i-:W YORK: PUBLISHED BY CAD 1847. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID SJork: AND BURGESS, 60 JOHN ST. CADY AND BURGESS, $0 JOHN ST. CONTENTS. Page. CHAP. 1. The Universe. The Sun, .... 13 2. The Sun continued, 15 3. The Planets, ; - - % 1SH* ' 17 4. The Planets continued, - - 19 5. The Comets. Fixed Stars, - 22 6. Shooting Stars. Aurora Borealis. Ignis Fatuus, 24 7. Lightning and Thunder, - - - - 27 S. Atmosphere. Wind, 31 9. Clouds. Rain. Snow. Hail, ... 34 10. Surface of the earth. Volcanoes. 38 11. Different Races of Mankind, .... 41 12. European Race, ------ 43 13. American Race, ...... 47 14. Asiatic Race, - - - - - - 50 15. Malay and Negro Races, - - - - 55 16. The Animal Kingdom, .... 58 17. Divisions of the Animal Kingdom, - - 61 18. Mammalia, ---..-.64 19. Cameleopard. Lama, ..... 67 20. Reindeer, ------- 70 21. The Dog. The Elephant, .... 73 22. The Cow. Goat. Sheep. Hog, - - 77 23. Beaver. Pika, 80 24. Of Birds in general, 84 25. Of Birds in general continued, ... 86 26. Orders of Birds, - 89 27. Architecture of Birds. Miners, - - - 93 Vlll CONTENTS. Page. CHAP. 28. Eider Duck. Mason Birds, 29. Carpenter Birds. Cementers, - - - 101 30. Basket-making Birds, 106 .31. Weaver and Tailor Birds, - - - -109 32. Reptiles in general, - - - - 112 33. Crocodile, 116- 34. Salamander. Toad. Turtle, - - 119 35. Chameleon. Boa. Rattle-snake, - 122 36. Fishes in general, - - - - 126 37. The Whale, ------- i 38. Torpedo. Gymnotus, - - - - 133 39. Bivalve Molluscous Animals, - - - 136 40. " " " continued, - 139 41. Univalve Molluscous Animals, - 142 42. Articulated Animals, - - - - - 146 43. " " continued, - - 149 44. " - " - - 153 45. Insects, 156 46. Eggs of Insects, 159 47. " K continued, - - - - 162 48. Transformations of Insects, - - - 166 49. " ..-* " continued, - - 171 50. Benefits derived from Insects, - - 175 51. " " " " continued, - 179 52. Motions of Insects, 182 53. " continued, - - - 186 54. " u continued, ... 190 55. " " continued, - - - 193 56. Affection of Insects for their young, - - 198 57. " " " " " continued, 202 58. Luminous Insects, - - - - - 206 59. Instinct of Insects, - - 209 60. Means of defense of Insects, - - - 212 61. " " " continued, - - 215 62. Architecture of Insects, - 219 63. " " continued, - - - 223 64. " " continued, - - 228 65. The Torpid State and Noises of Insects, - 233 CONTENTS. IX Page. CHAP. 66. Echinodermata, 237 67. Acalepha. Polypi, 240 68. Food of Animals, 243 69. Organs for the Preparation of Food, - 246 70. Mode of introducing food into the Stomach, 250 71. Nutrition of Polypi, 253 72. Nutrition of Medusae, 256 73. Nutrition of the higher order of animals, - 259 74. The five Senses. Touch, - - - - 262 75. Smell. Taste, 266 76. Seeing, - 269 77. " continued, 273 78. Hearing, - - - -- - - -276 79. " continued, 279 80. Respiration, 281 81. " continued, - - - - - 284 RECOMMENDATIONS. From Lewis C. Seek, M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in Rutgers' College, N. J. MR. A. ACKERMAN Dear Sir : I have perused, with some care, the manuscript of your " First Book of Natural History." I am much pleased with the general plan and with the manner in which the details are carried out. Should the work be pub- lished, (which I hope will be the case,) I do not doubt that it will be the means of awakening an interest among the pupils of our schools in this most useful, but too much neglected branch of study. Yours truly, L. C. BECK. From R. Davidson, D. D., late President of Transylvania Uni- versity, Ky. Dear Sir : I take pleasure in stating, that I have been fa- vorably impressed by the specimen of your MS. copy of the " First Book of Natural History," submitted to my inspection. The matter appears to be well digested, the arrangement is judicious, the style is neat and clear, and the plan is one which is adapted to be very useful. I remain, sir, very respectfully, yours, &c. To A. ACKERMAN, Esq. R. DAVIDSON. From C. Tracy, author of the Canceling Arithmetic, and Prin- cipal of the Seminary, East Broadway, N. Y. I have recently examined a manuscript copy of a work on Natural History, by Mr. A. Ackerman, with a result decidedly Xll RECOMMEND AT IONS. favorable on my own mind. There is a large amount of 'in- teresting and instructive matter, brought together under a very judicious arrangement, and in a style well calculated to render it interesing and profitable to the scholar. It furthermore treats of subjects upon which less has been said and written for the use of schools than upon almost any other of equal im- portance. There is, therefore, the greater need of, as well as the greater encouragement for, its publication. I think the work sure of success, if brought out in proper shape and with due spirit. C, TRACY. Extract of a Letter from O. Pillsbury, Esq., Principal of Daund- brook Academy, N. J. MR. ACKERMAN Dear Sir : I have been extremely gratified with a partial perusal of your manuscript of the " Book of Na- ture," as it may emphatically be called, and shall introduce it into my Academy as soon as it appears, I believe it is just the book needed in all our schools. While it will greatly instruct, and awaken a spirit of inquiry in the active mind, I think it can hardly fail to arrest the attention of the stupid. It is truly surprising that no more has been done, in this enlightened age of the world, to lead the mind of youth to the contemplation of the boundless works of Nature. I wish you abundant suc- cess, which, in my humble opinion, you will richly merit, after conferring upon the rising generation a book so full of interest and instruction. Yours, truly, O. PILLSBURY. From J. Cogswell, D. D., late 'Professor in the Theological In- stitute, Conn. Mr. ACKERMAN : I have devoted some time to the examina- tion of your "First Book of Natural History," and am happy to say that I approve of the plan you have adopted, and am persuaded, if used in our schools, that it will be productive of great good. The knowledge which the young may derive from your book, is just what they need and ought to possess. Most sincerely, and cheerfully I can recommend its introduction into our schools. J. COGSWELL. FIRST BOOK OP NATURAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. THE UNIVERSE. THE SUN. THE word Universe, is the collective name of heaven and earth and all things that belong to them ; the whole system of created things. The earth upon which we live, and its contents, form but a very small portion of the Universe. There are many other worlds far surpassing ours in magnitude, of which a few only may be seen in the heavens during a clear night; they appear like small stars, while many thousands can never be observed by the naked eye, owing to their immense CHAPTER I. What is the meaning of the word universe 1 Does the world in which we live belong to the universe? Are there other worlds beside ours? What do they appear like? What 14 FIRST BOOK OF distance from the earth, but present themselves to our vision in a ratio proportionate to the magnify- ing power of the telescope. The starry heavens, during a clear night, pre- sent to us the appearance of the hollow surface of a vast hemisphere, which seems to be bounded by an immense plain, in the centre of which we are placed. The circle which terminates our view, where the sky and earth appear to meet, is called the Horizon. In the Celestial Sphere, or Sky, are placed those bodies which give or reflect light, and are called the Sun, Moon, and Stars. These from their shape are called Globes^ and are supposed to be inhabited. The Sun is 95,000,000 miles distant from the earth, and a cannon ball, passing at the rate of 1600 feet in a second, would not pass from the earth to the sun in less than ten years. A body moving with the velocity of sound, would require five years. Light, which moves with the astonishing rapidity of 192,500 miles in a second, only reaches appearance do the heavens present to us on a clear night 1 Where is the horizon ? Which are the bodies that give or reflect light 7 Why are they called globes 1 Are they inhab- ited 1 What is the meaning of the word hemisphere ? What is the distance from the Sun to the earth 1 How long time would it require for a cannon ball to pass from the Sun to the earth, at the rate of 1GOO feet in a second 7 How long if it were to move as fast as sound 1 How long for light 7 How far does light move in a second 1 NATURAL HISTORY. 15 the earth in about eight minutes and eighteen seconds after leaving the surface of the Sun. CHAPTER II. THE SUN. Continued. ALTHOUGH the Sun is so far from the earth, the distance is quite trifling when compared with that of the nearest fixed star, -which is about six hun- dred thousand times more distant than the Sun ; and a cannon ball, moving at the rate of eight miles a minute, would require 4,000,000 years to pass from it to the earth. The Sun appears to be the largest of all those globes, or orbs^ which we ' see in the heavens. This is only because we are so much nearer to it, for a person placed as near to Sirius as we are to the Sun, would see a body fourteen times as large; while the Sun viewed from the same distance as that of the nearest fixed star from us, would ap- pear like a star of the smallest magnitude, and the planets revolving around it would be invisible. CHAPTER II. How much nearer to the earth is the Sun than the nearest fixed star 1 Why does the Sun appear to be the largest of the heavenly bodies 7 How many times larger is Sirius than the Sunl What would be the appearance of the Sun, if placed at the distance of the nearest fixed star ? Could the attendant 16 FIRST BOOK OF The force of the attraction of gravitation on the Sun is much greater than on the earth. A body on the earth's surface weighing one pound, would weigh nearly twenty-eight at the surface of the Sun ; and a heavy body near the earth's sur- face falls 16.1 feet in one second of time, while a heavy body near the surface of the Sun, would fall in the same time, about 335 feet. ' If the Sun were inhabited by human beings, they would be unable to move in consequence of their greatly increased weight. A man of moderate size would weigh about 4000 pounds at the sur- face of the Sun. The Sun is the centre of the Solar or Planetary system, around which the earth and planets re- volve. It dispenses light and heat to all the plan- ets, and governs all their motions. The most probable supposition, m respect to the light and heat emanating from the Sun, is, that they proceed from luminous clouds floating in its atmosphere, which extends to a great distance. The diameter of the Sun is 892,000 miles, and, is 1,400,000 times as large as the earth. planets be seen 1 Where is the attraction of gravitation great- est, at the earth or Sun 7 What is said of the weight of a body on the earth and Sun 7 What is said of a falling body 7 What is said on the presumption of the Sun being inhabited 1 What would be the weight of a moderate sized man 7 Of what is the Sun the centre 1 What revolve around the Sun 7 What comes from the Sun 1 What is the most" probable opin- ion in respect to light and iftat 7 What is the diameter of the NATURAL HISTORY. 17 Among the ancients, the Sun was an object of idolatry, under various names ; and was consider- ed as the god of day, the giver of light, heat, and fertility, and his symbol, Jire, was kept constantly burning upon the heathen altars with the utmost care. CHAPTER III. PLANETS. BY observing the heavens with attention, we find some of the stars change their places ; these are called planets, from a Greek word signifying wanderer. Ten of these bodies have been dis- covered in the heavens, and Jive of them, Mercury, Yenus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have been known in all ages. Five others, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, and Uranus, or Herschel, are sel- dom seen by the naked eye, and have been dis- Sun 1 How much larger is the Sun than the earth 1 What is said of the Sun as an object of idolatry 1 CHAPTER III. What may we observe in respect to some stars! What does the word planet signify 1 How many have been discov- ered 1 Name those known to the ancients ? How many, and which, were not known to the ancients 1 How many planets are there 1 How many primaries ? How many secondaries 1 Why are the primaries so called 1 Why are the secondaries 18 FIRST BOOK OF covered during the last seventy years. These ten bodies and the Earth are called primary planets, because they revolve around the Sun. There are eighteen others, called secondaries, or secondary planets, because they revolve around the primary planets. They are also called moons or satellites. The Sun, eleven primaries and eighteen seconda- ries, making thirty in all, form the solar system. The Earth has one satellite, which we generally call the Moon; Jupiter has four; Saturn seven; Uranus six. Mercury is the nearest to the Sun, and is about 37,000,000 miles distant from it. It is about 3,000 miles in diameter, and performs its revolution around the Sun in 87 days and 23 hours, which is the length of its year. The rotation on its axis, from west to east, is performed in 24 hours and 5 \ minutes, which makes its day about ten minutes longer than ours. Venus is the second planet from the Sun, being about 68,000,000 miles distant, and performs her revolutions in 224J days, moving in her orbit at the rate of 80,000 miles an hour. Yenus is easily known by her silver-white appearance, and by be- ing brighter than any other star or planet. She may sometimes be seen in the day-time, when the Sun shines, with the naked eye. so called ? By what other names are the secondaries known 7 What compose the solar system 7 Which of the planets have attendants or moons 7 Name the number to each. Which NATURAL HISTORY. Venus is a morning star when seen by us westward of the Sun, for then she rises before the Sun ; and an evening star when eastward of that luminary, for she then sets after him. She con- tinues alternately morning and evening star for a period of 292 days each time. CHAPTER IV. THE PLANETS. Continued. THE Earth is the name of the planet which we inhabit. It has two motions ; its diurnal or daily motion, and its annual or yearly motion. The daily revolution on its own axis is performed in four minutes less than twenty-four hours, causing day and night. Its annual revolution is performed around the Sun in 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes, making our year. By this revolution is produced the difference in the length of the days and nights, and the different seasons. The Earth planet is nearest the Sun, and what is the length of its year and day ? What causes its year, and what its day ? What is said of Venus? How is Venus known? When is Venus called the morning star ? When the evening star ? CHAPTER IV. What is the name of the planet on which we live ? How many motions has it, and what are they ? What is caused by the annual revolution ? By the daily revolution ? What is 20 FIRST BOOK OF moves in its orbit at the rate of 68,000 miles an hour, or nearly 20 miles each second. Its diame- ter through the poles is about 7898 miles, and its diameter through the equator, from east to west, I is about 26 miles greater. The constant attendant of the Earth is the Moon. She reflects the light she receives upon certain portions of the Earth during our day, and in like manner, the Earth reflects during our day the light it receives from the Sun upon the Moon during her night. The Earth undoubtedly presents to the inhabi- tants of the Moon, nearly the same changes which we witness in that planet ; only the Earth must appear to them more than thirteen times as large as the Moon appears to us. When it is new Moon to our Earth, it is full Earth to the Moon. Mars is 4222 miles in diameter, and is known in the heavens by its red dusky appearance. He moves in his orbit at the rate of 53,000 miles in an hour, and the length of his year is 687 of our days. Vesta, Jimo, Ceres, and Pallas, four small the length of the earth's year 7 How fast does it move in its orbit 1 What is the diameter of the earth at the poles, and at the equator 1 "What satellite attends the earth around the Sun 7 What is said of the moon reflecting her light to the earth, and the earth reflecting its light to the moon 1 How much larger than the moon is the earth 7 When it is new moon to us, how does the earth appear to the inhabitants of the moon 1 What is the diameter of Mars 7 How is it known in the heavens 7 At what rate does it move in its orbit, and what is the length NATURAL HISTORY. 21 planets, have lately been discovered, and are called asteroids. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets, and ex- ceeds all in brightness, except Venus. It is 91,000 miles in diameter, and performs its revolution around the Sun in 11 years, 315 days, and 1 hours, nearly. This planet is five times as far from the Sun as the Earth, and is 1300 times as large. Although Jupiter is so many times larger than the Earth, still its weight is only 300 times as great. Saturn is the tenth planet in order from the Sun. Its diameter is 82,000 miles, and is nearly eleven hundred times as large as the Earth. Al- though Saturn moves at the rate of 22,000 miles an hour, still it requires nearly 29J years to per- form its revolution around the Sun, and only 10 hours and 30 minutes upon its own axis. Hcrschel or Uranus is the most distant planet from the Sun, that has, as yet, been discovered. His bulk is eighty times as great as that of our Earth, and he performs his revolution around the Sun, in 84 years and one month, moving from west to east at the rate of 15,546 miles per hour. of its year 1 Which are the lately discovered planets, and by what name are they known 1 What can you say of Jupiter 1 What is its diameter 7 What is the length of its year 1 What is said of its distance from the Sun, and its size in comparison with the earth 1 What is said of the weight of Jupiter? Which is the tenth planet from the Sun ] Its diameter and size in comparison with the earth 1 Which is the most dis- tant planet 1 What is the length of its year, and with what [ velocity does it move *? 22 FIRST BOOK OP CHAPTER V COMETS. FIXED STARS. BESIDES the primary and secondary planets, there are many other bodies, called Comets, which belong to the solar system, and revolve around the sun. They are called cometce or Comets, from the resemblance of their tails to flowing hair. The number of Comets on record, is about 500 ; 450 of these were known to the ancients. Only three are known to re-appear regularly at certain periods. They have always been considered by the ignorant, as presaging pestilence, war, famine, or some great event which would at some future time take place. The Comet which appeared/br/y- three years before Christ, was so bright that it was seen in the day-time with the naked eye. This was shortly after the death of Julius Caesar, and the Romans supposed it to be the ghost of Caesar who had been assassinated, armed with fire and vengeance. CHAPTER V. What is said of Comets 7 Why are they so called 1 How many Comets are on record 7 How many were noticed by the ancients 7 How many appear at regular periods 7 How have Comets been considered by the ignorant and superstitious of all ages 7 What is said of the Comet which appeared just after the death of Julius Caesar 7 What is said of the Comet NATURAL HISTORY. 23 The great Comet which made its appearance in 1456, spread terror throughout Europe^ The be- lief was general among all classes, that this Comet would destroy the earth, and that the Day of Judgment was at hand. About this time, the Turks seemed destined to conquer all Europe, which added much to the general gloom. In or- der to prepare the world for its expected destruc- tion, the Pope of Rome ordered the bells to be rung at noon, and an extra prayer to be made once a day, which was " Lord save us from the Devil, the Turk, and the Comet." The possibility that a Comet might strike the earth, has, at times, cre- ated great alarm. It is not probable, however, that such a contact will ever take place, because the matter of Comets is so extremely light, that it would probably be stopped by the atmosphere sur- rounding the earth ; and if the matter is combus- tible, as some have supposed, it would more than likely be consumed before reaching the earth ; so we have no reason to think that they ever have done, or ever will do, the least injury to mankind. The fixed stars are known by their twinkling light, and are so called because they do not change of 1456? What was the general belief? What increased these feelings of terror 1 What was the order of the Pope of Rome 1 What is said of Comets striking the earth 1 Why is it probable that they will never injure the earth or its inhab- itants 7 How are the fixed stars known, and why are they so called 1 How many may be seen in a clear night with the 24 FIRST BOOK OF their place as the planets do. The number of fixed stars visible to the naked eye, on a clear night, is about one thousand, although they appear to be innumerable. This false impression is caused by each bright star leaving an impression on the eye for some seconds, and thus} by looking around, the number of impressions become indefi- nitely increased. In consequence of their great distance from the earth, the light of the fixed stars requires a long time to reach us. If Sirius, the nearest of all, should at this moment be destroyed, we would still continue to see it for six years four months and a half. CHAPTER VI. SHOOTING STARS. AURORA BOREALIS* IGNIS FATUUS. THE luminous appearances known by the name of shooting stars, are frequently seen, but their nature is not well understood. They are supposed naked eye ? Why does there appear to be so great a number 1 What is the name of the nearest fixed star 7 How long does it require for the light of Sirius to corne to the earth 7 CHAPTER VL By what are shooting stars supposed to be produced ? What is said of their motions and appearance 1 On what does the NATURAL HISTORY. 25 to be occasioned by electricity or luminous gas. When they fall, they look like stars dropping from the sky, shooting along with great rapidity, and sometimes leaving behind them in the air a bril- liant track, which is longer or shorter, according as watery vapor abounds in the atmosphere. Some- times their motion is attended with a hissing sound, and they burst with a loud noise, being oc- casionally followed by a fall of stones, which are called jtErolites. There are, however, several in- stances on record of these stars falling in showers ; the most remarkable of which, was seen through- out the United States on the morning of the 13th of November, 1833. The first appearance was that of the most splendid fireworks, covering the entire vault of heaven with myriads of fire-balls, resembling sky-rockets. A gentleman in South Carolina, thus describes the effect of this unusual appearance upon his ignorant blacks: "I was suddenly awakened by the most distressing cries that ever fell on my ears. Shrieks of horror and cries for mercy I could hear from most of the negroes on three plantations, amounting in all, to about six or eight hundred. While earnestly listening for the cause, I heard a length of their luminous track depend ? By what are their motions at times followed 7 What are JErolites 1 Do these shooting stars ever fall in showers 1 When did the most re- markable shower appear? What was its first appearance? Relate the description given by a gentleman of South Carolina. 26 FIRST BOOK OB* voice near the door calling my name ; I arose, and taking my sword, stood at the door. At this mo- ment I heard the same voice still entreating me to rise, and saying, ' O my God, the world is on fire !' I then opened the door, and it is difficult to say which excited me the most, the awfulness of the scene, or the distressed cries of the negroes ; up- wards of one hundred lay prostrate on the ground some speechless, and some with the most bitter cries ; but most with their hands raised, imploring God to save the world and them. The scene was truly awful ; for never did rain fall much thicker than the shooting stars fell towards the earth; east, north, south, and west, it was the same." The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights, as they are commonly called, are frequently seen in the winter season in the north, near the horizon. They generally appear a short time after sunset in the form of a brilliant arch, after which, they send forth streams of stronger light, shooting with great rapidity, reaching sometimes only a few degrees, sometimes to the zenith, and even beyond it. They are often equal to the lightning in bright- ness and the rainbow in coloring. These lights are most brilliant in the arctic regions, and are supposed to be caused by electricity in the upper regions of the atmosphere. "Where is the Aurora Borealis seen, and when 1 What is said of its appearance ? To what is it equal in brightness and color 1 By what is it supposed to be caused ? What is the NATURAL HISTORY. 27 Ignis Fatuus is a Latin term, meaning vain or foolish fire. It is applied to a fiery or luminous appearance which flits about in the air a little above the surface of the earth, and appears gener- ally in marshy places, near stagnant waters, or in church yards, during the nights of summer. There are many instances of travelers having been led by these lights into marshy places where they have perished* It is called Jack-with-a-lan- tern or Wilkwith-a-wisp, and many ignorant peo- ple imagine the appearance to proceed from evil spirits, who take this method of destroying per- sons. It is generally supposed to be produced by the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter, or by the escape of vapors from the earth, which take fire as soon as they come in contact with the atmosphere. CHAPTER VII. LIGHTNING AND THUNDER. LIGHTNING is a discharge of electricity from one cloud to another, from a cloud to the earth, or meaning of ignis fatuus ? To what is this word applied 7 "Where is the ignis fatuus seen 7 Has it ever proved an injury to mankind 1 By what names is it known 1 From what do many ignorant people believe it to proceed 7 How is it sup- posed to be produced 7 28 FIRST BOOK OP from the earth to a cloud, causing a bright flash of light, which is generally accompanied by a loud report, called thunder. The earth and all bodies with which we are acquainted are supposed to possess electricity* If a glass tube 5 or stick of sealing-wax be rub- bed with a piece of flannel, or a dry silk handker- chief, or a piece of paper be rubbed with a piece of india-rubber^ the glass, sealing-wax, and paper, will possess the power of drawing or attracting light bodies, as a downy feather or a pith-ball, when held near them ; such bodies arc called elec- troscopes^ because they show the presence of the electric fluid. When glass is rubbed with a piece of silk, the silk imparts its fluid to the glass; consequently the glass has more than its natural quantity, and is said to be positive, while at the same timo the silk has less than its natural quantity, and is said to be negative. If two clouds come together, one positive and the other negative, then a portion of the electricity escapes from the positive cloud and goes to the negative cloud, making both equal. CHAPTER VIL "What is lightning 7 What is thunder 7 What bodies con- tain electricity 7 What effect is produced by rubbing glass or sealing-wax with silk or woolen, and paper with India rubber 7 What are such bodies called, and why 1 When is any sub- stance positively electrified 7 When negatively 7 When do we see the lightning 7 Is there any difference between elec-. NATURAL HISTORY. 