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 or NATIONS 
 
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 THE HISTORY OF NATIONS 
 
 HENRY CABOT LODGE,Ph.n.LLD.,n)ITOR-lN-CHIEF 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 by 
 
 JSCOTTKELTIC.LL.D. 
 
 President of the Royal Geographical Society 
 
 Revised and E^dited 
 by 
 
 ALBERT GALLOWAY RELLLRPhD, 
 
 Professor of the Science of Society 
 Yale University 
 
 Volume XIX 
 
 Illustrated 
 
 The H .W. Snow and Son Company 
 
 C li i c- a s? o
 
 I 'ivi'\ KK.ii I. I'.toT. r.v 
 lollX I). MORRIS .K: COMI'AXN' 
 
 (^M^ KK.ii r, I'.iiu 
 I MI" II W SXoW .^- SOX COMPAXV
 
 00 / (9 2.^^:^^ 
 
 J
 
 THE HISTORY OF NATIONS 
 
 EDlTOR-IN CHIEF 
 
 HENRY CABOT LODGE, PLD., L.L.D. 
 Associate Editors and Authors 
 
 ARCHIBALD HERRT SAYCE. LL.D.. SIR ROBERT K. DOUGLAS, 
 
 Profeuor of Aisyriolouy, Oxford Uni- Professor of Chinese, King's College, Lon- 
 
 veruly 
 
 don 
 
 JEREMIAH WHIPPLE JENKS. Ph.D., LL.D.. 
 CHRISTOPHER JOHWSTOH. M.D.. Ph.D.. Professor of Political Economy and Pol- 
 
 Auociate Professor of Oriental History and itics, Cornell University 
 
 Archaeology, Johns liopkins University 
 
 KARICHI ASAKAWA, Ph.D., 
 
 r- jtt n riwAH it n Instructor in the History of Japanese 
 
 t. W. t. UMAn, LL.u.. Civilization, Yale University 
 
 Profeor of History, Oxford University 
 
 WILFRED HAROLD MUNRO, Ph.D., 
 
 THEODOR MOMMSEN. ^'university '"'"^^P**" "'*'^^- ^'' 
 
 G. MERCER ADAM, 
 
 Historian and Ivditor 
 
 Late Professor of Ancient History. Uni- 
 versity of Berlin 
 
 ARTHUR C. HOWLAND, Ph.D., 
 
 ^sX"ma"' "^ ""'"''' ^'"'''"''^ "^ ^'"- FRED MORROW FLING, Ph.D.. 
 
 Professor of Kurojjean History, University 
 of Nebraska 
 
 CHARLES MERIVALE, LL.D., 
 
 Late I>ean of Ely, formerly Lecturer in FRATi^OIS AUGUSTS MARIE MIGWET, 
 
 History, Cumbrid({c University Late .Member of the French .Academy 
 
 JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D., 
 J. HIOGINSOrr CABOT. Ph.D.. Department of History, University of 
 
 Depaitrnent of History, Wellesley College Chicago 
 
 SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., 
 SIR WILLIAM W. HUNTER. F.R.S., Professor of .Modern History, King's Col- 
 
 I-ite Dirrc tor (".er.i-rul of Statistics in India lege. London 
 
 R. W. JOYCE, LL.D., 
 GEORGE M. DUTCHER, Ph D.. Commissioner for the Publication of th. 
 
 Profevior of Hutory. Wesleyan University Ancient Laws of Ireland
 
 ASSOCIATE EDITORS AND AUTHORS-Continued 
 
 JUSTIN McCarthy, ll.d.. 
 
 Author and Historian 
 
 PAUL LOUIS LEGER, 
 
 Professor of the Slav Languages, C<5lleg;8 
 de France 
 
 AUGUSTUS HUNT SHEARER, Ph.D., 
 
 Instructor in History. Trinity College. WILLIAM E. LIN8LEBACH, Ph.D., 
 
 Hartford Assistant Professor of European History, 
 
 University of Pennsylvania 
 
 W. HAROLD CLAFLIN, BJi., 
 
 Department of History. Harvard Uni- BAYARD TAYLOR, 
 
 versjty 
 
 Former United States Minister to Germany 
 
 CHARLES DANDLIKER, LL.D.. 
 
 President of Zurich University 
 
 SIDNEY B. FAY, Ph.D 
 
 Professor of History, Dartmouth College 
 
 ELBERT JAY BENTON. Ph.D., 
 
 Dartment 
 University 
 
 Department of History, Western Reserve 
 tJr 
 
 SIR EDWARD S. CREASY, 
 
 Late Professor of History. University Col- 
 lege, London 
 
 ARCHIBALD CARY COOLIDGE, Ph.D., 
 
 Assistant Professor of History, Harvard 
 University 
 
 WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A., 
 
 Professor of Russian and other Slavonic 
 Languages, Oxford University 
 
 CHARLES EDMUND FRYER, Ph.D., 
 
 Department of History, McGill University 
 
 E. C. OTTE, 
 
 Specialist on Scandinavian History 
 
 J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., 
 
 President Royal Geographical Society 
 
 ALBERT GALLOWAY KELLER, Ph.D., 
 
 Assistant Professor of the Science of So- 
 ciety, Yale University 
 
 EDWARD JAMES PAYNE. M.A., 
 
 Fellow of University College, Oxford 
 
 PHILIP PATTERSON WELLS, Ph.D., 
 
 Lecturer in History and Librarian of tha 
 Law School, Yale University 
 
 FREDERICK ALBION OBER, 
 
 Historian, Author and Traveler 
 
 JAMES WILFORD GARNER, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Political Science, University 
 of Illinois 
 
 EDWARD S. CORWIN, Ph.D., 
 
 Instructor in History, Princeton Uni- 
 versity 
 
 JOHN BACH McMASTER, Litt.D., LL.D., 
 
 Professor of History, University of Pexm- 
 sylvania 
 
 JAMES LAMONT PERKINS, MiM^ini Editor 
 
 The editors and publishers desire to express their appreciation for valuable 
 advice and suggestions received from the following: Hon. Andrew D. White, 
 LL.D., Alfred Thayer Mahan, D.C.L., LL.D., Hon. Charles Emory Smith, 
 LL.D., Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, Ph.D., Charles F. Thwing, 
 LL.D., Dr. Emil Reich, William Elliot Griffis, LL.D., Professor John 
 Martin Vincent, Ph.D., LL.D., Melvil Dewey, LL.D., Alston Ellis, LL.D.. 
 Professor Charles II. McCarthy, Ph.D., Pr<jfessor IIer.man V. Ames, Ph.D., 
 Professor Walter L. Fleming, Ph.D., Professor David Y. Thomas, Ph.D., 
 Mr. Otto Reich and Mr. O. M. Dickerson. 
 
 vii
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The activities of the editor of this volume have been confined to 
 the following lines: the excision or condensation of such passages 
 as are, for various reasons, of less value to the general reader ; the 
 tempering of the admittedly chauvinistic attitude and bias charac- 
 teristic of the book ; the substitution of more recent figures, and the 
 addition of certain details in the main body of the text, and 
 bibliography; and finally the interpolation of a chapter (XVIII) 
 which attempts to summarize in an impartial manner the main 
 events which have taken place since the author printed his 
 second edition, in 1895. The author, though cognizant of the 
 present undertaking, is in no way responsible for such omissions or 
 additions as have been made with a view to adapting his volume to 
 the use of the general American public. 
 
 The once " Dark Continent " has been, in our own day, the 
 scene of international rivalries and concessions, heartburning and 
 complacency, successes and failures on a scale hitherto unknown in 
 the history of the world. The conditions of African development 
 have called into action variations of human activity, individual and 
 governmentalj of the most picturesque nature. Africa is no longer 
 the " Dark Continent," knowledge of which is regarded as a sort of 
 interesting specialty it is time that every reasonably educated man 
 should be conversant with the main facts of its history if he is to be 
 fitted to hold an opinion regarding the status and future of one of 
 humanity's greatest and most momentous enterprises. 
 
 {jMut^. /^^-iU- 
 
 Yale University
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. North Africa From the Ancients to the Arabs 
 
 2000 B. C.-1800 A. D. 
 II. The Portuguese in Africa. 1364- 1580 
 
 III. The Beginning of Rivalry. 1520-1769 
 
 IV. Stagnation and Slavery. 1700- 181 5 
 
 V. The Position in 181 5 ..... 
 VI. Sixty Years of Preparation. 1815-1875 
 VII. Preliminaries to Partition. 1875-1883 
 VIII. England, France, and Portugal in Africa. 1875 
 
 1884 
 
 IX. Germany Enters the Field. 1884 
 X. Germany in the Cameroons and the Gulf of 
 
 Guinea. 1884 
 
 XI. The Berlin Conference and the Congo Free 
 
 State. 1884-1910 
 
 XII. German East Africa. 1865-1910 
 
 XIII. The Struggle for the Niger. 1817-1910 
 
 XIV. German Progress in West Africa. 1865-1910 
 XV. British East Africa. 1886-1910 
 
 XVI. The Italian Sphere and the Islands. 1875-1910 
 XVII, British Central and South Africa. 1877-1895 
 
 XVIII. Africa Since 1895 
 
 XIX. The Economic Value of Africa 
 
 Appendix 
 
 Bibliography .......... 
 
 Index ...... 
 
 3 
 15 
 27 
 
 35 
 42 
 
 47 
 58 
 
 71 
 
 86 
 
 105 
 
 114 
 127 
 
 147 
 172 
 182 
 207 
 214 
 
 245 
 286 
 
 315 
 319 
 329
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 In the Heart of Darkest Africa (Photogravure) Frontispiece 
 
 David Livingstone ....... 
 
 The Murder of Gordon ...... 
 
 In the Country of the Tuaregs .... 
 
 Battle off Omdurman ...... 
 
 Lobengula Warriors Assagai ng an English Trooper 
 The Sultan of Morocco on his Way to the Kutubia 
 Mosque ........ 
 
 The Battle of Tel-el-Kebir ..... 
 
 Dr. Jameson's Raid into the Transvaal 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 52 
 84 
 152 
 
 206 
 220 
 
 246 
 
 266 
 278 
 
 TEXT MAPS 
 
 Africa according to Herodotus. 456 b.c. . 
 
 Voyages and Discoveries along the African Coast 
 
 Africa. 181 5 ..... 
 
 The Congo Region .... 
 
 The Gulf of Guinea .... 
 
 Africa after the Berlin Conference 
 
 The Niger Region .... 
 
 East Africa ..... 
 
 The Italian Sphere .... 
 
 British Central and South Africa . 
 
 Railroads and Water Highways of Africa 
 
 PAGE 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 43 
 
 73 
 
 108 
 
 118 
 
 148 
 
 187 
 
 211 
 
 230 
 
 299 
 
 xiii
 
 HISTORY OF AFRICA
 
 HISTORY OF AFRICA 
 
 Chapter I 
 
 NORTH AFRICA FROM THE ANCIENTS TO THE ARABS. 
 2000 B. C.-1800 A. D. 
 
 THE African continent is no recent discovery; it is not a 
 new world like America or Australia. It enters into the 
 oldest traditions and the most ancient history. While yet 
 Europe was the home of wandering barbarians, long before Abra- 
 ham left his father's fields or the Phoenicians had settled on the 
 Syrian coast, one of the most wonderful civilizations on record had 
 begun to work out its destiny on the banks of the Nile. It does not 
 enter into the scope of this work to discuss the origin or trace the 
 history of Egypt; it is enough for us that the continent on which 
 the oldest, or, at least, one of the oldest, civilizations was born and 
 was developed through thousands of years is even now less known 
 than a continent discovered four hundred years ago, and has only 
 during the past few years been taken seriously in hand by the 
 peoples who have the making of the world's commerce and the 
 world's history. 
 
 Let us briefly trace the earliest efforts made to appropriate the 
 African continent by those whose interests have extended beyond 
 their own homes. Ages before the seed of Egyptian civilization 
 was sown, humanity had begun to pour in from Asia, and the north 
 coast of Africa must have been peopled by a race whicli formed the 
 basis of the Berber population of the present day. But these were 
 wandering barbarians, just as were the pigmies, the Zulus, the 
 Hottentots, farther south. The portion of Africa on which the 
 Egyptians flourished for ages was even to a late period regarded 
 as a part of Arabia. The Egyptians are not generally credited with 
 being great navigators till the time of the Ptolemies; except along 
 the coastland of the Mediterranean, tlicir knowledge of Africa west- 
 ward was probably limited to the Nile valley. Very early in their
 
 4 AFRICA 
 
 2000-1100 B. C. 
 
 history, as early, probably, as 2000 b. c, they had dealings with 
 I''thiopia (the country g^ciicrally lying south of l^gyi)t projier, in- 
 chuling Xubia. Xorthcni Abyssinia, and possibly Kordofan), and 
 so their knowledge of the river may have extended as far as the site 
 of Khartum. Let us realize how* vague were the notions of both 
 the Circeks and the Romans of central and northern h.urope, and of 
 Asia l)eyond India and Persia. For untold ages the Old World 
 knew ncUhing of the Xew, and only half a century ago the map of 
 Central Africa was for Furopeans. so far as anylliing like even 
 approximately accurate knowledge goes, a l)lank from 10 nortli 
 latitude to the confines of the Cape Colony. It is about forty years 
 since we (obtained any certain knowledge of those great lakes which 
 from an early period were rumored to exist in the center of the 
 continent. It is only a little over twenty-five years since the course 
 of Africa's greatest river was traced out by Stanley. 
 
 If. then, four hundred years after the discovery of a new con- 
 tinent, witli all tlie intense eagerness of the modern world for 
 increasing knowledge, with half a dozen great nations representing 
 some 200.000.000 of the most advanced peoples of the eartli keenly 
 comjieting in the exploration of the world and in the accpiisition of 
 wealth and c^f power, we are still ignorant of great areas in Central 
 Africa, need we be suqorised that the Egyptians and otlier nations 
 of antiquity, with wants insignificant compared with ours, with a 
 total pr)])ulation scarcely equal to that of one of our great states, 
 with all Euro])e and all Asia before them, should leave the torrid, 
 impenetrable, unproductive continent and its savages alone, taking 
 from it only what could i)e conveniently reached from trading sta- 
 tions on tl'.c coast or through the navigable channel of the Xile? 
 X'orth Africa was practically the only Africa that the ancients 
 knew, but it should be remembered that the camel is a compara- 
 tively modern inlrodnctif)n into Africa, and both the ox and the 
 horse \\<uld be but poor substitutes ior it in traversing tlic Sahara, 
 the mr)st formidable barrier to the j^enetration of Central Africa 
 from the north. Ami Kgyj)t, especially in the height of her great- 
 ness, was. on the whole, mrnrc concerned with i\sia than with her 
 own Continent. 
 
 The 1 T.oiiicians and Carthaginians did far more to extend the 
 knowledge of Africa thrni did the Egyptians; and it may have been 
 fnmi thcin iliat 1 Ioiikt .and licsiod derived their knowledge of the 
 Mediterranean coa^t. The I'.^yptians themselves, as has been
 
 NORTH AFRICA 5 
 
 1100-610 B. C. 
 
 Stated, were not great navigators; indeed, they seem not to have 
 possessed a fleet of any importance till the time of the Ptolemies. 
 But long before this the Phoenicians had appeared in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and soon achieved a position as traders, navigators, and 
 colonizers unequaled by any people of ancient times except perhaps 
 the Arabians ; for a long period the PhcEnicians had almost a monop- 
 oly of the carrying trade of the Mediterranean world, and their 
 sailors were in demand for the ships of other nations. About their 
 connection with Africa there is no doubt. They were probably not 
 the first of the Semitic family to settle in North Africa ; Hamites, 
 at least, there were in plenty. Possibly the Egyptians themselves 
 were largely of this type, as was the population along the Mediter- 
 ranean coast of Africa. Utica, perhaps the earliest Phoenician 
 colony in Africa, was founded about iioo b. c, 280 years before 
 Carthage, a few miles distant on the same coast. Before Car- 
 thage w^as founded Utica had established stations or trading facto- 
 ries along the Mediterranean coast of Africa and down the Atlantic 
 coast. Syrian colonies were thickly planted as far as the mouth of the 
 river now known as the Draa, to the south of Morocco, and thence, 
 it is believed, there were caravan routes to the country of the Blacks. 
 Carthage also, like Utica, as it grew in power, established its sta- 
 tions west and south along the African coast. ]\'Iany of these set- 
 tlements were more than mere trading stations; cultivation of 
 various kinds was carried on, and from tlie African coast of the 
 Mediterranean corn was exported in large quantities. 
 
 We have fairly definite information as to the knowledge which 
 the Carthaginians had of the African west coast, but considerable 
 doubt exists as to how far the Phamicians were in the habit of voy- 
 aging down the east coast of the continent. The story of the 
 circumnavigation of the continent by Phoenicians in the time of 
 King Necho, about 610 b. c.^ has often been told. So far as the 
 data go, that a Phoenician expedition starting from the Red Sea 
 sailed down the east coast, round the south coast, and north by the 
 west coast to the Pillars of Hercules and on to Egypt, there is no 
 difficulty in crediting the story. yVt that period the ships of the 
 Phoenicians must have been quite as capable of coasting along Africa 
 as they were of navigating the Atlantic, crossing the Bay of Biscay 
 to the shores of Britain. They knew the west coast of the con- 
 tinent for a considerable distance south, and they probably knew 
 the east coast at least to a point beyond the Red Sea. The passage
 
 r A I' K I (' A 
 
 1000-500 B. C. 
 
 is well known in which it is stated that Solomon (about ickk) ii. c.) 
 eqiiipi>cd a tleet at I\ziiMi Gobir (mi the Arabian coast of the Red 
 Sea, and how, with the help (^f Hiram. Kinp of Tyre, it was sent to 
 Ophir and brcniirht back 4J0 talents (^f .c:old. In another passage 
 it is related hew the imited fleets of Solomon and Hiram went 
 every three years and br(iui;ht back not only j^old. but siKer, 
 ivi^ry. monkeys, and peacocks, besides sandalwood and precious 
 stones. 
 
 Let it be remembered that the Arabians themselves were great 
 traders and navigators; that the IMurnicians were in constant ccmu- 
 nunn'catio!! witli them: that tlicy must have known the east coast 
 of Africa, wiiich was (juitc within hail of their country; that there 
 is every reason to believe they had settlements there from a remote 
 period, and in all probability were familiar with the I'^.ast African 
 ciKist far to the south. Indeed, the Arabians seem to have jealously 
 gu.'.rded t!:e east coast of Africa, the Pluenicians acting as iiUer- 
 mediaries between them and Kgvpt and the other countries on the 
 Mediterranean. Tha.t some ]~)eople. long before the Portuguese, 
 worked tlie mines in tiie country which we now call Mashonaland is 
 evidenced by tlie great ruins scattered all over the country; whether 
 t;icy were Arabians, Persians, Indians, or Ph(enicians. remains to 
 be discovered, but it is certain that these ruins arc older than the 
 ^b)hamme(l;'.n period. Directly or indirectly, then, it is i^robable the 
 c.'i-t coast of Africa was known to the .Arabians as far south as about 
 -Mozamb!(iue. If the Phoenicians knew of this they kept their knowl- 
 edge to thcmscbes, or it least did not communicate it to tlie Greeks, 
 fr^m wlu'Ui our knowledge of what the PlKvnicians did and knew 
 is largely derived. Motives of trade-monopoly were doubtless at 
 t!;e I'liitiim of tin's secrccv. 
 
 We have much fuller and more precise evidence of the 
 extent of Pi.o-nic'an. or rather Carthaginian, knowledge and enter- 
 ])risc on t!:c ux^t than on tlie east coast of Africa. .According to 
 one >tatcmcnt l':e I'lirrnician settlements on the west coast liad 
 been attackcl <"mQ fne himdred years before Christ bv the natives 
 of the inter;, .r and <omc ';f them destroyed. However this luay have 
 been, th.ere is little dotibt tliat about that date Hanno. a Cartliagin- 
 ian adniir.'d. was sent r^it witit a large fleet of vessels containing 
 Some y).(>(>() natixcs of ilic di-^trict round Carthage, some of them 
 i'lire Cartl.ag!ni;ni>. ni. -t ,if tliem probablv natives subject to the 
 Mate, who li.id been ;m a ccriain extent civilized. Hanno settled
 
 NORTHAFRICA 7 
 
 1000-500 B. C. 
 
 contingents of these colonists at various places along the west coast, 
 and succeeded with his fleet in getting as far south as about Sierra 
 Leone; some critics would even take him to the Bight of Benin. 
 
 The Phoenicians may thus fairly be regarded as the first to 
 begin the development of Africa some 3000 years ago ; though it 
 is possible, as we have seen, that the Arabs had stations on the east 
 coast at quite as remote a date. The Phoenicians may also be con- 
 sidered as the earliest of explorers, though their explorations were 
 always with a view to trade. Much of the knowledge of Africa 
 possessed by the Greeks, who have transmitted it to us, was obtained 
 from the Phoenicians and their colonists on the Mediterranean 
 coast. 
 
 It is probable enough that trading relations may have been 
 established with these native tribes, and so from stage to stage 
 a connection may have been formed with the Sudan region beyond 
 the Sahara. 
 
 Before the date of the possible circumnavigation under Necho, 
 over a century before the voyage of Hanno, we hear of the first 
 establishment of a European power on the coast of Africa. There 
 is evidence that long before this period Greeks had found their 
 way to Egypt, and to the Phoenician settlements, and that there was 
 a busy intercourse between the two shores of the Mediterranean; 
 but it was only in 631 b. c. that the Greeks planted a settlement of 
 their own on the continent. They chose one of the most delightful 
 and fertile spots in all Africa that part of Tripoli known as Barca. 
 Here the city of Gyrene was founded and the district was known as 
 Cyrenaica. In time other cities were founded, and a flourishing 
 Greek settlement grew up, which carried on agriculture and trade 
 relations with the tribes of the interior. Greeks flocked to this 
 African settlement, many as colonists, some few out of curiosity as 
 visitors. The intercourse between Greece and Africa became more 
 and more constant, and before Herodotus arrived in Egypt, about 
 the middle of the fifth century b. c, he had been preceded by others, 
 though by no one so eager for information nor so skilled in record- 
 ing it. But we do not in those early times hear of any enterprises 
 corresponding to our modern exploring expeditions, the main object 
 of which is the increase of knowledge. We find men like Herodo- 
 tus, and others after him, going about the world of the period, but 
 it was rather in the capacity of tourists than explorers. All this 
 going to and fro for commerce, for conr|ucst, for curiosity, could
 
 8 AFRICA 
 
 500-448 B. C. 
 
 not. however, fail to add to tlic knowledge of the world possessed 
 l>v the Greeks, who. so far as we are concerned, were tlie center of 
 tlie knowletli;:e (^f llie time. One of the earliest Greek geographers, 
 it not the earliest, to make a map of the world was lleca- 
 txus of Miletus. A map of Herodotus, which may be dated fifty 
 years later, docs not dilTer greatly from that of llecata2us. We 
 have a little nii^rc detail and a little more precision in parts. But 
 
 1^ I AFRICA. 
 
 "T '*CCC3f<0iNG "fOHeFOOOTVJS 
 I 45G B.C. 
 
 fortunately the text of Herodotus is preserved intact; and it is to 
 h.im we are indebted for our knowledge of what the Greeks knew 
 of the continent in the fifth century b. c. He visited Egypt and 
 Cyrene about 448 n. c, and lliere set himself diligently to collect 
 information concerning the interior of Africa. He gives a very 
 fair picture rif tlie social and political condition of the peoples of 
 the Xile Valley at the date of his visit. For the first time we hear 
 of Meroe. the capital city of the Ethiopians. Herodotus knew of 
 the desert tliat extends to the westward of Egypt, and of some of 
 its oases, and of ilie mountains that divide that desert from tlie 
 Meditcrr.-Micin < n tlie wc.<t. Tlic Xile. lie tells us, w.as known to 
 t'lc I-'.gvTKian^ pv far as t!ie cumtrv of t!:c .\iitoin<ila\ four niontlis' 
 journey licy^ nd 'uic C' 'nfincs oi l\gyi)t at Syene. Evidently he knew
 
 NORTH AFRICA 9 
 
 448 B. C.-60 A. D. 
 
 nothing of the great tributaries of the Nile, and of its sources the 
 Egyptians were entirely ignorant. 
 
 About one hundred years after Herodotus came the conquest 
 of Egypt by Alexander; ultimately it became a Greek province. 
 Under the Ptolemies it rose to a great height of power and pros- 
 perity; commerce and navigation were encouraged; the Red Sea 
 coast was studded with commercial centers, and Egypt itself was 
 explored far to the south. The Highlands of Abyssinia were known 
 and the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile, and probably also the 
 White Nile, which, it was said, flowed from some lakes in the 
 south; the great bend of the river between Syene and Meroe was 
 correctly laid down ; the coast was known as far as Cape Guardafui, 
 Thus the knowledge of the Nile region had grown considerably 
 during the time of the Ptolemies. 
 
 But we need not trace in detail the extension of the map of 
 Africa from one geographer to another. Ptolemy, the famous Alex- 
 andrian astronomer, who flourished about one hundred and forty 
 years after Christ, may be regarded as summing up all the knowl- 
 edge of the continent that had accumulated since Egypt began her 
 career, four thousand years at least before his time. About one 
 hundred and seventy years before Ptolemy's time (35 b. c.) Egypt 
 had become a Roman province, Carthage having succumbed to the 
 same all-conquering power over one hundred years before. The 
 Greeks, and after them the Romans, were therefore the first Euro- 
 pean powers to obtain an extensive footing in Africa; but, after 
 all, it was only along its northern borders. The whole of North 
 Africa became a part of the Roman Empire, while the Phoenician 
 and Carthaginian settlements on the west coast appear rapidly to 
 have decayed or lapsed into barbarism. The Punic Wars and the 
 travels of Polybius in the early part of the second century b. c. 
 extended the knowledge of Africa to the south of the Mediterra- 
 nean. Before Ptolemy's time traders and navigators had pushed 
 round Cape Guardafui, and there were many towns and trading 
 centers at least as far south as the latitude of Zanzibar. It is evi- 
 dent that early in the Christian era traders from Egypt, starting 
 from Red Sea ports, sailed around by Cape Guardafui, and calling 
 at many ports on the way, went far down the east coast, possibly 
 as far as the mouth of the Zambezi. 
 
 Let us recall the fact that in the meantime Egyptian, Cartha- 
 ginian and Greek in Africa had all become subject to Roman sway.
 
 10 AFRICA 
 
 60-640 A. O. 
 
 The world had p-own and civiHzation had extended, and with it, 
 no iloubt, trade had expanded. Along: the Mediterranean and Red 
 Sea coasts oi Africa and down by the shores of the Indian Ocean 
 trailers and navii^ators were hnsy: hut tlie old settlements down the 
 west c(\ast scoin to have hccn ahanilonetl. On the north we have 
 no record i>t" anv expeditions across tlie Sahara. While there was 
 constant fi^Iitiui^ between native princes and Roman troops, and 
 border warfare frcciuently enough. etTective occupation, except at 
 certain points, hardly extended beyond the coast region and the 
 lower slojies of the Atlas westward. 
 
 W'e read oi an exi)edition in the reign of Xero, about 60 a. d., 
 which had for its object a search for the sources of the Nile the 
 first of a long series which may be said to have culminated with 
 Stanley's exploration of the Semliki. The expedition was under 
 tlie charge of a military ofticer and was of small dimensions. From 
 the description which these early explorers bnuight back of immense 
 marshes, and of a river so choked up by vegetation as to be impass- 
 able, it has been thought by the best authorities that they may 
 really have reached the region above the Sobat. on the White Nile, 
 about c) north latitude, where Baker and other explorers of our 
 own century ha\e had to struggle with a similar obstruction. This, 
 then. prol)ably gives us the limit of exploration in the African 
 interior frc>m the north, and of precise knowledge of that interior 
 until the time wlien the proselytizing Moslems made their way 
 across the Sahara. Down, then, to Ptolemy's time such occupation 
 f)f Africa as had been effected by European powers scarcely extended 
 bey<ind the coasts. 
 
 I-'or centuries after the Roman occupation of Africa and after 
 the division of the empire there was almost constant fighting along 
 the Mediterranean, so that little could be done directly either for 
 the exploration of the continent or for its (levelo{)ment. After the 
 decay of the Roman Empire commercial enterprise seeins to have 
 ceased, and we hear little of Central Africa. The next really great 
 event in African liistorv after the Roman conquest was the s])rea(l 
 of the rcligir)n of Mohammed, bringing with it into Africa hordes 
 of .Arabian craiquerors and traders, who in a comparatively short 
 time Uiok possession of the northern half of the continent, 
 founded statC'^. and develo])C(l a commercial activity more ex- 
 tcn'^ive than tliat even of the Pluenicians. This Islamic occupation 
 of Africa has ivA yet ended, but now that the European powers
 
 NORTH AFRICA 11 
 
 640-711 A. D. 
 
 have taken the continent in hand its progress is likely to receive an 
 effective check. The Arab conquest may be said to have begun 
 with the invasion of Egypt in 640 a. d., by x^mru Ibn al Aasse, with 
 4000 men. This was followed by a large immigration from Arabia. 
 By 664 Fezzan had been taken, Kairwan founded, and an advance 
 made to the borders of the present Morocco. By 711 the whole of 
 the North African coast lands had fallen to the Arabs and become 
 to a large extent Moslemized. With these Arabs came new life 
 and progress in agriculture, in commerce, and in arts. The Ara- 
 bians were always great traders. Wave after wave of Arab immi- 
 grants continued to pour in, large cities were built, and the people 
 generally raised above their condition under the decayed empire 
 of Rome. By the end of the fourteenth century the religion of 
 Mohammed had crossed the Sahara and taken a firm hold of the 
 Sudan, and here and in the Niger region it has continued to spread 
 down to our own times. Vast numbers of Arabs also migrated at 
 an early period across the Red Sea to the Abyssinian coast and 
 southward to Somaliland, and wdien the Portuguese, in the fifteenth 
 century, sailed up the east coast, they found rich Arab cities from 
 Sofala north to Magdoshu. Meanwhile Kordofan, Darfur, Wadai, 
 Kanem, Sokoto, and other powerful Sudan states took shape and 
 developed a certain kind of civilization, though it took time to bring 
 them all under Moslem sway. With the aid of the newly-introduced 
 camel regular caravan routes were established across the desert from 
 Timbuktu (founded, it is believed, by the Tuareg, in the twelfth 
 century) to Morocco, Algeria, Fezzan, and Tripoli, and there was 
 developed that trade in ivory and slaves which is so intimately asso- 
 ciated with the name of the Arab of the present day. This was the 
 first opening up of Africa on a large scale, and it was at the hands 
 of an Asiatic, not a European people. Tlie obstacles which form 
 so deadly a barrier to European exploration and settlement scarcely 
 affected a people who came from a country the climate of which 
 differed but little from that of Africa. Indeed, it is to be noted 
 that hitherto all the peoples who had taken part in the partition of 
 Africa Egyptians, Phanicians, Greeks, Romans found but little 
 difference between the climate of North Africa and that of the lands 
 of their origin. 
 
 With the spread of the Arabs and the spread of Islam not only 
 came commerce and a certain amount of civilization, but an in- 
 creased knowledge of the gcogi'aphy of the continent. The gov-
 
 lie A F R I C A 
 
 711-1200 
 
 crnors of distant provinces had to make reg^ular reports to liead- 
 (luarters; the annual jonrnov to Mecca made the piljj^rims famihar 
 witli the countries almit;' their route. Learninj^ was nourished and 
 promoted in Xorlh Africa, in Asia, in Si)ain. We meet with a long 
 series of hisuuical and ideographical writers, and even with a suc- 
 cession oi travelers, some of whom penetrated into the heart of 
 Africa. The information thus obtained from traveling pilgrims, 
 ciMKiuerors. and traders found its way into the works of Aral) 
 gci^graphers and was rudely embodied on -\rab maps. The famous 
 map of Kdrisi. constructed at the court of Count Robert of Sicily 
 in the twelfth century, was based on information derived from such 
 numerous and varietl sources. Kano, Kanem, Darfur in the Cen- 
 tral Sudan were known, and Bcrbera, Zanzibar, Sofala in the east. 
 Timbuktu was visited, and is mentioned for the first time by Ibn 
 ]>atuta in the middle of the fourteenth century; he described the 
 Niger as far as Kuka. Still, at its best, the knowledge of the Afri- 
 can interior thus accumulated was scanty. 
 
 Islamism in Xorth Africa was of the most aggressive character, 
 and swej)t away almost all traces of previous religions and previous 
 ci\ilizations. .\t the present day the religion of Islam is still of a 
 fanatical character, intensely so in the Central Sudan, w-here there 
 has been comparati\eIy little contact with Europeans, but of a 
 milder type on the east coast, where it established itself independ- 
 ently. In the north Islamism was established at the ])oint of the 
 sword : in the east it was introduced by the Arab and Indian traders. 
 These did ncjt exhibit any great proselytizing zeal ; indeed, so far 
 a> we can learn, the Arab traders of East Africa did not, until a 
 Comparatively recent pcritjd. niove far from the coast, and, except 
 perha])s to the south of the Zambezi, had no permanent settlements 
 in the interior. 
 
 -MxAii the middle of the eleventh century there seems to ha\'e 
 been a fre.->h migration of nomad Arabs from Upi)er l\gypt into 
 W e-t Africa. lictwccn tlie elexenih and the thirteenth centuries tlie 
 religii 11 of Mohammed made its way southward and fcnind a home 
 in Kanem. on t!ic iK^rth of Lake Chad, and in the Sonrhai or Son- 
 ghay country, lying between iliat .and the Middle Xiger. Probably 
 als(j about the .-amc ])erio(l Islamism first reached those Eulbe. h'ula. 
 or ]-ellalah who lia\c played so conspicuous a part in the checkered 
 history of tlie W'e-tei-n .^udan. 
 
 The first setilemeiitb of Islamic Asiatics on the east coast took
 
 NORTH AFRICA 13 
 
 740-1900 
 
 place about the year 740 a. d.^ when poHtical and religious dissen- 
 sions broke up the unity of the faith. Among- the states and towns 
 founded by Arab and later on by Persian refugees on the east coast 
 the more prominent were IMagdoshu, Kilwa or Quiloa, Brava, 
 Melinde, and Mombaz or l^.Iombasa. jMagdoshu was supreme in 
 tlie north and Kilwa in the south. Magdoshu was founded between 
 909 and 951 A. D. ; Kilwa between 960 and 1000. These Arabian 
 cities and communities were prosperous, and in some degree civi- 
 lized ; but they were deficient in military organization. They had 
 been founded by traders, emigrants, and exiles, who behaved 
 peaceably to the natives. Each settlement seems to have been 
 either an independent sultanate or republic, the inhabitants caring 
 only for trade with the natives and making no great efforts to 
 proselytize outside their own retainers. By the time the Portu- 
 guese reached the east coast it was studded with populous cities as 
 far south as Sofala, and it is evident that there was regular inter- 
 course with the gold-yielding region south of the Zambezi. It 
 was not until the fifteenth century that Mohammedanism found its 
 way into Somaliland and the region around Zeila and Harar. 
 
 It is probable that Nubia and Kordofan succumbed to the new 
 religious invasion early in the fourteenth century. As late as the 
 end of the seventeenth century the whole of the Central Sudan, and 
 even much of the region to the west of the Niger, largely by the 
 efforts of the fanatical Fellatah, had come under the sway of Islam. 
 In the end of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth 
 centuries there was a fresh outburst of religious fanaticism on the 
 part of the Fellatah, Vv'hich spread over the Senegambian region, 
 including Sokoto and neighboring countries of the Niger, and car- 
 ried the religion of ^lohammed down even to the Gulf of Guinea. 
 Thus, in our own day, it may be said, generally speaking, that 
 Islam has a firm hold over the whole of Africa north of io''' north 
 latitude, and has a prevailing influence between that and 5. 
 Toward the east it comes ex'cn farther south, to tlie shores of Vic- 
 toria Nyanza, and is met with on the east coast down to Ca])e 
 Delgado. The Arab traders and slavers who have found their \\;iy 
 intf) Central iVfrica fruin Zaiiziljar have carried Islam in a mild 
 form as far as Lake Tanganyik.''. and tlic Upper Congo ; but scjutli 
 of 5 nf)rth it dr)es not seem destined to take a permanent hold. 
 And in tlie ccnintrics wjitcrcd by tlie Niger and its tributaries, even 
 though tlie l'"ellal:di arc dominant, Mohammedanism has but a
 
 1-1 A F R 1 (^ A 
 
 1900 
 
 slender hold anumq: the Inilk of the people; they arc to all intents 
 and purposes pagans. 
 
 The distrihution of Mohammedanism is of importance, as it is 
 a factor to he taken into account in the attempt to spread Iun"opean 
 innucnce. Its extension was. however, something' more than the 
 spread of a rclitji(Mi: Islamism brought with it. almost without fail, 
 ])olitical organization, a certain amount of civilization, commercial 
 activity, and the establishment of slavery as an institution.
 
 Chapter II 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA. 1364-1580. 
 
 THE sailors of Venice and Genoa which, with other Italian 
 cities, were, especially from the eleventh to the fourteenth 
 centuries, the dominant mercantile and maritime states of 
 the world w^re more familiar with the eastern Mediterranean and 
 its offshoots than with its western waters. 
 
 In the fourteenth century Dieppe was one of the most prosper- 
 ous seaports of Europe. Her sailing ships ventured everywhere, 
 and books have been written to prove that as early as 1364 the mer- 
 chants of Dieppe had formed a trading station, which they named 
 Petit Dieppe, on a point of the Guinea Coast, halfway between Cape 
 Palmas and Sierra Leone. They are said to have had their comp- 
 toirs, or factories, extending from Cape Verde to the Gold Coast, 
 and to have built a church at El Mina. French patriotism naturally 
 makes the most of the feeble evidence on which the story of these 
 enterprises is founded. If the occupation of the West African coast 
 by Dieppe merchant adventurers ever took place, it must have been 
 of very brief duration and exercised no influence upon the perma- 
 nent partition of the continent. There is much more probability 
 in the statement that Italian emigrants found their way down the 
 west coast as far, at least, as Cape Bojador about the middle of the 
 fourteenth century. Tlie Rio d'Oro, Madeira, and the Canaries 
 are found on maps of al)out that date. It was in tlie first decade of 
 the fifteenth century that the Norman, Jean de Bethencourt, began 
 the conquest of the Canaries. 
 
 But the beginning of the modern exploration and occupation 
 of Africa is with justice dated from the f;mious siege, by the Portu- 
 guese in 141 5, of Ceuta on the coast of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. 
 After six centuries of opi)ression the Moors had been driven from 
 Portugal, thougli they lingered in the south of Spain. When, in 
 1394, Prince Henry (tlie Infante Dom Henrique, son of tlie al)le 
 and brave King J(jhn I. and Pliilippa, daughter of tlie English 
 John of Gaunt), who has come to be known as "the Navigator," 
 
 15
 
 16 A 1" U I C A 
 
 1394-1433 
 
 tlunicrli lie himself nnvii^.itod very little, was bom, Portiij^al, 
 tlin>us^h many ti'.ils riiiil stiuj^i^Ics had reached a position rc- 
 SjKctcil and feared hy her enemies, Clnistian and Saracen 
 alike. Ry the time Prince TTcnry had reached the ap^e of nian- 
 hootl. and was eai::er to earn his knightly spnrs, Kinjj^ John 
 was in a positii'ii to carry his operations l)cyon(l the sliores of his 
 own country and to strike a hlow at the stronq^liold of tlie enemies 
 of Christendom. At the storming;" and capture of Ceuta, 1 Mince 
 Hcmv and his two elder brothers bore themselves bravely. Proh- 
 ahly this visit to the coast of Africa had much to do in insj)irin.cf tiie 
 prince with a burnins^' desire to trace its outline: three years there- 
 after he sent out the first of those expeditions which continued year 
 after year to the time of his death, and earned for him his title of 
 " Xavi.q-;it(^r." W'iiile in Africa he heard much from the Moors 
 of the trade by caravan to Timbuktu and Guinea, and of the rejiortcd 
 wealth of the interior of the continent. A man of tlie prince's 
 intellitj^ence liad doubtless heard of the discoveries of the Arabs in 
 Africa and eisculicre; nor is it an extravag"ant su]:)]n)sition tliat he 
 had Cduie to tlie conclusion that, by sailinj^ around the coast (jf 
 Africa to sucli places as Sofala, Kihva, and Zanzibar, familiar to 
 Arab q^C' i.<^rai)hcrs, lie would be able to make his way to India. 
 There is no (!iiul)t that India had. lonc^ before the rounding of the 
 cape, became tlie L;"oal cjf Portut^uese navii^ators. 
 
 Much of tl'.e foreii'n trade of Europe was still in the hands of 
 tl'.e W'netiaiT^. whose shijjs met tlie caravans which, passing- through 
 Moliammeilan countries, brought to the shores of the Levant the 
 treasures of tl^c I'.ast. A sea-route to India v.-ould destroy this 
 niono{)(ily. W'lien Portuguese acti\ity in Africa l)cgan. X'enice was 
 at tlie liciglit of lier jxjwer and mercantile prosperity. The various 
 cilmical groups which compose the population of luiropc had set- 
 tled (In\\ n roughly within the areas they now occupy, and were 
 l-'cing '-egregalcd into the states of modern luirope. The Ab)slem 
 invasion, which tiiieatcned to swamj) the infant civilization of the 
 W'c.-t. liad hccn rei)ul-e(l and lingered only in the corners of 
 the C( Jilt incut. Ihit tlie 'I'urks had barely begun their luiropcrm 
 career, an<! it was ^]]]y toward the end of the next century (the six- 
 teenth) that they were drixen hack from Central ICurope into the 
 Balkan Penin-r.la. ilenrx' Y. reigned in luigland when Prince 
 Henry tl'.e .\'a\ iLiator .-cut out his hrst exjjedition. .and IJenry VII. 
 (the patron of C^djul) was on the throne when the cape was first
 
 THE PORTUGUESE 17 
 
 1433-1471 
 
 rounded. Columbus was born about twenty years before Prince 
 Henry died, and Luther about twenty years after. 
 
 Ceuta may be said to have been the first annexation in Africa 
 by a modern European power. Into a detailed history of the Por- 
 tuguese exploration of Africa it is not of course possible to enter; 
 a brief sketch of the successive stages must suffice. In order to be 
 as near as possible to the contemplated scene of operations, Prince 
 Henry established himself upon the lonely point of Sagres (near 
 Cape Vincent), which may be said to overhang the west coast of 
 Africa. Three years after the siege of Ceuta Prince Henry began 
 his great enterprise, his first goal being Cape Bojador, then regarded 
 as a veritable Cape of Storms. It was not, however, till 1434 that 
 Gil Eannes succeeded in rounding it. After that point had been 
 passed the outline of the A\>st African coast was followed down by 
 expedition after expedition. But it was not till 1441-1442 that the 
 next prominent cape (Blanco) was doubled, and the Rio d'Oro 
 reached by Antonio Gonsalvez and Nuno Tristam. Gonsalvez 
 brought home with him some gold dust and ten slaves. The slaves 
 were presented by Prince Plenry to Pope Alartin V., who thereupon 
 conferred upon Portugal the right of possession and sovereignty 
 of all the country that might be discovered between Cape Bojador 
 and the Indies. The River Senegal was reached and Cape Verde 
 doubled in 1446 by Dinis Dias, and two years later the neighbor- 
 hood of Sierra Leone was reached. The voyages of Cadomosto in 
 1455 ^^"^d 1456 to the Cape Verde Islands, the Senegal, and the 
 Gambia, were remarkable for the information which he obtained 
 concerning Timbuktu and the countries in the interior ; concerning 
 the trade in gold and ivory with the coast, and the caravan trade of 
 the Mediterranean. It was not till 1462 that Pedro de Cintra suc- 
 ceeded in getting three degrees beyond Sierra Leone. Prince Llenry 
 had died two years before, but his great undertaking was continued 
 by Alfonso V. and John II; during Henry's lifetime 1800 miles of 
 West African coast, from Cape Xun southward, had been passed 
 out. Before the prince's death a company had been formed for the 
 purpose of carrying on a trade in slaves and gold dust between 
 Portugal and Africa, this being the earliest of those companies which 
 have formed so ])rominent a feature in the European connection 
 witli the cfjntinent. The first expedition disiiatched Ijy tlie company 
 returned with a cargo of two hundred slaves. In 1471 the Guinea 
 coast was doubled and followed round by tlie Bight of Benin as far
 
 18 AFRICA 
 
 1448-1497 
 
 as tlic tlcltn of the River Oqfove. where the Portuguese were content 
 to rest for thirteen years, having been tlie first Europeans to cross 
 the equator. 
 
