke. Exterminate. See Eradicate. External. See Exterior. Extirpate. See Eradicate. Extol. See Praise, Extort. See Exact. Extraneous. See External. Extraordinary. Eemarkable, The Extraordinary (Lat. extra, beyond, and ordo, an order, beyond the ordinary) is that which is out of the ordinary course or exceeds ordinary limits. In those cases in which it is matter of specific observation, it is synonymous with Remarkable (Fr. remarquer, to remark), but where it does not excite such observation or remark, it is of course not remark- able. An extraordinary dress is re- markable ; but this could not be said of an " extraordinary loan." The re- markable combines the extraordinary ■with the noticeable. It may be ob- served that there is a twofold sense of the extraordinary — that which is un- Hke the common course, law, or nature of the object, and that which is un- like the common course of our own observation. The one is extraordi- nary in itself, the other to us. The remarkable is the extraordinary to us. The di'ess of an Asiatic, while not extraordinary in itself, may be extra- ordinary, and so remarkalsle, to a European. In common parlance, that is extraordinary which excites sur- prise ; that is remarkable which ex- cites some degree of admiration also. " They think to atone for their sins and neglects of this kind by showing some extra- ordiiuiry bounty to the poor." — Sharp. "Above all things this was remarkable and admirable in him, the arts he had to acquire the good opinion and kindnesses of all sorts of men." — Cowley. EXTRAVAGANT. ( 318 ) FABLE. Extravagant. Pkodigal. La- vish. Profuse. Extravagant (Lat. extra, beyond, and vagari, to wander) is by no means confined to modes of expenditure of nionej''. Any person or thing wbich exceeds due bounds in tbougbt, speecb, or action, may be termed extravagant ; as " extravagant in praise," "extravagant abuse,"' "ex- travagant compliment." As applied to manner of living, extravagance comes of allowing the babitual ab- sence of self-restraint and reflection, a vague wandering of tbe thoughts and desires unrestrained by ideas of measurement and proportion. A man of small means may thus be very ex- travagant. Prodigal (Lat. prodi- gere, to drive away or squander) de- notes a love of large and excessive expenditure, which comes of want of recognizing the necessary limitation of aU human resources, and is by its nature a vice of the rich. The poor man who may be extravagant is hin- dered by circumstances from being prodigal, though he may have the natural inclination to be so. Extra- vagant and TJrodigal.are both terms expressive of character or haltits, while Lavish (Old Eng. lave, to throw out) and Profuse (Lat. profimdere, profusus, to pour forth) relate to spe- cific actions. To lavish is to spend with superfluous and therefore fool- ish Kberality, as the return or good is not in proportion to the expendi- ture or eflbrt. Men may be lavish of much besides money and treasure, as praise, censure, as we may be also prodigal of time, strength, and the like. Profuse is less strong than lavish, and denotes the giving forth in gi-eat abundance. This is so likely to be superfluous, that profuse is often used in an unfavourable sense, as lavish always is. Tet this is not always so, as, " ornaments are pro- fusely employed in the building," is not the same as if we said " too pro- fusely," and " profuse beneficence " is not dispraise. We are extravagant when we spend more than we can afford. We are profuse when we give away in great or excessive quantities. Profusion, therefore, is a mode of ex- travagance, namely, an extravagant expenditure on other objects than our- selves. A man is extravagant, for instance, in household expenses, house, dress, i^late, diet, luxuries of any kind. A man is extravagant in his praise or compliments when he exaggerates them, profuse when he deals too largely in them, lavish when he thinks nothing of reseiwing or moderating them. " Upon which accounts it hath been that mankind hath been more extravaganth/ mad in many tenets about religion than in any- thing else whatsoever. For in other things the use of reason is permitted, but in religion it hath been almost universally denied." — Glanvill. " Frodigaliti/ is the devil's steward and purse-bearer, ministering to all sorts of vice ; and it is hard, if not impossible, for a prodigal person to be guilty of no other vice but pro- dijality." — South. "Tertullian very truly observeth, God is not a lavis/wr, but a dispenser of His blessings." — Fotherhy. " He who with a promiscuous, undistin- guishing profuseness does not so much dispense as throw away what he has, proclaims himself a fool to all the intelligent world about him." — South. Extreme. See Close. Extremity. See Close. Extricate. See Disengage. Extrinsic. See Exterior. Exuberant. See Luxuriant. Eye. See Behold. Fable. Fiction. Fabrica- tion. Parable. Allegory. ]S0VEL. PiOMANCE. Fable (Lat. fahula, from fori, to speak) is a feigned tale intended to convey some lesson of instruction, its proper sphere being that of pru- dential morality. Such being its object, it does not scruple to violate natural truth, as in feigning talking trees, or talking animals, or intro- ducing uuhistoric and unreal per- FABLE. ( 3T9 ) FABLE. sonages. The fable is a sort of dramatic allegory in which the ac- tions are probable and natural, while the agents may be tmnatural. " Fables were first begun and raised to the highest perfection in the eastern countries, wiiere they wrote in signs and spoke in parables, and delivered the most useful pre- cepts in delightful stories, which for their aptness were entertaining to the most judi- cious, and led the vulgar into understanding, by surprising them with their novelty." — Frior and Montague. Fiction (Lat. fingere, fictus, to feign) denotes any production of the imagination, whether dealing in the natural or unnatural. As a literary term it imjjlies an end of amusement or instruction, or both. Fiction may be regarded as the generic term, of which the rest are species. It means, in its broadest sense, anything feigned. Fiction is opposed to what is real, as fabrication is opposed to what is true ; the common end of the first is to entertain, of the second to mislead and deceive, either as to the contents of the work or the genxiine- ness of its authorship. "The fiction of these golden apples kept by a dragon." — Ralegh. " Our books were not fabricated with an accommodation to prevailing usages." — Paley. A Fabrication (Lat. fabricare, to fabricate) diifers from a fiction in that the author, knowing it to be false, puts it forth as true. A Parable (Gr. Trapa, alongside, _ and pdXKfiv, to cast or place) is an illiis- tration of moral or spiritual truth through the vehicle of natural or secular processes or occurrences. Such at least are the parables of the New Testament, which assume laws in harmony between the natural and the spiritual world, so that the facts of the one may tend to explain the other. Unlike the fable, the parable teaches truth for itself, and not as being the interest of man only; and having this high and sacred end in view, it cannot stoop to such unnatural violations as the fable employs, being animated by a spirit of profounder reverence. There was a time, however, when the word parable was taken to mean almost anything allegorical in speech, especially if more or less hard to un- derstand; as that which the English version of the Bible calls the parable of Jotham is strictly a fable. So in Ezekiel, " Ah, Lord God. doth he not speak pai'ables ?" the word here is equivalent to riddles. "The Holy Scripture hath her figure and history, her mystery and verity, her parable and plain doctrine." — Bale. An Allegory (//XXo?, other, and dynpfva, I speak) differs both from fable and parable, in that the pro- perties of persons are fictitiously represented as attached to things, to which they are as it were trans- ferred. The allegory may be in any kind of artistic or verbal representa- tion. A figure of Peace and Victory crowning some historical personage is an allegory. " I am the Vine, ye are the branches," is a spoken alle- gory. In the i^arable there is no transference of properties. The parable of the sower represents aU things as according to their proper nature. In the allegory quoted above the properties of the vine and the relation of the branches are trans- ferred to the person of Christ and His apostles and disciples. "Make no more allegories in Scripture than needs must ; the fothers were too fre- quent in them ; they, indeed, before they understood the literal sense, looked out for an allegorj." — Seklcn. A Novel (Fr. nouvelle, new) is a fiction (as at present employed) with something of dramatic plot, designed to show the workings of human passion, and is such that in them- selves there is no impossibility in the incidents of it. Novels in Old English bore the sense of news. "Some came of curiosity to hear some novels." — Latimer. It then came to mean a tale especially of love and passion, which might be of the nature of a subordinate inci- dent in a larger work, before it came to mean, as at present, a work com- plete in itself. "The trifling now^s which Ariosto inserted in his poems." — Dnjden. FABRIC. ( 320 ) FACETIOUS. The Romance (Low Lat. roman- cium, tlie union or fusion of tlie Latin tongue under tbe barbarians of the empire, which was in vogue when this species of literature sprang up) is a novel which deals in surprising and adventurous incidents, in order to strike by means of the marvellous, without the historic probability of the novel of the present day. They were commonly metrical, and turned on chivalry, gallantry, and religion. " The Latin tongue, as is observed by an ingenious writer, ceased to be spoken in France about the ninth century, and was succeeded by what was called the romance tongue, a mixture of the language of the Franks and bad Latin. As the songs of chivalry became the most popular compositions in that language, they were emphatically called romtins or rornants, though this name was at first given to any piece of poetry." — J'ercy Seliqius. Fabric. See Edifice. Fabricate. See Build and Forge. Fabrication. See Fable. Face. See Confront. Face. Front. Some confusion arises in tbe figurative use of tbese terms, from the literal meaning of them. The Face (Liit. fades) is tbe human coun- tenance or features. The Front [frons, frontis) is the wbole anterior side of tbe figru-e, and so the words migbt be supposed simply applicable according to this analogy. But tbe analogy is not easy, because the Latin frons means forehead, and so face. For instance, the face of a clock is analogous to the face of a man, but we should hardly say, the front of a picture, but the face, though it be more analogous to the whole front of a man. The face of a house is tbe surface of the anterior wall of it, as the posterior wall is tbe back. Yet the terms often mean the parts in front, or that which the house confronts. On the other band, the ir> >nt of a stage is strictly according to analogy. Again, other concep- tions enter. The face of a tbiug is often taken for that part of it which is distinctively marked and, as it Avere, featured. It is probably in this way that we speak of the face of a watcb. Face. Countenance. Yisage. The Face is that whicb is ana- tomically composed of its features ; and so the term is applicable to brutes and men. The Counte- nance (Lat. coutinentia vultiis, the bolding togetber of tbe featiu-es) is the face as expressive of the soul, with its thoughts, reflections, pas- sions, or emotions, and so belongs only to buman beings. The Yisage (Fr. visage) is tbe face regarded in a fixed aspect, and not in its emotional variations. So a laughing face, a laughing countenance, but we sbovild bardly say a laughing visage. Yisage is a term indicative of something marked and impressive in tbe face, as dignity, sternness, grimness. It is not employed of the ligbter or more cbeerful looks. " While the men wore shoes so long and picked that they were forced to support the points by chains from their middle, the ladies erected such pyramids on their heads that the face became the centre of the body." — Walpole, A7iecdotes of Faintimj. " Even kept her countenance when the lid removed Disclosed the heart unfortunately loved." Dnjden. " Get you gone ! Out on a most importunate aspect, A visage of demand." Shakespeare. Facetious. Jocose. Jocular. Pleasant. Facetiousness (Lat. facetiae) is a kind of affected bumour, to wbicb it bears tbe same relation that a smirk does to a smile. Jocose and Jocu- lar are derived from the Latin jocus, a joke, and Joc!(/»s, a little joke. The jocose pokes fun, the jocular insinuates it. Pleasantry (Fr. plaisanterie) carries the notion, not of abstract joke, like facetious, but a tendency to personal raiUery. though of a kind the opposite to obtrusive. The fa- cetious had formerly a higher mean- ing than at present, when it is hardly used but in modified disparagement. FACILITY. ( 321 ) FA /LING. answering to the Latin facetus, ele- gantly liuinorous. It denotes at present something like manufactaived wit wliich has no heartiness of joke. " B. answers very facctioxisly, I must own, that a command to lend hoping for nothing ale with regard to flat- tery. I am as fond of it as Voltaire can pos- sibly be, but with this diflerence, that I love it only from a masterly hand." — Chester- field. Fault, though connected etymo- logically with failing, is not, like it, negative, but positive and definite, being that which impairs excellence in a grave and conspicuous manner, an offence only less serious than a crime. Such, at least, is the force which it has come to assume. Traces of its stricter etymological meaning appear in such phrases as, " I will take this in fault of a better," i\ e.. failing a better ; or in the geological application of the term faiilt to the disiolacement of a stratum ; or, " The hounds are at fault," i. e., the track of the scent has failed them. " For who is there among the sons of men that can pretend on every occasion through- out his own life to have preserved a fault- less conduct ?" — Blair. Failure. See Bankruptcy and Failing. Faint, Languid. Faint (Old Fi-. faint, sluggish, as if from se feindre, to pretend in- ability) has several meanings ana- logous to this primary one, as, lack- ing physical power, lacking spirit, lacking distinctness of form, delinea- tion, or colouring, or of any other FAIR. ( 323 ) FA/R. power wliicli is cognizable by the senses, as a faint smell, a faint sound. As applied to the condition of the human frame, faint denotes the ab- sence of physical strength; Languor, the want of vital energy. Faintness in itself, though it may be great at the time, is loss chronic than languor, and generally implies some casual cause, as to be faint from loss of blood, fatigue, hunger. Languor (Lat. Icmguere, to languish) is a re- laxed or listless state of body, caused by a continuously operating cause, as constitutional temperament, want of rest, heat, or oppressiveness of weather. " Metliouglit I saw ni}' late espoused saint Brought to me like Alcestro from the grave, Whom Jove's great son to her glad hus- band gave, Rescued from death by force, though pale and faint." Milton. " Methinks the highest expressions that language, assisted with all its helps of meta- phor and resemblance, can afl'ord, are very languid Audi faint in comparison of what they strain to represent when the goodness of God toward them who love Him comes to be expressed." — Barrow, Faie. Clear. Fair (A. S. fdger) is primarily free from all that taints, befouls, obstructs, or blemishes ; hence pleasing to the eye, light-coloured, cloudless, unob- structed, candid, or impartial, favour- able, distinct, common, or ordinary. Fair weather is the opposite to foul or stormy. Clear (Lat. clarus) is bright, undimmed, and so analo- gously distinct, perspicuous, audible, pure, unclouded, untai-nished, unob- structed. In speaking of the weather, that is fair which is not foul or stormy ; so that the term admits of degrees, as, " Tolerably fair," " Very fair." Clear denotes the absence of cloud, haze, or fog, and the bright- ness of the heavenly bodies. We might, without impi'opriety, say, " We had fair weather for the voyage, but not many clear days, for we had a good deal of fog." Fair. Just. Equitable. Kea- SONABLE. Moderate. All these terms are applicable to persons, their conduct, and their de- mands. Fair (see above) denotes an estimate in detail of what is re- ciprocally just; a fair price for an article is that which seems right con- sidering the cii-cumstances of buyer and seller and sale. Hence the common use of such expressions as, '* Upon the whole that seems fair." So a fair man is he who is ready to look at others' interests as well as his own, and to view matters without pai'tiality, prejudice, or self-seeking. As justice depends upon the due proportion of the thing, so fairness comes of due proportion of feeling in the person. " I would call it fair play." Shakespeare. " Would it become a just governor to permit his rebellious subjects, those who contemn his laws, to persecute such as wei-e obedient to him, with a kind of scorn and violence, stripes, imprisonment, torments, and death itself; and that for this very reason, because they were willing to do their duties and observe the laws ? Would it be a reasonable excuse for such a ruler to say that one of these had received sufficient punish- ment in the very commission of such crimes, and that the other had a sufficient reward, both of doing his duty and in his suffering for it ? What could be more inconsistent with the rules o{ justice and the wise ends of govern- ment ?" — Wilki7is. Just (Lat. Justus) is more compre- hensive, and implies the application of principles of retributive justice, where it is due, in antagonism to all else, as any temptation to partiality, negligence in awai-d. There is a dignity and sternness about the term just which does not belong to fair, as if it connected itself more directly with personal and responsible action. So prizes are said to be faii-ly won and justly awarded. Equitable (Lat. (equitas, cequus, equal) is ac- cording to equity, and so has the force of the noun itself, which is not mere fairness, but such justice as may serve to supplement the imper- fections of law or rule. If justice belongs to the judge, equity should guide the decision of the umpire. "Justice shalt thou have ; Nor shall an equitable claim depend On such precarious issue." Smollct. T 2 FAITH. ( 324 ) FALLACIOUS. Reasonable (Fr. raisonnable, rai- son, ratio, reason) denotes what is fair under another aspect. As the fair is the right between man and man, the reasonable is the right in itself, as it would commend itself not only to the just but to the wise man. The reasonable, however, ex- tends beyond the matters of inter- course between man and man, to the essential nature of things, which are in accordance with common sense or common experience. A reasonable prospect of success, for instance, is a prospect which cii-cumstances render probable. " Argument alone, though it might indeed evince the consistency and reasonableness of the doctrine, could never amount to a proof of its heavenly origin." — Horsley. Moderate (Lat. moderatus, modus, a limit), as commonly employed, de- notes a marked absence of excess in demand ; this may or may not flow from justice or fairness — the term states nothing but the fact. " I purchased the article at a moderate price," indicates nothing as to the in- tentions of the seller. Moderate measures may be, and very often are, the expressions of justice, but they may also originate in prudence, or be dictated by necessity. " Moderate rain and showers." — £ook of Common Prayer, Faith. See Belief. Faithful. Trusty. Theseterms start, as itwere, from op- posite sides. The Faithful sei-vant, for instance (Lat. fides, faith) is he who is full of faith, in the sense of fidelity to his master; the Trusty servant is he who is worthy of his master's tiiist. Hence, trusty is a more comprehensive term than faith- ful, which it includes, togetlier with all other qualities which justify the reposing of confidence. The indis- creet servant, however he might love his master, would not be trusty, though we might not speak of him as unfaithful. " Failhful found Among the faiMcss." Milton. " The shepherd la.st appears, And with him all his patrimony bears; His house and household gods, his trade of war. His bow and quiver, and his trusty cur." Dryden, Vinjil. Faithless. Treacheeous. Per- fidious. Faithless means no more than not keeping faith. The character of faithlessness may therefore vary in degree, and may or may not be ac- companied by a desire to deceive or injure others. The sentinel who sleeps at his post is faithless to his duty. Treachery (Fr. tricherie, trickery) and Perfidy (Lat. per- fidia) ai-e peculiar kinds of faithless- ness. Perfidy denotes the \aolation of some trust reposed and recognised or accepted by the other party. Treachery is the leading one to trust for the purpose of bringing to harm, or the readiness to break off a trust reposed to one's own benefit, and the injiuy of another. Ti-eachery lures by deceitful appear- ances to ruin. Perfidy only violates engagements from self-interest. " When the heart is sorely wounded bv the ingratitude or faithlessness of those on whom it had leaned with the whole weight of affec- tion, where shall it turn for relief?" — Blair. " Thou 'st hroke perfdiously thy oath, And not performed thy plighted troth." Hudibras. " The promontory or peninsula which dis- joins these two bays I call Traitor's Head, from the treacherous behaviour of its in- habitants." — Cook's Voyages. Fall. See Drop. Fallacious. Sophistical. Fallacious reasoning (Lat. fallax, fnllacia, fallere, to deceive) is that which seems to be fairly conducted and conclusive, but is not so by reason of some vitiating cause, called the fallacy, which lurks beneath it. "This fallacious idea of liberty, whilst it presents a vain shadow of happiness to the subject, binds faster the chains of his subjec- tion." — Burke. Sophistical reasoning (Gr. a-ocpia-- rrjs, a sophist) is that of which the nature is so subtle, that its faults FALSEHOOD. ( 3-^5 ) FALTER. cannot eiisily be detected and ex- posed, and may be unanswevable without being convincing. Sophis- tical x-easoning may silence and be- wilder, but seldom persuades. By fallacious reasoning we may deceive others, and are continually deceiving ourselves, in those cases in which our own hearts give credence to the fal- lacy ; but sophistical reasoning is felt at the time to be inconclusive. " A set of mea smitten not with the love of wisdom, but of tame and glory, men of great natural abilities, notable industry, and boldness, appeared in Greece, and assuming the name of Sophists., a name hitherto highly honourable, and given only to those by whom mankind in general were supposed to be made wiser, to their ancient poets, legislators, and the gods themselves, undertook to teach, by a few lessons and in a short time, all the parts of philosophy to any person, of whatever kind were his disposition or turn of mind, and of whatever degree the capacity of it, so that he was but able to pay largely for his teach- ing." — Sydenham, Plato, " Inconclusive and sophistical." — Boling- broke. Falsehood. Falsity. Uk- TRUTH, Lie. Of these terms Lie is the strongest (A. S. lyge, lygen). It is criminal falsehood, an untruth spoken for the purpose of deceiving, and, indeed, for the worst of aU purposes. An Un- TKUTH is simply a statement which is not true, and may have been tit- tered without intention to deceive and through ignorance. " I must correct myself; I accidentally spoke an untruth." It is, however, often employed in cases where the term lie seems harsh. So we should cen- sure a little child for telling an un- truth, as preferring to iise a softer expression than lie," which comprises offences of much greater magnitude. The term Falsehood is somewhat hard to determine. Its ordinary use is that of the statement in cases in which Falsity is the quality. I am con- vinced of the falsity of what is said, and so call the saying a falsehood; though the use of falsehood, in the sense of falsity, is not to be simply reprobated, as some have done ; for as likelihood means the quality of being likely, so is falsehood the quality of being false. The dini(ailty, however, lies in determining whether falsehood denotes necessarily the vio- lation of truth for 23ur2)oses of deceit. There can lie little dijro7i. Far, See Distant. Fare. Food. Provisions. Victuals. Foop (literally, that on which one feeds) IS the simi^lest, and expresses whatever jjroperly supports animal lite, whether m men or other animals. The term is sometimes used of plants analogously, and, in a secondary sense, of anything which keeps up a required supply, as food for study. " ^yho e'er on wing with open throats Fly at debates, expresses, votes, Just in the manner swallows use, Catching the airy food of news." ' Green, The Spleen. . Faee (A. S./«r, far, /«m, journey) IS food regularly accruing, and com- monly has associated with it some term expressive of its specific cha- racter, as good, substantial, poor meagre. It is specific daily food. ' "Yet labouring well his little spot of ground. Some scattering pot-herbs here and there he found. Which cultivated with his daily care And bruised with vervain, were his fruo-al /'"■'^•" l>rof:sihJe, Lat. posse, to be able) is of wider meaning, and means capable of existing or occurring. Thus many things may be possible which are not feasible; for feasible belongs to the province of action only, possible to that of thought and action also ; as when we say, " It is possible, but ' not probable." Practicable (Fr. pratiquer, to prac- tise) is very like feasible ; but prac- ticable refers to matters of moral practice, while feasible belongs to matters of physical action, or human plans and designs. For instance, we might say, '" A feasible," or " A prac- ticable scheme ;" but we could only say, " A practicable," not a " feasible virtue." Practicable has the further sense of capable of being made use of ; as, *' The mountain roads at this season are practicable ;" where fea- sible could not have been employed. FEAST. "So Charles VIII., King of France, fimlin<; the war of Britain, which afterwards was compounded by marriage, not so feasible, pur- sued his enterprise upon Naples, which he accomplished with wonderful tacility and felicity." — Bacon. '■'Possibilities are as infinite as God's power." — South. "The foilure of the attempts hitheHo made on this subject are not decisive against the practicability of such a project."— Stewart. Feast. See Banquet. Feat. See Exploit. Feeble. Weak. Infirm. As employed o£ men's states, Weak (A. S. iciic) is used of de- ficiency of physical, moral, and mental strength; Feeble (Fr. faible, Lat. flebilis), of the physical and the in- tellectual; Infikm (ui,not, and^rmiians iv. 8)." — Sharp. Finished. Complete. Per- fect, A Finished painting is one which has had the greatest pains bestowed upon the work. A Complete paint- ing is that which fulfils its design of representation, and so leaves nothing unrepresented which belongs to the subject. A Pekfect painting is one which is without faults, and combines to the utmost all the exceUeuces of the art. "A faultless sonnet finished thus would be Worth tedious volumes of loose poetry." Brydcn. "When the prisoner, who was King Richard, heard the song, he knew that Blondel must be the singer ; and when Blondel [laused about the middle, the King began the remainder and completed it." — Warion, FINITE. i 337 ) riARR. " The French Revolution has this uf woii- (lert'iil in it, thcat it resembles what Lord Verulam says of the operations of Nature. It was perfect, not only in its elements and ]irinciples, but in its members and its organs from the very beginning." — Burke. Finite. Limited. It is a natural property of things to be finite, an artificial property to be limited. Or, again, things are finite in reference to their own nature, limited in reference to power or capa- city. Man's powers are limited, for he is himself a finite being. " And all the difference or distinction there is betwixt them, is only in our different apprehensions of this one being, which acting severally upon several objects, we apprehend it as acting from several properties by rea- son of the finiteness of our understandings, which cannot conceive of an infinite being wholly, as it is in itself, but as it were by ])iucemeal, as it represents itself to us." — Becei idije. " Absolutely according to pleasure, or limitedlij according to certain rules pre- scribed." — Barrow. Fire. Flame. Blaze. Con- flagration. Ignition. Com- bustion. Fire (A. S./i/r) is that kind of com- bustion which evolves light and heat. Flame (Lat. Jlamma) is the form under which such combustion is exhi- bited when the matter is gaseous. A Blaze (A. S. hlcese) is a rapid evolu- tion of light, whether accompanied or not with sensible heat, as the blaze of the sun, of lamps, of a meteor. Con- flagration (Lat. confiagrare) is the visible consumption by fire of masses of combustible materials. Ignition (Lat. ignis, fire) is in modern phrase- ology opposed to Combustion (Lat. combiirere, to burn), the former being commonly taken to mean the con- sumption by great heat, with mani- festations of fire or flame, the latter without. The action, for instance, of the atmosphere upon the human skin produces an insensible combustion of its particles. Firm. See Fast and Solid. Firmness. See Constancy. Fit. See Becoming, Exi>e- DiiiNT, and Meet. Fit. Adapt. Suit. To Fit (feat, neat) is to make phy- sically to tally, or to make prop^'ocedere, to come forth). That which goes out (Fr. issue, Lat. exitus, exire) from some- thing else which contained or en- closed it Issues. That which comes forth Ijodily, but not gradually, but suddenly or rapidly, Springs (A. S. springan, sprincan). That which oozes or drips out of something else, im- parting of its own particles, nature, substance, or composition Ema- nates (Lat. e, out. and manare, to distil). The moral application or analogous use of these terms ought to adhere as closely as possible to these physical distinctions. See further remarks imder Proceed. " Those thousand decencies that daily flow From all her words and actions." Milton. " Yet many will presume ; Whence heavy persecution shall arise On all who in the worship persevere Of spirit and truth." Ibid. "Teach me the various labours of the moon, And whence proceed the eclipses of the sun." Dryden. " Life's warm vapour issuing through the wound." I'ope. " 'Twas ebbing darkness past the noon of night, And Phosphor, on the confines of the light. Promised the sun ere day began to spring." Dryden. It should be observed, that two ap- parently contradictory ideas are as- sociated with the term spring — the one that of visible, sudden, and present i-ising, the other that of remote causation. This no doubt comes from the twofold association of a spring, as the breaking forth of water from the ground, and as con- stituting also a remote source to which the river is to be traced. "Aristotle doth not deny God to be the efficient cause of the world, but only asserts tliat He created it from eternity, making Him a necessary cause thereof, it proceeding from Him by way of eimination, as light from the sun." — Ray. Fluctuate. See Demur. Fluid. Liquid. Fluid (Lat. fluidus, Jluere, to flow) is the generic term, of which Liquid is a species (liquidm, liquere, to be liquid). Gas and steam are other species. The characteristic of a fluid is that it retains no definite shape or form, owing to the ease vrith which its parts change their relative po- sition. Air and the gases are fluids, but not liquids. Water is a fluid, regarded in itself, liquid as opposed to soHd. " The second supposition is, that the earth being a mixed mass, somewhat fluid, took, as it might do, its present form by the joint action of the mutual gravitation of its parts and its rotatory motion." — Faley. " In oil of aniseed, which I drew both with and without fermentation, I observed the whole body of the oil in a cool place to thicken into the consistence and appearance of white butter, which with the least heat resumed its former liquidness." — Hoyle. Flutter. See Palpitate. Foe. See Enemy. FcETus. See Embryo. Foible. See Failing. FoLL. See Baffle. Follow. Succeed. Ensue. Persons and things Follow and Succeed ; only things Ensue. To follow (A. S.folgian, with other forms) is to move behind and in the same direction, whether with a view to overtake or not. Hence, in anak)- gous senses, to adhere, as to a leader, to copy as an original, to succeed, to result. To succeed (Lat. succedere) FOLLOWER. ( 341 ) FOLLLSLL is to follow in sucli a way that tlie subsequent thing takes the place of the preceding. One such case is suffi- cient to constitute a succession, as, " The son succeeds to his father's estate;" but what has been once may- be repeated in more cases, and suc- ceed may be predicated of several things following in order or series. In such repeated succession the idea still holds good of each succeeding item in the series taking for a time the place of the preceding. In mat- ters of which the eye takes cogni- zance, this would be objective and local. In matters of the other senses it would be subjective and mental. One wave follows another when it rolls behind it. One wave succeeds another when it rolls over the same rock or breaks upon the same coast. One clap of thunder succeeds another when the mind receives and identifies the impressions of both or all. Ensue (Norm. Fr. enaiier, Fr. ensuivre, Lat. in and sequi, to follow) is to follow in virtue of a friiiciple of sequence, either in the relation of cause and effect, inference, or chronological succes- sion. "Lenrning and Rome alike iu empire gi'ew, And arts still folluwcd where her eagles flew." Pope. "For how art thou a king, But by fair sequence and succession f " Discourse ensiles, not trivial, yet not dull, Nor such as with a frown forbids the