29 The electricity passing from one cloud to another is the lightning which we see in the heavens. When two bodies are similarly electrified, they re- pel each other; but when they are in different electrical states, having either more or less electri- city, they attract each other. Dr. Franklin discovered that electricity and lightning are the same, by means of a boys' kite covered with a silk handkerchief, instead of paper. Lightning is reflected from 150 to 200 miles. Thunder is the report caused by the rushing together of the particles of air, after it has been divided by the passing of the lightning through it. The cracking of a whip-lash is supposed to proceed from the same cause. The lash divides the air into two parts, which rush forcibly together and produce the sound. Those discharges of elec- tricity are dangerous which are followed almost instantly by the report. The lightning and thun- der always take place at the same moment, but when the discharge is some distance from us, the report is not heard till some time after the flash is seen, because the light reaches the eye in an in- stant, while the sound requires some time to reach tricity and lightning 7 Who discovered this fact, and in what manner 7 How far is lightning reflected 7 What is the cause of thunder 7 Does the lightning and thunder always take place at the same time 7 Why do we not hear the report as soon as we see the flash 7 How far does sound move in a minute 7 Is it safe to take shelter under a tree during a thunder storm 7 30 FIRST BOOK OF us, as it travels but 1128 feet in a second, or a mile in five seconds. During a thunder storm we should not take shelter under trees, but at the same time, a person is safer at the distance of about thirty feet from a tree than on an open plain. Water should also 4 436 carefully avoided, because it is a good conduc- tor of electricity. In a house, the safest place is near the middle of a room, and we are still more secure when sitting on a feather bed, hair mattrass, or thick woolen rug, all of which are bad conduct- ors. It is wrong to go into a cellar for safety, be- cause the discharge is often from the earth to a cloud, and in such instances, buildings generally sustain the greatest damage in the basement stories. It is dangerous to be near the fire-place, because the chimney is the part most likely to be struck, and the soot is a powerful conductor. Gilt furniture, bell wires, and all metalic bodies should be avoided. Thunder storms cool and purify the atmosphere. Why should water be avoided 7 In what situation are we most secure in a house 1 Why should we not go to a cellar for safety 7 Why should we not remain near a fire-place 1 What bodies should be carefully avoided 7 Do thunder s^rms produce any good effects 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 31 CHAPTER VIII. THE ATMOSPHERE. WIND. THE atmosphere is the thin transparent fluid which surrounds the earth to the height of about forty-five miles above its surface, and is chiefly composed of oxygen and nitrogen gases. As we ascend above the surface of the earth, the air be- comes rapidly lighter, so that at a height not much above the highest mountains, man breathes with difficulty, and very few birds fly. Its weight is immense ; for the quantity which presses on a moderate sized person is calculated at 32,400 Ibs. or nearly 14 tons. From this great weight of the" atmosphere we feel no inconvenience, because the pressure of the fluids and air within our bodies is equal to the outward pressure. Were we to go on the top of some high moun- tain, we should find it much more difficult to breathe than on a plain or in a valley on a level with the sea, because the higher we ascend, the CHAPTER VIII. What is the atmosphere 7 To what height does it extend ? Of what is it composed 1 What is said of the atmosphere in respect to its density 7 What is the pressure of the atmosphere on a common sized man ? Do we feel any inconvenience from this weight 7 Why not ? Why is it more difficult to breathe on the top of a high mountain, than in a valley on a level with FIRST BOOK OF lighter the air becomes, and the pressure of the atmosphere is less than the inward pressure of the body. On the summits of some very high mountains, large drops of sweat and blood issue from the pores of the skin. The air is about eight hundred and fifteen times lighter than water; and the weight of a column of air, reaching from its greatest height to the surface of the earth, is equal to a column of water, of the same size, thirty-three feet high ; for that is the height to which water will rise in a pump. The blue color of the atmosphere we only per- ceive when we look at the sky, or at some distant mountain or forest. The intensity of the color is just in proportion to the mass at which we look, and a very small quantity presents scarcely any perceptible tint, while, when viewed in the mass, quite a strong color is apparent. Thus we cannot see the blue color in the air when in a room, or looking at an object a short distance from us, because the quantity is too small to convey enough blue rays to the eye to make us sensible of the presence of the color we so plainly perceive in the the seal How much heavier is water than air 7 A column of water of what height, will be equal to a column of air of the same circumference, reaching to its utmost height ? When do we perceive the blue color of the atmosphere 1 What is said of the intensity of its color 7 Do we perceive the blue color of the air in a room 1 Why not ? What is said of the NATURAL HISTORY. 33 vast quantity which fills the intermediate space between the distant mountain and ourselves. The same effect is produced by glass : for instance, if a pane of glass be held up to the light, it ap- pears perfectly clear, but if other panes are added, the blue color increases just in proportion to their number. At a great height in the atmosphere, the blue tinge disappears, and the sky appears perfectly black. The vapors which are continually rising from the surface of the earth, collect in the atmosphere and form rain^ dew, and fogs. Wind is air put in motion, principally by means of heat and cold. When any part of the atmos- phere is heated by the rays of the sun or any other cause, the particles expand and become lighter ; and as its lightness causes it to ascend, it leaves a vacuum or empty space into which the surrounding air rushes, producing winds from every direction. Night and day chill and warm the air in succession, and produce alternate currents in its vapors. The vapors rising from particular portions of the surface of the earth impart their own particu- lar qualities to the winds. Thus in Arabia, the Simoon carries much nitrous gas along with it ; color of glass 7 What is the appearance of the sky at a great distance above the earth 7 What is produced by the vapors which are constantly rising 7 What is said of the vapors of particular portions of the earth 7 Where is the Simoon, and 34 FIRST BOOK OF the Harmattan of Guinea much oxygen ; and the Chamsin of Egypt much nitrogen. In this country, the northern winds are cold, because they come from the cold regions of the north ; the easterly winds are moist, because they come loaded with the vapors of the sea ; the southern winds are warm, because they come from the hot regions of the south ; and the westerly winds are dry, because they have passed over a great extent of land, which has absorbed their moisture. There are often double currents in the atmos- phere, as we frequently see the clouds move one way and the wind another. This is generally the case before thunder ; for it is a well known fact, that the thunder-cloud moves contrary to the wind, the cause of which is unknown. CHAPTER IX. CLOUDS. RAIN. SNOW. HAIL. CLOUDS are collections of misty vapors, consist- ing principally of watery particles, which float at a greater or less distance from the earth, according what gas does it carry with it 7 The Chamsin ? The Har- mattan 1 What is said of the winds of this country 7 What fact is well known in respect to the thunder-cloud 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 35 to their weight. Thin light clouds are often ob- served higher than the summits of the highest mountains ; those most dense, generally float with- in half a mile of the earth. Clouds are most abundantly produced in the hot regions where the greatest quantity of water is evaporated. The clouds serve as screens between the scorch- ing rays of the sun and the earth ; and particularly as a medium for conveying electricity from the atmosphere to the earth, and from the earth to the atmosphere. The various colors and different ap- pearances of the clouds are owing to their particu- lar situation in regard to the sun, to the different directions in which the sun's rays are reflected from their surface, and to the effects produced on them by heat. Rain is formed in the atmosphere, at some dis- tance above the earth, where warm air becomes cooled. If it is only cooled a little, the moisture is merely condensed into a cloud ; but if the cool- ing is greater, drops of water or rain are produced, which fall by their own weight. In some coun- tries, as in Egypt and a part of Peru and Chili, it seldom if ever rains, for there the winds blow CHAPTER IX. Of what are clouds formed 7 What is the general height of clouds 1 Where are they produced in the greatest abun- dance, and why 1 What purposes do clouds serve ? To what is their particular appearance and color owing 7 Where and how is rain formed 1 In what countries does it seldom rain ? 36 FIRST BOOK OF steadily in one direction, and encounter none of those mixtures with colder air which form rain. In some other parts of the earth, as the northeast- ern part of South America, the rains are exces- sive ; in others, as in most tropical countries, the rains are very great at particular periods, which are called their winters or rainy seasons^ while they scarcely occur at all during the other parts of the year. SNOW CRYSTALS. If the particles of clouds become frozen before they have time to unite in drops, they are con- verted into a light downy substance called snow, Why have these countries no rain ? What is said of rain in some other parts of the earth? What is the rainy season called in the torrid zone? How is snow formed? Of what NATURAL HISTORY. 37 which falls gently to the earth, because of the resis- tance it meets with from the atmosphere, in con- sequence of its bulk being so great in comparison with its weight. It causes the earth to retain its heat, and forms an admirable defense of the ve- getable kingdom during winter, in cold climates. Flakes of snow consist of regularly formed crys- tals, presenting many curiously formed figures, which appear very beautiful. SNOW CRYSTALS. Clouds condensed into drops of water, and then congealed or frozen by the cold as they are falling to the ground, produce what is called hail. The most violent hail-storms are produced by whirl- benefit is it to the earth 1 Why does snow fall slowly 7 What is said of flakes of snow 7 How is hail produced 7 What produces the most violent hail storms 1 Where do they sel- dom occur, and where generally 7 38 FIRST BOOK OF winds, which cany up bodies of hot air far beyond that portion of the atmosphere, where the drops of rain are converted into hail-stones. It is very sel- dom tbat hail-storms occur either in the torrid or frigid zones ; they are chiefly confined to the tem- perate regions. CHAPTER X. SURFACE OF THE EARTH. VOLCANOES. THE surface of the earth is composed of land and water. The land is divided into jive great divisions ; Europe, Asia, Africa, and a part of Aus- tralia, form the Eastern Continent or Eastern Hemisphere; North and South America, and a part of Australia, form the Western Continent or Western Hemisphere. The surface of the earth is uneven, caused by the mountains, hills, plains, and valleys. Many metals, as gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, salt, coal, &c., are found beneath the earth's surface. The places where they are obtained are called mines , CHAPTER X. Of what is the surface of the earth composed 1 How is it divided 1 Why is the surface of the earth uneven 7 What are found beneath the surface of the earth ? What are mines, and who are miners 7 What is called the sea 1 In what con- NATURAL HISTORY. 39 and the persons working in them are called mi- ners. The water which surrounds the land is called the sea. The earth without an ocean would be a dry and unfruitful desert, incapable of producing any vegetables, and consequently unfit for the resi- dence of the animal kingdom. But a continued interchange is going on between the ocean, the atmosphere, and the dry land. The ocean puri- fies the atmosphere by decomposing many of the poisonous substances contained in it, thereby checking some of those principles of disease which are known to be blown from one country to an- other by means of the wind. Oceans are collections of water in valleys, and their basins present the same diversified appear- ance as the surface of the earth; consisting of mountains, hills, and valleys. The depth of the sea is therefore much greater in some places than in others, and has been estimated at between two and three miles. The color of the sea is not fixed, but often ex- hibits different shades, probably owing to the char- acter of the bed over which the water flows ; and dition would the earth be without an ocean ? What is con- stantly going on between the ocean, the atmosphere, and the earth 1 What effect has the ocean oipon the atmosphere 7 What are oceans 7 What is said of their basins 1 What is said of the depth of the sea ? To what is the difference of the color of the sea probably owing ? What is the color in the 40 FIRST BOOK OF sometimes to insects or plants that float beneath its surface. In the upper part of the Mediterranean sea, the water has a purple tint ; around the Mai- dive Islands, it is black, and in the Gulf of Guinea it is white. Very often the sea has a luminous appearance as though it were on fire. This wonderful phe- nomenon is probably produced by very small ani- mals, scarcely larger than the head of a pin, min- gled with others called medusae and sea-nettles, that emit light from their long feelers, while their bodies are quite dark. The saltness of the sea tends to preserve its purity, and renders it less lia- ble to freeze than other water. Its saltness in- creases towards the equator, and decreases towards the poles, The name Volcano, is taken from that which the Romans gave to the god of fire, and is now applied to those mountains which vomit forth flames, smoke, and torrents of melted lava, that look like rivers of fire. They sometimes throw out enormous pieces of rock, mud, and boiling water. The chimney through which the flames, smoke, &c., issue, terminates at the top in a large upper part of the Mediterranean? Around the Maldive islands ? In the Gulf of Guinea 1 How does the sea often appear 7 By what is this appearance caused ? What is said of the saltness of the sea? Where is the sea most salt? Where least salt ? From what is the name volcano taken ? To what is it applied ? What do volcanoes sometimes throw NATURAL HISTORY. 41 circular opening, presenting the appearance of an inverted tunnel. This mouth is called the crater. The peak of Teneriffe, on an island of the same name, east of Africa, is 11,400 feet in height, and is the most elevated volcano on the eastern conti- nent. Mount Etna, on the island of Sicily, has been burning for 3300 years. Herculaneum and Pompeii,. two cities on the sides of njount Vesu- vius, were entirely buried in the year 79 after Christ, during one of its eruptions. CHAPTER XI. DIFFERENT RACES OF MANKIND. THE whole world is supposed to contain about ten hundred and fourteen millions of human be- ings. Those who are of the same general struc- ture and color, form a race. There are Jive great varieties of races, which derive their names from the grand divisions of the earth that they chiefly out 7 What is said of the crater 7 Where is the peak of Ten- eriffe, and what is said of it 1 How long has Mount Etna been burning 7 What cities were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, and when ? CHAPTER XI. What is the supposed population of the whole earth 1 Into how many races is mankind divided 7 In what respects do FIRST BOOK OF inhabit. They are the European or White race, American or Red race, Asiatic or Mongolian race, Malay race, and African or Negro race. The Sacred Scriptures inform us that all these races are the children of the same first parents ; that the delicate European and the jet black Afri- can are brothers, descended from the same ances- try. The difference between these races has been produced like that which we see in horses, dogs, and many other animals, partly by the difference of climate and food, and partly by other causes Unknown. Variety of color seems to depend on external [causes principally, for while the Moorish ladies, who are shut up in their houses and are rarely exposed to the sun's rays, have complexions of the most dazzling whiteness, the women of the lower ranks, even in their youth, acquire a color ap- proaching that of soot. The mountaineers of Abyssinia are as fair as the Spaniards, while the inhabitants of the plains are almost black. Some naturalists have supposed that the origi- nal color of the human race was black; but this they chiefly differ from each other 1 From what do they de- rive their names 7 Of what does the Sacred Scriptures inform us 1 What is the cause of the great difference in color and form in the human family ? On what does variety of color seem to depend ? What is said of the Moorish ladies, and the common class of females 1 What is said of the people of Abyssinia, and of the inhabitants of the plains 1 What have some naturalists supposed to be the original color of the human NATURAL HISTORY. 43 supposition is undoubtedly untrue, for we see in the case of the negroes when transported from their native burning regions to those countries situated in mild and temperate climates, that they do not retain their original sooty color from gen- eration to generation, but become considerably lighter in appearance. We often hear of white children with black parents, but never hear of black children with white parents ; consequently we may conclude that white is the color most na- tural to mankind. We should also remember that that portion of the earth upon which our first parents were created, is now the native land of the most beautiful people upon the face of the earth the Circassians. CHAPTER XII. EUROPEAN RACE. THIS race have regular features and forms ; the face is straight and oval, the mouth usually small, although the tongues of some are remarkably race "? Is this supposition probably true 7 Why not 1 What do we often hear of 1 What should we remember ? CHAPTER XII. Describe the European race 1 What nations does this race include 1 Is there any difference in the appearance of this 44 FIRST BOOK OF long ; the nose thin ; the hair long ; and the cheeks more or less red. It includes the Europeans and all their descendants in both hemispheres, as well as the Turks, Circassians, Persians, Jews, Abyssi- EUROPEAN RACE. mans, the natives of Hindoostan, and the Moors who inhabit the northern part of Africa. Over such a great extent of country, there is much dif- ference in the features, complexion, and size ; but race ? In what does the European race surpass all others 1 What have originated with them 1 Describe the Turks? NATURAL HISTORY. 45 this race is the most beautiful, and surpasses all others in knowledge^ activity, and courage : and with this race have originated the most valuable institutions, and the most important and useful inventions. The Turks are ignorant, have wild and extra- vagant notions of religion, possess great self-im- portance; are treacherous to their enemies, and think nothing of violating their vows made to Mends* Those who know more languages than their own, often conceal the knowledge, to avoid the disgrace attached to it. The best name be- stowed upon a Christian, is dog ; and even this is sometimes changed for other terms of reproach. A soldier of the Turkish foot guards, who attend- ed upon foreigners, was called a hog-driver ; thus showing their contempt for foreign nations. But in describing the Turks, we should not forget that they have one national virtue^ that of honesty. Their words are as good security in their commer- cial dealings, as bonds in other countries. Children are sent to make purchases and are seldom wrong- ed, and the shops are secured only with a string in the master's absence. Many of their customs show a very degraded What is said of those who know more than one language 1 What name do they give to a Christian ? What national virtue do they possess 1 What is said of their word ? How are their doors secured 7 What do many of their customs show 1 Who are acceptable presents to the Sultan, and why 1 46 FIRST BOOK OF state of society. Mutes, or the deaf and dumbj are sought for by the Pachas, as acceptable pre- sents to the Sultan ; and there are many of these servants at his palace, who can see, but not tell ; suffer ) but not complain. Dwarfs and deformed persons are also attached to the court, as in vari- ous eastern countries. The Moors of Barbary are proverbial for their cruelty, indolence, ignorance, and fanaticism. The inhabitants of the cities are as indolent as the Turks. Merchandize is measured by the arm, from the elbow. The females, when they \vould honor a person of high standing, raise sudden and piercing shrieks, and the manners and customs generally are those of a very rude state of society. The houses of the Jews, in Barbary, and all their sacred relations, are open to every Moor who will violate them. A Jew may be pelted and beaten by men and boys, and when riding, if he meets a Moor, he is forced to dismount to show re- spect to the rude barbarian, The Moors are much attached to their horses, and they use a bit that will stop the horse in an instant, when going at full speed. The extent of theit education is to read in the What is said of dwarfs and deformed persons 1 For what are the Moors proverbial? Are they indolent? How is mer- chandize measured ? How do the females do honor to a per- son of high standing 1 To what indignities are the Jews sub- jected in Barbary ? To what are the Moors much attached ? NATURAL HISTORY. 47 Koran, the Mohammedan bible, and write. The boys at school use a board and piece of chalk, with which they write. CHAPTER XIII. AMERICAN RACE. THE original natives of America form a second race, not less different in color, than distinct in habitation, from the rest of mankind. All the tribes of this vast continent, except the Esquimaux Indians, which resemble the Laplanders, are of a red or copper color. They have black, thick straight hair, and thin beards, w T hich they, in gen- eral, like the Mongul and Malay nations, pull out by the roots. They have high cheek-bones, small noses, and the eyes are deeply seated in the head. They paint the body and face with various colors, and consider the hair upon any portion of their bodies, except the head, as a. deformity. All the What kind of a bib do they use 7 What is the extent of their education 1 What do the boys use at school 7 CHAPTER XIII. Who form the second race 7 What tribe of Indians do not belong to the American race 7 Describe the American race 7 What other nations beside the Indians pull out their beards 7 What is said of their hair 7 Where is the tallest race of men 48 FIRST BOOK OF Indians have a serious appearance, and however cruel to their enemies, they are kind and just to their friends and to each other* AMERICAN RACE. In the southern part of South America is found the tallest race of men in the world, called Pata- gonians. They are often nearly seven feet in height and rarely less than six feet. NATURAL HISTORY. 49 The native Americans are said to be more backward in facing danger than the people of Eu- rope ; but no sooner does it appear unavoidable, than their courage is excited to a great height, and they are ready to suffer or inflict the most cruel tortures, displaying the utmost composure during the greatest agonies; a remarkable instance of which was exhibited by Guatimozin, one of the kings of Mexico. At the time the Spaniards, with the cruel Cortez at their head, took the city of Mexico, they were greatly disappointed in not find- ing the expected treasures of gold and silver. They therefore suspected that the king had caused his treasures to be concealed, and in order to make him tell where he had secreted them, the cruel Spaniards placed Guatimozin and his chief minis- ter upon a bed of live coals. His minister, unable to endure this dreadful agony, uttered a shriek and turned his eye upon the king, as if asking permis- sion to disclose the secret. To this the king re^ plied calmly, "Am I on a bed of roses ? " This rebuke silenced the minister, and he said no more| patiently enduring his agonies till he was freed by death. Though many .of the Indian tribes are equal in stature to the Europeans, still they are far from found 1 What is their general height 7 What is said of the Indians in facing danger ? What is said of the torture of Guatimozin and his minister by the heartless Spaniards ? Are the Indians as strong as the Europeans ? To what is it prob- 50 FIRST BOOK OF being as strong, which is probably owing, in some degree, to the climate and the scantiness or bad quality of their food. Most of these people, like savage nations in general, lead a wild, independent and wandering life; subsisting on the animals which they kill in the chase, on wild fruit, roots, and fish. This mode of living produces in them a peculiar train of virtues and vices ; patience and hospitali- ty, indolence and rapacity, content and sincerity, which also mark the character of the savage in every part of the world. CHAPTER XIV. ASIATIC RACE. THIS race comprises the Tartars, Chinese, Jap- anese, Mongolians. Siberians, Fins, Laplanders of Europe, and the Esquimaux Indians of America ; they all probably originated from the Tartars. Their general characteristics are, heads almost square, wide mouths, high cheek-bones, small flat ably owing'? How do Indians and savages in general live'? What does this mode of living produce in them 1 CHAPTER XIV. What nations does this race comprise 7 From what nation did they all probably originate 1 What are their general cha- NATURAL HISTORY. 51 noses, their eyes little, and sunk in their heads, large thick eye-brows, and their color more or less yellow. The Tartars are extremely strong and veiy robust ; their thighs are large, and their legs short. ASIATIC RACE. The Calmucks are the ugliest of all this race. All the Tartar tribes lead a wandering life, and dwell in tents made of hair and skins. They 52 FIRST BOOK OF build no towns, and only cultivate the ground to a small extent for the purpose of raising millet, which they eat with mares' milk. Tartars live principally upon horse flesh and the flesh of camels, Their principal wealth consists in horses, in the management and card of which the greater part of their time is employed, and they at last bring them to such perfect obedience that they seem to understand every motion of their riders. They practise robbery by profession, and think it not dishonorable so long as they do not practise it on their own tribe. The Laplanders, Esquimaux Indians, Green- landers, &c., resemble each other in their man- ners, stature, and ignorance, They are generally not above four feet in height. Among all these nations the women are as deformed as the men, and so nearly do they resemble each other that it is difficult to distinguish them. The Danish Laplanders have a large black cat, to which they tell all their secrets, and which they consult in all their affairs. Among- the Swedish Laplanders there was formerly, in every family, a racteristics 1 What is said of the Tartars ? Of the Cal- mucks ? Of the life led by the Tartars 1 What grain do they use*? Upon what do they principally live'? In what does their principal wealth consist 1 What is said of their horses 1 What do they practice 1 What do they think of robbery 7 Which nations bear a close resemblance 7 In what do they resemble each other 1 What is their general height 1 What is said of the women of these nations 1 Of the Danish Lap- NATURAL HISTORY. 53 drum for consulting with the devil. Although these nations are robust and nimble, yet the so cowardly that they never can be brought into the battle field. They make use of skates nearly three feet long and six inches broad. With these they skate upon the icy snow so rapidly that they easily overtake the swiftest animals. Upon these skates they de- scend the steepest mountains, and climb the most craggy precipices ; and in these exercises the wo- men are not less skilful than the men. They live principally on dried fish, the flesh of reindeer, and bears. Their bread is composed of pounded fish- bones mixed with the inside tender bark of the pine tree. The Chinese possess little honor or benevolence ; and the females, as in all unenlightened countries, have to suffer a life of labor and seclusion, and are the slaves rather than the companions of man. The chief garment is a long loose robe, reaching al- most to the ground, over which is worn a silk girdle with a knife in a sheath, and the two sticks, which are used instead of forks, suspended therefrom. Their teeth are colored yellow or green, and the nails of the higher classes are permitted to grow landers? Of the Swedish Laplanders? Do they possess much courage ? What is the size of their skates ? What are these people able to do on their skates ? On what do they chiefly live ? Of what is their bread composed ? What is the character of the Chinese ? What is said of their females ? Describe their chief garment ? What are attached to the silk 54 FIRST BOCK OF several inches in length, which are preserved in bamboo sheaths. The shoes of a Chinese lady are about four inches in length, and two in breadth. This deformity is considered a beauty ; and a fe- male thus mutilated can walk only witn the great- est difficulty. MALAY. NATURAL HISTORY. 55 CHAPTER XV. MALAY AND NEGRO RACES. THE Malay race has a dark brown complexion, with large features, broad noses, and large mouths. This race includes the inhabitants of Malacca, Australia, Polynesia, and the Asiatic islands. Those who live in the hottest of these islands are almost as black as negroes, as the Papoos of New Guinea ; but the most of them have much better forms and features. The Negroes form the fifth and most distinct race of mankind. This gloomy race is found to blacken all Africa south of the tropic of Cancer, with the exception of Abyssinia, the inhabitants of which are olive-colored. The Negroes are as remarkable for the smooth- ness of their skin, as for their jet-black color. Their hair is short, woolly, and soft ; and the beard is also similar to the hair, but it soon tuins gray, which the hair is never known to do ; so that girdle ? What is said of their teeth ? Their finger-nails ? The shoes of the females ? "What is said of this deformity ? CHAPTER XV. JN"ame and describe the fourth race 1 What nations does it include 3 What is said of those who live in the hottest of these islands'? Name the fifth race. Where is this race found? For what are the negroes remarkable? Describe 56 FIRST BOOK OF many have white beards and black hair at the same time. Their eyes are of a deep hazel color, their noses flat and short, their lips thick, mouth wide, and their teeth of an ivory whiteness. NEGRO. The Negro nations differ from each other like those of the other races. The Negroes also have them. Do Negro nations differ in appearance ? What is said of their hair and beard 7 What are their other peculiarities ? NATURAL HISTORY. 