 So earlv as 1448 Prince Henry had begun a fort on tlic Bay of 
 Arguin. south of Cape Blanco. This fort seems to have been rebuilt 
 in 1461 and for many years afterward continued to be the head- 
 quarters of Portuguese commercial operations in West Africa. This 
 was in the reign of John II., on whom the Pope conferred the title 
 of " Lord of Ciuinca." a title attached to the crown of Portugal 
 down to our own time. But probably the first regular luu'opcan 
 .settlement or colony established on the Continent of Africa was on 
 the Gold Coast, at a spot to which the name of St. Jorge da Mina 
 (now generally known as El Mina) was given, and where the Por- 
 tuguese tlag was raised in January, 1482. But long before this 
 traffic in gold from which the Gold Coast gets its name had begun 
 and attempts had been made to establish relations with the interior. 
 
 In 1482 exploration was again started with renewed vigor. 
 In that and the two following years Diogo Cam pushed his way for 
 twelve hundred miles south of the Ogove, discovering the mouth of 
 the Congo, up which he sailed for some distance. The year after 
 Diogo's return Bartholomew Diaz set out, and all unknowing 
 passed the southwest point of Africa and pushed eastw-ard as far 
 as Algoa Bay; it was only on his return journey that he sighted 
 that cape which he called the Cape of Storms, but which King John 
 rechristened the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Thus the turning-point in the history of Africa was reached, 
 for Diaz had almost come to within hail of the Arab settlements 
 on the east coast ; the true contour of the continent had been gradu- 
 ally outlined through a series of years of indomitable effort and 
 pcrse\crance. The most famous of all these Portuguese navigators, 
 the first to reach India bv the cape route, Vasco da Gama, com- 
 pleted the work nf his ])re(lecessors. n')t, however, until ten years 
 after the return of Diaz. Meantime (1487) I'edro dc Covilham had 
 gMiie to India by the Red Sea route. On his return he visited Sofala 
 and otlicr Arab i^cttlcmcnts. heard of the gold mines in the interior, 
 and \i>ited .Abyssinia in search of the mysterious Christian ])otcn- 
 tate. Prc>tcr John. When Vasco da Gama set out nn liis famous 
 voyage in 1407 Ik- knew, from tlie information sent home by Covil- 
 ham. that .'^rjfala would be reached by doubling the cape, and that 
 thence it was })lain sailing to India.
 
 THE PORTUGUESE 
 
 19 
 
 1497 
 
 That same year, 1497, marked the discovery of Newfoundland 
 by Sebastian Cabot, five years after Columbus had lighted upon the 
 New World. This great discovery, we may be sure, had a marked 
 effect in retarding the exploration and development of the African 
 continent; the energy which was diverted across the Atlantic, and 
 which was devoted with such marvelous success to the peopling of 
 
 America by Europeans and the development of its resources, would 
 no doubt have been directed to tlie much less hopeful continent. At 
 the same time the discovery of the New World enhanced the value 
 of Africa in one respect, for the rapid destruction of the feeble na- 
 tives of the West Indies rendered imported labor indispensable for 
 the development of tlie islands. But an ample supply was found 
 among the hardy and unfortunate children of TTam, and the trade 
 in men soon exceeded in value all the other exports from the Dark
 
 ) AFRICA 
 
 1497-1650 
 
 Continent. It was only when America was all but parceled out and 
 filled up that luiropean powers, in search of foreign possessions, 
 seriously turned their attention to Africa. 
 
 On November 22, 1497, Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of 
 Good Hope. A month later he touched at and named Natal. lie 
 proceeiled leisurely along- the coast, calling at Sofala, Mozambiciue, 
 Melinde. Mombasa, and other places, all of which he found in pos- 
 session of the .Arabs, prosperous and flourishing, as well they might 
 l>e. for they had been there for centuries before the birth of Islam. 
 Rut India was the destination of Gama, and the con(|ucst and set- 
 tlement of Africa were left to others. As we have seen, occupation 
 had already begun on the west coast and was continued there. Diogo 
 Cam took back with him to Lisbon in 1485 some natives from the 
 Congo, and returned with an army of priests. In a remarkably 
 short time tlie king and natives of the " Kingdom of Congo," lying 
 to the south of the lower river, were converted. The capital was 
 renamed San Salvador. The king and chiefs were given pompous 
 Portuguese titles; churches were erected and an appearance of civi- 
 lization prevailed. By the middle of the sixteenth century San 
 Salvador had become a great center of Portuguese influence and 
 the chief town of the Portuguese possessions there. Churches and 
 houses had been built and the priests were supreme. A sudden 
 invasion of a powerful wandering tribe, known as Jaggas, ra])i(lly 
 destroyed all this; but by 1560 the Jaggas were expelled, and San 
 Salvador waxed more important than ever. I'y about the middle 
 of the seventeenth century it is said to have had 40,000 inhabitants. 
 The king's palace, of wood surrounded by a stone wall, is stated to 
 have been spacious and luxurious. There was a catliedral and many 
 churches and fine private houses. Jesuits, priests, and monks had 
 imposing mansions, and there was a general appearance of peace 
 and prosperity. Tlie king, who, about tlie middle of tlic century, 
 claimed so\ereignty over an extensive territory, including .Xngola, 
 made over to the Portuguese the country of tlie Sova, or chief who 
 ruled over the region lying between San Salvador and the Lower 
 Congo, (]()\\n to the sea. The Sova objected to this and f)p])(jsed 
 th.e Portuguese domination by force of arms. The result was not 
 only tlie exclusion of the Portuguese from the territory ceded to 
 them, but also the hostility of the King of Ccmgo, who renounced 
 the domination fjf Portugal. LVom this time until the date of the 
 Berlin Congress San Salvador and the kingdom of Congo were
 
 THE PORTUGUESE 21 
 
 1505-1520 
 
 really independent. The town itself fell into decay, and its churches 
 and other buildings went to ruin, so that now San Salvador is sim- 
 ply a native town of mud huts, and it is difficult for the traveler to 
 detect amid the wreck any remains of its former greatness. Still 
 among the natives, in their language and customs, may be detected 
 some remnant of the old ecclesiastical influence ; the king still bears 
 a Portuguese name. St. Paul de Loanda, the capital of the west 
 coast colonies, was founded in 1578, and other settlements were 
 planted along the west coast. The neighboring territories, Angola, 
 Benguela, and Alossamedes, were gradually taken in and stations 
 planted in the interior ; occupation here was comparatively effective. 
 
 On the opposite coast, Sofala was taken in 1505 by Pedro de 
 Anhaya, who made the king tributary to Portugal. Tristan da 
 Cunha captured Sokotra and Lamu in 1507, and in the same year 
 Duarte de Alello founded the fort of Mozambique. Quiloa had 
 been taken in 1506 and the Portuguese established themselves there 
 in 1508. Other cities along the coast Melinde, Mombasa, Zanzi- 
 bar Island, Magdoshu succumbed in time, as did Sena and other 
 settlements on the Lower Zambezi. Though she used it as a place of 
 call for Portuguese and other vessels, Portugal never established 
 herself at the cape. At all these places, and indeed all along the 
 east coast, the Moors, as the Portuguese called them that is to say, 
 Moslem Arabs had established themselves, had built up a flourish- 
 ing commerce, and erected handsome and well-fortified cities. But 
 there seems to have been no sort of union or confederation among 
 these Arab settlements; each city was under its own sheik, who 
 exercised more or less jurisdiction over the neighboring territory. 
 It was not always an easy task for the Portuguese to overcome the 
 sheiks or sultans of these Arab cities or states; and the cruelties 
 which were characteristic of the adventurers of the period had free 
 play. Mombasa and Melinde were burned down more than once, 
 and little tenderness was shown even to women and children. 
 
 The whole of the east coast, from Lourengo Marquez to Cape 
 Guardafui, was thus virtually in the power of the Portuguese by 
 the year 1520. As the result of all the operations referred to, by 
 the close of the sixteenth century the contour of the African coast 
 was at last laid down with surprising accuracy. The subsequent 
 degeneration of the IVjrtuguese should not blind the student to the 
 glory of this great achievement. 
 
 In the early years of the Portuguese occupation there seems
 
 2 A V U I C A 
 
 1S20 
 
 to have been more activity on the west coast tlian on the east, and 
 there existed lint little rivalry with other powers. The inlluence of 
 Portui^al in the Cons^o rcf^iim and in Angola ccMitinued to extend, 
 lx-)th on the coast and toward the interior, as also on the Guinea 
 coast and north to the I'ay of Argnin. On the east coast the Arab 
 and Indian traders continued tlicir commercial operations under 
 Portuguese auspices and to the profit of Portuguese officials and 
 Portuguese traders. AttentiiMi was very soon directed to the gold 
 mines of Manika. and the powerful "empire of Monomotapa " in 
 the interior. That at tiic time when the Portuguese first establislied 
 themselves on the east coast there was on the south of the Zambezi 
 a king or chief, wliose official title was ATonomotapa. who lorded 
 it over a number of smaller chiefs, there can l)e little doubt. Accord- 
 ing to Pigafctta and other authorities there was a similar potentate 
 who ruled on the north of the Zambezi, as far as the confines of the 
 kingdom of Prester John (Abyssinia). Along the coast were 
 smaller chiefships Sofala. Mozambique. Quiloa, Mombasa, Me- 
 linde: these, of course, were Arab settlements. Portuguese writers 
 describe tlie coast chiefs or kings and their wives as having been 
 almost white, and richly dressed and adorned. These were, no 
 d)ul)t. Asiatics settled on the coast. Of the great interior king- 
 doms, and especially that of the Monomotapa, tlic most wonderful 
 flescriptions are gi\cn. Tales are told of the ^Mc^iiomotapa's capital : 
 his palace, with is innumerable halls and chambers richly adorned 
 with tapestry, of the army of Amazons, of the ricli dresses of the 
 king and his daughters, of the ceremonies of his court, of the tribute 
 brought to him by outlying chiefs, and many otlicr details, as if the 
 African chief had been a great semi-ci\"ilized i)oicntate of Central 
 Asia. We l.axe no reason to believe that these descriptions are 
 founded on tlic direct observations of trustworthv Portuguese trav- 
 elers; they seem to have been olitained from the Arab settlers on 
 the coast, or to have filtered dcnvn through native channels from 
 the interior. Judging from the description given of the kings and 
 jjrinces of tlie kingdom of Congo, the glowing accounts of the 
 gdones of tlie Monomotapa may simply he the old chroniclers' way 
 of describing wliat miglit ha\e been seen in our own days at the 
 " court " of t'le King of Daliomey or of the potentate of Uganda. 
 
 " Kii:g<|r,m- ' i'kc tliat of the Monomota])a have been common 
 enouLr'! in .Xfiiirt. S inc ])o\\erfnl chief established his sway ovvv 
 his nei'dibor-, as tlic Mnato \'anvo did in Lunda for some three
 
 THE PORTUGUESE 23 
 
 1566 
 
 centuries, or as Chaka did some sixty years ago in the Zulu coun- 
 tries, as Lobengula's father did in the Matabele region. It is very 
 doubtful if the Monomotapa was more advanced, more civilized, 
 than any of these ; certainly not more than \\ as the late King Mtesa 
 of Uganda, who after all was but a barbarous potentate living in a 
 big hut, surrounded by a great kraal. With regard to these African 
 " empires " the words of Andrade Corvo in his valuable work, " As 
 Provincias Ultramarinas" are well worth quoting; referring to 
 the state of affairs in Eastern Africa at the period when the Philips 
 of Spain held Portugal, he says : " There is no part of the world 
 which offers a better example of the weakness of powder than among 
 the savage rulers of the interior of Africa, where, at a moment's 
 notice, a potentate is overthrown and a new empire founded, where 
 before only existed wandering and dispersed tribes. And this new 
 empire increases, strengthens, and grows with wonderful rapidity, 
 and extends and spreads itself through vast regions, subjugating 
 extensive provinces and incorporating in itself various powers, until 
 it finally becomes so great as to be wholly unmanageable, and then, 
 with the same rapidity with w'hich it came into existence, it dwindles 
 down to insignificance and crumbles away." 
 
 One of the most famous and earliest of Portuguese expeditions 
 into the interior was that made by Francisco Barreto in 1566. Bar- 
 reto seems to have had a distinguished career in India before he 
 was shifted to the government of Monomotapa ; for at this time, 
 and until the seventeenth century. East Africa was included in the 
 government of India. Barreto's force is said to have consisted of 
 a thousand men of arms, besides a large number of Portuguese cav- 
 aliers, eager to distinguish themselves. With this force he ascended 
 the Zambezi as far as Sena, and then marched along the south bank 
 of the river to a place named Mengos, the chief of which had re- 
 volted against the Monomotapa. Barreto had agreed to chastise 
 the chief on condition that the Monomotapa would permit him to 
 proceed through his territory to the gold mines of Manika. But, ac- 
 cording to the latest authoritative version of the story, Barreto went 
 down to Mozambique and died two days after his return to Sena, 
 at which place and at Tetc lie lirul founded forts. Vasco Fernandez 
 Homem started a few years later from Sofala and succeeded in 
 reaching the mines of Manika. where lie witnessed the jirimitive 
 process of extracting gold, but his expedition also ended in disaster. 
 Even before Barreto, a missi'jnary priest, Gonsalvo da Silveira, in
 
 24 A F R I ( A 
 
 1580-1630 
 
 1560 succeeded in rcachii^qf tlie territory of the Monomotapa : at 
 first well received, he was i)ut to death a year after at the instigfa- 
 tion of the Arahs as a spy, this seems to show that the latter had 
 considcrahle intluence with the native chiefs. The result of the 
 reallv disastrcnis expeditions of Barreto and Honiem was tliat the 
 I\>rtnq:ncse i^overninent of the Monomotapa was aholislicd as 
 (juickly as it had been erected. We read in the pai^^es of later Por- 
 tusfucse writers of \ari()us other expeditions into the interior, of 
 nnssionaries huildin.q' churches in Manika, in the res'ion we now 
 call Mashonaland. westward as far as Tati, northward aloni:^ the 
 Zamhe/i. and in tlic country between Manika and the coast. l"\airs, 
 as they were called, /. t'.. factories or trading" centers, were estab- 
 lished, and forts were built; th's went on throuj^li the seventeenth 
 and eig^hteenth centuries. It wrs only disasters in India, and tlie 
 discovery of gold and diamonds in Brazil, that led to the jiractical 
 abandonment of the mines and f'lirs and churches in the Monomo- 
 tnpa's empire. That, however, the Portuguese had stations or estab- 
 lishments of S'mic kind as far in the intericir as what is now known 
 as the Mashonaland plateau, in the early days of their occupation, 
 mr.st be admitted, unless we are prepared to treat the historians and 
 clironiclcrs of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries 
 as writers of fiction. 
 
 According to the authority of Boccaro. who was keeper of the 
 arcli!\cs at Goa, in the early part of the seventecntli century, the 
 ]-jupcror of Monomotapa (as he was called) in 1607 ceded to 
 tlie i\)rtugucse all the mining right's of his territories b}- a treaty, the 
 ririginal of which still exists in the Goa arclii\es. bUit the celebrated 
 Treaty of Monomotapa. which was adduced in connection with the 
 Dclagoa Bay arbitration, and given more recently as a proof that 
 Portugal harl a claim to ^Mashonaland, is dated 1630; it has the 
 "emperor's'' mark (X) and a host of signatures of Portuguese 
 ofticials. It would be against the weight of exidence to deny the 
 genuineness of those two treaties. It must be admitted, we fear, 
 that had Portugal been a strong power like Germany or i-'rancc the 
 treaties wouM have had much more weight with the l'riti>h Crov- 
 ernment in adjusting the claims to Mashonaland. I'ut it is equally 
 certain tliat if cither of these powers had obtained such a claim it 
 w^'U'f! not have neglected and abrmdoncd the territory as IV^rtugal 
 had (If)ne. 'J liroughout his woik ("or\o uritcs in the most despaii'- 
 ing tone of the criminal iii;snuma;.;c:i;ent which prevailed from the
 
 THE PORTUGUESE 25 
 
 1630-1885 
 
 beginning in these east coast possessions. But little real effort was 
 made to develop the gold mines, while all other commercial re- 
 sources were neglected, the traffic in slaves being the one thing that 
 flourished and prospered. Portuguese writers tell us that at one 
 time the chiefs of Sofala rendered as rent for their lands eighty 
 bars of gold (said to be equal to $12,500,000). That this quantity 
 of gold was obtained annually in early times from the Manika gold 
 mines is possible; but no available statistics back to the beginning 
 of the present century show a tithe of the above sum of gold among 
 the exports. Summing up the history of the Portuguese possessions 
 in East Africa during the seventeenth century, Corvo says : " It 
 was one full of woes for our colonies in the east, and particularly in 
 East Africa. The Kaffirs in the south and the Arabs in the north 
 attacked our dominions and punished us most cruelly for our frank- 
 ness. At times victors, and at others beaten on all sides, we 
 dragged out a sad existence in Mozambique, without progressing 
 in colonization, without developing commerce or industries, and 
 without the famous gold and silver mines giving the marvelous 
 results which were expected from them, and which the government 
 wished zealously to guard for itself. Moreover, in proportion as 
 the colony goes on decaying, the pomp and luxury of the governors 
 continue to increase; and corruption has likewise increased more 
 and more." 
 
 Of the condition of things at the end of the last century Corvo 
 gives an equally lamentable account. Even such places as Inham- 
 bane, Sofala, Sena, and Tete, he speaks of as abandoned; the an- 
 cient commerce of the former two, so flourishing in the days of the 
 Arab, was actually extinguished. The real nature of the connection 
 of Portugal with East Africa, and of what she has done for the 
 commercial development of the country during the centuries she 
 has been planted on the coast, is well summed up in the words of 
 the same author : " The early Portuguese did no more than substi- 
 tute themselves for the Moors, as they called them, in the parts that 
 they occupied on the coast; and their influence extended to the 
 interior very little, unless, indeed, through some ephemeral alliances 
 of no value whatever, or through missionaries, or without any prac- 
 tical or lasting results. The true conquest is still (1885) to be 
 made." It is clear from the work of this authoritative Portuguese 
 writer that, in his opinion, Portugal never possessed actual domin- 
 ion in any of the territories north and south of the Zambezi, except
 
 26 AFRICA 
 
 1580-1700 
 
 perhaps in a few coast towns. Even when due allowance is made 
 for Corvo's partisanship, we cannot believe that he deliberately mis- 
 represented facts. 
 
 Corvo's conclusion is confirmed by the course of events in 
 Zambezi itself. The native tribes carried on their wars as before. 
 The Monomotapa's empire was not broken up until some time in 
 the eighteenth century, thoug'h it must have been tottering long 
 before. Probably by that time tiie irresistible Zulu had made his 
 way south of the Zaml3ezi, and was sweeping all before him as he 
 did on the north. The Portuguese were helpless to prevent this, 
 as they were helpless some seventy years ago to prevent I.oben- 
 gula's father from taking possession of Matabeleland, the old 
 " empire " of Alonomotapa. 
 
 The importance of the subject in view of recent events must 
 be the excuse for following the connection of Portugal with East 
 Africa down practically to the present time. By the end of the 
 sixteenth century of all her East African conquests she possessed 
 only Sofala. Mozambique, and Alombana. It is but just to recall 
 the fact that in 1580 Portugal became united to Spain. During the 
 sixty years till 1640 that the union lasted, it was peculiarly humili- 
 ating to Portugal, and left the little country, that had before shown 
 such phenomenal energy, spiritless and apparently exhausted. Up 
 to the date of this subjection it may be fairly said that Portugal had 
 in her power all the coasts of Africa, excepting those of the Medi- 
 terranean and Red Sea,
 
 Chapter III 
 
 THE BEGINNING OF RIVALRY. 1520-1769 
 
 BEFORE the close of the fifteenth century the Portuguese had 
 . erected forts at Arguin and El Mina, had established trad- 
 ' ing factories on the Senegal, the Gambia, the Rio Grande, 
 on the Gold Coast and the Gulf of Benin, and on the Congo. Colo- 
 nies had been planted on IMadeira, the Cape Verde Islands, and the 
 Island of St. Thomas. By about 1520, as we have seen, Portugal 
 had made herself mistress of all the coasts of Africa, excepting 
 those of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and even in the latter, 
 a few years later, attempts were made to obtain possession of Mas- 
 sawa and other ports, and to establish Portuguese influence over 
 Abyssinia. While Africa was valued by Portugal for its own 
 sake, for its gold, and ultimately for its slaves, it was, no doubt 
 (especially the east coast stations), regarded mainly as a halfway 
 house to India and the East; for it was the conquest of the latter 
 which absorbed the energies of Portugal during the first half of the 
 sixteenth centuiy. The triumphs of the conqitistadores in Asia 
 far excelled all that was accomplished in Africa, both in brilliancy, 
 extent, and value of commercial results. But the glory of Por- 
 tugal was even more shortlived in Asia than in Africa. During 
 much of the sixteenth century she had no rivals in the latter con- 
 tinent; for England, Spain, and France were absorbed with the 
 conquest of the New World. Not until our own times was there 
 any activity on the African continent to be compared with that 
 which, within a centurv after its discovery, made America an 
 appanage of Europe. Rivals were slow to enter the African field, 
 and when they did they were kept at bay by ships of Portugal. After 
 referring to the forts established at a few places on the west 
 coast, Postlethwayte says : " By virtue of the possession of these 
 they not only claimed, and for many years enjoyed, the right in and 
 to all the said land, but likewise seized and confiscated the ships 
 of all other nations as often as they found any of these traders in 
 any parts of the said coast." 
 
 27
 
 28 A F RICA 
 
 1450-1554 
 
 Rut this monopolv was shortlived, at least on the west coast. 
 Hosman tells ns that '* formerly the Portuguese served for setting 
 dogs to si)ring the game, which, as soon as they li.'ul done, was 
 sci/ed bv t)lhers." Long l)e1ore Barreto's disastrous expedition 
 into the countrv of the Monomotapa the export of slaves, not only 
 to America, but to l'.uroi)e. had become one of the most lucrative 
 branches of IVrtugucse trade in Africa. By the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. 700 or 800 slaves were exported amiually to 
 i'ortugal alone; and in 1517 Charles V. granted a patent to a 
 I'"lemish trader, authorizing him to import 40CX) slaves annually 
 to the West Indies. In virtue of a bull from the Poi)e a market 
 was opened in Lisbon; and as early as 1537, it is said. 10.000 to 
 iJ.oc^o slaves were brought to tliat city, and transported thence 
 to the West Indies. This " carrying trade," as it was called, rap- 
 id! v increased, for Portugal was in time joined by other powers. 
 Gold, no doubt, was obtained from the Gold Coast and from 
 ^L^nika, but the exportation of natives soon became the staple 
 trade of Africa. 
 
 As early as the last year of the reign of Edward VI. (15.S3) 
 the first I'jiglish ships were fitted out for Guinea i)y some London 
 mercliants. Captain Thomas Windham made a voyage " for the 
 trade of Barbary." "He sailed." says Astley, "to Marokko; this 
 was the first voyage we meet with to the western coast of Africa." 
 " Here, by the way." Windham tells us in Hakluyt, "it is to be 
 observed that the Portuguese were much offended with this our 
 new trade into I'arbary; and both in our voyage the year before, 
 and al>n in tin's, gave <nit in England, through the merchants, that 
 if th.ey tocjk us in these parts they would use us as their mortal 
 enemies." In 1532 Windham made a second voyage, and this time 
 succeeded in reaching tlie Gold Coast; his great quest, as was 
 tiiC ca>e wiili all other adventurers at this period, was gold. He 
 returned wiih 150 pr^unds of tlie precious metal. One of the most 
 iniere>ting of tliese early linglish trading voyages to Guinea was 
 t;)at of Jolin L<*k in 1554. He had three small vessels and a pin- 
 nace (T tu. I. and took (nx'r two months to get to the Gold Coast. 
 He and his companions traded along the coast near Cape Three 
 Points rmd I'.lniina. i)artering cloth for Guinea pej)per. elephant 
 tu<ks. and g^ld. Lok i)rouglit home with him 400 pounds of gold, 
 36 cwi-. of (hiiiK-a ])C])]'cr. and about 250 tusks of ivory, some of 
 them weighing 90 jjounds each.
 
 THE BEGINNING OF RIVALRY 29 
 
 1555-1585 
 
 In the following year William Towrson made a similar trading" 
 voyage to the Gold Coast, stopping every few miles to trade with 
 the natives, who evidently had learned to drive hard bargains. The 
 favorite articles of exchange were brass vases, or bowls, besides 
 beads, cork, and other things ; for these Towrson obtained a good 
 supply of pepper, ivory, and gold. On several occasions the Por- 
 tuguese fired upon the boats, but did no harm. He went out again 
 in the following year, and when near the Guinea Coast fell in with 
 a small fleet of French traders, who joined themselves to him, 
 so that they might combine to resist the attacks of the Portuguese 
 ships that w'ere cruising about the coast to drive off intruders. 
 French vessels were also met with by other English traders, which 
 shows that at this early date France had her eye on West Africa. 
 Indeed, some French writers tell us that she had never entirely 
 ceased her connection with Africa since the old days of the Dieppe 
 adventurers in the fourteenth century, and that one of the old forts 
 was still occupied on the River Senegal ; but there is no satisfactory 
 evidence that such was the case. Towrson did good business again 
 on this voyage, though he was attacked by the Portuguese and 
 deserted by the French. In the tliird voyage in 1558 he again 
 met with several French vessels, but treated them as rivals, and 
 put them to flight. Thus, by the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 a busy traffic was carried on by various nationalities with West 
 Africa, though the Portuguese lorded it over all the coast. Old 
 Richard Eden speaks of the " arbitrary monopoly of the Portuguese 
 on this coast, of such who, on account of conquering forty or fifty 
 miles here and there, certain fortresses or block-houses among 
 naked people, think themselves worthy to be lords of half the world, 
 and angry that others sliould enjoy the commodities which they 
 themselves cannot wholly possess." 
 
 These English private ventures to the coast of Guinea went 
 on during the reigns of ]\Iary and Elizabeth. Sir John Hawkins 
 has the credit (or discredit) of having been the first Englishman 
 to engage in the slave-trade; in 1562 he fitted out three ships, 
 sailed to Guinea, obtained 300 negroes, conveyed them to His- 
 paniola, sold them, and returned to luigland with the proceeds. 
 Commercial and political relations were also being established 
 between England and In'irbary, and in 1585 Queen Elizabeth 
 granted a patent or charter to the I^arl of Warwick, tlie Earl of 
 Leicester, and others, for exclusive trading witli Alor(jcco for twcKc
 
 30 A 1' RICA 
 
 15M-1ft81 
 
 vears. Rut the first real I'liirlish chartered African Comiianv was 
 that for wliicli I\!i/ahcth q^rantocl a patent in 15X8. Three voyaj^es 
 were maile under this company (15S9. 1590. and 15Q1). It was 
 found thai the Purtuiruese had been expelled from th.e Senep^al by 
 the natives, tlunii^h they still had stations on the riamhia, while they 
 did their i)est. with small success, to ruin the I'-uijlish expeditions. 
 It was also fiMuid that tlie French had been tradin^^ to the Senegal 
 and the (lambia since 15^)0. 
 
 The Dnlch had thrown off the yoke of Spain in 1581, and 
 thoujj^Ii they had yet a struggle before them ere ihcy established 
 their freedom on a lirm footing, they too began to look abroad for 
 new lidds of enterprise. As Spain was now virtually the possessor 
 of all t!ie ac([nisitions of Portugal. Holland considered the l\)rtu- 
 guese African settlements as legitimate spoil. The lirst Dutch 
 trading \i'y.ige to (hiinea seems to have been made about the year 
 I5()5. Holland rapidly gained supremacy all along the cohst, and 
 swept from these seas not only the shii)S of Spain and Portugal, 
 but al>(> tiiose of b'rance and I'^ngland. By the time the Dutch 
 West India ("omjiany was founded in 1621, llolland had obtained 
 a commrmding foc>ting in West Africa. Goree had been purchased 
 from tlie king of that country, and various other ])oints on the 
 coast had been occupied by the Dutch. The Gold Coast was studded 
 with forts, for in those times it was considered absolutely essential 
 tiiat. whenc\er a coast was taken possession of, forts should be 
 built to keep off intruders. The charter of the Dutch Company 
 ga\c it tlie monopoly of trade from the 'i^ropic of Cancer to the 
 Cajie of Good Hope. While gold and ivory and pepper were re- 
 gartled as impr. riant articles of trade, the name of the company is 
 indicari'in enough of its great purpose tlie supply of the Dutch 
 and otiier colonics of the West Indies with negro slaves. By the 
 beginning I'f tlie seventeenth centiny slaves had come to be re- 
 garded as tlie sta]i!e commodity of tlic African scjil ; and the great 
 rivalry tliai i^rew i;p between the various luu'opean |)owers for 
 Coll mio in \\ r-t Africa was mainlv due to the desire to have the 
 nion. >])Mly ' f tlie >la\-c-niarket. r>riti-h traders were makincj con- 
 tmual C'lnplaints tn Parliament of the dirficulty, owing m.ainly to 
 tlie monop.,'y ,,{ the Dutch, of getting a supply of negroes "of the 
 bc>t sort" f'lr tin- ^ugar colonies in the West Indies. 
 
 'I he t!!-; ni';!!-]] African ConMi.Lnx- -cems 1m !ia\e accf)mplished 
 little; a.nd t'.c c 'mnanies cliartercil in 161.S by James I., and in 1631
 
 THE BEGINNING OF RIVALRY 31 
 
 1631-1681 
 
 by Charles I., were not much better. The first company, though 
 its special object was to trade with the Gambia, does not seem to 
 have obtained any permanent footing there. A company chartered 
 in 1618 made strenuous efforts to push its way up the Gambia in 
 the hope of reaching Timbuktu, which was then regarded as the 
 great trade emporium of the interior. Both the Senegal and the 
 Gambia were at the time conjectured to have a connection with 
 the Niger, on which Timbuktu was known to be situated. It was 
 intended to build a series of forts on the river, but it soon became 
 evident that the gold which it was hoped would be found in abun- 
 dance was practically non-existent ; and so the English quest for 
 Timbuktu was abandoned. At the time of the Restoration the only 
 forts possessed by Englishmen were on the Gambia, and at Cor- 
 mantine, near Anamabo, on ihe Gold Coast. 
 
 The company chartered by Charles II. in 1662 was more suc- 
 cessful, and a fort was built on James Island in the Gambia. This 
 company was formed for the purpose of trying to checkmate the 
 Dutch, who were constantly harassing English traders, seizing 
 their ships, and destroying tlie stations they attempted to establish. 
 The conduct of the Dutch became so intolerable that Charles II. 
 declared war against tliem in 1665. and the English captured forts 
 at Seconda, Cape Coast Castle, and otlier places, and built new 
 ones for themselves. But the British Company continued to be 
 unfortunate, and in 1672 its rights and properties were made over 
 to a new Royal African Company, to which was given the mo- 
 nopoly of trade for a thousand years from the coast of Barbary to 
 the Cape of Good Hope. Forts and factories were luiilt at various 
 points along this stretch. By this time Denmark also had joined 
 in the occupation of Africa, and had a fort near Cape Coast Castle, 
 shortly after taken over by England, and renamed Eort Royal; 
 other Danish forts were built here and there along the coast. 
 
 Still another European power had joined in this scramble 
 which may be said to have reached its height in the latter part of 
 the seventeenth century. Germany's recent enormous annexations 
 in Africa are not her first efforts to obtain a share in the partition 
 of the continent. Under tlie auspices of tlie Great Elector of 
 Brandenburg, Frederick \\';lHam I., trading connections were 
 formed with the west coast of .Vfrica, and tlie I'randcnburg- African 
 Company was ffjunded in iTiHi. i-^rc(k'ric]: Vv'as llic Ih'smarck of his 
 day, and he had ambitions not only in the direction of Africa, l)nt
 
 32 A F U I C A 
 
 1681-1698 
 
 India ns well: an<l. like Bismnrck. one j^rcat object which he had 
 ill view was tlie inipnncnicnt of the navy. Gross-Friedrichsbur^ 
 was built in HS^. near C ape Three Points, and treaties were made 
 with the chiefs i>f the coast and the interior. Kxpcditions for trade 
 antl exploration were sent inland, and for some years there was 
 busy trafTic botwcon Prussia and West Africa as far south as Anp^ola. 
 Xot onlv (Ml tl:e Gold Coast, but in Arj^uin I>ay. on the south of 
 Cape I^lauco. these Prandcnburp^ers established themselves and 
 carried on a tnule with the interior. Rut events at home were too 
 much for the l-'.lector and his son and successor, and about 1720 
 Prussia disajipearcd from the African arena, not to reappear till 
 about twenty years ag^o. 
 
 It must be said that the French were from the first more per- 
 severing" and dctcrniincd than any other power in their attempts 
 to push their way into the intcrii)r. A settlement (St. Louis) was 
 formed at the mouth of the Senegal by a company which had 
 f)cen chartered in I'Vance, just as similar companies had been char- 
 tered in I'jiglaiid and Ifolland, the great object of all being the 
 export of slaves io America. As with iMigland, so with France; 
 the first companies failed, but others were fonned in rapid suc- 
 cession, and I'rench influence spread in this part of the west coast. 
 Under Rrue and otlicr cxj)lorers stations were established far up 
 the Senegal, tlic g'reat object being to reach Timbuktu, as the 
 Fnglish had endeavored to do by way of the Gambia. Arguin and 
 Goree were taken from the Dutch, and many difficulties placed 
 in tlie way oi English operations. It may fairly be said that 
 h'rancc has never relaxed her efforts to secure the domination of 
 the Scncgambian regicm and tl:e countries watered by the Niger. 
 The operations which are being carried on n(jw on the Upper Niger 
 are hut tiie latest stag-cs of tliose so successfully begun by Sieur 
 I<rue in the latter |)art of [he seventeenth century. In 1695 the 
 I'rench toi .k tlie Ganiljia. and when it was restored to luigland 
 l-'rcnch influence was in tlie ascendant, and has remained so since. 
 Indeed, toward the end of the century, the hTench Senegal Com- 
 jjany hara^^cd the settlements and the ships of all other nationalities; 
 in I OS :5- 1^1X5 we find tlicm confiscating vessels belonging to the 
 Portuguese, Dutch, and i>ran(lcnburgers, and they persistently ad- 
 vanccfl claims against the Royal .\frican Company until at last 
 a war broke out hetuecn th.c two nations. 
 
 In ifxjH tl:c nion ipoly of the Fnglish Company was abolished
 
 THE BEGINNING OF RIVALRY 33 
 
 1690 
 
 for fourteen years, and at the end of that period it was not restored. 
 In consideration of the expense which the company had been put 
 to in erecting and maintaining forts, a ten per cent, ad valorem 
 duty was allowed for administrative purposes. It seems to have 
 been quite insufficient to cover expenses; and that too. in spite of 
 the monopoly which they obtained by the Treaty of Nimeguen of 
 the importation of slaves into the Spanish West Indies. It is highly 
 instructive to read some of the pamphlet literature of the latter half 
 of the seventeenth and the early part of the eighteenth centuries, 
 and learn of the hot controversies which then raged over the com- 
 pany and its monopoly. Here is an extract from a pamphlet, pub- 
 lished in 1690, entitled " A Treatise Discussing the Intrigues and 
 Arbitrary Proceedings of the Governing Company, by William 
 Wilkinson, Mariner." It affords an idea of the articles which con- 
 stituted the trade of West Africa at this period, and also of the 
 bitter feeling which prevailed in certain quarters against the 
 company : 
 
 " Let us now look toward Africa, and take a view of the riches 
 of that place which is undiscovered to the merchant, and particu- 
 larly, the boundless woods of Cam, which is a red wood fit for 
 dyeing, the prodigious quantities of dry hides of all sorts, of wild 
 and tame cattle, useful in the making of shoes, boots, trunks, sad- 
 dles, and furniture, etc. ; the inexhaustible treasure of gold, the 
 vast quantities of elephants' teeth, beeswax, and honey, and the 
 inestimable riches of gums, ostriches' feathers, and amber-grease, 
 which commodities are all purchased for the goods of the growth 
 and manufacture of England, and are brought directly home, which 
 is a double advantage, as well to the kingdom as to the royal revenue. 
 
 " Or, if we consider the trade of negro servants, which proves 
 so advantageous to the western plantations in the several islands 
 of America, as well as that continent whose chief commerce is 
 sugar, tobacco, indigo, ginger, cotton, and dyeing stuffs, which 
 are the natural product of the New World, whose penury or plenty 
 lies indispensably upon the trade of negro servants from Africa, 
 which the Royal company manage with more than an ordinarv 
 slight for their own advantage, taking care that the planters shall 
 never be furnished with negr(;es sufficient to follow their business 
 with satisfaction, and impcjsing wliat prices they please, and do 
 trust but for six months; for which they exact such an interest, 
 that they, in a manner, sweep away the profit of their labors, so
 
 84 A F RICA 
 
 1690-1769 
 
 tliat although he the planter's industi^ never so great, yet he shall 
 not he ahlc to effect his designs, hecause his hands are thus bound 
 by the conijiaiiv : vet I am sure that if the planters were furnished 
 with negroes ivom Africa, answerable to their industry, that four 
 times the sugar, indigo, cotton, etc., would be imported every year; 
 then let cverv rational man judge, if this would not be infinitely 
 more advantageous to the kingdom in general. 
 
 " And to sucli a height is the feuds of this company grown, 
 that thcv presume not only to oppress the subjects abroad, but 
 likewise to lord it over them here in England, by imposing forty 
 jHM- cent, upon such as witli their license trade to Africa, as Samuel 
 Slierriiig, and others, now in London, can witness, who paid them 
 the \alue afcuesaid. for a permission to trade at Angola, a place 
 in At'rica. and remote from any of their castles and factories, and 
 in the P(^rtugueses territories, which is both hurtful to traffic, and 
 prejudicial to the king's prerogative and revenue, it being a point 
 of religion to pay tribute to Cesar: but I never heard of any law. 
 or gospel, to oblige men to pay tribute to the African Company." 
 
 It should be noticed that the Dutch had established themselves 
 at the Cape in 1652, their main if not sole object being to secure a 
 halfway house between Europe and India. The Dutch (lOvern- 
 mcnt later encouraged the settlement of Dutch emigrants, but tlie 
 white i)oi)ulation increased but slowlv, and the tyrannical restric- 
 tions of the Dutch East India Companv did not encourage colon- 
 ization. Thus for many years effective occupation was confined to 
 Cape Town and a few miles around it. 
 
 It may also be noted that England held Tangier, in Morocco, 
 from i66j to 1684. Portugal, after many struggles, had obtained 
 pos-cs>ion of tliis important position in 1471. When, in i6(')2, 
 Cat'iarine of Praganza was married to Charles II. of hjigland, 
 Tangier farmed ])art of her dowry. But luigland found tlie posi- 
 tion so troublesome and expensive that she abrmdoned it in 1684, 
 afier Iiaving destroyed tlie fortifications. Portugal had a footing 
 in Mo; ,cci) til! \yC)(), when slie evacuated Mazagan, while Si)ain 
 siill }:"M3 h.e old fortress of Ceuta.
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 STAGNATION AND SLAVERY. 1700-1815 
 
 THUS, by the beginning of the eighteenth century, we find 
 in the African field all the chief European factors which 
 have played so prominent a part in recent years in the 
 partition of the continent, in addition to that Moslem or so-called 
 Arab element which was then dominant over half of Africa. Far 
 stronger then than now was the hold which Turkey had over the 
 northern regions; her power extended from Egypt (conquered in 
 1 5 17) to Algeria; while the influence of Alorocco was felt as far 
 as Timbuktu and Guinea. 
 
 During the whole of the eighteenth century there was compara- 
 tively little change in the relative positions of the European powers. 
 Holland gave a king to England in 1688, but that had little in- 
 fluence in promoting friendly relations between the two sets of 
 colonies in West Africa. Portugal continued to reign in the region 
 south of the Congo, and, with varied fortunes, subject constantly 
 to the attacks of the natives, occupied a few fortified places between 
 Delagoa Bay and Mozambique. The Dutch held their own at the 
 Cape, and French and Dutch and English struggled for supremacy 
 on the west coast, which, during the eighteenth century, continued 
 to be the chief field of contention among tlie European po\>'ers in 
 Africa. Let us see what was the position in West Africa in the 
 first half of the century. 
 
 Between Cape Blanco and St. Paul de Loanda there were in 
 all forty-three forts or stations. Tb.e first European settlement on 
 the mainland was at Arguin, on the Gum Coast, as it was called, 
 in about 20^ north latitude. This had originally belonged to Por- 
 tugal, then to the Dutch, tlien to tlie I'rench. then to the King of 
 Prussia, who offered it to hjigland for $500,000, but from whom 
 it was ultimately bought by the Dutch for v$i 50,000. It was, how- 
 ever, taken by the I'^rench in 1721. France may be said to have 
 been supreme from here to the Gambia, having a fort on the Sene- 
 
 35
 
 Se AFRICA 
 
 1721-1780 
 
 pal, and settlements and plantations for a long distance up the 
 river. 
 
 England's west c^ast possessions then as now began at the 
 Gambia, where the Royal African Company had a good fort on 
 James Island, with sundry factories higher up on each side of the 
 river. I'artlicr round, on the Guinea Coast, we find English forts 
 at nixcove. Secondcc, Commenda, Cape Coast Castle, Fort Royal, 
 Ouccn Anne's Point (these three close together), Annishan, Ana- 
 mabt\ Agga. TantunKiuerry. Winncba, Shidaoe, Accra, AUampo, 
 Quctta. Whyda. Jacquin, and Cabinda. All were within a few 
 miles of each otlier. except the last, which was near the mouth of 
 the Congo. Some of them liad been abandoned by 1740, though 
 they may have been reoccupied. and in nearly every case they were 
 Hanked by Dutch forts. Cabinda had been taken, plundered, and 
 dcstrovcd by the Portuguese in 1723. 
 
 The only forls possessed by the Portuguese on all this coast, 
 w-liich tliey had discovered, and which gave a title to their king. 
 were at Cuclioo and Bissao. where they have a patch at the present 
 day. Then as now tliey held possession of St. Paul dc Loanda, 
 where we are tdd they had several forts and a large city, and 
 where tliey carried on " a very great and advantageous inland trade 
 for some hundreds of miles." Their great stronghold on the Gold 
 Coast. St. George da Mina, had long ago been taken and occupied 
 by the Dutch, who possessed sixteen out of the forty-three forts 
 on the coast. 
 
 Although in 1740 Denmark had only one fort on the coast, 
 at Accra, slie had later on three others, at Fingo, Adda, and Quetta; 
 all of which slie sold to England in 1850 for $50,000. 
 