play Of fancy, or proscribes the sound of mirth." Coicper. Follower. See Adherent. Fondle, See Caress. Food. See Diet and Fare. Fool. See Idiot. Foolish. See Absurd. Foppish. Finical. Dandyish. Spruce. Coxcombical. Foppish. The character of a fop is that of a man whose ambition it is to win admiration by personal appear- ance and dress. Here the esscmce of his character ceases, and the rest is a necessary outcome of it. He is siily, j)ert, and affected, not so much on purpose as because he has no concep- tion of any higher ideal than tliat which he seeks to realize. The fol- lowing opposes the fop to the sloven. " Give me leave to say that I should have liked your introduction better if, instead of pointing your satire entirely against one ex- treme, you had stated the due and proper medium between foppery on one hand and slovenliness on the other." — Waterland. Finical (from fine) is affectedly fine. The finical person is conceitedly careful of minutite about himself — the syllables which he clips, th(^ de- tails of dress and ornaments to which he pays attention, the thousand little- nesses of taste with which his mind is embarrassed, by the minute and incessant interest which he bestows upon them. " Be not too finical, but yet be clean, And wear well-fashioned clothes like other men." Dri/den. The Dandy is a man who has a weakness for dress or personal finery ; which, however, is often very innocent. Men of great worth and intellectual attainments have been touched by it. On the other hand, the fop is essen- tially asinine and selfish. The Old English form of the word was dandl- jyynt. A dandy (Italian dandolo, a toy or bauble) is, " probably," says Wedg- wood, " first a doll, then a finely- dressed person." Dandiprat had also the meaning of a dwarf ; the ending may be for sprat, something small of its kind. Spruce, of which the origin is very uncertain, denotes such neat- ness of attire as fails to produce any effect of elegance or dignity — a priui tidiness, and nothing more. Hall, wTit- ing of certain courtiers in the time of Henry VIII., says, " They were ap- pereyled after the fashion of Prussia or Spruce;" which may possibly be the origin of the word. " Beware of men who are too spmcc!;/ dressed ; And look you lly with speed a fop pro- fessed." Conyreve. Coxcomb denotes a vain, showy man, not necessarily vain or showy in dress, though there will be a like- lihood of it; whose conceit lies in magnifying his own superficial ao- FORBEAR. ( 342 ) FORETGXER. qnu'ements. The coxcomb is a sort of intellectual fop. " The shallow speculations of the petulant, assuming, short-sighted coxcombs of philo- sophy." — Burke. Forbear. See Abstain. Forbid. See Debar. Force. See Energy and Yio- LEXCE. Forcible. Cogent. As applied to the reasoning and persuasions of men, Forcible is commonly employed of the style or mode of reasoning ; Cogent (Lat. cogo, for con and arjo, to compel), of the specific inducement or argument. Cogent reasons put in a forciljle way. "He is at once elegant and sublime, /or- cihle and ornamented. He unites energy with copiousness, and dignity with variety." — Louth. " No better or more cogent reason can be given of anything than that it implies a con- tradiction to be otherwise." — 31ore, Imnvjr- tality of the Soul. Forebode. See Augur. Forecast. See Forethought. Forefathers. Ancestors. Pro- genitors. Predecessors. We descend from Forefathers, Ancestors, and Progenitors; but forefathers includes parents ; ances- tors (Lat. antecessor, from ante, before, and cedere, to go) excludes them. Predecessors (Lat. ^^rcp, before, and dccedere, to depart) expresses our civil, not oiu- genealogical, ancestry. We are the childi-en of our forefathers, the postei-ity of our ancestors and progenitors, the successors of our predecessors. Forefathers and pro- genitors are more ordinary terms. Ancestors impUes some dignity of birth. "The covetousness of the gentry appeared, as in raising their rents, so in oppressing the poorer sort by enclosures, thereby taking away the lands where they had used, and their forefathers, to feed their cattle for the subsistence of their families." — Strype. " The blood weeps from my heart when I do shape In forms imaginary th' unguided days And rotten times that you shall look upon. When I am sleeping with my ancestors." Shakespeare. " Ah ! whither shall we go ? Down to the gi-ave, down to those happy shades below, \\'Tiere all our brave progenitors are blest With endless triumph and eternal rest ?" Foiiifrct. " When the cause of God and the common interest of our Christian brethren do require it, we should then as freely part with all we have as our predecessors in Christianity did." — Sharp. Forego. Eesign. (See Aban- don and Abjure.) We Forego the possible ; we Re- sign the actual. We forego claims which we might make, pleasures which we might enjoy. We resign actual pretensions, possessions, and the like. Foregoing. See Preceding. Foreign. See External. Foreigner. Stranger. Alien. Stranger (Fr. etranger, Lat. extra- neus) denotes one who is strange or unknown, whether a fellow-country- man or not. A Foreigner (see Foreign) is a native of another countiy. As the stranger needs not be a foreigner, so the foreigner needs not be a stranger. An Axien (Lat. aliemis) is a foreign resident in a country, or one who is not naturalized, or has not the privileges of a subject or a citizen in the coimtry in which he resides. " The Catholic was rendered a foreigner in his native land only because he retaincl tiie religion along with the property handed down to him from those who had "been the old inhabitants of that land before him." — Burke. "'Tis good the fainting soul to cheer, To see the famished xtranjcr fed, To milk for him the mother-deer, To smoothe for him the furry bed." Crab'jc. FORERUNNER. ( 343 ) FORETELL. " It is enacted iu the laws of Venice, If it be proved agiiinst an alien Tliat by direct or indirect attempts He seek the life of any citizen, The party 'gainst the which he doth con- trive Shall seize one half his goods." Shakespeare. Forerunner. Precursor. Har- binger. Messenger, Forerunner and Precursor be- long to the class of perfect synonyms, precursor (Lat. prcB, before, and cur- rere, to run) being exactly in Latin what forerunner is in English. Tet even such synonyms tend in the course of time to assimilate them- selves to slight alterations of mean- ing or application. Forerunner is used both in a literal and a meta- phorical sense, precursor only in the metaphorical, in the sense of prog- nostic or, indication. Harbinger (Ger. herberger) is, properly, an officer who precedes a royal progress to ensure lodging in a lit state for the reception of the court. As meta- phorically used, it is a more lively image than precursor, and is employed of visible forerunners. For instance, we should hardly speak of discontent as the harbinger, but as the precursor, of a revolution. The term has also a favourable, not a mournful, meaning. "We speak of the birds as harbingers of spring, more naturally than of cer- tain symptoms as harbingers of the jilague. Harbingers of death seems a forcible and proper image, because we are so accustomed to personify death, that the term lends itself to mean an announcement of the ap- proach of the King of Terrors. A Messenger (Fr. messager, Low Lat. messagium, from mittere, to send) is one who brings a message or news. He therefore differs from the others iu having the present or the past for his subject, while the others have the future. The forerunner announces, the precursor indicates, the harbinger ushers, the messenger declares. " These signs forerun the death or fall of kings." — Shakespeare. " An event which appears like the jjrc- cnrsor of the Millennium." — Burke. " Think not, however, that success on one side is the hai-bimjer of peace." — Goldsmith. " For God will deign To visit oft the dwellings of just men, Delighted, and with frequent intercoui-se Thither will send His winged messengers On errands of supernal gi-ace." Milton. Foresight. Fouethougiit. Forecast. Premeditation. Foresight is the facility of anti- cipating actual experience. Fore- thought is provident care. Fore- cast is provident management. The word is of somewhat wider meaning than forethought, and furnishes a verb ; to forecast consequences being to exercise forethought upon them, and meet them practically. Pre- meditation (Lat. priB, before, and meditari, to meditate) has reference only to such words or actions as ai'e littered or performed by oneself ; the others referring to what is independ- ent of us. "Give us foresightful minds; give us minds to obey What foresight tells." Sydney, Arcadia. "A sphere that will demand from him forethought, courage, and wisdom." — /. Taylor. " Their lords the Philistines, with gathered powers, Enter'd Judaea seeking me, who then Safe to thy rock of Etham was retired, Not flying, but forecasting in what place To set upon them, what advantaged best." Amnion. "The orations which he made upon the sudden without premeditation before, do show- more boldness aud courage than those which he had written and studied long before." — North, Plutarch. Foretell. Predict. Pro- phesy. Foretell is the simplest and most comprehensive. It means generally to declare bef(jrehand what is to hapijen. This may be in an ordinary or extraordinary way — by sagacity and experience, or by supernatural knowledge, real or pretended. Pre- dict (Lat. prcedicere, pnedictus, to t(>ll beforehand) is much the same as fore- FORETHOUGHT. ( 344 ) FORM. tell, but is only employed of persons, while foretell is used also of uncon- scious indicators, as " the clouds fore- tell " (not predict) " raiu." Prophesy (Gr. 7rpo(})r]T(ia) is properly used only of supernatural knowledge and declara- tion concerning the future, except when it is used simply in the sense of outspeaking or preaching without re- ference to the future — a sense it often bears in Scripture, though even in that case it belongs to some more than ordinary influence. "His birth, if we believe Plutarch, was attended by prodigies foretelling the future eminence and lustre of his character." — Middleton, Life of Cicero. "I thank my better stars I am alive to confront this audacious predictor^ and to make him rue the hour he ever aflronted a man of science and resentment." — Swift. " Prophes'/ unto us, Thou Christ, who is he that smote Thee." — Bi'jte. FoKETHOUGHT. See Foresight. Forfeit. See Fine. Forge. Fabricate. These words are both from the same root (Lat. fabricare, to fabricate, faber, an artizan, fabrica, a work- shop, the Fr. forge). As at present used. Forge is employed both of manual and mental things, and so combines the meanings of counter- feit and invent, as to forge a signa- ture or a tale. To Fabricate is only employed of mental fictions, as to fabricate an excuse, except when it means simply to manufacture, as to fabricate woollens. " Forgerij may with us be defined at com- mon law to be the fraudulent making or alteration of a writing to the prejudice of another man's right." — Blackstone. " Our books are not fabricated with au accommodation to prevailing usages." — I'alcy. FORGETFULNESS. ObLIVION. Obliviousness. FoRGETFULNESS is a qiudity or habit; the two latter express a condi- tion. A man is characterized by for- getfulness. Things fall into Obli- vion. Forgetfuluess, however, may be predicated of things when they are regarded as in a slate inti) whiili men's minds have thrown them. The terms oblivious (Lat. oblivio, oblivion) and Obliviousness are employed to designate more distinctly in persons a ivay of being forgetful. " Hail, gentle sleep! Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee, That thou no more wilt weigh mine eyelids down, And steep my senses in forgetfulnessf Shakespeare. " But such as neither of themselves can sing, Nor yet are sung of others for reward, Die in obscure oblivion, as the thing Which never was, ne never with re- gard Their names shall of the later age be heard." Spenser. " I wonder what obliviousness is come upon him, that he so cleaveth unto the doctors whom he affirmed before either to make no mention of it or else very seldom." — Fryth. FoRGRTi. See Excuse. Forlorn. Destitute. Forlorn (A. S. forloren, lost) ap- plies only to persons, and expresses the fact and the feeling of being de- serted by, orat adistance from, friends. Destitute (Lat. destitutus, destitntre, to deprive) means generally want- ing in or deprived of resources of any kind, as friends, food, money. For- lorn denotes a matter of feeling, des- titute a matter of fact. " As a distracted mother weeps forlorn, When to the grave her fondling babe is borne." Fenton. " With granted leave officious I return, But much more wonder that the Son of God In tliis wild solitude so long should bide, Of all things destitute, and well 1 know Not without hunger." Miiton. Form. Figure. Shape. Con- formation. Mould. Fashion. Form (Lat. forma) is the impres- sion upon the senses produced by the composition of the parts of body into a whole, whether oi-ganic or inorganic, natural or artificial, fair or unsightly, as distinguished from the matter of which it is composed. Form may be tiiken as a term lying intermediately FORM. ( 345 ) FORSAKE. between Shape (A. S. scea'pan, to shape), on one side denoting more of the materialistic, and FiGUKE (Lat. figura, figo, to fix) on the other, de- noting more of the conceptional. The shape of a stone ; the form of a statue ; the figure of a man. Con- formation diti'ers from form in being more than merely delineative, and denotes the delineation taken in connection with and consequent upon the structure. Mould (Fr. moule, Lat. modulus, modus, a measure) ex- presses the idea of shape or form as the result of some plastic operation or will. Fashion (Fr. fa^on, Lat. f actio, make, from /r( cere, to make) has much in common with mould, inas- much as it is the result of specific forming. It admits, however, in ad- dition to the idea of shape, that of arrangement, and is commonly the result of labour and workmanship, and is applicable to matters giving less the idea of solidity. Form has a mental and a material meaning — the form of a man, forms of words, forms of belief. Form is of simpler, figure of more comj^lex, outlines. The fignire of a man or woman is the form in its details. Between form and shape there is this strong difference, that form includes not only the exterior surface, but also the solidity of a thing — its length, breadth, and thick- ness ; while the shape is merely what we can see of the outside. The words, therefore, though they may often be used interchangeably, have a different meaning. A cannon-ball has the form of a sphere, as being round and solid ; the shape of a sphere, as pre- senting to the eye a spherical sur- face and outline. "The earth was without form and void." —Bible. ^^ h- figure is the superficies, circumscrip- tion, and accomplished lineament of a body." — Holland, Plutarch. " Rude fragments now Lie scattered where the sluipeli) column stood." C'owjicr. " In the Hebrew poetry, as I before re- marked, there may be observed a certain CI III formation of the sentences, the nature of which is, that a conii)lete sense is ahnnst eiiiiiilly infused into every component part, and that every member constitutes an entire verse." — Lmrth. "Adam, earth's hallowed mould." Milton. " Unskilful he to fawn or seek for power, By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; For other aims his heart had learned to prize, More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise." Goldsmith. Form. See Frame, Form. See Ceremony ami Create. Formal. Ceremonial. Cere- monious. Formal (see Form) beai's the two- fold meaning of according to foi-m, and characterized by an excess of for.m, as, " to make a formal call," " to receive a formal appointment or dis- missal." As applied to persons or their manners, the term has always an unfavourable sense — a person being called formal who does anything too much or too demonstratively upon X)attern and rule ; overprecise in look, speech, manner, or arrangements. Ceremonious and Ceremonial (Lat. cwremonia) had, not long ago, the same meaning, till ceremonial rested in the sense of connected with public ceremony, and ceremonious branched off into the sense of dealing overmuch in conventional forms of demeanour. Men are formal for themselves, ceremonious towards others. " So have I seen grave fools design With formal looks to pass for wise ; But N;iture as a light will shine. And break through all disguise." Lansdowne. "The two sacraments of the Circum- cision and the Passover had assuredly besides the cercmoniidness annexed to them the in- stitution of typifying Christ to coine." — Goochcin. "Too ceremonious in testifying their alle- giance." — Ralegh. Former. See Preceding. Formidable. See Dreadful. FoRSAiiE. See Abandon. FORTIFY. ( 346 ) FRAGRANCE. Fortify. See Invigorate. Fortitude. See Kesignatiox. FoRTuiTOL'S. Bee Casual. Fortunate. See Happy and Prosperous. Fortune. See Chance. Forward. See Promote. Forwards. Onwards. Forwards expresses movement in tlie direction which one fronts or which is before one; Onwards, move- ment along a given line towards a proposed point. Forwards is opposed to backwards or sideways. Onwards would be opposed, if such a word had existed, to offwarcls, that is, in any direction but the line of destination. The migratory crab moves onwards but not forwards. Foster. See Cherish. Found. See Establish. Foundation. See Basis. Fountain. See Spring. Fraction. Fragment. Frac- ture. Rupture. Fraction, Fragment, and Frac- ture are derivatives of the Latin frongere, fractus, to break. Fragment is proj)erly expressive of the result of physical disintegration, or what is closely analogous to it, as, fragment of a mountain, a dress, a loaf, a fragment of an ancient poet. Frac- tion is a term bearing more distinct reference to a unit or a magnitude to which it stands proportionably related. Fracture is the violent dis- continuity of parts, and applies to hard and more or less bi-ittle substances, as Rupture (Lat. im/ptura, from mmpere, to burst) to those which are softer and more elastic. The fracture of the skidl ; the ruptui'e of a blood-vessel. The force of fracture too is external ; that of rupture from within. "I know we often proceed to fractions supposed to express less than unit; but in lliis notion we impose upon ourselves by shifting our ideas, and, considering that as a multitude which before we considered as one ; therefore we cannot make a fraction without multiplying first before we divide." — Search. " It has been said that if the prodigies of the Jewish history had been found only in the fraf/rnents of llauetho or Berosus, we should have paid no regard to them, and I am willing to admit this." — Paley. " High-piled hills oi fractured earth." TItomson. "Meanwhile the tepid caves, and fens, and shores. Their brood as numerous hatch from the egg that soon Bursting with kindly rupture, forth dis- closed Their callow young." Milton. Fracture. See Fraction. Fragile. See Brittle. Fragment. See Fraction. Fragrance. Scent. Odour. Perfume. Smell. Scent (Old Eng. also spelt sent, from the Fr. sentir, and the Latin sentire, to perceive) and Smell (Low Germ, smellen, to smoke) express both the sense or its exercise, and that which acts upon it. In this latter application, smell is generic, and expresses any kind of emanation which affects the olfactory nerves, whether pleasant or otherwise. Scent is the smell which issues naturally from a body, and is peculiar to it, as the scent of a rose or a fox. Odour (Lat. odor^ is a new^er word in English than smell, for which it serves as little more than a polite substitute. Perfume (Fr. parfum, Lat. ^er and fumus, smoke) is better applied to inanimate and strong, as Fragrance (Lat. fragrantia) is better employed of animate, fresh, and delicate odours. The perfume of iucense. or of musk ; the fragrance of fresh flowers. In a close and over-scented atmosphere we might complain of the sickening effect of pei-fume, but hardly of fra- gi'ance. Odour is the emanation which affects the organs of sense ; a smell is the action of that emanation on the sense. Odour belongs to the body imparting, smell to the body receiving, the impression. In some FRAIL. ( 347 ) FRA UD. cases of disease tlie patient suffers from smells not excited by odours from without. Odour is to tlie sense of smelling what light is to the sense of seeing. " While, whispering pleasure as they fly, Cool zephyrs through the clear blue sky Their gathered fragrance fling." Grajj. " The scentless and the scented rose." Cowper. "The whole house was filled with the odo'ir of the ointment." — Bible. " The Emperor Commodus retired to Lau- rentura, as the sea-air, perfumed by the odour of the numerous laurels that flou- rished along the coast, was considered as a powerful antidote against the pestilential vapours." — Eustace, Italy. " All the smell of plants and of other bodies is caused by these volatile parts, and is smelled wherever they are scattered in the air ; and the acuteness of smell in some animals shows us that these efiluvia spread far, and must be inconceivably subtle." — Reid. Frail. See Brittle. Frailty. See Failing. Frame. Constitution. Tem- perament. The Frame (A. S. fremman, to frame) is the structure, the Consti- tution is the temper or aggregate of powers in such structures as have life and organization. A man's frame is his limbs, muscles, bones, nerves, &c. ; his constitution is that same frame taken in connection with its vital powers and condition. Emotion may agitate the frame. Intemper- ance wiU shake the constitution. The frame of government in England is its political form or structure, and might be given in a few words. Its constitution is matter of long study and exposition, embracing the growth and development of its forces and their reciprocal action and adjust- ment. Temperament is the state in respect to the predominance of any qxiality, or the proportion of different qualities or parts. " Some bloody passion shakes your very frame." — Shakespeare. " Our constitutions have never been en- feebled by the vices or luxuries of the ol I world." — Story. "Galen was not a better physician than an ill divine, while he determines the soul to be the complexion and temperament of the prime qualities — no other than that harmony which the elder naturalists dreamed of ; an oj)inion no less brutish than such a soul. For how can temperament be the cause of any progressive motion, much less of a rational discourse ?" — Bishop Hall. Frame. Form. To Frame is to give unity by mutual adaptation of parts. To FoRi\r is to give unity in any way. In framing, the parts have as direct a relation to the whole as to one another. In forming, the parts may have a direct relation to the whole, but no organic relation among them- selves. The essence of framing is construction ; the essence of forming is collocation. A carpenter frames a box by shaping and fitting top, bottom, sides, &c. A certain dis- position of ground, water, trees, and buildings might /o*-i?i a pleasing land- scape. Both terms are used in a secondary as well as material sense. In that case frame preserves the analogy of material construction, and applies to the more complex and elaborate, form to the more simple, processes of the mind. We form ideas, conceptions, and the like ; we frame arguments, answers, excuses, devices, theories. Frame always de- notes the action of man ; form is ap- plicable also to the constitutions of nature. The founder of a society frames it ; its members form it, that is, constitute it. "How many excellent reasonings are framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and study in a length of years !" — Watts. " God formed man of the dust of the ground." — Bible. Frank. See Hearty. Fraud. Guile. Fraud (Lat. frans, fraudis) and Guile (Old Fr. guile) have in com- mon the idea of duplicity, or deceit in action ; but they differ in the mo- tives in which they directly originate. Fraud aims at the disadvantage oi FKA V. ( 34S ) FREQUEN anotlier, or is at least such a deceiv- ing of one's neighbour as shall in some way redound to one's own bene- fit and his loss, inconvenience, or humiliation. GuUe is a wily regard for one's own interests, without di- rectly referring to the interests of one's neighbour. In the views of high morality, guile is fraud, as truth is that of wliich no man ought to be robbed through the instrument- ality of deceit. Guile is more an abstract quality than fraud. Guile is in the nature; fraud is embodied in act. "An Israelite indeed, in wliom is no guile." — Bible. " Take heed, ray Lord ! the welfare of us all Hangs on the cutting short ihni fraud ful man." Shakespeare. Fray. See Quarrel. Fraudulent. 8ee Fraud. Freak. See Caprice, Free. Exempt. Exemption is a species of freedom, or freedom from certain things, and under certain circumstances (eximere, exemptus, to release). Freedom may come in various ways, and may be said of anything from which it is desirable to be free ; as to be free from pain, inconvenience, oppression, interruption. Exemption carries our minds to a dispensing power. Hence we may be exempted from any natural ill if we deem ourselves leniently or mercifully dealt with hj Divine Pro- vidence ; or we are exempt by virtue of some human authority which binds others, as an obligation, a service, or a tax. Exemption is that sort of freedom which consists in not shar- ing the liabilities to which others are subject. "In this, then, consists freedom, namely, in our being able to act, or not to act, ac- cording as we shall choose or will." — Locke. " Can authors their exemption draw From Nature's or the common law ? They err alike with all mankind, Yet not tlie same indulgence find." Lloyd. Freedom. Liberty. FiiEEDOM is both a quality and a condition. Liberty (Lat. libertas, liber, free) is only a condition. Free- dom is therefore more independent and abstract. Liberty relates to such restriction or confinement as is o])- posed to it. The slave when set at liljcrty shares that freedom which his master has all along enjoyed. So we may use the term freedom in the sense of a free manner, or unre- strainedly ; as, " They ate, drank, talked, and laughed with freedom." "We could not say vnth liberty. Free- dom rather represents a positive, liV)erty a negative, idea. We may be at liberty to speak in society on any subject we choose ; but there will l)e many on which we shall be prevented from speaking with freedom. "Freedom, or not freedom, can belong to nothing but what has or has not a power to act." — Locke. " The natural lihertij of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but to have only the law of nature for his rule. . . . The liberty of man in so- ciety is to be under no other legislative power but that established by consent in the commonwealth, nor under the dominion of any will or restraint of any law but what that legislature shall enact according to the trust put in it." — Ibid. Frenzy. See Ecstasy. Freight. See Cargo. Frequent. Haunt. The difference between these terms is a practical one. When we mean haliitual resort of no hai-mful cha- racter, we say Frequent (Lat. fre- quentare, frequens, often) ; when we mean to imply the impropriety or unj^ropitiousness of the resort, we \ise Haunt (Fr. hunter, A. S. hentnn, to pursue). This distinction is of com- juiratively recent introduction into the language. The unfavourable sense has passed over to the haunters. Oi'dinary men frequent. Thieves, ghosts, and wild beasts are said io haunt. So in the case of the noun — the resorts of pleasure; the haunts of vice. But this distinction again is of modern growth. " II frequented the court of Augustus." Dryden. FREQUENTLY. ( 349 ) FRETFUL. "I've cliarged thee not to haunt about my doors." Shakespeare. Frequently. Often. Com- monly. Ordinarily. Generally. Usually. Often (A. S. oft) commonly refers to a series known to be establisbed ; or, given the fact of the series, that the repetition of its items is numer- oiis ; or, in other words, often rehites to a standard of frequency implied or expressed, and has a sort of fixed value. Frequently {see Frequent) denotes the simple numerous repe- tition of anything, without any standard to which snch repetition can be referred. Uncalculated re- currences occur frequently; calculated recurrences (if so it be) occur often. For instance, "How often does the wheel of that machine revolve in the hour.5'" It would be absm-d to ask, " How frequently ?" Commonly de- notes that kind of fi-equency, the non- occurrence of which would create surprise ; Ordinarily, that which follows, or seems to follow, a fixed order or rule (Lat. ordo, ordinis) ; Generally, that which occurs in the majority of similar cases, so that the contrary would be an exception or a specific deviation ; Usually {iisus, custom), that which occvu-s in such a way that the idea of custom is connected either with the occur- rence itself or with the observation of him who experiences or takes cog- nizance of it; Habitually (Lut. habitus, habit), that which exhibits both the force and the frequency of habit, and usually its frequency alone. Fresh. New. As New (Fr. neuf, Lat. novus) de- notes that which either absolutely and in itself, or relatively to us, has existed only recently, so Fresh (Fr. fraiche) denotes that which brings with it some foi'ce or characteristic of novelty beyond the fact of it. A new instance of kindness is simply one more. A fresh instance is one that comes as freely as if none others had preceded it, the term expressing freedom of supply. "A fresh pleasure ia every //rsA posture of the limbs." — Landor. " Thou profoundest hell, Receive thy new possessor." Milton. Fret. See Chafe. Fretful. Cross. Peevish. Petulant. Fretful (A. S. frettan, to eat, gnaw) denotes a disposition which exaggerates and feels unduly causes of annoyance or irritation, and so exhibits itself in a complaining im- patience. Fretfulness is constitu- ti(mal, showing itself in persons of weak and nervous temperament, in- vidids, and sickly children. "Are you positive and fretful, Heedless, ignorant, forgetful ?" Swift. Crossness (as its formation indi- cates, thwartedness orthwartiugness) is such fretfulness as shows itself in uukindness of speech or manner to others. Crossness is a thing of humour and often passes off rapidly. It is peevishness mixed with vexation oi" anger. " The lighter sort of malignity turneth but to a crossness or aptness to oppose ; but the deeper sort to envy or mere mischief." — Bacon. Peevish (which is possibly a cor- rupt form of perverse) denotes a querulous dissatisfaction which it would be impossible to justify. It is often constitutional, the result of temperament, old age, and physical infirmity. " Valentine. Cannot your grace win her to fiincy him ? Luke. No, trust me ; she is peevish, sullen, forward, Proud, disobedient, stubborn, lacking duty." Shakespeare. Petulance (Lat. petidans, from the obsolete iKtidare, from petere, to assail) is less sour and more ener- getic than peevishness. It is ca- pricious passion unrestrained, which is impatient of authority and control, and is characteristically exhibited by the young against theii- elders or superiors. " The pride and petulance of vouth." — Watts. FRIENDL V. ( 350 ) FULLNESS. Friendly. See Amicable. Frigid. See Cold. Fright. See Alarm. Frighten. Terrefy. Intimi- date. Alarm. Scare. To Frighten (A. S. fyrhtu, fyrhto, fear) is to put in a condition of fear suddenly, and so violently as to para- lyze and take complete possession of the mind. A brave man may feel fear ; but it is a manifestation of cow- ardice to be frightened. Fright pro- ceeds from the apprehension of phy- sical evil. To Terrify (terrere, to frighten, and facere, to make) is to intiiot terror, Vhicb is a stronger form of fright, and leading to an in- stinctive effort at escape from the object dreaded. Intimidate (Lat. in, and timichis, timid) is usually a purposed act, and commonly done with the design of compelling to action, or deterring from it, as to intimidate by th]-eats. Even where the cause is an influence, and not a conscious agent, the result is the same. " He did not put to sea, being intimidated by the weather." To Alarm [see Alarm) is to induce a feeling that caiise exists for fear, whether the fear be actually felt or not. To Scare (Ice. sUrra, to drive away) is to cause to desist, or to fly, from fright. " Antony, on the other hand, was desirous to have him there, foncying that he would either be frigldened into a compliance which would lessen him with his own party, or by opposing what was intended, make himself odious to the soldiery." — Middleton, Life of Cicero. " Infectious cowardice In thee hath terrified our host." Chapman, Homer. " Before the accession of James I., or at least during the reigns of his three imme- diate predecessors, the government of Eng- land was a government by force, that is, the king carried his measures in Parliament by intimidation. " — Paley. " By proof we feel Our power sufficient to disturb this heaven, And with perpetual inroads to alarm, Though inaccessible, his fatal throne ; Which, if not victory, is yet revenge." Milton. "And as a child, when scaring sounds mo- lest. Clings close and closer to the mothei-'s breast." Cowper. Frightful. See Dreadful. Frivolous. See Immaterial. Frolic. See Gambol. Front. See Face. Frontier. See Border. Frowaed. See Perverse. Frugal. See Economical. Fruitful. See Fertile. Fruition. See Enjoyment. Fruitless. See Vain. Frustrate. See Baffle. Fulfil. Discharge. Piealize. To Fulfil is to fill iij) according to a measure or standard, which may be internal or external, personal or otherwise; as to fulfil one's own in- tention, promise, the desire of an- other, a law, an obligation or duty, expectations or hopes entertained. Discharge (dis and charge, Fr. charger) is to relieve oneself of what is of the nature of a weight laid upon us in the form of an obligation, duty, debt, or office. Realize is to bring from abstract or possible into real existence. We realize a scheme when we carry it effectually into execution. We realize a description when we can bring it vi-vddly before the mind's eye. We realize an estate when we have made money for the purchase. " The Spirit dictates all such petitions, and God Himself is first the author and then the fulfiller of them."