57 their own particular countries celebrated for the beauty of their inhabitants, as well as Europeans. Those of Guinea are considered the homliest of the black tribes, and they emit an unpleasant odor, while those of Mozambique are considered the most beautiful, and have no disagreeable smell. Farther southward the inhabitants become some- what paler, and are called Caffres, though in their features there is little or no difference. The Hot- tentots form another nation, and inhabit the most southern part. They are of a brown olive color, and their cheek-bones are so prominent as to cause the face to appear almost triangular. The climate seems to weaken their mental powers still more than those of the body, and in general they are found to be stupid, indolent, and mischievous. Those colonies of Arabians who settled in the inland parts of Africa, have lost their beauty, forgotten their ancient learning, and can scarcely be distinguished from the original inhab- itants. The Portuguese, who about two centuries since settled along this coast, have become almost as black as the Negroes, and are said by some tra- velers to be even more barbarous. What is said of their beauty 1 What is said of the Negroes of Guinea 1 Of Mozambique 1 What of the inhabitants farther southward, and what are they called ? What is said of the Hottentots 1 Of the climate 1 Of the Arabians who settled in the inland parts 1 Of the Portuguese 7 What effect has the slave trade had on this race. 58 FIRST BOOK OF The foundations of society have been broken up, and the character of the Negroes much de- praved, by the inhuman slave trade. CHAPTER XVI. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. EVERY department of nature is interesting and wonderful, and we may always find delight and improvement in this study. Nothing has been created in vain, for everything we can see is fdled with beauty and design. Wherever we look we may find something to admire, astonish, or delight us, and to make us more sensible of the wisdom, power, and goodness of Almighty God. The smallest insect, with the leaf upon which it crawls, the most noxious animals, or the most poisonous plants, give the same evidence of creative power and providential care, as the noblest animals and largest plants, or those which are most beautiful and most useful to mankind. The earth, the air, and the waters, are filled with things which are called animate, having life, and inanimate, or things which have not life. CHAPTER XVI. What may we always find in the study of nature ? Has anything been created in vain ? Of what should the works of nature make us more sensible 7 What is said of the earth, air, NATURAL HISTORY. 59 Some of these objects, as man, beasts, birds, fishes, and insects, live and move, and are said to have a/iiimal life ; others, as trees, plants, flowers, and moss, live ; but this is called vegetable life ; while others, as stones, coal, chalk, and earth, have no life, and are called inanimate objects. The kingdom of nature embraces three great classes, Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals. Ani- mals and vegetables are called organic bodies, be- cause they possess powers peculiarly their own, by which they seek what they require, whether it be light, heat, water, food, or comfort. Every living thing is composed of different parts, or organs, de- signed for distinct and important purposes ; thus the rose bush has a root to supply it with nourish- ment, a stem and branches to support the leaves and flowers, and seeds to produce other rose bushes in succession : the cricket has wings to fly and sing with, jaws to eat with, eyes to see with, legs to leap with, and antenna, or feelers, in which re- side the sense of touch. Minerals are called inorganic bodies. They possess no organs, and never had life, or have been dead so long that they have lost all traces of their and waters 7 What does animate mean 7 What does inani- mate mean 7 Mention some objects which have animal life 7 Some which have vegetable life 7 Some inanimate ob- jects 1 What does the kingdom of nature embrace 7 What are animals and vegetables called, and why 7 What is said of the rose bush 7 Of the cricket 7 What are the antennae of insects 7 Why are minerals called inorganic bodies 7 What 60 FIRST BOOK OF former organization. Those limestone rocks which abound in shells, which we call petrifactions, have lost entirely the matter of which they were once composed. Animals are composed chiefly of carbon, hydro- gen, oxygen, and nitrogen; and vegetables of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen gases. The pecu- liar smell that we perceive when burning hair, flesh, bones, or feathers, is caused by the nitrogen gas, or azote, escaping from the burning substance. Both animals and vegetables consist of solids and fluids; the fluids in animals, however, exist in much the larger proportion, only about two-fifths being solid matter. The animal kingdom contains about twenty- three thousand different species ; the vegetable kingdom about eighty -thousand, and the mineral kingdom about three hundred varieties. are petrifactions 7 Of what are animals chiefly composed 7 Of what are vegetables chiefly composed 7 What is the cause of the peculiar smell produced by burning feathers, bones, &c. 1 Of what do animals and vegetables consist 7 What portion of the human body is solid matter 1 What portion fluids 7 How many different species are there in the animal kingdom 7 In the vegetable kingdom 7 In the mineral kingdom 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 61 CHAPTER XVII. DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. THERE are four great divisions in the animal kingdom. The first is vertebrated, or those hav- ing a spine and ribs to support the body, at the head of which stands Man, the most noble of all, created in the likeness of his Maker, and the un- disputed lord of the Creation. The second are the mollusca, or soft animals ; the third, articu- lated animals ; and the fourth, radiated animals; The three last divisions have no vertebra or back bone, and are therefore called invertebrated. Each of these general divisions is again sub- divided into several others. The vertebral is di- vided into four classes, viz. : Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles. Mammalia and Birds are called warm-blooded animals, because their bodies are warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and they feel warm to the touch ; but Reptiles and Fishes are called cold-blooded, because they are as cold or colder than the surrounding medium, and are cold to the touch. CHAPTER XVII. How many great divisions are there in the animal king- dom 1 Name them. Why are the three last called inverte- brated 1 Into how many classes is the vertebral division di- vided 1 What are they 1 Which are warm-blooded animals, 62 FIRST BOOK OP The Mammalia are divided into nine orders, and Birds into six ; while Reptiles include tor- toises^ lizards, serpents, and frogs. Fishes are divided into Cartilaginous and Bony. The bodies and limbs of vertebrated animals are supported by a frame-work, or skeleton, composed of connected pieces, which are movable upon each other, and among them are found the largest ani- mals. Their bodies always consist of a head, trunk, and members. The head of a human being is formed by the skull, which is composed of eight pieces, and contains the brain ; and by the face, which is composed of two jaws and twelve other bones, making in all, including the thirty-two teeth and the bone in the tongue, fifty-five in the composition of the head. The bone in the tongue is shaped like the letter U. There are fifty : four bones in the trunk, twenty- four of which form the back-bone, or spine, and are called vertebrce. Through the whole spinal column there is a canal, through which the spinal marrow passes down, giving off nerves between and why ? Which are cold-blooded, and why 1 Name the sub- divisions of the animal kingdom. By what are the bodies and limbs of vertebrated animals supported 7 Of what is the skeleton composed 7 Of what do their bodies consist 7 By what is the head of a human being formed 7 How many pieces form the skull 7 How many teeth are there 7 How many bones in the tongue 7 How many in the head 7 How many in the trunk 7 Of what is the spine formed 7 What passes through it 7 How many, and what bones form the NATURAL HISTORY. 63 every two bones, to go to the ribs and muscles on the sides. Twenty-five bones form the chest, or thorax, [ twenty- four of which are ribs, and one the sternum, or breast-bone. The seven uppermost ribs are called the true ribs, because they are joined to the sternum, and the five lowest are called false, or floating ribs, because they are not joined to the sternum. Sixty-four bones form the upper extremities, which are composed of the shoulders, arms, and hands. The hand is divided into the carpus, or wrist ; the metacarpus, or palm of the hand ; and the phalanges, or bones of the fingers. Eight bones form the wrist, four the palm of the hand, and fourteen the fingers and thumbs. Sixty bones form the inferior extremities, which are composed of the thighs, legs, and feet. The foot is composed of the tarsus, or instep ; the me- tatarsus, or foundation of the toes, and the pha- langes, or bones of the toes. Twenty-six bones are curiously grouped together in the foot, so that a perfect arch is made between the heel and the ball of the great toe. thorax 1 What is said of the ribs 1 How many bones in the upper extremities, and of what are they composed 1 How is the hand divided 7 How many bones are there in each divi- sion 1 How many bones form the inferior extremities 7 Of what is the foot composed! How many bones are in the foot 1 What do they form ? 64 FIRST BOOK OF CHAPTER XVIII. MAMMALIA. THE Mammalia are placed at the head of the animal kingdom, not only because they constitute the class to which man belongs, but because they enjoy the most numerous faculties, the most deli- cate sensations, the most varied powers of motion, and the highest degree of intelligence. They are so called because the animals belonging to this class suckle their young till they are able to pro- vide for themselves. They are also called vivipa- rous, because their young are born alive. The greater number of the mammalia are quadrupeds, or four-footed animals ; but man is called Bimana, because he has two hands, and the monkey tribe are called quadrumana, because they have four hands : thus man forms but one genus, and that genus the only one of its order. The structure and external shape of man has much resemblance to the monkey tribe, and par- CHAPTER XVIII. Which class is placed at the head of the animal kingdom ? Why is it there placed? Why called mammalia? Why o viperous? What are quadrupeds? What is man called, and why ? Monkey tribe, and why ? What does man form ? To what tribe of animals does man bear a resemblance ? For NATURAL HISTORY. 65 ticularly to the ourang outang ; still, we find that man is formed for an erect position only, while the monkey tribe walk on all fours. Apes have thumbs both upon their hands and feet, and these enable the monkey tribe to seize things, and climb as well with their feet as with their hands ; while man has thumbs only on his hands. BABOON. The head of man is very large and heavy, owing to the largeness of the brain and the so- lidity of the bones, yet the means of supporting it in any other position than an upright one are very small, as the ligament of the neck, which in quad- rupeds is called the pack-wax, and is very thick and strong, in man is almost wanting. Besides what position is man formed 1 What is said of the monkey tribe, and man, in respect to their hands 1 What is said of the head of man 1 What is the natural position for the head of man 1 Why ? What would be the consequence if we 66 FIRST BOOK OF this, we are so formed that, if we should walk on our hands and feet, our mouth and eyes would be directed to the earth, and consequently we would not be able to see before and around us. Although the senses are in general more fully developed in man than in any other animal, yet the eagle excels him in vision, the greyhound in delicacy of smell, and many animals excel him in strength ; still his reason, when he has a suffi- cient quantity, makes up for all other deficiencies. It was formerly supposed that man possessed the largest brain of all animals, because his mental powers are greatest, but elephants and whales surpass him in this respect. The sagacious mon- key and dog have smaller brains than the stupid ass, hog, or ox ; and recent examinations have shown that the canary and some other birds, as well as some varieties of the monkey tribe, have larger brains than man in proportion to the size of the body. The opinion now generally accepted is, that man possesses the largest brain in com- parison with the nerves arising' from if. should walk on our hands and feet 7 In what animal are the senses in general, most developed 1 In what does the eagle excell man 7 The greyhound 7 What in man makes up for all other deficiencies 7 Why was man supposed to possess the largest brain of all animals 7 What animals possess larger brains 7 What is said of the brains of the monkey and dog 1 What animal possesses larger brains than man, in comparison with the size of their bodies 7 What opinion is now general- ly accepted in respect to the size of the brain 7 Which mam- NATURAL HISTORY. 67 Bats and flying squirrels are the only mam- malia which have the power of flying. The fore- legs and finger-like toes of bats are very long, and their feet and legs are connected by a thin mem- brane commencing at the sides of the neck, form- ing wings, which enable them to fly very high and with great rapidity. CHAPTER XIX. CAMELEOPARD. LAMA. THERE are two varieties of camels : the Bac- trian camel, which has two bunches upon its malia have the power of flying ? How are their wings form- ed? 68 FIRST BOOK OP back, and the Dromedary, or Arabian camel, which has but one, and is neither so large nor strong as the Bactriaii camel. These animals seem formed for those countries where shrubs are plenty and water scarce, where they may travel over the sandy desert without being impeded in their progress by mountains or rivers, and where they may find food at expected distances. The camel is enabled to perform a journey of sixty or seventy miles a day, although burdened with a load of six hundred pounds, and often travels for six or seven days without any food or drink. The bunches growing upon the back consist of fat, and while they continue full, the animal en- dures much fatigue on very little food, feeding, as the Arabs say, on the fat of its own hump. After a long journey, during which it has had but little food, the hump almost disappears, and it is not till after three or four months repose, and sometime after the rest of the body has acquired flesh, that it resumes its natural size, which is one-fourth the size of its whole body. The camel is considered a sacred animal in Ara- CHAPTER XIX. How are the Bactrian and Arabian camels known 1 For what countries do these animals seem formed 7 How far, and under what load can the camel travel in a day 1 How long ean it travel without food and drink 1 When this animal un- dergoes much fatigue, and receives but little food, on what do the Arabs say it feeds 7 What is said of this hump on the camels' back? What is its natural size 1 How is the camel NATURAL HISTORY. 69 bia, and those countries where it is trained to use- ful purposes ; for, without it, the natives could neither live, traffic, nor travel. They feed upon its flesh, particularly when young, and drink its milk ; they clothe themselves with its hair, which the camel sheds once a year. Besides the four stomachs which all animals have that chew the cud, the camel has a fifth, by means of which it is enabled to preserve a considerable quantity of water for times of need. When the camel is pressed for drink, it throws up a quantity of this water into the other stomachs, by means of a sim- ple contraction of the muscles. This fifth stomach is so formed, that the water, while within it, is preserved in its purity. In Arabia, Egypt, Barbary, Turkey, and Per- sia, their commerce is almost wholly carried on by means of camels. This animal eats enough in one hour to last it a day, and its favorite food is the nettle, thistle, and other prickly vegetables. | It lives from forty to fifty years. The Lama is a native of South America, and considered in those countries where it serves useful purposes 1 Of what use is the camel in those countries 7 How many stomachs have all animals which chew the cud 1 How many has the camel 7 For what purpose is the fifth used 1 How is the water from this stomach forced into the others ? Is the water preserved pure while in this fifth stomach ? In what countries is their commerce almost wholly carried on by camels ? On what do they feed ? How long do they live Of what country is the Lama a native 1 What animal does 70 FIRST BOOK OP is much smaller than the carnel, although it re- sembles it in its mildness and patience. In Peru, lamas are used as beasts of burden, and cany goods where other animals cannot travel, over rugged and dangerous places, with the greatest safety. They form the chief riches of the Span- iards and Indians who rear them. Their flesh is excellent food, and their wool may be spun into beautiful clothing, This animal requires no care, being supplied with a warm clothing, and living as it does upon vegetables and grass. When over- loaded or fatigued, it falls down and spits with great force at its inhuman driver, of which the In- dians are much afraid, believing that wherever it falls upon them, it will either burn the skin or cause dangerous sores to break out. CHAPTER XX. THE REJHVDEER* THIS is the most useful animal of the deer kind. Prom it alone the natives of Lapland supply the most of their wants. It is a native of the icy re- it resemble 1 Where is it used as a beast of burden, and why ? Who rear them? What is said of their flesh and wool? Why does it require no care 7 What does it do when overload- ed or fatigued 1 Of what are the Indians much afraid, and what do they believe respecting it ? NATURAL HISTORY. 71 gions of the north, where the summer is too hot for fruits and grain to ripen, and the few vege- tables which flourish there are chiefly stunted shrubs, moss, and lichens, upon which the rein- deer subsists. REINDEER. It supplies the place of the horse in conveying its owner from one portion of the country to an- other ; of the cow, in giving milk ; and of the sheep, in furnishing them with very warm cloth- ing. During the summer, the milk of the rein- deer is boiled till it is quite thick, being thus pre- served ; and, with the curd, forms their chief pro- vision. During the winter, it is kept frozen in a bag made of the skin of this animal, or in its paunch, and is mixed with cranberries, making a wholesome and palatable food. They make very CHAPTER XX. What is said of the reindeer 1 Of what regions is it a na- tive 1 Upon what does it live 1 The place of what animals does it supply 7 How is it preserved in the summer ? In 72 FIRST BOOK OF little butter, but considerable cheese. When cheese is to be made, the milk is mixed with water, other- wise it would be too rich to curdle, and is thicken- ed with rennet. The curd is then pressed into cheeses, which are never found to breed mites, like the cheese of other countries, probably because the mite-fly is not to be found in Lapland. No part of these animals is destroyed : their skins are made into shoes, bedding, tent-covers, and dresses ; their horns are converted into glue, or various kinds of vessels ; their bones into knives, spoons, and needles ; their sinews are dried and * divided, so as to make the strongest kind of cord and sew- ing thread ; their blood is preserved in small casks, to make sauce with the marrow in the spring ; and their tongues, which are considered a great delicacy, are dried and sold in the more southern provinces. The Laplanders travel in a kind of sledge, shaped like a small boat ; and, with the reins fas- tened to the horns of the deer, they may journey almost any distance. The reindeer can run two hundred miles in a day. winter 7 Do the Laplanders make much butter and cheese 7 What is done with the milk when cheese is to be made 7 Does the cheese breed mites, and why not 7 Is any portion of this animal wasted? What are made of their skins 7 Into what are their horns converted 7 Their bones 7 Their sinews 7 Their blood is preserved for what purpose 7 What is said of their tongues 7 In what do the Laplanders travel 7 To what are the reins fastened 7 How far can the reindeer run NATURAL HISTORY. 73 While the fields are clothed with moss, the Laplander is contented and happy; dressed up warmly in deer-skin clothes, shoes, and gloves, he is ignorant of any greater luxury than what his milk and smoke-dried flesh afford him. Hardened to the climate, he sleeps in the midst of ice, and dozes away his time with tobacco, while his faith- ful dogs supply his place, and keep the herd to- gether. The deer find their food, though covered with the deepest snows, which they turn up with their noses and feet. They are the familiar com- panions of their owners and their families ; and a man's wealth in Lapland is calculated by the num- ber of reindeer he guesses. CHAPTER XXI. THE DOG. THE ELEPHANT. THE Dog is also found very useful, as well in the dreary regions of the north, as in the more temperate portions of the earth. Wherever he is the servant and companion of man, he gives strik- in a day $ When is the Laplander contented and happy 1 How is he dressed 1 What is said of the Laplander 1 Of his dogs 1 How do the deer get at their food when covered with snow 1 What is said of the reindeer 1 How is a man's wealth calculated 7 74 FIRST BOOK OF ing proofs of sagacity and docility. The Esqui- maux Indians possess a valuable race of dogs, which are trained to draw the rude sledges that they are able to construct. These sledges are about five feet long, and two feet wide. The runners are sometimes made of the right and left jaw bones of a whale, but generally of pieces of wood and bone, lashed together, and the whole covered with a coating of ice, held together by the severity of the weather. The dogs are harnessed by a collar, and a single trace, running over their backs. Ten dogs make a full team, and will draw a sledge with ease twelve miles an hour. DOG. The dog braves the severest snow storms, and is rarely known to miss his way, even when his driver is unable to keep his eyes open. CHAPTER XXI. What is said of the dog ? Of what does he show striking proofs ? What is said of the race belonging to the Esquimaux Indians 1 Describe the sledges of these people 1 How are the dogs harnessed? How many make a team? How far NATURAL HISTORY. 75 In some other places, this noble and faithful animal, instead of being applied to his natural uses, is only kept to be eaten. All over China there are dog-butchers, and particular places ap- pointed for selling their flesh. In Canton there is a street reserved for this purpose ; and what i: very extraordinary, wherever a dog-butcher ap- pears, the dogs of that section are sure to be howl- ing after him ; they know their enemy, and assail him as far as they are able. Along the coast of Guinea, the natives esteem their flesh so highly that they will readily give one of their cows for a dog. These people also consider toads, lizards, and even the flesh of the tiger, a luxury. ELEPHANT. The Elephant is the strongest and largest of all quadrupeds, and is celebrated for his docility will they travel with ease in an hour 7 Does the dog often miss his way 1 For what purpose is the dog kept in China 7 Re- iate what is said in respect to this animal in Canton and 76 FIRST BOOK OP and understanding. He grows from seven to fif- teen feet in height. The forehead is very high, the ears large, and the eyes exceedingly small in com- parison with the size of the animal. The feet are round at the bottom, and upon each are five flat, horny rings, which seem to be the ends of the toes. The hide of these animals is without hair, but full of scratches and scars, which they have received in going through their native forests and thorny places. In their native countries they sel- dom appear alone, but are social creatures, moving about in herds and companies a single herd often I numbering from 150 to 200. The oldest of the company takes the lead, and the next oldest goes in the rear, when they are making dangerous marches. The females carry their young on their trunks, and go in the centre with the weak and sickly. In India they are used for carrying or drawing burdens. The elephant is so strong that it can draw with ease a load that six horses cannot move. It carries upon its back three or four thousand weight, and upon its tusks it is able to carry a throughout China. What is said of the natives on the coast of Guinea in respect to the dog 1 The flesh of what animals do they consider a luxury 1 What is said of the elephant, and for what is he celebrated 7 Describe the elephant 1 What is said of his hide ? Where are these animals social and friend- ly creatures 7 In what manner do they proceed when making dangerous marches 1 For what purpose are they used in In- dia! How much do they carry upon their backs 7 Upon their NATURAL HISTORY. 77 thousand pounds. It travels with ease from fifty to sixty miles a day, and, when hard pressed, from ninety to a hundred. The elephant lives from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years. In India, where these animals were at one time employed in launching a ship, a particular ele- phant was told to push the vessel into the water, but he was unable to perform the task. His keeper, affecting to despise his efforts, said, " Take away that lazy beast, and bring another, better fitted for service !" The poor animal instantly redoubled his efforts, fractured his skull, and died upon the spot. CHAPTER XXII. THE COW. GOAT. SHEEP. HOG. THE Cow is one of the most useful of the class of ruminating, or cud-chewing animals, and is the poor man's pride, his riches, and his chief sup- port. She furnishes her owner with milk, from tusks 1 How far will they travel in a day ? How long do they live 1 Relate the fact of an elephant trying to launch a ship. CHAPTER XXII. What is said of the cow 1 Of what use is the cow ? What is done with her hide 1 Her horns and bones 1 Her hair ? 78 FIRST BOOK OF which butter and cheese are made. Her flesh is excellent food ; her skin is made into leather, by means of tanning : her horns and bones into various kinds of utensils, such as knife-handles and combs ; her hair is used for stuffing cushions, mattresses, and in making mortar ; and her hoofs and sinews are boiled, thereby producing glue. The flesh of the Goat, Sheep, and Hog, is also valuable as an article of food. The skin of the I hog is often used for covering trunks, and is some- times made into leather. The large bristles upon the back are collected and made into brushes. G9AT. The Goat is somewhat similar to the sheep, but is stronger and swifter, more playful and lively, and loves to choose its own pastures, and stray from the flock. It seems to delight in climbing Her hoofs and sinews ? Of what use is the skin of the hog ? His bristles ? What is said of the goat ? In what does it ap- pear to delig'ht? Where can it walk securely, and why? NATURAL HISTORY. 79 steep and difficult places, and is often seen on the very edge of precipices, where it even sleeps in security. It walks as securely on the ridge of a house as on the ground, because of its feet being I hollow underneath, and the edges quite sharp. The milk of the goat is sweet, nourishing, and medicinal. It is not so apt to curdle upon the stomach as that of the cow, in consequence of which it is esteemed best for weak persons. In several parts of Ireland and Scotland, the goat forms the chief wealth of the inhabitants. On the mountains, in these countries, where no other useful animal could find subsistence, the goat finds sufficient to live upon, and even supplies the hardy natives with most of their comforts of life. The inhabitants lie upon beds made of their skins ; they live upon their milk, with oat bread, and con- vert a part of it into butter and cheese. They seldom eat the flesh of the goat, because it is too expensive, although they consider the kid delicious food. The Natolian, or Angora goat, is of a dazzling white color ; its hair is very long, thick, and glossy, which is the case with almost all the ani- mals of Syria. The inhabitants of Angora carry What is said of the milk of the goat? Where is the goat a valuable and important animal 1 With what does it furnish its owner ? Upon what do these people sleep 1 Upon what do they live! Why do they seldom eat its flesh? What is. said of the Angora goat 1 With . what do the inhabitants 80 FIRST BOOK OF on considerable trade with this hair, which is sold either raw or manufactured, and when manufac- tured it is known by the name of camlet. The blue goat is found at the Cape of Good Hope; and in this section some are also found spotted beautifully with red, white, and brown. The wool of the sheep is of the highest value, being converted into woollen cloths, shalloon, flannel, and baize. CHAPTER XXIII. BEAVER. PIKA. THE Reaver is seemingly a half-reasoning ani- mal, and shows a wonderful instinct, principally in the construction of its houses and dikes, or dams. These animals roam about from the time the frost leaves the ground, without any fixed habitation, and unoccupied, till early in the summer, when they commence falling their tim- ber. They commence building sometime in the carry on a considerable trade ? What is camlet ? What is said of the goats found about the Cape of Good Hope 1 Into what is the wool of the sheep manufactured ? CHAPTER XXIII. What is said of the beaver ? When do they commence fall- ing timber for their dikes and buildings ? When do they com- mence building? Where do they build their habitations? NATURAL HISTORY. 