 C.'ipe Coast Castle and some of the other forts, 13utch and Eng- 
 lish, were at the time formidable buildings; most of them had 
 "negro houses," in which the natives were stored in readiness to 
 be Siii])})ed across the Atlantic t(j the plantations. The maintenance 
 of the>e forts and the establishments connected therewith was a 
 peri)etu;il source of expense, and, according to contemporary state- 
 mcnls. the Ihitish C(;mpany was in a continual state of embarrass- 
 ment, and in need of subsidies from the goveniment. There was 
 nnich controversy during the first half of the century as to what 
 should lie done witli tlie African Company: wdiether its monopoly 
 should be niaimrn'ned. or whether it should be abolished, and the 
 African trade thrown ojcn t(j all comers, h'inally, the old company
 
 STAGNATION AND SLAVERY 37 
 
 1750-1788 
 
 was succeeded in 1750 by the African Company of Merchants, con- 
 stituted by Act of ParHament, with liberty to trade and to form 
 estabhshments on the west coast between 20 north and 20 south 
 latitude. 
 
 Let us recall the fact that the eighteenth century and the first 
 fifteen years of the nineteenth constituted a period of almost chronic 
 war in Europe. There were the War of the Spanish Succession 
 (1700), the English rebellions, the Quadruple Alliance against 
 Spain (1718), the Polish troubles, the War of the Austrian Suc- 
 cession ( 1 741-1748), the Seven Years' War (1758), and the almost 
 continuous war between France and England ending in Waterloo, 
 and during which England annexed Canada, established her 
 supremacy in India, and obtained a firm footing in other parts of 
 the world, while she lost, in America, the greatest of all her colo- 
 nies. During this period, with the exception of Egypt and the Cape, 
 Africa did not receive a large share of attention, though the forts 
 on the west coast were continually changing hands. The Dutch lost 
 the supreme place they occupied during the latter part of the seven- 
 teenth and early part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 The French continued to advance steadily in the Senegal 
 region. Toward the end of the century British traders began to 
 establish themselves on the Oil Rivers, though at that time oil was 
 of little or no account. In 1787 England resumed her old connec- 
 tion with Sierra Leone, where a private company obtained land on 
 which to establish a settlement for freed slaves ; great things were 
 expected to come of this. The first negroes sent out were four hun- 
 dred gathered from the streets of London, together with sixty 
 whites, mostly women of bad character. A considerable number 
 of Europeans, chiefly English and Dutch, were also sent out to 
 Sierra Leone apparently under the belief that it was quite possible 
 for Europeans to colonize West Africa. It need hardly be said 
 that the sufferings were great and the deaths appalling. A similar 
 attempt at the same time on the part of a number of Swedes ended 
 in disaster. 
 
 At the Cape, meanwhile, French Protestants found a refuge, 
 and the Dutch burghers, dissatisfied with the rule of the company, 
 trekked inland to the Karroo to carry on their farming free from 
 molestation. But the company's rule followed tlicm, and magis- 
 tracies were establislicd at Swellendam in 1745, and at Graaf Reinet 
 in 1784. In 1788 the bnnidary of the colony was extended to the
 
 88 A F RICA 
 
 1795-1800 
 
 Great Fish River. Tii 1705 the Cape was captured by the Kn^hsh. 
 ami with the exception of the three years irom 1803 to 1806, has 
 remaineil l-!n,t;hsli e\ cr since. At the date of its capture the wliole 
 wliite j)oj)iilatioti of Soutli Africa was probably under 10,000. 
 nurins^ the Hutch period, iK^twitlistanch'nj;- the hard rule of the 
 luisl India Company, soniethins;' had been done to develop the 
 colony: the vino was introduced at an early date, and has been 
 cuhivatcd ever since; cattle and sheep rearini:^ was encouraj^ed, ex- 
 periments were made with various cultures, and wheat was suc- 
 cessfully thrown and even exported. Occasional expeditions were 
 sent into the interior. 
 
 It is ,L;enerally believed that the Orang^e River was not crossed 
 l^efore 1800. By this time cattle-runs had been extended to 
 Olif.iiu's I\i\er. and the Copper Mountains f)f little Xaniac|ualand 
 were visited by b'uropeans as far back as 1685. Ai^ain, in 1791- 
 I7c)j, another expedition crossed the Oraufj^e River, this time 
 in tlie belief that i,njld was t(* be found in the country beyond; but 
 nolliinj:^ came of it except some information concerninij^ the Da- 
 maras. A year later an expedition by sea took possession of Pos- 
 session Island. Anc:^ra I'equena, Walfish Bay, and other places, in 
 the name of the company a fact of some interest in connection 
 with recent events. Still, when the colony was taken over by En.f(- 
 land, it can hardly be sn id that effective possession extended more 
 than 200 miles from the south coast, while the total annual 
 revenue was only $150,000 a sum quite insutTicient to cover the 
 cx])en(IiLure. 
 
 Let us f.jr a moment turn to the slave-trade. There seems 
 little (l'>ul)t that the African Comjxanv, which was dissolved in 1750, 
 v,as ruined by the famous " Assiento "' contract with Spain of 1713; 
 the cou'litions on which the companv was ])crmitted to ex])ort 
 'laves from Africa to tlie Sijanish-American colonies were such 
 that C'ne wonders how it ever consented to tliis treaty. Still the 
 trade weni "U. Alacijherson. in his "Ilistorv of Commerce," cal- 
 culatea tl.at in 174-'^ the mimher of Africans shi])i)ed to y\merica 
 and tiie W'e-i Indies l)y all nations auKJunted to 97,000; tlie num- 
 Ix-'r (;f Alri(.an^ i:i America at that date was probably considerably 
 over a million. It wmid be dilTicult to estimate the number of 
 African-, (le])orteil from tlie continent from the time of the first 
 Iviirfjjjcan conneclion wiili jt ; hut durini^ the ei^''hteenth ccntiu'y 
 alone it wa.-, jjrobahly n(jt le.-^.-^ than six milli<jns. Aloreo\er, the old
 
 STAGNATION AND SLAVERY 39 
 
 1584-1775 
 
 trade from Central Africa to the Mediterranean, Egypt, and Asia, 
 which had been carried on from time immemorial, was still con- 
 tinued. Take it all in all, the profit from the slave-trade during 
 the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was equal to that arising 
 from gold, ivory, gum, and all other products combined. 
 
 In the eighteenth century the power of the Portuguese in East 
 Africa rapidly declined, and that of the Arabs, under new auspices, 
 rose on its ruins. As early as 1584 there had been an insurrection 
 all along the coast against the Portuguese, who were at this time 
 under the domination of Spain ; it was promoted by Ali Bey, who 
 suddenly appeared in these waters and claimed the sovereignty 
 for the Turkish sultan. Many of the towns on the coast fell into 
 his hands. The rebellion, however, was of brief duration; Ali 
 Bey was captured, and most of the cities retaken. But the Portu- 
 guese dominion in Africa was doomed. Portugal, to quote Krapf, 
 " ruled the East Africans with a rod of iron, and her pride and 
 cruelty had their reward in the bitter hatred of the natives. In 
 East Africa the Portuguese have left nothing behind them but 
 ruined fortresses, palaces, and ecclesiastical buildings. Nowhere 
 is there to be seen a single trace of any real improvement effected 
 by them." Sef ben Sultan, the Imaum of Oman, at the request 
 of the people of Mombasa, sent a fleet to East Africa and captured 
 IMombasa, Zanzibar, and Kihva, and laid siege to I\Iozambique in 
 1698. Although the Portuguese reoccupied the coast fort of 
 IMombasa, which they held up to 1730, their sovereignty between 
 Cape Guardafui and Cape Delgado came practically to an end at 
 this time. After this the Imaum of Muscat held a nominal sov- 
 ereignty over the east coast of Africa ; Mombasa was the center 
 of the government, the rulersliip becoming to some extent heredi- 
 tary. In the end, as will be seen, this led to the supremacy of the 
 Imaums of Oman over the east coast from Magdoshu to Cape 
 Delgado, and to the establishment of Zanzibar as an independent 
 state in 1861. 
 
 Thus by the beginning of the eighteenth century the porvver of 
 Portugal in East Africa was at the lowest possible ebb; she had 
 only a precarious footing at one of the ports on tlie coast; and her 
 main trade was the export of slaves. Slie had even abandoned 
 Delagoa Bay, and the Dutcli from the Cape had built a fort and a 
 factory there. 
 
 Fifty years later it is curious to find that even Austria dreamed
 
 40 A F RICA 
 
 1775-1815 
 
 of acquirinpf African posscssi(Mis. In the hope of securing the trade 
 of tlic cast to tlie Austrian tlotuinions in Flanders, Tuscany, and 
 tlio Adriatic. Maria Theresa f^rantcd a charter in 1775 to WiUiam 
 HoUs, an Fn.q:lislinian who liad heen in the service of the British 
 Fast Inch'a Company. lioUs leathered to.s^ether a somcwliat dis- 
 reputable hand of eniij^rants from various Mediterranean countries 
 and sailed from Fe.ij^lKMti in 1776. He proceeded to Delagoa Bay, 
 and made tenus with the chiefs on both sides of the river, who de- 
 clared they were independent of the Portus^uese and of every other 
 power. The .Austrian lla^ was raised, forts were built, various 
 l)uildini;s erected, and a consitlcrable trade with India be.q'an. Bolts, 
 who seems to have hatl some practical sense, sent a Mohammedan 
 priest from India to convert the natives, to whom he thouj^^ht 
 Islanu'sm was better adapted than Christianity. The settlement, 
 however, lasted only three years. The Europeans died off rap- 
 idly, and the Portuguese, awaking to what they regarded as their 
 rights, addressed representations and protests to the Austrian Gov- 
 enuuent. and so ended the only attempt on the part of Austria to 
 share in the partition of Africa. 
 
 Toward the end of the century public opinion in England was 
 rapidly taking a strong trend against the slave-trade. From the first 
 here and there a voice had been lifted up against tliis trattic. It 
 was in 1772 that Granville Sharp succeeded in getting the famous 
 judicial decision, that as soon as any slave set his foot upon English 
 territory he was free, and could not be taken back to be a slave. 
 In 1787 Clarkson. W'ilberforce, and others formed themselves into 
 an association to secure the abolition of the slave-trade. In 1788 a 
 bill was passed in the British Parliament to regulate it. At this time 
 the annual export of slaves from Africa amounted to 200.000. Half 
 of them were exported from the west coast to America and the West 
 Indies: the other half partly from the east coast to Persia and the 
 East Indies, and partly from the interior to Egypt and the Mediter- 
 ranean states. Denmark had the honor to be the first Iuiroi)can state 
 to pri'hibit its subjects from engaging in the slave-trade. This was 
 in ij<j2. In 1807 tlie >lave-tra(le was declared illegal for all British 
 subject>. In tlie same }ear tlie United States ])assed a law for- 
 bidding tlic importatiMii of slaves into the L'nion. I>etween 1807 and 
 1815 niM>t of i!k' other great powers assumed the same j)osition as 
 I'jigiand, and by iSi^ iIk- slave-trade was chieHy carried on under 
 the flags of Spain and Portugal. In that year, at the Congress of
 
 STAGNATION AND SLAVERY 41 
 
 1815 
 
 Vienna, a declaration was signed by the powers that the trade 
 was repugnant to humanity, and that its abolition was highly de- 
 sirable. 
 
 During the long Napoleonic wars the possessions of England, 
 France, and Holland on the west coast frequently changed hands; 
 but except in the case of Egypt, the struggle for colonial possessions 
 did not greatly affect Africa. Let us now see how the partition of 
 the continent stood in the memorable year 1815.
 
 Chapter V 
 
 THE POSITION IN 1815 
 
 WIIF.X Xapolcon was finally crushed in 181 5 Great Brit- 
 ain remained supreme at home and abroad. With the 
 excej)tion of some patches in India, the deadly colony 
 of Cayenne in South America, a few West India Islands, and the 
 islets of St. Pierre and Miquelon off Newfoundland, the only for- 
 cierii possessions remaining to l''rance when the stru,q"gle was ended 
 were the islands of Reunion and Sainte Marie in the neighborhood 
 of Madagascar, and the colony of Senegal on the west coast of 
 Africa. F.ngland remained mistress of nearly all the lands of the 
 globe most available for European settlement Canada, Australia, 
 and the Cape. She was supreme in India, her influence was para- 
 mount in Egypt, she retained some of the best of the West India 
 Islands, she possessed patches on the west coast of Africa, while 
 the British flag was planted on the islands of every ocean. It is 
 worth while to recall the position of the various European powers 
 on the African continent when, in 181 5, the world was left to begin 
 a long period of peaceful expansion. 
 
 Turkey was the only European power which had a footing in 
 North Africa; she was nominally the suzerain of Egypt, Tunis, 
 and Tripoli, but her power was even then on the wane. Algeria 
 with her corsairs was still the terror of the Mediterranean traders; 
 Morocco was then, as she is now, independent but tottering. To 
 tlie Saharan " Hinterland " of these Mediterranean states no power 
 laid claim. The Central Sudan was powerful and independent, 
 occupied, or at least ruled, by semi-civilized Mohammedan fanatics. 
 Indeed, the whole of the Niger region was divided up into some- 
 what small states among which Mohammedanism was rapidly 
 spreading. Mungo Park, who in 1796 had been the first European 
 Vj reach the banks of the Niger and who returned for a new 
 expedition in 1805. had perished on the river he longed to 
 cxijinre. while Rene Caillic had not yet visited Timbuktu. France 
 was left in possession of the west coast from Cape Blanco to the 
 
 42
 
 THE POSITION IN 1815 
 
 43 
 
 1807 
 
 mouth of the Gambia, but, except for a short distance along the 
 Senegal, her power extended but a little way inland. Portugal 
 had then, as she has now, the Cape Verde Islands and a patch on 
 the coast to the south of the Casamansa. England retained her 
 old station on the Gambia; her Sierra Leone possession was but 
 
 ^^%^ii)UiMl/^ 
 
 tiHOWING OCCUPATION AND 
 PA'^TtfiL EX^LORAnON Cf M/yN rovEPs 
 
 a patch ; her stations on the Gold Coast were suffering from the 
 abolition of the slave-trade in 1807. while the colony of Lagos was 
 not founded till long after. Denmark and Holland and Portugal 
 had still several forts along the coast, tliough the I^>rantlenburg settle- 
 ment had long ago l^een abandoned, l^iberia was not founded until 
 five years after the date with which we are concerned. The course 
 of the Niger was unknown ; trading stations or factories, mainly 
 British, were dotted here and there 011 the Oil Rivers, the Cam-
 
 44 AFRICA 
 
 1806-1815 
 
 cnxMis. and the Conjjo estuary, while the whole coast was the liaunt 
 oi slavers of every nationaliiy. Si)ain had Fernando To, and Por- 
 tujjal 'ne oi the smaller islands to the south, but the whole coast 
 down to the Cons;*) was virtually no-man's-land, ready to be an- 
 nexed bv anv nation in search of colonies. I\)rtug^al, indeed, 
 claimed that her i;reai West African possessions began at 5 south, 
 to the north of the Congo, and this claim was for a moment con- 
 ceiled by I*!ngland in 18S4. though Portuguese writers admitted 
 there had never been effectual occupation. 
 
 At the niontli of the Congo itself there were a few stations 
 Portuguese. I'rench. English, Dutch; but these were mainly for 
 slave-trading puri)oscs. though the slave-trade was declared illegal 
 in 1S07. and was made piracy in 181 7. From Ambrizette to Cape 
 1-Vio. in 18' south, no one denied the claims of Portugal; indeed, 
 luiropean indifference to Central Africa at this period was almost 
 absolute, and continued to be so. except from the geographical 
 standpoint, until within the past few years. Had Portugal then 
 claimed jurisdiction over the whole of Africa lying between her 
 east and her west coast possessions, it is doubtful if any European 
 power would have troubled about it any more than if she had 
 claimed jurisdiction over the North Pole. As a matter of fact, 
 no evidence exists that any such claim was ever made until within 
 the last few years. No doubt one or two isolated expeditions were 
 sent into the interior, and half-castes and natives with Portuguese 
 names and titles may even have crossed between Angola and Mo- 
 zambique; but neither legitimate trade nor knowledge of the coun- 
 try was promoted by such excursions, and they can hardly be 
 regarded as an evidence of effective occupation. This effective 
 (jccupation was really confined to a few points on the coast. The 
 immense stretch of coast between Cape Frio and Buffels River was 
 unclaimed; although, as we have seen, Walfish Bay and Angra 
 l'e<|UL-ria were occupied by the Dutch Cape colonists in the previous 
 century. 1"lie Cape Colony, only finally made over to England in 
 181 5. though it had been occu])ied continuously since 1806, did not 
 extend l)c\nn(l lUiffels River on the west, and its limit northward 
 was c ntincd wiiliin an irregular line drawn from Buffels River 
 southeast [o tlie Crcat h^ish River. All beyond this, all the region 
 where now are Cape farmers was as unknown and as untamed as 
 the v.ille-i jjarts of Central Africa. The total area of Cai)e Colony 
 was only uo.cxx) scjuare miles, and the total population Ci,ooo, of
 
 THE POSITION IN 1815 45 
 
 1698-1815 
 
 whom 15,000 were in Cape Town, two-thirds slaves negroes and 
 Malays the latter introduced at an early period by the Dutch, 
 Elephants and other big game were still accessible within a few 
 miles from the coast, beyond which few settlers were to be found. 
 The first British settlement on the Natal coast was not made for 
 some years after this ; and it was not until twenty years later that 
 the first Dutch trek or migration was begun, which culminated in 
 the founding of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. England 
 objected to the Boers settling in Natal, but her statesmen and her 
 colonists at the Cape did not see far enough ahead to extend her 
 claims beyond the Orange River. 
 
 At Delagoa Bay we once more come upon ground claimed by 
 Portugal, whose territory stretched as far north as Cape Delgado, 
 though the precise limits north and south remained to be settled 
 at a later perior. At this date, 181 5, and for many years after, no 
 serious claim of dominion was advanced by the Portuguese beyond 
 a strip of the coast, varying in width, and along the River Zambezi 
 as far as Zumbo. Considerably more than a hundred years before, 
 Portugal was compelled to abandon all her conquests to the north 
 of Cape Delgado; the whole coast from thence to IMagdoshu, if 
 not farther north, was under the sway of the Imaums of Muscat, 
 who had gradually extended their influence between 1698 and 
 1807, partly by conquest from the Portuguese, and partly from 
 native chiefs. France had been toying with Madagascar for 170 
 years, and had actually established a small colony at Fort Dauphin 
 on the southeast coast in the seventeenth century; but in 181 5 the 
 island was practically independent. Mauritius had been made over 
 to England, while France retained Bourbon (Reunion). The in- 
 terior of the continent was, broadly speaking, unknown. The 
 Somali and Galla countries were in practically undisputed posses- 
 sion of native tribes. Neither England, France, nor Italy seems 
 to have dreamed of possessions on the Red Sea. Abyssinia was 
 uncoveted, and Egypt had not yet cut her off from the coast. Not 
 for five years after 181 5 did Egypt begin to stretch her malign 
 hand southward over Nubia and the Sudan ; the Upper Nile was 
 unknown, Khartum had not been founded ; Kordofan, Darfur, and 
 their neighbors were still independent, while the great lakes existed 
 only on the half-mythical maps of Ptolemy and the medieval 
 geographers. 
 
 Thus, then, in 181 5, when Europe was at liberty to start on
 
 46 A F RICA 
 
 1815 
 
 that career of procuress in all directions, which has had undreamed-of 
 results, her African possessions consisted of only a few factories and 
 stations ami towns on the coasts. Effective occnjiation hardly ex- 
 istcil hoyoiid the seaboard; the heart of Africa was an unknown 
 blank. Serious occupation of the continent as a whole, as America 
 and Australia were hcini;' c^'cupied. was probably unthoui^iit of. 
 Cicrnianv. in the miHlcrn sense, did not exist: Holland was satisfied 
 with her i^reat colonics of culture; I-'rance had hardly bethoue^ht 
 lierself oi fresh colonial expansion; Itingland had (piite enough 
 occupation for tiic energies of her surplus population, and for her 
 commercial adventurers, in Canada. Australia. India, and the East. 
 Africa she valued mainly as affording stations to guard her route 
 to her great .\siatic em])ire. The total value of the commerce of 
 the African continent for that year (including slaves) probably did 
 not exceed .Si 50.000,000. The total exports could hardly have 
 been (n cr S75. 000.000. more than half coming from Egypt and the 
 cuntries on the Mediterranean. So. except for explorers, for sixty 
 years Africa was left in comparative peace.
 
 Chapter VI 
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF PREPARATION. 1815-1875 
 
 y^LTHOUGH during the sixty years after 181 5 the most 
 /-\ important annexation made in Africa by a European 
 X. _m- power was that of Algeria by France, activity in another 
 direction was quietly going on which has led to important results 
 kvithin the past few years. During the latter part of the period 
 especially we were enabled, through the exertions of adventurous 
 explorers, to form some idea of the character of the African in- 
 ferior. Even before the conquest of Algeria in 1830, Caillie had 
 'cached Timbuktu, and other explorers had crossed the desert, or 
 entered from the west coast, and made known the Lake Chad 
 region, the Niger, and the Central Sudan states. It was in this 
 -egion and in Abyssinia and the Upper Nile countries that the 
 greatest exploring activity was manifested until Livingstone began 
 lis wanderings. Tuckey's failure to ascend the Congo farther than 
 :he first rapids left that great river to sweep its broad way unutil- 
 zed across the continent for another sixty years. It can hardly be 
 said that the interesting discoveries made in North Africa and the 
 N^iger region up to i860 had much effect in arousing the covetous- 
 less of Europe. 
 
 The French conquest of Algeria, begun in 1830 and completed 
 Dnly after long years of sanguinary struggle, was a benefit to the 
 :ivilized world, but probably no other power envied France the 
 possession of that haunt of corsairs and home of Moslem fanati- 
 :ism. The truth is that France, for many years, was more eager 
 than any other European power for dominion in Africa. She was, 
 indeed, the only power that sought to rival England in the creation 
 '>f a colonial empire; she has stri\-cn hard to make up by annexa- 
 tions elsewhere for all that she lost to h2ngland through the wars 
 )f the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century. Un- 
 fortunately for her, there remained nothing to be annexed that 
 :oul(l be comi)ared to the territcjries she had lost. Neither in Asia 
 ;ior the Pacific has she been able to lind anything that can be put in 
 
 47
 
 48 A F RICA 
 
 1830-1866 
 
 comparison with India and Australia. As a colony of settlement 
 Ali^eria can never rival Canada, nor even, excei)t perhaps for south- 
 ern Iuiro|)eans. r.ritish South Africa. It has a desert for its " Hin- 
 terland." Alj;cria has. no doubt. pros|)ered greatly under French 
 rule, tluniijh it will he longf ere hVance is able to recoup herself for 
 the initlav t^f the S750.000.000 which its conquest has cost her. 
 
 While IVance was consolidating her position in Algeria, she 
 was steadily extending her inlluence in the Seneganibian interior. 
 So long as sixtv years ago she made attempts to open communica- 
 tions between Scnc'^amhia and Algeria, but without success. The 
 Senegamhians. like the Cape Colonists, were continually on their 
 defense against the natives of the interior, who, under their Mo- 
 hammedan leaders, such as El-Haj Omar, did their best to drive 
 the h'rcncli into the sea. But there could be little doubt of the 
 ultimate result. When Colonel Faidherbe retired from his long 
 g()\crnorship of tlie colony in 1865, the French occupation ex- 
 tended to the Upi^er Senegal ; French inBuence was recog- 
 nized by treaty from Cape Blanco to British Gambia ; the coast 
 region from St. Louis to the British frontier, and even at Casa- 
 mansa on the south, and for a considerable distance into the interior, 
 had been brought under subjection ; an administration had been 
 established; and attempts had been made to introduce the cultiva- 
 tiiin of cotton, indigo, and other products, not. however, with much 
 success. In the whole interior of the Senegambian region, France, 
 (hiring these fifty years, had entire command of the situation, Eng- 
 land not C'lncciving that her interests demanded interference on 
 her jiart. In 18^5 a strong committee of the House of Commons 
 came unanimously to the rescjlution " that all further extension of 
 territory or ;is?umi)tion of government, or new treaty offering any 
 ])r()tcciinn to native tribes, would be inexpedient." Though not 
 rigi iriii;-ly adliered to, the policy has, in the main, been carried out 
 with rc-pecl to the West African colonies ever since, thus leaving 
 France a free hand to extend her possessions between the Senegal 
 and tl:e Culf of Cuinca. 
 
 Till iSif) Ciambia had been all but abandoned, owing to the 
 abolitji^n ni ilie sla\c-trade in icSo/. A few British merchants from 
 Senegal then -^ettlcd wii the island of St. Mary at the mouth of the 
 river. I'roni iSji {o iS.}^ it was subject to the government of 
 .Sierra l.coiu'; ilicii after twenty-three years of indej)endence it 
 became in i<S^6 part of tlie government of the West African settle-
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF PREPARATION 49 
 
 1820-1861 
 
 ments. During the whole period of French activity on both sides 
 of the Gambia no attempt was made to extend British influence in 
 any direction, and by a late Anglo-French arrangement that influ- 
 ence has been restricted practically to the banks of the river. A 
 little more activity was shown in Sierra Leone, which acquired 
 various islands and tracts of country by treaty before 1865, though 
 no attempt was made to push British influence into the interior 
 or along the coast toward Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Guinea 
 remained virtually as it had been from the time when Portugal 
 was freed from Spanish domination ; its precise limits have only 
 recently been defined. 
 
 In 1820 the Washington Colonization Society made the first 
 settlement of freed negroes at Cape Mesurado, and so laid the 
 foundation of the republic of Liberia, recognized by the European 
 powers as an independent state in 1847. The republic extended its 
 domain along the coast to the borders of Sierra Leone, and south- 
 east to the negro settlement of Maryland, which was absorbed in 
 1857; while it pushed its influence for an indefinite distance into 
 the interior. 
 
 Meantime the British settlements on the Gold Coast had a very 
 checkered career; now they were under government jurisdiction, 
 and again they were abandoned to the merchants. Troubles with 
 Ashanti complicated matters, while the Dutch and Danish settle- 
 ments hampered trade operations. Li 1850, however, Denmark 
 made over her settlements to England for $50,000. By a conven- 
 tion which came into force in 1868, the Dutch were confined to the 
 west of the Sweet River, their extensive possessions of the pre- 
 vious century having now dwindled down to Dixcove, Apollonia, 
 Secondee, and Commenda, with a protectorate over the two W^as- 
 saws, Denkera, and the country of Apollonia. In 1871 Holland 
 transferred all her right on the Gold Coast to Great Britain. Al- 
 though France claims to have acquired portions of tlie coast (Grand 
 Bassam and Assinie) to the west of the British Colony in 1838 
 and 1842, and a station on tlie east, Porto Novo, in 1868, these 
 were really unoccupied till 1884, and at any time up to within the 
 past few years there would have been no obstacle to declaring the 
 whole of the coast from the Liberian boundary to the Gaboon under 
 British protection. Had this been done it would have prevented 
 much of the international bitterness of late years. 
 
 In 1861 Lagos was acquired by England from the native king;
 
 60 A I- R I C A 
 
 1861-1862 
 
 since which time the colony has been extended east and west, 
 until now it stretches fnMU the Henin River to the Oenhani Waters 
 at Kotonn. and includes the Yornha conntry in the interior as a 
 protectorate. Ihitish traders have been settled on the Oil Rivers 
 for a centurv. at first mainly ior the pnri)ose of carryings on the 
 slave-trade. Ihitish missionaries have been at work in the Calabar 
 reijion for more than half a century, and over a lone;' stretch of 
 coast British inthicncc was actually, if not nominally, sujjreme; 
 but no active steps seem to have been even thought of to secure the 
 whole rei^ion from anv risk of foreign interference. The period, 
 however, between 1S15 and 1875 was marked by extensive e.\i)lor- 
 ing enterprise in the Xiger region, tnainly conducted by British 
 subjects or at Ih-itish cost. Lander had traced the river from 
 Bussa to its mouth. Expedition after expedition, at a fearful ex- 
 pcnditui-c of suffering and life, endeavored to explore the great 
 ri\er and its tributary tlie Benue. and establish British influence 
 and trade. Baikie founded a station at T.okoja. at the confluence 
 of ilie two ri\ers; model farms were established elsewlicre. and 
 efforts made to sujipress the slave-trade. The great expedition of 
 Barth from tlie north contributed a wealth of information on the 
 wh.ole Xigcr region. Se\'cnty vears ago the far-sighted and shrewd 
 geographer !M'Ouecn urged in the strongest terms the duty of 
 luigland to establish herself in the Xigcr region and create a great 
 " CeiUral African Empire"; the dread of extending im]K*rial rc- 
 si)onsibilitics still possessed those charged with the interests of the 
 emi)ire. After much expenditure of life and monev the Xigcr 
 was virtually abandoned given over to the unsu])ported enterprise 
 of i)rivate traders. All the time T'^rance was steadily pursuing her 
 way inland to tlie great river. 
 
 An l''nghs]i mission station was founded at Victoria, on the 
 Cameroons coast, in 185R, and British traders virtually dominated 
 the coast. In 1S42 b'rance established herself on the fine estuary 
 of the (lal)iH.n. anrl twenty vears after took possession of the 
 Ogi.vc. ll was not. however, till fifteen years later that, under 
 the leader.-Iii]) of Do I'razza. l-'rench donu'iu'on was extended 
 int(j ilic intcrJDr. and tlie foundations were laid for the immense 
 accjuiMtion- of l-'r.iiuc between the coast and the Congo in 1(884. 
 The coa^t down to ilic (Jajie boundary remained nuich <as it was in 
 1815. l'ri\ate trading firms of \-arious nationalities had stati(jns 
 at the moulli of ilic C"<;ngo and along the coast to the north, but
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF PREPARATION 51 
 
 1852-1875 
 
 no one had the curiosity to seek to discover what lay beyond 
 Tuckey's farthest point at Yellala Falls. Portugal was undisturbed 
 in her West African possessions. Her traders had stations in the 
 interior, from which caravans went to and from the coast, mainly 
 for slaves and ivory. To Portugal ought naturally to have fallen 
 the exploration of the Congo, but such enterprise as that had 
 long been beyond the range of her energies. Missionaries, explor- 
 ers, and traders had ventured into Damaraland and Namaqualand. 
 Although a number of islands off i\ngra Pequefia were declared 
 British in 1867, and Walfish Bay in 1878, the latter was not actu- 
 ally annexed to the Cape till 1884. 
 
 Meanwhile, Cape Colony itself had its hands full of trouble. 
 War after war with the Kaffirs kept up for years a feeling of in- 
 security, and compelled the colony to push its boundaries farther 
 and farther north. Kaffraria was annexed in 1865; in 1871 
 Basutoland came under British rule. A constitution was established 
 in 1853, and responsible government in 1872. By opening up the 
 country by roads and railways, and encouraging immigration, the 
 colony steadily developed. The Orange River had been reached; 
 the Orange Free State and the Transvaal had been founded and 
 recognized, the former in 1854 and the latter in 1852; Natal had 
 been created an independent colony in 1856; and, though patches 
 of native territory still here and there awaited formal annexation, 
 by 1875 all the country up to the Orange River and the Orange 
 Free State was virtually under British influence, though the ex- 
 tension of this influence was carried on slowly and with reluctance 
 on the part of the home government. Beyond Natal there remained 
 the Zululand gap between the British and Portuguese spheres, the 
 latter having undergone little or no change during the long interval. 
 ^Movements were taking place among the native tribes both to the 
 north and the south of the Zambezi ; about 1845 the Matabele had 
 crossed the Limpopo and established themselves by force in the 
 country of the Mashonas and kindred tribes. In 1823 Captain 
 Owen, while carrying out his surveys on the east coast, obtained 
 from native chiefs a cession of Dclagoa Bay, which was, moreover, 
 claimed for ]':ngland in virtue of the Dutcli settlement there in 
 1S20. England went so far as to found a station named Bombay 
 ojjposite Lourenco ]\iar(|uez, and there were continual disputes 
 Un' possession Ijclween licr and Portugal up to 1875, the Transvaal 
 also putting in a claim for a section of coast. At last the rival
 
 52 AFRICA 
 
 1863-1875 
 
 claims were referred for arbitration to tlic President of the French 
 Rcpnhhc. Marshal MacMalion. who decided in favor of Portugal, 
 even iT^iinjLj to tiie cxfrcine of .Cfiving" Portugal more territory than 
 s!ie had claitucd in her >tatcnicnt. The chief ground of Portu- 
 gal's claim was the " Treaty of Monomotapa," which had lapsed 
 h>ng before. The present town of Louren^o Marquez was only 
 founded in 1S07 on the site of an old village of the same name. 
 
 lUit a new era for the continent had begun. Livingstone had 
 entered Africa, and had initiated those explorations which opened 
 u;i the heart of the continent, and led to that scramble which is 
 H; w all but completed. Before his death in i^73 he had been to 
 Lake Xgami, had completed that journey across the continent 
 which revealed the course of the Zambezi, had reported the first 
 authentic information as to the character of the country watered 
 by it and its tributaries, and had carried the British name and 
 iniiuence into regions which only the other day became appanages 
 of the imperial crown. Others had followed in Livingstone's 
 footsteps Galton and Andersson in Damaraland. Baines in the 
 same region and east to Matabeleland (whose riches he revealed to 
 the modern world) and the Zambezi; while others missionaries, 
 explorers, hunters, and traders were penetrating into every cor- 
 ner of the country to the south of the Zambezi. Livingstone 
 had concluded his great Zambezi expedition in 1863, which, 
 disastrous as it was in some respects, opened up what was practi- 
 cally a new country to the world, and led to the foundation of 
 tli.jse trading and missionary stations in Xyasaland which were 
 destined to form the basis of British influence in one of the most 
 l)r(mising regions of Central Africa. In 1865 Livingstone began 
 his flnal wanderings, that led him through the heart of Africa to 
 I'anganyika and the Lualaba. which he would fain have followed 
 to its outflow at the sea; but instead death overtook him in 1873 
 on the swampy shores of Bangweolo, one of the great lake-feeders 
 (it the mysterious river. r^Ieantime, in January, 1871, Stanley had 
 already entered the threshcjld of that continent which he was 
 de>tined within the next few years, directly or indirectly, to 
 transform. 
 
 In tlie Zanzibar coast region, which, since the beginning of 
 tlie sevcnlecnih century, had been nominally at least under the 
 Imaums of Mu-cat, tliere were constant attempts of the local 
 sultans to e-tabli-!i their independence; and on the change of dy-
 
 D.WIIl I.IV'I M.SIOXI-: 
 
 fli.n-n I Si;,. Dicl 1S73) 
 Pli.:!o:.;nirh fy-im life
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF PREPARATION 53 
 
 1824-1850 
 
 nasty in Oman, which took place on the accession of the Al bin 
 Saidi to power, several of the lieutenant governors on the coast 
 refused to accept allegiance. The Imaum Sey'id Said, however, 
 had made himself master of Patta, Brava, Lamu, Zanzibar, Pemba, 
 and Kilwa, and threatened to attack Mombasa, where the aged 
 Soliman Ben Ali, as representing the governor under the older 
 rulers of Oman, was in power. Soliman appealed to Captain 
 Owen, whose squadron was then surveying the coast, and he, in 
 1824, took under the protection of Great Britain Mombasa and its 
 dependency, Pemba, and all the coast between Melinde and Pan- 
 gani ; Brava also was placed under protection, and many advan- 
 tageous concessions were made to the British. But Captain Owen 
 was more than half a century before his time; in 1828 the British 
 Government, after Mombasa had been occupied for four years, 
 yielding to the jealousy of the East India Company, abandoned 
 the concession, and all the region was left to its fate for another 
 sixty years. 
 
 When the Imaum Sey'id Said had built a palace at Zanzibar, 
 and had finally chosen this city as his residence, Captain Hammer- 
 ton was sent there in December, 1841, as England's first consul, 
 and as the political agent for India. The struggles of Mombasa 
 with Muscat were renewed, but the latter in the end prevailed, 
 so that when, in 1861, Sey'id Majid (who succeeded Sey'id Said 
 in 1856) was confirmed by Lord Canning in the territories of 
 Zanzibar, the Sultan's rule extended over the whole coast and the 
 islands from Cape Delgado to Magdoshu. Moreover, the sultan's 
 influence, if not jurisdiction, had extended far into the interior, 
 and his orders were obeyed even on Lake Tanganyika, But before 
 Livingstone set eyes on that lake, discoveries had been made which 
 changed the whole aspect of the interior, and led to further enter- 
 prises, which culminated in the scramble of the last few years. The 
 Arabs, returning from their journeys in the interior, had told of 
 great lakes which they themselves had navigated. In 1848 Reb- 
 mann caught sight of the snows of Kilimanjaro. Ten years later 
 Burton and Speke went into the interior to find those great lakes, 
 already known to the .Arabs, and they were able to place Tangan- 
 yika and Victoria Nyanza on the map. Speke, who first saw the 
 latter, had thus discovered the great source of the Nile, and, with 
 his companion, Grant, a year or two later, he was able to add still 
 further to our knowledge of Egypt's historical river, and to tell
 
 54 A F R I C A 
 
 1850-1864 
 
 oi the great kingdom of Uganda and its ruler Mtesa, who subsc- 
 quentlv plavcd so important a part in un\vittini:f1y jn-oinoting- Brit- 
 ish interests. In 1SO.4. Uaker discovered the Albert Nyanza, and 
 made further ad(hti(Mis to knowledge of a rei^ion which is now 
 virtually within the Ihitish sphere. Burton and Spcke came upon 
 stations far in the interior, founded by Arabs, througli whose enter- 
 prise the slave-trade had reached gigantic dimensions. 
 
 While to British explorers is due the credit of the bulk of the 
 important work done in Central Africa up to iS75. travelers of 
 otlier natitMialitics contributed their share to the o])cning up of 
 tlie ciniiinent to knowledge and enterprise. One of the most 
 prominent names coiuiccted with the exploration of East Africa 
 is that of \'on der Dccken. Between i860 and 1S65 he undertook 
 extensive explorations in the Kilimanjaro region, and visited sev- 
 eral parts of the coast between Cape Delgado and the River Jub. 
 While exploring lliis river he lost his life, but not before he had 
 conceived the idea of a German occupation of these districts of 
 Africa. I'Vom the Jub River on August 14, 1864. he writes: "I 
 am persuaded that in a short time a colony establislied here would 
 be most successful, and after two or three years would be self- 
 sui)porting. It would become of special importance after the open- 
 ing of the Suez Canal. It is unfortunate that v*e Germans allow 
 such opportunities of acquiring colonies to slij), especially at a 
 time wlien it would be of importance to the navy." As a German 
 writer has said, had it not been for Von der Decken's death, Ger- 
 many might have had colonies twenty years sooner than she did. 
 Twd years later Olto Kersten, one of Von der 13ecken's compan- 
 ions, published an article on the colonization of East Africa, in 
 Vv;;'c!i lie \\r(jte: "Von der Decken on many occasions said that 
 he would not hesitate, if Sey'id ]\Iajid agreed to it, to buy Alom- 
 ba^a from the sultan in order to found an establislunent and place 
 the commerce of the interior in the hands of luu-opeans, and espe- 
 cially of Germans. After two or three years' stay at Chagga, on 
 the eastern sli'H-c of Victoria Xvanza, tlie colonists would obtain 
 more results tlian emigrants who wander far across the seas. I 
 recommend to my country an enterprise as achantageous as it is 
 gloriou.-, {<,] in(li\i(Iua]s and f(jr the nati(jn.'' Tlumgh Von der 
 Decken held exaggerated views as to the value of this ])art of 
 Africa for colonizing j)urj)oses, Germany was at the time too 
 much oC'Ji'.picd with licr position in Jun-ope tu be able to take meas-
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF PREPARATION 55 
 
 1864-1873 
 
 ures to improve her position beyond the seas. But these two 
 utterances are noteworthy as being probably the first hint that Ger- 
 many might in the future enter the field as a colonizing power in 
 Africa. At the time that Von der Decken wrote, and for twenty 
 years after, British influence was supreme at Zanzibar ; the suc- 
 cession of British representatives at the court of the sultan were 
 virtually political residents, and guided the sultan's policy as abso- 
 lutely as do similar functionaries at the feudatory courts of India. 
 Sir John Kirk, who was connected with Zanzibar from 1866 to 
 1887, was undoubtedly more powerful than the sultan himself; and 
 twenty-five years ago, and indeed down to 1S84, British supremacy 
 at Zanzibar was deemed almost as indispensable to British inter- 
 ests in India and in East Africa as is the possession of Aden itself. 
 British Indian merchants were settled all along the coast from 
 Cape Delgado to Mombasa, and all but a fraction of the trade was 
 in their hands. 
 
 There was one episode of this period to which brief allusion 
 must be made. As the result of an inquiry by a Parliamentary 
 committee into the slave trade in East Africa, Sir Bartle Frere 
 was, in November, 1872, appointed special envoy to the sultans 
 of Zanzibar and Aluscat to induce them to sigTi a treaty rendering 
 the export of slaves from Africa illegal. Frere spent some three 
 months in Zanzil^ar and in visiting the coast of the mainland. The 
 sultan was, however, extremely obstinate, and could not be induced 
 to comply with the wishes of the British Government, though these 
 were supported by the representatives of Germany and the United 
 States. In the meantimiC France took advantage of the position 
 to advise the sultan to hold out, promising to support him in the 
 maintenance of the export of slaves, and to lend him the aid of 
 a squadron of her fleet. The sultan was so intensely irritated at 
 tlie demands of the British envoy, that he actually offered the pro- 
 tection of tlie whole of his dominion to France. France, however, 
 had not yet recovered from her defeat by Germany, and by the 
 time her squadron was ready to sail for Zanzibar, Dr. John Kirk, 
 in whom tlie sultan and the Arabs had the utmost confidence, by 
 his tact and firmness, his thorough knowledge of the sultan's char- 
 acter and of local conditions, succeeded in completing the work 
 begun by Sir Bartle h'rcre ; anrl th.e treaty was signed on June 5, 
 1873. The French rcprescntati\'e made himself so obnoxious that 
 he had to be withdrawn, and all idea of French protection was
 
 66 A F 11 1 C A 
 
 1818-1875 
 
 banisliccl from the sultan's mind. It sliould be remembered that 
 France, in 1S4J. had joined with England in guaranteeing the 
 sultan's indopciulcnce. 
 
 Proceeding northward, we find but little alteration in the po- 
 sition between 1815 and 1875. Massawa had been occupied by 
 the Turks early in the seventeenth century, and from that date 
 the wiiole of the Red Sea coast may be regarded as I^^gyplian, at- 
 tempts on the part of Abyssinia to obtain a port always ending in 
 failure. Early in the century France began to seek for a footing 
 on tlie Red Sea. The port of Ait, to the north of the Straits of 
 P>abelmandcb. was purchased by a French mercliant in 1835 in 
 the hope of attracting tlie trade of Abyssinia. Various other at- 
 tempts were made to obtain a footing near Massawa, and to in- 
 trigue against Abyssinia, with no permanent result, except that 
 Obock, on Tajura Bay opposite Aden, was bought in 1862. Egypt 
 had taken possession of Berbera and aimed at extending her in- 
 fluence through Harrar to Slioa, but her purpose was defeated. 
 Abyssinia was much as it had been, notwithstanding the attempts 
 of bVance in the first half of the last century, its invasion by a 
 British army, and its troubles with Egypt. This latter power, 
 whose connection with Turkey had become more and more slender, 
 had by 1875 advanced southward along the Nile, and had virtually 
 annexed Kordofan and Darfur, and the whole of the country up to 
 the Albert Xyanza. Gordon was already in her service, and Emin 
 Pasha joined him in the year following. 
 