— South. " Had I a hundred tongues, a wit so large As could these hundred offices discharge." Dryden. " It will be as hard to apprehend as that an empty wish sliould remove mountains ; a supjiosition which, if realized, would relieve Sisyphus." — Glanvill. Fully. See Largely. Fullness. Plenitude. Although these words are etyinolo- gically equiviilent {plenitudo, j)/e»u/.«, i'uU, being the Latin form of the FUNERAL. ( 351 ) GAIN. Englisli fulluess), Plenitude is used iu a higher style, and with a more abstract leaning. Indeed, plenitude is never physical fulluess, but moral, denoting the possession of some i^ower or qualitication iu a nolde and pre- eminent degree. The fulluess of a stream, the fullness of enjoyment. The plenitude of power, wisdom, autho- rity. Fullness, however, is equally applicable to physical and moral abundance. " A short sentence may be oftentimes a large and a mighty prayer. Devotion so managed being like water in a well, where you have fullness in a little compass." — Soiith. "The painting preserves the same cha- racter, not only when He is supposed descend- ing to take vengeance upon the wicked, but even when He exerts the like plenitude of power in acts of beneficence to mankind. — Jjurke. Funeral. See Obsequies. FuNCTioK. See Office. Furious. Violent. Vehe- ment. Impetuous. Furious (Lat. furiosus, fiiria) is having fury, which is excessive and violent rage. The term furipus as applied to natural forces is not proper. A ftirious wind is a meta- phor, meaning animated as if with the spirit of a furious man. A furious force is one which, displays itself in such a way that we cannot foretell the extent to which it may reach, or the mischief it may do. Violent (Lat. violentus, vis, force) is exercising great or undue force con- trary to law, reason, or moderation. Vehement (perhaps from ve, an in- tensitive particle, and mens, the mind) conveys the idea of pursuing one's own ends with keenness and energy, though it is not exclusively used of human character or demeanour. A vehement wind or stream is one which seems eagerly bent on running its own course. In their moral applica- sions, men are furious in their pas- sions ; violent in speech, manner, and conduct; vehement in their expres- sions, desires, and pursuits. It may be observed that vehemence is in its effects confined to the subject, while fury and violence tend to affect others. Violence is never laudable; vehemence may be. Impetuous (Lat. impetus, in, on or forward, and petere, to seek) is used both mechanically and mt)rally. Mechanically, impetus is nearly equivalent to momen- tum, being measured by' the multi- plication of mass into velocity, but used less strictly and more popularly. Morally, impetuosity conveys the idea of being carried away by the feeling of the moment with eager- ness, and with little reflection. "A power steps iu that limits the arro- gance of raging passions and furious elements, and says, 'So far shalt thou go, and no farther.' " — Burke. In matters of human conduct violence is often coupled, or contrasted, with fraud ; violence and fraud being the two main modes of wrong-dealing among men. "Since he who begins to violate the hap- piness of another does what is wrong, lie who endeavours to obviate or put a stop to that violence does in that respect what is right by the terms." — Woolaston. " Thy present wants, or fears, or desires carry thy spirit in thy own prayers eagerly and vehemently in pursuit of those thy wants, fears, or desires, because they are things presently incumbent upon thee and in thy view." — Hale. Vehemence is the manifestation in act or demeanour of eagerness. The impetuous man is he who is actuated by a variety of motives of unequal and uncertain power. "There being no kind of vice which men would not abandon themselves unto, con- sidering the inipetuonsness of their own natural appetites, and the power of external temptations, were this restraint from reli- gion once removed and abolished." — Wilkins. Furnish. See Supply. Fury. See Eage. Futile. See Immaterial. G. Gain. See Acquire. Gain. Emolument. Lucre. Profit. Gain (Fr. gagnev) is here a generic GAINSA Y. GATHER. term. It denotes that -wliicli comes to a man as the fruit of his exertions, or accrues to him as a desirable pos- session. The gain accrues directly to the man. The Profit (proficere, to be of advantage) arises from his trade or dealing, and the matters which are the subject of it. Hence gains are commonly upon a considerable scale ; profits are commonly made in little instalments. Emolument (said to be from emolere, to grind) is any profit arising from office, employ- ment, or labour. Lucre (Lat. lucrum, gain, profit) is a term very seldom used, and, when used, denotes sordid or ill-gotten gain. The verb to gain is distinguished from the verb to win, as endeavour is distinguished from luck or address ; but the noun gain is used in the broadest sense as the oijposite of loss. But some amount of action is presupposed, of which gain is the result. That which ac- crues to a man by fixed order, as for instance, an hei-editary estate, is not strictly a gain, though it may be a boon, "A gentleman who farms a part of his own estate, after paying the expenses of cul- tivation, should gain both the rent of the landlord and the profit of the farmer. He is apt to denominate, however, his whole gain profit, and thus confounds rent with profit ; at least, in common language." — Smith, Wealth of Nations. " His prajdia, in like manner, were tributes, tolls, portage, bankage, stockage, coinage, profits by salt pits, mills, watercourses, and whatsoever emoluments grew by them and the like."— Holinshed. " Albeit for profit and luc7-e all things are set to sale." — Ibid. Gainsay. See Contradict. Gait. See Careiage. Gale. See Wind. Gall. See Chafe. Gallant. See Bold. Gambol. Prank. Frolic. Gambol (Old Eng. gamhole, gam- hold) is a skipping, playing, or leap- ing in merriment. Prank (Welsh imnic, a frolic) is an act which is merry and ludicrous, and tends to niischief towards others, or a personal joke or trick. A Frolic (Germ. Jrohhch, free) is an exuberant mani- festation of a mind which requires sportive relaxation. Dumb animals gambol. Young people have their pranks and frolics. " Bears, tigers, ounces, pards Gambol'd before them." Milton. "In came the harpies, and played their accustomed ;jin(H;4s." — Ralegh. " While many a pastime circled in the shade, The young contending as the old sur- veyed ; And many a gambol frolicked o'er the ground, And sleights of art and feats of streno-th went round." Goldsmith. Game. Play. Play (A. S. ]}lega, play) is a com- mon term for any active form of amusement. Play becomes Game (A. S. gamian, to play) when it is systematic and is exercised accord- ing to rule. The verb to play, how- ever, is employed in reference to games. Boys are at play when they amuse themselves in a random man- ner. When they go to cricket they begin a game. But in regard to the verbs, to play a game is the phrase used, because to game is restricted to playing at games of chance or gambling. "It is very remarkable that the people of these islands are great gamblers. They have a game very much like our drauohts."— Cook's Voyages. ° " The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Had he thy reason, would he skip and plag'i Pleased to the last, he crops the flow'ry mead, And licks tlie hand just raised to shed his blood." y.^,^,,. Gang. See Band. Gap. See Breach. Gape. See Gaze. Garb. See Guise. Garment. See Dre^s. Garrulous. See Loquacious. Gather. See Collect. GA UD V. ( 353 ) GENTLE. Gaudy. Showy, Gay. Gaudy is displaying gauds (Lat. gaudium) ov trinkets ; lience ostenta- tiously sLowyin colour or decoration. Gay (Fr. gai) denotes such colouring as expresses or inspires gladness. Nor is it restricted to colouring ; but life, activity, form, festive arrange- ment, and light, equally contribute to a gay scene. Showy (A. S. sccaivu, sceaio, a show) is strikingly conspi- cuous, on the score of colouring more especially, or ornamentation. The three terms are applicable to inani- mate substances as well as to persons ; as gaudy furniture, showy dress, a gay parterre. Gay lies at one ex- treme, and is a term of praise. Gaudy at the opposite extreme, as a term of dispraise. Showy lies between the two. "The modern invention of multiplying the works of the artists by devices which require no ingenuity, has prostituted the ornaments of a temple to the gaudiness of a suburban villa, and the decorations of a palace to the embellishment of a tradesman's door-post." — Knox, Easiujs. " Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay." Pope. " When they had taken any spoils from the enemy, the men would make a present of everything that was rich and shony to the women whom they most admired." — Spec- tator. Gay. See Cheerful and Gaudy. Gayety. See Joy. Gaze. Gape. Staee. These terms express a fixedness of look, and vary according to the emo- tion of mind which produces them. We Gaze (connected with A. S. gdnan, to smite) when the attention is roused and fixed by the curious, the inter- esting, the beautiful, or the affect- ing. "We Gape (A. S. geajyan, to open) from idle curiosity, ignorant wonder, or listless, open-mouthed amusement of mind. "We Stare (A. S. starian) whenever, from any motive, we fasten unconscious looks, as from wonder, surjirise, stupidity, fright or horror, impudence or curiosity. " So, checking his desire, with trembling heart, Gazing he stood, nor would nor could depart : Fixed as a pilgrim 'wildered in his way, Wiio dares not stir by night, for fear to stray, But stands with awful eyes to watch the dawn of day." Drydcn. " The Dutch, who are more famous for their industry and application than for wit and humour, hang up in several of their streets what they call the sign of the gaper ; that is, the head of an idiot dressed in cap and bells, and gaping in a most immoderate manner. This is a standing jest at Am- sterdam." — Spectator. " They stand starinlying the absence of its contrary, and, therefore, most ex- pressive in those subjects where the contraiy is nsiial or conceivable. Tame (A. S. tarn) denotes that gentle- ness which is the result of training or domestication. The sheep is a gentle animal; the wolf may be tamed. By a metaphor, tame is used to sig- nify spiritless; as, "a tame resist- ance," " a tame poem." Tameness is a condition in which ferocity or energy is absent or has been sub- dued. As gentleness implies in- herent energy and power, which is exercised in moderation at the dic- tates of the will or disposition, so tameness implies the absence of these qualities, as being the manifestation of mere temperament, natural or ac- quired. Tameness is inanimate tract- ableness or quiet. " That it may not be suspected that there is anything of tameness or mean-spiriteduess^ in this conduct, the advantage in point of dignity and esteem really lies on the side of the good-natured and ' peaceable man." — Waterland. Mild (A. S. mild) conveys the idea of subdued but not deteriorated energy. The air is mild, which might be harsh; the fruit is mild, whlchmighthave been acrid or strong ; the expression is mild, which might have been stern ; the disposition is mild, which might have been given to severity, but seems alien to it. " iMildness would better suit with majesty, Tiian rash revenge and rough severity." Drayton. Mildness and gentleness are compa- tible with power and penetratiun, which Softness (A. S. softness, si^ft- oiijss) is not. A soft voice, a soft light, soft music, all please and soothe, but do not enrapture. The characteristic idea of softness is pleasant impress. It is opposed to harshness and hardness. It is equally opposed to energy and resistingness. Hence the tendency of the term to assume morally an unfavourable cha- racter ; as effeminacy, too great sus- ceptibility, and too great simplicity. " There being only some few Ditheists to be e.xcepted (such as Plutarch and Atticus), who out of a certain softness and tenderness of nature, that they might free the one good God from the imi)utation of evils, would needs set up besides Him an evil soul or Damon above the world, self-existent, to bear all the blame of them."— Cudworth. Meekness (Old Eng. vielce) differs from mildness, gentleness, and soft- ness, in being never applied, like thorn, to the depoi-tment, but only to the temper or character. It is a theo- logical virtue ; but with the world at large it is not in favour ; whence has been imposed upon it the idea of ex- cessive submissiveness, and an ab- sence of that " spirit " which more readily finds admiration. It may be observed that meekness at least _ ex- cludes obstinacy as well as pride; while persons who have softness in manner are often found by no means wanting in self-will. Meekness re- siilts from the absence of arrogant self-will or self-assertion. " By inheriting the earth, He meant in- heriting those things which are withoiit question the greatest blessings upon earth, calmness or composure of spirit, tranquillity, cheerfulness, peace, and comfort of mind. Now these, I apprehend, are the peculiar portion and recompense of the mock." — Bishop Forteiis. Bland (Lat. hlandus) is producing pleasing impressions by soothing qualities of character, and is employed exclusively of the outer manifesta- tions of expression and manners. It is ordinarily associated with calm- ness and dignity, with affableness and courtliness iu superiors. A bland manner in a friend or equal would be unacceptable, as approaching too nearly to condescension. Milton uses the term of natural influences • — '• Exhilarating vapours bland." "Arrayed in arms, and bland iu voice and "look." lewis, Statins. Genuine. See Authentic. Gesticulation. See Attitude. Gesture. See Attitude. GET. ( 355 ) Get. Bee Acquire. Ghastly. Grim. Grisly. GHOST. Ghastly (A. S. gdstlic) is the same word as ghostly; hence the predo- minant idea is that of a supernatural or deathlike pallor, from which the signification has been extended to denote simply deadly, hon-ible, as " ghastly wounds." " Her foce was so fjhasth/ that it could scarcely be recognised." — Macaulaij. Grim (A. S. grimman, to rage) is, on the other hand, essentially con- nected with life and the expression of the countenance of man or beast. Surliness, ferocity, and gravity, com- bined into a fixed and rigid expres- sion, would constitute grimness. " Tlie grim fivce of \i\.\x."—Dcnham. Grisly (A. S. grislic, grisan, to dread) applies to the whole form or appearance, and conveys the idea of fear as produced through what is ugly and forbidding. " My ijrislij countenance made others fly." Sha/wspenre. Ghost. Apparition. Spectre. Phantom. Vision. Phantasm. Ghost (Old Eng. gast, A. S. gdst, breath, spirit) is primarily, though this sense is no longer colloquial, the spirit or soul of a man. Hence, as a synonym with those given above, it denotes an apparition of a specific kind, that is, of the spirit of some departed person in visible though disembodied form. "I thought that I had died in sleep, And was a blessed ghost." Coleridge. Apparition (Lat. apparltio, an appearing, from apparere, to appear) is the generic term, of which ghost is a species. A sudden appearance which produces a startling efi'ect from its unexpectedness is an appa- rition in the broadest sense of the word. An apparition is always of a person or a collective object, not of many objects or a complex view. " I think it is the weakness of mine eyes That shapes this monstrous apparition." aiiakespcarc. Speotrk (Lat. ftpectrtmi) is a pre- ternatural personal appearance with- out individuality, and therefore not assumed to be in particular the spirit of any, either departed or living. Both ghost and spectre are in their connnou acceptation taken for some- thing human. An apparition or a Vision (Lat. visio, a seeing, from videre, to see) might be of a celestial nature, as of angels or an angel; vision including more th:in a solitary appa- rition, and admitting the idea of a scene or the ajipearance of many. Nor is the term spectre employed but in the sense of an imcougenial or horrible apparition. A lovely vision ; a hideous spectre. " Thus passed the night so foul, till morning fair Came forth with pilgrim steps in amice gray ; Who with her radiant fingers stilled the roar Of thunder, chased the clouds, and laid the winds And grisly spectres, which the fiend had raised To tempt the Son of God with terrors dire." Milton. " Upon the foot of this construction it is supposed that Isaiah, in prophetic dream or vision, heard God speaking to him, like as St. Peter heard a voice and saw a vision while he lay in a trance, and that in idea he transacted all that God so ordered him to do." — Waterland. Phantom (Gr. cpalvco, to show) denotes what has an apparent but no real existence. No spirit is there- fore supposed for it. Phantasm (Gr. (pavraa-na) equally expresses the unreal, but is purely objective, and refers what is seen or imagined to the mind acting upon itself. A phantom is a single object, as a spectre or a will-o'-the-wisp. A phantasm may be a complex object or a scene. We even speak of phantasms in the sense of creations of a diseased or dis- ordered imagination ; but a phantom expresses more the delusion, phan- tasm the p>lay of the misguided mind. "Like the French Republic, the Italian Republic is in their eyes a phantom which appeared yesterday, and may vanish to- morrow." — Eustace, Italy. " According to them, the Devil, that is so 2 A 2 GHOSTL Y. ( 356 ) GLAD. often spoken of in the Scriptures, is nothing else but either a disease of the body or a phantasm in the brain, or the wicked prin- ciples and iucliuatious of a man's heart." — Sharp. Ghostly. See SpiKiTUiUL. Gibe. See Jeer. Giddiness. See Levity. Gift. See Endowment. Give. Grant. Bestow. Con- fer. The idea common to these terms is that of communicating to others what is oui' own, or in our power. And, indeed, Give (A. S. gifan) denotes this generally, and no more. To Grant, Confer, and to Bestow, are characteristic modes of giving. To grant (Old Eng. graunt) is always from one person to one or more others, in accordance with an expec- tation, prayer, or request. To be- stow {be and stow, a place) meant originally to lay up in store. Hence its latter meaning is to give some- thing of substantial value, with the intention of benefiting the object of the bestowal. Confer (Lat. conferre) implies not so much the value of the thing given as the condescension of the giver. Honours, distinctions, favours, privileges are conferred. Goods, gifts, endowments are be- stowed. Requests, prayers, privi- leges, favours, gifts, allowances, op- portunities are granted. " Give, and it shall be given unto you." — Uibk. A peculiar sense attaches to the word grant as a legal term, as a piece of hind granted to a noble or religious house. So Blackstone speaks of "the transfer of property by sale, grant, or conveyance." " Grant me the place of this threshing- floor." — Bible. "Almighty God, though He really doth and cannot otherwise do, yet will not seem to bestow His favours altogether gratis, but to expect some competent return, some small use and income for them." — Barrow. "I esteem the encomiums you conferred upon me in the senate, together with your congratulatory letter, as a distinction of the highest and most illustrious kind." — 3M- moth, Cicero. Glad. Joyful. Pleased. De- lighted. Gratified. Glad (A. S. gliid) denotes the lowest degree of pleasure. It is the opposite term to sorry, and com- monly no more denotes joyousness than sorry denotes deep sorrow or grief. Hence it is used to express complimentary feeling, as, " I shall be glad to see you." Joyful (Fr. joie, Lat. gaudmm) is, on the other hand, used for the highest degree of plea- sure excited by an external event. Gladness admits, however, of de- grees, and may be more tempered, thoughtful, and lasting than joy, which may even be exuberant and excessive. Pleased (from the verb to please, the Fr. plaire, and the Lat. placere) may denote either the plea- sure of joy or the pleasure of satis- faction or approbation. Gratified (Lat. gratus, grateful) implies a sense of pleasure due to the behaviour of another. Delighted (Old Eng. delite, from the Lat. delcciare) is a much stronger term than glad or pleased, for expressing the same kind of feeling. " Then are they ylad, because thev are at vest."— Bible. " Joji is the vivid pleasure or delight in- spired by immediate reception of something peculiarly grateful, of something obviously productive of an essential advantage, or of something which promises to contribute to our present or future well-being." — Cogan. " It is supposed that the very determina- tion which is the ground and spring of the will's act is an act of choice and jileasure, wherein one act is more agreeable and the mind better pleased in it than another; and this preference and superior plrascdncss is the ground of all it does in the case." — Ji'da-ards. The term gratify extends to a pecu- liar meaning beyond that of personal conduct of one towards another, in which it is nearly synonymous with indulge ; as the gratification of the senses, desires, and the like. When expressive of lively satisfac- tion at the act or conduct of another, it commonly indicates some eupe GLAD YE SS. ( 357 ) GLORY. riority in the person satisfied ; as, tlie father is gratified by his son's con- duct. " For who would die to gratify a foe ?" Drijden, "So on they fared, delighted still to join In mutual converse." Milton. Gladness. See Glad and Cheerful. Glance. Glimpse. A Glance (Germ, glanz, bright- ness) expresses both the sudden shoot- ing of a bright object or ray of light before the eyes, and the rapid casting of the vision itself upon an object. Glimpse (Dutch glimmen, -to shine faintly) differs in implj'ing the seeing momentarily and imperfectly, while glance implies that the object is seen momentarily and distinctly. Glance is more commonly voluntary, glimpse involuntary. We take glances ; we catch glimpses. " The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling. Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven." Shakespeare. " Who this is we must learn, for man He seems In all His lineaments, though in His face The glimpses of His Father's glory shine." Milton. Glare. See Flare. Glarinq. See Glare. Gleam. See Beam. Glide. Slide. Slip. To Slip is commonly, though not necessarily, an involuntary movement (A. S. slipan). To Slide (A. S. slidan) is voluntary or involuntary. Glide (A. S. (jlidan) is voluntary, or analo- gous to it. Slip conveys the idea of shding in an accidental or deviating manner, as when the foot slips, or a bone slips out of its place. A slip is not only sudden and rapid, but it is short, while slide and glide are con- tinuous and protracted. To slide is to move glibly over a surface, and without hindrance. But slide and glide diflfer, in that slide always sup- poses a surface or basement iipon and over which the movement takes place, while glide expresses the move- ment alone. Noiseless, uninterrupted, equable, and apparently effortless progress may be called gliding. So a bird may be said to glide in the air, and ghosts glide from one chamber to another. A vessel glides through the water, not upon it. "She Qtledea.) g lode forth, as an adder doth." Goicer. " They have not only slid imperceptibly, but have plunged openly into artifice." — Lord Bolingbroke. " These worldly advantages, these honours, profits, pleasures, whatever they be, are of uncertain continuance, and may in a little time slip away from us ; to be sure, we shall in a little time slip away from them." — Atterhury. Glimmer. See Beam. Glimpse. See Glance. Glitter. See Beam. Globe. See Ball and Land. Gloom, Gloomy. See Dark and Sad. Glory. See Boast. Glory. Honour. Fame. Glory (Lat. gloria) is the result of success in such things as excite the admiration of men at large — extra- ordinary efforts, brilliant achieve- ments. Honour (Lat. honor) is the result of excellence, as acknowledged by the narrower circle in which we personally move, and according to their particular standard of it. Hon- our is never entirely separated from virtue ; but glory may have no connection with it. Honour must ever regard the rights of others; glory may be earned at their expense. Fame (Lat. fama) is the result of meritorious success in the more select but less showy walks of life. We speak of the glory of the conqueror, the honour of the gentleman, the fame of the scholar and the philan- thropist. Honour and fame are al- ways external to oneself; but glory is sometimes \ised in the sense of self- glorification, or, as Hobbes has called it, " Internal gloriation or triuuiph of the mind." GLOSSARY. ( 358 ) GOODNESS. " But since, alas ! ignoble age must come, Disease, and death's inexorable doom, Tlie life which others pay let us bestow, Aud give to Fame what we to Nature owe. Brave though we fall, and honoured if we live, Or let us glory gain, or ghry give." Pope, Homer. " Honour makes a great part of the reward of all honourable professions." — Smith, Wealth of Nations. " Farrw is the spur that the clear spiiit doth raise (That last infirmity of noble mind), To scorn delights and live laborious days. But the fair guerdon when we hope to find. And think to burst out into sudden blaze. Comes the blind Fury with the abhorred shears. And slits the thin-spun life." Lycidas. Glossary. See Dictionary. Glow. Warmth. Heat. Glow (A. S. glowan) is a sliining witli vivid or intense lieat. It com- bines tlie ideas of brightness and ■warmth. Warmth (A. S. ivearm, warm) is moderate heat, more diffused than glow, more continuous and less addressing itself, or not at all, to the eye. Heat, in its common acceptation, signifies not merely that principle which is present in all bodies, and on the degree of which depends their fluid or solid state, but the evolution of caloric in a strong or excessive quantity. The analogous use of the terms is regulated by these natural dis- tinctions. We speak of the fire of genius, the heat of passion, the glow of generous feeling, the warmth of friendship, and the like. " For persons who pretend to feel The glowings of uncommon zeal ; Who others scorn, and seem to be Kighteous in very gi'cat degree ; Do 'bove all others take delight To vent their spleen in tales of spite ; To think they raise their own renown Bv pulling of a neighbour down." Lloyd. *' The heat and hm-ry of his rage." Soiith. " Many persons, from vicious and dead and cold, have passed into life and an excellent grace and a spiritu;U warmth aud holy fire ; but from lukewarm and indifferent never anybody came to an excellent condition and state of holiness." — Bishop Taylor. Godlike. See Heavenly. Godly. See Eighteous. Gold. Golden. (A. S. Gold.) These terms ai-e both used as ad- jectives, with this difference, that the former signifies made of gold, the latter having the characteristics of gold, as wealth, brightness, yellow- ness. A gold cup ; golden corn, sun- sets, days, thoughts, or memories. Golden. See Gold. Goodness. Virtue. Goodness is natural and without effort. It is instinctive Virtue (Lat. virtus), as virtue is trained or practised goodness. Hence, in some sort, goodness may be without virtue, and virtue without goodness. The tenderness of feeling shown by many children is goodness, not virtue. To abstain from theft in a thief would be virtue, not goodness. Yet goodness, in the highest degree, is superior to any virtue ; for He who alone is perfect goodness could not he called virtuous, which is human. Virtue is actual goodness, as set against pos- sible evil in man's thoiights and deeds. Goodness is often used in a specific sense, as equivalent to kind- ness or benevolence. Goodness is in those — " Glad hearts, without reproach or blot. Who do Thy will, and know it not." But virtue, in resisting and control- ling evil temptations and tendencies. " Goodness is strictly and eminently moral. It is in its nature of a boundless extent. If it be not universally operative, it cannot exist as a perfection. It degenerates into partial attachments and a partial fondness ; aud thus the idea of an exalted and amiable principle of action is destroyed. This attri- bute must be universally relative for good. It is in the Divinity a pattern and proto- type of the moral relation of man to man." — Cogini. " The exemplary desire of regulating our thoughts and pursuits by right principles constitutes virtue; and all the duties which are ])erformed with warmth and feeling are deemed the result of virtuous affections. GOODS. ( 359 ) GRACIOUS. The opposite propensities ami conduct consti- tute vice, wiiose cliaracteristic consists iu dei)ravcd afl'ectious and ungoverned passions." — Coijan. Goods. Chattels. Commo- dity. Merchandize. Wakes. Effects. Property. Possession. Goods is employed in tlie sense of transferable articles of property, such as are intended for sale, or might realize a money value if sold. Ef- fects represent the personal estate, even down to the smallest matters iu use, and such as would practically be of no value but to the proprietor. Chattels (originally the same as cattle, capitalis, belonging to the head or sum) is a wider term than goods or effects, and compi-ises every kind of property except the freehold and wliat is parcel of it. Chattels are divided into personal and real; the former belonging immediately to the person, the latter appertaining to something in the nature of a de- pendency. A Commodity (Fr. com- inodlU) is any movable article valu- able by money, but is restricted to articles of necessity. Works of art, for instance, as such, are not com- modities ; but a painting, if regarded as an article of furnittire, might be called a commodity. Merchandize (Fr. marchandise) is the generic term for all articles of trade, considered as such in the aggregate ; while "VVakes (A, S. waru) is the sum of articles of a particular kind. Possession (Lat. 2)ossessio, from possidere, to possess) is t]\at of which a man is, as a fact, possessed, whether rightfully or not, or irrespectively of the mode in which he may have acquired it. Pkopekty (Fr. propriete, Lat. pro- prius) is that which is properly one's own, and, in the absence of any quali- fying expressions, would be taken to imply a legal title to possession. Good-humour. Good-nature. Good-humour is a cheerful state of the spirits, producing gaiety in others, as it is itself gay. Yet it may be transient, and followed by a reactive peevishness. Good-nature is that plastic disposition which natu- rally shares tlie joys of others, yet sutlers ofttimes from weak com- plaisance to their wishes. Gourmand. See Epicure. Govern. Rule. IIegulate. Govern (Lat. (jnhcrnnrc) is to ex- ercise power or authority with judg- ment and knowledge ; hence govern is never taken by itself in a bad sense. Rule (Fr. reijler, Lat. rerjula) denotes no more than control and direction by superior authority or power, however exercised. Rule is exercised over the wills and actions of men only. Govern is more exten- sively applied, as to govern the horses, or the helm. Regulate denotes the exercise of a controlling power over force already in action or progress, as to regulate the movement of a machine, to regulate finances. " The Bishop's governance should be so gentle and easy, that men hardly can be un- willing to comply with it." — Barrow. " Ne shall the Saxon's selves all peaceably Enjoy the crown which they from Britons won, First ill, and after ruled wickedly." Spenser. " Some say that under force Of that controlling ordinance they move. And need not His immediate hand, who first Prescribed their course, to regulate it now." Cowper. Government. See Charge. Grace. See Favour. Graceful. See Comely. Gracious. Merciful. Kind. Gracious (see Grace), when com- pared with Kind (literally entertain- ing feelings naturally due to creatures of the same kind or nature), difters from it not so much in essence as in exhibition. The gracious being the kind as shown to inferiors, while kind- ness may be towai'ds any. It has in it an element of condescension. Gra- ciousness can only be shown to crea- tures of some moral dignity and capacity, who may be able to appre- ciate the nature and value of actions. Kindness may be shown towards dumb animals. Kindness is a duty in all. Graciousness rather implies GRAND. ( 360 ) GRAND. sucli kindness as is in excess of the mere demands of duty, and is ex- hibited where it coidd not be claimed even of moral right. *' I therefore beg you will be gracioushi l)leased to accept this most faithful zeal of your poor subject, who has no other design in it than your good, and the discharge of his own conscience." — Bishop Burnet. " Be kindly affect ioned one to another with brotherly love." — Bible. Merciful (Lat misericordia, mercy) is the quality of withholding pain, evil, or suffering, when it is in one's power to intiict it ; or, in a milder sense, the granting of benefits in spite of demerit- " Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy." — Bible. Grand. Great. Sublime. NoELE. Majestic. Imposing, Magnificent. Stately. Splendid. Superb. August. Grand (Lat. grandis) is applied to the union of excellence with some- thing which conveys the impression of vastuess or greatness in the sense of expausiveness ; as a grand mountain or cataract, a grand sight, grand music, a grand rnonarch, a grand conceiDtion, a grand character. The grand expands the mind with a sense of vastness and majesty. " I have ever observed that colonnades and avenues of trees of a moderate length were, without comparison, far grander than when they were suffered to run to immense dis- tances." — Burke. Great (A. S. great), as a synonym of grand, denotes less vividly what is impressive, yet is associated with power and gifts capable of accom- plishing ends of their own. The truly great man may be sometimes the very opposite of grand. Cincin- iiatus was great indeed, when having saved his country, he laid aside his grandeur. Greatness, in