81 month of August, and always near some river, creek, or lake. Those that erect their habitations in small rivers or creeks, in which the water is liable to be drained off, give evidence of their won- derful foresight, by providing a means to prevent the water from leaving the channel bare. In order to do this, they construct a dike almost straight where the current is weak, but where it is more rapid the dike is more or less curved, with the convex side opposed to the force of the stream. BEAVER. These dikes are constructed of the same materials as their lodges, namely, of branches of trees, often so large that we would naturally suppose it im- possible for these small animals to move them, of pieces of every kind of wood, of stones, mud, and sand. These they intermix in such a manner as to form a sufficient barrier to the force both of When is the dam built straight across the stream'? How is it built when the current is rapid ? What is said of the con- struction of their dikes and lodges 7 Of what are they formed ? 4* I 82 FIRST BOOK OP water and ice ; and they plaster their separate houses with much skill. The interiors of these apartments are shaped somewhat like the inside of an oven, and at a little distance is placed the magazine for provisions. Here they keep in store the roots and branches of the different vegetables upon which they live during the winter their magazines often containing a cart-load of these articles. The length of the beaver is about three feet, and its tail eleven inches, which is flat and broad, covered with scales, and is used as a rudder. Its toes are webbed, which enables it to swim much faster than it can walk ; it has strong cutting teeth, short ears, and a blunt nose. This animal is found in the northern portions of Europe, Asia, and America ; but it is chiefly in the remote re- gions of the latter, that its habits and instincts are most strongly marked. Its skin is a valuable arti- cle of commerce, and its flesh is esteemed by some, when properly cured. The Pika inhabits the most northern districts of the old world, never making its appearance in plains, or exposed situations ; but always selecting the rudest and most elevated spots, and often the What is done to the inside of the lodge, and like what is it shaped 1 What does the magazine contain 1 What quantity does it often contain ? Describe the beaver. Where is this animal found ? What part of the beaver is valuable 1 Where is the Pika found ? What kind of places does it select for its NATURAL HISTORY. 83 centre of the most gloomy forests where the grass is fresh and abundant. These animals generally hollow out their burrows between the Stones and in the clefts of rocks, and sometimes in hollow trees. Sometimes they live alone and sometimes in small societies, according to the nature of the mountains they inhabit. These industrious little creatures commence collecting their winters food, which consists of herbs, about the middle of August. These they bring near their habitation, and spread out to dry like hay. Where many of them have labored to- gether, their stacks are often as high as a man, and seven or eight feet in diameter. A passage leads from the burrow below the mass of hay, so that neither frost nor snow can stop their com- munication with it. These stacks of excellent hay, are sought out by the sable-hunters to feed their horses, and the Jakutes, the natives of a por- tion of Siberia, collect them for food for their cat- tle. Thus instead of imitating the foresight and industry of the Pika, they rob it of its means of support, and so devote the animals that set them so good an example to famine and death. habitation 1 Do they live alone, or in societies ? What is said of this little animal 1 How large are some of their stacks of hay 1 Does snow or frost prevent them from having access to their food 7 What is said of their food, and who seek it 1 For what purpose 1 What good example do these little ani- mal set the natives ? 84 FIRST BOOK OF CHAPTER XXIV. BIRDS IN GENERAL, BIRDS form the second class of vertebrated ani- mals, and differ much in their structure and ap- pearance from the mammalia. Of man, the most perfect animal, there are but five species, and he possesses the greatest variety of organs ; of quad- rupeds, the kinds are more numerous and they are less perfectly formed ; the varieties of birds are still more numerous, and their formation is still less complex ; fishes, yet more numerous, are fur- nished \vith fewer organs ; while insects afford the greatest variety, and still they are the most imper- fect of all. Birds are called oviparous animals, because they lay eggs, wilich are generally hatched by the warmth of the mother. The external form of birds enables them to fly with ease and great swiftness. The smooth bill and gradually enlarg- ing head and neck, is admirably fitted to penetrate the air, while the flexible tail is made to perform CHAPTER XXIV. Name the second class of vertebrated animals 7 In what do they differ from the mammalia 1 What is said of man 7 Of quadrupeds 1 Of birds 7 Of fishes 7 Of insects 1 Why are birds called oviparous 7 What is said of the external form of birds 7 Of the bill and neck 7 How is the tail used 7 With NATURAL HISTORY. 85 the part of a rudder, Their bodies are covered with a soft down, and the feathers mostly lie one way, pointing backwards, and are laid over each other in regular order, which answers at once the purposes of warmth, speed, and security. As a farther security against the dampness of the at- mosphere, the bird is furnished with a gland seat- ed near the tail, containing a proper quantity of oil, which can be pressed out by means of the bill, and smoothly laid over every feather that needs to be dressed. This oil causes the water to run off without penetrating the feathers. Those birds which are most exposed to the weather, are sup- plied with a greater abundance of this oil, which increases the value of their feathers for beds, cushions, (fee., because it makes them more lively. All birds, in order to move their wings, are furnished with two very strong pectoral muscles, which lie on each side of the breast bone. The strongest and largest feathers are in the tail and wings. The bones of every part of the body are very light and thin, and instead of being filled with marrow, as in the mammalia, they are filled with air ; and all the muscles, except those which move what are their bodies covered ? How are the feathers placed upon birds, and for what purpose 1 With what are birds pro- vided 1 What does this gland contain, and for what purpose is it used ? With what are all birds furnished 1 Where are the strongest and largest feathers ? What is said of their bones ? 86 FIRST BOOK OF the wings, are extremely light and weak. The lungs, commonly called the sole, are attached to the sides aad ribs, and when the bird breathes, the bones and tubes of the feathers are all filled with air. CHAPTER XXV. BIRDS IN GENERAL. Continued. THE cells between the plates of the skull in the Owl, and also the bill of the Toucan, which is of a cellular structure, are filled with air derived from the lungs. In birds, the air is not merely received into the lungs, but actually passes through them by the action of one set of muscles, and is driven back by the action of another set ; so that the air passes twice through the lungs, and acts twice on the blood which circulates in those organs. Although the bones of birds are filled with air, still the bones of the bat are filled with marrow, as is the case with those of the other mammalia. With what are they filled 7 What are the lungs of birds commonly called 1 What is said of them ? CHAPTER XXV. What is said of the skull of the owl and the bill of the tou- can? Is the air merely received into the lungs of birds'? How many times does the same air pass through them ? With NATURAL HISTORY. 87 All those birds which have long legs, have long necks, and the number of vertebra are generally numerous. In the mammalia there are always seven, but in many birds there are more than twice that number. In the Swan there are twenty-three. By means of these,- birds are enabled to move the head in whatever direction they choose. The toes of water-fowl are webbed, or connect- ed by a membrane, which enables them to swim with great rapidity. The swan makes use of its* wings as sails, and is blown over the waters with I very little effort on its own part. In others the toe is separate, which enables them to hold objects I and cling to trees for safety, and with many birds, as the woodpecker, the tail is much used as a sup- port to the body while climbing trees. Those birds which live upon animal food are [called car niver ous : and those which live on seeds, fruits, and vegetables, are called graminiverous ; although all have, properly speaking, but one stomach, yet this is very different in different birds. Graminivorous birds swallow their food without what are the bones of bats and all the mammalia filled 1 What is said of those birds which have long necks 7 How many vertebrae are in each of the mammalia 7 How many in birds ? What do these vertebras enable birds to do 1 What is said of the toes of water-fowl 1 How are the toes in others'? In what manner does the swan use its wings 1 How is the tail used in climbing ? What are carnivorous birds 1 What are gram- iniverous birds 1 Have birds more than one stomach, and is it alike in all 1 What is said of graminivorous birds 7 Where 88 FIRST BOOK OF being broken, which is received into a pouch, or bag, called the crop, or craw, which is situated just above the breast-bone. In this crop the food is softened by means of the gastric juice, and then passes into the proper stomach, commonly called the gizzard, which is composed of two powerful muscles, each in the shape of a hemisphere, with their flat sides turned to each other. These mus- cles are covered on the inside with a strong, ridgy coat, between which the food is ground and pre- pared for digestion. Both the structure and mode of operation of these organs, bear a striking re- semblance to a mill for grinding corn. The two flat surfaces of the gizzard act as mill-stones, while the craw supplies the place of the hopper, by dropping into the gizzard small quantities at a time as it becomes emptied. Graminivorous birds are also careful to swallow sand and gravel, not to bruise their food in the crop, as was once supposed, but to aid the gizzard in grinding the food. All birds moult, or shed their feathers, once a year. During the moulting season they appear sickly ; those most distinguished for their courage lose all their fierceness, and such as are weakly often die before this natural operation is completed. is the crop situated 7 What acts upon the food in the crop 7 What is the name of improper stomach 7 Of what is it com- posed 7 By what are these muscles covered 7 Are the round or flat surfaces presented to each other 7 What is said of their structure and mode of operation 7 Like what do the surfaces NATURAL HISTORY. 89 CHAPTER XXYI. ORDERS OF BIRDS. BIRDS are divided into six orders, namely, Rav- eners, Perchers, Climbers, Scratchers, Waders, and Swimmers. The Haveners, include those that are most per- fect in their form, and all are remarkable for their plundering habits. They have a strong beak, legs short and strong, and toes armed with crooked claws, as the Vulture, Eagle, Falcon, Owl, Buz- zard, and Kite. The eagle has, as it were, been consecrated king over all birds, by being placed in the Holy of Holies of the Jewish temple, as one of the symbols of those powers that rule under God in nature. The vulture, although exceed- ingly disgusting in its habits, is very useful in hot countries, on account of its cleaning the streets and lanes of all kinds of dead matter, which de- of the gizzard act ? What part supplies the place of the hop- per 1. In what manner 1 What do these birds swallow with their ,food 1 What is said of birds moulting 1 CHAPTER XXVI. Into how many orders are birds divided? Name them. What is said of the order of Raven ers 1 Name some belong- ing to this order. What is said of the eagle 1 The Vulture ? What do they destroy and thus prevent 1 Name the second 90 FIRST BOOK OF cays rapidly, and which, if not removed, would make the air disagreeable and unwholesome. It also destroys serpents, and thus prevents in a measure the excessive increase of many of these deadly animals. The Perchers form the second order, and they have three toes before and one behind, as the King- fisher, Crow, Bird of Paradise, and Swallow. Among the birds of this order, we find all those that delight us by their varied song, and they are the best nest-builders, generally interweaving them between the twigs and branches of trees, or sus- pending them from the limbs. Some of this order may be called the inventors of the several arts of the weaver, seamstress, and tailor, in consequence of which, some have been called weaver-and-tai- lor birds. The Climbers form the third order ; they have two toes before and two behind on each foot. The Cuckoo, Toucan, and Woodpecker, and the whole parrot family, consisting of Parrots, Parroquets, Macaws, &c., belong to this order. The Psitta- cean, or Parrot family have the faculty of learn- ing to articulate many words, and thus mimic the utterance of man, as monkeys do his actions. order, and ho\* are their toes situated ? Name some of this order. Whai birds do we find in this order ? What is said of them as nest-builders 7 What may some of the Perchers be called 1 Name the third order. How are their toes situated ? Name some birds which belong to this order. What is said NATURAL HISTORY. 91 CRANE. The Scratchers form the fourth order, and are so called, from an action common to many of them. This order includes the Turkey, Peacock, common Poultry, Pigeon, and the greater portion of the game sought after by sportsmen birds not of the parrot family ? Name the fourth order. What action is peculiar to this order ? What birds does this order include ? What is said of these birds ? Name the fifth order. Why are 92 FIRST BOOK OP only valuable for the variety and delicacy of the food, both flesh and eggs, with which they supply our tables, but delighting us by the beauty and elegance of their forms, and the rich variety and splendor of their colors. The Waders form the fifth order, and are so called because of their long legs, which enable them to traverse marshes and ditches in search of fishes, snakes, and worms. They look as if they walked upon stilts, and some of them use their long legs like the grasshoppers, as a rudder in flight, stretched out straight behind. The Fla- mingo, Snipe, Bustard, and Crane belong to this order. The Swimmers form the sixth order. These web-footed, or aquatic birds, not only furnish man with food, but contribute much to our comfort by their down and feathers, when we retire to rest. The Auk and Penguin belong to this order ; the former having its station in the Northern and the latter in the Southern seas. they so called ? What is said of their appearance 1 How do some use their legs 1 Name some belonging to this order. Name the sixth order. What kind of birds are they ? With what do they furnish man ? Name the northern bird of this order. Name the southern bird of this order. NATURAL HISTORY. 93 CHAPTER XXVII. ARCHITECTURE OF BIRDS* MINERS* THERE are various means resorted to by birds in building their nests, so as to secure warmth and safety, the study of which, is one of the delight- ful parts of natural history. Some burrow in the ground, as the Swallow, Burrowing Owl, and Pe- trel. The bill of the Swallow is small and short, though very strong, and suddenly tapers to a point, like the points of a pair of fine compasses when shut. These birds work with their bill shut, striking it in the sand as a miner would a pick- axe. They use their feet to scrape out the sand they have loosened with their bills. They dig in every position when within their holes, and are as often seen hanging by their feet from the roof, with their backs downwards, as standing on the floor. They generally dig in the side of a bank two or three feet) the back part being elevated more CHAPTER XXVII. What is said of the architecture of birds 1 Name ' some which burrow in the ground. Describe the bill of the swal- low. With what do they work 7 How do they remove the sand 1 In what position are they often seen when digging 1 94 FIRST BOOK OF I than the front, in order to turn off the rain ; and their nests are made of loose hay spread over with some of the softer feathers of geese, ducks, or fowls. The Burrowing Owls, which live in the west, always reside in the villages of the prairie dog or marmot, and live in their holes, consequently they are not obliged to dig for themselves. STORMY PETREL. The Stormy Petrel is often seen far out at sea, while with its webbed feet and extremely light form, it can walk as easily upon the surface of the sea as a robin can hop along a garden walk. It gen- erally makes its appearance previous to, or during a storm. The Petrel has long been considered, by Of what are their nests formed 1 What is said of burrowing owls 1 What is said of the stormy petroJ 1 When does it generally make its appearance 1 How are they considered by NATURAL HISTORY. 95 the ignorant and superstitious, not only as the foreteller of tempests and storms, but as the wicked agent, concerned somehow or other in cre- ating them. These birds have been called Mother Gary's chickens, witches, the deviFs birds, and stormy petrels. But the truth is, they can only give warning of an approaching storm through their nice perception of a change in the atmos- phere. Swqllows are more eagerly engaged in catching flies, and ducks are seen carefully trim- ming their feathers and tossing water ovr their heads, just before a rain, to try whether or not it will run -off again without making them wet. A seaman should therefore be thankful to them for the warning which their delicate perceptions ena- ble them to give. " O'er the deep ! o'er the deep ! Where the whale, and the shark, and the sword-fish sleep Outflying the blast and. the driving rain, The Petrel telleth her tale in va in : For the mariner curseth the warning bird, Who bringeth him news of the storm unheard. Ah ! thus does the prophet, of good or ill, Meet hate from the creature he serveth still ! Yet he ne'er falters. So, Petrel, spring Once more o'er the wave on thy stormy wing ! The popular opinion among the sailors that the petrels carry their eggs under their wings, and some ? By what different names are they known 1 How is this bird enabled to give warning of an approaching storm 7 What is a common belief among sailors 1 Is this supposi- 96 FIRST BOOK OF there hatch them, is just as untrue as the belief of their causing storms. They make their nests on rocky shores, in the holes and cavities of the rocks, and there breed in great numbers. They feed their young only during the night, with the oily food from their own stomachs; the quantity of which is so great, that the inhabitants of the Faro Islands use them for candles^ with no other preparation than that of drawing a wick through the body, from the mouth to the rump. The greater number of birds seek warmth and dryness in building their nests, though some choose moist materials, as the willet, which is so called because of its loud, shrill cry of pill-will-willet, pill-will-willet) which may be heard half-a-mile. The nests of these birds are built on the ground among the grass of the salt marshes, and are com- posed of the wet rushes and coarse grass. They gradually raise their nests five or six inches during the period of laying their eggs and setting. They generally lay four eggs, which, during the time of their being hatched, are placed in an upright posi- tion with the small end down. This is also the case with several other birds which breed in marshes. tion true 7 Where do they make their nests 1 When do they feed their young 1 Of what 7 For what purpose are these birds used by the inhabitants of the Faro islands 7 How are they prepared 7 What is said of birds in building their nests 7 Why is the willet so called 7 Where do they build their nests 1 Of what are they composed 7 How many eggs do they lay, and what is their position while being hatched 1 NATURAL HISTORY. 97 CHAPTER XXVIII. EIDER DUCK. MASON BIRDS. THE Eider Duck is found on the northern coasts of North America, Iceland, and Europe. The male and female work together when build- ing their nest, forming it of drift grass, sea-weed, and dry tangle. Upon this the female spreads a bed of the finest down from her own breast, and in so great a quantity as to form a thick puffed roll around the edge of the nest. When the fe- male is obliged to leave the nest in search of food, she turns this marginal roll of down over the eggs, thus preserving their warmth till her return. The females live in such perfect harmony that two are often found occupying the same nest. In 1750 the Icelandic Company sold $4000 worth of the down of this bird, which is obtained by robbing their nests. This down is so remarkably elastic, that three quarters of an ounce of it will fill a large hat. The natives watch the place where these birds build their nests, and after they are completed, they CHAPTER XXVIII. Where is the eider duck found ? Does the female alone build the nest 1 Of what is it composed 1 What does the fe- male do when obliged to leave her nest 7 What was the value of the down collected by one company in 1750 1 How is it 98 FIRST BOOK rob them. The eider duck immediately proceeds to rebuild it, although the female is unable to sup- ply it so freely with down as before ; and if forced to build a third time, the male also assists in fur- nishing the nest with down, which is known by its being whiter than that of the female. In size this bird approaches nearer the goose than the duck, being more than two feet long, and weigh- ing about seven pounds. The Nut-hatch., is called the Mason Woodpecker in France. This little mason selects a hole in a tree, in which to build her nest, and if this is larg- er than she requires, she takes the greatest pains to narrow the entrance with earth and mud neatly kneaded together. She strengthens this work by adding through it small stones, which is also done by a species of the mason-bee. If this work is destroyed at the entrance while there are eggs in the nest, it is rebuilt at once, probably to prevent the unwelcome intrusion of birds of superior strength and size. The Cliff Swallow is another bird of this class, and is different from other swallows in having an even, and not a forked tail This species arrive obtained 1 What is said of this down 1 What is said of these birds in rebuilding their nests 1 How is the down of the male known ? What is said of their size ? What is the nut-hatch called in France 7 What is said of this bird in building its nest 1 How does she strengthen her work ? What is said of the cliff swallow 1 When do they arrive from the south 7 At NATURAL HISTORY. 99 from the south in April or May, and commence their labors at dawn of day. by collecting the ne- cessary mud from the banks of the rivers or ponds in the vicinity of their nests. They persevere in their work till near noon, when they stop for sev- eral hours and amuse themselves by shooting through the air, pursuing insects, &c. So indus- trious are these interesting little architects, that they often complete their nests in the course of three days. The nest is composed of sand and clay, and lined on the inside with straw and dried grass. As soon as the nest is sufficiently dried, it is completed, and the female begins to deposit ber eggs, four in number, which are white, with dusky brown spots upon their surface. The Window Swallow, or Martin, often builds her nest against a perpendicular wall, in which case, it requires its utmost effort to get the shell or crust of the nest firmly fixed. We would natu- rally think that this would fall by its own weight when soft and green, but that is seldom the case ; this skilful little architect has too much prudence and forbearance to proceed with her work too fast. They work only in the morning, thus giving the what time do they commence their work 7 At what time do they stop 1 What do they then do 7 In what length of time do they complete their nest 1 Of what is the nest made 7 What is done as soon as the nest is completed 7 How does the martin build her nest 7 What would we naturally think in respect to this nest 7 What is said of this little architect 7 100 FIRST BOOK OF work sufficient time to dry and harden during the hottest part of the day. In the long days they commence their labors before four o'clock in the morning, and after having prepared their materi- als, they plaster them on with the chin* They THE FLAMINGO. At what time do they commence their work in the morning ? How much in thickness do they add each day? In what NATURAL HISTORY. 101 put on about half an inch in thickness each day, and complete the work in ten or twelve days. The nest is strong and warm, with a small entrance at the top, and admirably fitted for the purposes for which it is intended. The Flamingo also belongs to this class, and builds its nest in marshes, where they find plenty of slime, which they heap up with their claws to a height sometimes exceeding eighteen inches. They make the bottom much larger than the top, and do not sit on their nests, but stand over them, and when hatching, they merely cover them with their tails. CHAPTER XXIX. CARPENTER BIRDS. CEMENTERS. WOODPECKERS of every species are most pro- bably carpenters ; that is, they not only bore into trees in pursuit of food, but chisel out holes in which to make their nests. As they are provided length of -time do they build their nest ? Where is the entrance, and what is said of the nest 7 What is said of the Flamingo 1 Where does it build its nest 1 Describe the nest. Do they set on the eggs 1 CHAPTER XXIX. What is said of woodpeckers 1 Are they provided with proper organs for performing these operations 1 What is said 102 FIRST BOOK OF with admirable instruments for performing these operations, they undoubtedly take much pleasure in these employments. The Downy Woodpecker is remarkable for its diligence and perseverance, and the strength of its head and the muscles of its neck are truly aston- ishing. They often labor for half an hour at the same spot before they succeed in obtaining the insects which are lodged between the bark and wood of some old apple-tree. About the middle of May, the male and female commence looking out for a place in which to build their nest. The tree selected is carefully ex- amined for several days, and then the male com- mences the work by cutting out a Hole in the solid | wood, as round as though it had been marked by a pair of compasses. If the hole is made in the body of a tree, the direction is generally down- wards for six or eight inches, and then straight down for ten or twelve inches further. The en- trance is just large enough to admit the body of the owner, while the inside is large and roomy, I and as smooth as if polished by a cabinet-maker. While performing this labor, which lasts about a week, they carry out the chips and scatter them | at a distance, to prevent suspicion. of the downy woodpecker ? How do they obtain their food 7 What is said in reference to the selection of a proper tree 7 Does the female commence the work 1 What is said of the hole 7 How do they dispose of the chips 1 How large is the NATURAL HISTORY. 103 The bill of the Ivory -billed Woodpecker is white and much tougher, if not harder, than ivory, with which it can dig into the hardest trees, either for food or for making its nest. They dig the hole for their nest from two to jive feet deep, which is said to he a little winding, the better to protect it from the weather. Yet, with all the care that these birds take to protect their young, by placing them so deep within the hollows of trees, they are un- able to protect them from their deadly foe, the black snake. He frequently glides up the trunk of the tree, and like a skulking savage, enters where all is peace, and eats the woodpecker's eggs or helpless young. Considerable trade is carried on with the nests of Cementers, in China, Madagascar, Ceylon, and New Guinea. The nest of the Esculent Sivallow is there considered a great luxury for eating. It is dissolved in chicken or mutton soup, and is then even preferred before oysters and similar kinds of food. These nests are divided into three great classes ; and thus sorted, they are simply dried and packed into boxes usually holding one hundred entrance 7 What is said of the inside 7 How long are they in performing the labor 1 What is said of the bill of the ivory- billed woodpecker 1 How deep do they dig the hole for their nests 1 What is said of the black snake 7 Where is there considerable trade carried on in cementers' nests 7 What is said of the nest of the esculent swallow 7 How are they pre- pared for market 1 Into how many classes are they divided 7 What is the price of the first 7 Second ? Third 7 How many 104 FIRST BOOK OF and thirty-five pounds. The common prices for these birds' nests, at Canton, are thirty-one dollars a pound for the finest, which are more valuable than their weight in silver ; for the second quality twenty-one, and for the poorest about nine dollars a pound. There are 242,400 pounds annually ex- ported to China, and at the above prices, the value is $1,263,668. ESCULENT SWALLOW AND NEST. The Chimney Swallow belongs to this class,' and forms its nest of small twigs fastened together pounds are annually exported to China, and what is the value 1 What is said of the chimney swallow ? With what is the NATURAL HISTORY. 