 The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 is a notable event 
 bearing upon the destmy of Africa. As a new highway to India 
 it greatly enhanced the value of Egypt, and led to a more intense 
 rivalry than before Ijetween England and France for paramount 
 influence in that country. Moreover, it greatly increased the strate- 
 gical value not only of Aden, but of the ports on the opposite coast 
 of Africa, and of the island of Sokotra, which was taken under the 
 wing of England in 1876, having been looked upon as under British 
 influence lung before that. I'he greater island of Madagascar, 
 farther soulli, coniinucd to receive attentions from France at in- 
 tervals during the wliole of tlie period under notice, ^1le various 
 attemjits at establishing a footing on the main island failed, though 
 the island of Sainte Marie on the east coast was rcoccupied in 1819, 
 Xo.ssi-P.c on the west coa^^t taken possession of in 1840. and Mayotte 
 in 1 84 1.
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF PREPARATION 57 
 
 1815-1875 
 
 Thus, then, the progress of partition among the European 
 powers had been comparatively slow and insignificant during the 
 sixty years that had elapsed since 1815. Germany as a colonizing 
 power had not yet set foot upon the continent. Great Britain had 
 certainly pushed her influence and jurisdiction northward from 
 the Cape as it stood in 181 5, but it was reluctantly and slowly. Her 
 west coast colonies were mere patches. Her influence was felt 
 extensively in the Niger region and in the Zanzibar dominions, but 
 it was unofficial and unsecured by treaties. Her supremacy in 
 Egypt had become more and more marked. France was the only 
 power that showed any eagerness for steady annexation and any 
 foresight as to future contingencies. In short, the great struggle 
 had not yet begun; but it was imminent. Stanley's memorable 
 journey across the continent, and especially his discovery of the 
 great Congo waterway, may be regarded as the initiatory episode.
 
 Chapter VII 
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION. 1875-1883 
 
 FROM about 1850 the interest in Africa grew more and more 
 intense and widespread. Even after that date cargoes of 
 slaves were shipped from tlie west coast to y\merica. but 
 as a result of tlie American Civil \\'ar and the increased activity 
 of British anti-slavery cruisers, the horrors of the transatlantic 
 trafiic in humanity were at last put an end to. The traffic may 
 have lingerctl in the Portuguese parts of Angola, for there were 
 still Brazil and Cuba to be supplied; when, many years before. 
 all other civilized nations agreed to suppress the traffic, Portugal 
 had begged for, and obtained, the insertion of a clause excepting 
 her African ports from the operation of the treaty. But if there 
 were those who flattered themselves that the African slave-trade 
 was dead, they were soon undeceived. Li\'ingstone, and other 
 travelers and missionaries, awoke the world to the fact that the 
 transatlantic slave-trade was really only a very small portion of 
 the traffic which harrowed the Dark Continent. The whole of 
 Africa between the tropics was a hunting-ground for the so-called 
 Arabs, who had for long past been making their way from the north 
 and from the eastern coast. When Livingstone reached the heart 
 of tlie continent at Nyangwe lie fcmnd their malign intluence every- 
 where present. The various stages in the spread of Islam in 
 Africa, aiul the continual growth of the traffic in slaves and ivory 
 carried on by the Arabs and lialf-brecds from the cast, is a subject 
 of vast interest. Formerly these Arabs were content to remain 
 on the coast a!id purchase from the natives wliat tlic latter brought 
 down ; but owing to various causes they tlicmsclvcs, in recent 
 years, have led or sent their own caraxans into tlie interior, villi 
 what results e\cry reader of Li\-ingstone and Stanley knows. Ci-cat 
 regions have been devastated, and whole towns, and e\en tribes, 
 almost exterminated for the sake of the ivory which they possessed. 
 I-'c^r every slave br(jught to the coast to be shipped across to Arabia 
 or Madagascar, or sent north to Morocco, Tripoli, and Egypt by 
 
 58
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION 59 
 
 1848-1875 
 
 caravan route, probably half a dozen natives had been slaughtered. 
 As this feature in the life of Central Africa became more and more 
 keenly recognized, the philanthropists of the world combined to 
 suppress it, and in this way the interest in Central Africa was in- 
 tensified. 
 
 Another considerable section of civilized mankind became fas- 
 cinated with the discoveries which w^re gradually revealing to us 
 the wonderful character of a continent whose periphery was first 
 correctly mapped in the schooldays of many now living. Rebmann 
 and Krapf; Burton, Speke, and Grant; Baker, Schweinfurth, and 
 Nachtigal ; Livingstone above all, besides many men of minor note, 
 had aroused an interest in Africa unparalleled in the annals of 
 geography even in the days when Arctic exploration was at its 
 height. Stanley's story of how he found Livingstone served to 
 intensify this interest, keen and widespread as it was, while Liv- 
 ingstone's death turned African exploration into a kind of crusade. 
 Cameron's remarkable journey across Africa from east to west 
 in 1873-1875 helped us still further to realize the conditions of the 
 interior. ^Missionary effort was greatly increased and strengthened, 
 especially in East Africa, as far inland as Lake Nyasa, with which 
 the name of Livingstone is so intimately associated. Thus it might 
 be said that when Stanley started on his memorable journey across 
 the Dark Continent in 1875 the whole civilized world had an inter- 
 est in the results of his expedition. Letter after letter from the 
 great explorer, and telegram after telegram from the heart of 
 Africa, as to the fortunes of the expedition, served to fan this 
 interest and kindle it into a world-wide enthusiasm. 
 
 To the work accomplished by Stanley more than to that of 
 any other explorer it is due that this somewhat abstract enthusiasm 
 for Africa was, in the space of a comparatively few years, precip- 
 itated into action on the part of tlie states of Europe. But that 
 action did not come for some time after the explorer had emerged 
 from the Congo. There is little need to recount the story of an 
 expedition in many respects among the most remarkable which 
 ever entered Africa. Stanley himself was a man of action, prepared 
 to carry out his purpose at all hazards ; he was no mere abstract 
 geographer or general philantliropist. As with all great men of 
 action, his deeds will beget deeds on the part of others. No man 
 knew better than he how to nerve liis fell()wmen to action. His 
 letters from Uganda, describing with dramatic realism his long
 
 60 A F K I c: A 
 
 1875-1878 
 
 interviews with the clover if somewhat artful M'tcsa, roused Chris- 
 tendom to enthusiasm. At once an army of missionaries, Eng'- 
 lish first, followed by I-Vcnch, was sent out to take posses- 
 si(Mi. in the name of their Master, of one of the most powerful 
 kinj^doms in Central Africa. Tliis may indeed be said to have been 
 the t'lrst tanijible result of Stanley's journey a result which was 
 not without its inlluencc in the final scramble. 
 
 Stanley was still in the heart of Africa when a movement was 
 initiated wliich may be regarded as the beginning of the ultimate 
 partition of the continent among the powers of Europe. The 
 Colonial aspirations of Germany were being awakened. She was 
 still Hushed with the fruits of her great victory over France. She 
 was now a unitctl empire, bent on achieving what Germans would 
 call world-greatness, and new energy had been infused into 
 her commercial life. Her merchants were on the lookout for fresh 
 fields; their eyes were eagerly turned to the l^ast and to Africa, 
 P.ut at present the only action was that taken by private adven- 
 turers; Bismarck had more important matters demanding his ener- 
 gies. It remained for another potentate to inaugurate a movement 
 which, witliin fifteen years, was to make iVfrica little more than a 
 political appendage to Europe. 
 
 W'lien Stanley's first letter came home, Leopold, King of the 
 Belgians, was in his prime. He was just forty years old and had 
 been on the throne of Belgium for ten years. The king* was then, 
 as l:e is now. a man of restless energy, ambitious of distinction for 
 himself and his little kingdom, greatly interested in tlie promotion 
 of commerce and the arts, and with a special love for geograi)hy. 
 The field for his energies as the sovereign of a small, neutral, and 
 cr)mparali\cly p(Kjr kingdom was limited. He had no great army, 
 no great fieet, no ever-recurring political comjjlications to engage 
 his attention f^Usidc of his own domain. It was natural that a man 
 of his energies and ambitions should wish fur a sphere of more 
 C' ismnpf)]iian action than he could find within his ov^n borders, or 
 even in luiri'pe. Possiljly also he desired tliat as his kingdom could 
 not, by any cliance, be great politicallv, it might at least expand com- 
 mercially ; if it couM not stretch its lin-iits in luirope, there was a 
 whole contment. almo.-t unoccupied and untouched, in which he 
 and his pe'ijjle miL:I;l find aliiindant room for their surplus energies. 
 There is nr nec<i to attcni])! to fatliom all the motives of the King 
 of the Belgians in .<tintnioning to Brussels on September 12, 1S76,
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION 61 
 
 1876 
 
 a select conference to discuss the question of the exploration and 
 the civilization of Africa, and the means of opening up the interior 
 of the continent to the commerce, industry, and scientific enterprise 
 of the civilized world. But in summoning the conference the king 
 indicated his desire that it should consider what measures might be 
 adopted to extinguish the terrible scourge of slavery, which, though 
 broken up on the west coast, was known still to continue its deso- 
 lating influence over wide and populous tracts in the interior of the 
 continent. 
 
 It is hard to realize all that has happened during the years that 
 have passed since this memorable meeting in Brussels. Have we 
 any warrant in concluding that the King of the Belgians had in 
 view from the first the ultimate creation of a great African empire, 
 of which he himself should be the head, and which might place 
 Belgium on a level with Holland as a colonizing power? It is hard 
 to say; probably Leopold had not formulated to himself any very 
 precise scheme.^ It must be remembered that in September, 1876, 
 Stanley was on his march from Lake Tanganyika to Nyangwe, and 
 that as yet he had not looked upon the wide Lualaba, which he was 
 destined to trace down to the Atlantic as the Congo. The King 
 of the Belgians, when he convened the meeting of geographers and 
 philanthropists, knew no more about the Lualaba and its ultimate 
 destination than did anyone else who took an interest in Africa; 
 and, indeed, his attention was not directed to West Africa at all, 
 but to the east coast and to East Central Africa. In the initiation 
 and direction of an organization for opening up the long-neglected 
 continent to science, industry, and civilization, there seemed ample 
 scope for the king's energies and philanthropic aspirations, and 
 for that craving for distinction which kings share with other mor- 
 tals. It must be admitted tliat had Leopold's design been carried 
 out as he planned it vre should have learned more about the heart 
 of Africa in a few years than our ancestors had during the four 
 centuries which had elapsed since the Portuguese began to creep 
 down and around its coasts. But human nature and national 
 jealousies were, as might have been expected, too strong for com- 
 bined and disinterested international action and for the philanthrop- 
 ical aims put forward by the king. 
 
 ^ P)Ut it is of interest to remember that long before this and before he came 
 to the throne, Leopold wliilc traveling in the east, seriously contemplated the 
 acqm'sitiou of part of ]5orneo, or of some other island in the eastern archi- 
 pelago.
 
 62 A F RICA 
 
 1876-1877 
 
 At tlic Bnisscls Conference of September 12, 1876, the 
 nationalities represented were Great Britain, Belg^ium, Austria- 
 Ilunj^ary. l-Vance. Germany. Italy, and Russia. These national rep- 
 resentatives consisted of tiie ])residents of the various ^geographical 
 S(Kieties. African explorers, and others interested in the continent; 
 they were in no sense tleleti^ates from their governments. The King 
 of the Belgians himself was really acting in his private capacity 
 and in no way as involving any responsibility on the part of his 
 kingd<im. The conference sat for three days, and as a result of 
 their deliberations it was agreed that an International Commission, 
 or International African Association, should be founded, having its 
 seat at Brussels, for the exploration and civilization of Central 
 Africa; and that each nation willing to cooperate should form a 
 National Committee to collect subscriptions for the common object 
 and send delegates to the commission. 
 
 The international character of the movement was not long 
 maintained. In England the subject was discussed at the Council 
 of the Royal Geograpliical Society, to w^hich body naturally fell 
 the task of organizing the Xational Committee in that country. 
 Difficulties of an obvious kind were foreseen, which rendered it 
 desirable that such a committee, while maintaining friendly rela- 
 tions of correspondence with the Belgian and other committees, 
 should not trammel itself with engagements of an international na- 
 ture, or with objects other than those of geography. Xo British 
 delegates were therefore appointed to the International Commission 
 at Brussels. Instead, the African Exploration Eund of the Royal 
 Geographical Society was established in ^ilarcli. 1877. 
 
 Xational Committees as brandies of tlie International Asso- 
 ciation were formed in Germany. Austria-Hungary. Spain. Portu- 
 gal. Erance. Xetherlands. Italy, Russia, Switzerland', and the United 
 States, as well as in Belgium. At the meeting of the Central Com- 
 mittee, held in Brussels on June 20 and 21, 1877, it was found that 
 the P.elgian Cfiinmittee had already subscrihed $57,400. besides 
 S8800 aniuiril contribution. By June. 1870. P.elgium's contribution 
 had exceeded Si 20.000, wliile small contributions had been sent by 
 tlie German, Austrian. Hungarian. Dutch, and Swiss C(jmmittees. 
 .\o time was 1 i-i in beginning ojjcrations. By 1877 the first expe- 
 d.!t!'.n was tinder v.ay. the object l)eing to establisli between tlie 
 ea.-^t c"ast and Lake Tanganyika a series of stations fur tlie pur- 
 pose (.f hel])iiig explorers and sjjreading civilization. Erom the
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION 63 
 
 1877-1880 
 
 beginning misfortunes followed the footsteps of this and subsequent 
 expeditions. The Belgian officers chosen as leaders were totally 
 unacquainted with the conditions of life in tropical Africa, and 
 were apparently almost entirely ignorant of the geography of the 
 continent, even so far as it was known. Into the details of these 
 international expeditions from the east coast it is not necessary to 
 enter. The first which left Zanzibar in 1878 set out with a train 
 of ox-wagons, but had to return shortly after it started, owing to 
 the death of the oxen from the sting of the tsetse fly, which, though 
 usually harmless to man, is poisonous to cattle. One or two 
 intermediate stations of a temporary kind were subsequently estab- 
 lished in the interior, but the first permanent one was founded only 
 in 1880 at Karema, on the southeast shore of Lake Tanganyika. 
 It was in connection with this station that experiments were made, at 
 the expense of the King of the Belgians, with Indian elephants. All 
 of these, unfortunately, died, probably from want of intelligent 
 treatment ; the question as to the possibility of acclimatizing Indian 
 elephants in Africa has yet to be settled. Notwithstanding the great 
 sacrifice of human life and the enormous expenditure of money, 
 these attempts at founding oases of civilization in Central Africa 
 were failures, so far as the objects of the association were con- 
 cerned. Karema was really the only station that survived, and 
 explorers have on more than one occasion obtained succor there. 
 Results as to exploration have been almost nil, and it is a mat- 
 ter of regret that the intentions of the royal founder of the Asso- 
 ciation were so sadly marred by ignorance and inefficiency. 
 
 The truth is that, so far as the exploration of Africa goes, 
 much more was done by the National Committees than by the 
 International Commission. This is also true of the opening up of 
 the continent to commerce and civilization, so that the committees, 
 rather than the commission, must be credited with having brought 
 about that scramble among the European powers which, in a very 
 brief period., resulted in the partition of Africa. To the work of 
 the English African Committee, independently of the association, 
 reference has already been made. Their work was purely one of 
 exploration. The French and Italian National Committees seem 
 to have contributed little or nothing to the central funds; they, too, 
 were of opinion that they could best carry out the work which 
 the King of the Belgians had rn view by sending cntt expeditions of 
 their own to those parts (jf Africa in which they were most inter-
 
 6i AFRICA 
 
 1878-1879 
 
 cMC(\ Italy in the Ahvssiiiian and Slitian rcp^ions. and France in 
 the regions to which her (lahoon colony gave access, l^vcn the 
 Swiss Committee reserveil a portion of their funds for specific 
 Swiss undertakings, while the only other committee that seems to 
 iiave done anv real work was that of (lermany. lUit the associa- 
 tion soiMi ceased to be really international. While meager sub- 
 scriptions mav. for a short time. ha\e come in from individuals 
 and societies, the International African Association was to all 
 intents and jnirposes the King of the I>elgians, without whose ample 
 private means it would h.avc collapsed long before M. Cambier 
 reached Karema. To the work of the leading National Commit- 
 tees reference will again be made further on. 
 
 Meantime the International Association entered upon an en- 
 tirelv new phase, a ])hase which made it even more Belgian in 
 character, and which undoubtedly did much to precij^ifale the par- 
 celing out of the continent. Stanley landed at Marseilles in Janu- 
 arv. 1878, from that journey across the Dark Continent, during 
 which he had traced its greatest river down to the sea. luen before 
 he had emerged from Africa, as we have seen, his stirring letters 
 had roused luirt)pc to action. Contingent after contingent of mis- 
 sionaries was sent out. Protestant and Catholic, and stations were 
 being established not onlv in Uganda, but along the route to l\an- 
 ganyika. On 'J'anganyika itself mission stations of both creeds 
 were planted. One result of Stanley's great expedition in I^'ast 
 Africa was the increase of P^ritish mission stations an.d the spread 
 of Pritish inihience at Zanzibar and in the interior, where, every 
 traveler tcsiilied, the sultc'in v^as regarded as ])aramoiuit. 
 
 It Vv'as. ]ujv.c\-cr. on tlie other side of the continent that Stan- 
 ley's journey ])ro(luce(! rh.e most immediate results. Xo sooner, 
 ];e tells us. had ];e stepped out of th.e train at Marseilles than h.e 
 was acC'iSted by comnu'ssioners from tlic Kin.g of the I'lclgians. who 
 \'.a> naturally intcn.-ely interested in the great watcrw.'iy into the 
 heart of the continent which .St.anlcy h.ad revca.led. It was not. how- 
 ever, until jr.ne th.at the explorer was able to \-isit I^eopold, and 
 n-t until X'Aeniber did the farth.er extension of tlie king's great 
 purpo-e t;d<e delinite s!ia])e. On the 25th of that month Stan- 
 \y met t'..e k:iig and -e\eral representative genilemen of \-arious 
 I. 'Untrie-, jire-umably members of the International African Asscj- 
 (;atio:]. At ti;e de.-i>i\e meeting of January -', \^J<), there were 
 ; rc.-eiU rej)re-e:;;:iti\ e.-i of Pelgium, Ibjlland, h^ngland, h'rance, and
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION 65 
 
 1879 
 
 America; at this meeting the final plans were adopted and the 
 necessary sums voted. At the November meeting it had been 
 resolved that a fund should be subscribed, the subscribers to the 
 fund forming themselves into a " Comite dcs Etudes dii Haiit 
 Congo " a Committee for the Investigation of the Upper Congo. 
 What the original purpose of this committee was may be learned 
 from Stanley's own brief account of the proceedings : " After a 
 few minutes it transpired that the object of the meeting was to 
 consider the best way of promoting the v^ry modest enterprise of 
 studying what might be made of the Congo River and its basin. 
 This body of gentlemen desired to know how much of the Congo 
 River was actually navigable by light-draught vessels? What pro- 
 tection could friendly native chiefs give to commercial enterprises? 
 Were the tribes along the Congo sufficiently intelligent to under- 
 stand that it would be better for their interests to maintain a friendly 
 inercourse w^ith the whites than to restrict it? \Vhat tributes, taxes, 
 or imposts, if any, would be levied by the native chiefs for right- 
 of-way through their country? What was the character of the 
 produce which the natives would be able to exchange for European 
 fabrics? Provided that in future a railway should be created to 
 Stanley Pool from som.e point on the Lower Congo, to what 
 amount could this produce be furnished? Some of the above ques- 
 tions were answerable even then, others were not. It was, there- 
 fore, resolved that a fund should be subscribed to equip an expedi- 
 tion to obtain accurate information, the subscribers to the fund 
 assuming the name and title of ' Comite des Etudes dii Haut 
 Congo.' A portion of the capital, amounting to $100,000, was 
 there and then subscribed for immediate use." At first the com- 
 mittee was certainly regarded as a special committee of the Inter- 
 national African Association, whose flag a wdiite star on a blue 
 ground it adopted. But while there were no Englishmen on the 
 International Association, two well-known Englishmen, both of 
 them connected with Africa, formed part of the committee, and 
 we believe, subscriljed to it. The king was president of both, and 
 both associations had the same secretary. Colonel Strauch. It is 
 not clear tliat tin's special committee, possibly not even the royal 
 president, realized wliat tlieir real aims were; probably the com- 
 mittee, as a wliole, thouglit S(mctliing good was sure to come out 
 of an expedition of wliich Stp.nley was leader. 
 
 It was j)u]jhcly ;iniv)unced that tlie Belgian steamer Barga,
 
 66 A F RICA 
 
 1879-1882 
 
 cnrryinp three undecked steam-launches, one other steamer, three 
 flat-bottom boats, a number i>f i;alvanized-tin houses, and a j^reat 
 quantity of otlier material, was really intended to send aid up the 
 Conijo to the Relj^ian expeditions from the east coast. Stanley 
 liimsclf went first to Zanzibar, and his connection with the expedi- 
 tion was kept a secret as far as was possible. While Stanley was 
 at Zanzibar, collecting- a force of natives there, the agents of a 
 Dutch house on the l.ower Congo were busy collecting Krooboys 
 as porters. But all this was done as quietly as possible. The truth 
 is. annexation was in the air. The l-'rench, under De Brazza, had 
 already l)cen pushing inward from the Gaboon, while the Portu- 
 guese were excited by Stanley's great discovery to advance 
 claims to the C(mgo. founded upon what they maintained was old 
 ctMiquest and j)os>ession. Moreover, that the aims of the so-called 
 Internatidiial Association had developed, that something- more than 
 the mere foundation of civilizing- and exploring stations was in- 
 tended, seems evident from a letter written to Stanley by the 
 secretary. Colonel Strauch, while the leader of the novel expedition 
 was yet on his way out to the river. The cost of these East Central 
 African operations, many of which were failures, must have been 
 enormous; the bulk of it came out of the king's own pocket. 
 
 Stanley admits that from the outset the Congo Committee 
 had separate and distinct objects in view from the International 
 Association. " with the ultimate intention of embarking on a grander 
 enterprise if tlie reports from the Congo region were favorable." 
 As originally constituted, the committee included several mer- 
 chants of various nationalities, or at least had received considerable 
 subscrij)tions from various mercantile firms, who no doubt hoped 
 to profit by the undertaking which Stanley was to lead. But 
 even before Stanley reached the Congo it was resolved by the 
 Committee to "return c\crv subscription to the merchants of all 
 nationalities who had ])rcviously expressed bv their various sub- 
 scrijjtions their sympathy with the project." Thus the new Congo 
 undertaking was gradually becoming an almost purely Belgian 
 enterprise. There remained connected with it only those who man- 
 aged tlie aftair-^ of the International African Commission; and 
 later on. in iS8j. Stanley tells us. the committee, "having 
 sati-fic'l ii-clf iiiat ]>rMgress and stability were secured, assumed the 
 title of ' .'Iss.u'idliio! hilrriuifinjuilr dii Cong^n' which, be it remem- 
 bered," he continue^, "was originallv started with tlie philan-
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION 67 
 
 1879-1882 
 
 thropic motive of opening up the Congo basin, and of exploring and 
 developing, according to the extent of its means, the resources of 
 the country around each station as soon as it was founded." We 
 presume that the " grander enterprise " referred to above went 
 beyond this admirable scheme a scheme the success of which 
 would depend almost entirely upon the leader and certainly, to a 
 considerable extent, on the caliber of the men who served under 
 him. 
 
 That the king, the moving spirit, the life and soul of all this 
 stupendous enterprise, w^hatever may have been his original mo- 
 tives, had by this time something more in view than the mere pro- 
 motion of geographical knowledge and the development of Africa's 
 resources, seems evident; it may be that Stanley's discovery of the 
 great waterway had opened up to Leopold vistas of dominion not 
 dreamed of when he called the Brussels meeting of 1876. As for 
 the Strauch letter, extracts from it occur in Stanley's reply, in 
 which the experienced explorer, in mild and courtly language, in- 
 formed the colonel that he did not know what he was writing about. 
 After one or two impracticable suggestions, the colonel writes : " It 
 would be wise to extend the influence of the stations over the chiefs 
 and tribes dwelling near them, of whom a republican confederation 
 of free negroes might be formed, such confederation to be inde- 
 pendent, except that the king, to whom its conception and formation 
 w^as due, reserved the right to appoint the president, who should 
 reside in Europe." " You say, also," Stanley writes, " ' that a 
 confederation thus formed might grant concessions (with power 
 to make good what they granted) to societies for the construction 
 of works of public utility, or perhaps might be able to raise loans 
 like Liberia and Sarawak, and construct their own public works.' " 
 To this Stanley replies by endeavoring to make the colonel real- 
 ize what manner of people really occupied the Congo. Only abso- 
 lute ignorance of Central Africa could have permitted any man 
 of intelligence to suggest the foundation of a republic like Liberia. 
 " This project," he says further on, " is not to create a Belgian 
 colony, but to establish a powerful negro state." Had Colonel 
 Strauch read Stanley's " Through the Dark Continent " with atten- 
 tion, surely he would have realized the complete impractica- 
 bility of his proposal. But this is only a sample of the ignorance 
 which, it is to be feared, still prevails in many quarters as to the 
 real conditions of Central Africa and the true character of its inliab-
 
 68 A F H I C A 
 
 1877-1878 
 
 itanti?. At the same time it indicates that the king-, if not the Com- 
 mittee. IkhI aims of hii;h .inihition; that he cherished the hope of 
 foundini;: a .irroat Afric.in state, oi which he should he the sovere-gn, 
 in reahtv if not in name. hVom our present point of view this 
 cnteri)rise of i^^jn. under Stanley's leadership, was the first overt 
 step toward the I-.nropean partition of Africa on a large scale. 
 
 "On the i-Mh of August. 1877." Stanley writes, "I arrived 
 at ]>an;m.i Point after crossing Africa, and descending its greatest 
 river. On the i4lh of August, 1879. T arrived before the mouth 
 of this river to ascend it. with the novel mission of sowing along 
 its banks civili/ed settlements, to peacefully conquer and sub- 
 due it, to remold it in hanuony with modern ideas into national 
 states, within whose limits the European merchant shall go hand 
 in hand with tlie dark African trader, and justice and law and order 
 shall prevail, and murder and lawlessness and the cruel barter of 
 slaves shall be overcome." 
 
 It is right to set the highest aims before us; the higher is likely 
 to be our accomplishment. The laudable objects which the King 
 of the Ikdgians and his loyal lieutenant, Stanley, professed to 
 have had in view may, we believe will, in time be accomplished, 
 though probably after a fasliion different from that which they 
 expected and hoped for. Now that energetic men of the great na- 
 ti<ins of the world, and powerful and wealthy organizations have 
 taken llie ta-k in hand, now that dark doings can no longer be con- 
 cealed. \\e may be sure that in time the face of the continent will be 
 changed. Ijul let r.s remember that Africa is very different from 
 America ai:i(l A.ii.-tralia, and that we cannot hoj^e in a decade to 
 o\-erci iiiie i!;c re-v.l:s of tliousands rjf years of sa\'agery. 
 
 Stanley foiirid llie Har;^a waiting for him at Banana Point, 
 and with' ;n I .-; i.f lime th.c ascent of the river was begun. K\\- 
 dcP.tly his sia!; hjiglisli, American. Danish. P^clgirui. hVcnch 
 were ?.-. ;i^-!i. .r;u;t of African conditions as Colonel Strauch ; tliey 
 h.'id exT-cc'cd to |,c fm-nished with ;dl the luxuries of British India, 
 and to h(- ircaifl w\\'.\ the deference due to im])erial officers. It is 
 to he leared I'.'.at i(/o many of ilie Congo officials have gone out 
 witli e i;:a!!y Irixiu jr.;-, idea.-, few oi tliem certainly prepared iu 
 unde;;4 . the hay! '>;])> ah-oliUcly reipn'red if they wished to prcj- 
 m te t'..e:r !ha-:e; - d( -i'l:;). Such men as Stanley himself, as Kliodes 
 and Jame- n. a l/.i-ard and Jrihnston, arc rare; but it was only 
 w:tii t!ie a--i-;a:: V of wx-u ,,f tlicir caliber that the development of
 
 PRELIMINARIES TO PARTITION 69 
 
 1878-1883 
 
 the Congo along the lines laid down by the king could be accom- 
 plished. Stanley, with his usual success in managing men, soothed 
 the ruffled tempers of his staff, and after a few days' delay pro- 
 ceeded up the river to Boma, where, as at Banana, he found the 
 factories of English, French, Dutch, and Portuguese firms, who 
 had been carrying on trade on tlie Lower Congo for over a century. 
 Vivi, the limit of navigation on the lower river, was reached on 
 September 26, and preparations w^ere at once made to establish the 
 first station of the Congo Committee here; by January 24, 1880, it 
 was finished, and Stanley was free to proceed up the river to 
 select sites for other stations. Leopoldville had been founded on 
 Stanley Pool, treaties concluded with native chiefs, explorations 
 of the southern tributaries made and other work done, when Stan- 
 ley returned to Europe to make the position clear to the com- 
 mittee, and urge the construction of a railroad from the lower river 
 past the cataracts to the Pool. 
 
 By this time the " Comite des Etudes " had developed into the 
 committee of the " Association Internationale du Congo." Before 
 Stanley had been long with the committee he had convinced 
 them not only that a railroad was absolutely necessary, but that the 
 final step in the evolution of the so-called International Association 
 must be taken if success were to attend the king's enterprise on the 
 Congo. Many treaties had been made with native chiefs, and many 
 more would be made on his return. But it was now time that the 
 powers of Europe should be asked to acknowledge the work as valid 
 and to recognize the association not simply as a civilizing and 
 exploring company, but as a governing body. In short, it was seen 
 that the time had come for constituting the Congo territory into a 
 state with recognized status, of which the committee should be the 
 governors and their royal president the sovereign. Stanley, whose 
 health was shattered, had returned to Europe vv'ith the intention 
 of staying, but he was persuaded to go back to the Congo and 
 complete the work of organization. 
 
 It is unnecessary here to tell the story of Stanley's many 
 troubles troubles mainly due to inefficient and discontented subor- 
 dinates. Nor need we describe in detail the \'ast work he accom- 
 plished while on the Congo as its first organizer and administrator. 
 Suffice it to say that, within a year after his second arrival at Vivi, 
 he had established a series of stations along the river as far up as 
 Stanley k'alls (December, 1883) ; had made hundreds of treaties
 
 70 AFRICA 
 
 1883 
 
 witli chiefs from Banana to tlic Falls; had been saddened with the 
 
 sight oi dcvastatiiMi over thousands of miles on the upper river by 
 tlic Xvaiigwo Arabs, who had followed in his footsteps down the 
 river: had been able to welcome and instruct his successor, Sir 
 I'rancis de W'inton; and had shown by advice and example how the 
 work oi organization and development ought to be carried on all 
 this. Ix it remembered, in five years after first setting foot in Vivi. 
 Xever was a stale founded in so brief a period. But meanwhile 
 other events were taking place, other African enterprises were rap- 
 idly developing, which, as if by magic, suddenly roused the con- 
 tinent from its lethargy of ages.
 
 Chapter VIII 
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND PORTUGAL IN AFRICA 
 
 1875-1884 
 
 WHILE Stanley was pushing his way up the Congo 
 and beginning the work which issued in the founding 
 of the Free State, events were taking place which threat- 
 ened at one time to checkmate him, and render abortive the aims of 
 the King of the Belgians. In the years 1875- 1878 Count Pierre 
 Savergnan de Brazza ^ carried out a successful exploration of the 
 Ogove River to the south of Gaboon, in the hope that it would turn 
 out to be a great waterway into the interior. This hope was disap- 
 pointed, for after a certain distance the stream became broken by 
 cataracts, and rapidly declined in volume. De Brazza crossed over 
 the hills at the head of the Ogove and soon found that these formed 
 the water-parting between that river and another which flowed in 
 an easterly direction. This he found to be the Alima, and when he 
 reached it Stanley had just arrived in Europe from his momentous 
 voyage down the Congo. Had De Brazza followed the Alima he 
 would also have found himself on the great river, far above its 
 cataracts, and would almost surely have been tempted to see 
 whither the magnificent waterway led. But at the time he had not 
 heard of Stanley's great discovery, and as his health was shattered 
 and his means exhausted he returned to Europe. 
 
 Like Stanley, De Brazza did not rest long in Europe. Stanley 
 had almost a year's start of his French rival ; the former left Europe 
 in January, 1879, the latter in December of the same year. De 
 Brazza by this time knew that the Alima and the Licona, which he 
 also touched on his previous journey, must enter the Congo. As 
 the agent then of the French Committee of the International Afri- 
 can Association, and with funds provided by them, he went out to 
 the Ogove to found stations. Indeed, it was announced at a meet- 
 ing of the Paris Geographical Society before De Brazza started 
 
 ^ De Brazza was Italian by birth and parentage, and was born in 1852. He 
 received his education in France, and entered the French naval service in 1870. 
 
 71
 
 72 A r RICA 
 
 1879-1880 
 
 that his object was t() explore the re.c^ion lictwecn the Gaboon and 
 Lake Clial ; thoiiirb. there can l)e httle doubt that his aim from the 
 first was to reach the C'ons^o. That he lost no time in carryinpf it out 
 is cviilont from the fact tliat on \ovcmhcr 7. 1880, on his ^vay 
 down tlie river, he came ujion Stanley pushin.i;: in the opposite direc- 
 tion. Sianlev at the time knew little al)out De Brazza. The latter 
 had foumlcd an " international " station on the Ogove, and rapidly 
 crossinpf over to the Letini (the Luvu of Stanley), found no diffi- 
 cult v in foIIowin,c: that river down to the Congo. He seems to have 
 been able to establish friendly relations with the chiefs and people 
 ;!round. and succeeded in discovering one chief who, according to 
 He r.ra//a"s own report, claimed to be suzerain of all the country 
 art'und. c\ en to the south bank of the Congo. Thereupon, on 
 CX'tobor 1. iSSc). the re[)resentative of the International Association 
 made a s ilemn treaty with the chief, whereby the latter placed him- 
 self under the protection of France, and accepted the French flag. 
 1 )o r.raz/a lost no time in crossing over to the south side of Stanley 
 r^x.]. auil there founded a statical, near where Leopoldville now 
 sianils. and which his admirers in b^rance named after him Brazza- 
 ville, 'fhe station on the Ogove he himself named Franceville. 
 
 It will thus be seen that De Brazza had cast aside all pre- 
 tense of carr\:ng out the designs of the International Association; 
 lie was simplv tl^e emissary of France, doing his utmost to steal a 
 m.irch on Stanley, and secure the mastery of this magnificent 
 traf'.c-rou'.e into Africa for his adopted country. During his two 
 day.-,' sojourn v.ith Stanley near Xdombi Mbongo. De Brazza 
 seems to liaxe said not a v.ord about the annexations he had at- 
 tempted to niake on belialf of France. It was only when Stan- 
 ley readied Stanley Pool, and met the Sengalese sergeant whom 
 De Brazza had left behiu':! as the representative of PVance, that he 
 learned v. hat h.ad been done. It is easy to imagine the vexation 
 of t'.;e d:sco\-crer of tl:c ("(.ngo and the agent of the King of the 
 l'(j'.c:;ans at his being outwitted in this fashion. But that did not 
 I'Tccnt l.;ni i:' m pr* -.'ceding at f nee to found Leopold\-ille almost 
 .'I'l' ng^idc (,i I;: -a/za\-inc'. M'irc'i\"cr, h,e discox'ered on making in- 
 qu:r:e-, th.at t'.e c'.iief will) wliom J )e Brazza treated had no suze- 
 rainty exec;/. ;ii ]i:s own tribe, and certainlv not on the south side of 
 t;.c r;\cr. I:i a few nv nth-,, indeed, the ('"rench station was removed 
 t ' t!.c < j :.'-:;( :^:i\c i tin; 1'. ^ol, the <Muth .-^ide being left entirely to 
 .^t.-inl(.-\- .-Mid tile Intei-natioird .Xs-^ociatiun.
 
 1880-1882 
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 
 
 73 
 
 Meantime De Brazza made his way down the river and back 
 to the Gaboon, where he expected to find a staff for the stations 
 he had founded. But no such support was forthcoming; so that, 
 exhausted as he was, De Brazza had once more to start for the 
 interior, with mechanics, gardeners, and other equipment for his 
 stations. Roads were made in other directions to the AHma, on 
 which a station was estabhshed, and down which it was intended to 
 take the expected steamer. After seeing everything in order, De 
 Brazza started for the coast in the beginning of 1882, and partly 
 
 THE CONGO REOIOM . 
 
 explored the Kwilu-Xiari River, on which meanwhile Stanley 
 was purposing- to establish a series of stations. This river, it was 
 thought, would furnish an easy and rapid access to Stanley Pool, 
 a short line of railroad sufficing to connect the two, and so the long 
 series of cataracts would be overcome. De Brazza followed the 
 river for some distance, when he had to return directly to the coast 
 owing to the hostility of the natives. He reached Paris in June, 
 1882, about three nifjnths before Stanley. 
 
 So far as France was concerned, it was evident that by this 
 time the international features of the enterprise, initiated by the 
 King of the Belgians, were entirely abandoned; and so it v^as in
 
 74 AFRICA 
 
 187S-1883 
 
 the case of all the nationalities which took any active part in the 
 work. Indeed, the international character of the association can 
 hardly l)c s;iid to have existed beyond the first Brussels meeting; it 
 rapidlv dejjcnerated into a national scramble. Clearly the achieve- 
 ments of Stanley and De Brazza on the Congo were bringing 
 .African atTairs to a crisis and intensifying the political character 
 c>f the expeditions which were now entering the continent on all 
 sides. 
 
 While Stanley was pushing toward the upper river, making 
 treaties and fcninding stations, and De Brazza and his companions 
 were moving about along the right bank, endeavoring to turn Stan- 
 ley's Hank, another power had entered the Congo field and threat- 
 ened to paralyze the efforts both of France and of the King of the 
 Belgians. Portugal had at last been aroused from her long lethargy. 
 She had sat for centuries within hail of this great river and had 
 never manifested any curiosity to discover whence it came or to 
 what uses it might be put. It was only when more energetic 
 powers began to do the work she ought to have done long before 
 that she interfered. 
 
 It was the flittings hither and thither of De Brazza, and his 
 indiscriminate distribution of tri-colors, that rearoused the ap- 
 prehensions of Portugal rearoused because the claim she insisted 
 on bringing to the attention of the British Government in 1882 had 
 been the subject of correspondence and negotiation since the begin- 
 ning of the centur}'. A Blue Book, published in 1883, covering 
 ninety pages, is entirely occupied with correspondence concerning 
 the claim of Portugal to the West African coast between 5 12' 
 and 8^ south latitude. In all this long correspondence, extending 
 down to 1877. Portugal never let an opportunity pass of claiming 
 sovereignty over the region in question. British vessels were con- 
 stantly liovering ab()Ut these coasts on the watch for slavers, and 
 Portugal constantly protested against their presence. It even 
 seemed at one time as if Great Britain would take possession of 
 jjart (;f this coast, a procedure which, according to the voluminous 
 correspondence on tlie subject, the native chiefs would have wel- 
 comed. Pcjrtugal was particularly jealous of any attempt to dis- 
 pute her right to the territories of Molemba and Cabinda, lying 
 nnmediately to the north of the Congo mouth territories which 
 figured auK^ng the titles of tlie Portuguese monarch, and which she 
 maintained had been in her possession since 1484; but England
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 75 
 
 1856-1882 
 
 never once admitted Portugal's claim to this stretch of coast. Her 
 Angola territories were held to end on the north at Ambriz, well 
 south of the mouth of the Congo; no effective possession could be 
 proved anywhere to the north of this. 
 
 After 1877 there seems to have been a lull in the reiteration 
 of these claims. About that time there had been some inhuman 
 cruelties perpetrated by traders upon the unfortunate natives around 
 the factories on the lower river cruelties which formed the sub- 
 ject of investigation on the part of the British Government. Por- 
 tugal, as her statesmen assured the British representative at Lisbon, 
 was filled with horror and indignation at these cruelties, and begged 
 that her right to the Lower Congo, and the coast north and south, 
 might be recognized, in order that she might feel herself empowered 
 to establish and maintain good government. But British states- 
 men at the time were obdurate, and the matter seems to have re- 
 mained in abeyance until 1882, when De Brazza's activity convinced 
 the Portuguese Government that one more desperate effort must 
 be made to obtain a hold over a coast-line whose value had been 
 greatly enhanced by Stanley's discovery. Orders had been issued 
 to Her Majesty's cruisers in 1856 to prevent by force any attempt 
 on the part of the Portuguese authorities " to extend the dominion 
 of Portugal north of Ambriz," and in 1876 the late Lord Derby 
 reminded the Duke of Saldanha that these orders were still in force. 
 They continued in force down to 1882, when, in a long communi- 
 cation, dated November 8, of that year, the Portuguese Government 
 approached Earl Granville, the Foreign Minister of that time, with 
 a renewal of Portugal's claim to the coast between 5 12' and 8 
 south latitude. 
 
 Lord Granville, unlike his predecessor, expressed without hesi- 
 tation the willingness of Her Majesty's Government, not to consider 
 the historic claims of Portugal over this coast, but to endeavor to 
 come to some arrangement for mutual advantage to the African 
 interests of both countries. It was pointed out, on behalf of Portu- 
 gal, how desirable it would be for a power so well known to have 
 the interests of civilization at heart, to have jurisdiction, not only 
 over the coast-line in question, but for an indefinite distance up the 
 Congo. She would give pledges that only the most moderate tariffs 
 would be imposed ; that traders of all nations would have equal 
 privileges with those of Portugal ; that the navigation of the river 
 would be absolutely free to all flags; and that every means would
 
 TG AFRICA 
 
 1882-1884 
 
 \)C taken to suppress slavcn- iti every form. Lord Granville, with 
 .ill his i^liant nrhanitv aiul his apparent indifference to the extension 
 of the empire, was astute enoui^h to donht llic zeal of Portugal for 
 the suppressic^n cf s!a\ery. ami to demand suhstantial concessions 
 on hehalf oi the interests of British trade and Ihilish missions. lie 
 saw in<uperahle ohieotiiiis to permitting Portugal to claim the right 
 i^i indefinite extension in the intcrit)r, for she more than hinted at 
 her ami)ition to unite her East and West African colonies. More 
 stringent stijiulations as to tariffs were demanded; a definite limit 
 to Portugal's claim to the Congo; respect for the interests of the 
 Congo Assi>ciation, and for the treaties which Britain had made 
 with the chiefs on th.e coast. On the other side of Africa the free 
 navigation of the Zamhczi was insisted ui)on ; the limit of the claims 
 i^'i i'ortugal on tlie Shire was to be drawn at the Ruo; the claims of 
 I'ortugal in the interior were to be recognized only as far as she 
 h,;ul etYectivcly occupied stations. After much interchange of let- 
 ters and draft treaties, a ''Congo Treaty" was at last agreed 
 u])oii, and signed on I""el)ruary 26. 1884. by which Great Britain 
 acknowledged the claim of Portugal to the line of coast in (lucstion, 
 with an interior limit at Xokki, on the south bank of the Congo, 
 bcl \v \'ivi. Other stipulations with reference to the Congo and 
 Zambezi were agreed t(^. similar in character to those already men- 
 tioned. In the original draft Lord Granville proposed that the 
 na\igatit'n of tlie Congo should be under an International Commis- 
 si. '-A. but owing to tlie resistance of Portugal this was finally changed 
 to an Anglo- Portuguc-c Commission. 
 
 It must be stated in excuse for Lord Granville's apparently 
 ready a-scnt to an arrangement which seemed to make over the 
 ("1 iigo to Portugal and tlie statement is made on very high author- 
 ity tiu'it lie was under tlie im]:)ression that the King of the IjcI- 
 g:ans, after oi-ganizing a.n administration on th.e Congo, intended 
 to make o\cr ;i'l his claims to luigland. whicli would thus have com- 
 mand of t'r.e v,':.)le ri\cr above its mouth. On tlie same authority, 
 there is rea.-cn to bclicNC that Stanley himself was under this 
 im])re^-:"n dnring all tlie time he was pushing the interests of the 
 k:ng on l;ie ri.cr. Wliether it was that the king had been misunder- 
 st.rKi. (;r liiai in t'le end I'.c clianged his mind fcjr his scheme seems 
 to ha\e dcvcloj)L'd in magnitude in spite oi himself we know that 
 k.e stuck to l.;s n\(r. At al! event-, it is rjnly right to refer to these 
 C(jndit!on3 m ju-:;ce [o L(jrd (iranville, on whose motives and action
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 77 
 
 1883-1884 
 
 as Foreign Minister it has been the fashion to place the worst con- 
 struction. 
 