its moral sense, appeals more directly to the reason than the senses. " Greatness of soul is to be ai^ijuired by converse with the heroes of anticjuity." — Knox. Sublime (Lat. siddinds) is the highest of all these terms. It is so high in character that the sublime inspires awe rather than delight in the scenes of art or nature, and in the character and deeds of men. The truly sublime is not only awful but elevating. " The age was fruitful in great men ; but, if we except the sublime Julian Leader, none, as regards splendour of endowments, stood upon the same level as Cicero." — De Quincey. Noble (Lat. nohilis) is a term of opposition, and derives its force from that against which it is set. It is that which is above the puny, petty, low, mean, or dishonourable, with any, the smallest degree, of which it is in- compatible. It is properly a social and moral term ; and it is only by a sort of picturesque analogy that we speak of a noble tree or palace. A noble nature or action is innately superior to that which is base. "Know this, my lord, nobility of blood Is but a glittering and fallacious good : The nobleimm is he whose 7ioble mind Is filled with inborn worth unborrowed from his kind." Drydcn. Majestic (Lat. majestas, majesty) refers exclusively to external effect of form or movement, and has no connection with moral greatness. The basest tyrant might have a ma- jestic person or air. The movements of an epic poem should be majestic. Concentrated strength, self-posses- sion, and grace make up the ma- jestic. " But in the midst was seen A lady of a more majestic mien; By stature and by beauty marked their Sovereign Queen." Drydcn. Imposing, like majestic, is purely external ; but that which is majestic has always an individuality, while many things in detail may combine to produce an imposing effect. The term is not of old usage. Nor is imposing a term of unqualified praise; for that may have an im- posing exterior which has little in- trinsic substance or solidity. Mag- nificent {magnus. great, and facere, to make) is applied to objects of beauty on a liu'ge scale, and es- pecially, in the case of works of art, to those which combine size, excel- lence, elaborateness of conception GRAND, ( 3C1 ) GRATIFY. and execution, with great effective- ness ; though the term magnificence by no means expresses the character of a work of art simply as such, how- ever excellent. That costliness and elaborateness are requisite to entitle a work of art to the epithet mag- nificent, may be seen in the case of architecture. The Gothic cathedral may be magnificent ; the Great Pyra- mid is stupendous, but not magnifi- cent. On the other hand, a purely natural production might be called magnificent for its uniform beauty and size ; as a magnificent pearl. " Man He made, and for him built Magnificent this world." Milton. Stately is exhibiting state or dignity, or what is analogous to them, and can only be applied to what has, or may be conceived to wear, an air of imposing dignity ; as a stately figure, walk, palace, avenue, or forest- tree. Stateliness involves the combi- nation of height and grace. " Ye that in waters glide, and ye that walk The earth, and stately tread or lowly creep." Milton. Splendid (Lat. splenclidus, splen- dere, to shine) is like magnificent, but less strong, and differs from it in being applied to abstract qualities, which magnificent never is. Sj)lendid, not magnificent, talents. The splen- did implies always something bril- liant, gorgeous, or striking. " Liveries whose gorgeousness evinces not the footman's deserts, hut his lord's splendid- ness." —Boijle. Superb (Fr. siiperhe, Lat. superbiis, proud) has no application in our language to human disposition, but is used of objects of nature or oi art which are of the best, that is, the largest or best developed, the best manufactured, the most impos- ing or elaborate ; as a superb diamond, tree, house, carpet, bracelet, equipage. The original force of the Latin sto- perbus stiU runs through the modern use of the term. It indicates that striking superiority to other objects of the same class which, in conscious creatures, would naturally be accom- panied by pride. "With laboured visible design Art strove to be superbly line." Churchill. August (Lat. augustus, augere, to heap sacrifices or honours) is only employed of persons and of what emanates from them as creating extraordinary respect, or respect mingled with awe. There seems, how- ever, to be no reason why the term should not be employed analogously of visible oljjects, as the august moun- tain solitudes ; but there is a kind of personality attributed to such fea- tures of nature. "Not with such majesty, such bold relief, The forms august, the king, or conquering chief, E'er swelled on marble as in verse have shined — In polished verse — the manners and the mind." I'ope. GrEANDEUE. See Grand. Grant. See Admit, Allow, Cede, and Give. Grasp. See Catch. Grateful. See Acceptable, Agreeable, and Gratitude. Gratified. See Glad. Gratify. Indulge. Humour. Satisfy. Please. Satiate. Glut. Cloy. To Gratify (Lat. grotus, grateful, and/rtcece, to make) is first to please, then to indulge, and, in the latter sense, to indiilge not only persons, but the mind and its tastes or de- sires, the senses and the appetites. Indulge (Lat. indulgere) is to con- cede something to a weakness or a wish. The subject-matter of grati- fication is more positive than that of indulgence. We gratify passions, desires, and the like; we indulge humours or other less powerful in- fluences. In indulging we escape the trouble or effort of resisting ; in gratifying we look for keen enjoy- ment. The former is a sign of weak- ness, the latter often of \'icious de- termination. " His (Virgil's) sense always somewhat to gratify our imagination on which it may en- large at pleasure." — Dryden. GRA TIFY. ( 362 ) GRATITUDE. " Restraint she will not brook ; And, left to herself, if evil then ensue, She first his weak indulgence will accuse." Milton. To Humour (Lat. humor) is to adapt oneself to the vai*iable mood of another. '• By humourinc] the mind in trifles, we teach it to presume on its own importunity in greater matters ; and it will be found a convenient rule in the management of our passions, as of our children, to refuse a com- pliance with them, not only when they ask improper things, but when they ask anything with impatience." — Bishop Hurd. To gratify is capable of much ditference in the character of the gratification. The lowest and most seusual passions may ]>e gratified, and the purest wishes on behalf of another, as wlien a father is gratified with the successes of his son. To Satisfy (Lat. satisfacere, to give onough) is to fill up the measure of a want, whether the want be ordinate and la-wful, or unlawful and inordi- nate, and, like gratify, admits of many degrees and kinds ; but satisfy does not imply pleasure, as it is implied in gratify; but the feeling, though less \'ivid, is more substantiaL Hence it follows that there may be satisfac- tion without gratification, and grati- fication without satisfaction. The cravings of a hungry man are satis- fied with very plain diet, in which there is no gratification of the palate. The gratification of licentiousness and worldliness are often felt to be utterly unsatisfactory. " The word satisfaction is frequently em- ployed to express the full accomplishment of some particular desire, which always com- municates a temporary pleasure, whatever may be the nature of that desire." — Cogan. Please (Fw.plaire, Lat. pZacere) has the twofold meaning of excitiag, 1, anything of the nature of pleasure ; and 2, specifically a feeling of honour- aljle satisfaction, as when a superior expresses himself as pleased with another. Pleasure holds an inter- mediate position between satisfaction and gratification, being more than tlie first, and less than the second. To be pleased denotes a more lasting condition than to be gratified, and also conveys the idea of combined gratifi- cation and approval of the judgment arising from objects which operate continuously upon our minds ; as to be pleased wdth a landscape we contem- plate, or a book we are reading, or with the conversation, or society, or manner, or conduct of others. " The soul has many different faculties, or, in other words, many different ways of acting, and can be intensely pleased or made happy by all these ditierent faculties or ways ' of acting." — Addison. Satiate denotes excessive satisfac- tion, or satisfaction and something more. It deserves, however, to be re- marked, that as extremes proverbially meet,tobesatiatedisoften,practically, the opposite of being satisfied ; for to be satisfied denotes pleasure and con- tentment, while satiety is the feeling of dissatisfaction and discontent pro- duced by oi'er-satisfaction. Satiate, Glut (Lat. glutire, Fr. engloutir), and Cloy (Fr. doner, clou, Lat. clavus, a nad, to nail, close up, and so clog) have much in common. Indeed, glut and cloy may be taken as the complement of satiety, the former denoting the excess of supply over demand or legitimate reqviirement, the latter the reaction in individual feeling by way of loathing, dissatisfaction, and loss of appreciat ion, naturally andnecessarily consequent upon the excess. Glut is used impersonaUy, as when a market is said to be glutted or overstocked ; cloy, only of persons and their de- sires. " The variety of objects dissipates care for a short time ; but weariness soon ensues, aud satiety converts the promised pleasure to indilierence at least, if not to pain."-^ Knox. " Thus must ye perish on a barbarous coast ! Is this your fate, to glut the dogs with gore. Far from your friends, and from your native "shore ?" Pope, Homer. " Alas ! their love may be called appetite ; K(i motion of the liver, but the jialate That sutler surfeit, cloyincnt, and revolt ; r>ut mine is all as hungry as the sea. And can digest as much." Shahespcnre. Gratitude. Thankfulness. GiiATiTUDE (Lat. gnitus, grateful) GRATUITOUS. ( l(^2> ) GRA VE. relates rather to tbe inner state of feeling, Thankfulness to the ex- hibition of it in words. We com- monly use grateful in reference to human agents; thankful, to Divine Providence. We may look gratefuL We speak our thanks. Thankfulness is mistrusted if it be not expressed ; but gratitude may be too deep for words. Thankfulness is uneasy till it has acknowledged a kindness ; gra- titude, till it has recompensed it. " Gratitude is a pleasant affection excited by a lively sense of benefits received or in- tended, or even by the desire of being bene- ficial. It is the lively and jiowerful reaction of a well-disposed mind upon whom benevo- lence has conferred some important good." — Cogan. " Give us that due sense of all Thy mercies, that our hearts may be unfeignedly tkank- fut." — Book of Common Prayer. GrRATUITOUS. VOLUNTARY. WlL- Gkatuitous (Lat. gratuitus, gratis) is given without equivalent or recom- l)euse, granted irrespectively of claim, or where none exists; hence in the applied sense of uncaUed-for by cir- cumstances, and, still further, un- warranted by them, as a gratuitous insult is one that was wholly un- merited, and as a gratuitous asser- tion is one for which no jjroof is forthcoming. Voluntary (Lat. vo- luntas, volo, to will) is more restricted in its sense than Willing, having the negative signification of not done under compulsion. AU our outward actions, whatever may be the full nature of their motives, must be called voluntiu-y; but they are not necessarily performed willingly, that is, it does not follow that our wishes and inclinations go along with the actions performed. The vows of the cloister must, of necessity, be taken voluntarily. There are multitudes of cases in which they have not been taken vjiUingly. It may be observed that willing and voluntary are ap- plicable both to the agent and the act ; gratuitous, only to the act. Vo- luntary and willing belong more to the freedom of act and motive in the au-ent himself ; gratuitous, to its elfect upon others, or the character of such acts or motives in relation to others. A voluntary benefit is one which is given with freedom of will; a gra- tuitous benefit is one which has been purchased by nothing on the part of the receiver. " The Greek word signifies most gratuitous, most free, undeserved, and the pure effect of grace." — Bates. " Nothing is more certain than that God acts not necessarily, but voluntnrihj with par- ticular intention and design, knowing that . He does good, and intending to do so, freely and out of choice, and when He has no other constraint upon Him but this, that His will inclines Him to communicate Himself and to do good." — Clarke. " His willingness to forgive returning sin- ners." — Ibid. Gratuity. Gift. Gift being simply a thing given, Gratuity (see Gratuitous) is a certain kind of gift. It is commonly expected as due, but could not be enforced as a legal claim. " The Cavali«rs and Presbyterians of the city, hoping to improve this oppoi-tunity, invited them to join with the city, as they termed their party there, promising them their whole arrears, constant pay, and a pre- sent gratuity, giving them some money in hand as an earnest of the rest."— iwd^ow, Memoirs. Grave. See Tomb. Grave. Serious. Solemn. Grave (Lat. gravis, heavy) is cha- racterized by weight, but not used in the i^hysical but only in the moral or analogous sense; hence important, and, as applied to character or persons, having the appearance of being charged with aftairs weighty or im- portant. It is opposed to gay, and may be predicated of manner, appear- ance, and expression of countenance. As grave denotes an appearance of habitual self-control or sense of re- sponsibility, so Serious (Lat. serins) conveys the idea of consideration or reflectiveness, as applied to the air or expression of countenance. Like grave, it is used of circumstances, and then has a stronger force. A grave consideration is one of argumentative GRA VITY. ( 364 ) GRIE VANCE. weiglit ; a scrioixs circumstance is one that is likely to affect us. While grave as so employed means no more than important, serious means gi\dng cause for apprehension, attended with danger or disastrous consequences. A grave, but not a serious, assembly of old men. Solemn (Lat. solemnis) is primarily marked by religious rites, hence fitted to awake serious reflec- tions. When used of the manner or countenance of an individual, it has the sense of aflfectedly serious, and implies ridicule. The judge is grave, the preacher serious; the service or the cathedi-al solemn. " Justice is grave and decorous, and in its punishments rather seems to submit to a ne- cessity than to make a choice." — Burke. " One might have expected that events so awful and tremendous as death and judg- ment, that a question so deeply interesting as whether we shall go to heaven or hell, could in no possible case, and in no consti- tution of mind whatever, fail of exciting the most serious apprehensions." — Paley. " But they who have the misfortune to be of this make should by no means trust to their own most solemn purposes, or even vows. Their chief safety is in flight." — Seeker. GrKAVITY. WeIGHT. HEAVI- NESS. These terms are compared here in a physical sense. Gravity is weight scientifically considered, and is there- fore a scientific term. Weight (the amount weighed) is wholly indefinite, and is opposed only to that which is imponderable. Thelightestsubstauces have some amount of weight. Weight, however, is always abstract, while Heaviness is concrete, that is, ex- presses the sensation of weight (A. S. hefig, hcifig). This is not always the case with the adjective heavy. A heavy burden means one of which the weight is severely felt ; but, " How heavy is this?" is equivalent simply to, "What is the weight of this?" Weight, from its association with the balance, lias a sense peculiar to itself — that of detorniiniug power, as weighty con- siderati(jus. Everything has weight, being the natural tendency of all bodies to the centre of the earth. Those bodies which have much weight, either in proportion to their bulk or to the force and strength applied to them, are heavy. A bag of gold is heavier than a bag of feathers of the same size, because gold has more weight than feathers. Weight de- l>ends more upon substance, hea^vi- ness on quantity. A pound of feathers and a jiound of gold have equal weight, though feathers and gold are not equally heavy. In their secondary senses, gravity denotes the weight of practical importance, heaviness the weight of care or trouble, weightiness the urgency of fact or reasoning. Heavy, rather than weighty, is the term employed to express the force which results from the weight of a body in motion. Thus we speak of a heavy, not a weighty, blow. The felled tree falls not weightily, but heavily, to the ground. "Eutellus wastes his forces on the wind. And thus deluded of the stroke designed, Headlong and heavy fell." Dryden. " Without gravity, the whole universe, if we suppose an undetermined power of motion infused into matter, would have been a confused chaos without beauty or order, and never stable or permanent in any con- dition." — Bentley. Great. See Big and Grand. Greatness. See Bulk. Greediness. See Eagerness. Greet. See Accost. Grief. See Affliction. Grievance. Hardship. A Grievance {grief, gravis, heavy) is a mental hardship, or a hardship as dwelt upon in the mind. Hard- ship is externally suttered. Purely physical endurances, as exposure to the elements, are hardships, not griev- ances. Grievance carries the idea of matter of complaint or trouble, which might have been otherwise but for the conduct of men. So heavy tax- ation is a hai'dship when viewed in its pauperizing effects, a grievance as furnishing ground of complaint against a government or an admini- stration. Hardship comes from a force sti'onger than ourselves, whether from nature or from man. Grievance GRIEVE. ( l(^S ) GROW. may exist between equals. Among civilized nations one may Lave a grievance against auotber, wLere hardship could not 1)c jn"t!*licated ; yet the national grievance might be such as to entail hardship upon individuals. " Heroes are always drawn bearing sorrows, struggling with adversities, undergoing all kinds of hardships, and having in the service of mankind a kind of appetite to difficulties and dangers." — Spectator. " Cause of the war and grievance of the land." FujJc; Homer. Grie\t3. Moukn. Lament. To Grieve is purely mental (see Grievance) ; it is to feel the pain of an inward distress. To Mourn (A. S. murnan, meornan) and Lament (Lat. lamentari) are to give outward ex- pression to grief, the former in visible, the latter in audible signs. Bitter grief ; deep mourning ; loud lamenta- tion. Unlike mourn and lament, the verb grieve is used in the' sense of actively to trouble or hurt, as well as intransitively to feel trouble. Mis- fortune grieves me, or causes me to grieve. " Who fails to grieve when just occasion calls, Or grieves too much, desei'ves not to be blessed." Young. The term mourn may indicate soitow, either expressed or unexpressed ; but lament implies its expression of ne- cessity. " As the apostle says of circumcision and uncircumcision, so say I here, that neither mourning for sin, nor confession of it, avail anything, but a new creature." — South. "Eve, who, unseen, Yet all had heard, with audible lament Discovered soon the place of her retire." Milton. Grieved. See Sorry. Grim. See Ghastly. Gripe. See Catch and Pinch. Grisly. See Ghastly. Groan. Moan. These words are both onomatopoetic, or imitative of what they express. The Groan is produced by hard breathing, and consists of inai-ticu- late sounds. The Moan is a plaintive sound produced by the organs of \itterance, and is often slightly ar- ticuhite. The moan is often also voluntary; the groan is involuntary, the result of deep pain, unless it be simulated. There is a difference, how- ever, in the causes by which the two are produced. Moaning comes al- ways from some j^ain or misery ; groaning comes from pain, but it may also come from a strong feeling of resistance to what is felt to be burdensome or unjust ; hence it is often an expression of indignation. The gi'oans of suffering and of in- dignation are combined in the follow- ing :— " Nor Philoctetes had been left inclosed In a bare isle, to wants and pains exposed, Where to the rocks with solitary groans His sufferings and our baseness he be- moans." Dryden, Ovid. Gross. See Coarse. Ground. See Basis. Group. See Assembly. Grow. Become. To Grow (A. S. growan) is gradu- ally to Become. A man may be- come suddenly angry, but he only grows angry by degrees. Grow often indicates a state which one is ap- proaching ; become, a state which one has reached. To become is to be one thing from having been another. To grow is to be approaching to some state. A man is growing old before he has reached old age. Not till he has reached it has he become old. Grow. Increase. To Grow is the process of which to Increase is the result or mani- festation. Trade has been growing for yeai's past, and is now consider- ably increased. To increase, how- ever, does not necessarily imply to grow ; rapid expansion or dilatation of parts will produce increase in bulk ; but the process of growth im- plies either an accretion of parts by external apposition, or an assimila- tive power from within, as in the vital force. The snowball grows by GRUDGE. ( z(^(^ ) GUESS. accretion, and so increases as it rolls. The tree grows by its own vitality, and increases also in size. Grudge. Spite. Pique. A Grudge (Old Eng. grutche) is a feeling of continiious and sullen dis- like cherished against another, hav- ing its origin in some act of the person against whom it is felt. Spite (an abloreviation of despite Ltat. de- spicere) is a more active and demon- strative form of malevolence, but not so enduring as grudge, which shows itself in cutting words and irritating demeanour. It belongs to perscms who are quick to feel and weak to control or hide their feelings. We owe a grudge, and show spite. Pique (Fr. pique, piquer, to prick) is purely personal, and comes of offended pride, or a quick sense of resentment against a supposed neglect or injury, with, less of malevolence than grudge or spite, both of whicb are characterized by a desire to injure, which does not belong to pique. The verb to grudge bas a negative force unknown to the noun grudge. We grudge another that which we do not regard him sufficiently to give him, or to contem- plate him as possessing, wdth com- placency. On the other hand, a grudge is always an actively ma- licious feeling, which, would hurt if it had the opportunity. " Esau had conceived a mortal gncdije and enmity against his brother Jacob." — South. " Begone, ye critics, and restrain your spite ; Codrus writes on, and will for ever write." Pope. " Out of a personal pique to those in ser- vice, he stands as a looker-on when the government is attacked." — Addison. As a reflective verb, to pique oneself expresses a feeling of pride un- wounded, as — "Men pique themselves on their skill in the learned languages." — Locke. Guarantee. See Warrant. Guard. See Defend. Guard. Guardian. Of tbese Guard (Fr. garde) is applied botb to persons and things ; Guardian, less often to hings, and more commonly to persons. But a more marked difference is that guard denotes a protector against physical danger, violence, theft, and the like ; guardian, against anything which may militate against the interests of per- sons, especially during youtb or mi- noiity, when they are too inexperi- enced to manage their own affairs. " The guard which kept the door of the king's house." — Bible. " You may think, perhaps, that man is too mean, too insignificant a being to be worthy of the ministration and guardianship) of celes- tial spirits." — Bishop Porteus. Guerdon. See Compensation. Guess. Conjecture. Divina- tion. Supposition. Hypothesis. Surmise. To Guess (Old Eng. <7es.se) is to make a statement upon what is un- known, with the hope of being right ; if by lucky chance only, this is in the strictest sense a guess ; if with a very slight amount of knowledge, which is just sufficient to incline the scale of probability, this is a Conjecture (Lat. conjectnra, from conjiccre, to cast together). Hence conjecture is employed of complex, while guess belongs to the simplest, things. I bold something in my hand, and in play I say to a child, " Guess what it is." Ail historian or a diplomatist who is furnished with inadequate evidence for knowledge, conjectures motives and consequences, as best he may. The Roman augurs would sometimes cast down cubic lots in- scribed with marks or letters, whence they inferred the futiu-e. This throiv- ing together of lots was called a con- jectura, or conjecture. Supposition (Lat. sub, under, and jJOHere, to place) belongs to that of which part is known and part unknown ; a fact, for in- stance, is known ; its cause is un- known ; therefore the cause, or stip- posed cause, is placed under the fact as a theoretical foundation for it. And generally, to imagine with proba- bility, to infer from evidence which, though not complete, is the best that can be had, is supposition. Hypo- thesis is the Greek form of the Latin stq^i^ositio, but is teckuically GUESS. ( 367 ) GUIDE. employed of pliilosophical supposi- tion, learned or scientific theories. Divination (divinus, divine) is literally a term of ancient aiagury for the gathering the will of heaven, either naturally by a divine insj^i- ration, or artificially from certain manifestations; in this sense, di- vination precedes prediction. To divine, accordingly, as commonly em- ployed, is to use such conjecture as depends both upon hazai'd and upon natural sagacity. It may be ob- served, in its relation to prediction, that, unlike that term, it is not re- stricted to the future, but is -equally applicable to facts of the past. Sur- mise (Old Fr. surmise, accusation, imposition, in the sense of imputation) is a conjecture of a matter of fact. Of the above, those which are most nearly related to one another are, guess, conjecture, and surmise. The subject of a guess is always a fact, or something regarded in the simple light of a fact ; a conjecture is more vague and abstract, and may be on the j)ossibiIity of a fact. The subject of a guess is definite and unmistake- able when known. The subject of a conjecture may remain indefinite and unknown. If a sentence be a set enigma, I guess its meaning, and so know it. If it be involved and indis- tinct, lean but conjecture its meaning, and may not arrive at it after all. In guessing, if successful, we arrive at a certain or probable conclusion from uncertain premises. In conjecturing, we arrive at an uncertain conclusion from uncertain premises. " You go on arguing and reasoning what necessity of nature must signify, which is only talking without book, and guessing what words anciently meant, without consulting the ancients to know the fact." — Wafer- land. " You may see how our (English) tongue is risen, and thereby conjecture how in time it may alter." — Camden. "A sagacity which divined the evil de- signs." — Bancroft. " I am sure his reason by which he would persuade you to become a convert to their Church is shewed to be no reason, because it proceeds upon this false supposition, that the Church of Rome was once the Catholic Church, which it never was." — SJiarp. " Hypothetical necessity is that which the supposition or hypothesis of God's foresight and preordination lays upon future contiu- gents." — Clarke. " There are various degrees of strength in judgments, from the lowest surmise, to no- tion, opinion, persuasion, and the highest assurance, wliiuh we call certainty." — Search, A surmise is in matters personal and practical, what hypothesis is in mat- ters purely scientific. Guide. See Lead. Guide, Eule. Dikection". _ Guide (Fr. guide) is primarily a living director; hence, when employed of inanimate influences or media, it conveys the idea of something which is not rigidly invariable, but still keeps up with our needs under al- teration of circumstances. Rule (Lat. regula), on the other hand, is a rigid and inflexible thing, a form of thought or a form of words, a maxim which must be acted up to. So conscience is the guide of men's actions. The duty to one's neigh- bour is the rale of Christian reci- procity. A Direction (Lat. dirigere, direchis) may be given at a distance, or once for all, and is to be acted upon by being remembered. It is not universally applicable, but only suited to the particular case. When coming from a superior, a direction has the force of an instructive com- mand. " Common sense, or that share and species of understanding which Nature has bestowed upon the greater part of men, is, when com- ])etently improved by education, and assisted by Divine grace, the safest guide to certainty and happiness." — V. Knox, Essays. Rule is employed in more senses than one. To say nothing of its purely physical meaning of a rod or measure, it signifies also an uniform course of things, a regulative order, a constant method, and both the ex- ercise of goveraing powers and the state of those on whom it is exer- cised. In the sense in which it is synonymous with guide and direc- tion, as the guide regulates the movements, and the direction indi- cates the coui'se, so the rule regards GUILE. ( 36S ) HABITATION. principally the actions, or wliat one ought to do ; but it is cold and with- out force in itself. " There is something so wild and yet so solemn in Shakespeare's speeches of his ghosts and fairies, and the like imaginary persons, that we cannot forbear thinking them natural, though we have no rule by which to judge them." — Addi.i,fortnna, for- time), the possession of what are so considered. Men may be called for- tunate in reference to very small things ; as a lucky throw in a game of chance. Happy involves a larger 2 B HARANGUE. ( 370 ) HARMONY. scale of benefit. A man is happy in what lie lias ; fortunate, in getting it. There is a close connection between Lucky (Icelandic hiklca, to favour) and fortunate ; but lucky is used only of minor occurrences ; fortunate, of tlie larger results of favourable cbance. To be lucky is less than to be fortunate ; to be fortunate, less tban to be hajapy. Lucky excludes all idea of effort; but a man may be fortunate in his undertakings. A fortunate man obtains what he wishes and holies to gain. A lucky man gets what he may desire, but did not expect to gain. Merchants who make successful speculations are fortunate. Lottery prizes and unexpected lega- cies fall to the lucky. " Oh ! Happiness, our beinj^s' end and aim, Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content, whate'er thy name, That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, For which we bear to live or dare to die. Which still so near us, yet beyond us, lies, O'erlooked, seen double, by the fool and wise. Plant of celestial seed, if dropped below, Say in what mortal soil thou deign'st to grow." Pope. "As Sylla was sacrificing in his tent in the fields of Nola, a snake happened to creep out of the bottom of the altar; upon which, Postumius, the Haruspcx, who attended the sacrifice, proclaiming it to be a fortunate omen, called out upon him to lead his army immediately against the enemy." — Middleton, Life of Cicero. " He who sometimes lights on truth is right but by chance ; and 1 know not whether the luckiiiess of the accident will excuse the irregularity of the proceeding." — Locke. Harangue. See Address. Harass. See Jade. Harbinger, See Forerunner. Harbour. See Entertain and Haven. Hard. See Arduous and Fast. Hardened. See Obdurate. Hardihood. See Boldness. Hardly. Scarcely. Those terms are correctly cmjiloyed in proportion as it is borne in mind that Scarcely relates to quantity, Hardly to degree. "It is scarcely ten miles off." " I shall hardly be able to finish this work." Hardship. See Gtrievance. Harm. See Hurt. Harmless. Inoffensive. Un- offending. Innocuous. Harmless denotes in a twofold sense the absence of the disposition to do hurt, and the state of immunity from harm. In the former sense, it is used in reference to the power or disposition of living creatures. We speak of harmless animals. Inno- cuous (Lat. in, not, and ')iocere, to hui-t). on the other hand, is employed of things, and not persons, as an inno- cuous potion, atmosphere, plant. In- offensive and Unoffending differ in that the former means not being even indirectly a source of annoyance or offence, while the latter means de- void of all disposition to offend. Un- ofi'ending can only be employed of human beings. Inoffensive, of in- fluences in general, which are capable of being unpleasantly or noxiously felt; as inoffensive odours. Harm- less and innocuous belong to the na- ture of beings; inoffensive and un- offending, to what they may be on specific occasions. " For when through tasteless flat humility, In dough-baked men some hatinlessness we see, 'Tis but his phlegm that's virtuous, and not he." Donne. " Useful and inoffensive animals hare a claim to our tenderness, and it is honourable to our nature to befriend them." — Beattie. " Horace very truly observes that what- ever mad frolics enter into the heads of kings, it is the common jieople, that is, the honest artizan and the industrious tribes in the middle ranks, unotfended and unoffending, who chiefly sufler in the evil consequences." — Knox, Essays. " And not only innocuous, but they (sjMders) are very salutiferous too, in some of the most st ubborn diseases." — Derham. See Concord and Harmony. Melody. HARSH. ( 371 ; HASTINESS. Haksh. Rough. Harshness (see Acrimony) acts upon the affections and the feelings, to which it does violence. Rough- ness is a matter of manner, which externally annoys, as indicating a want of consideration or deference, but is easily endured by sensible per- sons, where it is seen to be a mere defect of polish. Roughness is not necessarily a defect. Morally, harsh- ness is always offensive to the mind, taste, feelings, or senses. " Harshness and brutality." — Shafteshunj. " I could endure Chains nowhere patiently, and chains at home, Where I am free by birthright, not at all. Then what were left of roughness in the grain Of British natures, wanting its excuse, That it belongs to freemen, would disgust And shock me." Cuwpcr. Hasten. See Accelerate. Haste. Dispatch. Hurky. Speed. Bustle. Haste (Germ., Dan., and Swedish hast) is voluntary speed directed to the commencement or continuation of something. Hurry (Germ. Jmrren, to move hastily) is an effort of haste embarrassed by confusion or want of self-collectedness. Haste signifies heat of action ; hurry implies haste, but includes trepidation or perturba- tion. What is done in haste may be done well ; what is done in a hurry can at best only be done inaccurately. Haste implies a wish for quickness ; speed, its attainment. " Homer himself, as Cicero observes above, is full of this kind of painting, and particularly fond of description, even in situations where the action seems to require haste." — Goldsmith. " Sisters, hence with spurs of speed. Each her thundering falchion wield, Each bestride her sable ste> i, Ilurrij, hurry, to the field." ' Gray. Speed (A. S. spedan, to make haste) is the degree of rapidity with which things are done. Dispatch (Fr. cUpeche) is the promptitude and speed which are brought to bear upon the execution of a task, business, or trans- action. Bustle (Old Eng. hushle) is tumult or stir arising from hurried activity, whether on the part of one person or of a crtnvd. It is the most unpractical and weakest exhibition of hurry. " He saw a young Indian, whom he judged to be about nineteen or twenty years old, come down from a tree, and he also ran away with such sj)ccd as made it hopeless to follow him." — Cook's Voyages, "A husbandman or a gardener will do more execution by being able to carry liis scythe, his rake, or his flail with sufficient dispatch through a sufficient space, than if with greater strength his motions were pro- portionately more confined and slow." — I'aley. Hastiness. Eashness. Teme- rity. Precipitancy. Hastiness is the disposition to over-haste, and is applicable to too great quickness of feeling as well as action ; as a hasty temper, a hasty act. The others relate only to actions. Rashness (Germ, rasch) is the qua- lity (jf determining or acting from the impulse of the feelings, with little or no reflection on the cost or conse- quence. It is the courage of unreflec- tion and inexperience. Temerity (Lat. temeritas, from temere, rashly) is that kind of rashness which under- rates or disregards personal danger or consequences, and is the jjassive state of which rashness is the active quality. To enter upon a hazardous speculation would be called rashness, but not temerity. To approach too near to the brink of a precipice would be temerity. Rashness has in it more of the excited, and temerity more of the dogged. Rash- ness refers to the act, temerity to the disposition. Precipitancy (Lat. prceccps, headlong) is employed, not of acts, but of the judgment which dictates them. Haste in_ deciding upon measures which required more cone-deration and reflection, is what is commonly called precipitancy. A man is precipitate who judges, or acts, or speaks bef oi"e the time. " But Epiphanius was made up of hasti- ness and credulity, and is never to be trusted where he speaks of a miracle." — Jortin. 