105 with a strong glue or gum, which is secreted in two glands on each side of the hind part of the head, and mixes with the saliva or spittle. The whole nest is covered with this glue, which becomes as hard as the sticks themselves. The nest is j small and hollow, and attached by one side or edge, to the wall of the chimney. It is altogether I destitute of the soft lining with which other birds' nests are in general so plentifully supplied. Some- times, during long rains, the nest is loosened and falls to the bottom of the chimney. If there are eggs in it they are generally destroyed ; but the young, though blind, often climb up along the sides like squirrels ; their claws being very sharp and the muscles of their feet exceedingly strong at this tender age. They often continue for a week or more hanging to the sides of the chimney, before they are able to fly, during which time the}^ are fed by the mother. whole nest covered 7 Describe the nest. Of what is it desti- tute 1 What occasionally happens to them 1 What is said of the eggs and young, provided the nest falls ? Can the young swallows see 7 For what are the claws and muscles of their feet remarkable f 106 FIRST BOOK OF CHAPTER XXX. BASKET-MAKING BIRDS. THIS class of birds make their nest-baskets of many different kinds of materials, though they are not made as neat as the baskets we use. A tribe of Hottentots in South Africa make baskets of a kind of reed, so tight that they are used for carrying water, milk, and other liquids. These birds prefer little sticks for the commencement, paying more attention to the comfort and security of the nest, than to its neatness. The Red Winged Starling builds its nest of such materials as are convenient. They general- ly select a place in some watery situation, as a marsh or meadow ; and when they build on a bush, they usually make the outward part of wet rushes, picked from the swamp, and long tough grass. The rushes are securely twisted around several of the limbs of the bush, thus securing it from being destroyed by the wind. The Pensile Grosbeak is an African bird about the size of a house sparrow. This bird makes a CHAPTER XXX. What is said of basket-making birds ? Of a tribe of Hot- tentots 1 What do these birds prefer ? What is said of the red-winged starling? What is said of the nestl Of what country is the Pensile Grosbeak a native ? How large is it ? NATURAL HISTORY. 107 PENSILE GROSBEAK. basket-nest, most ingeniously and elegantly woven, of a very tough grass, straw, and weeds. It is formed in the shape of a bag, with an entrance below, while it is fastened above to the twig of some limb of a tree, especially such as happen to project over a river or precipice. The object of j this precaution is undoubtedly to secure their eggs and young from their enemies, particularly the serpent race. To increase the difficulty of getting into these tree-rocked cradles, the entrance is al- ways from below, and frequently through a round passage of twelve or fifteen inches in length. On What use is made of the different apartments'? What is said of the nest mnde by this bird ? What is the object of this pre- i caution? How do they increase the difficulty of getting into J them? Where is the true nest? Do they build a new nest 108 FIRST BOOK OF one side of this, within, is the true nest. They do not build a distinct nest every year, but add a new one to the lower end of the old ; and four or five nests may often be seen hanging from one another. BOTTLE-NEST OF THE BAYA, The Baya or Bottle-nested Sparrow of Hin- dostan, builds its nest in a very ingenious man- each year 7 What ingenious bird is found in Hindostan ? Describe the nest. Why are their nests suspended from small twigs 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 109 ner. It is formed of long grass woven together in the shape of a bottle, and suspended from a flexi- ble branch, in order to protect its eggs and young brood from monkeys, serpents, squirrels, and birds of prey. Their nests are divided into several apartments, used for different purposes. In one, the female hatches her eggs, and another, consist- ing of a little thatched roof covering a perch, with- out a bottom, is occupied by the male, who cheers the female with his chirping note, while she per- forms the office of incubation, or hatching. CHAPTER XXXI. WEAVER AND TAILOR BIRDS. THE nests of almost all small birds which line the interior with hair, belong to this class, if the outer work of hay and roots, or the inner work of hair, moss, and wool, be removed, there will be seen a circular piece of hair-cloth of various qualities, according to the ingenuity of the bird and the materials of which it is made. The White-eyed Fly-catcher or Politician, as it is sometimes called, because pieces of newspa- CHAPTER XXXI. What is said of almost all small birds 7 "Where is the cloth found ? Upon what does its quality depend 1 What is the 110 FIRST BOOK OF pers are almost always used by it in constructing its nest, forms the outside of bits of rotten wood, fibres of dry stalks or weeds, and pieces of paper, which are interwoven with the silk of caterpillars, while the inside is lined with fine dry grass and hair. BALTIMORE STARLING. The most celebrated nest of this kind, however, is that of the Baltimore Starling. It is admira- proper name of the Politician, and why 1 How are their nests formed 1 Which is the most wonderful bird of this kind ? For what is its nest admirably formed? Of what is the nest NATURAL HISTORY. Ill bly fitted for warmth, security, and convenience. The nest is generally suspended from some high bending lirnb of a tree, fastened by strong strings of hemp or flax round two forked twigs, just wide enough for the intended nest. The materials of which it is made, are flax, hemp, tow, hair, and wool, woven into a firm kind of cloth, somewhat like the substance of a hat in its raw state, the whole being sewed through and through with long horse-hairs, often measuring two feet in length. The bottom is composed of thick tufts of cow's hair, which is also sewed together with horse-hair, thus forming a pouch of six or seven inches in depth. It is lined with various soft substances, united firmly with the outer work, and finished with a layer of horse-hair. The entrance is near the top, and the whole nest is covered with a canopy of leaves. The Orchard Starling usually suspends its nest from the twigs or extreme outward branches of the apple-tree. The outside is formed of a par- ticular species of long, tough, and limber grass, knit or sewed through and through in a thousand directions, as if actually done with a needle. When Wilson, the American Ornithologist, show- composed 1 In what manner 7 Of what is the bottom formed 1 How deep is the pouch 7 With what is it lined and finished 7 Where is the entrance, and with what is the hole covered 1 What is said of the Orchard Starling 7 How is its nest form- ^d 7 Relate ar anecdote in reference to this bird's nest. 112 FIRST BOOK OF ed one of these nests to an old lady, after admir- ing the form and workmanship, she asked him if he did not think it possible to teach the birds how to darn stockings. The nest is from three to five inches in depth, and the inside is usually lined with wool and other very soft substances. The outside work is attached to the twigs near it, by being strongly twisted around them, in order to prevent their being overset by the wind. It is somewhat difficult to conceive how a bird can make its bill perform the office of a needle, and also of a iveaver^s shuttle, still these operations are actually performed ; and how strongly they show us the wisdom of Almighty God, in teaching these innocent birds to construct convenient and truly wonderful habitations. CHAPTER XXXII. REPTILES IN GENERAL. THIS class of animals includes Frogs. Serpents, Lizards, Turtles, Tortoises, and Crocodiles. They differ very greatly in their habits, structure, and form, from mammalia and birds ; and from the ear- How deep is the nest ? With what is it lined 1 What is said of the outside 7 What offices is the bill made to perform'? What do these performances show us ? NATURAL HISTORY. 113 liest ages they have been regarded as hateful and unclean, from their supposed or real powers of in- jury, and more abhorred and despised than any other class of animals. Yet these animals exhibit several extraordinary characters and qualities. They can endure priva- tions and injuries which would destroy life in any other creature except themselves. The brain, in this class of animals, is extremely small, and their life is not destroyed at once by the loss of it, as with us. Although their brain and heart be taken out, and the head cut off, still they can move, and the heart will beat for many hours. Nearly all reptiles are capable of living some considerable time without food, and in Egypt there are some which live for several years without a particle of food. Many instances have been recorded, in which toads have been found alive in solid blocks of stone or marble, and in trunks of trees, in which they must have been inclosed for ages. Many reptiles select for their retreats, dark, damp and gloomy caverns, retiring in solitude from the presence of all other animals, yet many are CHAPTER XXXII. Name some of the reptile class. In what do they differ from mammalia and birds 7 How have they been regarded from the earliest ages 1 What do these animals exhibit 1 What is said in respect to their brain 1 Are they easily killed 7 Can reptiles live any length of time without food 1 What is said in reference to toads 7 Of what are we informed concerning 114 FIRST BOOK OF also fond of being in the sun's rays, especially ser- pents and lizards. Crocodiles, Tortoises, Progs, Newts, and Li;::mls, are four-footed, while serpents have no feet, or any external means of motion ; still they have the power of moving with great rapidity, by contract- ing alternately different portions of their bodies. Nature has not only given to serpents the power of entwining themselves around trees, but by a very singular formation of the back bone, they are also enabled to coil themselves up in a very small space. In animals generally, there are not above thirty or forty joints in the back bone, but in ser- pents there are one hundred and seventy from the head to the tail. Serpents are not furnished with the claws of the panther, to hold their prey, nor the bill and talons of the eagle to pull it in pieces ; but several of this species are furnished with poi- sonous fangs, with which they inflict a deadly wound, and others entwine themselves around their prey and crush their victim to death. The formation of their jaws, the width of the mouth, and the yielding texture of their bodies, enable them to swallow animals larger than themselves. These poisonous creatures are generally inof- many reptiles? Name those which are four-footed. Have serpents feet ? Can they move, and in what manner ? What power has nature granted to them? How many joints are there in the back-bone of serpents ? With what are serpents provided? How are they enabled to swallow animals larger i'KAL m 115 fcnsive and timid. and seldom use their deadly \v!e foresight, so that \vln-n lliry BiW hrttrh^d hy the hr-nt of the sun, tin- ycjim^ on<-- m;iy find a iT-ndy supply of food. \i;iiiy n'j)til-s L r ro\v -lowly and live to a great r ,-i.n ohj< l f >^"ly ; wheth- er hflojiL'ih'/ to thfi animal or ve'.n-tahle Jcin^dom, it almost invari.-i.hly lives to a ^n-at age. Tortois- es have heeii known to live one hundred and twenty years, and it is prohahle that many others live much longer in tlM-ir native haunts. In warm climates they multiply very fast, and there the most poisonous hecome active and destructive. Serpents live on small animals; tortoises, on sea \\-eed. Billed turtle grass; and lizards and toads on insects and woi than I},- the character of these poisonous creatures 1 What is said of reptiles? What is said of rep- to deposit their eggs? What is said of ';bj'.-r;is which grow slowly? tortoise br-'-n known toliv- is said in warm cJ:-:;.: 1 '.' CFpOD what do they live? 116 FIRST BOOK OF CHAPTER XXXIII. CROCODILE. THIS is the largest animal living in fresh water, and is a native of hot countries. They grow from eighteen to thirty feet in length ; and so great is their strength, that they are enabled with one sin- gle blow of the tail, which is their principal instru- ment of destruction, to overturn a canoe and take CHAPTER XXXIII. What is said of the crocodile 1 How long do they grow 7 What are they able to do 7 How many kinds are there? NATURAL HISTORY. 117 the conductor therefrom, although he may be in sight of his companions while they are unable to assist him. There are three kinds of Crocodiles. The first in the Grravial, which inhabits the largest rivers of India and China, and has a long narrow beak or snout. The second is the Cayman or Alliga- tor, found only in America, though divided into two kinds the spectacled and pike-nosed. The third is the proper or real crocodile of Africa. Their bodies are very rough, in consequence of their backs being covered with square plates and their sides with small round ones, which are so strong that a musket ball cannot penetrate them. When seen floating leisurely down a river, or waiting in the water for their prey, they have the appearance of rough trunks of trees. All crocodiles have long heads, very wide mouths, and small tongues, which are closely fastened to the bottom and sides of the mouth, in such a manner that they cannot be ex- tended beyond the outside of the mouth. The eyes are very small in proportion to the size of the body, and are furnished with three lids, while un- der the throat are two small pouches which con- What is said of the first 1 Of the second ? Of the third 1 With what are they covered ? Can a musket-ball penetrate these plates ? What do they resemble at times 1 Describe in general all crocodiles 1 How many lids have the eyes 1 What are situated under the throat 1 How do the savages of Africa 118 FIRST BOOK OF tain a strong musky substance. The savages of Africa, where crocodiles abound, take these pouch- es and wear them about their persons as a per- fume. In thinly peopled countries, wherever this class of animals has long lived undisturbed by mankind, they are bold, fierce, and dangerous ; and do not hesitate, when impelled by hunger, to attack man or any other animal that comes in their way. Since the late wars in South America have fur- nished them with so much human flesh, they have become much more dangerous than formerly. Their usual food, however, is fish, reptiles, and putrifying dead bodies of animals ; the last of which they seem to prefer, as they are known at times to bury their prey in the mud till putrifac- tion commences. The female makes her nest a short distance from the bank of some river, generally in a marshy place, which is formed of mud and grass, about four feet high, and four feet in diameter at the base. A floor of mud is first laid on the ground, on which is placed a layer of eggs, and then an- other layer of mud about half a foot thick ; then another layer of eggs, and so on to the top. From use them 7 Where are they dangerous ? What effect has the late wars had upon them in South America 1 What is their usual food ? Where does the female make her nest ? Of what is it formed 1 How large is it 1 How is it formed ? How many eggs are laid? What animals destroy them? NATURAL HISTORY. 119 one to two hundred egg's are found in a nest ; but vast numbers are destroyed by snakes and vul- tures^ and in Egypt, by a little animal called Ichneumon. Their eggs are but little larger than thoe of a hen. CHAPTER XXXIV. SALAMANDER. TOAD. TURTLE. SALAMANDERS have a lengthened form, four feet, and a long tail, which gives them the ap- pearance of lizards. It seldom makes its appear- ance, except in cloudy weather. On the sides of the common salamander are ranges of tubercles or holes, from which, when annoyed or in times of danger, a bitter milky fluid of a very disagree- able scent flows out in profusion. It poisons small animals, but does not seem to produce any serious effect upon the larger ones. This fluid is often spirted out to the distance of several inches, and in such quantities as often to extinguish fire suf- ficiently to enable them to pass through it un- harmed. They are all amphibious, that is, they are ca- CHAPTER XXXIV. Describe the Salamander 1 What is said of the sides of this animal ? What comes from these holes ? What is said of it ? 120 FIRST BOOK OF pable of living on the earth or in the water, and appear to suffer very little from the loss of a limb, as is the case with all the lizard species, because of their soon being replaced by new ones. They can even live for several hours after the head is separated from the body ; and after the body is cut in pieces, each piece seems to retain life for some time, though the tail retains its motion long- est. The most wonderful fact in relation to this animal, is, that it changes its skin every fourth or fifth day during the summer, and every fifteen days during the winter season. The toad is generally considered poisonous, but this is an error they are harmless, timid creatures. They are very useful in gardens, on account of their feeding chiefly on insects and worms , which they seize in an instant by darting out their long tongue. This act is performed so quickly that the eye can scarcely perceive its mo- tion. The fly upon which we may have been gazing disappears in an instant, we see not where. To secure the insect, the tongue is covered with a thick, glutinous spittle. Why are they amphibious 7 Why do they not suffer much from the loss of a limb 7 Are they very tenacious of life 7 What part retains life the longest 1 Relate the most wonder- ful fact in relation to this animal. What is said of the toad 7 Are they useful 7 Where 7 Upon what do they feed 7 What is said of this act 7 What is said of the tongue 7 Where do tortoises and turtles live 7 What is said of a particular kind NATURAL HISTORY. 121 Tortoises and Turtles live on the land, in riv- ers, and in the sea ; but those living in salt water grow much larger than those living in fresh water. The great Mediterranean turtle grows from Jive to eight feet long, and weighs from Jive to nine hun- dred pounds* At the time of laying their eggs, turtles often travel great distances for the purpose of finding low, flat, and sandy coasts upon which to deposit their eggs. The female digs a round hole, about three feet in diameter and eighteen inches deep, in which she lays about ninety eggs : each as large as a hen's egg, and as round as a ball. Their eggs are covered with a tough white skin. When the turtle has finished laying, she covers the hole so nicely that it is quite difficult to discover it. The mother takes no further care of them, and they are hatched out by the heat of the sun. As soon as the young escape from the shell, they come out of the sand and run to the sea for of turtle 4 ? In what situations do they deposit their eggs! What is said of the nest 7 With what are the eggs covered 1 How are they hatched 1 What is said of them as soon as they escape from the shell 1 What animals destroy them 7 6 122 FIRST BOOK OF protection, with instinct only for their guide. The jagnars,/ vultures, and herons, destroy vast num- bers of these animals. CHAPTER XXXV. CHAMELEON. BOA. RATTLESNAKE. THE Chameleon is prod viced from an egg, and is about eleven inches in length when full grown. It delights to sit on trees, being afraid of serpents, from which it cannot escape while on the ground. When this animal changes its place and com- mences descending from an eminence, it moves very carefully, advancing one leg slowly before the oth- er, still constantly holding fast to anything it can grasp with its tail, in order to make itself more se- cure. Their eyes project .out of their heads, and are covered with a single eye-lid, like a cap with a hole in the middle, through which the light en- ters. The eyes move independently of each other, as one may be at rest while the other is moving, or both may be moving in different directions. The tongue is fleshy and round, and they often CHAPTER XXXV. What is the size of the chameleon ? What is said of it ? De- scribe its change of place ? What is said of their eyes ? With what are they covered ? How do they move 1 What is said NATURAL HISTORY. 123 dart it out to a distance that exceeds their own length, in order to seize the insects upon which they live. These animals are enabled to change their color almost instantly, either on parts or over the whole body. Sometimes they appear almost black or dark brown, and sometimes spotted with yellow and green. The ancients believed that it lived on air, from the fact that it is able to swell itself to twice its natural size, by drawing a great quantit} r of air into its immense lungs. When this is done the body becomes transparent. The largest serpents known belong to the class of Boas. They sometimes grow thirty or forty feet in length, and often swallow goats, deer, and even buffaloes, after having broken their bones. Their bite is not poisonous, but they possess great strength, and when watching an opportunity of seizing their prey, they generally lie concealed in the grass near some watering place, or hang by the tail from the branches of a tree in a pathway. When they come from their retreats with famished appetites, every animal of the forest flies before them with terror. They dart upon their prey with great swiftness, and after having secured it, of the tongue 1 What power have these animals 7 What did the ancients believe concerning them 1 Why ? When does the body become transparent 7 To what class do the largest serpents belong ? How large are they 7 What animals do they swallow 7 What is said of them when watching for their prey 1 When hungry 7 Describe the treatment of their vie- 124 FIRST BOOK OF wind themselves around their victim and press it so strongly that it soon ceases to breathe, and the bones are crushed beneath their folds. The ser- pent then licks the whole body over, covering it with a slimy spittle, in order to make it pass down the throat more easily, though it often requires several days to swallow an entire animal. After being thus filled with food, they become torpid, and may be approached with safety and destroyed. RATTLE-SNAKE. The Rattle-Snake is found only in America, and in general grows from four to six feet in length. It is furnished with two fangs, one on each side of the upper jaw. They are hollow within, and have an opening towards the point like the slit of a pen, through which the poison runs down into the tim 1 When do they become harmless ? Where is the rattle- snake found ? Its length 1 With what is it furnished ? De- scribe them 7 What is said of the poison 7 Of the rattle? NATURAL HISTORY. 125 deepest part of the wound. This poison may be swallowed without danger, but when introduced into a wound, it causes death with frightful rapidity. They differ from all other animals in having a rattle on the end of the tail, which con- sists of a series of horny scales, loosely fitting into each other ; and when they move, these scales make a rattling noise and thus serve as a warning of their approach. Their age is known by the number of their rattles. When unprovoked, this animal never interferes with anything but its natural prey ; but when disturbed, it instantly makes a noise with these rattles, which maybe heard at a considerable distance ; still the peccary, vulture, and hog, has- ten at the signal to take possession of their favor- ite food. How is their age known 1 Will this snake bite when unpro- voked 7 What animals eat it with greediness 7 126 FIRST BOOK OP CHAPTER XXXVI. FISHES IN GENERAL. AMONG vertebrated animals, Fishes occupy the lowest rank. They are all inhabitants of the wa- ter, and consist of an immense number of species. The greater number of this class have the same general form, in being sharp at both ends and large in the middle, which enables them to move with great swiftness. The friction caused by their passage through the water is greatly diminished by the surface of the body being covered with scales, which are very smooth and placed in the same regular order over the body of the fish, as the feathers are placed over the body of a bird ; and the skin is filled with oil, which prevents the water from entering into its substance. The chief instruments of motion in a fish are its Jins, which serve the same purposes as the ivings of birds, and the legs and arms of mam- malia. Some fish have more than others, their number varying according to their habits and species. Those which have the greatest number CHAPTER XXXVI. What rank do fishes occupy 1 What is said of them 1 How is the friction in passing through the water prevented ? How are the scales placed 7 With what is the skin filled ? What are the chief instruments of motion 1 Have all fish an equal NATURAL HISTORY. 127 of fins are not always the fastest swimmers ; for the haddock, though completely fitted, does not swim near as fast as the shark, which wants the ventral fins. The first pair of fins, which is sometimes want- ing, as in the eel, are called pectoral, because of their being placed on the breast behind the gill- covers. The second pair is called ventral, and is placed under the body. Besides these, there is often a fin on the back called the dorsal fin, and another under the tail, called the annalfin. The tail itself terminates in a fin, which is the most powerful of all, and is called the candal fin ; this, like the tail of a bird, is used for a rudder to direct its motion. Fishes have no lungs, but breathe by means of gills which are placed on each side of the neck. The water passing over these organs is decompos- ed, and the oxygen contained in the water unites with the blood in the numerous blood vessels of the gills, which is immediately carried to the heart and distributed over the whole body. The senses of smell and hearing have no ex- ternal opening in fishes, though that of smelling is the most acute of all their senses. They dis- number 7 What is said of the Shark and Haddock 7 What is said of the first pair 1 The second pair 7 Of the other fins 7 The tail 7 For what is it used 1 Have fishes lungs 1 How do they breathe 1 What is said of the water passing over the gills 7 Of the senses of smell and hearing 7 By what sense 128 FIRST BOOK OF cover their prey at immense distances, in the great- est darkness and amid the most agitated waves. The organs of this sense are between the eyes and the extent of the membranes on which the olfac- tory nerves are spread ; in a shark twenty-Jive feet long, it is calculated to be twelve or thirteen square feet. Fish are produced from eggs, and in great num- bers. The codfish produces more than nine mil- lion eggs in a year ; the flounder about a million ; and the mackerel about five hundred thousand. This astonishing increase serves two wise purpos- es : that of preserving the species among number- less enemies, and the furnishing of others with food adapted to their nature. As the period for spawning approaches, many fish migrate to great distances in order to reach fit places for this pro- cess. The eggs are generally deposited in such situations as are best calculated to ensure their hatching, and supply the wants of their young. Some even prepare regular nests ; as two spe- cies, called by the Indians the r mind-head and flat- head hassar. The round-head hassar forms its nest of grass and the flat-head of leaves ; and after having deposited their eggs, they cover them do they discover their prey ? What is said of the organs of this sense 7 From what are fish produced 7 What is said of a codfish 1 A flounder 1 A mackerel 7 Is this- increase too great 7 Why not 1 How are the eggs deposited 1 What is said of the flat and round-head Hassar 7 What are young NATURAL HISTORY. 