 During the progress of the negotiations in 1883, Portugal, 
 feeling uneasy as to what might be the attitude of other powers, 
 especially of France, approached the government of the republic 
 with a view to inducing it to recognize her claims in the same sense 
 as the British Government proposed to do ; but as France would 
 not commit herself as to the miouth of the Congo, the negotiations 
 were allowed to drop. Lord Granville, in a communication of 
 January 7, 1884, declared that he abandoned the mixed commission 
 with the greatest reluctance. Had that been allowed to stand there 
 might have been but little opposition to the treaty on the part of 
 other powers, and certainly the difficulties which followed with 
 Portugal in the Zambezi region and Nyasaland would have been 
 avoided. As it was, v/hat with Great Britain's and Portugal's abso- 
 lute control over the mouth of the Congo, and France's designs on 
 the Niari-Kwilu, the Congo Association, which was soon to become 
 the Congo Free State, would be barred all access to the state except 
 through foreign territory. Lord Granville himself expressed doubts 
 as to whether the other powers would permit the treaty to stand ; 
 and his doubts were soon confirmed. 
 
 There was a universal protest from all the powers of Europe, 
 which was joined in by the English press, against allowing a power 
 like Portugal, which had been in Africa for four centuries and had 
 done nothing for its development, to liave the virtual command of 
 one of the finest rivers on the continent. Prince Bismarck appealed 
 with succe-ss to France to join Germany in endeavoring to attain a 
 solution of the difficulty, entering a protest at the same time at 
 Lisbon and at London. The proposal for an International Confer- 
 ence came, however, in the first instance from Portugal, who could 
 hardly expect to gain much by it. ^Meantime, even when the con- 
 ference was sitting in Berlin, slie took possession of certain points 
 to the north of the Congo, and stationed a squadron on the Congo 
 itself. Lord Granville endeavored to comprc^mise matters by ])ro- 
 posing to revert to the idea of an Liternational Commission; but 
 on June 26, 1884, he was compelled, under ])rcssure of public opin- 
 ion, to announce that he had abandoned the Congo Treaty. An 
 Liternational Conference becnne inevitable, and the programme 
 was virtually arranged ])et\vecn Germany and France a pro- 
 gramme accepted by i'Jigland, and having in view, among other
 
 78 A F R I C A 
 
 1884-1885 
 
 thiriR^s, the foundation of .1 I'rcc State on tlie Conpfo, without 
 absolutely Cw'm^ its Hniits. The other powers soon declared 
 their adhesion, and the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 was 
 agfree<l to. 
 
 Prince Bismarck's estimate of Portugal as a colonial power 
 was clcarlv expressed in a communication through Count Miinster 
 to Earl Granville with reference to the conference, dated June 7, 
 1884: 
 
 " We are not in a position to admit that the Portuguese or 
 anv other nation have a previous riglit there (on the Congo). We 
 share the fear wiiich, as Lord Granville admits, has been expressed 
 bv merchants of all nations, that the action of Portuguese officials 
 would be prejudicial to trade, and . . . we cannot take part 
 in any scheme for handing over the administration, or even the 
 direction, of these arrangements to Portuguese ofiicials. Even the 
 provision for limiting the dues to a maximum of ten per cent. the 
 basis of the Mozambi(]ue tariff would not be a sufficient protection 
 against the disadvantages which the commercial world rightly an- 
 ticipates would ensue from an extension of the Portuguese colonial 
 system over territories which have hitherto been free." 
 
 Meantime, let us see the vantage-ground whicli was being taken 
 up by the powers elsewhere before the final scramble began. The 
 struggle for the great region watered by the Xiger will be treated 
 at length in a subsequent chapter. Here it may be useful to indicate 
 the position just before the meeting of the Berlin Conference. 
 
 It has already been pointed out how much I^igland did for the 
 exploration of the Xiger and the development of its trade. In time 
 traders of other nationalities, chiefly Erench and German, were 
 attracted to the river, while among the English firms there was no 
 unity, each house trying to outbid the other for native products. 
 This fierce competition was in the end detrimental to the interests 
 ni all concerned. At length this became so c\idcnt that several 
 of the more important Knglisli houses were induced to form them- 
 selves into a United African Company, which in a short time was 
 able to command most of the markets and to regulate the prices of 
 native commorh'tics. But still there was trouble on the Niger and 
 cau^c fi -r mucli anxiety as to the fate of P)ritish interests. The 
 l'rit;-h Comjjany nnturallv endeavored to strengthen its hold and 
 extcnrl its operatioiT; (m the ri\er. among other means by making 
 treaties with the chiefs on its banks. It was only natural that the
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 79 
 
 1880-1884 
 
 French should not look upon these operations on the part of the 
 British with complacency. They had been steadily moving on to 
 the Upper Niger; and in 1880-1881 Colonel Gallieni advanced as 
 far as Sego, where he succeeded in planting the French flag. The 
 ultimate goal of the French was Timbuktu, and their aim was to 
 tap the Niger trade by connecting the upper river with the 
 navigable part of the Senegal by means of a railroad. 
 
 Meantime, France was doing her utmost elsewhere to make 
 this section of West Africa untenable for the British. The Gambia 
 colony was closed in until it was almost confined to the river. Sierra 
 Leone was shut out from the " Hinterland," and latterly some 
 attempts have been made to ruin the Gold Coast colonies and Lagos, 
 with but partial success. Even so late as 1884 there were two 
 French houses on the Niger besides a number of small English 
 houses. But the United African Company, by throwing its 
 shares open to the public, greatly increased its capital and 
 swept the F'rench houses entirely out of the river. The comipany 
 succeeded in 1884 in getting the treaties it had made with all the 
 chiefs from the mouth of the Niger to the Benue recognized by the 
 British Government, and a protectorate proclaimed over that part 
 of the river, though the upper course was still left insecure. The 
 French, on the one side, were casting longing eyes from the vantage- 
 ground they had gained on the Upper Niger, while the Germans 
 had not abandoned the hope of securing a footing outside the Brit- 
 ish protectorate. It was inevitable that this fine waterway should 
 come under the cognizance of any African conference, though the 
 actual crisis did not occur till after the Berlin meeting. When the 
 Berlin Conference met, the company had virtually no rivals on 
 the lower river, except the merchants who maintained houses 
 on the coast and the so-called Oil Rivers. These remained aloof 
 from the United Company. 
 
 At the same time it must be said that German traders also, 
 chiefly Hamburg houses, had their stations on the coast ; their trade 
 was largely in cheap spirits, with which they flooded the country. 
 At the Berlin Conference they exercised a powerful influence on 
 the attitude of Bismarck, and afforded the prince some excuse for 
 the annexations upon which he entered in 1884. 
 
 Two notable events in connection with French extension took 
 place in 1881. France had long dreamed of establisliing a route 
 from her Senegambian provinces to her Mediterranean possession,
 
 80 AFRICA 
 
 1881-1883 
 
 Algeria. If ?lic conlil succerd in construct inq- a railroad across the 
 Sahara, it wouKl. in licr estimation, draw down to tlic Mediter- 
 ranean tlie w!u>lc oi the trade of the Central Sudan, and so greatly 
 discoimi the \alue (''( tlic Xigor as a trade-route. In order to inves- 
 tiiratc tlie jM-acticability of a railri>ad. Colonel IHatters was sent out 
 from Algeria in iSSi to survey a route; but he had not gone far 
 into tlic deport before he and his jx'irty were attacked and massa- 
 cred bv tlie Ucvcc and iiulojKMident Tuaregs. This unfortunate dis- 
 aster s;ave the death blow for the time to all Trans-Saharan railroad 
 schemes. In ti.e same year that the Flatters expedition came to so 
 untimelv an end b'rance obtained some compensation in th.e annex- 
 ation of Tunis, on which she had long cast covetous eyes. France 
 had made up her mind thnt Tunis was necessary for her expansion 
 in Xorth Africa, and she took it. with the tacit consent of the other 
 European jiowers, whose approval she considered it advisable to 
 c^btain. and w itii no scruples as to the " integrity " of the Turkish 
 empire, wlu'cli in 1S94 she professed herself so anxious t(^ maintain. 
 In tin's way at one svs-Qop she added 45.000 sc|uare miles to her 
 African empire. Italy, which had also developed colonial aspira- 
 ti' ns. would have treated Tripoli as France did Tunis, but the 
 powers disai)provcd, and she had to be content with a small begin- 
 ning at the I>ay of Assab, on the Red Sea coast, op])(;site Aden. 
 This she to(>k over in i8!^o from a private shipping firm that had 
 had a station there since 1S65 ; in this way she became a near neigh- 
 bor to the b'rench territory at Obock. Th.e latter was not actually 
 occupied till 18S3, though it had been nominally a I'rench posses- 
 sion since i<S62; it forms a fairly convenient coaling-station, 
 and the I-Vcnch hope that it mav be a door to Abyssinia and 
 Shon. 
 
 Between i.'^75 and 1884 Great Britain had practically the whole 
 of Souili and I'^'ist Africa before her; but she did not realize the 
 value of her oj)portunitics. Responsible government had been 
 granted to the ("ape in 1872, but her statesmen \vere somewhat 
 tinrid ; rind ccn niojc timid were the statesmen of tlic mother coun- 
 try, v.ho d.nl n</L j^Tcally encourage advances toward the north, 
 St:!!, during t^e years in question, some ])rogrcss was made. Gri- 
 qua'.-in<l \\ c~l. to I'c iv-rll; of the L'pper Orange River, which had 
 cxi-tcd as a -eparntc jnDviMcc since 1871. was annexed to the Ca])e 
 in 1N77. t!;<---g!i it.- aciurd < ccupation did not take jjlacc till 1880. 
 On i;;e otr.er >:de of tl'.e fJrange r'rcc State the wliole oi the tcrri-
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 81 
 
 1875-1894 
 
 tories beyond the Kei River were included in the colony between 
 1877 and 1885, Basiitoland, annexed in 1871, was placed under 
 direct imperial rule in 1883. Here European settlement is pro- 
 hibited, and much attention is devoted to it as affording a sort of 
 native reserve. Bit by bit all the country between the Kei River, 
 Natal, and the Orange Free State was taken in, so that in 1884 
 British dominion, direct or indirect, extended, including Natal and 
 Zululand (not actually annexed till 1887), up to St. Lucia Bay, 
 with the exception of a section of Pondoland, which was not an- 
 nexed until 1894. It was in 1875 that Alarshal MacMahon, through 
 a partial arbitrament of claims, made over Delagoa Bay to the Por- 
 tuguese. It was only in 1887 that, by the Tonga Treaty, British 
 suzerainty was established up to the Portuguese boundary. A pre- 
 mature attempt to incorporate the Transvaal into the British Em- 
 pire proved a failure. One noteworthy event in the history of that 
 republic, and as affecting British interests in this part of Africa, 
 is the convention between it and Portugal whereby, among other 
 things, facilities were afforded for the construction of a railroad 
 from Delagoa Bay, by which it was hoped, so far as communications 
 are concerned, the Transvaal would be independent of British South 
 Africa. After the Boer War some Transvaal districts were added 
 to Natal (1903) ; in 1901, 626 miles of railroad were open in the 
 latter colony, and were connected with the Johannesburg and Pre- 
 toria lines. 
 
 In 1884, roused by the attempts at extension on the part of 
 the Transvaal, and latterly stimulated by the activity of Germany, 
 Great Britain took her first long step toward stretching her empire 
 up to and beyond the Zambezi. By the labors of Moffat, Living- 
 stone, and their successors, and by many years' intercourse with 
 hunters and traders, the Bechuanas had long been familiar with the 
 British ; Kuruman, Mafeking, Kolobeng, and Shoshong, taking us 
 into the heart of the Bechuana country, have been familiar to read- 
 ers of the records of missionary enterprises for nearly half a cen- 
 tury. Wliat with the Germans on the west, and the restless Boers 
 on the east, there was great danger of this extensive territory, Brit- 
 ish in everything but tlie name, slipping out of British hands. With 
 more than usual prom])titu(lc and daring, treaties were made in 
 May, 1884, with the native chiefs, whereby the whole of the country 
 north of Cape Colony, west of the Transvaal, south of 22^ south 
 latitude and east erf 20^ east longitude, was surrendered to Great
 
 82 AFRICA 
 
 1876-1885 
 
 Rritain. tliou.q:]i a Britisli protectorate was not actually proclaimed 
 till March. 1885. loiter in the same year the southern portion was 
 erected into the Crown Colony of British Bechuanaland. In this 
 protectorate native chiefs continue to exercise authority under a 
 resident commissioner. The northern and larger portion, in which 
 Khama. an exceptionally intelligent chief, was paramount, remained 
 a protectorate, with Khania's consent so proclaimed in May, 1885. 
 All this was not brought about without much tact and firmness on 
 the part of Sir Charles Warren, who entered the territory with an 
 armed force to carry out the annexation. It was not without many 
 reservations and doubts that Khama at last agreed to the proposals 
 brought before him by Sir Charles, but in the end he gave in his 
 adherence to the queen and remained consistently loyal thereafter. 
 And well he might, for it bound England as his suzerain to protect 
 him against the raids of his old enemy, Lobengula of Matabeleland. 
 Sechclc and other cliiefs followed Khama's example, and so some 
 ir)0.cxx) square miles were added to the British Empire. This, 
 however, was not accomplished without much hesitation and vacil- 
 lation on the part of Gladstone's government, in power from 
 1880 to 1885. and under whose regime Great Britain lost much that 
 she might have kept had there been more promptitude on the part 
 of the Colonial Office and Cape government. Events later led to 
 the annexation of the Transvaal under Lord Beaconsfield's govern- 
 ment, and tiien to its retrocession under his successor. The action 
 of Germany in 1884 roused both the home and the Cape gov- 
 ernments from their lethargy, and compelled them to make 
 haste to prevent Germany from entirely blocking the way to the 
 Zambezi. 
 
 It is difficult to understand why the Cape did not formally 
 annex Damaraland and Namaqualand in 1876. This extensive 
 rcgir)n seems, indeed, even before Palgrave's mission, to have been 
 regarded informally as an appendage to the Cape, which had 
 had relations with it ever since the end of the eighteenth century. 
 Palgrave repre>cnted to the natives the great advantage of their 
 being unrler tlie protection of the colony, and to tliis it would seem 
 they liarl no objection. But all that was accomplished at the time 
 was the formal annexation of Walfish Bay and the surrounding 
 di'^tnct, tile c=t,'il)lisliment of a magistracy there, and a residency at 
 the kraal of tlie cliicf of the Kamahereros. Magistrates and their 
 staffs were sui)]jortc(l by tlie Cape, which then went to sleep until
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 83 
 
 1884-1885 
 
 rudely awakened by the raising of the German flag at Angra Pe- 
 quena in 1884. 
 
 Meantime, in 1885, the home government brought the subject 
 of South African confederation before the Cape Government in a 
 dispatch from the Earl of Carnarvon to the governor. The idea 
 was to incorporate under the suzerainty of the British Crown the 
 whole of British South Africa, along with the Orange Free State 
 and the Transvaal. Mr. Froude was sent out as the representative 
 of the Colonial Office to take part in the proposed conference. But 
 the opposition to confederation was so strong that no conference 
 was held, and Mr, Froude had to content himself with lecturing on 
 the subject at a series of public meetings. Conferences were after- 
 ward held in London on the subject, but no progress was made. 
 Confederation is still talked of, and talked of hopefully; and under 
 the new conditions, arising from the enormous extension of British 
 South Africa, some form of federation is apparently becoming in- 
 evitable. 
 
 As early as 1870 the gold fields of Matabeleland had attracted 
 diggers and settlers; Mohr, on his journey to the Zambezi about 
 that date, found Sir John Swinburne and other Englishmen set- 
 tled at Tati and working the quartz reefs. Baines had already been 
 in Matabeleland, and later still Selous and other hunters traversed 
 the country between the Limpopo and Zambezi ; English mission- 
 aries were at work, and in other ways British influence was being 
 spread in a region which has now become part of the empire 
 and promises to be one of the most important acquisitions in 
 Africa. 
 
 North of the Zambezi the spread of British influence, which 
 had been begun by Livingstone in 1859, was continued, with one 
 or two breaks, by the establishment of various English and Scotch 
 missions on the Upper Shire and on Lake Nyasa ; by the placing of 
 steamers on the lake; the establishment of trading stations by the 
 African Lakes Company which was founded in 1878; and by ex- 
 ploring journeys in various directions. A road was constructed by 
 a British engineer, James Stewart, between Lakes Nyasa and 
 Tanganyika. Plantations were established on the Blantyre High- 
 lands ; schools were opened at various points over Nyasaland ; in- 
 dustries were introduced, and natives trained in their practice; 
 doctors worked hand in hand with the missionaries; strenuous 
 efforts were made to put a stop to the slave-trade. Thus, in spite
 
 84 AFRICA 
 
 1866-1885 
 
 of the somcwliat feeble action (^f the Lakes Company, British influ- 
 ence was firmly established (uer all the Lake Nyasa rej^ion by the 
 critical year of 1S1S4, while Portugal had made no attempt to take 
 effective possession of the country. 
 
 I-'arther north, at Zanzibar and on all the extensive strip of 
 coast under the sultan's jurisdiction. British influence was supreme 
 from 1S73 to 1884. Sir John Kirk, who had been attached to the 
 British agency at Zanzibar since 1866, had, since 1868, been in 
 actual charge of the post, with ever-growing influence and increas- 
 ing power. He carried out efl"ectually the policy of his predecessors, 
 and under him British influence became more and more dominant. 
 The whole policy of the sultanate was framed to suit the wishes of 
 the British Government. It was under pressure from England, as 
 has been seen, that the sultan, nominally, at least, abolished the 
 slave-trade. Almost the entire commerce of East Africa was in 
 the liands of British firms and British subjects from India. It was 
 to promote the abolition of the slave-trade and to encourage legiti- 
 mate commerce that some sixty miles of road into the interior from 
 Dar-cs-Salaam were constructed. So long ago as 1878 the then 
 Sultan Sey'id Burghash actually offered to make over the commer- 
 cial exploitation of the whole of his dominions to the late Sir Wil- 
 liam Mackinnon, the chairman of the British India Steam Naviga- 
 tion Coni])any, whose firm had long had intimate trade relations 
 with Zanzibar. Mackinnon urged the government of the dav (Lord 
 llcaconsfield's) to authorize the acceptance of this offer and to sup- 
 port him by declaring Zanzibar a British protectorate, a proceeding 
 which Would have been in accordance with the sultan's wishes. ]jut 
 even Lord Bcaconsfield, with all his imperial " instincts," slirank 
 from assuming the responsi])iIity. Even he had no susi)icion of 
 the colonial as))irations of Germanv, which had already taken deep 
 root; or if he had. he did not foresee to what they would lead. At 
 all events, the op]K)rtunity was let slip here as it was in Damaraland : 
 Briti>h influence, it may have been thought, was real enough witli- 
 out saddling h^ngland with a protectorate. Y\nd the loss has prob- 
 ably not been so great as at first sight appears; what precisely that 
 loss has been will be seen later on. 
 
 In tlie L'jjpcr Xile regions the Egyptian Sudan, which be- 
 tween 1875 and 1884 had been extended as far south as Albert 
 Xyan/.a the struggle with the ftjrces of the Alahdi was at its 
 lioucst in ll;c lalicr year; but it was not until 1885 that the Egyp-
 
 Tii:: .MiKiir.k OF (,k.\i:k.\i. (.hkdux ]:\ iiii': maiiih uekkls .\kti:k thf.ik 
 
 fArri'Ki-: of kh \KI'I^r 
 
 /'alutiiii; />) W. G. Joy
 
 ENGLAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL 85 
 
 1885-1886 
 
 tian Government abandoned, after the death of Gordon, the region 
 south of Wady Haifa. This was done by the advice of England, 
 who continued to hold Suakin, and established herself at Zeila and 
 Berbera, on the Somali coast. The Island of Sokotra was placed 
 within the British sphere in 1875, though it was not till 1886 that 
 it was actually annexed. Italy had been hovering around it in the 
 former year and it was rumored that she desired to annex it as a 
 convict station.
 
 Chapter IX 
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD. 1884 
 
 IRT lis briclly resume tlie position in 1884. Up to that year 
 the great Rurojiean i)o\vers in Africa were England, France 
 ^ and rortugal. This last power claimed enormous terri- 
 tories, but her inlluence was feeble, and her actual occupation of 
 the most limited character. The idea of joining her east and west 
 coast possessions by a broad band across the continent had only 
 been hinted at. England had virtually agreed to consent to her 
 taking possession of the strip of country from 5 12' to 8 south, 
 including the mouth of the Congo. The Congo Free State did not 
 exist, and the King of the Belgians could only be regarded as the 
 chief of a semi-private enterprise of a pseudo-international charac- 
 ter. France was firmly established in Algeria and Tunis. She was 
 rapidly extending her conquests from the west coast toward the 
 Ui)per Niger, and had carried her Gaboon territories over an im- 
 mense area down to the Congo. She had latent claims to one or 
 two points on the Gold Coast, and was struggling to bring Mada- 
 gascar under her sway. At Obock, on the Red Sea, she had a locus 
 standi, but not much more. Great Britain was practically supreme 
 in South Africa up to the Orange River and Delagoa Bay. She 
 believed no power would dream of questioning her claims to Da- 
 maralaiid and Xamacpialand as her sphere of influence a phrase, 
 however, which can hardly be said to have existed then. At the 
 same time it must be said that there were serious thoughts at the 
 Cape of abandoning Walfish Bay entirely; and that was the only 
 position actually occupied by the Cape authorities. The Damaras 
 were in a chronic state of war, and the few whites in tlieir terri- 
 tories in C(;nsiant dread of attack. lVei)arations were already on 
 foot to inchulc ihe whole of Bechuanaland, for the commission to 
 .Sir Hercules Ixobinson to locjk after British interests in that region 
 was is-ued in l-"cbruary, T.SS4. 
 
 On tlic we>t coast England held on half-hesitatingly to her 
 I'jur colonies, while the Niger Cijmjjany was extending its influence 
 
 8G
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 87 
 
 1884 
 
 on the river and buying out all rivalry. In Nyasaland missionaries 
 and traders were fairly at work extending and consolidating British 
 influence. Many settlements had been planted on the borders of 
 Matabeleland and British travelers were opening up a country about 
 which little or nothing could be learned from Portuguese sources. 
 At Zanzibar British influence was supreme, though German traders 
 were doing their best to supplant English goods by cheap conti- 
 nental wares. The Transvaal was still in a state of irritation against 
 the British Government : her borders were unsettled, and even so 
 far back as 1874 and 1878 she had toyed with the idea of a German 
 protectorate, and in 1883 Boer commissioners went to Berlin osten- 
 sibly to raise a loan, actually to endeavor to get rid of the still re- 
 maining results of 1877- 1879. Egypt was fast losing hold of the 
 Sudan ; Italy was casting covetous eyes on Tripoli, while her trav- 
 elers were exploring Abyssinia and Shoa. Spain can hardly be 
 said to have established her footing on the Western Sudan coast, 
 though she claimed rights on the River Muni. 
 
 Such was the position of affairs in Africa when Germany 
 entered the field and precipitated the comparatively leisurely parti- 
 tion of the continent into a hasty scramble. Prince Bismarck was 
 still the de facto ruler of an empire which had grown in unity and 
 strength and wealth since its birth at Versailles in 1871, whose mer- 
 chants were finding new markets all over the world, whose people 
 were emigrating in thousands every year to strengthen the British 
 colonies. Germany was fretting under the conviction that without 
 foreign possessions she could never be considered a great world- 
 power; she was tired of a stay-at-home policy. 
 
 Cataclysms do not occur in the history of humanity any more 
 than they do in the physical world. Those who are competent to 
 look beneath the surface have no difficulty in discovering that what 
 seems an unaccountably sudden event or catastrophe is simply the 
 natural and inevitable result of forces that have been accumulating 
 and growing in intensity over a long period of time. The world at 
 large was astonished at the apparently inexplicable outburst of col- 
 onizing zeal on the part of Germany in the early part of 1884; and 
 none were apparently more surprised than the British Foreign 
 Ofiice and the government of the Cape, though both might well have 
 been prepared for what occurred. As lias already been pointed out, 
 the desire to possess colonies is no impulse of recent birth in Ger- 
 many. In Germany, as in other European countries, after the con-
 
 88 A F RICA 
 
 1843-1849 
 
 tinent had had time to recover from the Napoleonic incubus, popu- 
 laiii>n increased and competition became more and more intense; 
 and as discontent with their con(htion spread anions;- the lower 
 strata of siK'iety the fever for emigration laid hold of the country. 
 There was really no (icrmany then, no united and powerful empire 
 with surplus wealth and surplus energy to acquire colonies for itself. 
 Moreover, even ill'ty years ago, when the migrating spirit began 
 to increase in strength, all the new fields of settlement most suited 
 t' r.uropeans were occupied by other powers. The United States. 
 C'anaila. South America, Australia, and the Cape were crying out 
 for colonists; there was room for millions of fresh incomers, with 
 an almost perfect climate, a soil that had only to be scratched to 
 yield the richest harvests, and rumors of boundless stores of gold. 
 It is no wonder, then, that the discontented surj)lus population of 
 Germany flocked for the most part to the temperate regions of the 
 Americas, and a small proportion both to Australia and the Cape. 
 r>ut even sixty years ago there was a feeling in Germany that Ger- 
 mans ought to have some place of their own beyond the seas to 
 which they might go; that it was a pity for her sturdy sons and 
 lusty daugliters to be utilized simply to infuse fresh vigor and en- 
 terprise into colonies in which the Anglo-Saxon race was dominant. 
 We find, then, those Germans interested in colonization trying ex- 
 jicriments on various parts of the earth, including lands already 
 occupied by their English cousins. It is not surprising that Africa 
 does not seem to have been thought of. for Africa was all but 
 unknown beyond its seaboard. There v^-as at that date, not only in 
 Germany, but even in England, considerable attention given to 
 Brazil as a field for colonization. Certainly it was to this enormous 
 country that th.e efforts of what we may call independent German 
 c-iloiiization were first directed. As early as 1843 a society was 
 founded in Dusseldorf for the purpose of promoting emigration to 
 P)razil. This was rapidly followed by other colonization societies, 
 sonic directing tlicir attcntitjn to Texas, others to the AIos(|uito 
 ("oa-t, to Xicaragua, to Chile. In 1849 a society for the ccntraliza- 
 t;"!i of German C(jlonization was founded at Berlin, but soutliern 
 lirazil wa> llie favorite sphere, and a considerable share of emigra- 
 ti'-n was (h'rccted to tliat region, where, as a matter of fact, tlierc 
 are at tlie jne-ent dav numei-ous flourishing German colonies, or, 
 as they ^li^uld i)erhap> he called, settlements, since the territory on 
 which they are planted belong-, to the Brazilian Government. iVlost
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 89 
 
 1866-1878 
 
 of these societies, however, expired without producing permanent 
 results. 
 
 The events of 1866 gave an impulse to the colonial movement 
 in Germany; but far more so the results of the war with France 
 and the reconstitution of the German Empire, under the hegemony 
 of Prussia, in 1871. Into the various causes which contributed to 
 give this intensely forward impulse to Germany it is unnecessary to 
 enter; all the scattered energies of Germany in the direction of 
 colonization, as in other directions, were united in one strong cur- 
 rent. But even before 1871 one of the most important societies 
 for the promotion of German interests abroad had been founded 
 the " Centralverein filr Handels-geo graphic und Forderung 
 deiitscher Interesse im Auslande." This society had its headquar- 
 ters in Berlin, with branches in all the leading cities of the empire, 
 and even in Brazil, Argentina, and New South Wales. The pro- 
 fessed objects of the society were: "The study of those lands in 
 which organized German settlements already exist; the social and 
 commercial conditions and the spread of information thereon ; the 
 promotion of emigration to regions where settlers of German origin 
 are already established, under conditions favorable to the genius 
 of the German people; the promotion of intellectual and material 
 intercourse between the German colonial settlements and the Ger- 
 man fatherland; and lastly, furthering the establishment of trade 
 and navigation and the acquisition of colonies." The programme 
 is certainly ambitious and comprehensive enough, and no doubt the 
 society in its meetings and those of its branches, and through its 
 ably conducted weekly organ, Export, has done much, not only 
 to promote German commerce, but also to foster the colonial 
 spirit. 
 
 But so far as Africa was concerned the great instrument in 
 nourishing the growth of the spirit for acquiring colonies w\as the 
 German African Society of Berlin, which combined with the scien- 
 tific exploration of the continent the opening up of unknown 
 regions of Africa to trade and industry. The society was formed 
 in 1878, from the union (jf the German Society for the Scientific 
 Exploration of Equatorial Africa, founded five years before, and 
 the German African Society, founded in 1876, as a branch of the 
 International African Association, with more practical if somewhat 
 vague objects in view. German explorers had already done much 
 for Africa, but the action of King Leopola m founding the Interna-
 
 90 AFRICA 
 
 1t76-1884 
 
 tionnl Association, with its numerous national branches, attracted 
 more attention than ever to Central Africa, from the utilitarian 
 ptMiit of view. German stations were founded at Kakoma and 
 other centers in the Ivast African interior, from which much good 
 exploring work was carried on toward Lake Tanganyika and the 
 upper waters of tlie Lualaba. Tiie German African Association 
 siiowed even more enterprise in West Africa than in East Africa. 
 Shortly after its promotion, Dr. Biichner and Dr. Pogge pene- 
 trated from Angola into the interior of the IVIuata Yanvo's king- 
 dom of Lunda. while Wissmann's first work in Africa was carried 
 out in the same region in 1 881-1884. Others followed in the same 
 direction, and there is no douht that about this period Bismarck 
 entertained serious ideas of acquiring a footing in the Congo basin. 
 During 1882- 1884 Flegel was extremely active on the Niger and 
 Bcnue. and undoubtedly did much to add to our knowledge of the 
 geograpliy of the region. At the same time, after-events proved 
 that he kept commercial interests keenly in view. 
 
 All this activity turned the attention of Germany more and 
 more to Africa, and helped to foster the rapidly growing colonial 
 spirit which was still further strengthened by the doings of other 
 jiowcrs between 1876 and 1884. Thus, by the beginning of the 
 latter year, this pent-up energy was ready to burst forth into action 
 whenever Bismarck chose to open the sluice gate. The activity 
 of all the associations referred to, the increasing flow of emigration 
 which went to swell the prosi)erity of other countries, the growth 
 u\ commerce, sliipping and manufacturing industry, the increase 
 of the Prussian navy all helped to foster the longing of Germany 
 fjr c(jK)nies of her own. 
 
 It was no wonder, tlien, that when the German Colonial So- 
 ciety was f(junde(l at Frankfort, on December 6, 1882, it received 
 wi(le>};rea(l and enthusiastic support. By the end of 1883 it had 
 3_'rxj nicmljcrs bcl<jnging to all parts of the empire. Still another 
 im])ul>c \\a< gi\cn to tlie colonial movement by a manifesto issued 
 by the Cjerman African Society in the same year. In this it was 
 slated that tlie activity of the society would be concentrated in cer- 
 tain (li.-trici>, e>])ecially the basins of the Xiger and Congo, and it 
 was urged tliat the (German Government should take steps to prevent 
 these regi<ins from being annexed by any European power, and to 
 {jrovide that they -hould he open to the traders of all nations. 
 Another powerful influence, was at the same time brought to
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 91 
 
 1878-1879 
 
 bear upon Bismarck, one which perhaps more than any other de- 
 termined him to take the final action. He had asked the Chambers 
 of Commerce of Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck, to express their 
 views as to what would be the most effective means to protect and 
 encourage German trade, especially in Africa. The replies all 
 pointed, more or less directly, to annexation; that of the Ham- 
 burg Chamber especially, which went into the whole subject in 
 detail, urged with incisive clearness the annexation of independent 
 coast regions, the acquisition of a naval station on Fernando Po, 
 and the conclusion of treaties with native chiefs. It was this mani- 
 festo from Hamburg, probably, which determined Bismarck to 
 bring the British Foreign Office to book w^ithout delay with ref- 
 erence to the question he had already laid before it as to the pro- 
 tection of German interests in Southwest Africa. 
 
 At first it must be said, the colonial movement did not find 
 much favor in the eyes of German officialdom. Bismarck himself, 
 it need hardly be said, was always open-minded, watching the 
 moment when it would be safe for him to intervene. Long before 
 1884 feelers were put out by him to ascertain how the pulse of 
 Prussia beat with regard to foreign possessions. Even as far back 
 as the sixties a Prussian squadron returned from a prospecting 
 voyage in eastern Asiatic waters, and in an apparently harmless 
 description of the voyage in the public press a suggestion was made 
 that Formosa would form an excellent naval station for Prussian 
 ships, and might even be utilized as a colony. Later on, Delagoa 
 Bay, the Sulu Archipelago, a part of North Borneo, and other 
 places were referred to in the same tone. But though these feelers 
 attracted attention and drew forth protests from foreign countries, 
 they met with no popular response in Germany. It was only after 
 Germany became a united empire under Prussia in 1871, possessed 
 of a navy growing in strength which took the sons of the Father- 
 land in greater and greater numbers over the seas, that the interest 
 in trans-oceanic matters and in colonial questions began to grow 
 in breadth and depth. Not only the articles which appeared in 
 the periodical press, but various books which were published on 
 the subject of colonization, all tended to help forward the move- 
 ment. 
 
 Two of the most important, certainly two of the most in- 
 fluential, of these publications, were Dr. Emil Jung's " Deutsche 
 Kolonien" (1879), and Friedrich Fabri's '' Bedarf Dcutschland
 
 9S AFRICA 
 
 1840-1891 
 
 di'r Knlonicn-'" (1883).* The latter, especially, had a marked in- 
 tluencc ill intensifying the colonial spirit in Germany, so much so 
 that wiien l-'abri died, in iSgi, he was referred to in the German 
 press as the father of German colonization. 
 
 It was ahout the year 1840 that Hamburg houses be^an to have 
 intimate tratiiiig relations with the west coast of Africa. At first 
 they had great difticulties in getting their goods into the African 
 market, tlie traders of other nationalities stigmatizing them as 
 " (German trasli " : it was indeed only by giving their wares good 
 English and I'rench trade-marks that they succeeded in securing 
 a footing at all. But the Hamburg traders managed to make head- 
 way, and in 1852 the well-known Hamburg firm of Woermann 
 entered into successful trading relations with Liberia, and by 1859 
 had factories at various points of the coast, between the Cameroons 
 and the Gaboon, and even as far south as Angola. The Woermanns 
 were soon followed by tlie O'Swalds and Hansings of Hamburg, 
 wno in the fifth decade of the past century secured a footing at Zan- 
 zibar. In 1854 the O'Swalds established a factory at Lagos, before 
 it became a British colony, and soon did a flourishing business by 
 importing from Zanzibar enormous quantities of cowrie shells, the 
 local currency, which they exchanged for native products. These 
 were followed in their African ventures by other Hamburg and 
 Bremen firms, and in 1859 the three Hanse towns concluded a 
 commercial treaty with the Sultan of Zanzibar by which certain 
 trade privileges were accorded to them. Ten years later this 
 treaty was made to cover tlie whole of the North German Confed- 
 eration. After the formation of the confederation, and especially 
 after the conversion into one United Empire, the trade of Ger- 
 many increased with giant strides, and the factories on the west 
 coa-t of .Africa became more and more numerous, while commer- 
 cial intercourse with Zanzibar grew steadily. In the beginning of 
 1SS4 there were some fifteen German firms, mostly of Hamburg 
 and I'remcn. whicli had among them about sixty factories on the 
 wcrit coa.-i 111 Africa, extendnig from Portuguese Guinea down 
 tlircnigli Liberia, tlie Guinea Coast, the Cameroons, the Gabocjn, 
 t!ie (|l( AC. and tr.e Congo mouth, to Damaraland. In addition 
 the Xorih German and the Basel ^Missionary Societies had some 
 hundred -taiion-, all alcjng tlie west coast, and a considerable num- 
 
 ^ To ilu-f ^h.rnld I)(j ruMed V.. von Weber, "Die Erweitcrung des deutschen 
 Wirtschaflryebieic.-,"' etc. Leipzig, 1879. Ed.
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 93 
 
 1874-1884 
 
 ber in the interior of Damaraland and Namaqualand. Thus when 
 in 1884 Bismarck took the decisive step in the creation of a " Co- 
 lonial Empire," it was not the remains of the old Brandenburg 
 Fort of Gross-Friedrichsburg alone and the . scientific work which 
 had been done by German explorers, that suggested Africa as an 
 inviting field; there were substantial German interests all along 
 the west coast clamoring for the protection of the German fiag. 
 It was, moreover, natural that German traders should desire to have 
 fields for their energies independent of the competition of foreign 
 rivals, in which they could impose their own tariffs, and have it 
 all their own way. It is probably known to few that as long ago 
 as 1874 the Sultan of Zanzibar made overtures for the purpose 
 of having his territory placed under German protection ; but Bis- 
 marck, whatever his personal inclinations, knew that at that time 
 there was no chance of obtaining a hearing for such a proposal 
 in the German Parliament, and therefore declined it. Ten 3'ears 
 later the position had entirely changed. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the long and irritating corre- 
 spondence which took place between the Foreign Offices of Ger- 
 many and Great Britain with regard to the claims of German 
 subjects in the Fiji Islands had much to do in fostering the colonial 
 spirit in Germany and precipitating action in Africa as well as 
 elsewhere. The whole tone of the communications of the British 
 Foreign Office on the subject reveals the fact that the colonial 
 aspirations of Germany were either unknown in that quarter or 
 were not taken seriously. But when the first step was taken in 
 Africa no time was lost in coming to an understanding with Ger- 
 many with reference to her claims. 
 
 Here let us once more recall the fact that in her new departure 
 Germany's choice was practically restricted to tropical Africa and 
 the tropical Pacific. It was only in Central Africa that au}^ Euro- 
 pean power desirous of acquiring foreign possessions, and not 
 caring to go to war for them, had a free hand. At the same time, 
 it will be seen, an effort was made on bclialf of Germany to obtain 
 a footing on the south of the Zambezi. It was natural, moreover, 
 that a beginning should be made in West Africa, where German 
 interests were so wi(lcs})rea(l and so important. 
 
 From the beginning of the last century missionaries from 
 South y\frica had ])enetratcd into Xam.'Kjualand .and Damaraland to 
 carry on their work among the natives in a region much of which is
 
 94 AFRICA 
 
 1842-1864 
 
 not very far removed from the desert stapfe. Some of these mission- 
 aries were of (icrinan nationality, but they were in the service of 
 the London Missionary Society. As has been seen in a previous 
 chapter, however, expeditions were sent from the Cape in the last 
 century, when it was a Dutch colony, to report upon this part of 
 the country, and. as a matter of fact, part at least of the coast 
 re.q:ion had been annexed to the colony. This annexation was 
 allowed to lapse, or was forgotten : at any rate no reference was 
 made to it when the Cape Government protested against the recent 
 German occujiation. Seventy years ago, when the only route to 
 India was by St. Helena and the Cape. Walfish Bay was utilized 
 for the purpose of exporting cattle to supply the ships calling at 
 St. Helena ; for the country can support considerable herds. But 
 no step was then taken toward actual annexation to the Cape, and 
 in time the cattle export fell off. though in more recent years it 
 has been revived from the Cape. In 1842 the Rhenish Mission 
 established its first station at Bethanien in Namaqualand. Other 
 stations in the interior were founded, and the German missionaries 
 made numerous converts and acquired considerable influence; at 
 the same time they did not deem it inconsistent with their spiritual 
 functions to carry on trade with the natives in a small way. Walfish 
 Bay still continued to be of importance as the chief harbor on the 
 whole extent of coast-line. In time, the disputes and wars which 
 arose among the natives endangered the lives and property of the 
 Rlienish missionaries, and they appealed, in 1868. to their govern- 
 ment for protection. The Prussian Government at once communi- 
 cated with tlie British Government and suggested a joint demon- 
 stration of English and German warships. England did not 
 approve of this, but expressed herself ready to extend the same 
 protection to German subjects as she would to her own; of course 
 this implied on the part of England that she claimed Damaraland 
 and Xamaqualand as witliin her sphere, a claim tacitly acknowl- 
 e<!L(C(l l)y Germany. As a matter of fact, England neither directly 
 n^r iiiniugh the Cape Government exercised any real inlluence in 
 the country. 
 
 It was at this periorl that the Germans actually acquired, 
 for the first time, territory in this country which they could 
 call their own. In 1864 the missionaries bought the groimd and 
 btuldings of the Walfish Bay Cop])cr Company at Otyimbingue, 
 s>Anc distance Uj the nfjrlhcasl of the bay; and here they took
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 95 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 every opportunity to hoist the flag of their country. Trade, more- 
 over, went on expanding, and a missionary trading society was 
 actually founded in Barmen. This trade had, however, to be car- 
 ried on through the Cape, the tariffs of which somewhat hampered 
 it, and latterly these tariffs were also applied to Walfish Bay, when 
 the Germans sought to have direct communication with Europe, 
 and Boers from the Transvaal began to break into the country. 
 Sir Bartle Frere, who was governor of the Cape from 1877 to 1881, 
 was shrewd enough to see what might be the end of these aspira- 
 tions on the part of German missionary traders, but his expressed 
 fears of German designs were ridiculed, and it was only to please 
 the " old man," as he was called, that Walfish Bay and fifteen miles 
 round it were declared British territory in March, 1878. Previous 
 to this Mr. Palgrave had visited and reported on the country, 
 and had made treaties with the most powerful chiefs. The gov- 
 ernor of the Cape had urged that the whole country should be 
 formally annexed, but the government of the period (Beacons- 
 field's) would not go beyond Walfish Bay, where a feeble show 
 of administration not extending beyond the station was established. 
 Frequent complaints were made by the German missionaries 
 of their treatment by the natives, and at last Mr. Palgrave was 
 compelled to formally intimate that Great Britain had no power 
 over the native chiefs. Evasive answers were returned to the 
 memorials from the missionaries asking definitely whether they 
 could reckon on the protection of England. At last an appeal was 
 made to the German consul at the Cape and to the imperial gov- 
 ernment, with the result that in 1880 all British officials were 
 withdrawn from Damaraland, and only Walfish Bay remained 
 under the British flag. During 1880 fresh representations con- 
 tinued to be made by the German missionaries who claimed 5000 
 converts, and substantial commercial interests in the country as 
 to the uncertainty of their position. Again Bismarck begged the 
 British Foreign Office to say whether the government were pre- 
 pared to protect both English and German interests in Damaraland 
 and Namaqualand in view of the fact tliat war was raging in the 
 country. Lord Granville, who was at the head of the Foreign 
 Office at the time, followed the example set by his predecessor, 
 Beaconsfield, and repudiated all responsibility outside of Walfish 
 Bay; and to make tlie position ciuite clear, in the instructions given 
 to Sir Hercules Robinson as governor of Cape Colony, under date
 
 96 AFRICA 
 
 ie80-1883 
 
 neoenil)cr 30. iSSo. it was distinctly stated that the British Govern- 
 ment retrarilcd the ()ran;:;o River as the northwestern boundary of 
 Cape Ci>K>nv. and would lend no encouragement to the establisli- 
 ment of British juristlicticm in Damaraland and Namaqualand out- 
 side of W'alfish Ray. The arran.q-cmcnt with regard to the latter 
 would not he disturbed so long as the Cape Parliament continued 
 to be resp(Misihle for the expenses of its maintenance. This was 
 clear enough, and Cape Colony was apparently quite willing to 
 accjuiesce in the practical abandonment of the territory. 
 