2 B 2 HASTY. ( 372 ) HATRED. " His beginnings must be in rashness, a nolilc fault ; but time and experience will con-ect that error, and tame it into a deliberate and well-weighed courage." — Dnjden. " It must be acknowledged that the teme- rity of making experiments may casually lead to improvements in medical science; but it is a cruel teineriti/, for experiments in medicine are made on the sick at the hazard of life." — Knox. " But if we make a rash beginning, and resolve jirecipitimtlij without observing the above-named rules and directions, in all pro- bability our hasty purposes will end in a leisurely repentance." — Scott, CTiristian Life. Hasty. Cursory. Hasty is only employed of obser- vation in this connection. Cursory (Lat. currere, to run) also of treatment. The subject was viewed hastily, and treated cursorily. Hasty is always at least an unsatisfactory epitbet. Cur- sory is not so mucb so ; as a cui'sory review may be all tbat is needed. Hasty is tbat wbicb occupies little time; cursory, wbicb occupies little tbougbt. Hate. Dislike. Hate (A. S. hatian) is to feel sucb an enmity as to desire tbe injury, de- struction, or removal of tbe object. It is applied to persons and qualities of a personal kind, tbougb not always strictly personal ; as to bate tbe ligbt, for instance, wbicb reaUy means to bate tbe knowledge wbicb comes from wise men. It is a perversion of language to speak of bating tbe im- personal. Dislike is aversion in a milder form, aversion being a strong, settled, and avowed dislike. Dislike is applicable, as bate is not, to imper- sonal influence, as to dislike a parti- cular taste or smell. Hate is a mat- ter of principle ; dislike, a matter of taste, feeling, or sentiment. Hateful. Odious. Tbesc terms are etymological syno- nyms (Latin odmni, bate) ; but Hateful is tbe stronger term. Odious being fi-equently employed of wbat is irksome, wbile bateful is nearly equivalent to detestable. Hate- ful tyrants, bateful vices ; odious mea- sures, odious smells. Nothing is truly hateful but tbat which is evil ; while tbe X)ifensive may be odious. Hatred. Aversion. Anti- pathy. Enmity. Eepugnance. Ill- Will. Eancour. Malice. Malevolence. Hatred (A. S. hatian, to bate) is a very general term. Its characteristics have been given above. Aversion (Lat. averterc, to turn away) is strong dislike. "We dislike wbat is unplea- sant to US. "We have an aversion to what shocks or disgusts, or inspires us with horror. "Strictly speaking, aversion is no other than a modification of desire ; a desire of being liberated from whatever appears to be injurious to well-being." — Cof/aw. Antipathy (Gr. avrl, against, and Trados, feeling) is used of canseless dislike, or at least one of which tbe cause cannot be defined. It is founded upon sui^position or instinctive be- lief, often utterly gratuitous, often not without some truth, of the character of tbe person as worthy of disbke. "There are many ancient and received tra- ditions and observations touching the sym- pathy and antipathy of plants; for that some will thrive best growing near others, which they impute to sympathy, and some worse, which they impiite to antipathy." — Bacon. Enmity (Fr. ennemi. Lat. inimicus) is tbe state of personal opposition, whether accompanied by strong per- sonal dislike or not; as "a bitter enemy," or, on tbe other band, " the enemy," meaning the hostile party. In some of its metaphorical or ap- Ijlied senses it is little more than equivalent to strong opponent, as an enemy to falsehood ; but an enemy is one who carries hatred into practice. " And by these guileful means he more pre- vailed Than had he open enmity profest ; The wolf more safely wounds when in sheep's clothing drest." Lloyd. Repugnance (Lat. repugnare, to fight against) is characteristically employed of acts or courses of action, measures, pursuits, and the like. "We do not employ it directly of persons, so as to say, " I have a repugnance to such an one j" here we should use the HA TRED. ( 373 ) 11 A VEN. term aversion. It denotes an in- voluntary resistance to a particular line of conduct to which circum- stances impel us. A repugnance to study. There is a use of repugnant and repugnance analogous to that of abhorrent and abhorrence, in which the terms denote a strong con- trariety and dissimilarity between any two objects or subjects capable of being brought into juxtaposition or comparison; as slavery is repug- nant to Christianity. So in the fol- lowing : — " If things in themselves evil, repugnant to the principles of liuman nature, and those of civil societies, as well as to the precepts of Christianity, are made lawful only for the carrying on their design, we need not go farther to examine them, for by these fruits we may know them." — Stillingfleet. Ill-will is a settled bias of the disposition away from another. It is very indefinite, and may be of any degree of strength. Rancouk (Lat. rancor, from rancere, to be rank or rancid) is a deep-seated and lasting feeling of ill-will. It preys upon the very mind of the subject of it. While enmity may be generous and open, rancour is malignant and private. It commonly denotes such ill-will or disturbance of feeling towards another as survives from a former enmity or difference. So that, even after the forms of enmity are laid aside in reconciliation, something of rancour is apt to remain behind. " Rancour is that degree of malice which preys upon the possessor." — Cogan. Malice (Lat. malitia, from malvs, evil) is that enmity which can abide its opportunity of injuring its object, and pervert the tiiith or the right, or go out of its way. or shape courses of action, to compass its ends. Male- volence (Lat. male, ill, and volo, to will) is the casiial or habitual state of iU-will, but differs from ill-will in that the latter is rt/?"«|/s casual, while male- volence is with some habitual, or so easily excited as to seem so. " Malice is more frequently employed to express the dispositions of inferior minds to execute every ])urpose of mischief within the more limited circle of their abilities." — Cugan. ^^Malevolence commences with some idea of evil belonging to and connected with the object ; and it settles into a permanent hatred of his person and of everything rela- tive to him." — Cogan. Malignity (Lat. malignus) is yet worse ; it is ci'uel malevolence, or innate love of harm for the sake of doing it. A further difference, it seems, ought to be noted between malignity and Malignancy. While malignity denotes an inherent evil of nature, malignancy denotes its indication in particular instances. Malignant spirits, for instance, con- veys the idea of spirits already en- gaged on their errands of mischief; and, again, malignity always implies evil purpose, while malignancy is said of unpurposed evil. The ma- lignancy, not malignity, of a disease. " Now this shows the high malignitg of fraud and falsehood, that in the direct and natural course of it, it tends to the destruction of common life by destroying that trust and mutual confidence that men should have in one another." — South. "I will not deny but that the noxious and malignant plants do many of them discover something in their nature by the sad and melancholick visage of their leaves, flowers, and fruit." — Bay. Have. See Haven. Harbour. Port. A Haven (A. S. hlfen) is always a natural harbour. A Hakbour (Old Eng. herhour) is first a station for rest, shelter, lodging, entertainment ; and thence a sheltered station for ships, whether natural or artificial. A Port (A. S. port, Lat. portus) is com- monly employed in the sense of a fre- quented harbour, with its commercial restrictions and regulations, customs, dues, and the like. A port is a harbour viewed in its national, civic, or com- mercial relations. " And now the surrender of Dorchester (the magazine from whence the other places were supplied with principles of rebellion) infused the same spirit into Weymouth, a very convenient harbour and haven." — Cla- rendon. " These legal ports were undoubtedly at first assigned by the crown, since to each of them a court of port-mote is incident, the HAUGHTINESS. ( 374 ) HEALTHY. jurisdiction of which miist flow from royal authority." — Blachstone. Haughtiness. See Arrogance and Dignity. Haul. See Draw. Haunt. See Frequent. Hazard. See Chance and Danger. Head. Leader. Chief. Head (A. S. heafod, with other forms), as coming from the Teutonic, is the analogue of Chief (Fr. chef, Lat. ccqmt), as coming from the Latin. But. as now employed by ourselves, head denotes no moi"e than the first in an organized body, while chief ex- presses pre-eminence, personal and active. A person may be the head of a number, because there must be some head ; but if he is the chief, his per- sonal importance and influence is felt, whether for good or ill So per- sonal is the idea of chief, that a man may be chief among others without being in any sense their head, that is, bound to them in a relationship of command. A Leader (A. S. Icjedan, to lead) is one who controls, dii-ects, and instigates othei-s in indefinite lines of movement or action. The head is the highest man. The chief is the strongest, best, or most conspicuous man. The leader is the most in- fluential man. "A refoi-m proposed by an unsupported individual in the presence of heads of houses, public officers, doctoi-s. and proctors, whose peculiar province it would have been urged is to consult for the academic state, would have been deemed even more officious and arrogant than a public appeal." — Knox. " I thank God I am neither a minister nor a leader of opposition." — Burke. " The chief of sinners."— ^A^e. Headstrong. See Obstinate. Heady. See Obstinate. Heal. See Cure. Healthy. "Wholesome. Sa- lubrious. Salutary. Healthy (A. S. haldh, health) bears the twofold meaning of possessing health, and inqmrting health. A healthy person; a healthy atmosphere. Wholesome (whole, in the sense of sovmd) is tending to health or sound- ness, or not inconsistent with them, whether of body or mind ; as a whole- some appetite, wholesome air, whole- some advice. But both healthy and wholesome are commonly employed in more than a negative sense, as when we Fay, "the situation is per- fectly healthy," " the food is quite wholesome." Healthy or healthful stands to wholesome as the positive to the negative. The former pro- motes or increases our bodily strength; the latter does no harm to our phy- sical coni- itution. And so healthy is more commonly applied to what comes to us in the way of exceptional benefit ; wholesome, to the necessaries of life. Unwholesome food disorganizes the functions of the body ; healthy air and recreation improve the physical I powers. In like manner, a wholesome I truth, wholesome advice, is j)resei-va- tive of morality and our interests. A healthy tone of mind tends to the im- provement of our faculties. The wholesome is assimilated and acted upon h7j us ; the healthy acts ^(2yon us. " A few cheerful companions in our walks will render them abundimtly more lieatthful, for, according to the ancient adage, they will serve instead of a carriage, or, iji other words, prevent the sensation of fatigue." — Knox, Essays. "Xot only grain has become somewhat cheaper, but many other things, from which the industrious poor derive sua agreeable and irholesome variety of iofA:'— Smith, Wealth of Nations. But Salubrious and Salutary (Lat. salus, health) are stronger and more positive. A salubrious air tends actuidly to estahliJi health, while that which is salutary tends to re- store it It may l:>e observed that, while salutary is employed of morals, as salutary advice, salubrious has no such application. It may be added that salubrious is employed in a pas- sive sense. Salutary is always actne. A salubi-ious eondition ; salutary re- medies. "Give the salubrious di-aughts with yuur own hand ; Persuasion has' the force of a command." Kiw). " WHien St. Paul delivered over to Satan, HEAP. ( 375 ) HEARTY. the design of it wns Sfl^ffirt/'//, that, tho spirit iiiii,dit be saved in the day of the Ln>rd Jesus." — Watcrland. Heap. Accumulate. Amass. Pile. To Heap (A. S. Ixearp, hca'pian) is to place pai'ticles or substances upon one another, so as to form some dt'gree of elevation. The action is indefinite in character, and may be performed with or without rule or system. In this resisect it differs from Pile, which is to heap piecemeal, and with system or care. To heap stones is general ; to pile them is specific. But even if the process of heaping have been per- formed with care, the heap which is the result has no distinctness of parts. On the other hand, the word pile may be used in a phrase expres- sive of praise. A heap of ruins. A noble pile of architecture. To Ac- cumulate (Lat. cmmilus, a heap) con- veys the idea of chance or desultory heaping. Men heap things when they know where to lay their hands to find them; they accumulate things when they heap them as they find them ; hence accumulate tends more strongly than heap to a figurative or moral meaning. The farmer heaps, but does not accumulate, corn, unless he buys it ujj from different quarters for stor- ing. But by industry and good fortune he accumulates wealth. Amass (Fr. amasser, masse, a mass) is to accumu- late in large quantities what is of substantial value, for the purpose of creating a store or fund ; as to amass wealth or learning : while that which is accumulated may be of no value ; as an accumulation of old clothes, or mud at a river's mouth. " The whole performance is not so much a regular fabric as a heap of shining mate- rials thrown together by accident, which strikes rather with the solemn magnificence of a stupendous ruin, than the elegant gran- deur of a finished pile." — Johnson. We heap things of the same or dif- ferent kinds; we accumulate things of the same kind. " He did conceive that it was against the first principles of Nature and false, that an heap or acciunulation should be and not be of homogeneous things; and therefore that whicii in its first being is not treasonable can never confer to maivc up an accmnulativo treason." — State Trials. " The heire shall waste the whourded gold, amassed with much payne." — Surrey. Hearken. Attend. Listen. These terms have each a primary and secondary meaning. The pri- mary meaning belongs to the acts, the secondary to the characteristics of the acts. The primary meaning of to Hearken is voluntarily and spe- cifically to exercise the faculty of liearing ; of Attend (Lat. attendere), to perform the mental act of bring- ing the understanding to bear on what is so heard; and of Listen (A. S. Mijstan), to hearken and attend con- jointly with some degree of propen- sity or interest. The secondary mean- ings are in accordance with these. We hearken to injunctions, com- mands. We attend to instructions or advice. We listen to entreaty and persuasion. " But here she comes ; I fairly step aside And hearken, if I may, her business." Milton. " He now prepared To speak, whereat their doubled ranks they bend From wing to wing, and half inclose him round. With all his peers ; attention held them mute." Ibid. "The external ear, we are told, had ac- quired a distinct motion upward and back- ward, which was observable whenever the patient listened to anything which he did not distinctly hear." — Paley. HeapvTy. Sincere. Cordial. Frank. Candid. Open. In- genuous. Warm. Hearty is having the heart in a thing — earnest, sincere. Heartiness implies honesty, simplicity, and cor- diality ; but the term leans rather to expressing the outward demonstra- tion of feeling than any quality of the feeling itself, though this is by no means excluded; as a hearty de- sire, a hearty laugh, a hearty shake of the hand, to return hearty thanks. So a hearty meal is one partaken of with good-will instead of with a languid or sickly appetite. HEARTY. ( 376 ) HEATHEN. " Where leisurely doffing a hat worth a tester, He bade me most heartily welcome to Chester." Cotton. Sincere (Lat. sincems, said to be sine cera, without wax, as if an epithet of pure honey), unlike hearty, ex- presses nothing of tlie strength of feeling, but only denotes that it is genuine, and not pretended. Sin- cere is very often mistaken for hearty, as in the common phrase, " I return my most sincere thanks." Thanks are either sincere or not. Sincerity does not admit of degrees, though the exhi- bition of feeling does. Sincerity is when the man disguises nothing from others or from himself ; and so may be predicated both of principle and of practice or demeanour. It is truth or truthfulness of motive. Sincerity combines reality of conviction and earnestness of purpose with purity or freedom from unfairness or dis- honesty. Unless these be combined, sincerity becomes a very fallacioxis term. " And a good man may likewise know when he obeys God sincerely. Not but that men often deceive themselves with an opinion, or at least a groundless hope, of their own sin- cerity. But if they will deal fairly with themselves, and use due care and diligence, there are very few cases (if any) wherein they may not know their own sincerity in any act of obedience to God. For what can a man know concerning himself if not the reality of his own intentions?" — Tillotson. Cordial (Lat. eor, cordis, the heart) is the Latin form of the Saxon hearty, and differs rather in the mode of ap- plication than in the essence of the meaning. Cordial is more subjective. Hearty, more objective. Cordial feel- ings ; hearty manifestations of them. Cordial thanks are thanks warmly felt. Hearty thanks are thanks warmly expressed. As sincere relates to the disposition, so Frank (Fi: franc) and Candid (Lat. candidus, candere, to be white) relate to the speech and man- ner. That man is frank who is open and itnreserved in the expression of his sentiuients, whatever they may be. That man is candid who is fair of mind, without prejudice, ready to admit his own fiiults or errors. "Then would I'.rit:iin !inecific kinds of action ; flagitious and atrocious are simply applicable to actions. So flagitious or atrocious deeds ; heinous cruelty ; a flagrant blunder. Fla- gitious expresses the badness of the deed ; atrocious, the badness of the motive, as one of violent and ener- getic evil. " There are many authors who have shown wherein the malignity of a lie consists, and set forth in jirojjcr colours the heinousncss of the offence." — Spectator. It desei-ves to be remarked that all these epithets appertain to character and deeds, but are not directly ap- plicable. We cannot say a heinous, flagrant, or flagitious man, nor very easily an atrocious man; but an atrocious tyrant, a heinous offence, a flagitious character. Milton, how- ever, in an old-fashioned way, says, " Punishing tyrants and flagitious persons.'''' " Ruined fortunes and flagitious lives." — Middleton, Cicero. "The mysteries of Bacchus were well chosen for an example of corrupted rites and of the mischief they produced, for they were early and flagrantly coYvn\AeA.." — Warhur- ton, Divine Legation. " When Cataline was tried for some atro- cious murders, many of the consulars ap- peared in his favour, and gave him an excel- lent character." — Bishop Porteus. Help. Aid. Assist. Succour. Eelleve. To Help (A. S. lieJpan) is the broad- est of these terms, of which the rest are modifications. It denotes the furnishing of additional j)Ower, means of deliverance, or relief ; as to help a man in his work; to help him to escape; to help his sickness, his in- firmities, or his troubles. To Aid (Fr. aider, Lat. adjuvarc) is less ener- getic than help, and lends itself better to that inactive kind of assistance which is rendered by, or rather de- rived from, inanimate things. " I fell, but recovered myself by the help of a friend." " I crossed the mountains safe with the aid of a chai-t and a staff." To aid is to help by co-opera- tion, and, in some instances, to enable to help oneself. Assist (Lat. assi.'itcre, to stand by) is piirely personal, though HELP. ( 379 ) HIDE. assistance is nsed with more latitude. It would not be permissible to say, " My stick assisted me to rise ;" yet we might say, " I rose with tlie assistance of my stick;" the simple word help or aid would, however, be much better. Help is something more urgently needed than assistance. Help is re- quired in labour, danger, difficulties, and the like ; assistance in the pursuit of a study or the performance of a work. He who is doing needs often to be assisted ; he who is suffering, to be helped. The man who is attacked by robbers needs help, not assistance, unless, after his rescue, he should find himself strong enough to en- deavour to rout or capture them. SuccouK (Fr. secours, Lat. succurrere, to run up to) relates to a condition of trouble or distress, and implies celerity and timeliness in the aid ))rought. To Relieve (Fr. relever, Lat. levis, light) is to lighten of a burden, or to lighten the burden itself. It is applicable to anything of the nature of a burden, as pain, distress, poverty. We help gene- rally ; we aid the weak ; we assist the struggling; we succour the indigent or bereaved; we relieve the needy, the afflicted, or the anxious. The aider should be active, the helper strong, the assister wise, the succourer timely, the reliever sympathising. " Who travels by the weary wandering way, To come unto his wisheil home in haste, And meets a Hood that doth his passage stay, Is not gi'eat grace to help him over past, Or free his feet that in the mire stick fast." Spenser. " Aiders, advisers, and abettors." — Bkiclir stone. " But genius and learning, when they meet in one person, are mutually and greatly assistant to each other; and in the poetical art Horace declares that either, without the other, can do little." — Beattie. "The devotion of life or fortune to the succour of the poor is a height of virtue to which humanity has never arisen by its own power." — Tatler. " The inferior ranks of people no longer looked upon that order as they had done before, as the comforters of their distress and the relievers of their indigence," — Smith, 1K»- inion which they have of their own singular art and cunning to conceal them from the knowledge, or at least of their power to rescue them from the jurisdic- tion of any earthly judge." — South. Secrete (Lat. secernere, secretus) is never nsed in other than a phy- HIDE. ( 380 ) HIGH. sical sense, and denotes tlie specific and purposed hiding of what is of a movable nature. Under this term oneself must be included. " The whole thing is too manifest to ml- mit of any doubt iu any man how long this thing has been working, how many tricks have been played with the Dean's (Swift's) j)apers, how they were secreted from time to time." — Pope. The term secrete commonly supposes an unworthy or unlawful motive. To Cover (Lat. cooperire) is only accidentally to hide. Hiding or con- cealment from view being the result of total covering and other circum- stances, as the non-transparency of the covering material. It may be observed that hiding and conceal- ment imply an impossibility of seeing or perceiving, though, of course, not an impossibility of detection. A man is concealed or hidden in a cupboard ; but he is not so if his form is simply covered by some covering which ex- hibits the outline of his figure, unless owing to some circumstance the searcher failed to observe it. Com- plete covering on the one side, or such as to produce non-recognition on the othei", is needful to constitute concealment. All that is essential to covering is super-extension ; any- thing else as concealment is acci- dental. " Cover thy head, cover thy head, nay, prithee, be covered." — Shakespeare. Screen (Old Fr. escran) is to place in relation to an interposed obstacle for the purpose of protection or con- cealment. In the former case, the influence may not be such as to render invisibility necessary, as to screen from wind or draught by a plantation or a transparent glass partition. To Shelter (ccmnected with shield) is very nearly the same as sci'een ; but while screen is em- ployed of protection against the less violent, shelter is used of the more violent, annoyances. Shelter also is more complete than screen. Screen- ing is partial shelter. To screen from harm ; to shelter from attacks ; to screen from the sun or the wind; to shelter from the storm ;uid blast ; to screen from blame ; to shelter from violence. "He brought our Saviour to the western side Of that high mountain, whonce He might behold Another plain, long, but in breadth not wide, Washed by the southern sea, and on tlie north To equal length, backed with a ridge of hills That screened the fruits of th' earth and seats of men From cold septentrion blasts." 3mon. » It was a still And calmy bay, on th' one side sheltered With the broad shadow of an hoary hill." Sjjcnser. Hideous. SnocKiNa. Hideous (Old Fr. hide, fright) is primarily frightful to behold, as a hideous monster. It has been ex- tended to sounds, as a hideous noise. The effect of the hideovis is produced through the senses or the imagina- tion, not through the pure reason. Shocking (Fr. choc, a shock) acts with more sudden etfect, and is ap- plicable to the moral feelings and the taste. Things can be only casually shocking ; but hideous is a j)ermanent quality. The hideous con- tradicts only beauty; the shocking contradicts morality. " The war-dance consists of a great variety of violent motions and hideous contortions of the limbs, dui-ing which the countenance also performs its part." — Cook's Voyages. " The grossest and most shocking villanies." —Seeker. High. Tall. Lofty. High (A. S. heah, with other forms), as regards their purely i)hysical ap- plication, has an additional sense to that of the other two, as denoting, 1, continuous extension upwards ; and 2, position at a point of eleva- tion. A tree may be high, tall, or lofty. Clouds are high without being tall . In the sense in which it is syn- onymous with the other two, high denotes considerable elevation. So we say, a high house, but not a high num. Tall t^ Welsh tdl) is high in HILARITY. ( .vSi ) HINT. stature, ttat is, with a slenderness as ■well as heiglit, and implies growth upwards, natural or artificial. Hence we speak of a tall man, tree, column, mast, but not of a tall mountain or house. Lofty (Genu. Inft, tlic upper air) denotes an imposing elevation, or the union of expansion with height; as a lofty room. High and lofty are applicable to moral characteristics; tall is not. "The full blazing sun, Which now sat hujh in his meridian tower." Milton. " I fear to go out of my depth in sounding imaginary fords which are real gulfs, and wherein many of the tallest philosophers have been drowned, while none of them ever got over to the science they had in view." — Bolimjhroke. " Did ever any conqueror loftily seated in his triumphal chariot yield a spectacle so gallant and magnificent ?" — Barrow. Joviality or Jol- HlLAKITT. LITY. These differ as the subjects. Hi- larity (Lat. hilaritas, liilaris, joyous) belongs to social excitement, especially of the table among more refined company; Joviality (Lat. Jovial is, from Jupiter, Jovis, the planet, which was supposed to impart the mirthful character to those who were born under it), to the same thing among the less refined. It is only to state the same thing in another form, to say that hilarity is more an affection of the mind, joviality of the animal spirits. "It (music) will perform all this in an in- stant, cheer up the countenance, expel auste- rity, bring in hilarity." — Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy. "The sport of their lowHQ&i jovialities." — Barrow. Hrs'D. See Peasant. Hinder. See Clog and Debar. Hint. Suggestion, Intima- tion. Insinuation. Innuendo. A Hint (A. S. hentan, to pursue) is an iudrrect communication of in- struction, the incompletely expressed form of which has commonly for its cause a reluctance on the part of the hinter to speak more fully and plainly. Suggestion (Lat. siuj(jerere, suyyi'dus) is given visibly or entire to the per- sons receiving it, though the com- munication is commonly concealed from others. The man who makes a good suggestion claims more grati- tude than the hinter, who shuns re- sponsibility, unless it is the best that he could do under the circumstances. Both hint and suggest have ordi- narily reference to practical assist- ance and directions, hint referring to the present or the past, and sug- gestion to the future; a hint of danger, a suggestion how to avoid it. But hint rather concerns matters of knowledge ; suggest, matters of con- duct. To Intimate (Fr. intimer, Lat. intivms, nearest) meant at first to share secretly or privately, in which sense it is at jn-esent obsolete. It now means to give obscure or indirect notice, or to suggest apart from others. It is in this point that in- timate differs from hint and sflggest, which relate to the affairs of the person to whom the hint or sugges- tion is made; while intimate may relate primarily to the mind or in- tentions of him who makes the intima- tion. I give another a hint, or make him a suggestion ; intimate my own wishes or purpose. But the subject of the intimation is commonly one in which the other is personally con- cerned. To Insinuate (Lat. in and ainus, the bosom) is to introduce gradually and artfully, to state by remote allusion. Like hint, it comes commonly from a wish to impart a fact or an impi-ession without incur- ring the responsibility of plainly stating it. An Innuendo (Lat. m- 7iuere, to give a nod) is a term of the old Law Latin, and is now used much in the same sense as insinua- tion, btit has more specific aim at personal character and conduct, and is couched in langiiage of donble meaning, as insinuation of indirect application. " He hath frequently taken the hint from very trifling objections to strengthen his former works by several most material con- siderations and convincing arguments." — Nelson, Life of Bull. HTRE^. ( 382 ) HOARD. "If good? Why do I yield to that sug;jes- tion, ' ■ Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair, And make my sealed heart knock at my ribs, Against the nse of nature ?" Shakespeare, Macbeth. " Mr. Plott, who, as he since informed me, had prevailed with them to propose this treaty, earnestly pressed me to lay hold on the opportunity, i7itirnatmg by his words and gestures that if I refused it I should not have another." — Ludlow, Memoirs. " Cervantes made Don Quixote say, ' If the stories of chivalry be lies, so must it also be that there ever was a Hector or an Achilles, or a Trojan war.' A sly stroke of satire by which this mortal foe of chivalry would, I suppose, insimiate that the Grecian romances were just as extravagant and as little cre- dible as the Gothic." — Hurd. " As, by the way of innuendo, Lucns is made a non lucendo." Churvhill. Hike. See Salary. Hireling, Mercenary. Hireling (A. S. hyrlhig) is one ■who serves or acts for Lire, and is not necessarily a term of venality, though never one of honour. Mercenary (Lat, mercenarms, merces, wages) is also one who serves for wages, Ijut is employed exclusively in a bad sense when used of the character, though not so when used of the employment. Hired soldiers, called mercenaries, may earn their wages honourably. A mercenary match is one made for the sordid lo^'« of money. The acting for profit ex- clusively in any way is called mer- cenary, " The hireling fleeth because he is an hire- ling." — Bible. " This is to show both how tyranny stands in need of mercenary soldiers, and how those mercenaries are by mutual obligation firmly assured unto the tyrant." — Ralegh. History. Annals, Chronicles. Annals (Lat. annales, annus, a year), the bare public registration of events connected with the progress of affairs of state, are the germ and rudiments of history. These are followed by Chronicles (Gr. xP'""'^"^* belong- ing to time, xp"''°^) which ai*e only ampler narratives, and fall short of that analysis of motive and action, cause and effect, which are needed to make tip the idea of philosophic His- tory. By a poetic licence, annals is used as an elegant word for history ; as, " The short and simple annals of the poor." " For justly Caesar scorns the poet's lays ; It is to history he trusts for praise." Pope. " For among so many writers there hath yet none to my knowledge published any full, plain, and mere English history. For some of them of purpose meaning to write short notes in manner of annales, commonly called abridgments, rather touch the times when things were done than declare the manner of the dtoiags."