129 very carefully, and both sexes watch and defend them till the young come forth. The young fish, oi' fry, are capable of supporting themselves the moment they leave the shell. They immediately take the same means of defense, seek the same haunts, and acquire the same habits as the parent, taught only by the power which gave them being. Some fish, as the Shad, Cod, Haddock, and oth- er's, are furnished with air bladders ; while the Scate, Thornback, and fresh water Gudgeon are destitute of this wonderful organ. This organ is double, and placed within their bodies as a kind of storehouse of air to supply its necessities. CHAPTER XXXVII. THE WHALE. FISH are generally social in their habits, and may often be seen in large shoals, full of activity ani animation. Their character in general is that of gentleness and harmlessness ; showing no traits of cruelty towards one another, beyond that fish called 1 What is said of them ? Are all fish furnished with bladders 1 What purpose does it serve them ? CHAPTER XXXVII. What is the general character of fish 1 Do they show any traits of cruelty 1 What is said of some ? What is the whale, 130 FIRST BOOK OF of satisfying their appetites in partaking of their natural food. Still there are some fierce, vora- cious, and dangerous creatures as well in the sea as on land, as the shark, sivord-fish) and others, which are objects of terror ; but those which are most abundant, are harmless and gentle creatures. The Whale is the largest of all fish, and its head is one third the size of its whole body. Its eyes are exceedingly small in comparison with its size, being no larger than those of an ox. It will NATURAL HISTORY. 131 be remembered that the whale belongs to the mammalia class, because it suckles its young. This animal has two openings in the upper part of its head, leading from the mouth, through which it spouts out immense quantities of water, often producing a noise similar to thunder. This act seems to be performed by way of amusement, though it is often the cause of its destruction, as the whalers discern by that where it is swim- ming. The jaw-bones of the whale are a foot thick and fifteen or twenty feet long, and are sometimes used for gate-posts. Instead of teeth, the whale has a great many layers or thin plates of a horny substance attached to the upper jaw, with the lower edge formed into a kind of fringe, which is calculated to prevent all solid substances that may | have been admitted into the mouth from escaping. Thus the whale is enabled to collect a whole shoal of snails and small prey, by taking into its mouth the sea-water which contains these ani- mals, and allowing it to drain off through this fringe of whalebone. These plates are known by the name of whalebone. and the size of its head 1 To what class does the mammalia belong 1 Why? What has this animal leading from the mouth 1 What is said of this act 1 What is the size of the jawsl For what are they often used 7 With what is the whale furnished instead of teeth 1 What is said of these plates and fringe? How does the whale get its foodl By what j 132 FIRST BOOK OP The skin of the whale is not covered with scales, but is an inch thick, and covers the fat or blubber, which is from nine to eighteen inches in thickness. The quantity of this fat is so great, that a hundred and fifty tons of oil are sometimes obtained from one whale. Ambergris is found in the bowels of the whale, which is valued chiefly as a perfume, although the Asiatics use it as a spice to flavor their dishes. Another product of the whale is spermaceti. There is one species of the whale known by this name, because it produces an abundance of this matter. Its real nature was not known for many | years, but it is now known to be the brain of this species a single fish often yields several tons. A considerable quantity is also obtained from the spinal marrow. This substance, when taken from the whale, is cut up in pieces, melted, and strained repeatedly, by which means it becomes delicately white, and is used for medicine and the making of candles. name are these plates known ? What is the thickness of its skin 7 What is the thickness of the blubber 7 How many tons of oil will a single whale sometimes produce 7 Where i ambergris found'? What is spermaceti 7 How is the oil ob- tained from this substance 1 For what is it used 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 133 CHAPTER XXXVIII. TORPEDO. GYMNOTUS. THE Torpedo is the most celebrated of the electric fishes. In common with others of its kind, it is furnished with an electrical apparatus, which it has the power of charging and discharging to a certain extent at pleasure. The two surfaces of the electric organ, which fills the interior of the body between the head and abdomen, are supposed to be one positive and the other negative. These organs not only affect the animals upon which they act in some way not perceptible to the eye, but they are also said to emit sparks ; and they can strike at some distance as well as by immedi- ate contact. Torpedos are almost always concealed in the mud, where, by means of this weapon, they can kill the small fishes that come near them, or benumb the large ones ; and if they are in danger of being attacked by any voracious fish, they can disable him by invisible blows, more to be dread- ed than the teeth of the shark itself. CHAPTER XXXVIII. With what is the torpedo furnished ? What power has it ? Where is this organ 7 What is said ot these organs 1 Where do these animals secrete themselves 1 For what purpose ? What are they enabled to do to man, to quadrupeds, and the larger fishes? Of what country is the Gymnotus a native! 134 FIRST BOOK OF The GymnotuSj or electric eel, is still more dan- gerous, and attacks the large quadrupeds, and even man if he puts himself in its way. This animal is a native of South America, and its force is said to be ten times greater than that of the torpedo. They are very common in the ponds and small streams, from the equator to the ninth de- gree of north latitude. So numerous are they in some parts of Venezuela, that roads formerly much frequented, which were crossed by several streams, have been abandoned on account of many mules being annually lost in consequence of these eels. GYMNOTUS. The electric organs of the gymnotus are placed under the tail y which occupies a third part of the whole fish. It h&sfour of these organs, two large and How much greater is the force of its battery than that of the torpedo 7 Where are they common 1 What is said of them in Venezuela 1 Where are these organs placed 1 How many are there, and what surface do they cover 7 How was Hum- NATURAL HISTORY. 135 two small, which in these animals are sometimes calculated to equal one hundred and twenty-three square feet of surface, which enables them to give such violent shocks. Humboldt placed both feet on one of these animals, just taken from the water, and received a violent shock ; and for the remain- der of the day he felt an acute pain in his knees and almost all his joints. The Indians take this animal by means of driv- ing twenty or thirty wild horses and mules in a pond. They then surround the basin, armed with long canes or harpoons ; some mount the trees whose branches hang over the water, and all en- deavor by their yells and instruments to keep the horses from escaping. The animals, stupified by the repeated shocks of the gimnoti, become per- fectly numb, and, deprived of all sense, sink under the water and are soon drowned. After these eels have thus discharged their electric fluid, they be- come harmless and are no longer dreaded ; swim- ming half out of the water, they flee from the horses instead of attacking them, and now need repose and plenty of food to enable them to collect a sufficient supply of their galvanic electricity be- fore they are any way dangerous. boldt affected by one 1 How do the Indians take them 1 When are these eels harmless 7 How do they then swim 1 What do they then need 1 J136 FIRST BOOIC OF CHAPTER XXXIX, BIVALVE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. A VAST number of species belong to this class ; and as their name signifies, the body is soft and destitute of bones , unlike those of the higher order of animals. They dwell in shells formed princi- pally of lime, which are constructed by the ani- mals themselves ; and many of them are accord- ingly called shellfish : as the oyster, clam, muscle, &c. Their shells are formed either of one or more pieces, each piece being called a valve. When the shells of mollusccB consist of one piece, they are called univalve ; when of two, bivalve ; and when of many pieces, multi-valve. Univalve shells have generally more or less of a spiral form, and are then called turbinated shells. The shells of all this class are composed of the same kind of material, and their production and increase are regulated by the same general laws. The MollusccB which inhabit bivalve shells, such as the oyster, muscle, and cockle, are all acephalous. CHAPTER XXXIX, What does molluscous mean 1 In what do these animals dwell 1 Of what are their shells principally formed 1 What are these animals called ? When a shell consists of one piece, what is it called 1 Of two pieces 1 Of many pieces 7 What form have univalve shells generally 1 What is said of all NATURAL HISTORY. 137 that is, they are destitute of heads. The two valves of the shell are united at the back by a hinge-joint, which is often singularly formed, hav- ing teeth that lock into each other. The hinge is secured by a substance of great strength. During life the usual and natural state of the shell is that of being kept open for a little distance, in order to allow the water to come in sufficient for the animal's nourishment and respiration. They are enabled to close the shell very quickly and with great force, which is the only means of security they possess against their enemies. This action is per- formed by means of muscular power ; for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even a greater number of strong muscles are placed within the valves, their fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of one valve to the inner surface of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are called adductor muscles, because they bring the valves together. The bivalve molluscce, in regard to their hab- its, may be divided into two families ; the general habits of the first seem to be that of boring into wood and even rocks, while others burrow in the bivalve molluscans 1 How are the two valves united 1 What is said of the hinge-joint, and how is it secured ? What is the natural state of the shell during life 1 For what purpose 1 What means of security do they possess ? By what is this ac- tion performed 1 What is said of the muscles 1 What are they called, and why 1 Into how many families are they di- 138 FIRST BOOK OP sand, often to a great depth ; and the second fix themselves to stones, rocks, or other substances, by means of a silky substance which they have the faculty of spinning. Hence they are sometimes called the silk-worms of the ocean. No animal has been more celebrated for the mischief it has done than the timber borer or ship worm. It often does incalculable injury by de- stroying piles, as far as they are under water ; and they even attack the largest vessels, and render them unfit for use. The object of this destruction is only to provide for themselves cells, in which they may be safe from their enemies. This work is performed, probably, by means of the shell, which is ridged in opposite directions like a rasp. The pholas, or stone borers, although defended only by a thin shell, bore holes in hard rocks, in which they live. vided 1 Relate the general habits of the first 1 Of the second 7 What is the second family sometimes called 7 What is said of the ship- worm 7 How does it do injury 7 What is its ob- ject 1 How is the work performed 7 What is said of the Pholas 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 139 CHAPTER XL. BIVALVE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. Continued. MANY of the bivalve molluscce are provided with an instrument like a leg and/oo, which they make use of in order to move from one place to another. The foot of the Solen or razor shellfish, resembles a tongue much more than a foot. The foot of the Mytilus edulis, or common muscle, can be extended to the distance of two inches from the shell. By attaching the end of it to any body within its reach, and then contracting the foot, this animal is enabled to draw its shell towards the body to which it is fastened ; and by repeating this operation successively on other ob- jects, it continues slowly to advance. This in- strument is of great use to those shell-fish which conceal themselves in the mud or sand. The cardium, or cockle, employs its foot for scooping out the sand, in order to procure shelter : this operation they perform at the earliest period of their existence. The cockle can also advance on CHAPTER XL. With what are many of this class provided 7 For what pur- pose 1 What is said of the foot of the Sokn ? How far can the foot of the common muscle be extended 7 ? How can it move 1 What use is made of the foot by others 1 How does the Cockle advance on the earth at the bottom of the sea'* 140 FIRST BOOK OP the surface of the soft earth, at the bottom of the sea, by pressing backwards with its foot, as a boat- man moves his boat onward by pushing with his pole againt the ground in a contrary direction. The solen forces its way through the sand in * a similar manner, expanding the end of its foot into the form of a club. The Pinna, or Marine Muscle, when an inhabit- ant of the shores of tempestuous seas, is also fur- nished with a singular apparatus to preserve itself and shell from being destroyed by the fury of the waves. By means of this, it forms a great num- ber of threads, which are fastened to the surround- ing rocks, and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a proper place to avoid the fury of the storm. The foot of the pinna is round, and nearly as What is further said of the foot of the solen ? What is said of the Pinna 7 With what is it furnished 7 What is done by means of this apparatus 1 Describe the foot of the pinna ? NATURAL HISTORY. 141 long as itself, the office of which is to keep all the threads firmly in connection with it, and concen- trate their power at one point. The threads are composed of a glutinous matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being drawn from the body like those of the silk-worm and spider, but are cast in a mould, where they be- come somewhat hardened before they are used. They form many threads, and fasten them in dif- ferent directions around the shell. The liquid matter out of which they are formed, is so exceed- ingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly to the smoothest bodies ; and when once fastened, the animal does not appear to have the power of break- ing them off. These threads are very slowly pro- duced, for it seems that they are not capable of forming more than/owr or Jive in the course of a day and night. These muscles possess the power of forming these threads from the earliest periods of their existence, although no larger than a mil- let seed. A manufactory of gloves and stockings, from the silk of the Pinnee, is established at Paler- mo, in Sicily. These articles resemble silk, and What does this foot do 7 Of what are the threads composed ? How are they formed 1 Of what use are these threads ? "What is said of the matter of which they are formed 1 How many can they form in the coarse of a day and night 7 How large are these muscles when they perform this operation ? What is said of a manufactory at Palermo ? What is said of the articles manufactured 1 What do the ladies sometimes do ? 142 FIRST BOOK OP are very fine and warm, but will take no dye. The females sometimes steep it in strong acid, and then press it with a warm iron, which gives it a beautiful yellow-brown color. CHAPTER XLI. UNIVALVE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. THE Argonaut^ or Paper Nautilus, has an ex- ceedingly thin stfell, almost transparent, probably for the sake of lightness ; for it is intended to be used as a boat. For the purpose of enabling this animal to make use of the light sea breezes, it is provided by nature with a thin membrane, which it can spread out at pleasure like a sail. While this small bark is thus scudding through, between, and over the fluctuating waves of the sea, the as- siduous navigator does not neglect to make use of its tentacula, or feelers, as oars on both sides, to direct as well as to increase its motion. No soon- er does the sea become ruffled and the wind in- crease, than this little animal hastens to take down its sail, and quickly withdrawing its tentacula CHAPTER XLI. What is said of the paper nautilus 1 With what is this ani- mal provided 7 What is said of this small barque ? What or- gans does it make use of 1 What takes place if a storm arises 1 NATURAL HISTORY. 143 PAPER NAUTILUS. within its shell, turns its shell-mouth downward and instantly sinks to the peaceful regions beneath the surface. The Snails, Slugs, Conries, Cones, Volutes, Hel- mets, and Rock-shells, belong to this class, though but little is known of their habits and instincts. All shells are composed of two different substan- ces ; the one consisting of particles of carbonate of lime, the other is similar in substance to that of the white of an egg-. The mode in which What animals belong to this class? Of what are ail shells composed 1 How have shells been divided 1 What shells be- 144 FIRST BOOK OF these substances are united, as well as the quanti- ty of each, differs much in different kinds of shells ; and in reference to these circumstances, they have been divided into membraneous and porcellaneous shells. The shells of almost all the larger bivalve mol- lusca which reside in the ocean, as the limpet and oyster, are of the membraneous kind, and are formed by the carbonate of lime uniting with the membranes which are deposited in layers. These layers may be separated from one another, either by means of a knife or by a chemical process. When these shells decay and fall to pieces, they separate into numerous thin scales of a pearly lustre. The fine scales thus obtained from the Placuna, or Window- Oyster ', are reduced to pow- der, and are used by the Chinese in their water- color paintings to produce the effect of silver. Porcellaneous shells are more regular and com- pact in their formation than those of the former class. The quantity of carbonate of lime is not so great, and is more equally distributed among the earthy particles, and appears to act as a cement in binding them strongly together. This class of shells, when exposed to a red heat, give out neither smell nor smoke ; still they lose their color, but long to this class 7 How are they formed? "What is said of these shells ? Of the Placuna 7* Describe the porcellaneous shells 1 What is said of this class when exposed to a red heat ? Of the membraneous when exposed to a red heat ? "What is NATURAL HISTORY. 145 retain their shape unaltered. Membraneous shells, on the contrary, emit a strong and offensive smell and become black ; after which, the plates sepa- rate and the shell falls to pieces. The process employed by nature for the forma- tion and enlargement of the shells of the mollusca, is very singular. The growth of the shell is sim- ply the result of successive additions made to its surface, and the materials constituting each layer are furnished by the organized fleshy substance called the mantle. If a portion of the shell of a living snail be broken off, which can be done with- out injury to the animal, because the flesh is at- tached to the shell only at one point, there is found in the course of twenty-four hours, a fine pellicle, or thin skin, resembling a spider's web, which ex- tends across the vacant space and forms the first layer of the new part of the shell. They continue adding other layers to the inner surface, and in about ten or twelve days this portion of the shell has acquired nearly the same thickness as that of the other part. the growth of the shell 7 By what is the materials furnished 1 Describe the process. 146 FIRST BOOK OF CHAPTER XLII. ARTICULATED ANIMALS, THIS class of animals includes such as are fur- nished with joints, with a hard external crust or skeleton, to which are attached the organs of mo- tion. They are called articulated animals, be- cause their bodies are divided into sections, and seem to be composed of many jointed parts united together on a line with each other. Their blood is generally white, but in the class of Annelida, it is red ; and they are all oviparous. The lowest division of articulated animals, are those which have the form of worms, and which compose the class of Annelida; of which the common earth-worm may be taken as the most familiar example. In all this class, the firmest parts of the body, or those which give support to the rest, are external, and consist of a frame work composed of a series of homy rings or bands, which enclose all the other organs. In general, the first of the sections into which CHAPTER XLII, What kind of animals does this class include ? Why are they called articulated? What is said of their blood 7 What do you understand by these animals being oviparous ? What class includes the lowest division of articulated animals 1 In this class where are the firmest parts of the body 1 What does NATURAL HISTORY. 147 the body is divided, contains the principal organs of sense^ and is called the head ; while the oppo- site extremity is called the tail. The rings which encircle the body are connected at their sides by layers of muscular fibres curiously connected into bands, generally four in number ; two running along the back, and two along the lower part of the body, lying immediately under the skin. When all the four bands contract together equally, they bring the rings nearer to each other and shorten the length of the worm ; the skin being at the same time wrinkled and swelled out between the rings. The skin on the surface of the earth-worm, at the parts where it covers the rings, is furnished with very small bristles, called setae, by means of which the animal is enabled to place those parts on the ground, while the other parts of its body are in motion. In almost all animals belonging to this order, we find some provision of this kind : although some have tufts of hair regularly placed in rows on each side of the under surface. In the nereis, a genus of sea-worms, there are often more than a hundred pair of little tufts of strong bristles ; and between these, tentacula are placed the first division generally contain 7 What is it called 7 By what are the rings connected 7 Describe these bands 7 What is said of the contraction of these bands 7 Where are the setae placed 1 Of what use are they to the animal 7 With what are some provided 7 What is said of the nereis 1 With 148 FIRST BOOK OF to prevent the animal from .running against any- thing by which it might be injured. Sometimes the whole body is covered with hair ; at other times they are in the form of hooks, which give them the power of clinging with great force to objects on which they may fasten. SABELLA AND TEREBELLA. Many of the animals of this class being soft and defenceless, seek safety in retreating into holes and gloomy places, or by burrowing in the sand or mud. A few, as the Sabella and Terebella, form a shell of grains of sand, particles of decayed shells, and other substances, which they cement together so as to form a defensive covering. The body of the Leech, is encircled by nume- rous rings, which are placed close to each other. It is furnished with an apparatus for suction at each extremity of the body. By means of fasten- what is the whole body sometimes covered 7 What is said of others, and what are they enabled to do with these hooks ? What is said of many of the animals of this class ? Of the Sabella and Terebella? What is said of the Leech? How NATURAL HISTORY. 149 ing first one end andthen the other, and contract- ing or lengthening the body as the occasion re- quires, the leech is enabled to move at pleasure either backwards or forwards. The order called Entozoa, or intestine worms -, resemble theannelidae very much. CHAPTER XLIII. ARTICULATED ANIMALS. Continued. THE order called Arachinda, includes all the species of spiders, together with those animals nearly resembling them in formation ; but they are more perfectly formed than the annelidse. The rings which always compose the frame-work of the body, are in this order so closely united together as to form but two principal divisions. The first division, which is called the Cephalo-thorax, con- tains the organs of sensation, and those organs used in preparing the food to be rec ved into the are they enabled to move ? What order resembles this class very much. CHAPTER XLIII. What does the order of Arachinda include ? What is said of the rings which compose the body of this order 1 Name the first division. What does this division contain! What is the second division called, and what does it contain 7 What 150 FIRST BOOK OF stomach. The second division is called the abdo- men, and contains the organs of digestion. SPIDER AND WEB. In the spider, these two portions of the body are separated by a deep groove, being connected only by a slender tube. The male usually has four is said of the body of the spider 1 How many legs has the male 1 The female 7 What is said of their legs ? What is NATURAL HISTORY. 151 pair of legs united with the cephalo-thorax, but the female is furnished with an additional pair to enable her to carry her eggs. The legs are di- vided into several joints; those next the body are called the haunches, the next the legs, then the tarsus ; and each foot ends in two and some- times three hooks. There are also other members having the appearance of feet, which are placed in front of the head, and have affixed to them a movable hook or pincers, which are used for seiz- ing their food, and as organs of defense. Through the larger branches a canal passes, which opens near the point, and conducts a poisonous fluid into the wounds inflicted upon its prey or enemy* SPIDER AND NEST. The long and elastic limbs of the spider enable it to move with great rapidity, and spring to a con- said of their pincers *? What passes through the larger branches 1 What is said of the spider ? How is this class 152 FIRST BOOK OF siderable distance on its prey. This class is gen- erally regarded with horror and disgust still there are savages who eat them. The greater number of species belonging to this order, are provided with a curious apparatus for spinning threads and for forming their webs so as to entangle flies and other small insects. Every species of spider weaves its w?b in a manner peculiar to itself, and all are fur- nished, at the extremity of the body, with four or six teat-like knobs or spinners. Each spinner is also furnished with a multitude of tubes, so nu- merous and fine that a space not much larger than spirts point is furnished with a thousand of them. Thus from each spinner proceeds a com- pound thread, and at the distance of about one tenth of an inch from the body, the four or six bodies of threads from each spinner unite and form one thread. A spider's thread, so fine that we can scarcely see it, is composed of at least four thou- sand separate threads. In the vicinity of the large web, they generally construct a small cell, in which they conceal them- selves and lie in ambush watching for their prey. Between this cell and the edge of the principal web several threads are extended, and by the vi- brations of these threads the spider knows when anything has come in contact with his nest ; they regarded 7 With what are the greater number belonging to this class provided! What is said of this apparatus? De- scribe the spider's thread. Of how many separate strands does NATURAL HISTORY. 153 i also serve as a bridge, over which it instantly passes to secure the captured prey. CHAPTER XLIV. ARTICULATED ANIMALS. Continued. THE order called Crustacea, is still more per- fectly formed than the last order spoken of, as may be seen in the lobster and crab. The limbs as well as the whole body are encased in tubes ofcarbo?iate of lime. The number of legs is either six or eight, and each leg is divided intone pieces. In this order, antenna, or feelers, are placed, one on each side of the head. The antennae consist of slender threads or filaments jointed together. The jaws and other parts connected with the mouth are very differently formed, and many of these parts are used for various purposes besides those of mastication ; such as the seizing of ob- j jects and conveying them into the mouth. These one thread consist? What is said of the spider's cell? How can they pass from the cell to the web 1 CHAPTER, XLIV. What is said of the order of Crustacea, and what animals belong to it 1 What is said of the limbs and body 1 How many legs have they 7 Into how many pieces is each leg di- vided 7 What is said of the antennae 1 What is said of the 154 FIRST BOOK OF organs are called the Palpi, sometimes the false feet, and always exist in pairs, emanating from the lower lip, or from the lower part of the head. The foremost pairs of palpi are shaped somewhat like jaws, and actually perform their office in cut- ting and preparing the food before it is introduced into the stomach. These feet-jaws are called mandibles. In the lobster, crab, and many other crustacese, the foremost pair of true feet terminate in a pin- cers, or claw, which resembles a finger and thumb in its power of grasping and holding any object on which it seizes ; and to enable it to do this with more effect, the inner edges of both parts are notched or serrated. This claw is a powerful or- gan in the seizing of its food, and a formidable weapon in defending itself. All of the animals belonging to this order cast their crust annually. Some are said to live for twenty years, and continue growing through the greater part of their life. The solid structure with which they are covered does not increase in size with their body, consequently they are cast off and jaws, and other parts connected with them 7 What are these organs called 7 What is said of the foremost pair 7 What are these feet-jaws called 7 What is said of the foremost pair of feet in the lobster, crab, &c. 7 What is said of the inner surface of these pincers 7 What is said of this claw 7 How often do the animals belonging to this order cast their crust 7 To what age do some live 7 What is said of the growth of their bodies, and the casting of their shells 7 Is it the outside NATURAL HISTORY. 