 Still, the German missionaries were not satisfied, and the 
 German Government showed itself quite ready to sympathize with 
 their position and to support their complaints. In August, 1881, 
 they again approached the German Government, and begged that 
 a Gcrm;m war-ship should be sent to protect their interests. In 
 October of the same year, in reply to a further communication from 
 Berlin, the British Foreign Office once more repudiated all re- 
 sponsibility outside of the narrow circle around Walfish Bay. 
 
 Such, then, was the position between Great Britain and Ger- 
 many in the end of 1882, with reference to a great stretch of terri- 
 tory on the border of Cape Colony. Neither at home nor in the 
 Ca|)e Colony was there any suspicion, apparently, that Germany 
 was in the least likely to settle down as a colonial power at the 
 t'lreshold of \l:e Cape. It should be remembered that a very strong 
 feeling existed among all parties at home, at that date, against 
 the extension of imperial resj)onsibility. As a matter of fact, how- 
 ever, whatever may have been the conception which prevailed in 
 London, there is no doubt that at the Cape, Damaraland and Na- 
 maqualand were somewhat vaguely regarded as within the colonial 
 " spliere of influence." But the e\'cnts with which we are dealing 
 occurred bet\>re the date of the Berlin Congres-s, and the principle 
 of " splieres of influence " had not been laid down as one of the 
 ru]c> in tlic great game of colonial aggrandizement. It is, more- 
 over, ditVicult to realize the vast change which has taken place 
 since 1883 in the prevailing conception of the relation between the 
 moil;er country and licr colonies. The idea of the solidarity of the 
 enqiire may by c<impari.n be said to have scarcely existed at that 
 time; inipcriali.-m has now a totally different meaning from w^hat 
 il then had. At tj;at time neitlier the one party nor the other 
 fc^re-aw what tr.e near future had in store; Bcaconsfield was as 
 indiiicrent, (jr a-: blii^d, a^ Granville. The truth is that no one took
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 97 
 
 1882-1883 
 
 Germany's colonial aspirations seriously; no one seems to have 
 dreamed that she would ever be likely to make large annexations, 
 either on the Pacific or in Africa. It was hardly realized that in 
 the short space of twelve years, after the union of the empire, 
 Germany was ready to become a great world-power. We have seen 
 how strong the colonial movement had become in Germany, and 
 how carefully Bismarck was feeling the pulse of the country. It 
 seems surprising that after all the correspondence which had taken 
 place between the two governments, the suspicion of the British 
 Foreign Office was not aroused ; for it can scarcely be doubted that 
 had Bismarck been taken seriously, something would have been 
 done to retain Damaraland and Namaqualand within the British 
 sphere, if for no other reason, with a view to a united Brit- 
 ish Africa south of the Zambezi. Apparently up to the final mo- 
 ment, when the German flag was raised on the coast of Namaqua- 
 land, neither in London nor at the Cape was it believed that the 
 correspondence which had been going on for twenty-five years 
 would result in action by Germany. 
 
 " Oluie Hast, ohnc Rast," has been the motto of Germany in 
 her colonial enterprises, as it has been in other spheres at least, 
 until she has actually entered into possession. She proceeded de- 
 liberately and openly, she conducted her game with the admirable 
 foresight of a consummate chess-player, who sees, far ahead, what 
 will be the effect of any particular move. The step taken by the 
 Bremen merchant Liideritz in the summer of 1882 had certainly 
 something more in view than the acquisition of a private trading 
 station on the coast of Africa. The inner circle of the colonial 
 party in Germany, we cannot but think, intended the action of 
 Herr Liideritz as the first delicate step toward the accomplishment 
 of their colonial aspirations, a sort of test case, that would bring 
 the British Government to book, and force the hand of Prince 
 Bismarck. At the date mentioned Plerr Liideritz (who may be 
 regarded as the representative of that section of the Germp.n 
 colonial party interested in Africa) had matured his plan and 
 fixed upon the scene of his operations. Under date of November 
 16, 1882, he communicated his projects to the German Foreign 
 Office, and asked wliether he might reckon upon the protection of 
 the German Government for any rights which he might secure. 
 Bismarck was in no hurry. It was not till February 7, 1883, tliat 
 he sent, through his son, the following cautious communication to
 
 98 AFRICA 
 
 1883 
 
 tlie British Foreijrn Office, a communication which in the light 
 of events that followed seems sugg-estive enough, but which at 
 the time apparently excited little suspicion at the Foreign Office. 
 The communication may he regarded as indicating that Bismarck 
 had at last made up his mind to act. and to carry out as far as 
 practicable the designs of the German colonial party. And yet 
 the reservation contained in the final words is noteworthy: was 
 it only intended to lull any lurking suspicions of the not too wide- 
 awake British Ministers? The following is the minute made by 
 Sir Julian Pauncefote of a conversation with Count Herbert Bis- 
 marck, under date February 7, 1883: 
 
 " Count Ijismarck says that a Bremen merchant is about to 
 establish a factory near the coast, between the Orange River and 
 the Little Fisli River, and has asked protection of the German 
 Government in case of need. The latter desire to know whether 
 Her Majesty's Government exercise any authority in that locality. 
 If so, they would be glad if they would extend British protection 
 to the German factory. If not, they will do their best to extend 
 to it the same measure of protection which they give to their sub- 
 jects in remote parts of the world, but without having the least 
 design to establish any footing in South Africa." 
 
 To this the following reply was returned under date Febru- 
 ary 23, 1883, signed by Lord Granville, with the concurrence of 
 Lord Derby : 
 
 " I have the honor to acquaint your Excellency that, having 
 consulted the Colonial Office upon the subject, I am informed by 
 that department that the government of the Cape Colony have 
 certain establishments along the coast, but that, without more pre- 
 cise information as to the spot where the German factory will be 
 eMablislied, it is not possible to form any opinion as to whether 
 the British authorities would have it in tlieir power to give it any 
 protection in case of need. If, however, the German Government 
 would be good enough to furnish the required information, it 
 would be forwarded to the government of Cape Colony, with in- 
 structions to report whether and to what extent their wishes could 
 be met." 
 
 It was, however, clearly not the intention either of Prince 
 Bismarck r)r of Herr Liideritz to await the leisure of the Cape Gov- 
 ernment n(;r to submit to the procrastinating policy of the British 
 I'orcign Office. The lesson taught in connection with the delay in
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 99 
 
 1883 
 
 settling the German claims in Fiji had been taken to heart. By 
 the beginning of 1883 Liideritz had collected very full information 
 with regard to the coast of Namaqualand, and had definitely ar- 
 ranged all his plans. He was, therefore, in a position to ask the 
 German Foreign Office whether he might reckon upon imperial 
 protection for any territory which he might acquire in Southwest 
 Africa. The reply was that if he succeeded in acquiring any har- 
 bor to which no other nation could establish any just claim, he 
 might reckon upon imperial protection for his undertaking. 
 Liideritz at once intrusted the execution of his plans to an ener- 
 getic agent, who went out to the Cape to collect further informa- 
 tion concerning the country in which the operations were to take 
 place. He was followed by a vessel, the Tilly, supplied with every 
 requisite for the important enterprise, except an ox-wagon, a tent, 
 and a few other things which were obtained at the Cape. Here 
 several Germans familiar with South African conditions were taken 
 on board, and the Tilly left Cape Town on April 5, arriving on 
 April 9 at the Bay of Angra Pequefia, about 150 miles to the north 
 of the Orange River, the declared boundary of Cape Colony, and 
 280 to the south of Walfish Bay, of which England still claimed 
 possession. With the help of some English seal-fishermen on the 
 islands that protect the bay, the ship was brought to anchor oppo- 
 site a safe landing-place; the actual landing was effected on the 
 1 2th. Word was sent to the mission station at Bethany, about 100 
 miles in the interior, the residence of the chief, Joseph Frederick. 
 It was not, however, until April 30 that the Germans reached 
 Bethany across the almost waterless desert that intervened. On 
 the ist of May, in a conference with the chief, at which the Ger- 
 man missionaries and the chief men of the tribe were present, the 
 object of his mission was explained, and without much difficulty 
 a contract was signed by the chief and others interested, by which 
 the former sold to Liideritz some 215 square miles of land on the 
 Bay of Angra Pequena, including all rights of supremacy. This 
 included about ten miles of coast, and an extension inland of some 
 twenty-four miles. On the day after the conference these pioneers 
 of German colonization returned to the coast, where with jubilation 
 the German flag was raised in front of the storehouse which had 
 been erected, and floated on the breeze over the first German colony. 
 The news of what had taken place was received with enthusiasm 
 by the colonial party in Germany, and contributed greatly to in-
 
 100 AFRICA 
 
 (881-1883 
 
 crease its numbers, and enlist the enthusiasm of the empire on 
 behalf of its aims. 
 
 In I'jiijland the rumor that an " irresponsible German ad- 
 venturer " or ** filibuster " had dared to raise a foreign Hag on the 
 confines of Cape Colony, on a coast that had always been regarded 
 as within the ** Hritisli sphere." was received with incredulity and 
 ridicule. Rismarck. it was asserted, would never lend his counte- 
 nanoc to such an unfriendly, if not actually hostile, act. And the 
 I'oreign OlVice had grown so used to Germany's representations 
 and remiMist ranees, not only with reference to South Africa, but in 
 connection with b'iji. that it was fondly believed this fresh episode 
 would vanish with another interchange of communications. In 
 the Cape, as might have been expected, the news of Liideritz's 
 enterprise was received with indignation and incredulity. An Eng- 
 lisli war-ship, the Boadicca, sailed from Cape Town to Angra 
 Poquena. apparently to assert British rights; but she was met 
 there by the German corvette Carola, whose commander informed 
 the English captain that he was in German waters, where he could 
 exercise no authority whatever. The Boadicca returned to the 
 Cape on Xovcmber 3 with the news that Ilerr Liidcritz had 
 acquired rights over the coast down to the Orange River. The 
 Cape Government was at last awakened to the true position of 
 affairs, though the home government still apparently cherished 
 the hope tliat tlic action of Liideritz was unsup])orted by his gov- 
 ernment, and that all could yet be arrangetl to the satisfaction of 
 th.e colony. Every scrap of evidence tliat could pro\e British 
 rights over tlie coast was sought for and put forward, but when it 
 came to be coolly weighed, there was no shadow of documentary 
 priiof that any step iiad ever been taken to annex any ])art of the 
 region except W'alilsh Bav, and one or two guano islands off Angra 
 Bequena: the evidence was all the other way. British Ministers 
 Iiad re{)catedly. during the past twentv-fn'e vears. positively de- 
 clinc'l t') undertake llie responsibility of annexing Damaraland and 
 Xaniaqualand. So recently as 1881 the governor of the Caj)e was 
 infiirnicd tliat the Orange Ri\er was the boundarv of the colony. 
 Tlic Cajic (j' i\crninent uould rjccasionally express the opinion that 
 t!rs nurii.crn territory ought reallv to be annexed; but when the 
 hoirie gM\crnii!cni .'.-kcd if the colony were willing to uuflcrtakc 
 the nere--ary cxpcn^'. ilic latter alwavs shrank from the Ijurden. 
 Even now its ninii-'i(jr.>, instead (jf acting, spent their energies in
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 101 
 
 1882-1883 
 
 vain protests. It was only after the country had been irrevocably 
 lost that any real desire for its possession seems to have found ex- 
 pression in Cape Colony; otherwise it is difficult to understand 
 why on the first news of Herr Liideritz's enterprise steps were not 
 taken to annex at least the great stretch of coast which he had 
 left untouched. Everyone knew that much of the country was 
 only one stage removed from desert, and as to the copper and 
 silver mines, even if they proved productive it would never pay to 
 work them. But sentiment, natural enough, obscured the judgment 
 of Cape statesmen and colonists and led them to aggravate the 
 situation by irritating the imperial pride of Germany. And yet 
 all this was mingled with a strange indifference that led to the 
 loss of time, when every day was of importance. 
 
 On August 1 8, 1883, the imperial government informed the 
 German consul at the Cape that they were prepared to take 
 Liideritz's acquisitions under their protection if the rights of others 
 were not interfered with thereby; and on October 15 the gunboat 
 Nautilus was ordered to Angra Pequena to protect German inter- 
 ests. On November 12 the German Minister in London was in- 
 structed to inquire whether or not there were any British claims 
 over the Angra Pequena district, and if so, on what titles were 
 they based. Ten days later Lord Granville replied that England 
 exercised sovereignty only over certain parts on the coast, as Wal- 
 fish Bay and some islands opposite Angra Pequena ; but that at the 
 same time, any claim of sovereignty or jurisdiction on the part 
 of a fcjreign power over any part of the coast between the Portu- 
 guese boundary and the Orange River would be regarded as an 
 encroach.ment on the legitimate rights of the colony. The British 
 Government, Lord Granville stated, to prevent disputes between 
 the Germans and the English who believed they had old rights at 
 Angra Pequena, had sent a war-ship, and the report of its mission 
 was awaited. The vessel was the Boadicca, the result of whose 
 visit we have already seen. At the same time Lord Granville hoped 
 that arrangements might be made by which the Germans could take 
 part in the settlement of Angra Pe([ueha. It is evident that in 
 November, 1883, Lord Granville did not in the least realize the 
 seriousness of the situation. This evasi\e answer failed to satisfy 
 Prince Bismarck, who repeated his question on December 31. 
 through the German .Ambassador, Count Miinster, rc.-alling pre- 
 vious correspondence with reference to the German missionaries
 
 102 AFRICA 
 
 1883-1884 
 
 and the repeated declarations of the British Government that they 
 hail no jurisdiction over any j)art of the regiim in question outside 
 Walfi.sh Hav. Mi^reovcr. Bismarck pointed out that England her- 
 self (as in the case of Spain in the Caroline, Pelcw, and Sulu 
 Islands) had asserted a right to interfere directly for the protection 
 of her own suhjocts where no adc(iuate political administrati(Mi had 
 been established by the power claiming the territory. This Ger- 
 many was entitled tt) do for her subjects at Angra Pef|uena. and 
 therefore I>isniarck begged to be informed as to the title on which 
 I-lnglaiul's professed claims were based, and as to what means she 
 liad taken to protect German subjects so as to relieve Germany from 
 the necessity of i)rotecting them herself. In the light of subsecpient 
 events one cannot but admire the skill with which the communica- 
 tion was worded: T.ord Derby subsequently admitted that it lulled 
 all his suspicions. The home government communicated with the 
 C\ape Go\crnment on the subject, but no notice was taken of this 
 cttmnumication and no answer vouchsafed until May 29, 1884, 
 when the Cape Government intimated that they would rec- 
 ommend Parliament to undertake the control of the whole coast 
 to Walfish Bay, Angra Pequena included. 
 
 While the Cape Government were treating the civil inquiries 
 of Germany with contemptuous neglect, steps were being taken 
 to tighten more and more firmly Germany's hold on her first trans- 
 oceanic possession. The Bremen merchants were actively opening 
 up the territory and with German thorouglmcss promoting its ex- 
 ploration and instituting cjbservations on its climate. On April 
 24, 1884, the German consul at the Cape was instructed to remove 
 all doubts entertained by the Cape Government by informing it 
 officially that Liideritz and his possessions were placed under the 
 protection of the empire; and to enforce the information a Ger- 
 man war->hip was ordered to Angra Periuefia. Still Bismarck can 
 hardly have been taken seriously either at home or at the Cape. 
 In reply tn a c|ue>lion in the Upper House on May 12, Lord Gran- 
 ville .-lated that, so far as he knew, Germany had never claimed 
 sovereignty over any ])art of the territory in question, and that 
 tlie matter wa-i >ti]l ihe subject of discussion between the two g(-)v- 
 ernineins. 'fwo days later Lcjrd Derby informed a deputation who 
 waited up^n liini. that allhuugh England herself never directly 
 annexed Angra Pequena, slie nevertheless claimed the right to 
 exclude all other powers from the coast north of the Orange River;
 
 GERMANY ENTERS THE FIELD 103 
 
 1883-1884 
 
 Germany had been asking some questions on the subject, but ap- 
 peared to have no intention of establishing a colony at Angra 
 Pequena. He himself did not share the fears with which some 
 persons regarded the professed projects of the German Govern- 
 ment to establish colonies in different parts of the world, for colo- 
 nization did not enter into the programme of the German Empire. 
 Germany believed that the secret of her power lay in concentra- 
 tion, and she would never weaken herself by taking possession of 
 lands in distant parts of the world. Cape Colony was ready to 
 annex Angra Pequefia, and if the British Government saw that it 
 would be done honorably and with the prospect of good results, 
 it would give its consent, but in that case, Cape Colony must be pre- 
 pared to bear all the burdens. In a subsequent memorandum, 
 October 7, 1884, on the subject Lord Derby tried hard to prove 
 that the German Government had all along given him reason to 
 believe that territorial acquisition was not at all in their thoughts ; 
 and it must be said that with all their apparent openness and frank- 
 ness, Bismarck's earlier communications were devised with an 
 amount of skill, sufficient, as it proved, to quiet any suspicions on 
 the part of the British Colonial and Foreign Ministers, 
 
 Bismarck was losing patience. He sent very explicit instruc- 
 tions on June 10 to Count Miinster on the subject, and at the same 
 time Count Herbert Bismarck went to London on a special mission 
 to bring matters to a final issue. The result was inevitable; on 
 June 21 the British Cabinet decided to recognize the German pro- 
 tectorate over Angra Pequefia; as a matter of fact the actual 
 protectorate had by this time been extended over a considerable 
 part of the coast, and the eminent explorer, Dr. Xachtigal, was on 
 his way as German consul-general to formally proclaim the im- 
 perial sovereignty over the whole stretch of unoccupied coast. And 
 yet the Cape Parliament, encouraged no doubt by Lord Derby's 
 attitude, ignoring all that had passed during the previous six 
 montlis, voted unanimously so late at July 16 for the annexation 
 of the territory between the Orange River and the Portuguese 
 boundary. Even at that date, apparently, they had not realized 
 that Bismarck was in earnest; and so late as August 25 the Cape 
 Ministers presented a minute to tlie governor hoping it was not 
 yet too late to secure tlie whole coast-line for Great Britain. 
 
 All that followed was simply the filling-in of details; the 
 great lines had been drawn. Germany was recognized as a colonial
 
 104 A F RICA 
 
 1883-1884 
 
 fKnvcr. She Imd made up her mind to have a share of unoccupied 
 Africa: slie had initiated the scramble by which the lon|^-nc{:jlectcd 
 continent, within the space of a few years, it mij^^ht ahuost be said 
 nmnlhs. became parceled out amonc: the powers of Eurt)pe. The 
 Britisii Government and the Cape Government cannot afford to 
 cast stones at eacli other for their conthicl in C(innecti(m with Angra 
 Pe'incfia ; the contemptuous doj^-hi-tlie-manj^er poh'cy of the Cape 
 aut!i(nities (h'd nnich to arouse the wrath of Prince Bismarck and 
 tlie German people and to strengthen the resolve of the former to 
 thrtnv himself heart and soul into the colonial movement. The 
 government fortunately yielded at last with a good grace and wel- 
 comed (icrmany as a neighbor in Africa, promising to do all that 
 was friendly in promoting her colonial views. There was of course 
 a great outcry among certain sections of the British public at what 
 had taken place: as if the mere fact of Germany desiring to pos- 
 sess colonies were an insult to the British flag. As a matter of 
 fact. Great Britain emerged from an utterly unequal contest in 
 statesmanshij) with considerably less of loss and humiliation than 
 might have been expected. 
 
 The final scene in what may be regarded as the first act in 
 the great drama of German colonial enterprise may be said to have 
 l)ccn concluded on August 7, 1884, when Captain Schering, of His 
 Imperial Majesty's ship Elicahctli, hoisted the imperial flag over 
 Angra Pequena in token of the annexation of the coast and twenty 
 gerjgraphical miles inland, from the Orange River to 26 south 
 latitude. This was followed, within the next few days, by the 
 annexation in a similar fashion of all the coast between 26 south 
 and the Portuguese boundary, with the exception of Walfish Bay.
 
 Chapter X 
 
 GERMANY IN THE CAMEROONS AND THE GULF OF 
 
 GUINEA. 1884 
 
 IT has been thought important to dwell at some length on the 
 first act in the great drama of German colonization, because 
 the method adopted by Bismarck with respect to Angra 
 Pequena was similar to that followed in connection with German 
 colonial enterprises in other parts of Africa; and it will therefore 
 be unnecessary to deal with them in so much detail. The M'owe, 
 with Dr. Nachtigal as imperial commissioner and consul-general 
 on board, visited the coast in the end of September, 1884, and sup- 
 plemented the work of the Elizabeth by raising more flags and 
 making fresh additions to the German protectorate. Liideritz lost 
 no time in sending out well-equipped expeditions to explore the 
 country, open up routes to the interior, discover the value of its 
 mining resources, and make further treaties \\\ih chiefs. Several 
 English firms asserted claims to the copper mines, and other con- 
 cessions said to have been made by cliiefs, but these did not affect 
 the German supremacy; a Joint Commission was appointed to 
 settle the claims. Nachtigal spent some time in visiting various 
 chiefs in the interior and concluding treaties, confirming the Ger- 
 man claims to their country. In a dispatch to the Cape Govern- 
 ment on November 1 1 Lord Derby found it necessary to snub 
 one more hopeless attempt on the part of tlie colony to annex ter- 
 ritory outside of Walfish Bay. The Germans were not to be inter- 
 fered with ; but, on the other hand, the government were inclined 
 to consider the advisability of annexing the Kalahari Desert, and 
 also to maintain the route from the Cape to the interior. At the 
 same time, on December 24, Prince Bismarck was ofiicially 
 informed that the British Government had no wish to make any 
 annexations west of 20"^ east longitude, which might thus be re- 
 garded as the eastern limit of German Southwest Africa. While 
 in England itself these arrangements met with general approval, 
 
 105
 
 106 AFRICA 
 
 1143-1885 
 
 and even s}inpntliy, they naturally excited dissatisfaction at the 
 Cape: a ilissatisfaction all the move l)ittor that the Cape Govern- 
 luent felt that it had mainly itself to blame for what had happened. 
 Meantime it may he stated that it was only in 1884 that Walfish 
 Rav was formally annexed to Cape Colony. In the spring of 1885 
 1-iidcritz m.uie over all his claims to a German Southwest African 
 Association; and shortly thereafter an imperial commissioner was 
 appointed to the new colony. 
 
 Herr Liuleritz. ilushed, no doubt, with his success on the west 
 coast, made, toward the end of 1884, a strenuous attempt through 
 his representative to tlank British South Africa with a German 
 colony and harbor on the east coast. The relations between tiie 
 Transvaal Government and Germany were at this time particularly 
 friendly, and the possession of a port by Germany from which a 
 railway could run to the Transvaal seemed in the highest degree 
 tlesirable. As early as September. 1884, propositions were made 
 to obtain possession of St. Lucia Bay on the coast of Zululand. 
 I'iismarck being notified of the intention Liideritz's agent entered 
 Zululand in November, and succeeded in obtaining some conces- 
 sions from Dinizulu. But by this time both the home and the Cape 
 Governments were thoroughly awake. News of these doings 
 leaked out, and. on December 18. H. M. S. Goshazck proceeded to 
 St. Lucia Bay and hoisted the British flag in virtue of a treaty with 
 Panda as far back as 1843. There was, of course, the inevitable 
 correspondence between the two governments, (juestions in Par- 
 liament, and excitement in the press, ending June 25. 1885, by a 
 declaration on the part of Germany that she would make no 
 annexations in East Africa south of Delagoa Bay. 
 
 It has been pointed (nit in a previous chapter that during the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth, and even well on into the nineteenth, 
 centuries, the commercial activity of Europe in .Africa was mainly 
 devoted to tlie Guinea Coast, to the region extending from the 
 Senegal to the Congo; and that the staple exjjort during that 
 periud consisted of slaves. After the cessation of slave exjxjrt the 
 Eurijjiean jjowers lost interest in the region. The Danes and Dutch 
 fiuitted ll alli.geihcr and the I-Jiglish carried on their four colonies 
 in a half-hearted way; though the Erench, after the middle of 
 the century, continued steadily to advance their interests along the 
 coast and into the interior. Still, those commercial houses which 
 cor.tinued to engage in the trade of the Guinea Coast realized
 
 GULFOFGUINEA 107 
 
 1880-1884 
 
 profits. In return for a few yards of cheap cottons, a few trinkets, 
 obsolete guns, or the vilest and cheapest of spirits, enormous re- 
 turns were obtained in oil and oil nuts, ivory, gold-dust, and other 
 native products. German traders will grow rich where an English- 
 man would starve; after the re- formation of the empire they de- 
 veloped increasing activity abroad and did not overlook the neg- 
 lected west coast. Fifty years ago German and Swiss missions 
 established themselves on the Guinea Coast, and German commer- 
 cial houses had agencies in the British Gold Coast Colony. After 
 1880, however, when the colonial spirit was gaining in strength 
 and German foreign trade was increasing by leaps and bounds, the 
 relations of Germany with the coast became more and more inti- 
 mate. Between the district on the west coast, known as Portu- 
 guese Guinea, and the British colony of Sierra Leone, lies a strip 
 of coast now known as French Guinea. On this coast several 
 German factories had been established and a considerable trade 
 developed by 1884. One patch of this coast lying between the 
 Dembra and Dubreka Rivers was supposed not to have been actually 
 occupied by France, and there German operations were concen- 
 trated and German influence established. On the Lower Guinea 
 Coast extending from the boundary of Liberia to the colony of 
 Lagos were several regions which were regarded as no-man's-land ; 
 France had ancient claims to a part of the coast on the west of 
 the British Gold Coast Colony, and two other patches, somewhat 
 ill-defined, between that colony and the colony of Lagos. At 
 various points on this stretch of coast, both in British and French 
 spheres, German factories and German missions had been estab- 
 lished. 
 
 There was one small district of some thirty miles on the 
 east of the Gold Coast Colony, where German stations had been 
 established since 1880, and trade treaties made with the native 
 chiefs. On the east of these, at Agoue and Great Popo, similar 
 enterprises had been carried out ; for although the French had 
 some old claims to the coast it was practically unoccupied. When, 
 in 1883, German colonial enterprise began to take a distinctly prac- 
 tical turn, German factories and commercial agents, as well as 
 trade consuls, had been established, not only on the British Gold 
 Coast, but on the unannexed portions to the east. Here, and in 
 other parts of Africa, England had only to put out her hand and 
 take what territory she wanted ; her colonial officials were being
 
 108 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 1879-1884 
 
 constantly Ixisicpcd bv petitions from native chiefs for annexation. 
 lUu it was onlv wIkmi the (Icrniaiis entered the field and the prof- 
 icrcii gifts sccnicil likely to he snatched by others that British eyes 
 were opencil to their value, and British hands made unseemly haste 
 to snatch thetn. 
 
 Again, between the eastern boundary of the colony of Lagos 
 and tl'.c l'"rench col.niv of the Gabrnm (the Rio Campo), including 
 the extensive Niger delta (the Oil Rivers) and the Cameroons, 
 
 German houses had been establishing factories and drawing to 
 themselves a fair share of trade. The British connection with the 
 region had been grf)wing in closeness and importance for a century, 
 liritibh exjjlorers liad done more than those of any other nation 
 to rjjjcn uj) the oast rc,c,Mon and the whole of the country watered 
 by tlie Xi.^er and BemK'. In the Oil Rivers and the Cameroons 
 Britisli niN-ii.narie^ and traders had held supreme influence for 
 many year-, and ri\cr fortv vears ago Burton raised the British 
 flag on tlie magnificent Camcr(jons Mountains. For years the chiefs 
 along the d.a^t had been petitioning British consuls, ministers, 
 and even the (jueen Iierself, t) take them under protection; but, 
 as a rule, these i)Ctitions w ere unanswered. So long ago as August,
 
 GULFOFGUINEA 109 
 
 1879-1884 
 
 1879, five of the Cameroons " kings " wrote as follows to Queen 
 Victoria : 
 
 " We, your servants, have joined together and thought it 
 better to write you a nice long letter which will tell you about 
 all our wishes. We wish to have your laws in our territories. We 
 want to have every fashion altered ; also we will do according 
 to your consul's word. Plenty wars here in our country. Plenty 
 murder, and plenty idol-worshipers. Perhaps these lines of our 
 writing will look to you as an idle tale. We have spoken to the 
 English consul plenty of times about having an English Govern- 
 ment here. We never have answer from you, so we wish to write 
 to you ourselves. When we knew about Calabar River, how they 
 have all English laws in their towns, and how they have put away 
 all their superstitions, oh, we shall be very glad to be like Calabar 
 River." 
 
 Communications of similar import and tone continued to be 
 sent home; and from the English residents in the Cameroons, 
 backed by the British consul, urgent requests were sent to the 
 home government advising annexation. But until the information 
 reached the Foreign Office in July, 1883, that a French vessel had 
 been in the Kwa Kwa River and the Malimba River cajoling the 
 native chiefs into signing treaties, the policy of the government was 
 one of procrastination. Even then no haste was manifested in 
 securing one of the most desirable regions on the west coast. It 
 was only in the end of 1883 that the Foreign and Colonial Offices 
 concluded between them that it would be desirable to place the 
 Oil Rivers and the Cameroons, including tlie Baptist mission that 
 had been established there for many years, under British protection. 
 It was not until May 16, 1884, that Consul Hewett was instructed 
 to return to his post in West Africa and make preparations for de- 
 claring a British protectorate over part of it, for the Cameroons 
 chiefs were to be " asked to undertake that they will, if required, 
 cede such portions of their territories as it may be tliought desirable 
 to acquire." On July 6 Consul Hewett was in the Bonny River. 
 He purposed visiting the Benin and other rivers, as well as the 
 Cameroons, but could not give the commander of the British vessel 
 in which he was to sail any exact date for his visit. 
 
 Meanwhile the Cermans were losing no time. Tlie recom- 
 mendations of the Hamburg Chamber of C'nnmerce in the end of 
 1883 bave been already referred to. The annexation of a part of
 
 no AFRICA 
 
 1684 
 
 the coast opposite Fcmnndo Po was part of the progframme which 
 thev recoiiimcinlcil to Uisniarclc. On April 20, 1X84, about one 
 rnontli before Consul llewctt received his instructions. Lord Gran- 
 ville at the I"\>reitrn OtVice received the following communication 
 from the Gcrmaji chariro d'affaires in London : 
 
 " I have the honor to stale to your Lordship that the imperial 
 consul-tjeneral. Dr. Xachtit^al, has been commissioned by my 
 g-overnment to visit the west coast of Africa in the course of the 
 next few months in order to complete the information now in the 
 possession of the l""oreigii Ofhce at Berlin on the state of German 
 ccMiTinerce on that coast. With this object Dr. Nachtigal will 
 shortly embark at Lisbon on bc:)ard the g^mboat Mozue. He will 
 put himself into communication with the authorities in the Eng- 
 lish possessions on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, 
 on behalf of the imjicrial government, negotiations connected with 
 certain (jucstions. I venture, in accordance with my instructions, 
 to beg your excellency to be so gt)od as to cause the authorities in 
 tlie liritisii possessions in West Africa to be furnished with suitable 
 recommendations." The charge d'afYaires was assured that the 
 British coloni;il autliorities should be enjoined to give all possible 
 assistance to the eminent German consul-general. 
 
 On June i. 1S84. the Mozcc, with Dr. Xachtigal on board, 
 accompanied by the Elizabcfli, anchored ofY th.e Los Islands (Brit- 
 ish), and two days later the German consul-general went in a 
 steam pinnace to the Dubreka River, where German factories had 
 been establisb.ed. Palavers were held with the chiefs, but nothing 
 definite was draie, as there was a suspicion of French claims. Other 
 German expechtions were, however, in the following months sent 
 to the coast, aiul the German flag was even hoisted over the station. 
 But on the representations of the hVench Government Prince Bis- 
 marck gracefully gave way here, as he did elsewhere, averring that 
 he would ne\cr seek to encroach on any territory to which I'Vance 
 might show tlie slightest claim, or even preference. Bismarck's 
 delicacy trAVPrd I'^rench susceptibilities was in all these doings and 
 negotintions in marked crintrast to his bluff and uncompromising 
 treatnu-iit nf tlic P.riti^h Gr>vernmcnt. 
 
 X,-icht!,L:.'il i)rocecflcd southward to the little district cast of 
 the Gold C'last. already referred to. and now known as Togoland. 
 At eight (hffercnt j)]accs on this coast there were German factories. 
 In January. 1884, a German gunb(jat had touched at the coast and
 
 GULFOFGUINEA 111 
 
 1884 
 
 taught the natives that Germans as well as the English had big 
 ships to look after their interests ; some of the natives, indeed, were 
 deported to Berlin and were brought back, doubtless, greatly im- 
 pressed with the power of Germany. On July 2 the Mowe, with 
 Dr. Nachtigal on board, drew up in front of the settlement of 
 Little Popo. Other places were visited, and after arranging mat- 
 ters with the king of Togoland, the German flag was raised 
 at Bagida on July 5 and Togoland declared a German protectorate. 
 Other sections of the coast were annexed at later dates. Serious 
 differences threatened to arise between Germany and France, the 
 latter claiming sovereignty over certain parts within the sphere 
 annexed by Germany; but the two governments, however, did not 
 find much difficulty in coming to an agreement. 
 
 After placing Togoland under the protection of the German 
 flag, Dr. Nachtigal steamed onward in the Mozije toward the 
 Cameroons. Here the ground had been prepared for him. At 
 midnight-meetings with King Bell and other potentates in the 
 Cameroons River, the four German traders settled in the place 
 succeeded in winning their way to the heart of these thirsty chiefs 
 by lavish promises of rum, guns, and money. As these chiefs had 
 received no replies from the British Government to their repeated 
 requests for annexation, and as the Germans appealed to their 
 weakest side, it is no wonder that they concluded that a bird in 
 the hand was worth two in the bush. Commander Moore, in the 
 Goshawk, visited the Cameroons River on July 10 and had a 
 palaver with King Bell and some of the other chiefs. He found 
 that the German negotiations were far advanced, but that no treaty 
 had been actually signed. Had Consul Hewett been on board and 
 then and there concluded treaties with the chiefs, the Cameroons 
 might have fallen to England. All Commander Moore could do 
 was to beg the chiefs to sign nothing till the consul arrived. King 
 Bell promised, but hoped the consul would come soon " within 
 a week." It was not. however, till the iQth that the consul ar- 
 rived, to find that treaties had been comj)leted with the chiefs by 
 Nachtigal, and that the German flag liad been floating conspicu- 
 ously over the place for five days. All he could do was to place the 
 mission station of Victoria in Ambas Bay under British protec- 
 tion. Nachtigal proceeded southward, raising the German flag 
 over various points of tlie coast, even beyond the Rio Campo, and 
 so intruding upon the h'rench sphere. As Bismarck, however, was
 
 11 AFRICA 
 
 1884 
 
 always inclined in liis scarcii for colonics to be particularly com- 
 placent toward I'Vance. the diOiculty was easily settled; and the 
 Kio C'ampo was iecoi;nizcil as the southern- limit of German an- 
 ncx'dUou. 
 
 Meantime Consul Howett had been thoroughly roused to the 
 seriousness of the situati(Mi, and lost no time in making treaties 
 along: the coast bctweeti Victoria and the colony of Lagos. His 
 action was supplemented by tiiat of the Niger Company, and thus 
 the Oil Rivers and the moutlis of the Niger were secured to Great 
 Britain. There was, of course, great excitement both in England 
 and Germany. There was naturally jubilation in Germany over 
 the success of the smart policy of Bismarck, while in England re- 
 pnxichcs were freely heai^ed upon the Ministry of the time for 
 their blindness, prevarication, and indifference to British interests. 
 Lord Granville naively reproached Prince Bismarck for intention- 
 ally misleading him as to tlie real purpose of Dr. Nachtigal's mis- 
 sion, while Bismarck taunted Granville for his want of penetra- 
 tion, and nriintained that his little ruse was perfectly justifiable. 
 Had he frankly informed the British Government as to his designs, 
 they winild of course have done their best to. forestall him. 
 
 As to tlie part played by Prince Bismarck, his attitude with 
 respect to the Cameroons was in marked contrast to his seemingly 
 forbearing, patient, and courteous conduct in the Angra Pefpiena 
 atTair. Possibly that affair may have worn out his patience, or it 
 may be thai he valued the Cameroons more highly, and did not 
 want to run any risk. Eurther, the prince considered that in his 
 coUjpial asi)irations in Africa and the South Seas he had received 
 great })r(;vocation from England. The courtesy between Erance 
 and Germany in connection with these operations was that of enemy 
 t. enemy; the bitterness which sprang up between England and 
 Cierniany was probably due to the mutual feeling that the one side 
 c*juI(1 not afford to make an enemy of the other. 
 
 'lh(jugh bjigland had to give up the whole coast at the base 
 of the Cameroons Mountains as far as the Rio del Rey Bismarck 
 accn-cd iier of trying to shut out the new German colony from the 
 interior she was able to secure the whole of the Niger Delta and 
 all the coast from the Rio del Rey to the boundary of Lagos. Ger- 
 many had some trouble with King Bell and his friends before they 
 became reconciled to the new state of things; and, as has been the 
 case in mo<t ol Germany"^ colonial enter])rises, one of her first tasks
 
 GULFOF GUINEA 113 
 
 1884 
 
 was to give the chiefs and people a " sharp lesson." By the time 
 the Berlin Conference met she was fairly in possession at the 
 Cameroons, as well as in Togoland and Soutluvest Africa. She 
 had thus begun the " scramble for Africa," had entered upon that 
 game, some rules for which it was partly the design of the Congress 
 to lay down.
 
 Chapter XI 
 
 THE HERLIN CONFERENCE AND THE CONGO FREE 
 
 STATE. 1884-1910 
 
 FOLLOW! XG the example of Germany, the other great 
 luuMpcaii j)oucrs made a rush upon Africa. Inextricable 
 (lirficultics were sure to arise unless some rules were laid 
 down on which tlie gfreat game of appropriation was to be con- 
 ducted. Germany had already made important acquisitions on the 
 west coast, and luigland and France had made haste to snatch up 
 the remainder. L'rance and Portugal were struggling with the 
 King of the Belgians on the Congo, while Portugal was beginning 
 to be alarmed as to her claims on other parts of the continent. 
 Great I Britain had received a se\'ere lesson at Angra Pequena, and 
 had at last been aroused to take measures for securing to herself the 
 region which lies on the north of Cape Colony. Already there 
 were agitations as to German interests in Zanzibar. The great 
 struggle, however, it was seen, would be round the center of the 
 continent, and it would be for the advantage of all concerned that 
 an understanding should be reached as to whether it was to be 
 divided up into exclusive sections, or whether it was to be open to 
 all nationalities, whatever might be their share of the rest of the 
 continent after the scramble was over, 
 
 Cnri(iu.>]y cnougli the proposal for an International Confer- 
 ence ti; cwnsider the whole question of the Congo came from Portu- 
 gal her-elf. I'Yance indorsed the proposal, which was cordially 
 takeii up by P.i~!uarck on behalf of CJermany. This was in June, 
 1SS4. and a nioniii later Lr^rd Granville gave in his adhesion on 
 behalf oi (ircit Lritain. These three i)r)wers agreed in principle 
 to the creation of a I-'rcc State in the basin of the Congo, the pre- 
 cise limitation-; of whicli were, however, to be left to separate 
 agreements betuccn the powers directly interested. The great 
 pur[)( -c ilun f,f the P.crlin C'jiiference was to come to an under- 
 standing v. iih reference to the Congo basin. It was also agreed 
 to make some arrangement with reference to the Niger, and to fix 
 
 Hi
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE 115 
 
 1884-1885 
 
 the conditions under which new annexations would be recognized 
 as vaHd by other powers. 
 
 Into the details of the Conference it is unnecessary to enter. 
 Its discussions and protocols occupy a voluminous Blue Book. It 
 began its meetings in Berlin on November 15, 1884, and concluded 
 them on January 30, 1885. Every state of Europe, except Swit- 
 zerland, sent one or more representatives, as did the United States 
 of America. The General Act of the Conference was signed by 
 the representatives of all the powers except the United States on 
 February 24, 1885. Stanley was present, nominally as a geograph- 
 ical expert on behalf of the United States, but in reality to look 
 after the interests of his patron, the King of the Belgians. 
 
 The General Act of the Conference enacted freedom of trade 
 to all nations within the region watered by the Congo and its 
 affluents, including the coast of the Atlantic from 2 30" north lati- 
 tude to 8 south latitude. The Free Trade Line was further pro- 
 longed to the east coast at 5 north latitude, and down that coast 
 to the mouth of the Zambezi ; up the Zambezi to five miles about 
 the mouth of the Shire, and onward along the water-parting be- 
 tween the Zambezi and Lake Nyasa to the water-parting between 
 the Zambezi and the Congo. This eastern extension, however, was 
 only to be effective if agreed to by the sovereign states having 
 jurisdiction in the regions included therein. Only such dues were 
 to be levied as would compensate expenditure in the interests of 
 trade; no diffential duties were permitted, and all rivers were to 
 be free to the flags of all nations. After a lapse of twenty years 
 the subject of import duties could be reconsidered. The powers 
 were to combine to suppress the slave-trade and slavery. An Inter- 
 national Navigation Commission was instituted to ensure facilities 
 of navigation on the Congo, and to carry out the provisions of the 
 Conference with reference to the river and its affluents. This con- 
 ventional basin of the Congo was to remain neutral under all cir- 
 cumstances. Only certain fixed navigation dues were to be charged, 
 and these could be revised at the end of five years. These then were 
 the principal provisions with regard to the Congo. 
 
 Essentially the same conditions as regards navigation were 
 applied to the Niger and its tril)utaries, although these regions were 
 outside the operation of the rules affecting the free trade zone. 
 Instead of an International Commission being appointed to carry 
 out the conditions, their execution was intrusted to Great Britain
 
 116 AFRICA 
 
 1876-1884 
 
 ami France in respect to those sections of the river which inig^ht 
 come under their stuerei.crnty or protection. There was to be per- 
 fect freeilotn of navitiation to tlie trading ships (not the warships) 
 of all nations; '* Xo exchisive privilege of navigation will he con- 
 ceded to companies, corporaticms, or private pcrscMis." The navi- 
 gation of the Niger was not to be "exposed to any obligation in 
 regard to landing-stage or depot, or for breaking bulk or for coni- 
 pulsorv entry intc^ any jnirt." At the same time it was to be un- 
 derstood " tliat nothing in these obligations shall be interpreted 
 as hindering Great Britain from making any rules of navigation 
 whatever which shall not be contrary to the spirit of their en- 
 gagements.'' 
 
 Other declarations were included in the work of this remark- 
 able congress: it laid down the following important rule which was 
 to guide the powers in the great game of the partition of Africa : 
 occupations on the coast of Africa in order to be valid must be 
 effective, and any new occupation on the coast must be formally 
 notified to the Signatory Powers for the purpose of enabling them, 
 if need be, to make good any claim of their own. In Article 6 there 
 is also Tiotice made for the first time in any International Act of the 
 obligation attaching to spheres of influence a mode of tenure soon 
 destined to play such an important part. This obligation, however, 
 refers only to the region dealt with in the General Act of the C(jn- 
 ference. 
 