— Grafton. " A chronicler should well in divers tongues be seen, And eke in all the arts he ought to have a sight, Whereby he might the truth of divers actions deem. And both supply the wants, correct that is not right. He should have eloquence, and full and fitly write ; Not mangle stories, snatching here and there ; Not glose to make a volume great appear. He should be of such countenance and wit As should give witness to the histories he writes. He should be able well his reasons so to kuit As should continue well the reasons he recites. He should not praise, dispraise, for fa- vour or despite, But should so place each thing in order due As might approve the stories to be true." Mirrour for 3fagistrates. Hit. See Beat. Hoard, Treasure, Hoard (A. S. hordan, heordan) is to amass with commonly some degx'ee of privacy or secrecy, and is a term of collective application. Treasure (Fr. tresor, Lat. thesaurus) is applicable to a single thing or to a number. We hoard that which we believe may stand us in good stead; we treasure that which is intrinsically valuable, or on which we personally place a value. HOIST. ( 3S3 ) TTOMAGR. IToiST. ^ee Lift. Hold. See Contain anH Pos- sess. Hold. Arrest. Detain. Keep. Eetain. Preserve. To Hold (A. S. henhhm), as used in a piTvely pliysical sense, is to cause to remain in a fixed i^osition or re- lation, and is equally applicable to voluntary agents and mechanical force or support. To Arrest (Fr. arrester, to cause to stop) is to ex- ercise a holding power upon what is in action, movement, or progress, and, like hold, may be voluntaiy or me- chanical. To Detain (Lat. detinere) is a milder term than arrest, the re- sult being physical, but the cause not necessarily so, as to be detained by important business ; or physical causes operating indirectly upon the person, as to be detained by an accident. Keep (A. S. cepmi) is to hold in some desirable relation to oneself, whether direct j)ossession or _ not, against separating or depriving forces, and hence has often the sense of guardianship. Retain (Lat. re- tinere) is to keep as against any in- trinsic alteration or loss of power to hold ; as, a metal retains heat ; I still retain my intention. To Preserve (Lat. proi and servare) is to cause to continue whole, unbroken, or unim- paired ; as, to preserve fruits, to pre- serve silence. He kept silence, that is, as something from which he would not part. He held his tongue, that is. as something which he would not allow to move. He retained his silence, that is, in spite of attempts to induce him to abandon it. He preserved silence, that is, from being broken. " A person lays hold upon a thing when he takes possession of it, and claims it as his right and property. In this sense the ai)Ostle speaks with much diiKdence and humility of his hope of laying hold of his reward." — Ilordcj. " Consent to pay thee that I never had ! Arrest me, foolish fellow, if thou dar'st." Shakespeare. " If I lend a man a horse, and he after- wards refuses to restore it, this injury con- sists in the detaining, and not in the original taking ; and the regular method for me to recover possession is by action of detenue." — State Trials. " Am I my brother's keeper ?" — Bible. " Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are re- mitted unto them ; and whosesoever sins ye retain; they ai-e retained." — Ibid. "In this case, would this man, think we, act rationally, should he, upon the slender possibility of escaping, otherwise neglect the sure infallible preservation of his life by casting away his rich goods ?" — South. Hole. See Cavity. Holiday. See Festival. Hollow. See Empty and Ca- vity. Holy. See Devout. Homage. Fealty. Court. Homage (Lat. Iwmncjium, homo, a man) was the act by wlaich a feudal inferior professed himself to be the man or subject of the feudal lord. Fealty (Old Fr. feed, foi, faith) was the fidelity of such a tenant; and, more strictly, a lower species of homage made by oath on the part of such tenants as were bound to personal service. Court (Old Fr. court, New Fr. cour) is to endeavour to gain favour by such demeanour or acts as are practised at the courts of princes. In present parlance, we pay homage to men of excellence, virtue, or power, or, by a figure of speech, to the excellences themselves ; we show fealty to principles by which we have professed to be guided, or to persons who are not so far our su- periors as is implied in homage. And we pay court when we desire personal favour, consulting the character and humour of the person to whom wo pay it. " All these are spirits of air, and wood, and springs, Thy gentle ministers who come to pay Thee homage, and acknowledge thee their Lord. What doubt'st Thou? Son of God, sit down and eat." Milton. " Studious to win your consort, and seduce Hor from chaste /e«% to joys impure." Fenton. " Needs a shipwrecked seaman be courted to come to shore, or a weary traveller to a place of rest ?" — Bishop Beveridge. HONESTY. ( 3S4 ) HOPE. HoxESTY. Sincerity. Up- raoHTNEss. Probity. Integrity. Honesty (Fr. Jwnnetete) is a per- fectly pliun and unamVjiguous term. It denotes fairness and straiglitfor- wardness of thought, speech, purpose, or conduct. Sincerity (.Lat._ sin- cerus) has a double meaning, either, 1, reality of conviction or earnestness of purpose; or, 2, exemption from unfairness or dishonesty. The one is the condition of mind in itself ; the other, the relation of this state to practical matters. Hence a man may be sincere and dishonest. Sincere in his profession of his purpose, and dishonest in the means he employs to effect it. Uprightness is honesty combined ^dth a native dignity of character ; it belongs to men who can mix with their fellow-men and retain an independent bearing; while the poorest laboui-ing man who has no contact with the world may be strictly honest. As commonly taken, honesty is not so much a matter of principle as of act and habit. A man is said to be honest who will not defraud, directly or indirectly. An honest tradesman asks fair prices, and sells good articles. He may be a sad slanderer, and deprive others of their due in this respect ; yet the world would still call him honest. Probity (Lat. j3roZ>«s) and Integrity (Lat. integer, whole) are higher terms, in- dicative of higher virtues and larger characteristics. The man of probity is a man of principle, and not merely of habit; he is far more than com- mercially honest ; he gives men their due in all respects. Integrity comes from a sense of responsibility, a de- sire to keep that whole in oneself which ought not to be broken. It will show itself in the discharge of a trust or the execution of an office, but not only so. To the man of integrity life itself is a trust. Fidelity to the obligations of law and duty suffice for probity. Integrity is an habitual regard to the principles of morality and conscience. " Goodness is that which makes men prefer their duty and their promise before their passions or their interest, and is properly the object of trust. In our language it goes rather by the name of honesti/, though what we call an honest man the Romans called a good man ; and honcsti/ in their language, as well as in French, rather signifies a compo- sition of those qualities which generally acquire honour and esteem to those who possess them." — Sir W. Temple. " Let us consider that sinceriti/ is a duty no less plain than important, that our con- sciences require it of us, .and reproach us for every breach of it, that the light of nature taught it the very heathens, though imper- fectly, as it did everything else, and that Scripture abounds with the strictest precepts of it, and strongest motives to it." — Knox. " ' Then,' says the good Psalmist, ' shall I not be ashamed ;' that is, then may I safely confide in my own innocence and uprightness, when I have respect unto all Thy command- ments, when I find myself equally determined to obey every Divine precept, and resolved to allow myself in no pi-actice whatsoever which the law of God doth not allow of." — Atte?-bjiri/. " If we could once get ourselves possessed of this probity, this purity of mind and heart, it would better instruct us in the use of our liberty, and teach us to distinguish between good and evil." — Sharp. Honour. See Glory. Hope. Expectation. Trust. Confidence. Assurance. All these terms denote the reposing of the mind upon the future. The anticipation of the future is common to Hope (A. S. hopian, to hope) and Expectation (Lat. expectare, e or ex, out, and spcctare, to watch). In pro- portion as it is welcome, we hope ; in proportion as it is certain, we expect. We may expect, but not hope for, an occurrence which will cause us pain. Confidence and Assurance closely resemble each other ; but confidence' [conjidentia, confidere, fides, faith) is properly used only in relation to moral agents and on the ground of probity of character. Assurance (Fr. assurer, sur, s- earns, sure) is confi- dence in oneself, or such confidence as flows from internal conviction upon matters of fact. Assurance is passive; confidence is active. Con- fidence is such assurance as leads to a feeling of security or reliance. To Trust is to rest upon another as able to bear what wc impose ; so we HOPELESS. ( 38s ) HOWEVER. trust in what is solid or unsolid ; men, who are trustworthy or otherwise ; statements, which may be veracious or not ; strength or efforts, which may or may not be equal to the task. Trust inojiiniou is belief; in religious opinion, faith ; in pecuniary worth, stability, and integrity, credit; and in moral probity, couiljined with suffi- ciency of power, confidence. Assur- ance is based upon mental confidence on mortvl evidence in favour of the thing eij)ected. " Hope is the encouragement given to de- sire, the pleasing expectancy that its object shall be obtained." — Cogan. "In its general operation the indulgence of hope is mixed with certain portions of doubt and solicitude ; but when doubt is removed, and the expectation becomes san- guine, hope rises into joy ; and it has been known to produce transports and ecstasies equally with the full accomplishment of ardent desires." — Ibid. " In a word, every man implicitly trusts his bodily senses concerning external objects placed at a convenient distance ; and every man with as good a reason puts even a greater trust in the perceptions of which he is con- scious in his own mind." — Bishop Horsley. " Yet not terrible That I should fear; not sociably mild, Like Raphael, that I should much confide ; But solemn, whom, not to oftend, With reverence I must meet, and then re- tire." Milton. "On informing him of our difficulties and asking whether we might venture across the plain, he bid ns, like Casar, with an air of assurance, follow him and fear nothing." — • Giljyin. Hopeless. Desperate. Hopeless is an epithet of things ; Desperate, of things and persons. Hopeless is less strong than desper- ate, because it sometimes denotes no more than an absence of hope of success in matters where sviccess is desirable, and desired, but no more. A project may have been hopeless from the first; so that no real hope was placed in it. A desperate under- taking is one which is associated with great if not absolute abandonment of hope, in what is not only desired but begun. It deserves, however, to be observed, that the full force of despair does not survive in the adjec- tive desperate. There must be some degree of hope in a desperate under- taking ; though a desperate act must be the simple result of despair. Horrible. See Dreadful. Horrid. See Dreadful. Host. Army. Host (Lat. hodis, enemy) denotes an opiDOsing or hostile force of in- definite number, not strictly orga- nized ; hence, generally, a very nu- merous collection. Army (Fr. armce, Lat. arma, arms) is composed of a definite number of organized sol- diers. Hostile. See Adverse. Hot. See Burning. House. Family. Lineage. Eace. House (A. S. Ms), when employed as a synonym with the rest here given, is only employed of very dis- tinguished families, as the House of Austria, the House of York or Lan- caster, and is an historical term comprising successive generations. Family (Lat. familia) denotes those who descend from one common pro- genitor ; hence the term may be applied to the whole human race or " family of man." Lineage (Lat. linea, a line) is that common line of descent which constitutes the house or family. Race (Fr. race, Lat. radix, root) is more comprehensive, indefi- nite, and broad ; as the human race, the Caucasian or Mongolian race — indicating masses of men ethno- logically one. However. Yet. Neverthe- less. Notwithstanding. Still. But. But (A. S. Udan, to be outside) has a twofold meaning, which might be expressed by the phrases, " But yet," and, " But on the contrary ;" as, " This is not summer, but it is as warm ;" and, " This is not summer, but winter." It is with the first of these meanings that the other terms given above are synonymous. Hovfevek has 2 c HUE. ( 386 ) HUGE. a waiving or cancelliDg force. " How- ever, tlie matter is not important, would mean, that in any case it is so, whether what had been advanced were admitted or not. It seems equivalent to saying that what fol- lows is so indisputable, that the speaker is willing to forego all that has been said. Yet is stronger than but ; and Still yet stronger. It does not cancel, but retains pre\dous argu- ment, and admits it ; but maintaius that what follows is not removed for all that. " All you say is true ; stiU I think." Notwithstanding and Nevertheless are still stronger; nevertheless being the strongest of all. Yet brings into contrast both expanded statements and simple ideas. "Addison was not a good speaker; yet he was an admirable wi-iter," might have been rendered by, "Addison was not an orator, but a writer;" or, " Addison was ineloquent, yet accomplished;" where it will be observed that but follows a negative expression, and yet a positive but adverse, or seemingly adverse, one; or, conversely, " He was accomplished, h\d no^ eloquent." Nevertheless and notwithstanding are almost identical ; they have no diiference beyond that which is apparent on the face of the structure of these composite forms. First, it will be observed that never- theless is a conjimctive adverb, while notwithstanding is also a preposition. " He contradicted me, but I maintained the truth of what I had said, not- withstanding," or, "nevertheless;" but we might also say, " I maintained my statement, notwithstanding his con- tradiction ;" where nevertheless could not have been used. This f m-ce, how- ever, has grown up out of transpo- sition of the order ; in old and more formal English, it would have been, "His contradiction of me notwith- standing ;" that is, affording no effec- tual opposition. Notwithstiinding implies that the fad stated remains true ; nevertheless, that its force re- mains undiminished. Hue. Colour. Tint. Hue {}dw and other forms) was formerly wi'itten hew. It is, strictly speaking, a compound of one or niore colom-s, so forming an intervenient shade. The Coloxjes (Lat. color) are properly the seven prismatic colours deduced from light by the prism. Tint (Lat. tingere, tinctus) is a colour or hue faintly exhibited. Hue is a vague conversational, rhetorical, or poetical term. Colour is strictly ar- tistic and scientific. Colours are divided into primarij — those which are developed by the sun's. ray from the prism; these are regarded by some as seven— red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet ; which are reduced by some to red, yellow, and blue; camphmentarij, which are colours so related to each other that when blended they produce white light ; and suhjective or accidental colour, or that which exists only in impression upon the retina, as a white wheel with a regularly subdivided circumference rapidly revolving upon a black ground, assumes the appear- ance of teeth of different shades of colour varying with the degree of motion. Huge. Enormous. Prodigious. Yast. These terms express excessive size. Huge (Old Eug. Iwyye, hougc) de- notes great size, with shapelessness or massiveness preponderating over j>roportion. Enormous (Lat. e, out, and norma, a rule) is huge of its par- ticular kind, far exceeding its own proper average or standard. Pro- digious (Lat. prodigium, a prodigy) expresses size or quantity in regard to the effect produced of astonish- ment in our own minds. Vast (Fr. vaste. Lat. vastus, empty) expresses the quality of great superficial extent. " The knight himself even trembled at his So hwje and horrible a mass it seemed. Spenser. " And on the other hand, had man's body- been made too monstrously strong, too enor- rnousli/ gigantic, it would have rendered him a dangerous tyrant in the world, too strong in some respects even tor his own kind, ;u5 well as the other creatures." — Dcr/unn. " We may justly, I sav, stand amazed that men should be «) prodijiously supine and HUMANITY. ( 387 ) HURT. negligent in an affair of this importance as we see they generally are." — Sharp. "What a vast field for contemplation is here opened !" — Woolaston. Humanity. See Benignity. Humble. See Abase and Lowly. Humiliate. See Abase, Humidity. See Daimp. Humour. See Buklesque, Ca- price, Juice, and Mood. Hunt. See Chase. Hurl. See Throw. Hurricane. See Storm. Hurry. See Haste. Hurt. Damage. Detriment. Injury. Harm. Prejudice. Injustice. Wrong. Mischief. Hurt (A. S. hyrt) is physical injury causing pain, and is applied to animals as having a sensitive life, and to plants as being quasi- sen- sitive. "When nsed of the mind or feelings, hurt is employed analo- gously, in the sense of receiving a rude shock ; as, " His pride was hurt." The word is employed in its strict meaning in the following : — "The least A«/-i or blow, especially upon the head, may make it (an infant) senseless, stui)id, or otiierwise miserable for ever." — Spectator. Some degree of physical violence is implied in hurt. A subtle noxious influence would injure, but not hurt. The constitution might be injured or harmed, but not hurt, by residence in an unhealthy locality. Damage (Old Fr. damage, from the Lat. damnum, loss or injury) is harm extei'nally inflicted on what is of value, as trees, movable property, crops, personal reputation. A slave so severely hurt as to lose the use of limb is damaged, as being a valuable commodity. "That to the utmost of our ability we ought to repair any damage we have done to others, is self-evident." — Beattie. This refers of course only to such damage as involves a wi'ong done. On tlie other hand, damage may bo purely material, as the damage d(jne to crops by a storm, or as in the case given above. Detriment {deterere, detrihis, to rub off) is used very gencrically, and would include loss 01 value by in- tei-nal causes. It is also applied to what is of the nature of a good with- out having a strictly appreciable value ; as a detriment to religion and morals. " Though every man hath a property in his goods, yet he must not use them iu detri- ment of the commonwealth." — State Trials. Injury (Lat. injuria) has the piirely physical meaning of permanent hurt to physical objects, and of harm to whatever is susceptible of it, as moral beings, and even abstract goods ; as, a tree is injured by a storm ; injury to a man's person or to his character ; injury to the cause of religion or of progress. The word injury is one of the rarer cases in which a term of naoral import has become applicable in a physical sense, instead of the converse. The primary idea is that of wi-ong or a deed against justice. As such deeds are often done by violence, and accompanied by material hurt, the term has come to be applicable to the infliction or result of violence even in unconscious subjects. " Many times we do injury to a cause by dwelling on trifling arguments." — Watts. Harm (A. S. harm, hearm) is i)er- sonal and intentional injury, but is not confined to this, and may be un- intentional and impersonal. Harm is that sort of hurt which causes trouble, difiiculty, inconvenience, loss, or impedes the desirable growth, ope- ration, progress, and issue of things. Harm is that which contradicts or counteracts well-being, and is un- favourable to the proper energy of what has activity. "And who is he that shall harm you, if ye be followers of that which is good ?" — Bihlc. Prejudice (Lat. prcjudicium) is a foregone conclusion, and, by an un- favourable extension of meaning, against a person; hence generally harm. It is, however, employed only of persons and their interests or 2 c 2 HURT. ( 388 ) IDEA. causes ; tliougli tlie adjective preju- dicial has a wider application in the sense of hurtful. " I am not to prejudice the cause of my fellow poets, though I abandon my own de- fence." — JJrijden: Injustice is the principle of whicli injury is the manifestation. Injus- tice is also used in the sense of moral injury, as a suspicion which does another an injustice. Injustice re- lates to existent rights, which are disregarded or violated. " If this people resembled Nero in their extravagance, much more did they (the Athenians) resemble and even exceed him in cruelty and injustice." — Burke. Wrong is an injury done by one person to another in express violation of justice. It may be observed that both injustice and wrong lie in the principle, injury in the act. So one may commit a wrong or an injustice wdthout committing an injury, sup- posing that circumstances turned out more favourably or less unfavovir- ably to the person than we contem- plated or intended. On the other liand, w^here design was absent, there might be injury without injustice. " The distinction of public wroiKjs from private, of crimes and misdemeanours from civil inj uries." — Blackstone. Mischief (Old Fr. meschef, from Lat. minus, less, and chef, Lat. caput, a head) is harm or damage produced by something blameworthy, as heed- lessness, neglect, i^erversity, wanton- ness. It is a confusion of thought to use the term as simply equivalent to injurious, and to say, as is some- times said, " The heavy rains have been mischievous to the crops." Mis- chief conveys the idea of a bad or wantonly injurious intent, as well as the harm in which it results, and so belongs to beings of intelligence and will, not to elemental or mechanical forces. Mis(;hief is, however, not so frave a term as injury or damage, t commonly denotes not so much destructive as detrimental effects produced by the folly, idleness, or perversity of men. " Why boastetii thou thyself, thou tyrant, that thou canst do mischief!" — Eiijlish I'salins. Hurt. See Sorry. Hurtful. See Noxious, Husbandman. See Farmer. Husbandry. See Cultivation. Hypocrite. Dissembler. Hypocrite (Gr. vnoKpirrjs, an actor) is a false pretender to virtue or piety, and is a Dissembler (Lat. dlssivm- lare) as to one half of his character, that is, as to being what he pretends not to be (see Dissemble), but not as to the other, namely, the not being what he pretends to be. Hypocrisy, it has been observed, is the homage which vice pays to virtue; an idea which is only expanded in the follow- ing :— " Hypocrisy is a more modest waj- of sin- ning. It shows some reverence to religion, and does so far own the worth and excellency of it as to acknowledge that it deserves to be counterfeited." — Tillotson,. " Thou liest, dissembler ! on thy brow I read distracted horrors figured in thy looks." Ford. Hypothesis. See Guess. I. Idea. Notion. Conception. Perception. The perceiving of something ex- ternal by the mind through the senses is called a sensation ; the image as it exists in the mind as a matter of reflection is an Idea. The idea is thus present to the fancy, and independent of the cause whicli ex- cited it. When two or more ideas are combined, so that the expression of them would take the form of an altirmation, this is a Notion. " I saw the moon last night ;" this was sen- sation or physical perception. •' I recollect the image of what I saw ;" this is the idea. I connect it with roundness of shape, so as to say, " It was spherical ;" this is a notion. Ideas are faint or vivid, vngue or distinct; notions are single or com- plex, true or false. A notion is true of which the ideas are veritably as- sociated in nature; false when we IDEAL. ( 389 ) IDLE. associate ideas necessarily or natu- rally incoherent. In a complex notion we often associate some that are naturally united with some that are incoherent. The truth can only be obtained by disentangling the parts, and comparing anew the parts and their combinations with experience. Such is the sense of the word idea, for which we are indebted to Locke, according- to the Cartesian system. Before him the term idea, as employed according to the system of Plato, meant the archetypes or patterns of created things, as they existed from eternity in the mind of the Creator before, and independ- ently of, their embodiment in out- ward and visible things. Concep- tion (Lat. concij)ere, conceptus) is a conscious act of the understanding, classifying objects or impressions; that is, referring them to the same general class or order by means of some or more characters in common. Perception (Lat. percipere, per- ceptus) is a term of which the use varies with philosophers. Its older use was nearly identical with that of consciousness. It has of late been narrowed to the faculty whereby we acquire knowledge, and especially, through the senses, of the external world. With others perception and sensation are confounded ; while with others, again, sensation is physical, and perception that operation of the mind in regard to external things which follows and is based upon sen- sation. Ideal. Imaginary. The use of the adjective Ideal flows from the Platonic use of the term idea. It is not opposed to the real, but abstracted from it. The ideal is formed from the actual by abstracting what is excellent in indi- vidual specimens into an imaginary whole. Imaginary denotes what has no existence but in the imagina- tion. In the ideal the component parts are real, though the whole may be called imaginary, iuasmuch as it is not practically met Avith ; but the imaginary is applicable to such things as never could be met with ; things created by the mind independently of experience, as the animal called the griffin, for instance. "With inward view, Thence on th' ideal kingdom swift she turns Her eye, and instant, at her powerful glance, Th' obedient phantoms vani.sh or appear." '17iomson. "When time shall once have laid his lenient hand on the passions and pursuits of the present moment, they too shall lose that imaginary value which heated fancy now bestows upon them." — Blair. Ideal. Model. When these terms appear as syno- nyms, it is that either might be taken to mean the j)erfect form of any- thing. Model (see Example) may mean either a pattern of what a thing is, or a pattern of what it might be at the best. In the latter case, it stands to the Ideal as the conception to the illustration. The Venus de Medicis is the ideal of female beaaty as it is a conception of the sculptor, a model as it is a statue. Idiom, See Language. Idiot. Fool, An Idiot (G-r. IBiaTrjs, a private person unqualified to bear the bur- dens of the state, hence, by a modern extension of meaning, of weak miml) is one who is destitute of the ordi- nary intellectual powers of man. He is a born fool, the mental condition being commonly accompanied by some defect in the physical forma- tion. Fool (Fr. fol, foti) is capable of other meanings, as a i>erson of very languid mind and sluggish com- prehension, or one who lives con- trary to the principles of practical wisdom. Idiotcy. See Madness. Idle. Lazy. Indolent. Idle (A. S. idel, ydcl) originally meant unprofitable, as, "idle pas- tures," that is, not supporting cattle. It has at present a twofold meaning, 1. imemployed, and 2, averse to em- ployment. Idleness bears reference to a man's proper tasks and duties. He who escapes from these, and will do nothing useful, is idle, although he may be far from Lazy, and the opposite to indolent. Idleness is IDLE. ( 39° ) IGNORANT. consistent witli activity in mischief. Indolent {in, not, and dolere, to suft'er ijain) denotes a love of ease and an aversion to active effort, whetlier of mind or body. It is possible to be indolent in mind, and not in body, and vice versa. Lazy is a sti'onger and more disparaging term than indolent, expressive of a slothful habit of body, to which phy- sical effort, and especially industrious employment, is hateful. " The soul's play day is always the devil's working day, and the idler the man still the busier the tempter. The tmth is, id/cncss offers up the soul as a blank to the devil for him to write what he will upon it." — South. " Shall we keep our hands in our bosom, or stretch ourselves on our beds of laziness, while all the world about ' us is hard at work pursuing the designs of its creation ?" — Bari-oic. " But, indeed, there are crowds of people who put themselves in no method of pleasing themselves or others ; such are those whom we usually call indolent persons. Indolence is, methinks, an intermediate state between pleasure and pain, and very much unbecom- ing any part of our life after we are out of the nurse's arms." — Sjxctator. Idle, Leisure. "Vacant. As applied to poi^tions of time. Idle, as an idle hour, is always taken in a sense more or less un- favourable. An idle hour is con- fessedly one which might have been better spent. A Leisure hour (Fr. loisir, Lat. licere) is one which has been rightly spared from business, or which is open to being so, but of which nothing is said as to the spend- ing. A Vacant hour (Lat. vacans, from vacare, to be vacant) is inde- finitely one which might have been filled up, but is not. A leisure time is welcome ; a vacant hour may be unwelcome if employment were de- sired. Ignition. See Fire. Ignominy. Infamy. Oppro- brium. Shame. Ignominy (Lat. ignominia, in, not, and novicn, name, deprivation of good name) is public disgrace which at- taches to persons. Infamy (Lat. infamia) is total loss of reputation, or extreme baseness, as attaching to character or deeds. Infamy is stronger than ignominy, inasmuch as it consigns the subject of it to public detestation, while ignominy brings contempt. It may also be observed that ignominy depends xipon the sentiments of men, who may inflict it where it is undeserved ; whereas infamy depends upon the fact of deeds done. Opprobrium is less strong, indicating a mingled feeling of reproach and disdain, which may be undeserved. Shame (A. S. scamii) carries with it the additional idea of the sense or feeling of dis- grace. " Who (the king) never called a Parlia- ment but to supply his necessities, and hav- ing supplied those, as suddenly and iijnomi- niouslji dissolved it, without redressing any one grievance of the people." — Milton. " But the afflicted queen would not yield, and said she would not damn her soul nor submit to such infamy ; that she was his wife, and would never call herself by any other name." — Burnet. " ' He,' saith St. James, ' that speaketh against his brother, and judgeth his brother, speaketh against the law and judgeth the law ;' that is, he opprohriousln doth imply the law to be defective until he doth complete or correct it." — Barrow. "Shame, which is an uneasiness of the mind upon the thought of having done some- thing which is indecent, or will lesson the valued esteem which others have for us." — Locke. Ignorant. Illiterate. Un- learned. Unlettered. Ignorant (Lat. ignorare) denotes want of knowledge, either of a single fact, or, generally, of such matters as it is considered that men ought to know. Illiterate (Lat. in, not, and litera, a letter) is ignorant of letters. Some persons are ignorant of common practical every-day matters, who are far from being iUiterate ; others are illiterate who, without the oppor- tunities of good education, have l^icked up a considerable stock of general information. Unlearned and Unlettered differ from il- literate in not implying reproach. A man may be learned in one branch of learning, and unlearned in another. ILL, ( 391 ) IMMATERIAL. Unlettered is ratlici* a rbetorlcal and poetical than a prosaic term. An honest peasant of little or no educa- tion ono-ht to he called unlearned; a pretentious rich man, but unedu- cated, may weU be styled illiterate. " Yet ah ! wh)' shoulil thoy know their fate, .Since sorrow never comes too late, And liai)inDess too swiftly flies ? Thought would destroy their paradise. No more. Where ijnorance is bliss, Tis folly to be wise." Gray. "Others are not capable either of the em- ployments or divertisements that accrue from letters. I know they are not, and therefore cannot much recommend solitude to a man totally illiterate." — Cowley. "The immortality of the soul has been commonly believed in all ages and in all ]ilaees by the milotrncd ])art of all civilized peoj)le, and by the almost general consent of all the most barbarous nations under heaven," — Clarke. Unlettered is a very old word in Eng- lish, as in the following : — " And thei sighen the stidefastnesse of Peter and Joon, for it was foundern that thei weren men unlettrid." — Wiclif. III. See Evil and Badly. Illness. See Indisposition. Illiterate. Illuminate. Illumine, a Illusion. ^ Illustrate. Explain. Illustrious. Ill-will, t Imaginary. Imagination Thought. Imagine. See Apprehend. Imbibe. Absorb. In Imbibing (Lat. in and hibere, to drink) the moisture taken away from one body is taken into another. In Absorbing (Lat. ahsorhere, to suck away) the moisture is simply taken away. For instance, a sponge both absorbs and imbibes moisture. It absorbs it, inasmuch as it sucks it See Ignorant. See Enlighten. ee Enlighten. ?e Deception. See Example and See Eminent. ee Hatred. See Ideal. See Fancy and away from the place where it was lodged ; it imbibes it, inasmuch as the l^ar tides of moisture pass into the sponge. On the other hand, the rays of the sun a^bsorb moisture, but do not imbibe it. The same differ- ence appears in the moral or secon- dary applications of tlie words. We imbibe what we assimilate to our- selves in the way of instruction, doc- trine, principles, and the like. We are ourselves absorbed by some oc- cupation which takes aU our time, interest, and attention. Imitate. Follow. These terms both denote the regu- lation of our actions by some thing jjroposed or set before us for the purpose. But we Imitate (Lat. imitari) what is external to us; we Follow what is sometimes external, sometimes internal. We imitate an example, or, which is tantamount to the same thing, we follow it ; but we may also follow the dictates of reason and common sense; we may follow even our own devices. We imitate objects, persons, actions; we follow guides, influences, dictates of reason, impulses, and propensities, " Acts of benevolence and love Give us a taste of heaven above. We imit'ite the immortal powers Whose sunshine and whose kindly showers Refresh the poor and barren ground, And plant a paradise around." Somervile. "I am sensible that common sense has lately met with very great discouragement in the noble science of politics, our chief pro- fessors having thought themselves above those rules that had been followed by our an- cestors, and that lay open to vulgar under- standings." — Chesterfeld. Immaterial. Immaterial. This term has two significations, practically altogether distinct, though closely connected etymologicaUy. In, not, and ma- teries, matter, is the etymology ; hence the senses of, 1, popularly, of not being of great matter, that is, unimportant ; and 2, more scientifically, not having the quality or nature of matter, that is, spiritual. It will be neccssaiy to consider separately these two lines of synonyms. IMMATERIAL. ( 392 ) IMMATERIAL. Immaterial. Unimportant, Insignificant. Inconsiderable. Trifling. Trivial. Frivolous. Futile. Unessential. Irrele- vant. Petty. Immaterial is used of tbe un- iiuportant in minor and familiar matters, especially in matters of practice; while Unimportant com- monly relates to abstract difference of result ; as, " It is immaterial whether we go to-morrow or not ;" "It is unimportant whether the word be taken in the one sense or the other." Unimportant is general; immaterial is specific. Immaterial is unimportant as regards argumen- tative or practical considerations, and so is an epithet of things, and not of persons. An unimportant person is one who carries little or no weight, either generally, or in regard to a specific case. The epithet imma- terial is not applicable in this way. " It is true that there be some scholasti- oal and immaterial truths, the infinite sub- divisions whereof have rather troubled than informed Christendom, which, for the pur- chase of peace, might bekejTt in and retui-ned into such safe generalities as minds not un- reasonable might rest ia."