155 exchanged for a new shell of larger dimensions, which operation is continued until the animal ceases to grow. This change takes place at the close of spring, when food is plentiful, and then this animal, as if aware of its helplessness, retires into clefts of rocks and other retired places, where it can undergo the process in concealment and security. Not only is the whole outside crust cast off, but even the horny cuticle and teeth of the stomach, likewise undergo the same change. When an animal of this class has been deprived of one of its claws, it is in a short time replaced by a new one, which grows from the stump of the one lost. This new growth takes place more readi- ly at the joints than at any other part ; and the animal seems to know this fact, for if it receives an injury at the extremity of the limb, it will break off the whole limb at the joint where it is connected with the body this being the place where the growth most speedily commences. The feelers, feet-jaws, and legs, are reproduced in the same manner ; but if the tail is injured or broken off, it is never reproduced, and the animal dies. crust alone which is cast off and renewed 1 What is said of a member of this class when deprived of one of its claws 1 Where does the new growth commence soonest ? What do the animals of this class do, if they receive an injury at the extremity of their limbs ? What parts are reproduced 1 What is said of the tail ? 156 FIRST BOOK OF CHAPTER XLV. INSECTS. THE science of insects is called entomology , and insects derive their name from the Latin word in- secta, which means to cut, because the bodies of many seem to be almost cut off in the middle. They inhabit the earth, the air, or the water, and move with rapidity in all situations. Insects pos- sess the Jive senses, and are endowed with wonder- ful instincts. Insects either divide their food or suck it, con- sequently the mouth is formed to answer one or the other of these purposes. In those which di- vide their food, the parts of the mouth are an up- per lip and an under lip, fixed to a piece called the chin : between these two there are four other pieces, two on each side. The two upper ones are called mandibles, or upper jaws, and the two low- er ones maxillcB, or lower jaws. The mandibles cut the food, and the maxillae divide and masticate it; but the action of these parts is horizontal, and not vertical, as with us. The" lips move forwards, CHAPTER XLV. What is the science of insects called ? From what do they derive their name 7 What do they inhabit 7 What do insects possess 7 What is said of the food and mouth of insects ? What is said of the mouth of those which divide their food 1 NATURAL HISTORY. 157 Backwards, up and down, and their principal use seems to be to prevent the food from falling from the mouth. The mouth of those insects which suck their food is drawn out into a beak, tongue, or proboscis, which is a tube attached to the head. In some, as the bee, it is composed of two pieces connected by a joint, which, in its indolent state, is doubled up and lies secure from the accidental injuries to which it would otherwise be exposed. In many insects the trunk is shut up in a sharp- pointed sheath, which is much harder and stronger than the trunk itself, and is sharpened at the point. This sheath pierces the substance which contains the food and then opens within the wound to allow the proboscis, through which the juice is extracted, to perform its office. Almost all insects have two antennae, which in some are the organs of sense, but in others their use is not positively known. The thorax, which is the part immediately behind the head, supports the legs and wings. The wings are composed of two membranes, between which air-vessels are What office do the mandibles perform 1 What office do the maxillae perform 1 In what direction do they act 1 In what direction do the lips move 1 What is said of the mouth of those insects which suck their food 1 Describe the proboscis of the bee. How is the trunk of others preserved secure from injuries 1 What is said of this sheath ? What is said of their antennas 1 Where is the thorax situated, and what organs are attached to it 7 Of what are the wings composed 1 What is 158 FIRST BOOK OF placed. The abdomen is the third division of the insect, and is composed of from one to fifteen rings. Most of these rings have a little hole in the side, called stigmata ; through these the insect breathes. In some, the last ring contains the means of de- fense, as the sting ; or necessary instruments, as saws, pincers, &c. The organs of digestion con- sist of a gullet, one or more stomachs, and an in- testinal canal, into which many fine vessels secrete a fluid similar to saliva and bile. Insects have no true circulating nor absorbent system of vessels, still they secret fluids which not only serve for digestion, but for defense. The ant throws out an acid, the bee forms a poison, and the glow-worm forms an oily fluid which becomes lu- minous. The thorax contains the muscles which move the head up and down, and those which move the feet and wings. The number of mus- cles in one species of caterpillars amount to about four thousand, which is nine times the number of those in man. The flea, called by the Arabians the father of leapers, and the locust, jump two hundred times their own length. said of the abdomen 7 Do insects breathe through the mouth 7 What does the last ring often contain 1 What is said of the organs of digestion 7 Have insects a true circulating or ab- sorbent system of vessels 7 What is said of the ant, bee, and glow-worm 7 What does the thorax contain 7 How many muscles are there in one species of caterpillar 7 What is said of the flea and locust 7 NATURAL HISTORY. 159 CHAPTER XLVI. EGGS OP INSECTS. IT was universally believed by the ancient phi- losophers, and is believed by the ignorant at the present day, that maggots, flies, and other insects are produced from putrifying and decaying sub- stances. But we might with as much reason be- I lieve that a flock of vultures had been produced from the dead carcase which they were seen de- vouring. It is also a common opinion, that if a horse's hair be placed in the water of a spring or ditch, or in rain water, it will become in a short time a hair-worm, and afterwards an eel; but these fabled transformations are contrary to na- ture, and inconsistent with reason. CHAPTER XLVI. What was universally believed by the ancients'? What might we as well believe ? What is generally believed in re- spect to a horse hair 1 Are these supposed transformations natu- 160 FIRST BOOK OF All insects are produced from eggs. When they are placed on the outside of any substance, they are covered with a cement, which secures them to the place chosen by the instinct of the mother. But when they are laid in nests, no cement is used, because they are often removed from one place to another, as in the case of the ant. The working ants carry the eggs from the top to the bottom, and from the bottom to the top of their galleries, according as the weather is favorable or unfavor- able for hatching them. The laborers of the Ter- mites, or white ants, attend their queen with the utmost care when she is laying, because she can- not then move about, and they are obliged to carry off the eggs to the nurseries as they are laid. The queen lays 60 eggs in a minute, which is at the rate of 86,400 in a day, and 31,536,000 in a year. The eggs of insects in general are round, though they exhibit several different forms, as square, boat-shaped, angular, flat, and cylindric, or in the form of a cylinder. Some are sculptured in a most beautiful manner ; others, as those of the brown meadow butterfly, are crowned at the upper end with sculptured work in the form of ral ? From what are all insects produced 1 How are their eggs protected when placed on the outside of any substance 1 What is said of them when laid in nests 7 What is said of working ants ? What is said of the laborers of the Termites ? How many eggs does the queen lay ? What is said of the shape of insects' eggs ? How are some finished ? Describe NATURAL HISTORY. 161 tiles, as if to defend them from injury ; while others are covered with a sort of net-work of extremely small six-sided meshes. The common dung-fly deposits its eggs in manure, which are prevented from going in too far by means of two divergent pegs at the upper end. These pegs permit the eggs to enter sufficiently far to preserve them moist, which is necessary in order that they may be hatched, and also prevents them from go- ing too far, so that they are not suffocated or de- stroyed. Others are placed on foot-stalks by the mother, so that they cannot be injured by grubs EGGS OP INSECTS. and other natural enemies. These foot-stalks are formed by the mother-fly attaching a drop of re- sinous matter to a branch, and drawing it out, as a spider does his threads. This insect uses its' own body as a measure, making the stalk as high as its own body is long, and so smooth and slender the egg of the common dung-fly. Upon what are others placed 7 Why ? What is said of these foot-stalks 1 By what insect is 162 FIRST BOOK OF that grubs cannot climb them. Upon the top of this stalk the egg is deposited. The maternal affection of the eider duck, in plucking the down from her own breast in order to protect her young from the cold, is even sur- passed by the gipsy moth, which is not contented with making its nest of its own down, but also covers each egg with it separately. The female of the gipsey moth has the hinder parts of her body thickly covered with a soft down, of a hair- brown color, which is wanting in the male. The sole purpose of this down is for the protection of the eggs, because the female leaves her pupa-case during the hot days of August, and usually lives but a week or two afterwards, consequently it is not necessary for the protection of her own body. CHAPTER XLVII. EGGS OF INSECTS. Continued. THE female gipsy moth, when about to lay her eggs, places herself on the trunk of an elm, or an oak, with her head downwards. Her legs the maternal affection of the eider duck surpassed 1 How does it protect its eggs 7 Upon what part of the insect does the down grow 1 What is the sole purpose of this down 1 Why? NATURAL HISTORY. 163 are too short to be used as a rule and compass, like those of the gnat, still she contrives to place her eggs in the form of an inverted cone. She first makes a little bed of her down, into which she places an egg covered with a glutinous fluid, which becomes attached to all the hairs with which it comes in contact, and also sticks to the bark of the tree. Proceeding in the same manner, she continues adding to the mass, resting- occa- sionally when fatigued, but generally requires about two days to finish the operation. The external covering, which is designed to keep out the winter rains, is carefully formed by I the hairs beiag placed in a sloping direction from the centre, like the tiles of a house, pointing down- wards towards the base of the cone. The eggs thus prepared are destined to withstand the pelt- ings of the storms of winter ; for, although the eggs are laid in August, they are not hatched till the putting forth of the leaves in the following spring. This covering of down not only protects them from the rains, but from severe cold, being one of the best non-conductors of heat. The warmest material for clothing is not that which CHAPTER XLVII. What is said of the gipsy-moth when about to lay her eggs 7 What does she do first 7 How long is she generally engaged in laying her eggs 7 What is the design of the external cov- ering 7 How are the hairs placed 7 When are the eggs laid 7 When hatched 7 From what does the down protect them ? 164 FIRST BOOK OF imparts the most heat to the body, but that which best prevents the escape of the heat formed there. The feeling of cold does not arise from anything positively cold, but from a want of heat. Thus, on placing the hand on a piece of ice, the sensa- tion of cold arises solely from the heat leaving the hand and entering the ice. EGGS OF COCHINEAL. The Cochineal insect, so called from one of the species furnishing a valuable drug which is used in coloring red, especially scarlet and crimson, and for making carmine protect their eggs in a very remarkable manner. The female deposits her eggs under her body, which become glued to the spot by a cement exuded with the egg ; the mother then dies and her body becomes the cover- ing for the eggs. In this state the insects appear What is said of the warmest clothing ? From what does the feeling of cold arise ? What is said of placing the hand on ice 7 Why is the cochineal insect so called 1 For what is it used 1 How do the females protect their eggs ? What takes NATURAL HISTORY. 165 on the bark of trees like small warts, some globu- lar, some kidney-shaped, and others in the form of a boat. Although this insect is seldom larger than a very small pea, still she lays several thou- sand eggs, which filled the greater part of her body. Insects seldom if ever sit upon their eggs as birds do to hatch them, because the greater number die in a few days after having deposited their eggs, which operation is performed in their last and most perfect state. Yery few eggs come to perfection if placed in the light, and this is probably the reason why insects fasten their eggs to the under side of leaves. EGGS WITH LIDS. The larva of many insects gnaw their way through the shell ; but others seem to have an opening provided for them, in a door which they are only required to push open in order to escape. place in the mother ? How do the insects appear, and what is their shape 7 How large are they 7 Do insects sit on their eggs to hatch them 1 When is this operation performed? "Why do insects place their eggs on the underside of leaves ? 166 FIRST BOOK OP The egg of a species of field bug is furnished with a convex lid, and in order to open it a lever of a horny texture is attached to the lid, in the form of a cross-bow, the handle being fixed by a membrane to the lower part of the egg and the bow part of the lid. CHAPTER XLVII1. TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS. INSECTS pass through four states ; the egg ; the larva, which is a Latin word signifying mask ; the pupa^ from its resemblance to an infant bound up like a mummy in swaddling clothes; and the imago, so called because of the insect having thrown off its mask, and having now become a perfect image of its species. When an insect first issues from the egg, it is called a larva by naturalists, but commonly a cat- erpillar, grub, or maggot. Thus we call the colored, and often hairy larvae of butterflies and moths, How do the larvae of insects escape from their shells 7 De- scribe the egg of a species of fie CHAPTER XL VIII. Through how many states do insects pass 1 Name them. What is an insect called when it first issues from the shell ? What different names are applied to different species 1 De- NATURAL HISTORY. 167 caterpillars / those from the eggs of beetles, wasps, &c,, grubs; and those from blow-flies, house-flies, cheese-flies, &c.j maggots; though these are sometimes called worms, as in the in- stance of the meal-worm. The larvae at first are soft, without wings, and shaped similar to worms. They are remarkably small at first, but grow very fast ; for the maggot of the blow-fly is, in twenty-four hours, one hundred and fifty-five times heavier than at its birth ; and a full grown caterpillar is seventy-two thousand times heavier than at its birth. In this period of life, during which they feed voraciously on coarse substances, and increase in size very fast, they cast their skins three or four times. Some insects live only a few days or weeks, and others several months or years in this state. scribe the larvse 1 How fast do some larvae grow 1 Upon what do they feed 1 How many times do they cast their skin 7 How long do insects live in this state 1 What is said of larvae 168 FIRST BOOK OF When larvee are full grown they cease eating, fix themselves to a secure place, cast their skins for the last time, undergo a complete change of form, and remain nearly motionless. When an insect, after this change, does not lose its legs, or continues to move and eat, it is called a nymph ; but when the inner skin of the larva is converted into a leathery covering, it is then called a pupa, or chrysalides. If the insect in this state is opened, it seems filled with a watery fluid, in which no distinct organ can be traced. PUP^E. After remaining a shorter .or longer period of time when full grown 7 What is a nymph 7 What is said of the pupa when opened 7 When is it a pupa 7 How long do some NATURAL HISTORY. 169 some species only a few hours, others months, and others one or more years in its pupa case, like a mass of jelly without shape, it is gradually pre- pared for its final change ; when it bursts the case which encloses it, and enters upon its fourth, last, and perfect state. Of some this last state of their existence is very short, others live for a year, and some for a longer time. They feed lightly, but never increase in size. The beautiful butterfly, whrch we so often see in its excursions through the air, did not come into the world as we behold it ; but when first released from the shell, and for some months afterwards, during its larva state, it was a worm-like caterpillar, crawling upon sixteen short legs, constantly feed- ing upon leaves with its two jaws, and seeing with twelve eyes, which were so small as scarcely to be seen without the aid of the microscope. In the pupa state it had neither mouth, nor eyes, nor legs, nor wings, and ate nothing thus continued for several months, and then came forth a beautiful butterfly, capable of rapid and extensive flights. Ten of its sixteen legs have disappeared, and the six new ones are very different from the first. Its | jaws have disappeared, instead of which it is fur- nished with a curled-up proboscis, suited only for sipping liquid sweets. The form of its head is species remain in the pupa case ? What is . said of insects during the last state? What is said of the butterfly? What is said of it during the larva state 1 During the pupa state ? 8 170 FIRST BOOK OF PERFECT INSECTS. entirely changed ; two long jaws project from the upper surface, and instead of twelve eyes it has now but two, which are very large, and composed NATURAL HISTORY. 171 of at least twenty thousand divisions, each sup- posed to be a distinct and effective eye. CHAPTER XLIX. TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS. Continued. THE body of the caterpillar is supplied with several thousands of muscles, which in the butter- fly are replaced by others of an entirely different form and structure. Nearly the whole body of the former is occupied by its stomach, and two spiral tubes filled with a silky gum ; but in the latter, the stomach has become entirely changed ; the ab- domen is now filled with two large bundles of eggs, or other organs not visible in the first state, and its tubes and silk have almost wholly disappeared. The gray-coated gnat constructs of its eggs a boat-shaped raft, which will float ; but the eggs would sink if dropped into water one by one. In order to perform this operation, the female fixes her- During the perfect slate 7 What is said of its legs 7 Its jaws ? Its eyes 1 CHAPTER XLIX. With what is the body of the caterpillar supplied! Are these changed in the butterfly? With what is nearly the whole body of the former filled ? What is said of the body of the latter 1 What is said of the gray-coated gnat ? How does 172 FIRST BOOK OF self by the four fore-legs to the side of a piece of wood, or upon a floating leaf, her body level with and resting upon the surface of the water, excepting the last ring of the tall, which is a little elevated ; she then crosses her legs in the form of a Roman letter X, the inner opening forming the scaffolding for her structure, and in which she places an egg, covered, as is usual among insects, with a glutin- ous fluid. On each side of this egg she places another, which adhere firmly together by means of their glue, and thus,, form a triangular figure, which is the stern of the raft. She continues to add egg after egg, carefully regulating the shape by her crossed legs, until about half finished, when the angle is no longer necessary for shaping the boat. GNATS FORMING THEIR EGG-BOAT. Each raft consists of from two hundred and fifty to three hundred and fifty eggs, which, when fin- the female perform this operation ? Of how many eggs does each raft consist 1 What is said of this raft 1 In what length NATURAL HISTORY. 173 ished, floats on the water secure from sinking, and is finally abandoned by the mother. The most violent agitations of the water cannot sink it, and what is even more extraordinary, though hollow, it never becomes filled with water ; and if pushed entirely under, it immediately rises to the surface. EGG-BOAT. The eggs are hatched in a few days, and the grubs issue from the l6wer end. They usually swim near the surface of the water, with their heads downward and their tails in the air^ at which part there is a sort of funnel, surrounded with hairs, through which they breathe. The head is now covered with little hooks, by which they seize upon minute animalcula and bits of grass, on which they feed. From this state they change into pupae ; now the organs for breathing are no longer situ- ated in the tail, but behind the head, and consist of time are the eggs hatched? Describe their position in the water. How do they breathe 1 With what is the head cov- ered, and for what purpose 1 What are they called when in this state 7 What do they next become? Where are the breathing organs during the pupa state? Of what do they 174 FIRST BOOK OF of two tubes. The pupa also changes its posi- tion in the water, swimming with its head up instead of down as before. In order to preserve this position, it is furnished with a fin-tail, like a fish, by which it can move at pleasure in the wa- ter. It no longer requires food, but air is indis- pensable to it. LARVA OP THE COMMON GNAT. When this insect becomes a proper gnat, its shapeless head is exchanged for one elegantly adorned with tufted antennae, and instead of jaws it is furnished with a perfect apparatus for piercing consist/? How does the pupa change its position in the water ? "With what is it furnished, and for what purpose 1 Does it now require food and air 1 Describe the perfect gnat. What NATURAL HISTORY. 175 its subject, and a tube for pumping up the flowing blood. The shapeless maggot, often met with in nuts, would not always live in that humble state if left undisturbed ; for after having attained its full growth, it would gnaw itself an open- ing; and having entered the wide world and passed a few months in a state of inaction, would at length come forth a beautiful beetle, fur- nished with a long and slender beak ; two wings, and two wing cases, ornamented with yellow bands; six feet; and in every respect unlike the worm from which it proceeds. Almost every insect we see has undergone a transformation as singular and surprising as these examples spoken of, though varied in many of its circumstances. CHAPTER L. BENEFITS DERIVED FROM INSECTS. WE are indebted to the insect race for many advantages which we receive directly from them. Many will turn with disgust from a locust, or is said of the maggot found in nuts 1 What would it at length become 1 Describe this beetle. Do all insects undergo such changes 7 Are the transformations alike in all? 176 FIRST BOOK OF the grub of a beetle, while at the same time they consider a lobster, crab, or shrimp, a great luxury. Habit has reconciled us to the eating of these last mentioned animals, which, viewed in themselves, with their threatening claws and many feet, are really more disgusting than the insects spoken of. The Arabs are just as much astonished at our eat- ing lobsters, crabs, and oysters, as we are at their eating locusts. Those insects eaten by man generally live on vegetables, and are much more cleanly and select in their choice of food than the hog or duck, the flesh of which we are not apt to reject. While many are used for food, others are used for ornaments by the ladies, who in China embroider their dresses with a very brilliant species. In South America and the West Indies, the beautiful cucullos form splendid necklaces and ornaments for the head ; in India theJire-JKes are enclosed in gauze, and thus used as ornaments for the head when taking their evening walks. The fire-flies of the West Indies and South America are also used by the natives as lanterns in their journeys, CHAPTER L. Do mankind derive any benefits from the insect race? What is said of the locust, grub of the beetle, lobster, &c. 1 What has habit done 7 What is said of the Arabs ? What is said of those insects which are used for food ? For what purpose are some insects used 1 Where is the Cucullos found 1 For what are they used 1 With what do the most valuable NATURAL HISTORY. 177 and lamps in their nurseries. The cucullos gives sufficient light for young eyes to read by. COCHINEAL INSECTS. Those insects most noted for their valuable pro- ducts, furnish us with dyes, wax, honey, and silk. Cochineal is one of the most important of dyeing materials. This insect feeds on a particular kind of Indian Fig, called in Mexico, nopal, where alone it is produced in any considerable quantity. They are principally cultivated at Caxaca, there forming an extensive branch of commerce. The cultivation of these little creatures forms the chief employment of the Indians. Much care is neces- sary in the tedious operation of gathering the insects furnish us ? On what does the cochineal insect feed ? Where are they principally cultivated? What people are chiefly employed in their cultivation 1 Who gather this insect from the nopal, and how is it done ? How are these insects 178 FIRST BOOK OF cochineal from the nopals, which act is performed with a squirrel's or stag's tail, by the Indian women, who often sit for hours together beside one plant. These insects are killed, either by throwing them in boiling water, by exposing them in heaps to the sun, or by placing them in ovens. The cochineal insect was cultivated by the native Mexican Indians when the country was discovered by the Spaniards, and was considered by Europe- ans to be the seed of a plant, till about the year 1700, when by the aid of the microscope its true nature was proved. Lac is produced by an insect, and is collected from various trees in India, where great quantities abound. In that country it is manufactured into beads, rings, and other female ornaments. Mixed with sand, it forms grind-stones ; and added to lamp-black or ivory-black, being first dissolved in water, with the addition of a little borax, forms a veiy good ink. It is called shell-lac when purified, and is used in making varnishes, sealing-wax, and japanned ware. killed 7 What is said of the cultivation of this insect, and what did Europeans suppose it to be 1 When and how was it proved to be an insect 1 By what and where is lac produced 1 Into what is it manufactured ? When is it called shell-lac, and for what is it used ? NATURAL HISTORY. 179 CHAPTER LI. BENEFITS DERIVED FROM INSECTS. Continued. NEARLY all of the wax used in Europe and America is the produce of the common bee, though much is obtained in this country from the various wild species. In China white wax is produced from another insect, which the natives place upon [ two different kinds of trees, on which alone it is found, and always afterwards retained by them. I The wax is carried to the chief rulers, and reserved for the emperor, the princess, and the mandarins, or governors of the different provinces. The phy- sicians use it in several diseases; and often the Chinese, when about to speak in public, previously eat an ounce of it to keep them from fainting. Honey is another well-known product of insects, and is a delicious article of food. It is the pro- duction of almost every country, but is more abundant in the island of Candia, in the Mediter- ranean Sea, than anywhere else. Considerable quantities of honey are produced in the woods of CHAPTER LI. By wnat insect is nearly all the wax used in Europe and America produced ? What is said of the production of white wax in China 7 For whom is this wax preserved 1 What use is made of it 7 What is said of honey 1 Where is it most 180 FIRST BOOK OP North America by the wild bees ; and it is some- times imported from the West Indies in barrels. The Egyptians cultivate bees to a great extent, and place their hives upon rafts, which float from one district to another on their rivers, wherever the natural food of the bee is most plentiful. Sometimes rafts containing four thousand hives are seen, going from a region where the season for flowers has passed, to one where the spring is later. The most valuable article produced by insects is probably silk. It is really an important luxury, unrivalled for richness, lustre, and beauty, and in the south of Europe it gives constant employ- ment to tens of thousands of persons in its first production and transportation, and brings subsist- ance to hundreds of thousands more in its final manufacture. A prospect of a deficient crop there, causes as great alarm as a short crop of grain with us. Silk was first manufactured in Asia ; and it was from this country that the ancients obtained it. They called it sericum, from the name of the country from which it was then supposed to be brought. The mode of producing and manufac- abundantly produced 7 What is said of the Egyptians 7 How many hives are often seen on a single raft 1 Why do they place their hives on rafts 1 What is the most valuable article produced by insects 7 What is said of silk 7 What is said of its production and transportation 7 Its manufacture? NATURAL HISTORY. 