 These, then, were the chief provisions of the famous " General 
 Act of the Conference of Berlin." To what extent they have been 
 carried out will be seen in the sequel. But while the main drama, 
 if we may so speak, was being enacted in the conference hall, 
 Prince Bismarck's palace, there was a complicated side-i)lay going 
 on. which, though not formally acknowledged, had very intimate 
 bearings cni the main subject, and was indeed pregnant with even 
 greater rc-ults. Tliis was. in fact, the creation of tlie Congo hVee 
 State. We have seen how the magnificent projects initiated by 
 the King of tlie Belgians at the Brussels Conference of 1876 had 
 rapidly developed. 'Jliere was the International African Associa- 
 tion for scientific and benevolent purposes; this was fnllowed by the 
 C omite d'fjudes, which became the International Congo Associa- 
 Ur>n. Althoaigii not actually recognized as such, it really assumed 
 the form (J a iM'.-cly-nrganized state, and as early as April. 1884, 
 Sir Francis de W'inton (failing General Gordon) went out as gov-
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE 117 
 
 1884-1887 
 
 ernor. On April 22, 1884, the United States Government 
 recognized the flag of the Association (a blue flag with a golden 
 star) " as that of a friendly government." On the day after the 
 recognition, in a moment of irritation against the British Govern- 
 ment, Colonel Strauch, the president of the Association, intimated 
 to the French Government that if the Association were ever com- 
 pelled to part with its possessions, France should have the right of 
 preemption. On April 22, 1887, the foreign minister of the Congo 
 Free State, writing to the French Minister at Brussels, pointed out 
 that His Majesty reserved his right to make Belgium his heir so 
 far as the Free State was concerned, though in that case Belgium 
 would take over the obligation to give France the right of preemp- 
 tion should she ever decide to part with the territories of the Free 
 State. As to the contention that such an arrangement is invalid 
 without the consent of the signatory powers to the Berlin Act, 
 it should be pointed out that the various international arrange- 
 ments recognizing the Congo Free State were made after the King 
 of the Belgians accorded the right of preemption to France. This 
 right of preemption was notified to the various powers by the 
 French Government, through its representative, in a dispatch dated 
 May 31, 1884. There is no evidence that this right was ever ex- 
 plicitly recognized by the powers, and therefore its validity is a 
 question to be settled by international law. 
 
 A week before the Berlin Conference met Germany followed 
 the example of the United States, and recognized the flag of the 
 Association as that of a friendly state, and intimated her readiness 
 to recognize the frontiers of the new state to be created as laid 
 down in a map joined to the declaration. The map indicated the 
 boundaries of the state in the main as they were subsequently ac- 
 cepted by France and Portugal. This declaration was followed by 
 similar declarations on the part of the other powers, the last to give 
 its adhesion being Belgium (February 23, 1885). The Association 
 itself signed the General Act as an independent power. The various 
 agreements in which the Association had been recognized and the 
 delimitations embodied therein were included in the protocols of 
 the final sitting, and so received the sanction of the Conference 
 itself. 
 
 It was not till two montlis after the conclusion of the Confer- 
 ence (April 30, 1885) that tlie liclgian legislature autliorized King 
 Leopold to be the chief of the state founded in Africa by the Congo
 
 118 AFRICA 
 
 1885-1890 
 
 International Association. " The union between Belgium and the 
 new state will be exclusively personal." On August i following, 
 King Ixopold addressed a notification to all of the powers, 
 intimating that the possessions of the International Association of 
 the Congo were henceforth to form the Congo I'^ree State, of which 
 
 he would 1)C chief under tlie title of sovereign. At the same time 
 the neutrality of the state was declared. It may be appropriate here 
 to state tliat King Leojjold in his will, dated August 2, iHH(), made 
 f'clgium heir to the so\ercign rights of the Congo J'^rcc State; by a 
 crjdicil to the will, dated July 21, 1890, it is declared that the Free 
 .State cannot be alienated. 
 
 Here, then, we have what may be regarded as the first sub- 
 stantial result of the scramble for Africa. It was not, however.
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE 119 
 
 1890-1894 
 
 until many conferences, negotiations, and compromises had taken 
 place that the precise Hmits of the Free State claimed in 1885 were 
 recognized by neighboring powers. Portugal still clung to 5 12' 
 south latitude as her northern limit, but was compelled to abandon 
 it and content herself with Molemba, Cabinda, and Massabi 
 north of the Congo mouth. On the other hand, her Angola colony 
 was pushed northward to the south bank of the Congo, which she 
 was allowed to appropriate as far as Nokki, 130 miles from the 
 mouth. The precise boundary of the Congo State with British ter- 
 ritory was at length settled in the agreement between King Leopold 
 and Great Britain on May 12, 1894; and it was only after the solu- 
 tion of many difficult geographical points that the northern limit 
 was settled with France. These agreements give the Congo Free 
 State the enormous area of 900,000 square miles, with a popu- 
 lation which at a guess may amount to 30,000,000 of savages. 
 
 Recently the sovereign of the Free State has shown dissatis- 
 faction with the 4 limit on the north, maintaining that this state, 
 like any other state, is at liberty to extend its dominions. Both 
 France and England at first strenuously objected to this where it 
 affected them. But expeditions from the Congo were sent with a 
 view to secure a block on the west of the Albert Nyanza and the 
 Nile. These attempts on the part of the sovereign of this Free 
 State to push beyond the 4 north led to serious complications. As 
 will be shown in the chapter on British East Africa, circumstances 
 compelled the British Government to accept the situation, and an 
 agreement was concluded in May, 1894, by which the old Sudan 
 province of Bahr-el-Ghazal, up to 10 north latitude, and the whole 
 of the left bank of the Nile down to Mahagi on the northwest shore 
 of Albert Nyanza, were leased to the Congo Free State and the 
 King of the Belgians, who in turn leased to Great Britain a strip 
 between Lakes Tanganyika and Albert Edward, and consented to 
 certain readjustments on the northwest frontier of British Central 
 Africa. As might have been expected, the arrangements did not 
 commend themselves to either France or Germany. On the demand 
 of the latter, Great Britain resigned the lease of the strip on the 
 eastern frontier of the k^'ce State; and in .Vugust, 1894, the astute 
 King Lco])old made an arrangement witli France by which he ac- 
 (jiiired all he really wanted, free access to the Nile and the rounding 
 off of his northern frontier by a natural b(jundary. 
 
 Gi'cal things were expected from the foundation of the Free
 
 120 AFRICA 
 
 1890-1894 
 
 State, which was referred to at the time as one of the most remark- 
 able events of the century. At the concUidinfr sittinp^ of tlie Confer- 
 ence the new t)riranization was .c^reeted as one of the great civihzing- 
 and humanitarian ai^encies of the nineteenth century, as the chief 
 medium thn)Ui,di wliich the work for which tlie Conference had been 
 summoned wouhl be carried out. The Free State was to be the 
 model boy in the new African scliool. He was never to go beyond 
 bounds: he was never to interfere with his neighbors; never to bully 
 the weaker boys under him. 
 
 The great object for which professedly the International Congo 
 Association had been founded was the opening up of the interior 
 region included in its operations to civilization and commerce, as 
 well as the exploration of its geography. As has been already said, 
 we cannot doubt that the motives which actuated the King of the 
 Belgians in entering upon this enterprise in Africa were to a certain 
 extent disinterested. If to these motives in time there came to be 
 added an ambition to be the ruler of a million square miles of a 
 continent previously given over to savagery and anarchy, this am- 
 bition was legitimate, for he could only reap glory and lasting repu- 
 tation by ruling well. He it was who until quite recently supplied 
 tlie funds with which the enterprise was carried on. and notwith- 
 standing the increase from other sources, his private purse is still 
 opened to the extent of $200,000 annually. It is not, therefore, 
 surprising that the king should wish to rule his own state in his 
 own way, even though its international character should thus dis- 
 appear, and Belgium be accorded favors not granted to other na- 
 tionalities. As a matter of fact, when King Leopold assumed the 
 sovereignty of the Free State it ceased to be international, and 
 rapidly became an almost exclusively Belgian undertaking. The 
 officials of other nationalities gave place with few exceptions to the 
 Belgians. In tliis King Leopold was compelled to yield to the 
 v>ishes and remonstrances of his Furopean subjects. It was found, 
 moreover, tliat the absolute freedom of trade insisted on in the 
 Berlin Act could not be maintained; even His Majesty's large re- 
 sources were not equal to the necessary expenses of administration, 
 and dutica anrl taxes have had to be imposed which can hardly be 
 said to be consistent with the spirit or the letter of the act. Of the 
 heavy duty which has been placed on s])irits none but those inter- 
 ested in their sale will complain. I^.ut, however it is to be accounted 
 for. there can he little (l<Ailjt that the manner in which the imjjosition
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE 121 
 
 1895-1899 
 
 of duties and taxes was carried out, and the keen competition on 
 the part of the Belgian officials, and even of the state, with traders 
 of other nationalities, had the effect of compelling many of the 
 latter to leave the territory of the state, either quitting the Congo 
 entirely or settling upon French or Portuguese territory. It is 
 chiefly Germany that has made complaints against the state for 
 the alleged violation of the free-trade provisions under which the 
 state was constituted. It would be unjust to blame the king per- 
 sonally for these results ; he is in the hands of his officials, and it is 
 hardly to be expected that these are all imbued with the same 
 motives which actuate him.^ Besides a company for constructing a 
 railway for the Lower Congo, past the cataracts to Stanley Pool, 
 there were, in 1895, ^^'^ trading companies on the Congo, all Bel- 
 gian, with a nominal capital of about $1,800,000; at the end of 1899 
 there were sixty-five Belgian Colonial Societies, with a capital of 
 over $49,000,000. These Belgian companies were for a time dealt 
 with in much the same way as traders of foreign nationality. The 
 restrictions placed on the trade of private companies, and the monop- 
 olies claimed by the " State," were such as to render private enter- 
 prise almost impossible. Some relaxation was found to be necessary, 
 and a modus vivcndi was devised which gave the companies a cer- 
 tain amount of liberty. Hitherto, however, their operations have 
 been of a very limited character, partly due to the difficulties placed 
 in the way by the Arab traders. 
 
 More recently the conduct of the Free State officers roused 
 some of the powerful Arab traders to rebellion. The expedition un- 
 der Van der Kerckhoven dealt summarily with the Arab slavers met 
 with on its route. This alarmed the Arabs on the Upper Congo 
 and Lake Tanganyika, who evidently feared that unless they made 
 a stand their nefarious traffic would be seriously checked. The 
 result was an attempt of the Arabs to rise against the whites. No 
 doubt they thought they had as much right to seize the natives and 
 their wives as the Europeans had to take possession of the land. 
 At all events, in 1892- 1893 there was a general rising of the Arabs, 
 and although at first the Free State forces and those of the Belgian 
 Anti-Slavery Society met with some disasters, by the end of 1893 
 the Arabs on the middle and upper Congo, and as far as Lake Tan- 
 ganyika, were thoroughly defeated and their strongholds captured. 
 Some of the chief Arabs gave in their submission, though it is feared 
 1 Compare the views upon this subject rehearsed in ch. xvii.
 
 Ui AFRICA 
 
 1885-1895 
 
 that anotlier attempt will be macie to re-establish their position. 
 Sonic African authorities, thoroughly acquaintetl with the Arabs 
 and their wavs and sciuimenls, maintain that the methods adopted 
 In- the 1-Veo State are bad policy; and that it would be wiser and 
 more ciuiducive to the end in view to make friends of them and 
 convince them that they would gain far more in the end by legiti- 
 mate trade than by raiding for slaves and ivory. However, so far 
 as the I'roe State is concerned, this method has not been adopted. 
 And indeed it is diflicult to see how, with luiropean powers on every 
 side oi them, the I'rce State in the west, Germany in the east, Eng- 
 land, France, and the Free State in the north, and England in the 
 soutii, the slave-traders have any chance of continuing their occupa- 
 Uon for long, if only these powers cooperate in carrying out the 
 r.russeis Act. The trade is without doubt ruined ; but the areas 
 claimed by the various powers are so enormous, the officials so few, 
 and means of communication so primitive, that it is not possible, at 
 jiresent, to cover more than a fraction of the ground, or block all 
 ci tiie many routes from the interior to the coast. In these cam- 
 paigns against the slavers, up to 1895, some seventy thousand Arabs 
 and their followers were slain. Arab strongholds ha\e been swept 
 away and other centers established, from which European intluence 
 will emanate. 
 
 There has been no lack of zeal on the part of the king to carry 
 out his own aims and part at least of the object which the Berlin 
 Act had in view. The amount of exploring work accomplished 
 under the auspices of the state is creditable. The whole of the 
 Congo, at least as far as the Lukuga, has been laid down with a fair 
 ajjproach to accuracy. North and south all the great tributaries 
 have jjccn explored, and in the ten years succeeding 1885 nearly 
 seven thousand miles of waterway were opened up to navigation. 
 A fair knowledge has been obtained of the countries watered by 
 the magnificent rivers and of the various tribes whicli inhabit them. 
 
 Again, a regular administration has been established, and it 
 must be admitted that there has been a certain amount of success. 
 The administrative headquarters are in Brussels, where there are 
 a variety of functionaries. The State is di\'idc(l into fourteen dis- 
 tricts or ])rovinces, with a governor-general, and a sub-governor or 
 commi'^sii'ucr for each district. There are numerous stations not 
 only on tl;e Congo it-elf, but on the great tributaries north and 
 i^outh, the administrati\e staff numbering some irr5 officials. A
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE 123 
 
 1886-1906 
 
 system of justice, criminal and civil, has been devised, with courts 
 of first and second instance. On the Upper Congo martial law 
 prevails. 
 
 The finances of the State reached a critical position in 1894. 
 Notwithstanding the subsidy of the sovereign and the annual con- 
 tribution of Belgium, the deficit in the finances threatened to be 
 enormous. The revenue from customs and taxation is insignificant, 
 and the expenses connected with the action against the Arabs, the 
 Kerckhoven and other aggressive expeditions, are very great. Now, 
 however, that there remains little to withdraw the energies of the 
 State from the industrial development of the resources of the terri- 
 tories, it is to be hoped that the tide will turn and that substantial 
 results will begin to be reaped from this royal enterprise. Its effec- 
 tive forces, in the year 1905, numbered 16,183 natives, under 164 
 European oi^cers and 194 sergeants. 
 
 That, in tlie hands of inexperienced young officers, poorly paid, 
 dealing with savages, under the influence of a tropical climate, far 
 from the controlling influence of public opinion and the restraining 
 hand of their superior officers, there should be abuses of the power 
 intrusted to them is not to be wondered at. That there have been 
 abuses, that the natives have been at least occasionally, if not fre- 
 quently, treated with great cruelty, and dealt with as slaves, there 
 is only too much evidence to prove; of this more will be seen in a 
 later chapter. We do not require to go to the Congo State for 
 instances of the demoralizing effect which savage surroundings have 
 on even highly civilized men. Nor must it be forgotten that we can 
 hardly deal with Africans as we do with civilized Europeans, and 
 that if any progress is to be made at all a certain amount of compul- 
 sion must be used. But if this be so, it imposes the duty of exercis- 
 ing all the more care in selecting officers who will not be tempted to 
 make this compulsion assume tlic form of cruelty and slavery, and 
 so risk that breaking-up of the Free State which not a few consider 
 to be inevitable. 
 
 Among the civilizing influences at work in tlie new state we 
 must reckon that oi Christian missions Catholic and Protestant, 
 English, American, French, and Belgian. There are many stations 
 in various parts of the territory, and among the missionaries are 
 men of insight and tact, who aid in rousing the native from his low 
 estate. In all there are 475 missionaries, their number being about 
 ecjually divided between Catholic and I'rotestant.
 
 l-^* AFRICA 
 
 1887-1901 
 
 A more or less active trade has of course been carried on, and 
 trading centers have been estabhshed at various points besides those 
 occupied In- the State stations. Ahogether there were, in January, 
 if)04, about J500 whites (there were only 254 in 1886). Of these, 
 1 44 J were Belgians, of whom there were only 46 in 1886, and 40 
 Americans. Tract ically all the nations of Europe are rqircsented, 
 but returns give only t)ne native of the white race. It may be said 
 that all the white population of the Congo are more or less directly 
 engaged in trade, not even excluding the officials themselves, either 
 on their own belialf or on behalf of the State. Private traders, as 
 lias been stated, complain of the increasing competition which they 
 must subnu't to from the State officials, who, naturally, have great 
 advantages over their rivals. Practically the free-trade clauses of 
 the Berlin Act are a dead letter; the Congo Free State is virtually, 
 and will some time be in reality, a Belgian colony. Whether such 
 a monopolizing policy is a \vise one, even from a purely business 
 point of view, is, however, doubtful. But be that as it may, the 
 exports from the State territories increased from about $400,000 in 
 18S7 to about $1,600,000 in 1890, though it was only a little over 
 Si. 000,000 in 1 891 ; figures for later years show a steady increase 
 in exports of original produce up to over $10,000,000 for 1901. 
 I'elgium gets the lion's share of the special export and import trade; 
 the chief imj)orts, in the order of their importance, are: tissues, 
 foods, drinks, machinery, arms, clothing, metals and their manu- 
 factures. 
 
 As yet tlie exports from the Congo are almost exclusively the 
 natural products of Central Africa, viz., ivory, caoutchouc, palm 
 nuts, palm oil, and coffee. Ivory once contributed quite one-half 
 of tlie total exports from tlie Free State territories. It counted for 
 only $8cjo,oc)0 in 1901. The export of jjalm nuts and oil in 1890 
 amounted to $750,000, and fell to $650,000 in 1893, more than one- 
 half obtained from outside the Free State limits. It again fell, in 
 1901. to about $450,000. Of caoutchouc, $200,000 worth came 
 from tlic I'rcc State in 1893, while nearly double the amount is the 
 profliice of I'rench and Portuguese Congo; init the exports of this 
 article for 1901 were valued at $8,800,000. So with coffee; of the 
 $340.0f;o w.rth exported by the Congo in 1890, only $17,500 worth 
 can he crc'ited to the h^ree State, while in 1893. of the coffee ex- 
 p'.rtcd, ivnc canic from tlie hVee State proper at all; the exports 
 i'' r 1901 were valued at $12,000,
 
 BERLIN CONFERENCE 125 
 
 1890-1903 
 
 Thus far only the natural products of tropical Africa have been 
 dealt with ; practically nothing has been done to develop the capa- 
 bilities of the soil, except perhaps on a small scale around the various 
 stations. Such mineral resources as may exist in the Congo region 
 and though much secrecy is maintained they are believed to be 
 considerable have not been touched. It is only those who fancy 
 that Africa can be transformed into a Europe or an India in a 
 decade that would have expected more. The natural resources of 
 the basin are plentiful enough to yield valuable returns to modest 
 commercial enterprises for many years ; but to keep up the expen- 
 sive machinery of a state, and support an endless series of exploring 
 and fighting expeditions, these natural resources will have to be 
 worked on a much larger scale than has hitherto been done. For 
 1894 the estimated expenditure of the Free State was about 
 $1,450,000, leaving a deficit, when all sums are taken into account, 
 of $350,000. The estimated revenue for 1902 and 1903 was about 
 $5,600,000; the expenditures, $6,500,000 and $6,000,000 respec- 
 tively. The estimate for the defensive forces of the State in 1894 
 was $750,000; in 1892 it was only $200,000; the estimated expendi- 
 ture for " Public Force" for 1903 (exclusive of marine, etc.) was 
 $1,540,000. Even were the profits accruing from the whole of the 
 Free State trade the perquisite of the king, they would hardly suf- 
 fice to meet the outlay; as a matter of fact, but a small proportion 
 of them go to the credit of the State. The King of the Belgians 
 professed to have entered upon his great enterprise from other than 
 purely commercial motives, but it is obvious that there is a limit 
 even to the royal finances. It is impossible, therefore, to blame him 
 for endeavoring, through the Brussels Congress of 1890, to so far 
 modify the Berlin Act as to be permitted to levy duties on imports 
 as well as exports, nor for adopting other means house-taxes, 
 trading-licenses, etc. of raising a revenue. If the organization of 
 a state is to be carried out, it of course involves expenditure; and 
 the profits on Central African trade arc so enormous tliat they can 
 well afford to yield a percentage in return for the security which a 
 state is supposed to afford. It might conceivably have been more 
 profitable for all concerned had the development of the Free State 
 been intrusted to a great chartered company similar to the Royal 
 Niger Company. But this would have defeated the great object 
 which the king had in view in entering upon African enterprise; 
 he reaps a subjective reward, at any rate, in realizing that he is the
 
 126 AFRICA 
 
 1902-1903 
 
 active licnd and movin.cf spirit of a gigantic undertaking ^vhich he 
 believes is destinetl to form a great civilized state in Central 
 Africa. Already the Congo Railway Company has completed 
 a line from the lower to the upper river, though progress was la- 
 mentably slow and attended by enormous loss of life among the 
 victims of the compnlst)ry labor system. Upon the upper river thirty 
 government stc imers sujiply a public transport service. That such 
 a railwav would be bcnelicial in many ways can hardly be doubted, 
 but although the rates arc very high, it can hardly be expected to 
 pay without a great increase in the present trade. The difficulty in 
 obtaining adccpiate native labor for this railway was so great that 
 in Xovcnibcr. 1892. the company was compelled to import over six 
 hundrctl Chinese coolies. There are a few isolated Chinamen in 
 Soutli Africa ; but the Congo Free State has the distinction of ])eing 
 the first to try the experiment of substituting Chinese for native 
 labor. Ihe effort w;is unsuccessful, for within a few months nearly 
 five hundred died, and sometime after most of those that were left 
 suddenly decamped, and subsequently a few were seen far in the 
 interior trying to Avalk overland to China, 
 
 While, tlien. the dreams of the Berlin Congress have vanished, 
 .'.nd tiic Great International I-^ree State has almost lapsed into a 
 r.clgian colony, while many mistakes have been made and crimes 
 against, humanity liave been committed, while the expenditure has 
 been lavish and the returns insignificant, while sla\-c-trading still 
 nourishes to s< line extent e\'cn within the boundaries of tl;e Free 
 State, wliile canni1)alism is widely prevalent, and civilization can 
 hardly he said to have taken root; yet it must be admitted that on 
 t!-.e \\lK)le ilicrc has been some progress, or at least change. The 
 l-'rcc .'-^tatc may not contiiuic to exist under its jircscnt organization. 
 It n:ay l;c hr ken up into several states, or may be divided among 
 sevcr.-'.l j) i\ver<; hut, whatever may be its fate in this respect, it 
 cainiot stand s'.;!!, and it cannot go back. The more it is opened u[) 
 t<i the view of c'vili/.cd humanity the better it will be for the conduct 
 (<f its a:;a;r- nul for the interests of the natives. It will certainly 
 be !' K ked h ^ k !o in the future as <')ne of the most remarkable out- 
 cmt-, of !l:e nv<lern C(jntact between Furope and Africa; win'le its 
 r^y.-d ! unoer \v:'l lie reckoned among the most enterprising, ambi- 
 t-.-ti- and a-'::te kings of llie century.
 
 Chapter XII 
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA. 1865-1910 
 
 THE fact that the Conference had been convened at Berlin 
 to settle the rules of the game of partition was not re- 
 garded by those taking part in it as a sufficient reason for 
 holding their hands. Even while it was sitting Germany was mak- 
 ing inroads into a region which Great Britain regarded as peculiarly 
 her own. The successful result of the operations in West Africa 
 intensified the colonial feeling in Germany, and filled the more 
 active spirits with impatience for further annexations. It has 
 already been seen that, as far back as 1865, Kersten strongly urged 
 the annexation by Germany of the region lying to the south of the 
 River Jub in East Africa. Years before that Hamburg trade had 
 found a footing in Zanzibar, and, according to German authorities, 
 it exceeded that of all other European powers, and was second 
 only to the trade carried on by British Indians. Again, in 1875, 
 Vice-Admiral Livonius, in a communication to the German Admi- 
 ralty, urged that Zanzibar should be taken under German protec- 
 tion. Three years later, as has been seen, the sultan was persuaded 
 by Mackinnon to offer to cede the fiscal administration of his terri- 
 tories to England ; but although the treaty was actually drawn up, 
 the British Government threw difficulties in the way, and eventually 
 the scheme was thwarted. The sultan's influence, if not rule, ex- 
 tended from Warsheikh on the north to Cape Delgado on the south, 
 and included all the islands on the coast. There can l^e no doubt 
 also that through the Arab traders his influence extended far into 
 the interior, though probably no native chief beyond the coast region 
 acknowledged the sultan's suzerainty. ATeantime trade was in- 
 creasing steadily at Zanzibar, where British influence was still pre- 
 dominant, and the British Indian traders, both Hindu and Moham- 
 meflan, of whom thousands were settled on the island and on the 
 coasts, were a powerful factor in the sultanate. Again, in 1879, 
 Ernst von Weber, one of the most strenuous of German colonial 
 pioneers, in an address to the Central Vcrein fiir Handelsgcogra- 
 
 127
 
 ms A V U I (' A 
 
 1882-1885 
 
 7'/jiV. drew attcMitii>n \n the River Jul) ami the desirability of Cier- 
 inain- acmiirinj^ a icnitcrial footiiii^ in the Zanzibar rcj^^ioii ; in this 
 rcspoit reiterating the views enunciated by (lerhard Rohlfs about 
 the same time. In iSSj Count Joachim I'feil wrote an essay stroiii^ly 
 uri^ini,' (leiinany to occupy the very districts which were afterward 
 actjuired. lie pointed out that the region east of the lakes must 
 otTer a held for profitable trade and cultivation, and that the claims 
 of the Sultan vere of a \ery shadowy kind. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the attention of the German colonial 
 party was directeil to h^ist Africa at a much earlier period than to 
 West Africa, though it was in the latter that active operations began. 
 J^uspicion was aroused at the British I'\)reign Office in the autumn 
 of 1SS4, and on November 24 the British Minister at Berlin 
 obtauK'd an assurance from IVince Piismarck that " (lermany 
 was not endeavoring to obtain a protectorate over Zanzibar." But 
 an uneasy feeling was again aroused when, toward the end of the 
 year, it was known that the African explorer, Rohlfs, was making 
 his way to Zanzibar, to which he had been appointed German con- 
 sul-general. On January 14, 1885, Earl Granville communicated 
 with Berlin, somewhat timidly, drawing attention to this circum- 
 stance, at the same time exj)ressing a confident belief that Germany 
 did not mean to annex Zanzibar. The British Minister pointed out 
 Ijrietly the long and intimate relations of England with Zanzibar, 
 over which she had acted as a sort of guardian and tutelary deity. 
 IVince Bismarck's reply showed that he. or those by whom he was 
 insj)ired, had mastered the history of the Zanzibar dominions and 
 knew how to a])ply it to their own ends. lie knew the i)art which 
 iiad been i)layed by England, and was able to correct Lord Granville 
 on .-. ime ni the dates which the latter had been rash enough to cite. 
 \o direct statement was made as to what was the real object of 
 Rohlf.'^'s m:>.->ion, but on I'Y'bruary 25 Granville was informed that 
 the c<^n-i:!-general was "commissioned to exert his iiiHuence " t(j 
 secure freetlmii of commerce in the sultan's dominions. In short, 
 the t' >ne ui liic cwiiinuinication from Berlin was evidently intenrled 
 to induce tlie belief in London that Rohlfs had no (;thcr object in 
 view than to conclude c -niniercial treaties with tlie Sulian : Prince 
 Bi>ni;ink did not >ee that the relations between iuigland and Zan- 
 zibar V, ere .-u.ch ;is to prevent this. Such treaties had been made 
 a.T far h.uk a-. i.S:;^ Ijy America, 1839 by England, 1844 by hTance, 
 auil 1859 by ;he llan.-e towns. As England had declared herself
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 129 
 
 1864-1884 
 
 warmly on behalf of the independence of Zanzibar, and had in 1864 
 joined France in a declaration to this effect, she could not object 
 to the sultan making treaties with whomsoever he pleased. 
 
 But the uneasy feeling was not allayed. This is clear even 
 from the correspondence in the Blue Books which are published 
 on the subject ; but these contain a mere selection from a vast mass 
 of correspondence, the bulk of which is supposed, though printed, 
 never to be seen except by the official eye. From this private and 
 confidential correspondence it is, however, still more plainly evident 
 that both at Zanzibar and in London it was felt that some new Ger- 
 man enterprise was in the air. But the British Foreign Office pro- 
 fessed itself satisfied with the vague assurances from Berlin. 
 
 Karl Peters, who was destined to become the chief disturbing 
 agent in East African affairs, was in 1884 only twenty-eight years 
 of age. He had been educated at German universities, and had 
 resided for a time in England. On his return to Germany he was 
 ignorant of colonial matters, and had apparently no interest in the 
 colonial movement. He was, however, drawn into the movement 
 mainly through the influence of his friend. Dr. Lange, who himself 
 did so much to promote it. Peters was a man of somewhat imperious 
 temper, and from the first seems to have been filled with a feeling 
 of bitterness toward England. The German Colonial Society 
 founded by Prince Hohenlohe Langenburg, with its thousands of 
 members, was not practical enough for the more advanced colonial 
 party. Early in 1884 another, the Society for German Colonization, 
 was formed by the late Count Banddin, who was the first president. 
 He was soon succeeded by Lange, who in a short time was followed 
 by Peters. This new society, inspired by Count Joachim Pfeil and 
 Dr. Peters, lost no time in maturing a plan of operations for further 
 wholesale annexations. Some proposed to enter Africa by Sofala. 
 But the favorite scheme was to annex the lofty region east of Mos- 
 samedes, in Portuguese West Africa ; evidently the claims of Portu- 
 gal were not held of much account. Everything was prepared in 
 the summer of 1884 for an expedition to Mossamedes, when the 
 German Government intervened and told the enterprising young 
 men that whatever they did was at their own risk, and that no 
 annexations in that region would be sanctioned by the government. 
 This turned the attention of the society again to East Africa. St. 
 Lucia ]jay was proposed, but in the end the scheme all along advo- 
 cated by Count Pfeil was adopted, and it was decided to make Zan-
 
 180 AFUIC'A 
 
 1884 
 
 7\h:\v [he basis of opcrati<uis. Many practical men. including a 
 ninnl)or of capitalists, gatliercd rnuml the new society, which was 
 not, innvcvcr. very liberally provided with means; $10,000 com- 
 prisctl all the available funds. 
 
 The greatest secrecy was observed. It was arranged that 
 Peters, in conipanv \\ ith Count Pfeil and Dr. Jiihlke. a devoted 
 friend o\ IVters, should proceed (piietly to Zanzibar. Of the three, 
 rfei! was the oulv one who had been in Africa and who had any 
 practical knowledge to guide tlie undertaking. They gave out that 
 thev were bound for Livcri)ool, but unobserved, and in the disguise 
 (^f mechanics, thev made their way to Trieste, and, as deck passen- 
 gers, thence to Zan/.ibar, which they reached on November 4, 1884. 
 (juite against the advice of the German consul, who had received 
 instructions from I'erlin to discourage the project, but supported by 
 otlier German residents in Zanzibar, they left the ct^ast on No\em- 
 l)er I J. Seven days later the first " treaty " was signed with a native 
 chief, and the German flag was hoisted at Mbuzini. I'^jllowing the 
 W'.inii I\i\er, tlic three German pioneers went on to the high land 
 of I'sagara. and treaties were rajjidly negotiated with ten chiefs. 
 Oa December 17 Peters was back at the coast with "treaties" 
 wliich ga\e liis society all rights over the countries of Uscguha, 
 Xguru. I'sagara, r]<ami, L'mvomero. and Mukondokwa, a solid 
 block of r)0.ooo square miles, lying almost direct west from P)aga- 
 nioyo. I'clers h.istencd back to Ijcrlin. where, on b^ebruary 12, 
 1SS5. he fomided the German ICast Africa Comprmv, to which the 
 righis he and his colleagues had ac(|uired were ceded. On the 27th, 
 a!!nii-i coinciilenl with the signing of the Ik'rlin Act, the German 
 lanpvror issued a '' Schutobricf ," in which he extended his protec- 
 ti-n to the territory accjuired. or which miglit be ac(|uired. by the 
 .^icict}- fur r,i!-man ("oli aiization. ']1u"s is notcworthv as the first 
 d' .T.int.T.t i>f il:c kind i<sueil by tlic imperial goxcrnment : it was, in 
 lart. a c;;artcr. It is no secret that the unsuspecting chiefs were 
 cajoled inlM rijMicnding tlieir signatures or marks to documents which 
 tlicy wrrt- a iired were perfectly innocent; the three Germans sim- 
 ply v.an!e'! t!ie aut'.graphs of their African friends to carry back 
 witli tlx-m to luir.'pc. T^.ut, when all is said, these "treaties" were 
 lin.bably a> \;ilid and as valuable as most of those that have been 
 made with native cliicfs by " jjioneers " of all nationalities. 
 
 Ai;cr the e\(nt> v.iiich had taken jjlace on the west coast, it 
 ran hardly be ^aid that t!ie Priti^h (Jo\-crnmcnt were taken by sur-
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 131 
 
 18S4-1885 
 
 prise. Sir John Kirk had been for many years British representa- 
 tive at Zanzibar, and his tact, experience, firmness, and thorough 
 knowledge of Africa and Africans had rendered his influence with 
 the Sultan so effective that he had become virtual ruler of Zanzibar. 
 Only six years before, these very territories which the Germans had 
 quietly pocketed had been virtually offered to Eng"land; at any 
 moment Kirk had but to say the word, and the sultan would have 
 placed himself under British protection. After the many years 
 during which Kirk had been riveting British influence at Zanzibar, 
 it was a cruel task which was forced upon him by the British For- 
 eign Office to use all his exertions to undo what he had done, and 
 induce the Sultan to cede to Germany not only the whole of the 
 interior, but the greater part of the coast. The orders from London 
 were of the most peremptory character, and Kirk's anguished remon- 
 strances were of no avail. It was not till April 28, 1885, that the 
 annexation was formally announced to the sultan. The latter imme- 
 diately sent a strong protest to Berlin against the appropriation of 
 what he regarded as his territories, and later on sent similar protests 
 to the British and American governments. Prince Bismarck accused 
 Kirk of instigating these protests, but the latter replied that on the 
 contrary he had exerted his influence to prevent the sultan from 
 going to Berlin himself to remonstrate. The British representative 
 was instructed to co-operate immediately with the German consul- 
 general in forwarding German interests. 
 
 It was not of course the business of Bismarck to inform the 
 British Government beforehand what were his real designs on 
 East Africa. With regard to the sultan's claims, he pointed out 
 that as a matter of fact the sultan exercised no jurisdiction what- 
 ever away from the coast, and that on the latter he occuj)ie(l only a 
 few points. The Berlin Act (to which, however, Zanzibar at this 
 time was not a party) had established the doctrine that no annexa- 
 tion on the coast would be recognized which was not evidenced liy 
 effective occupation and the establishment of some kind of jurisdic- 
 tion. The sultan, it was maintained, had a few trading posts in the 
 interior, but that was all; and Germany ai)plied the same treatment 
 to him as England a year or two later did to Portugal in the Zam- 
 bezi region. That the sultan had real dominion all along the coast 
 from Cape Delgado as far as Lamu, the evidence was ample ; fur- 
 ther north his power was confined to a few^ coast towns, wliicli in- 
 cluded the only landing places where goods could be shipped. At
 
 132 A F U I (' A 
 
 1884-1885 
 
 Arab stations in tlic interior, even as far as Lake Tanganyika, his 
 sovereignty was rooognized. but beyonil a certain distance from the 
 coast there can be httle doubt that Central Africa, between the 
 coast and Lake Tanganyika, was in reality a no-man's-land. The 
 worst that can be said of Germany's action in the matter is that she 
 stole a march upon luigland, which, according to accepted stand- 
 ards, can hardly be rcganlcd as immoral, either in business or diplo- 
 macy, for in neither of these is chivalry supposed to hold a place. 
 
 On May J5. 1SS5. Lord Granville assured Prince Bismarck 
 that the P.ritisli Government had no intention of ofTering any ob- 
 struction to Gorman i)rojects. but welcomed Germany's co(")pcration 
 in developing the resources of East Africa and in endeavoring to 
 suppress sla\cry. At the same time he informed the German Chan- 
 cellor that a number of English capitalists intended to undertake an 
 important enterprise in the region between the East Coast and the 
 Nile Lakes, which they proposed to unite by means of a railway; 
 but the project would only receive the support of the government 
 if the latter were assured that it would in no way interfere with 
 German designs. In these somewhat humble terms was the initiation 
 of the Imjierial British East Africa Company announced to Ger- 
 many, and it is worthy of note that a railway to the lake was one of 
 the first projects thought of. 
 
 The sultan, however, was not inclined to resign himself to the 
 situation so readily as the British. lie sent his troops into Usagara 
 to raise his flag over a region which he considered his own, and 
 where the Germans had stolen a march upon him. and dispatched 
 his commander-in-chief, General jMatliews, an ICnglish naval lieu- 
 tenant, to M(junt Kilimanjaro, to obtain from the chiefs their adhe- 
 sirin to his sovereignty, thus anticipating the Germans in this region. 
 \'arious agents of the German I'.ast Africa Society (to which the 
 Coloni/aii' 11 Society made over its rights) were traveling about the 
 interior making additionrd treaties, 'i'hey had long tried to reach 
 Mount Kiinnanjaro to ])rr)mote German interests, in S]^ite of the 
 sultan's ir.i-si. III. and notwithstanding the fact that in i8.'^4 IT. 
 II. Jolin-i^n obtained ri concession of territory there. The sul- 
 tan C'.nt::uicd ('l)-iiiiate an<l would not listen to tlie pro]V)sal made 
 by the German G .".crnniciri for a recognition ui German territorial 
 rights in ^^:!.L,^'l^a and Witn. The good ofilces of Kirk were of no 
 aw'iil, and it \\a.-> only wi.en a formidaljle German S(|uadron apjjeared 
 \)C\ re liis palace on August 7, 18S5, and an ultimatum was pre-
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 133 
 
 1862-1885 
 
 sented by the commander, that the sultan intimated his recognition 
 of certain of the German territorial claims, including Witu. Thus 
 the crisis was safely passed. Various difficulties and protests oc- 
 curred before everything was settled, but the development of Ger- 
 man suzerainty in East Africa promised now to be steady and sure. 
 Meantime German annexation, thus recognized, was proceeding 
 apace on the coast north of Zanzibar. According to German state- 
 ments there was a question as to Richard Brenner having concluded 
 a treaty on behalf of Prussia with the Sultan of Witu, a small dis- 
 trict north of the mouth of the Tana River. The Sultan Simba 
 had been compelled some years previously to leave Patta Island and 
 take refuge on the mainland; there he had established himself among 
 the Gallas and Somalis, and according to Consul Haggard, who 
 visited him in August, 1884, Witu w-as the refuge for all the " mal- 
 contents, felons, and bankrupts of the surrounding country," who 
 lived by slave-raiding and cattle-stealing, and were a terror to the 
 whole region. Mr. Haggard narrowly escaped being made pris- 
 oner because he declined to send the Sultan Simba guns and ammu- 
 nition. Simba found the Germans more complaisant, and they in 
 turn formed a high opinion of the old man, whose little kingdom 
 seemed to them a center of civilization. At any rate the brothers 
 Denhardt, on April 8, 1885, obtained a concession from the sultan 
 of his kingdom (500 square miles) for the Witu Company and on 
 May 27 it was placed under imperial protection. When, in June, 
 1885, Lord Salisbury succeeded Earl Granville at the Foreign Office, 
 a satisfactory understanding had been arrived at between the two 
 governments on the position generally in East Africa, and the Con- 
 servative Premier was quite as disposed as the Liberal Foreign 
 Minister to adopt a thoroughly conciliatory attitude toward Ger- 
 many's colonial schemes. The British representative was cooper- 
 ating with the German consul-general in getting the sultan to 
 agree to a commercial treaty which would regulate the trade be- 
 tween his dominions and tlie newly acf[uircd German territories; 
 if this were accomplished, Germany would join the acknowledgment, 
 made in 1862 by England and l-'rance, of tlie sultan's independence. 
 But first, however, it would be necessary to decide what precisely 
 were the sultan's dominions, and it was finally agreed to appoint a 
 joint commission, with representatives of luigland, France, Ger- 
 many, and Zanzibar, to carry out on the spot the work of 
 delimitation.
 
 134 AFRICA 
 
 1884-1886 
 
 So far as Rritisli interests are concerned, the most important 
 part of ilic work of this international commission would be the 
 delimitati^'n of the rci;i<m in the neig'hhorhood of Mount Kiliman- 
 jaro, wl'.ero. with the consent of Great Ihitain. the Sultan of Zanzi- 
 bar iK'.d secured tre.ities which placed the ^vhole district under his 
 authority. In September. 1884. Johnston had obtained concessions 
 of territory in tlie di-trict of 1\aveta and on the slopes of Kiliman- 
 jaro. This h'luistou made over to the president of the .Mancliester 
 Chamber nf t'ommerce. and it was on such a basis apparently that 
 an as<(X-ia;ion of Ihitish merchants were projecting a company for 
 obtaining territory between tlie coast and the Victoria Xyanza, 
 through which they purpo.scd to construct a railway. A communi- 
 cati.'U (Ml tlic subject was sent to Berlin by Lord Salisbury in No- 
 vember. 18S5. and it was i)ointed out that the concession was several 
 niMuilis earlier than the treaties made with General Mathews for 
 the sultan or subsc(|ueutly with Dr. Ji'ihlke and his colleagues in 
 fa\iir of the Gciinan company. However, it was agreed to allow 
 all claims to lie in abeyance luitil the commission was on the spot 
 an<l was in a position to decide between the parties; it being under- 
 st('id thai neither side should seek to steal a march upon the other. 
 Hut the German agents were impatient, and were pushing their way 
 into the Kilimanjaro region. This produced a protest from the 
 ]-'arl of Rosebery. who had chai-ge of foreign affairs during a few 
 niiiutiis in iSSf). This protest is noteworthy for a tone of firmness 
 and a determination to support British interests, which was some- 
 what wanting in llie correspondence of the previous eighteen 
 niontiis. The commission, however, did not go vevy s])ee(1ily to 
 Work, though by tlie middle of 1886 thev had collected much infor- 
 mation which was of service in enabling the German and r)ritish 
 Cio\ernmcius to come to an understanding. And meanwhile a com- 
 mercial treaty was arranged in August of that year l)etwcen Zimzi- 
 ba!\ Germany, Mngland, f*" ranee, and other powers, bv which definite 
 laritTs were substituted for the somewhat arbitrary levies that pre- 
 vi(Ai-]y exi-ted. ;:nd .an agreement reached that, .as regards at least 
 Great Britain and (iermanv. all products of the interior should pay 
 to tile ^ultan the tixed tariff duty on reaching his coast. 
 
 At la-t on October 29 and Xovember i, the British and 
 German G' i\ crunieiits came to a definite agreement as to the terri- 
 t'Tv w'dcli would be rrcogmzed as under the <o\ei'eignty of the 
 Sultan of /:.:i/ib,ir, and to tins acrreement the suUan i/ave his assent
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 135 
 
 1834-1886 
 
 on December 4. He could not choose but assent, his only condition 
 being that since the two powers were taking this part of his king- 
 dom from him and giving it to Germany, " they would protect our 
 kingdom from being divided among them by otlier nations." The 
 Earl of Iddesleigh, who had succeeded Lord Rosebery at the For- 
 eign Office in August, carried out the negotiations with a delicate 
 tact and firmness that kept Prince Bismarck in the best of tempers 
 and yet retained for England a substantial share of East Central 
 Africa. 
 
 From the center of Tungi Bay on the south of Cape Delgado to 
 Kipini at the mouth of the Tana River, a strip of the mainland ten 
 nautical miles in width, was recognized by Great Britain, Germany, 
 and France as the sultan's domain ; as w^ere also the islands of Zan- 
 zibar and Pemba, the smaller islands within a radius of ten miles, 
 and the islands of Lamu and i\Iafia. To the north of Kipini the 
 towns of Kismayu, Brava, ]\Ieurka, and Magdoshu, with a radius 
 of ten nautical miles round each, and Warsheikh, with a radius of 
 five nautical miles, were left to tlie sultan. The intervening strips 
 of coast were regarded as independent, an arrangement which 
 threatened to be disastrous to British enterprise. The sultan gave 
 up all claims to Kilimanjaro. Although Johnston's Kilimanjaro 
 concessions had not been of much avail, the aspirations of the em- 
 bryo British East Africa Company were to some extent satisfied 
 by tlie definition of a boundary to the north of which Germany 
 would not interfere with their " spliere of influence." This was a 
 plirase which, like " Hinterland," came into vogue at the time of 
 the Berlin Conference, and designated an arrangement of great con- 
 venience in the unprecedented conditions under which a whole con- 
 tinent was being parceled out. It was obvious that the enormous 
 areas which were being allotted to the various powers could not be 
 occupied and developed all at (jnce ; but it was reasonable and for 
 the benefit of all concerned that each nation should be left untram- 
 nieled within certain limits agreed upon, and that her communica- 
 tions in the rear should not be cut off. Unfortunately, in some cases, 
 as will be seen, the delimitations left a loopliole for serious misun- 
 derstandings; nor was it clear that an arrangement between two 
 powers was binding on other powers not parties to it. 
 