— Bishop Hall. " They would be surprised to be informed that one of the ancient critics has acquired a great reputation by writing on an art which is conversant in sound rather than in sense, and which is therefore in their opinion unim- portant." — Knox. Inconsiderable and Insignifi- cant differ not so much essentially as in their application ; inconsiderable beiug used of size, number, weight, importance ; insignificant, of matters of personal character, appearance, weight of character. " Let him calmly reflect that within the narrow boundaries of that country to which he belongs, and during that small por- tion of time which his life fills up, his reputation, great as he may fancy it to be, occupies uo more tliau an inconsiderable coi-uer." — Blnir. "What schoolboy, what little insignificant monk, could not have made a more elegant speech for the king, and in better Latin, than tins royal advocate has done !" — Milton. Trifling applies not only to ques- tions of importance, but also of value or utility. The trifling is opposed to tlie grave and considerable. Trivial (tres vicp, three roads, as if met with in the public ways) denotes that which is destitute of originality or force, or is unimportant by reason of the commonplace character of the thing, and is very commonly employed of matters of considera- tion or remark, pursuits, and the like. Frivolous _ (Lat. frivolus) denotes that which is in such a manner tm- important as to be destitute of gravity or earnestness, so that it involves disgi-ace to allege, to follow it, or to heed it. The terra is ap- plicable both to persons and things ; trivial, to things alone. Frivolous is a term of habit and disposition ; trifling, of specific matters. Futile (Lat. futilis, from fundere, to pour or let loose, easily melting or falling to pieces) is employed of intellectual subject-matter only, or its expression by statement and argument ; as futile theories or arguments. " Those who are carried away with the spontaneous current of their own thoughts must never humour theii- minds in beiuo- thus triflingly husy." — Locke. The fundamental sense of trivial is seen in the following, where it is op- posed to philosophical : — " And for the pretended trivialness of the fifth and sixth days' work, I think it is appa- rent from what we have not-ed on the fifth day, that Moses his ranging of fisli and fowl together is a consideration not vulgar and trivial, but philosoj)liical." — More. "It is the characteristic of little and /n- roloxis minds to be whollv occupied with the vulgar objects of life."— "^/at>. Bacon employed the term futile in the sense of having a tendency to pour forth in conversation, and so to pour forth what was weak : — "As for talkers and futile persons, they are commonly vain and credulous withal." It is now not applied directly to persons, but to mental efforts in the wa,y of arguments, and especially of objections. " He was prepared to show the madness of their declaration of the pretended rights of man, tlie childish /(/^7(jlor. " What folly 'tis to hazard life for ill !" Shakespeare. Infection. See Contagion. Inference. Deduction. Con- clusion. Consequence. Induction. Infekence (Lat. in, and/o-re, to bring) is the broadest of these terms, denoting any process by which from one truth or fact laid down or known we draw another. Inference may be either by induction or deduction, and hence may be probable or cei*tain. Inference by induction is more or less probable, except where all cases of the kind have been collated, when it ceases, strictly speaking, to be infer- ence, and is only the assigning of a common name, or stating an uni- versal proposition. From having seen twenty swans all white, one might infer that all swans ai-e so. This would be only a probability in itself, and, as a fact, not true. In induction we observe a sufficient number of iudividual facts or cases, and extending by analogy what is true of them to others of the same class, establish a genend principle or law. This is the method of physical science. The process of deduction is the converse of this. We lay down a generid truth, and connect a particu- lar case with it l)y means of a middle term. When inference is conducted by the syllogistic process, it is De- duction (Lat. deducere, to draw from), which, if rightly conducted, must be logically sound, though not necessarily true in fact. In a chain of reasoning the minor, subordinate, or less fully-expressed conclusions are called inferences, as distinguished from the great common inference or Conclusion, which terminates and INFERIOR. ) INFORM. establishes, or, as it were, shuts up (conchidere, to shut) the argument. A conclusion is a proposition viewed relatively to others from which it has been deduced. A Consequence (Lat. conseqiii, to follow) is a conclu- sion regai-ded as admitting of degrees of closeness or directness. Between the first stage of any argument and any particular consequence several links of reasoning may intervene. Hence the common phrase, " remote consequences," as meaning results which will follow sooner or later from what has been stated or conceded. " Though it may chance to be right iu the conclusion, it is yet unjust and mistaken in the method of inference." — Glanvill. " From the words of Moses cited by our Saviour, the doctrine of a future state m;\v as clearly be deduced as from any single text which can be produced out of any one of the Prophets." — Jortin. " He granted him the major and minor, but denied him the conclusion." — Addison. " Link follows link by necessary conse- quence." — Coleridge. " When by thus comparing a number of cases agreeing in some circumstances, but differing in others, and all attended with the same result, a philosopher connects, as a general law of nature, the event with its physical cause, he is said to proceed accord- ing to the method of induction." — Stewart. Inferior. Second. Second- ary. Minor. Inferior (Lat. comparative of infenis, low) is not employed in the physical sense, but expresses the quality of being lower in rank, im- portance, excellence, force, value, and the like. Second (Lat. secundus) relates to a presumed or declared order of sequence, implying a first, which it immediately succeeds. The principle of the sequence may be any; as, place, time, value, dignity, or ai-bitrarily assumed. Secondary is opposed to primary, and denotes second in order of necessity, import- ance, or operation. Minor (Lat. minor, less) has, in addition to the idea of inferiority, that of subilivi- sion ; as the minor sections of a hudy, where the relation is not extrinsic, but intrinsic. ''Inferiors both in fortune and in under- standing."— Tatler. " But here you exclaim of ' the strange abuse made of quotations and second-hand representations.' " — Waterlatid. " If Europe herself hath so many mother- languages quite discrepant one from the other, besides secondary tongues and dialects which exceed the number of their mothers, what shall we think of the other three huge continents in point of different lancruao-es '■'"— Ilon-ell. ° =■ " Asia Jfinor." — Geography. Infidelity. See Disbelief. Infinity. See Boundless. Infirm. See Feeble. Infirmity. See Failing. Influence. See Affect. Influence. Sway. Ascend- ancy. Influence is hidden or indii-ect exercise of power, which, in personal matters, may spring from a variety of sources, as talent, wealth, position, or persuasive power. It is in mor;d things analogous to what takes place m physical, when effects are pro- duced by gentle, gradual, or im- observed processes for good or ill. Sway (Prov. Eng. sweg, connected with weigh and swing) is power of control consciously exerted to de- finite ends; while influence may be altogether indefinite. Ascendancy (ascendant, or that degree of the ecliptic which rises above the horizon at the time of birth, su^jposed to exercise great influence over the cha- racter and destiny of individuals) denotes, according to its origin, a governing or controlling power in relation to a certain time or set of circunistances. It is casual influence. Sway is relative to a supposed course or line of procedure which has been effected. To sway the coimsels or decisions of an assembly, for instance, is to exercise an altering or modifyinf» influence. '^ Inform. Acquaint. Apprise. Advise. Instruct. Teach. Inform (Lat. in and forma, shape or form) relates only to matters of INFORM. ( 413 ) INGENIOUS. fact made known to one who coTild not have known them before. In- struction (Lat. indruere, instritctus) relates to princii^les drawn from known facts. Teaching (A. S. tcecan, to teach), as distinct from instruction, is applied to practice (it may be the practice of an art or branch of know- ledge). A child is instructed in gram- mar, and taught to speak a language. Tiiach has a purely mechanical appli- cation, which does not belong to instruct. A dog may be taught a trick ; but he could not be instructed in anything. The two processes of teaching and instruction may thus go on simultaneously. In mathe- matics there is no information, be- cause the propositions are not state- ments of fact, but are based upon principles assumed. Information is of new facts ; instruction is of un- developed truths. Information ex- tends knowledge; instruction gives additional understanding ; teaching, additional power of doing. Acquaint (Fr. accointer, Lat. accognitare, from cocjnosco, cognitus, to know). Apprise (Fr. appris, from apprendre, the Lat. apprehendere\, and Advise (Ewaviser, Lat. ad 'Midividere, visus, to see) closely resemble inform, inasmuch as they relate to the communication of mat- ters of fact. I inform a man when I simply tell him a fact which he did not know before. I acquaint him with that of which I furnish him with all the details. So I inform him of the fact, and acquaint him with the particulars of it. I apprise him of what particularly concerns him to know, whether it be a good or an evil, or a danger, or a probability of any sort. I advise him of that which I impart to him formally, officially, or as in duty bound, of what occurs in due course. " Your (Algernon Sidney's) present abode was no secret to me before I knew it from your own hand ; that information having been given me about two or three months since by some English gentlemen who passed from Italy through Germany and these parts into England."— /S'jV W. Temple. " Divers that first believe the Scripture but upon the Chui-ch's score are afterwards by acqnnintedness brought to believe the Scrijiture upon its own scoi-e ; that is, upon the discovery of those intrinsic excellences and prerogatives which manifest its heavenly origination." — JJoyU: " Since, then, the expiation of sin by the sacrifice of Christ is a doctrine not only taught in the Gospel itself, but enforced also by him who came only to jjrepare the way for it, it is evident from the care taken to apprise the world of it, even before Chri.s- tianity was promulgated, how important and essential a part this must be of that Divine religion." — Bishop Forteus. " There were several letters from France just come in with advice that the king was in good health." — Addison. " The coldness of passion seems to be the natural ground of ability and honesty among men, as the government or moderation of them the great end of philosophical and moral instructions." — Sir W. Temple. " As a child is taught to expect from its parent, so are we taught to expect from God everv good of which our nature is capable." ^Gilpin. Infokmation. See Infokm. Infraction. Infringement. Although these terms are connected by a common derivation (Lat. in- fringere, frangere, fractus, to break), they are differently applied: In- fraction being reserved for the violation of public rights and formal treaties; Infringement of minor, or else more personal and social claims. The infraction of a treaty of commerce ; the infringement upon one's neighbour's liberty or conve- nience ; an infringement of the laws of good society or good manners. " The criminals destined to eternal punish- ment in this division are the infringers of the duties of imperfect obligation, which civil laws cannot reach ; such as those with- out natiu'al afiection to brothers, duty to parents, protection to clients, or charity to the poor." — Warburton. "The young King of Denmark, upon his coming to the crown, complained of these infractions." — Burnet. Infringe. See Encroach. Infringement. See Infrac- tion. Infuse. See Implant. Ingenious. Clever. Ingenious (Lat. ingenium, the INGENUOUS. { 414 ) INNER. mind) is purely mental. Clever (we Clever) is iDvactical as well as mental. Ingenuity is more akin to genius, cleverness to talent ; the one is inventive, tlie other executive. The use of clever in English is overdone, as the term is made to stand for every form of intellectual ability and adap- tive faculty. Ingenuity is genius on a small scale, or as shown in matters of minor moment or less gravity and seriousness. A readiness in nicely doing actions not habitual is com- monly called cleverness, where bodily, and ingenuity, where mental, activity is engaged. Cleverness is ingenuity of the body, as ingenuity is clever- ness of the mind. Men may contrive ingeniously, and manage cleverly. " Of all the means which human ingenuity has contrived for recalling the images of real objects, and awakening by representation similar emotions to those which are raised by the original, none is so full and extensive as that which is executed by words and writing." — Blair. "He (the Duke of Monmouth) gave the hangman but half the reward he intended, and said if he cut otl' his head cki-erly, and not so butcherly as he did Lord Russell's, his man should give him the rest." — Burnet. Ingenuous. See Heaety. Ingraft. See Implant. Ingratiate. Insinuate. These terms differ as to the modes adopted. Insinuate {in and sinus, a fold) leans to an unfavourable signi- fication, as often implying artfiLlness of jHirpose and selfish ends ; Ingra- tiate {in and gratus, pleasing), the compassing the same end with can- dour and merit. Insinuate is used of physical intiuences and substances, and, metaphorically, of influences in the abstract ; ingratiate, only of the acts and demeanour of human agents. Ingratiate is never emi)loyed, like insinuate, of simple ideas, notions, supi)ositions, or statements. Insi- nuation, in this sense, is indirect declaration, or a statement of a part, leaving more to be inferred. "One of those who came off was the old man who had already imjratiated himself into our favour."— Cucv/;',s Voiju;/cs. " Some are wont to have this device, namely, in taking their time and oppoi-tunity to commend those who love, choose, and do the self-same things, and, briefly, who are of the same conditions, and given to the same humour with themselves, do wind and in- sinuate into the grace and favour of the hearer, and by such an occasion draw his heart unto thein." — Holland, Plutarch. Inherent. See Inborn. Inhuman, See Barbarous. Inimical. See Adverse. Iniquity. See Crime. Iniquitous. See Nefarious. Injunction. See Command. Injure. See Impair. Injurious. See Noxious. Injury. See Crime and Hurt. Injustice. See Crime and Hurt. Innate. See Inborn. Innocuous. See Harmless. Inner. Inward. Internal. Interior. Intrinsic. These terms may be partly illus- trated by those to which they stand opposed. Thus inner is opposed to outer, inward to outward, internal to external, interior to exterior. Inner is emj)loyed of such things as admit of degrees of comparison in relation to a state or position inwards. Thus inner means more towards the centre, and has a superlative — inmost or inner- most. The inner walls of a fortifi- cation are those which approach the stronghold. Inward is used, not like inner, of physical locality or relation- ship, but morally to express the quality of being within, as opposed to being exposed to observation or view ; as, " He believes it in his inward heart, Avhatever he may say." Internal is always specific, being not an absolute but a relative term, and coupled with some object in particular implied or expressed; as, the internal arrange- ments of a house; internal trade, which implies external commerce, to which it stands opposed. Interior, like inner, admits of degrees, which are excluded from interualj as the interior INOFFENSIVE. ( 4^5 ) INQUIRE. districts of a coimtry, whicli are re- moved in differout degrees from the borders or coufinos of it. INTRINSIC is internally or inherently belonging, as distinguished from what is only apparent or fictitious ; hence genuine, real. Inoffensive. See Haemless. Inordinate. Immoderate. Ex- cessive. Extravagant. Exor- bitant. Inokdinate (Lat. inordinatus, in, not, and ordinare, ordo, ordinis, order, not limited to rule) is weU employed of human desires ; as an inordinate ambition, or love of pleasure. Im- moderate {in, not, and moderare, moderatus, modus, a limit) has a wider application to anything exceeding just limits ; as immoderate demands, immoderate grief. Excessive [exce- dere, excessus, to go beyond) differs from immoderate in relating to the thing itself, not to the person ; as,^" He was immoderate in his clainis;" or, " The demand itself Avas excessive." In the term excessive expenditure there is not the same reflection on the conduct of individuals as in immoderate ex- penditure. Extravagant (Lat. extra, beyond, and vagari, to wander) has the same application, with the idea of a reckless absence of calculation or proportion; as an extravagant de- mand. Exorbitant [ex, out, and orhita, an orbit) denotes the designedly extravagant. A demand may be ex- travagant from want of attention ; it is exorbitant as the result of an extortionate aim, or a desire to enjoy or acquire more than is reasonable, fair, or just. " Their object is to merge all natural and all social sentiment in inordinate vanity." — Burke. " In' the fourth place, from all that has been said, we should learn never to be immo- derateli/ anxious about our external situation, but submit our lot with cheerfulness to the disposal of Heaven." — Blair. " Excessive lenity and indulgence are ulti- mately excessive rigour." — Knox, Essays. "They declaimed against human reason. They depressed it as extraragantli/ as their adversaries had advanced it." — Warburton. " The distresses of government aided the friends of liberty, who managed their advan- tage so well as in process of time to support their claims, redress their grievances, esta- blish their rights, and, in a word, to reduce the crown from the exorbitances it aflected within the ancient and legal boundaries of the constitution." — Bishop Hurd. Inquire. Interrogate. Ask. Question. Inquire (Lat. inqiiirere, in and qiuBro, to seek) denotes the process of seeking for truth by one or more questions, which may be put in dif- ferent ways and in diiFerent direc- tions, or answered from different sources. Interrogate (Lat. inter and rogare, to ask) is to put several questions in a formal and systematic manner, and is directed only to one quarter and to living persons. Ask is simpler, and generally turns upon a simple affirmative or negative answer to a matter of fact ; as, " Ask him if such is the case." Question (Lat. qiuestio, qucerere, to seek) is of wider meaning ; and, in addition to the sense of interrogate, has that of disputing or arguing from a doubt of some specific statement or alleged fact. Where question is used in the sense of putting questions, it dif- fers from interrogate in being of wider signification. Interrogation is of some fact. Question may be of the possession of knowledge in a more extended way, as to question a student in history. Hence question, unlike the others, turns upon matters more strictly connected with the con- dition of the person questioned. Curiosity leads us to question. Authoritativeness appears in inter- rogation; desire of knowledge, in inquiry. "And all that is wantinp; to the perfection of this art (of medicine) will undoubtedly be found if able men, and such as are instructed in the ancient rules, will make a further inquiri/ into it, and endeavour to arrive at that which is hitherto unknown by that which is already known." — Dryden. "The traveller, whoever he might be, coming to the fortified habitation of a chief- tain, would probably have been interrogated from the battlements, admitted with caution at the gate, introduced to a petty monarch, INQUIRY. ( 416 ) INSCRUTABIE. fierce with habitual hostility, and vigilant Avith ignorant suspicion." — Johnson. " Til' eternal quesfner shun ; a certain rule, Thei-e is no blab like to the quest'ning fool. Ev'n scarce before you turn yourself about, Whate'er he hears his leaky tongue runs out." Ilamilton, Horace. " We own it to be highly proper that men should ask themselves why they believe ; but it is equally proper for them to ask why they disbelieve." — Seeker. Inquiry. ExAMESTATION. Inquisitive. Curious. Prying. The Curious person (see Curious) is eager for informatiou generally, or for the possession of it in any one of many ways, as in problems of Nature, art, or science, as well as effects and causes of little or no importance or con- cern to himself. He is Inquisitive (Lat. inquisitivus, inquirere) who busies himself with inquiries on a small scale of no intrinsic importance or of little concern to himself. The Prying man (the derivation of i^ry is very uncertain) uses his own powers of observation, rather than questions put to others, for the purpose of dis- covering their secret affairs from a puerile or low-minded curiosity. Inroad. Invasion. Incursion. Irruption. Intrusion. Forcible or unallowed entrance is common to these words. An Inroad is an entry by some novel and forcible method, involving an injury and tres- pass in the action. Invasion (Lat. invadere, to invade) denotes a forcible entry upon what is the j)roperty of another, with a violation of his right of property, and with the direct in- tention of depriving him of some such right, or in retaliation for alleged injuries committed by him. Incur- sion (Lat. iiicurrere, inmrsus, to run into) is a lighter kind of invasion, without the idea of permanence or occupation, and, as a transitory act, involving the original intention of a retui'n. Irruption is more violent and sustained, lieing done in the spirit of destruction and conquest. Intrusion is such an entry as, being without violence, is nevertheless without right or welcome. " Far from their inroads in my pastures feed The lowing heifer, and the pampered steed." Tickell, Iliad. " The universal good-will which is so strong in him exposes him to the assaults of every invader upon his time, his conversation, and his property." — Tatler. " Raise an embattled wall, with lofty towers ; From space to space be amjile gates around For passing chariots, and a trench pro- found. So Greece to combat shall in safety go, Nor fear the fierce incursions of the foe." Pope, Homer. "Letters had there been happily profest in very ancient time with frequency of scholars, until irruptions of pagans had brought them to this lately restored deficiency." — Drayton. "The Pope would not desire any violation of the immunities of the realm, or to bring those into public contention which had been hitherto enjoyed without intrusion or mo- lestation." — Burnet. Insanity. See Madness. Inscrutable. Unsearchable. Impenetrable. Inscrutable [in, not, and scruta- hilis, scrutari, to investigate) relates to that particular form of the unsearch- able which baffles intrinsic inquiry, and so denotes what cannot be com- prehended by reason of the mysteiy and complexity which belong to it. Unsearchable relates to what cannot be explored by reason of its intrinsic depth or distance. Hence inscrutable is applicable to things of ordinary kinds, but of extraordinary difficulty; as, " inscrutable designs :" unsearchable, to extraordinary things; as, the " unsearchable attributes of God." Impenetrable stands to inscrutable as the more specific to the more generic. Inscrutable denotes the nature of the thing ; impenetrable may apply also to what is made in- scrutable. The decrees of God are inscrutable ; the designs of a subtle diplomatist may be impenetrable by the disguise in which he clothes his ideas. Inscrutable belongs to the whole ; impenetrable, also to the parts in detail. INSENSIBILITY. ( 4'7 ) INSIST. '■ 'Tis not in man To yield a reason for tlie will of Heaven, Which is inscrutMe." Beaumont and Flctrher. *' He who without warrant but his own fantastic surmise takes upon him perpetually to unfold the secret and unsearchable mys- teries of high Providence, is likely for the most part to mistake and slander them." — Miltm. " Nothing almost escaped that he acheved not, were the thing never so difficyle, or (as who sayth) impenetrable." — Sir T. Elyot. Insensibility.. See Indiffer- Insert. See Introduce, Inside. Interior. These terms differ in dignity. Any- thing whicli has an outside may have an inside. But, as the exterior is a graver word than outside, so is inte- rior than inside. The interior of St. Paul's Cathedral conveys a different impression from the inside ; the latter is simply that which is not the out- side or the neighbouring street _; the former is architecturally correlative to the exterior. In the same way, in speaking of insignificant objects, we use the term inside ; as the inside, not the interior, of a glove or a shoe. Insidious, Treacherous. An enemy is Insidious {insidere, to sit or lie in wait), A friend is Tkeacheroxjs (see Faithless), The insidious man carries on a system of deceptive treatment under the mask of indifference. The treacherous man betrays all at once the friend- ship or confidence which has been reposed in him. In their metaphorical meanings, this distinction is_ sus- tained, A treacherous climate is one which, under the appearance of cloud- less skies and warmth, harbours fever or other disease, which may at any time take sudden effect. An insi- dious disease is one of which the virulence and certain progress are marked by the absence of pain, and the slow degrees by which it deve- lops itself, " The upright man hath little of the ser- pent, none of its lurking irisidiousness." — Barrow. " The world must think him in the wrong, Would say he made a treach'rous use Of wit, to ilatter and seduce," Swift. Insight. Inspection. Insight is for oneself. Inspec- tion (Lat. inspicere, to look into) is for some purpose external to oneself directly connected with the object inspected. Insight extends know- ledge or experience. Inspection is for the sake of assurance or amend- ment. Insight is quick, and may be instantaneous; inspection is careful and gradual. Insight is connected with the understanding ; inspection more simply with the bodily vision. "Angels, both good and bad, have a full insight into the activity and force of natural causes." — South. "The king himself did not much like it. But the Earl of Clarendon told him Scotland, by a secret and ill management, had begun the embroilment in his father's affairs which could never have happened if the affairs of that kingdom had been under a more equal inspection." — Burnet. Insignificant, See Imma- terial. Insinuate. See Ingratiate. Insinuation. See Hint. Insist. Persist. Insist (Lat, insistere) and Persist ipersistere) both denote determined continuance in speech or action against some amount of opposition, which is overcome in the former case by determination and energy of will; in the latter by perseverance and patience. We insist as against others. We persist iu what exclu- sively relates to ourselves. " He per- sisted in that course." "' He insisted on his friend's adopting it." Insist implies some alleged right, as autho- rity or claim. Persist may be from obstinacy alone, and either with or against rights, " I urged you further ; then you scratched your head. And too impatiently stamped with ynir foot; Yet I insisted; yet you answered nut, But, with an angry wafter of your haule- mentum, implere, to fill tip) is always restricted to physical use. Tool (A. S. tol) is a simpler word for an instrument of the manual arts, and differs from implement in being more general or less specific. An imple- ment is a tool regarded in reference to its particular purpose. In the metaphorical application, instrument is capable of an honourable or in- different, as well as dishonourable, tool only of a dishonourable, sense. " The tool of a party." " An instru- ment in the hands of God." " An in- strument in bringing about a peace between the two nations." "The bold are but the inslnuncnts of the wise." Dnjden. '• Dilated and infuriate, shall send forth From far with thund'ring noise among our foes Such implements of mischief as shall dash To pieces and o'erwhelm whatever stands Adverse." ^""^'^'oji. Insufficient. See Inadequate. Insult. Affront. Outrage. Indignity. An Insult (Lat. insilire, iiisultus, to leap upon) is never accompanied by violence, as at present used— this sense being reserved for assault {assilire^, another 'compound of the same verb— but consists in words or actions of an offensive and deroga- tory kind. Affront (Lat, ad and frons, forehead or face) is a marked intentional, if not pubHc, breach of politeness. It lies more in manner than in words, and may be unaccom- panied by words. It is more demon- strative and less bitter than insult. Outrage (Lat. uUragium, ultra, beyond) is gross and violent insult and indignity, or overbearing or cmel violation of the feelings or the per- son. Indignity (Lat. in, not, and clignus, worthy) can only be practised upon persons claiming or entitled to high respect ; the force of it depend- ing upon the contrast between the woi-th or station of the person, and the treatment to which he is subjected. "The cause assigned of forbidding to an- swer therefore plainly insinuates that the defender of religion should not imitate the ins'ilter of it in his modes of disputation, which may be comprised in sophistry, buf- foonery, and scnrvi\iij."