181 turing this precious material was not known in Europe till about the year 550 after Christ, when two monks procured in India the eggs of the silk- worm moth. They secreted them in hollow canes, and hastened with them to Constantinople, where they soon multiplied, and were afterwards intro- duced into Italy. Silk was once valued at its weight in silver at Rome, and the Emperor Aurelius, about 180 years after Christ, refused his Empress a robe of silk because of its dearness. When James I. was king of Scotland, silk was so scarce that he was obliged to beg the Earl of Mar to loan him a pair of silk stockings, in which to appear before the English embassador, enforcing his request with the powerful appeal, " For ye would not, sure, that | your king should appear as a scrub before stran- gers." What effect does the prospect of a deficient crop produce 1 Where was silk first manufactured 1 What did the ancients call it 7 When was it first known in Europe how to produce and manufacture it 1 How were the eggs procured 1 What was the value of silk 1 What is said of the Emperor Aure- lius 7 Of James the First, king of Scotland ? 182 FIRST BOOK OP CHAPTER L1I. MOTIONS OP INSECTS. THE universal movement and action of these restless animals, gives life to every part and por- tion of our globe. In the variety of motions which they exhibit we see those of every descrip- tion of animals. They walk, run, and jump, like the quadrupeds ; fly like the birds ; glide like the serpents, and swim like the fish. The caterpillar of the cabbage-butterfly climbs up smooth walls and panes of glass by means of little silken threads, which it has spun in a zig- zag direction, forming a rope ladder. The silk, as it comes from the spinners, is a gummy fluid, which hardens in the air, so that the caterpillar has no difficulty in making it stick to the wall or glass. Many caterpillars which feed on trees, particularly the geometers, so called because they appear to measure the surface they pass over with a chain, have occasion to descend from branch to branch, and sometimes to the ground. Now, Providence CHAPTER LII. What is said of the movement of insects ? What is said of the caterpillar of the cabbage-butterfly 1 What is the silk as it comes from the spinners 1 Why are the geometers so call- ed 1 What is said of them *? What is said of those cater- NATURAL HISTORY. 183 has furnished them with the means of accomplish- ing these ends, without the labor and loss of time which would be necessary if obliged to pass down the body of the tree. From their own internal stores they can let down a rope, sufficiently long to enable them to reach the earth with ease. If the limb of a mulberry or other tree upon which pillars which feed upon the leaves of the mulberry 7 What is said of the geometer 1 What is the object of this operation! 184 FIRST BOOK OF caterpillars are feeding, moving, or reposing, be shaken, they will immediately cast themselves from the leaves, being always provided for an attack, and descend by means of the silken cord just spoken of, and hang suspended in the air. If you place a geometer upon your hand, you will see that they draw a thread as they go ; when they move, their head is extended as far as they can reach it ; then fastening their thread at that spot, and bringing up the rest of the body, they take another step ; never moving without leaving their thread behind them. The object of this operation is always to have a cord ready to support them in the air, whenever they happen to fall or would descend to a lower object. In ascend- ing, the animal seizes the thread as high as it can reach with its jaws ; and then elevating its back till the legs become higher than the head, the. cat- erpillar catches the thread with the last pair, from which the others receive it, and so a step is gained : thus it proceeds till it has ascended to the point it wishes to reach. The motions of insects in the larvae state are vari- ous. Some walk on the ground under water ; some move in the water, either by the same motion of the legs as they use in walking, or by means of the tail, which is used as an oar ; and others walk even on the surface of the water. How does the animal ascend this cord ? What is said of the motions of insects in the larva state ? In the pupa state ? NATURAL HISTORY. 185 Insects in a pupa state generally enjoy a perfect state of repose ; although there are several which are as active, and feed as ravenously as they do when they are either larvae or perfect insects. Those insects which are buried in their pupa state, either in trees, under the earth, or in the waters, are provided with means to effect their escape, although each is shrouded in a winding sheet, and cased in a coffin. Those under the ground are furnished with sharp points, placed upon the ridges of the puparium, or case, and point to- wards the tail. Those which are inclosed in trees, and spin a cocoon, are furnished with points on the head, with which they make an opening, in order to escape from their confinement. PERFECT CABBAGE BUTTERFLY FEMALE. What is said of those insects which are buried in the pupa state 7 Of those which are buried under the ground? In cocoons ? 186 FIRST BOOK OP CHAPTER LIII. MOTIONS OP INSECTS. Continued. MAY-FLIES are at first aquatic, and inhabit curi- ous cases, made of a variety of materials, which are usually open at both ends. As they must con- tinue to reside in these cases until the time of their final change, they weave a grate of silk threads, which are not soluble in water, across each end, which protects them from their enemies, and at the same time admits sufficient water for respiration. Now, if these insects had no means of piercing these grates, they would perish in the water ; but an all- wise Providence has furnished them with a pair of hooks, in form resembling the beak of a bird, which are attached to the front of the head. With these, previous to their last change, they make an opening in the grate. The antennae and legs of this tribe of insects, when in the pupa state, are not included with the body in the same case, as is common, but each has a separate case, so as to allow them free motion. At the time of opening CHAPTER LIII. What is said of May-flies ? In what do they reside, and how do they make themselves secure ? With what are they furnished 1 What is said of the antennae and legs during the pupa state 7 What are the motions of perfect insects 1 Upon NATURAL HISTORY. 187 9H s fa o 52! O w Q The back is laid open, and the nerves, intestines, and res- piratory apparatus exhibited. There are six clusters of short tubes, opening on both sides, through which the creature breathes : the air contained in the water, passing through these, enters two wind-pipes, b b b b, running from head to tail, and circulates through every part of the body. The eight fins, and a portion of the tail-bristles have been omitted, to give the rest of the figure on a larger scale. JThe central white lines are the nerves. 188 FIRST BOOK OF the grate, they may be some distance beneath the surface of the water; still they never leave the cases which cover their bodies, until after having left this element. They swim with considerable swiftness, by means of stretching out their an- tennae and steering with their legs. The motions of insects in their perfect, or imago state, are running, jumping, walking, climbing, flying, swimming, and burrowing. The mode of walking depends upon the kind and number of their legs ; and with regard to these, they are divided into four natural classes, namely : Hexapods^ or those which have only six legs ; Octopods, or those which have eight legs ; Poly pods ^ or those which have fourteen legs ; and Myriapods, or those which have more than four- teen often more than a hundred. The first of these classes is called by entomologists proper, and the rest improper insects. The legs of all seem to consist of the same general parts the hip, tro- chanter, thigh, shank, and foot the four first being usually without joints, and the foot having from one to above forty. Climbing is a motion of insects that merits par- ticular attention, because we here see the power what does the mode of walking depend? Into how many natural classes are they divided? What are Hexapods? Octopods? Polypods? Myriapods? What are Hexapods called 7 ? What are the others called? Of what do the legs consist? How many joints has the foot ? What is said of NATURAL HISTORY. 189 they possess of moving against gravity, as flies and spiders do upon ceilings and perpendicular panes of glass. Climbing insects may be divided into four classes : those which climb by means of their claws ; those which climb by means of a soft cushion of thick hairs, which more or less lines the underside of the foot ; those which climb by means of suckers ; and those that climb by means of some substance which they have the power of secreting, as spiders. The first order of climbers, or those which climb by means of their claws, includes especially the order of beetles. The numerous and prowling ground-beetles often climb in this manner the trunk and branches of the oak, to feed on the hoards of caterpillars which inhabit it. By their claws, water-beetles are also enabled to climb aquatic plants. Others ascend by means of pul- villi, or cushions, composed of hairs as thickly set as in the plush for hats or velvet. The bloody- nose beetle, by the aid of these, is enabled to ad- here to trailing plants, on which it feeds, and by these supports itself against gravity. the climbing of insects 1 Into how many classes are climbing insects divided 7 Name them. To what order do beetles be- long 7 What is said of ground-beetles and water-beetles? How do others climb? What is said of the bloody-nose beetle 1 190 FIRST BOOK OP CHAPTER LIV. MOTIONS OF INSECTS. Continued. FOOT MAGNIFIED. Feet of the blue-bottle fly, magnified 6400 times. A, a view of the under side of the last joint of the toe, with the two suck* ers expanded, as seen when the fly is walking against gravity. B, side of ditto. THE most remarkable class of climbers, is that Which is furnished with suckers on their feet. The apparatus on the feet of flies consists of two or three membranous suckers, connected with the last joint of the foot by a narrow neck of a funnel shape, and moveable in all directions. These CHAPTER LIV. With what is the most remarkable class of climbers fur- nished'? Of what does this apparatus consist? Describe NATURAL HISTORY. 191 suckers are convex above and hollow below. The edges are notched, and the hollow portion covered with down. The fly is thus enabled to walk upon glass, and over ceilings, with the back downwards, because of a vacuum being produced beneath the feet, while the atmosphere presses on the outside surface sufficient to prevent them from falling. Upon the same principle, boys carry heavy stones, by means of a piece of wet leather applied to their upper surfaces. The leather must be ivet, other- wise it would be impossible to exclude all the air from between the leather and stone, which being done, the weight of the atmosphere confines it to its place ; consequently when the leather is lifted, the stone is lifted too. This singular mechanism is not alone peculiar to flies, for several species of lizards are enabled to climb smooth walls, and even panes of glass when in pursuit of insects, by the same means. When a fly is confined in a wine-glass, these interesting movements may be seen with a common microscope. Many insects, as well as many birds, leap or hop along, similar to the kangaroo or jerboa, in- stead of walking. The most common leaping insect is the flea. The structure of this annoying these suckers 7 What is said of the fly? Give a familiar example of the application of this principle 1 Is this appara- tus peculiar to flies ? When and by what means may these movements be seen 7 What is said of many insects and birds 1 Which is the most common leaping insect 1 For what is its 192 FIRST BOOK OP little creature is well fitted for its mode of life ; being furnished with so tough a skin that it is very difficult to crush it, while it is so smooth that it will glide through the fingers without our know- ledge. The extraordinary muscular power of the thighs, aided by their elasticity, enables it to jump I two hundred times its length, and it is so strong that it can draw seventy or eighty times its own weight. The minute bulk of this insect and the toughness of its skin, prevent it from receiving any injury, from whatever height it may fall. Fleas undergo similar transformations to other in- sects, laying their eggs at the root of the hairs of animals, the feathers of birds, or in woolen stuffs. These eggs in a few days produce whitish grubs, which in warm weather change to perfect fleas in about six weeks, The extraordinary leaping of grasshoppers, is effected by means of the very strong muscles with which the thighs and hind legs are furnished. The velvet spring-tail leaps by means of jerking the spring in its tail, downwards and outwards from its body, as the flea does its legs. Among the insects which spring upon their prey as the cat and lion is the little hunting spider, structure well fitted ? What is said of its skin ? What is said of its muscular power 7 Is it very strong 7 Is it easily injured by a fain Why not? What is said of the transfor- mation of fleas 1 In what length of time after they are hatched do they become perfect insects 7 How are grasshoppers en a- NATURAL HISTORY. 193 which is striped like a zebra, with white and brown stripes. But all spiders, even those which form webs, are accustomed to spring upon their prey in a similar manner. The great South American spider, which is three inches in length, and one and a half in breadth, often feeds upon small birds, upon which it springs with extraordinary quick- ness. CHAPTER LV. MOTIONS OF INSECTS* Continued. ALL animals which fly are furnished with pow- erful muscles for moving their wings, in the same way as the limbs of those are furnished which leap. Flying with wings is a less difficult subject of examination, than that of flying without ivings, which is actually done by several species of spiders. These insects seem to possess the power of direct- ing their flight even when no air is stirring, which movement is supposed to be effected by some inter- bled to leap 7 What is said of the hunting spider 7 Of the great South American spider 1 CHAPTER LV. With what are all animals which fly furnished 7 What is said of flying without wings 7 What is said of several species of spiders 7 By what is this movement supposed to be effect- 9 - 194 FIRST BOOK OP nal apparatus within the body. Although they cannot generally move far, still it is no easy task to catch hold of them when they are letting them- selves down from an elevated object. This fact is indeed strange and wonderful, but it is only another proof of the extraordinary powers with which our Creator has gifted the insect world. Wings are common to almost the whole class of insects, and they consist of two membranes, more or less transparent, lying one above the other. These membranes are joined together by horny tubes, called nervures, which arise in the trunk, and contain the air-vessels. In moths and butterflies, the nervures are somewhat concealed by the fea- thery scales, still if these scales are moved, they are seen to resemble in some measure the arrange- ment in two-winged flies. The wings of insects, in flying, move vertically, or up and down, and not horizontally ; and those which keep the longest on the wing, the dragon-flies, for instance, have their wings most covered with nervures. The progress through the air of the different tribes of flies, is wonderfully rapid. It has been ed 1 Can they move far ? What is said of this fact ? What is said of wings, and of what do they consist 7 What are the neryures 1 What is said of the nervures in moths and cater- pillars 7 How do the wings of insects move when flying ? What is said of those insects which can keep the longest on the wing ? How many strokes is the common house-fly sup- posed to make in a second, when flying 1 How far will these NATURAL HISTORY. 195 calculated that the common house-fly, in its ordi- nary flight, makes with its wings six hundred strokes in a second, which carry it Jive feet. But if frightened they fly much faster. Most insects that swim have the hind legs par- ticularly fitted for it, either by a thick fringe of hairs on the shank and foot, or by the lower joints being very much flattened, so as to resemble the paddle of an oar. One species swim upon their backs, which enables them to see at once and seize those insects that fall upon the water, which are their prey. The whirl-wig moves round and round in circles, but dives with great ease and quickness when alarmed. Those insects which burrow, either do so to conceal themselves or their young. Many enter the earth by means of the/ore legs, which are par* ticularly formed for that purpose. The mole-cricket is one of the most remarkable burrowing insects. Its chest and fore legs possess wonderful strength ; its trunk is shielded by a solid shell ; the shanks are very broad, and terminate in four large sharp teeth, like so many fingers ; and the foot consists of three joints. The two first joints are broad, and tooth- shaped ; and the last small, and armed at the end with two short claws. This foot is placed inside of the shank, so as to perform the office of, and strokes carry it % What is said of most insects which swim 7 How does one species swim 1 What is said of the whirl- wig 1 Why do some insects burrow 1 How do many enter the earth ? 196 FIRST BOOK OP resemble a thumb. The direction and motion of these hands is outwards, as in the mole, which enables the animal to remove the earth as it bur- rows. The house-cricket delights in new-built houses, on account of the mortar being soft ; for with the same organs she makes herself a covered passage from room to room, between the joints of the bricks and stones. Crane-fly ovipositing, and the larva beneath, in the earth, feeding upon grass-roots. NATURAL HISTORY. 197 The greater number of insects burrow, for the purpose of depositing their eggs. The long-legged gnats, or crane-flies, select a proper place and stand with their legs stretched out, while they keep turn- ing themselves half round, backwards and forwards alternately. Thus the ovipositors, which termi- nate their long pointed abdomens, make their way into the hard soil, and deposit their eggs in a secure situation. OVIPOSITOR OP THE CRANE FLY What is said of the mole-cricket 7 Where is the foot placed 1 In what direction do they nlove 7 What is said of the house cricket 7 For what purpose do the greater number of insects burrow 1 What is said of the long-legged gnats 7 198 FIRST BOOK OP CHAPTER LVI. AFFECTION OF INSECTS FOR THEIR YOUNG. INSECTS are capable of feeling as much attach- ment for their young as the largest quadrupeds. They undergo severe privations in nourishing them ; expose themselves to great dangers in de- fending them ; and exhibit great anxiety in their preservation. Although the greater number of species never live to see their descendants gene- rally dying in a few days, or at most in a few weeks after having deposited their eggs yet they show fehe most wonderful skill in anticipating the wants of their young, when they escape from the shell, and have no mother to direct or provide for them. In every case the parent, when about to lay her eggs, distinguishes the food suitable for her off- spring, however different from her own, and always places her eggs in the exact spot where, when hatched, the larvae can have access to it. The dragon-fly drops her eggs in the water, because there alone their wants are supplied. The CHAPTER LVI. What are insects capable of feeling ? What do they under- go for the preservation of their young 1 In what do they show a wonderful skill 1 What does the female insect always do 7 Where does the dragon-fly droD her egg 1 Why ? What is NATURAL HISTORY. 199 gad-fly, more commonly known as the horse-bee, always glues her eggs to the hairs of the horse, and only on those parts which he is able to reach with his tongue, confining them almost exclusively to the knee or shoulder, which he is sure to lick. There, after a few days, on the application of the least degree of moisture, attended by warmth, they are hatched into little grubs ; and if the horse chances to lick any part to which they are attached, they adhere to the tongue and are conveyed into the stomach, where they are destined to live.. These are called, when in the horse, the bots, which is the vulgar name for the larvae and pupae of the gad-fly ICHNEUMON FLY AND OVIPOSITOR. As the ascending sap of plants cannot be perfected unless exposed to the chemical agency of air in the leaves, so the blood of animals requires the constant re- newal of its vital properties by the purifying in- fluence of respiration, or the act of breathing. The great importance of this office is shown by the constant provision which has been made by nature, in every class of animals, for bringing their nutritive juices in contact with the air. The ne- cessity for air is even greater than the demand for direction are their ears turned 7 What is said of those quad- rupeds which burrow in the ground, or dive in the water 7 CHAPTER LXXX. What is said of the action of the atmosphere 7 Of the sap 1 Of the blood of animals 7 How is the importance of this 282 FIRST BOOK OP food ; many animals being able to subsist for a considerable time without food, but all speedily perish when deprived of air. Animals which inhabit the waters, and remain constantly under its surface, as fishes, and the greater number of mollusca, cannot receive the direct action of the atmosphere ; but as all water exposed to the air soon absorbs it in large quanti- ties, these animals obtain it from the water. The air which is present in water is, consequently, as necessary to these animals as the air in the atmos- phere is to those which live on land. ^oophites appear in general to be unprovided with any distinct channels or organs for perform- ing the chemical operation of separating the oxy- gen from the water, but it is supposed that the outer surface of the body performs this office. Thus it is very probable in Polypi, that while the internal surface of the sac digests the food, the external surface performs the office of respiration. The Entozoa present no appearance of internal respiratory organs ; so that they probably receive the influence of oxygen only from the juices of the animals on which they subsist. In the Lepas, or Barnacle, a curious family, constituting a con- office shown ? What is said of animals which are constantly under the water 1 What is said of the air in water ? What is said of zoophites 7 What part of the body is supposed to perform this office 7 What is said of Polypi 1 ? Of the Ento- zoa 7 Of the Lepas ? Why are these organs kept in constant NATURAL HISTORY. 283 necting link between molluscous and articulated animals, is found an apparatus for respiration, which organs are attached to the bases of the cirrhi, or jointed tentacula. They are kept in constant motion, in order to obtain the full action of the water on the blood vessels they contain. In several of the Annelida, also, are found or- gans of respiration. The common earth-worm has a single row of apertures, about one hundred and twenty in number, placed along the back, and opening between the segments of the body. The Leech has sixteen orifices of this kind on each side of the body, opening internally into the same number of oval cells. In all the higher classes of aquatic animals, where the circulation is carried on by means of a muscular heart, and where the whole of the blood is subjected to the action of the water during its circuit, the organs of respiration consist of long, narrow filaments, in the form of a fringe, and the blood vessels belonging to the breathing system are distributed over the whole surface of these fila- ments. Organs of this description are called branchice, or gills ; and the arteries which bring the blood to them are called branchial arteries, motion ? What are found in the Annelida ? What is said of the common earth-worm? Of the leech? What is said of the higher classes of aquatic animals? What is said of the blood vessels ? What are such organs called ? Of what use are the branchial arteries ? The branchial veins 1 284 FIRST BOOK OP and the veins which convey it back, the branchial veins. CHAPTER LXXXI. RESPIRATIO N Continued. As we rise in tbe scale of animals, the respira- tory office is of greater importance. Injishes, the gills are large organs, and the continuance of their action is more essential to life than it appears to be in any of the inferior classes. They are situ- ated on each side of the throat, in the immediate vicinity of the heart. They have the same fringed structure as in the mollusca, and the fibres are set close to each other, like the barbs of a feather. These filaments are covered with innumerable minute processes, crowded together like the pile of velvet ; and on these are spread thousands of blood-vessels, like a delicate net-work, over the whole surface. The whole extent of this surface, exposed to the action of the water in the gills of the skate, has been computed to be equal at least to (he whole surface of the human body. CHAPTER LXXXI. What is said of the respiratory office as we rise in the scale of animals 1 What is said of the gills of fishes ? Where are the gills situated ? What is said of them ? With what are these filaments covered 1 What are spread upon them 1 What NATURAL HISTORY. 285 Respiration of the atmosphere is either trachial or pulmonary ', according as the air is received by a system of the air tubes, called trachece, or into pulmonary cavities composing the lungs : the first mode is exemplified in insects ; the second, in the larger terrestrial animals. In consequence of the peculiar organization of insects, the blood cannot be brought to the air ; so it becomes necessary that the air should be brought to the blood. For this purpose there has been provided, in all insects, a system of branch- ing vessels, called tracheae, distributing air to ev- ery part of the body. The external orifices, from which these air tubes commence, are called spi- racles, or stigmata, and are usually situated in rows on each side of the body. The structure of the pulmonary organs become gradually more refined and complicated as we as- cend to the higher classes of animals. In all ver- tebrated, terrestrial animals, they are called lungs, and consist of a number of little bladders, into which the air is admitted by a tube, called the is said of the surface presented in the skate ? What is said of respiration of the atmosphere ? In what animals is the first exemplified 7 The second? What is said of insects? In consequence of this, what has been provided in all insects ? What are the external orifices called ? Where are they gen- erally situated ? What is said of the structure of the pulmo- nary organs ? What are they called in all vertebrated terres- trial animals, and of what do they consist ? What is the trachea ? How are all liquids and solids prevented from en- 286 FIRST BOOK OP trachea or windpipe, extending down from the back of the mouth by the side of the oesophagus. All liquids and solids that may be swallowed are prevented from entering this passage by an admi- rable contrivance, which is a cartilaginous valve, termed the epiglottis, closing effectually the en- trance of the air-tube whenever necessary. At the upper part of the chest, the trachea is divided into two branches, called the bronchia, passing to the lungs on either side. Both the windpipe and bronchia are prevented from closing by means of a series of firm cartilaginous rings be- tween their inner and outer coats, and placed at small and equal distances from each other. tering this passage 7 What is the name of the valve 7 What is the bronchia 1 How are the bronchia and windpipe pre- vented from closing 1 POP,,. Jl SCHOOL BOOKS, TMTBLI-SHKD BY CAUY & BURGESS, GO JOHN STREET, N, Y, '.'H'S FIR ; Y, is a sim- children ; one with which they can.u i.oth pleased arid in- structed, I* begins with th its, and proceed- j-tep a pace adapte;. ad of a child so that the never lei'i wondering what the teach v , , - - rhe ar- and . -i J..sition of The ma, "in steel platen, ly-se ; ] oi - r'R'S GEOGRAPHY A3ND ATLAS. This is d book of the series, and is se than the I PRACTICAL PAL ARITHME- I with In os< I'H'S NEW A: tires 5. 12 mo., much la rid Menu!, and f I is complete in I MUST BOOK O ! ' fO^ V, desi - = !. rest them in the ..f the the v orks of na- or recitq.1 on book. eng