—Warbu,rton. "If thy brother or thy neighbour have offered thee an injury or an affront, forgive him."— Cliillingwort/i. As indignity implies superiority in the object of it, so affront implies equality ; while insult may be to the strong or the weak, to superiors, equals, or inferiors. The weakness and modesty of women are said to be insulted or outraged, not affronted. " This is the round of a passionate man's life : he contracts debts when he is furious, which his virtue, if he has virtue, obliges him to discharge at the return of reason. He spends his time in outrage and reparation. — Johnson. INSUPERABLE. ( 419 ) INSURRECTION. "The Spaniards took it :is the greatest bidlgnitij in the world tli;it Holland should pretend to oblige the crown of Spaiii^ to accept the very conditions of France, after an invasion so unjust as they esteemed this J;ist."— 6Vr W. Temple. iNSUrERABLE. INSURMOUNTABLE. Invincible. Unconquerable. Mental barriers are commonly said to be Insuperable (Lat. in, not, and superare, snjier, to get over) ; sucb are difficulties, obstacles, or objections. That is said to be insuperable wbicli the person has not the power of over- coming ; as that is Insurmountable [in, not, super, above, and mons, mountain, Fr. surmonter, to _ sur- mount) which does not admit of sufficient external appliances; so, an insuperable aversion, an insur- mountable objection. Invincible {in, not, and vincere, to conquer) is employed to denote that which power cannot overcome, as invincible ig- norance, the Invincible Armada ; Un- conquerable to denote what cannot be overcome by the particular power of reason or persuasion (prefix un and conquer, Lat. conquerere), and is accordingly applied usually to the resistance which j)roceeds from an- tagonistic feeling, as unconquerable prejudice, aversion, and the like. " Many who toil through the intricacy of complicated systems .ire insuperably embar- rassed with the least perplexity in common aft'airs." — Rambler. " Doubtless they saw in the attempt (to convert the people beyond the Khine) insur- mountable difficulties, either from the diver- sity of language, or the ferocity of these nations so remote from Christian mildness." — Jortin. " The invincible ness of general custom." — Wilkins. " All is not lost; the unconquerable will And study of revenge, immortal hate. And courage never to submit or yield, And what is else not to be overcome." Milton. Insurrection. Sedition. Re- bellion. Revolt. Revolution. Mutiny. An Insurrection (L&t.iiminjere,^ insurredus, to rise up) is a rising up of individuals against the laws of a com- nnmity or state. This may or may not be carried out into fighting or active opposition, the mere taking up arms against the state being suffi- cient to constitute insurrection. Se- dition is, literally, a separation of the people (se, apart, and ire, it io, 11 going). It is such a commotion in the state as manifests public discon- tent, without aiming at violent oppo- sition to the laws. Rebellion is from the Latin re, again, and helium, war. The term was applied by the Romans, not to risings at home, but abroad, among those conquered nations who, in seeking to cast off the Roman power, involved the state in a neit; war. It is employed by us in the sense of a rising of the whole or the great majority of a people against the supreme ruler or government, being an extended insurrection or revolt. Revolt (Fr. revoUe, Lat. revolvere, revolutus, to roll back) is a violent attempt to shake off one ruler or form of go- vernment, for the purpose of sub- stituting another. Revolution, which is of the same derivation, is such a radical change in the political organization as supposes a revolt successfuUy carried out. Mutiny (Old Fr. meide, connected with the Latin movere) is a movement of revolt against minor institutions or against military or naval authorities or commanders, as the mutiny of a regiment or a ship's crew. " Our people here at home, grown dis- content 'J'hrouo-h great exactions, insurrections bree'd." Daniel. "Sedition is of the like tendency with treason, but without the overt acts that are essential to the latter." — Brande. " For rebellion being an opposition, not to persons but to authority, which is founded only in the constitution and laws of the o-overnment, those, whoever they be, who by force break through, and by force justify their violation of them, are truly and pro- perly rebels. For when men by entering into society and civil government have ex- cluded force, and introduced laws for the preservation of property, peace and unity amongst themselves, those who set up force again in opposition to the laws do rebellare, that is, bring back again the state of war, and are properly rebels." — Locke. INTEGRAL. ( 420 ) INTERCEDE. " Our discontented counties do revolt." Shakespeare. Revolt is not commonly employed of individuals, but of communities wliich form part of a more extended juris- diction, as tlie " revolted provinces." " The violence of revolutions is generally proportioned to the degree of the malad- ministration which has produced them." — Macaulay. " In every mutiny against the discipline of the college he was the ringleader." — Ibid. Integral. See Entire. Integrity. See Honesty. Intellect. Intelligence. Un- derstant)ing. Intellect (Lat. intellectus, intel- ligere, to understand) is, in tlie stiict scientific view, tliat pai-t of the liuman soul by wliich it knows, as distin- guislied from those by which it feels or wills. It is employed in the further sense of the capacity for higher forms of knowledge, as dis- tinguished from the faculties of j)er- ception and imagination ; the faculty of seeing the relations of objects, involving comprehension and judg- ment. The former identity of intel- lect and intelligence has been of late years widened; and Intelligence, to say nothing of its meaning of the subject-matter of infomiation (as the intelligence contained in the news- papers), now means a good quality of the understanding, a readiness to comprehend things of ordinaiy occurrence, which may be quickened by practice and experience ; while intellect is confined to the mental powers and their capacity in the abstract. Understanding is the Saxon expression for the Latin in- tellect and intelligence. Its charac- teristic seems to flow from this fact. It is a native word, and so applied in a more colloquial way, and to the things of life in their more familiar and practical aspects. Hence such phrases of frequent occun-ence, as. "A sound practical iinderstanding." " 1 iinderstand it sufficiently for practical purposes." " The word intellect can be of no essential use whatever, if the ambiguity in the signi- fication of the good old English word under- standing be avoided ; and as to intellection, which a late very accurate writer has at- tempted to introduce, I can see no advantage attending it." — Stewart. Intellectual. Mental. Mental (Lat. mens, mentis, the mind) is simply belonging to the mind as distinct from the body; Intellectual (see Intellect) to the powers, attributes, and dignity of mind, as distinguished from sense or matter. " The conversation turned on mental subjects," would mean me- taphysics; on intellectual subjects, might mean any branch of high knowledge or education. " For it is ascribed to no less persons than to Plato, and to Aristotle after him, as borrowing it from him, and that by several of the most eminent interpreters of the latter, both ancient and modern ; all of them proceeding upon this ground, that in order to the actual intellection of any object, there is a spiritual intellectual light necessary to enable the object to move or affect the intel- lective faculty, which yet the object cannot give to itself, nor yet strike or move the said faculty without it!" — South. " A strong expression of mental energy." — Stewart. Intelligence. See Intellect and News. Intemperate. See Excessive. Intend. See Design. Intercede. Interpose. Me- diate. Interfere. Intermeddle. To Intercede {inter, between, and cedere to go) is of words ; to Inter- pose {inter and Fi-. ^wser, Lat. ponere, to place) is of action. We intercede with a superior on behalf of an equal or inferior ; we interpose between equals. In intei-position we exercise our own j)0wer or authority ; in in- tercession we endeavour to enlist on our behalf the power or authority of another. Mediate (Lat. mediiis, middle) is to interpose between two parties, as the equal friend of each, Avith influence recognized by each. Interfere [inter and /er/rc, to sti-ike) and Intermeddle are applicable to any pre-existent or appointed course INTER CHANGE. INTERIOR of things, whetlier matters of per- sonal conduct or not ; as, to interfere in a dispute; to interfere with ar- rangements; or one arrangement may interfere with another. It im- plies the exercise of influence, per- sonal power, or authority, for the purpose or with the effect of alter- ing or modifying some established course. Intermeddle is only em- ployed of the interference of one conscious agent with the affairs of others in an obtnisive way, and with- out any recognized right, but of seH- will. interceded for trausgressors, ami caused an atonement to be made for them, and stopped the wrath of God : so did Christ." — Jortin. "Those who in quarrels interpose Must often wipe a bloody nose." Goij. " And thereupon was Warwick (by wliose cast All must be wrought) employed to mediate A present marriage, to be had between Him and the sister of the young French queen." Daniel. " In trutli, it is not the interfering or keejjing aloof, but iniquitous intermeddling or treacherous inaction which is praised or blamed by the decision of an equitable judge." — Burke. Interchange. See Barter. Intercourse, Connection. Communication. Communion. Dealing. Intercourse (Lat. inter, between, and curs2is, a running or course) sul)- sists only between persons. Connec- tion {con and nectere, to knit) and Communication {communw, com- mon) between both things and per- sons. Intercourse is a very wide term, comprehending every kind of reciprocal action and dealing between persons and nations in matters of business, thought, words, or feelings, from matters of the gravest to the most ordinary character. Connection is permanent, as communication is temporary, intercourse ; the former involving an unity and community of purpose or dealing ; the latter a more casiial interchange of words :ind thoughts in the common affairs of life. Communion, which lies less in externals than communication, is among many, being such interchange of offices as flows from a ))ond of unity in sentiment, feeling, or con- viction. Communication is from one to another; communion is recipi-ocal. Dealing (A. S. ckelan, to divide) is entirely confined to external transac- tions, being inapplicable to matters of the mind and feelings. " This sweet intercov,rsc Of looks and smiles." Milton. "We may therefore surely conclude that there must be a future state, wherein those rewards shall be bestowed, and this love of God to good men made to appear, and the eternal and inseparable connection between virtue and happiness manifested in the sight of angels and men." — Atterhury. " Cardinal Wolsey, in his ambassage into France, commanded all his servants to use no French, but mere English to the French in all communications whatsoever." — Camden. "Onflowersreposed, and with fresh flowrets crowned, They eat, they drink, and in rommnnion sweet < Juart immortality and joy." Milton. " It (charity) must preside with a supe- riority over all the desires of our hearts, that neither wantonness nor lust, nor anger and revenge, nor covetousness and ambition, may carry us aside from the ways of right- eousness and equity in our dealings one witli another." — Sherlock. Interdict. See Debar. Interest. Concern. Concern {con, together, and ccr- iiere, to look) is grave interest. As Interest (Lat. interesse, to be of impoi-tance) may flow from what touches our feelings, so concern belongs to what is of practical im- portance to our circumstances and state. So grave is the character of concern (while we may be interested even in trifles), that the term is sometimes emi^loyed to express the extreme of compassion and even sor- row. There is a distinct and objec- tive use of the term interest, in which it is synonymous, not with concern, but with advantage. Interfere, See Intercede. Interior, /S'eelNNER a w(Z Inside. INTERLOPER. ( 422 ) INTERVENING. Interloper. Intruder. The Interloper was one who ran in between the legal trader and his trade, for the purpose of appropri- ating its profits and advantages. We owe the term to the Dutch, and the period when they monopolized the carrying trade of the world. As at present employed, the word retains this force. The Intruder (Lat. in and trmlere, to thrust) is one ^who pushes himself into a place or a society in an unwelcome manner; the interloper is an intruder with the further design of benefiting himseH by the intrusion, which he seeks to establish for a continuance; while the intruder may possibly offend only once or momentarily. "They see plainly, whatever privileges nre allowed yotir company at Dort will be given by the other towns, either openly or covertly, to all those interlopers who bring their woollen manufacture directly thither." —Sir W. Tempk. "An intruder upon their retreat, ami a disturber of their repose."— i^awiWer. Intermeddle. See Intercede. Intermediate. Intervening. These differ as being in the middle differs from coming into the middle. Intermediate time, space, points [inter and mcclius, middle). Inter- vening occurrences {inter and venire, to come). The intermediate is calcu- lated and fixed; the intervening is accidental and often unforeseen. There is, however, a sense in which intervenient stands to intermediate as the observation of a fact to the fact itself. When the intermediate is discerned in the course of observa- tion it is intervenient, or accruing in the course of time. " First, he (St. Paul) had rei)reseuted to him the most perfect joys of the third or highest heaven, of which we hope to be par- takers after the resurrection ; and then, lest so long an expectation shmild discourage us, he saw also tlic itil,rn>r,II:tl,-py& of paradise, wherewith tlic s.mls of the faithful are re- freshed until tlie resurrection." — Bishop Bull. " But a law is then i)roperly dispensed witli when it is capable of being obeyed, and the person capable of yielding such obedience to it is yet, by an intervenient power, discharged from his obligatiou to ohej."— South. Interment. See Burial. Intermission. Interruption. Cessation. Cessation (Lat. cessare, to cease) is final. Intermission and Inter- ruption are not final, inasmuch as they denote rest intermediate be- tween two movements. The one is extinct, the others suspended motion. Intermission (Lat. inter, between, and mittere, missus, to send) is internal; interruption external. Intermission is temporary cessation regarded in itself, or as self -produced ; inter- ruption {inter and rumpere, riqjtiis, to break) is the same thing as pro- duced by external force or influence. It may be observed that intermissipn denotes complete cessation, while in- terruption may denote no more than such check as produces an alteration of proceeding. The stream which is interrupted by a rock stiU flows on. An intermission of a supply of water implies, for the time, a cessation of the flow. An interruption of a speech would denote that it was still pur- sued, though the imiformity of its delivery had been interfered with. " Scourge after scourge, and blows succeeding blows ; Lord, has Thy hand no mercy, and our woes No intermission ?" Harte " But though the parliaments and two or three high-spirited kings had given some in- terruption to the cruel exactions, and other illegal proceedings of the court of Rome, yet that court always gained their designs in the ond." — Burnet. Internal. See Inner. Interpose. See Intercede. Interposition. See Interven- tion. Interpret. See Expound. Interrogate. See Inquire. Interruption. See Intermis- sion. Intervening. See Interjie- diate. INTERVENTION. ( 423 ) INTRODUCE. Intervention. Interposition. These diflfer as tlie involuntary from the vohmtary. Intervention {inter, between, and venire, ventus, to come) being employed of accidental forces and influences, as well as the acts of voluntary agents, Interposition {inter, between, and ponerc, positus, to place) only of the latter. The moon is obscured by the intervention of clouds ; a happy intervention of circumstances. Human or Divine interposition. An exception to this, however, occurs in the purely physical sense, in which interposition is some- times used, as the pi'ivation of the sun's light by the interposition of an opaque body. In that case, the dif- ference between the terms is that one implies previous motion, the other not. Every planetary obscuration is an interposition, implying interven- tion. In the acts of men, the motive of intervention is commonly less au- thoritative or forcible than inter- position. " He owed his life to the intervention of another," would mean, entreaty or help ; interposition would involve rescue. " The species not only of sensible objects, but even of notions of the mind, are pre- served in the memory, without confusion and dissipation, notwithstanding lapse of time and intervention of infinite variety of numbers." — Hale. "The righteous would be detained pri- soners here below by the chains of their unhappy natures, were there not some extraordinory interposure for theii; rescue and enlargement." — GlanviU. Interview. Meeting. Meeting (A. S. m'etan, to meet"! is the simplest and more comprehensive, but less distinctive of these terms. It may serve to express any coming together of physical or inanimate, as well as animate objects or voluntary agents ; as the meeting of the waters, of clouds, of friends, of an assembly or conference. It may be designed or accidental. An Interview (Fr. entrevue, Lat. inter and videre, to see) is, as its name denotes, a mutually- recognized meeting between two or more persons, usually preconcerted, and for a pui'pose ali'eady known. It involves a common matter of import- ance to both parties, which demands formal adjustment. " Stay, stay your steps, and listen to my vows ; 'Tis the last interview that fate allows," Dnjden, Virgil. " We can just as easily conceive the con- nection and mutual influence of soul and body as we can explain how two mathe- matical lines indefinitely produced can be for ever approaching each other, yet never meet." — Bishop Portcus. Intimacy. See Acquaintance. Intimate. See Express. Intimation. See Hint, Intimidate. See Frighten. Intombment. See Burial. Intoxication. See Drunken- ness. Intrench. See Encroach, Intrepid. See Bold. Intricacy. See Complexity. Intrinsic. See Inner, Introduce. Insert. Present. Introduce (Lat. intro, within, and ducere, to lead or bring) has its phy- sical and its moral senses. In the former it is synonymous with Insert (Lat. inserere, insertus), in the latter vdth Present {lyrcesentare, prcesens, prce esse, to be in the presence of). As employed of physical operations, to introduce implies an easier process than insertion, and is better employed of cases where the way is partly open or facilitated ; insert, of cases where the way has to be artificially made. Moreover, that which is introduced may be hidden from view ; that which is inserted is partly visible after in- sertion. Insert has a more purely physical force than introduce, and commonly implies a more permanent purpose. An additional topic is in- troduced ; an additional paragraph is inserted. The surgeon's probe, having only a temporary use, is introduced, not inserted, into the wound. Intro- duction may be a gradual process; insertion is done at once. "They are the plainest and best dealers in the world, which seems not to grow so much TNTRODUCTORY ( 424 ) INVEIGH. fi'om a principle ot" conscience or morality as from a custom or habit introduced by the necessity of trade among them, which de- pends as much upon common honesty as war does upon discipline." — S'o«//i. " JI'Ui. Of ruin, indeed, methought I heard the noise. Oh, it continues ! they have slain my son ! Chorus. Thy son is rather slaying them ; that outcry From slaugldcr of one foe could not ascend." Milton. " He (Oliver Cromwell) said nssassimfions were such detestable things that he would never begin them; but ifanyofthe king's party should endeavour to assassinate him, and fail iu it, he would make an assassinati/ig war of it, and destroy the whole family." — Burnet. Kind. See Character. Kind, See Gracious, Kindness. See Benignity. Kindred. See Affinity, Kingdom, See Empire, Kingly, Eoyal, Kegal, Kingly means like a king ; Royal (Fr. roi, Lat. rex, regis, a king), be- longing to the person of a king; Regal, belonging to the attributes of a king. A kingly form ; a royal residence ; regal magnificence. Kinsman, EELATms, Kinsman is one of the same kin, and so related by blood. Relative (Lat. referre, relahis) is one connected either by blood or by affinity. Knavish, Dishonest. The latter simply states that the person is the opposite to honest, or that the act is so; the former (knahe, a young man, footman, or servant) carries the mind directly to the person and his frauds and artifices. Dishonest is a term of grave, Knaa^sh of contemptuous, reproach. The former expresses a habit; the latter a propensity. Knowledge. Learning. Eru- dition. Science. Literature. Art. Letters. Knowledge is a general term. KJSroWLEDGE. ( 431 ) zaca: denoting the fact or the subject of luiowing, clear perception or ap- prehension, familiar cognizance. Learning (A. S. Uornian, liornian, to learn) is acquired knowledge in any brancli of science or literature. Science (Lat. scicntia, scire, to know) is, literally, knowledge, but usually denotes knowledge according to sys- tem. Science embraces those branches of knowledge of which the subject is ultimate principles, or facts as ex- plained by principles, or laws ar- ranged in natural order. Litera- ture (Lat. litcra, a letter), in its widest application, embraces all com- positions which do not appertain to the positive sciences. As a man of literature is versed in the belles lettres, so a man of learning excels in what is taught in the schools, and belongs almost wholly to the past ; while literature includes the current com- positions of the day. Erudition (e and rudis, rude, unlettered) relates to literature and learning rather than to science, and to its extensive attainment, involving a knowledge of subjects commonly unfamiliar. Art (Lat. ars, artis) is the applica- tion of knowledge to practice. As science consists of speculative prin- ciples, so art is a system of rules, serving to facilitate the i^erformance of certain actions. Arts are divided into two classes, the useful, mecha- nical, or industrial arts, and the liberal, polite, or fine arts. The former are called trades ; the latter have to do with imagination and design, as poetry, painting, sculpture, designing, and the like. The term " liberal arts " was formerly applied to the subjects of academical education ; as, " De- grees in arts at the universities." Letters — equivalent to the French " belles lettres" polite learning — is to litei'ature as the abstract to the con- crete ; literature being letters in spe- cific relationship, as the literature (not the letters) of a particular country. *' Knowledge, tlieu, seems to me to be uothiug but the perception of the counection ;iiid agreement or disagreement and repug- nancy of any of our ideas. In this alone it consists. Where this perception is there is knoidcd(je ; and where it is not there, thougli we may fancy, guess, or believe, yet we always come sliort of knowledrfc. For when we know that white is not black, what do we else but perceive that these two ideas do not agree ?" — Locke. "The parts of human learning have refer- ence to the three parts of man's understand- ing, which is the seat of learning, history to his memory, poesy to his imagination, and jiliilosophy to his reason." — Bacon. " 'Twere well, says one sage, erudite, pro- found, Terribly arch'd and aquiline his nose, And over-built with most impending brows — 'Twere well could you permit the world to live As the world pleases. What's the world to you ?" Coirpcr. " The works of speculation or science may be reduced to the four classes of philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and physic." — Gibbon. "Our descendants may possibly contem- plate with equal ridicule and surprise the preposterous partiality which the present age has shown to the frippery and tinsel of French literature." — Eustace, Italj. " Art can never give the rules that make an art. This is, I believe, the reason why artists in general, and poets principally, have been confined in so narrow a circle." — Burke. " Iche for sothe in science of lettres knowc tliy konuyng." — R. Gloucester. L. Labour. See Work. Laborious. See Diligent. Lack. Want. Need. Ne- cessity. Lack (Old Sw. lacha, to fail) refers more directly to the failing or in- adequate source or supply; Want (Icelandic vunta, to be wanting), to the inadequate supply or possession, combined with the requirement or demand. Need relates directly to the urgency of the demand, and in- directly to the absence of supply. Want is commonly absence of mere possession ; need, absence of means of action. As they express states, Necessity (Lat. necessitas) is stronger than need (A. S. iiead, ned, nid), for whereas need is negative, necessity LADING. ( 432 ) LAND. has a positive and compelling force. A man is in need of food. Under some circumstances there is a ne- cessity for immediate action. Need is pressing, necessity unyielding. Need is the strongest degree of re- quirement, necessity of demand. In the phrase of the English Psalms, " See that such as are in neexl and necessity have right," the second term is an augmentation of the first. Need may be temporarily and easily removed; necessity is more lasting and less remediable. We need, in cases of difficulty, the advice and support of friends ; but lacking this, we are often compelled, by necessity, to decide and act for ourselves. The words lack, want, and need rise in force. The superfluities of life — wealth, estates, great power or influence — I lack ; the conveniences which I am without, I want ; the necessaries which I am Avithout, I need. Lack is the absence of excess; want, of comfort; need, of sufficiency. " But though each court a jester lacks, To laugh at monarchs to their face, Yet all mankiad, behind their backs, Supply the honest jester's place." Dodsley. *' There is yet another cause of nccessitu which has occasioned great speculation among the writers upon general law, namely, whether a man in extreme wmit of food or clothing may justify stealing either to relieve his present necessities." — Blackstone. " It is evident that nothing can be more amiable, suitable, and universally subservient both to the needs and to the refreshments of the creature than light." — South. Lading, See Cargo. Lag. Linger. Loiter. Saunter. Tarry. Lag (Gael, hg, weak, faint) is com- monly relative to others, with whom the movements of the lagging person are slow ui comparison, a definite line of progress being common to all. Linger (A. S. lengra, compara- tive of Unxj, long) relates not to any definite onward movement, either of others or of the person lingering, but simply to the locality at or near which the lingerer stops and delays. It is sometimes employed of inani- mate, and therefore involuntary things ; as, a lingering hope or sick- ness. Loiter (Dutch leuteren, lo- teren, to delay) is to linger from tardiness or indolence, as linger im- plies a constraining or retarding influence attached to the locality. Saunter (which has been derived from sainte terre, the Holy Land, as if connected with the strolling of pilgrims, but is, more probably, a modification of the German schlen- tern, to wander idly, of which other forms are schlendern and slendern) is to move onwards, but in a lazy, dreamy fashion. Tarry (Old Eng. targen, connected with the Latin tardus, slow) diff"ers from the others in denoting, for a time, movement absolutely suspended, but in refer- ence to an implied progress. "We lag through laziness or absence of mind ; linger through attachment; loiter through idleness; saunter for plea- sure ; and tany for a purpose. " Yet not content, more to increase his shame, When so she lagged, as she needs mote so, He with his spear (that was to him great blame) Would thump her forward, and enforce to go." Spenser. " On yonder cliffs, a grisly band, I see them sit ; they linger yet. Avengers of their native land." Gray. " We must proceed on speedily, and persist constantly, nowhere staying or loitering." — Barroic. "Upon the first suspicion a father has that his son is of a saitntering temper, he must carefully observe him whether he be listless and indifferent in all his actions, or whether in some things alone he be slow and sluggish, but in others vigorous and eagei"." — Locke. "Wliy is his chariot so long in coming? why tarni the wheels of his chariot?" — English Bible. Lament. See Bemoan, Com- plain, and Grieve. Land. Country. Soil.^ Mould. Earth. Globe. World. Land (A. S. land) denotes, sevendly. the solid, as distinguished from the fluid, portions of the globe; any LAND. ( 433 ) LANDSCAPE. portion of tliat mass as related oi- appertaining to an individual or a people ; the composition of the earth's siii-face as regards its agri- cultural use ; and, by a rhetorical ex- tension of meaning, the persons in- habiting a particular land. Country (Fr. contree, Lat. contra, the tract over against the spectator) is a tract of land as it meets the eye, or such a tract as connected with residents or inhabitants, or as opposed to the city or the town. It is also, like land, often used for the inhabitants of the country ; as, " The unanimous feel- ing of the country." Soil (Lat. solum) is never employed but of the physical components of the earth's surface. Earth, Globe, and World have a special connection with one another. Omitting the use of earth in the sense of soil, from which it differs in that soil is employed of the aggregate of superficial sub- stances, while earth designates only the lighter and looser particles, as Mould (A. S. molde), which again denotes especially the highly fertile and fxue particles of decayed organic matter, we come to regard it as a synonym with globe (Lat. globus, a ball) and world (A. S. weorald, ivorld, and other forms). In speaking of the earth we commonly have in mind its external and matei-ial part. The term world denotes the moral and abstract view of the same thing ; the world of Nature and the world of man in combination. We speak of the construction, the productions, the geological formation, the planetary movements of the earth and its re- lative place in the solar system. The woi-ld is the earth viewed in relation to its inhabitants. The earth abounds in wonders and beauties. The world is subject to the control of a supreme Moral Governor. The world is thus a term of higher moral dignity than earth ; so we speak of the civilized Avorld, not earth. It is in relation to its character as the abode of recently- discovered peoples, that the continent of America was called the Xew World. The intellectual, political, religious, gay, scientific world, a poet's world of dreams, and the like, all denote the idea of sentient occupation, or peopling. The same chai'acter of connection with mind and sentient recognition, as of the Creator or of the angels, belongs to the use of the term world in reference to the heavenly bodies; as, " The unnumbered worlds which lie outside our own." Earth is limited to our own planet, though we speak of other worlds. A future life of social happiness is called a better world. Globe is used for the earth poetically, and also under its scientific aspects, as in geology and physical geography. " As soon as the land of any countr>/ has all become private property, the landlords, like all other men, love to reaj) where they never sowed, and demand a rent even for its natural produce." — Smith, Wealth of Xat ions. " The place which is shown for the haven is on a level with the town, and has probably been stopped up by the great heaps of dirt that the sea has thrown into it ; for all the soil on that side of Ravenna has been left there insensibly by the sea's discharging it- self upon it for many ages." — Addison. " It is said of Archimedes that he would undertake to turn about the whole earth, if he could but have some place beside the earth to fix his feet upon." — South. " Look downward on that globe, whose hither side With lii^ht from hence, though but re- flected, shines ; That place is earth, the seat of man ; that light His day." Milton. " Sure there is need of social intercourse, Benevolence, and peace, and mutual aid Between the nations, in a world that seems To toll the death-bell of its own decease. And by the voice of all its elements To preach the gen'ral doom." Coirpcr. Landscape. Prospect. View. The English termination ship, like the German schaft, is connected with the verb schaffeu, to shape. Thus lordship, friendship, is that which constitutes a lord, a friend, and the like. To this class of words belongs Landscape. Thus landscape is a shape of land, or the artistic repre- sentation of it. It is therefore such a prospect as comprises rural objects, or an open space of country. Prospect (Lat. prospectus, fi'om prospiccrc, to 1 P LANGUAGE. ( 434 ) LARGELY. look forward) is a more general term, denoting a broad expanse overlooked, witlioiit denoting aaiytliing of what composes it. Hence we may have a prospect of the open sea or the starry heavens. YiEW (Fr. vxie, Lat. vidfrc, to see) is yet wider in its application, and is applicable to single objects, as a view of a town or a street, as weU as of an extensive tract. It implies imity in variety, and detaUs com- bined into a whole. "Straight my eye hath caught new plea- sures, „ Whilst the landscajie round it measures. Milton. " Heavens ! what a goodly prospect spreads around, Of hills, and dales, and woods, and lawns, and spires. And