 In tlie case of East Africa it was agreed that tlie northern limit 
 of German influence and the southern limit of British influence 
 should be defined by a line from the mouth of the River (Jmba or
 
 l;^r AFRICA 
 
 1862-1886 
 
 W'anqa. wliicli left prnctically the whole of tlic mnpiificcnt Kili- 
 niatijaro rcijioii. with its fertile slopes and foothills, to Germany. 
 Still further restrictiims were, moreover, placed on British opera- 
 tions, restrictions which very shortly gave rise to much bitterness 
 and threatened to slmt out the British company from the interior 
 altoc^ether. With W'itu as a base of operations. Germany was left 
 free to do to the British sphere what she herself protested against 
 England dc^'ng in the CamenuMis and in Southwest Africa. But 
 the course of events induced Germany ere long to leave England 
 free to develoj) ncMihward. Another important arrangement, the 
 thin end of the wedge, indeed, for further developments on the part 
 of Germany, permitted Zanzibar to lease to the German African 
 Company the customs duties at the ports of Dar-es-Salaam and Pan- 
 gani, in return for an annual payment to the sultan by the com- 
 pany, calculated on a percentage of returns collected, on a sliding 
 scale. 
 
 The strip of coast line thus left to the sultan measured some 
 six hundred miles, though when Germany first appeared on the 
 field he claimed about three hundred miles more. His " independ- 
 ence " was recognized by Germany in accordance with the decla- 
 ration of 1862 signed by France and England; poor Burghash, had 
 he been free to speak his mind, might have said this provision was 
 adding insult to injury. It is not to i)e wondered at that Sir John 
 Kirk did not care to retain longer a post which must have become 
 liumiliating. After serving his country's interests for years with 
 zeal and success, so much so that Zanzibar had in reality become an 
 apj)enda,<4e of England, it was grievous for him to see his life work 
 aj)j)arently fall into the lap of a foreign power. However, things 
 l'.a\c not turned out ([uite so badly as they seemed at first likely to 
 do. It cannot be said that the revenues of the sultan were dimin- 
 ished uiMlcr tlie new arrangements. The German East Africa 
 Company <ct itself \vitli cncrgv. intelligence, and determination 
 to develop its extensive territories. A committee of five members, 
 appointed for fifteen years, unrlcrtook the a^lministration. 
 
 I^y an agreement between Germany and Portugal in December. 
 T-'^.'^^). t!ie so'jtliern boundary of tlie German sphere was marked 
 i)y llic C'ur'^c of t!ic I\i\er Rovunia to the confluence of the River 
 M'sinje. and thence we.-,t to the shore of Lake Nyasa. This agree- 
 ment gave ri^e to an incident which might have had more serious 
 consequence-, but for the remonstrances of England and Germany.
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 137 
 
 1884-1886 
 
 The Rovuma debouches into the Indian Ocean some distance to 
 the north of Tungi Bay, recognized in the Anglo-German arrange- 
 ment as part of the southern boundary of the Zanzibar dominions. 
 The suhan, still sore no doubt at the treatment to which he had 
 been subjected by the two great powers, at once protested that he 
 would not submit to be deprived by a power like Portugal of the 
 northern half of Tungi Bay, which had belonged to Zanzibar for 
 generations, where he had a station and custom-house, and which 
 had just been recognized by the three great powers as his. Por- 
 tugal, equally irritated at the way her claims had been ignored by 
 the great powers and humiliated by the refusal of France, Germany, 
 and England to permit her to be represented on equal terms in the 
 joint commission of delimitation, informed the sultan that if 
 he did not retire from Tungi Bay and give up all claim to it, he 
 might look for the consequences. The Portuguese flag was hauled 
 down at Zanzibar, and nothing less than the bombardment of the 
 town was expected. However, the Portuguese contented them- 
 selves with sending a squadron to Tungi Bay, seizing one of the 
 sultan's vessels, and bombarding for several days a couple of 
 villages which a dozen sailors might have captured in a few minutes. 
 This barbarous proceeding it is impossible to justify. The little 
 difficulty could easily have been arranged by Germany and Eng- 
 land, but this did not apparently suit the mood of the Portuguese 
 at the time, Portugal had to vent her wrath on some power, and 
 she did it by shelling a couple of unprotected villages claimed by 
 the much-bullied Sultan of Zanzibar. The result of this insig- 
 niflcant affair, in which not a single Portuguese was wounded, 
 was announced in a series of magniloquent dispatches as if it had 
 been Portsmouth and not Tungi Bay which had been the scene of 
 operations. As those wlio suffered most were British Indian sub- 
 jects settled on the Bay for trade, intense indignation was aroused 
 by this act on the part of Portugal. l'^)r damage done to British 
 subjects by tlie bombardment the British Government asked that 
 some compensation might 1)e paid. This was curtly refused, and 
 British and Portuguese relations on the east coast became strained. 
 To the attitude which Portugal assumed on this occasion may to 
 a considerable extent be attributed tlie uncompromising stand made 
 by England at a later date on the Zambezi. Portugal insisted on 
 retaining possession of Tungi Bay, and claimed all north as far 
 as the River Rovuma, the boundary named in defining the spheres
 
 138 A V RICA 
 
 1886-1894 
 
 of influence >f Gcrtnaiiy and I'ortiii^^al. Finally, in September, 
 1804. an airrei-nu-nt was readied between tbese two powers by 
 which, while 'runi^i Hay is left to Portugal, the coast north, in- 
 clutling the nunitli of tlie River Rovuma, is regarded as German 
 territt^ry. 
 
 In the midst of these negotiations a difficulty arose between 
 (lermanv and i'.ngland which showed that the Anglo-German ar- 
 rangement of iS8() hrid not settled everything. In the beginning 
 rf 1S87 Stanlev set out on his expeilition for the "relief" of 
 I-"min Pasha, governor of the equatorial provinces and supposed 
 to be bclcaguerecl by the Mahdi in Wadelai on the Nile, to 
 tlie north of the Albert Nyanza. Stanley selected the Congo 
 rni'.te, and it was believed would return by the east coast. The 
 (k'rnian I\ast Africa Company took alarm, mainly because the 
 chief mover in the relief expedition was ATr. William Mackinnon, 
 and the committee was mrn'nly composed of men who in conjunc- 
 tirn witii Mackinnon had about the same time formed themsch'es 
 ir.to the Britsh East Africa Companv. to develop the sphere re-, 
 tained for Pjritish influence to the north of the Kilimanjaro line. 
 The (ierm.'in company became apprehensive that Stanley might on 
 his return make treaties that would impinge upon the German 
 " Hinterland," and ])ossibly cut that companv off from Lake Tan- 
 ganyika. In July a representation was made to that effect 
 to Lord Salisbury, tlu-n in charge of the foreign interests of Lng- 
 land. Lord Salisbury assured Prince P)ismarck that he would 
 conclude no annexations in the rear of the C^crman sjjliere. and that 
 Germany should be allowed a free hand to the south of the Vic- 
 toria Xyanza. He still left the question of the precise boundary 
 between tl^e bjigiisli and German spheres on the west of Victoria 
 Xyan/.a unsettled, and, as will be seen, this gave occasion for diffi- 
 culties in the future. 
 
 'Hie GernKin I^ast Africa Company, of which Dr. Peters was 
 still the l;ead and ?no\ing spirit, lost no time in endeavoring to 
 reaj) the lruit< of its treaties and of the enijrnious concessions which 
 tKe Gci 111:111 CiAeinnient had obtained on its behalf. And here 
 it may he iiMud iliat tlie German Colonization Society, which Peters 
 had fonrided ps a -ort of rival to the German Colonial Society, 
 united with the latter, in the cm] r)f iXcSj, iiUo one association under 
 the latter title. S'lue ninths bet'ore this the German l^ast Africa 
 .\>.-ociat:' 11 li.nl Ircii iiu. irporated by iinjierial charter, and was
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 139 
 
 1885-1888 
 
 now in a position to combine the administration of its domains 
 with territorial supremacy. During 1885 several expeditions were 
 sent out partly to explore in various directions, and to collect 
 precise information not only on topography, but on geology, on 
 climate, soil, and vegetation such as would be of essential service 
 to the intelligent development of the country. Branch or subor- 
 dinate companies were formed, such as the East Africa Plantation 
 Company and the German Planters' Company, for the special 
 objects indicated by their names. On the Pangani and Umba 
 Rivers, and in other districts near the coast, plantations were es- 
 tablished, and by 1888 there were some thirty stations of the kind. 
 Houses were built, the ground cleared, coffee, tobacco, maize, and a 
 variety of other products were cultivated, and a fair beginning of 
 industry and trade initiated. The tobacco was actually exported 
 to Germany and met with a favorable reception. There was no 
 lack of labor for wages, and when a bargain was made with the 
 natives the German planters kept the latter stringently to it. At 
 the same time it was admitted by the Germans themselves that slave 
 labor was largely employed by them. But the English missiona- 
 ries, nevertheless, felt themselves at liberty to advise the natives 
 to deal confidently with the Germans. The English mission sta- 
 tions were carried on as before, while the missionary societies of 
 Germany, both Catholic and Protestant, zealously joined in the 
 work. 
 
 By this time, as will be seen in a subsequent chapter, the 
 British East Africa Company had begun operations and had leased 
 from the sultan the strip of coast over which his authority was 
 recognized between the German territory and the Tana. The 
 German company decided to follow the example, and succeeded 
 in making the Sultan Khalifa, who in March, 1888, had succeeded 
 on the death of his brother Burghash, lease to them for fifty years 
 the whole of the coast territory from the Rovuma to the Umba, 
 thus giving them the command of seven ports and three roadsteads. 
 The German company were to have the sole administration of the 
 district and the collection of the customs, which under certain 
 conditions were to be paid over to the sultan. Dr. Peters had 
 by this time ceased to direct the company's affairs at Zanzibar, and 
 under the new regime there was a much closer connection between 
 the com])any's officials and tlic GeniKni consulate. A school for 
 the study of the Swahili language was at once established at Berlin,
 
 1 iO A F RICA 
 
 1888-1889 
 
 and cncrtjfctic measures taken iov the Germanizing of the whole 
 of the coast towns. A stall oi some sixty oflkials was sent out 
 to carry on tlic now administration. The stations estabUshed in the 
 interior bv IVtcrs were to be abandoned or given over to the mis- 
 sionaries; to the comjiany they were a source of great loss an<l 
 weakness. .\ military force was to be trained and distributed on 
 the C(\ast rcgi* n, and additional customs stations were to be estab- 
 lisheil. Ilerr \'ohsen. the new administrator, informed the British 
 consul-general. Colonel C. luian Smith, who had succeeded Sir 
 John Kirk, that the German company would follow very closely 
 the example of the British company, and would not move into 
 the interior unless the latter sought to do so. Stringent measures 
 were to be taken to discourage the slave-trade carried on by the 
 Arabs in Central Africa, and for this purpose it was intended to 
 regulate or stop the importation of arms. 
 
 It must be said that the British consul-general expressed to 
 the directors of the German company his fear that, unless great 
 caution were exercised in effecting the transfer from the sultan's 
 to the German administration, the consequences might be serious, 
 as the powerful Arab traders and chiefs could not but regard the 
 new regime with suspicion; for they imagined that it might seri- 
 (;usly interfere with their peculiar trade. Smith's fears were only 
 too speedily justified. The German officials took over adminis- 
 tration on August 16, 1888; and on the 21st the British 
 Consul-general telegrajjhed to London that disturbances were re- 
 jjiirtcd frrim Bagamoyo and Pangani ; induced in the first instance 
 by indiscreet conduct with reference to the sultan's flag. Other 
 indiscretions followed on the part of German officials, evidence of 
 inex|)erience and want of tact in dealing with the natives. By the 
 cn<\ of Se])tcnibcr tlie wIkjIc coast population was up in arms, 
 again.-t not only the Germans, but the English; by the end of the 
 year tl:cy made no distinction between Germans and English; 
 u hite men were " all robbers alike." 
 
 Unfiirtunatcly tlic German officials did not care to take any 
 stci)s Uj co::ci!iate the natives; their j)olicy. to judge from their 
 C' iiduct, \va> to treat the latter as a coiKjucred petjple, whose feel- 
 ing.-) it vor.'ii lie ab.-urd to consider. A leader auKjng the discon- 
 tented natives arose in th.e person of the half-caste chief Bushiri, 
 who .-houcd :\u iiitelligence. determination, and resource that could 
 not but cuinijcl re-pecl. Germany was glad, in lier need, to seek
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 141 
 
 1889-1890 
 
 the co-operation of England, and a blockade was established all 
 along the German and the British sections of coast by the united 
 fleets in Zanzibar waters. The hatred of the Germans grew more 
 and more intense and some of the native tribes took an oath that 
 they would eat a portion of the bodies of any Germans that might be 
 killed ; though, as a matter of fact, the Arabs were the instigators 
 of the whole movement. Of course the company was quite unable 
 to cope with the " insurrection " which it had deliberately incited, 
 and the direct interference of the imperial government was neces- 
 sary. In the beginning of 1889 Captain Hermann von Wissmann, 
 who had twice crossed Africa, and done eminent service for the 
 Congo Free State, was appointed Imperial Commissioner in East 
 Africa. On the outbreak of the " insurrection " all the German 
 plantations which had been established on the Pangani and else- 
 were were abandoned, and everything reduced to chaos ; the hun- 
 dreds of British Indians, in whose hands was the principal trade 
 on the coast, had also to quit their houses and take refuge in Zan- 
 zibar. In a "White Book," published in January, 1889, the con- 
 duct of the German company was severely censured; and on the 
 30th of the month the Reichstag passed a vote of $500,000 " for 
 the suppression of the slave-trade and the protection of German 
 interests in East Africa." The officials of the company were placed 
 under the command of Wissmann, who, moreover, had at his dis- 
 posal about a thousand native troops, trained and armed with the 
 newest weapons. The commissioner had sixty German officers 
 and soldiers also, and the co-operation of about two hundred sailors 
 from the German navy. Town after town on the coast was 
 destroyed. Bushiri was relentlessly pursued, and his adherents 
 defeated in fight after fight. It was not, however, until December, 
 1889, that Bushiri himself was run to eartli and executed according 
 to martial law. This practically put an end to the " insurrection " 
 in the northern part of the German sphere, and the sultan was 
 constrained to proclaim tliat all slaves vvlio had entered his terri- 
 tories after November i were free. But it was the middle of 
 1890 before the southern coast was sul)(lucd, and the rebel chiefs 
 of Ukami and other districts in the interior defeated, and German 
 sovereignty established over tlie whole sphere from Cape Delgado 
 to the River Wami. 
 
 There was, of course, no longer any question of the adminis- 
 tration being left entirely in the hands of the company, which in
 
 U2 AFRICA 
 
 1889-1893 
 
 Mnv. i88<7. had l>ccn incorptMatcd by imperial charter as a purely 
 OMiimercial association. Alter the suppression of the "insurrec- 
 tion." the sultan's rii^lits over the coast were bouq^ht for a sum of 
 $1 .oococK^, which, however, under various pretexts, was consider- 
 aliiv reduced. Tlie jiiurhasc was made in the name of the (icrman 
 l"!ast Africa Socictv. to which the qovernniciit by ap^reemcnt. Xo- 
 \ ember. iS()o. aiKanccil a loan of some $j.r)00,ooo, partly to pay 
 the sultan and ]arlly to expend in the improvement and develop- 
 ment of the tcrritcM-y. 
 
 The administration is now entirely in the hands of an Im- 
 perial Civil Commissi(Mier appointed by the German Government, 
 his headquarters being at Dar-es-Salaam. Under him are district 
 (-fhccrs settled in the ports on tlie coast, and responsible for the 
 trafTic to and from the interior. The tota.1 area thus taken over 
 is now estimated at about 384.000 square miles, with a population 
 of about seven millions. Large grants are annually made by the 
 imperial government, not only for administration, but for the 
 construct i(^n of railwavs into the interior and steamers for \''ic- 
 ti>ria Xvanza. Tn 1893 a steamer was placed on T>ake Nyasa by 
 tlie German Anti-Slavery S(^cietv, though it is doubtful how far 
 it lias conducetl to the suppression of slavery. Tn tlie meantime, 
 with remarkable rapidity, all the leading coast towns liave been 
 occupied and fortified. Each has its little garrison of Sudanese or 
 I-iast Africans, under European officers, and every jM-ecaulion is 
 taken to render their immediate environment as sanitary as possi- 
 ble. The garrisons of the various stations do not spend their time 
 in idleness. Road-makin.c;. house-building, and otlier useful work 
 is being continually carried on. Large herds of cattle and other 
 drmicstic animals are being accumulated, gardens and plantations 
 cultivated, buoys laid down, lighthouses erected, and these ancient 
 town:; fiu the East African coast will no doubt in time reach a 
 condition of prosperity quite equal, if not superior, to tliat wiiich 
 the Portiicruc^e found to exist when, over four hundred years ago, 
 they bcL^.m their conquest of the coast. 
 
 'I he example of the Germans and the people in their service 
 lias hitherto Jiad fairly satisfactory results. Their uncompromis- 
 ing mi!)triry nid^nds may or may not in the long run be those best 
 .!<l:il)tcd f 'r 'U-?:iv.'j with i!ie natives of Ontral Africa. Tlie utter 
 \\;int o; tHct r\!!;h;;r(I by (lie officials of t];e comjinnv was no doubt 
 dej)l<r;tble. Diit nucc the m; lake was made it is difficult to sec
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 143 
 
 1889-1893 
 
 that any other course than that followed by the German Govern- 
 ment could have been adopted to cope with the unfortunate conse- 
 quences; unless, indeed, the coast had been abandoned indefinitely. 
 It should be remembered that it was the Arabs and slave-dealing 
 half-castes that were the real instigators of the " insurrection," 
 and if Germany resolved once for all to read these personages a 
 sharp lesson, it is difficult to see how the policy can be blamed, 
 except on the untenable ground that Europe has no right in Africa 
 at all. Once the strife was over, Arabs and Indians gathered round 
 the old towns which had now become the centers of German power, 
 and built solid houses and settled down to trade and to plant with 
 more confidence than ever. In this way the coast population is 
 steadily increasing, so that Bagamoyo, which was destroyed dur- 
 ing the war, has now some 13,000 inhabitants, Dar-es-Salaam 
 13,000, and other towns in proportion. Even the streets are 
 lighted at night, and covered market-places have been erected. Cer- 
 tainly the rapidity with which the Germans have established them- 
 selves in the countr}'-, and the wonderful progress already achieved, 
 have made a deep impression upon the natives Africans, Arabs, 
 and Indians alike who contrast what the Germans have done in 
 five years with the little accomplished by the English during the fifty 
 years they were supreme at Zanzibar, forgetting that the position 
 of the latter in the Sultan's dominions was very different from that 
 of the former. 
 
 Germany has not, however, contented herself with squatting 
 on the coast. Expeditions have been sent out in various directions, 
 partly for the purpose of prospecting, partly to found stations, and 
 partly to establish German supremacy in the interior. Emin 
 Pasha, who, when brought to the coast by his " rescuer " Stanley, 
 entered tlie service of Germany, was the leader of one of these 
 expeditions. He made his way to the Victoria Xyanza, on the 
 west coast of which he establislied a station. Another expedition 
 on its way into the interior encountered a horde of raiding Wahehe, 
 whose country lies in tlie south of the German sphere, and in the 
 fight which ensued the (jcrnians met with serious losses. Inci- 
 dents like these are to be expected if Germany continues to pursue 
 her military method of occupation. It is premature to pronounce 
 the method a failure. Hitherto it has been successful in so far 
 as the establishment of German authority in the coast regions is 
 concerned. The conditions of the interior are of course entirely
 
 in AFRICA 
 
 1893-1903 
 
 different . and no doubt the GernKui Government will take care 
 tliat its methods i>f occupation are adapted to tliese con(htions. The 
 gfreat objects shcniM be to inchicc the scanty population of the in- 
 terior tt> settle down peacefully to the develojjnient of whatever 
 resources the coimtrv possesses; to secure the safety of trading 
 caravans: anil in accordance with the provisions of the Brussels 
 Coni^ress to supi)ress slave-raiding', and the traftlc in arms and 
 spirits. In the carrying out of these objects mistakes may be made, 
 a too rigid application of German military methods may defeat 
 the purjiose in \ iew ; but if these are adapted to the ])eculiar con- 
 ditions of tropical Africa and the lessons of experience laid to 
 heart, there seems no reason why German commerce should not 
 be a great gainer, and German East Africa even pay its own way. 
 I'p to the ])rescnt it has simply been a drain on the resources of 
 the mother country. The imperial government, by direct contri- 
 buii(Mis. by advancing loans to the company, by subvention to Ger- 
 man steam companies, by arrangements with other powers, has 
 done everything it could to promote the interests of German East 
 Africa. 
 
 At Tanga, on the Pangani, and in other favorable positions, 
 plantation work has again been resumed with considerable success, 
 wliile experimental stations are being established for the benefit 
 both of t!ie whites and natives. Certainly the most promising part 
 of the German sphere is on the north in Usambara and on the slopes 
 of Kih'manjaro and the plateau on the south. During i893-i(S94 
 experiments in coffee plantations met with great success, and the 
 culture is spreading. Indeed in the year 1903, of the total sixteen 
 tiiousand acres under actual cultivation, one-half were devoted to 
 coh'ee. Exj)eriments in tea, tobacco, and otlier cultures are also 
 bei-ig made by the German East Africa Society and others. Now 
 tliat the rebellicnis chiefs on Kilimanjaro have been subdued, at- 
 teni])t> liave been made to plant German settlers on its slopes. The 
 sfiutliern di-^trict is mucli more backward. The soil is not so prom- 
 ising, tlie country not so wholesome, and the natives have proved 
 \ery tr. 'ul)le>ome. This latter difficulty is being rapidly removed, 
 and ])<^{h in tlie north and the south (Germany is establishing her 
 autJK/rity o\er tlie natives as well as the Arab traders. The total 
 value of the exj)orts of TJerman b^ast Africa, in the year 1901, 
 was about Si,i 5^,000, while imports amounted to about $2,400,000. 
 
 One g(;'Ml re.Tuh of ilie disturbances in (jernian luist Africa
 
 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 145 
 
 1886-1903 
 
 was a satisfactory arrangement between Germany and Great Brit- 
 ain as to their respective spheres in that part of the continent. 
 While by the arrangement of 1886 a boundary had been drawn be- 
 tween the coast and Victoria Nyanza, the region to the west of 
 the lake was regarded by enterprising Germans as open to all 
 comers in spite of the proviso that Germany would not seek to 
 make acquisitions on the south of the lake. As will be seen when 
 we come to deal with British East Africa, determined attempts 
 had been made by Peters and his friends to get behind the British 
 sphere and secure all the lake regions for Germany. Had matters 
 proceeded smoothly and peacefully in East Africa, there is reason 
 to believe that the German Government might have lent itself to 
 the support of Peters's schemes. But the cooperation of England 
 in the suppression of the " insurrection " was so necessary and was 
 so freely given that it was felt in Berlin that Germany's policy was 
 to come to a friendly understanding with her neighbor in East 
 Africa as to the limits of their respective spheres. England fortu- 
 nately had an islet, Heligoland, on the German coast, which could 
 never really be of much use to her unless she incurred an enormous 
 expenditure for fortifications and harbors ; this islet was naturally 
 coveted by Germany, to which it belonged geographically. By 
 yielding to German sentiment in this matter probably England 
 secured better terms in Africa than she could otherwise have done. 
 Witu at the mouth of the Tana, with all the stretch of coast-line 
 to the north, which it was maintained had been acquired by Ger- 
 man subjects, was left within the British sphere. This freed the 
 British company from a constant cause of menace and trouble, and 
 did away with a fruitful source of misunderstanding between the 
 two powers. On the south, England was not quite so fortunate. 
 The German boundary line was drawn along the River Rovuma 
 to Lake Nyasa, which so far affected Portugal alone. On the west 
 side of the lake, however, while the line between the German and 
 the British spheres was drawn so as to include the Stevenson road, 
 W'liich runs from Lake Xyasa to Lake Tanganyika, with the British 
 spliere, the rich country to the northwest of the former lake, on 
 which British missionaries had been at work for years, was placed 
 in the German sj)herc. But with such encjrmous areas at the dis- 
 ])osal of each nation, a little lake paradise of this description cannot 
 make much difference cither way. The western limit of Germany 
 was of course the eastern boundary of the Congo Eree State.
 
 1M> AFRICA 
 
 1891-1906 
 
 This fi>llo\vc(l as it shortly was by the acceptance (M* a Brit- 
 ish protectorate cner the islaii<ls of Zanzibar and Pcniba, all that 
 was left unallotted of the Sultan's domains put an cud to any risk 
 i^f serious niisundorstanilins' between Germany and Knp^land as 
 to their respective spheres in I'last Africa, It left the mercantile 
 C(Miijianies t>f the two nations to the development by fair competi- 
 tion of the resources of their respective spheres, in which there is 
 room enoui;li for rivalry. Germany, it must be said, is somewhat 
 handicapped by her neighbors. Several old trade-routes pass 
 throu!;h her spliere; but with the facilities for transit which exist 
 by means oi Lal<es Tani^anyika and Xyasa. the Shire and the 
 7ambc/i. much of the trade of the center of the continent may be 
 tiiverted into the British sphere. Datine;- from April i, 1891, a 
 civil qdvernor has been placed at the head of the administration of 
 German F.ast Africa, and to him the military power is subordinate. 
 It is certainly a step in the rij^ht direction. The total number of 
 nati\c troojis emj)loyed for the defense of German J'.ast vXfrica is 
 I7(x^. traine<l by a large number of European officers and non-ctmi- 
 missioneil ol'licers. Considerably over one-half of tlie annual ex- 
 penditure in this possession is contributed by the imperial gov- 
 ernment.
 
 Chapter XIII 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER. 1817-1910 
 
 IT has already been seen that during the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries, European, and it may be said, American, 
 activity was mainly confined to the west coast, between Cape 
 Blanco and St. Paul de Loanda ; that this activity was centered in 
 the slave-trade; that on the abolition of the latter the British 
 west coast colonies were neglected and despised, and all advance 
 to the interior discouraged; while the French, on the other hand, 
 never lost sight o the Niger and Timbuktu as their goal. British 
 traders had been settled on the Oil Rivers since the old slave-trade 
 days, and British enterprise forty years ago attempted, amid much 
 disaster, to open up the Lower Niger from the Gulf of Guinea. It 
 was also through British money and initiative, making use of 
 German skill and perseverance, that the northern and eastern regions 
 of the Niger basin were explored by Dr. Barth in 1850-1853. About 
 the middle of the century, as we have seen, fresh impulse was given 
 to French operations from the Senegal coast toward the Upper 
 Niger. Expeditions pushed on toward the interior, subduing tribes, 
 and making treaties of protection with them one after another. 
 Up to 1880, however, French influence in the interior may be 
 said to have been assured at only a few isolated posts. 
 
 After the death, in 18 17, of the great Moslem missionary con- 
 queror Othman, a sheik of the remarkable peoples known as Fulah, 
 the extensive " empire " which he had established, extending from 
 near Lake Chad on the east to the borders of llie Atlantic on the 
 west, was broken up into a number of independent but still powerful 
 states. Sokoto and Gando fell to his two sons, while the countries 
 to the west of the Niger became still further broken up. When, 
 therefore, France resumed with determined vigor her task of ob- 
 taining supremacy from tlie Atlantic to the Niger, she had to over- 
 come the resistance of a series of detached and independent native 
 states, extending from the n(jrth of the Senegal to the source of the 
 Niger, most of them eitlier com])lete]y Moslem, or at least with 
 
 147
 
 1 KS A F RICA 
 
 1817-1853 
 
 fanatic Moslem"^ as their rulers. The Fulah were and arc the 
 paramount people in the hilly country of the Futa Jallon, on the 
 left bank of the Senegal, and the country of Massina, though as 
 a matter ol fact they are found all over the Niger basin. In their 
 purest state they arc not negro, but are immigrants from the East. 
 The bulk of the natives, however, are Mantlingoes (negroes), who 
 under various names, as Bamharras, Mahinkis, Senufs, etc., are 
 spread over the whole region, merging to the north into the races 
 which pcoi)le the Sahara. One of the most formidable of the 
 
 native cliiefs whom tlie French had to encounter was Ahmadu, son 
 of Kl-IIaj-Omar, who in the fifties and sixties extended his fanat- 
 ical sway over most of the country from Dingueray, on the east 
 of Futa Jallon, to Kaarta, on the north of the Upper Senegal. 
 After the fatlicr's death his " empire " was broken up, and Ahmadu 
 reigned over tliat portion which lay between tlic middle of the 
 r()l)er W'^cr and ilic L'pper Senegal. Still more formidable was 
 the p(jucrful Srimory (or Saniadu), who had risen from a humble 
 origin t(j be lord of ;dl the region on the Upper Niger. The Futa 
 Jallon country still jjrotested against French domination, and 
 coquetted with Fnglnnd. Jiast oi the Niger were states of more or
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 149 
 
 1880-1886 
 
 less importance, like Wasulu, Kong, Massina, Mossi, and others, 
 some of them Mohammedan, some of them pagan. Most of them 
 possessed armies more or less organized, and more or less animated 
 by Moslem fanaticism, and a determination to prevent France from 
 securing a permanent footing on the Niger. As for Timbuktu, 
 it was, as it had been for many years, practically independent, an 
 entrepot for trade between the Sudan and the Mediterranean, but 
 far from holding the important place which is ascribed to it in the 
 early days of Mohammedan domination in the Sudan. 
 
 In 1880 a great series of military campaigns by the French, 
 combined with political and scientific missions, resulted in conquests 
 on a much larger scale than before. Captain Gallieni, for the pur- 
 pose of laying down an interior railway route, traversed the country 
 between Medina and the Upper Niger. It was only, however, after 
 long negotiations and the taking of Kita that Gallieni succeeded in 
 signing at Nango, with King Ahmadu, a treaty (March 21, 1881) 
 which, it was maintained, gave to France the protectorate of the 
 left bank of the Upper Niger. Notwithstanding the attacks of 
 the powerful Samory, the French maintained their position. In 
 1 885- 1 886 Colonel Frey renewed hostilities with Samory, with 
 whom a treaty of peace was signed in 1886, and at the same time 
 this officer had to suppress a fanatical Mussulman insurrection. He 
 was succeeded by Gallieni, who in 1887 induced King Ahmadu to 
 sign a treaty which placed the territories of that chief under French 
 protection. It was under Gallieni that the railway from Kayes to 
 Balfoulabe on the Upper Senegal was completed a railway in- 
 tended to join that river with the Upper Niger. It receives a 
 yearly subsidy to prevent its being buried beneath the sands of the 
 Sudan. Under Gallieni, also, a treaty in the same year was con- 
 cluded with Samory modifying that of 1886 and making over to 
 French protection the left bank of the Tankisso (a w^estern tributary 
 of the Upper Niger) from its source, and the left bank of the Upper 
 Niger itself from the junction of the Tankisso down to Bammako 
 (130 miles). Also under the same commander. Lieutenant Caron, 
 on board the gunboat Niger, navigated the river for some miles 
 below Bammako to Kabara, the port of Timbuktu, but was com- 
 pelled, owing to the hostility of the population, to return without 
 accomplishing anything, 'rimbuktu, which better knowledge has 
 reduced from an immense city of 200,000 inhabitants to a 
 comparatively insignificant town of 10,000, still dazzled the French
 
 150 A V U I C A 
 
 1881-1891 
 
 itnnpinatiiMi as tlie center oi tlic Moslem civilization and the riches 
 of the Sudan. 
 
 In iSSS cxplcM-int^ expeditions were sent out in all directions 
 bv Gallieni. anil a mass oi information thus collected was of the 
 ^'reatest use in carryini:: out further annexations. Captain Gallieni 
 was specially anxious to obtain a firm footing in the Futa Jallon, 
 which, to the uin-theast of Sierra Leone, formed for France the 
 connect ini^ link between her posts on the Upper Niger and her 
 cstablislmicnts on the Atlantic coast. This mountainous region, 
 from the commercial, ihe military, and the sanitary point of view, 
 was justly regarded as a desirable possession. 
 
 A treaty was made in t88i with Dr. P.ayol by the Almamy 
 of Futa Jallon. though the tribe did not take kindly to French pro- 
 tection. ;uid even made overtures to Fngland ; but the success of 
 Gallieni decided the Almamy to take the prudent course of submis- 
 sion. In 1887 he signed a treaty placing all his country under the 
 exclusive protection of France. On the other side of the L'pi)er 
 Xiger the work of trcatv-making, as well as of exploration, was 
 carried out in 1888- 1890 by Captain Binger. who traversed much 
 of tlie region within the great bend of the Xiger, starting from 
 l>ammako and zigzagging until he reached the Guinea coast. Cap- 
 tain Binger made treaties bv which the countries of Tieba, Kong, 
 Jimini, Anno, and B(ndoko are placed under French protection. 
 These, witli other treaties made about the same time, unite the 
 ct)Iony of Grand Bassam on the Guinea coast with the French pos- 
 sessions on tlie Upper Xiger. In 1891 France declared her annexa- 
 tion of tlie stri]) of coast between Liberia and Grand Bassam. There 
 is thus a solid block of French territory all the way from the 
 coast of Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea, shutting out from the 
 interior tlie colonies of Fngland and Portugal and the state of 
 Liberia, l-'rencli Guinea has advanced with considerable rapidity of 
 late year-, and its capital. Conakry, already vies with h'rcc-Town. 
 kailrcA'id building on an ambitious plan commenced in igoo. The 
 eastern l^ amdary of Binger's acquisitions is the Black \'olta, which, 
 joining tlie \\(^<] aiid the White Volta farther east, fcjrms part of 
 tlie boundary between Ashanti and the Gold Coast colony on the 
 one liand. and Cierinan Togoland on tlie other. Captain Binger, 
 moreover, entered intrj relations with .S.alaga, about two-thirds of 
 the d^'ance i^etween the Guitiea Coast and Timbuktu. By the 
 Angli; i rench agreement of Augu-t. 1889, b^rance has no right to
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 151 
 
 1890-1898 
 
 come south of the 9th degree of north latitude in the rear of the 
 Gold Coast colony. She has the whole of the Upper Niger and the 
 great bend that sweeps round by Timbuktu, with more than one- 
 half of the area embraced within the bend. 
 
 The French hold on the Upper Niger was still further tight- 
 ened by the campaigns of 1 890-1 891, under Colonel Archinard, who 
 captured Sego, on the right bank of the river below Bammako, and 
 in January, 1891, Nioro, the capital of Kaarta, thus partially de- 
 stroying the power of Ahmadu, who, notwithstanding former 
 treaties, was unwilling to resign his independence. He was the 
 great obstruction on the way to Timbuktu and Lake Chad on the 
 one side, and to Futa Jallon on the other. Colonel Archinard, in 
 April, 1891, sent the troublesome Samory flying toward the south 
 and occupied his capital. But the trouble with this chief did not 
 end until late in 1898, when his capture, with all his army, com- 
 pleted, according to Fallot, " the conquest and final pacification 
 of the Sudan." 
 
 By an arrangement concluded in August, 1894, the boundaries 
 between Liberia and the territory claimed by France were agreed 
 upon. This difficulty having been settled, vigorous measures were 
 taken to bring the troublesome Samory into complete subjection. 
 In 1894 Colonel Monteil entered upon a campaign from the 
 Guinea Coast; but his progress was so hampered by the natives, 
 and his conduct of the expedition so unsatisfactory, that in Febru- 
 ary, 1895, he was recalled. No doubt the French operations will 
 be facilitated by the telegraph which has been constructed to the 
 Upper Niger. It is not France alone whose advances in West 
 Africa have been thwarted by this chief; he has proved trouble- 
 some also to the British colony of Sierra Leone. The necessity 
 for repelling his hostile incursions led in the end of December, 1893, 
 to a collision, through mistake, between an Fnglish and a French 
 expedition, which resulted in serious losses on both sides. A few 
 weeks later a similar collision took place, happily without such 
 disastrous results. These unfortunate occurrences seem to have 
 been mainly due to the fact that uncertainty existed as to the fron- 
 tier between Fnglish and Frencli territory in this region. 
 
 French expeditions, j^artly c.\])lnrat<)ry, partly military and 
 ])olitical, continue to traverse tlic country between the coast and 
 the Upper Niger, one of tlieni being for tlie survey of a railway 
 route between the Upper Niger and tlie ccjast; as the railway in-
 
 152 AFRICA 
 
 1829-1893 
 
 tended to cNMinect the Seru\q:al and tlic Xigcr is practically useless. 
 (~)tlier expeiluions h)lK)\ved in the footsteps of Bingcr; one, under 
 Captain Monteil. having for its object to push on to Say on the 
 Middle Niger, and thence to Lake Chad, succeeded in accomplishing 
 its object and crossed the desert to Tripoli. Others will be referred 
 to later ou. The evident object of them all has been to sweep into 
 the l->cnch sphere the whole of the Niger and Chad regions. 
 
 Perhaps tlie most striking event in recent years has been the 
 entry of the I'Vcncli into Timbuktu in the last days of December, 
 1893. This was accomplished by a column under Colonel Bonnier, 
 Hut the occupation was not unattended with disaster. While the 
 inhabitants of Timbuktu were apparently resigned to the position, 
 the Tuarcgs in tlie country around were fiercely hostile. One party 
 of I'Vench troops was surprised at some distance from Timbuktu 
 and almost annihilated. Other hostile manifestations were made, 
 but there is no doubt that the French will hold tlieir place, and 
 retain possessicm of the city which has been their goal for so long. 
 The Tuaregs have been severely punished for their successful sur- 
 prises, several tribes having been almost destroyed. 
 
 This French dream of a great empire in Africa, stretching 
 without interruption from the Mediterranean to the Congo. receive<l 
 a severe check, though it was by no means absolutely defeated, by 
 a few British merchants inspired and led by one clear-sighted, de- 
 termined, public-spirited man, Sir George Taubman Goldie. an 
 ex-oftlcer of the Royal Fngineers, who had first visited the Niger 
 in 1877. The old relations of England with the Oil Rivers, an 
 intricate network of streams partly fornn"ng the Niger delta and 
 partly in(Ic])en(lent creeks, have already been referred to. It has 
 also been shown tliat after the (lisco\-ery of the course of the Lower 
 Niger in 1829. the British Go\ernmcnt. as well as private indi- 
 vi(lual<. from 1840 to jS-Go. endeavored to develop the navigation 
 and trade of the river, but that these attempts ended only in disaster 
 and failure. Traders belonging, for the nir)st part, to Liverpool and 
 Glasgow still continued their factories on the Oil Rivers, on some 
 of Vvhicli British missions have been settled for over half a century. 
 Tlie-e tr:;d('rs had no direct connection with the interior, their 
 l)n-!nc-> being confluftcd on the coast-line through native middle- 
 men who barred the wav iidand. After the abolition of the slave- 
 trade it torik -'iMie time to induce tlie natives to settle down to legiti- 
 mate traffic. G:a(Uia]]y ii:c trade in i)alm oil and latterly palm
 
 ._ai3^iff(,p.t?s^ 
 
 A Caravan i> lialu-.l 1. 
 
 II K I iir N I UN 111' I II I-; I r \Ki-j 
 
 ;r .]' till \",il<-.l (liiM.M-I> nil 
 their iii)--.;uii t'l lii- Chirf 
 
 I-r.intii:^ '; .llhcrl Kiclitcr 
 
 tii^t I., rcipil Mil
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 153 
 
 1840-1852 
 
 kernels developed, and as the articles given in exchange spirits, 
 guns and powder, cotton, and other goods were of the cheapest 
 character, great profits were made. Still the great river, the finest 
 navigable highway into the interior of Africa, which comes out 
 to the Atlantic in the center of the Oil Rivers, remained neglected 
 as a commercial route, the native chiefs themselves putting every 
 obstacle in the way of its utilization. After the British Govern- 
 ment ceased to send out or subsidize expeditions, over a quarter of 
 a century ago, several enterprising firms established permanent 
 trading stations on the Niger at their own cost and risk. Mac- 
 gregor Laird was the pioneer in this new enterprise. As far back 
 as 1852 he entered the region determined to secure it for British 
 trade, and though his station was destroyed by the natives and death 
 terminated his work, he had paved the way for others. The most 
 successful of these pioneers was Mr. James Alexander Croft, known 
 as the " Father of the Niger," whose efforts during fifteen years 
 had much to do in opening up the great river to traders. But 
 no solid basis for wide extension or for the protection of British 
 interests could be expected from the isolated and conflicting efforts 
 of individual traders and firms with very limited capital, in a 
 region where all was chaos, arising from generations of intertribal 
 wars and continuous slave-raids. On the lower Niger the natives 
 are all pagans and barbarians, though the river is the key to the 
 semi-civilized and populous states of the Central Sudan. While the 
 visits of the one or two white agents to these barbarians had some 
 good influence, the constant rivalry between the various firms and 
 the intrigues and counter-intrigues among their colored agents 
 made all progress impossible. 
 
 Even at the three or four points where alone Europeans ven- 
 tured to establish stations, fre([uent outrages occurred on the part 
 of turbulent and indolent natives, wlio overawed their more indus- 
 trious and peaceful tribesmen; while directly any tribe with com- 
 mercial instincts acquired a modicum of wealth, this became the 
 motive for attack by more warlike neighbors, so that the only 
 result of their prudence and industry was tlie loss of such property 
 as they had acquired. Tliey were fortunate, too, if they were not 
 carried off as slaves into the bargain. At rare intervals a British 
 gunboat would ascend the main river a short distance during the 
 high Niger, bombard the stick or clay houses on the banks, and 
 then hurry back to the sea with half the crew down with fever;
 
 154 AFRICA 
 
 1879-1882 
 
 then tlic native"?, wlui Imd retirc<l to a safe distance from tlic river, 
 would return, rebuild tluir houses, and recmnnicncc their pievious 
 conduct, knowinq^ that tiieir houses were safe for another twelve 
 months. 
 
 In iSjQ. however, all the British interests on the Nig-er River 
 were amalsratnated into the United African Company. There were 
 at that time no otlicr lujropcans on the river. hVom that time, under 
 the intluence <>f Sir Gcors^e Cioldie. it was resolved to try to keep 
 the peace amcni;' the hundreds of hcteroi^eneons tribes by weldinjj^ 
 them into a h(m<\c[eneous state, and to obtain a charter for the 
 administration nf the district. On applying^ to the ,e^ovcrnment in 
 iSSi. the first diniculty raised was that the capital of the company 
 was too small. To meet this, the capital was increased from 
 $r)J5.cx)0 to $5,000,000: the company was thrown o\)en to the 
 public, and the name chanj^fed to the National African Company. 
 Even then (i88j) the prospectus of the company announced as 
 tlieir aim the establishing- of direct relations with the great and 
 powerful kingdctnis of Sokoto and Gando and the states of the 
 Chad basin. The comjiany at once experienced an immense de- 
 \c'lopment. Xcw stations were established, steamers and launches 
 were sent out. operations were pushed farther and farther up both 
 tlie Xi.i^a'r and its great tributary, the Benue, and preparations made 
 for the expected charter. 
 
 Meanwliilc, under the inspiration of Gambetta. French traders 
 began to creep into the Lower Xigcr. and two French companies 
 were formed, tlieir patent intention being- to secure the Lower and 
 Middle Xigcr and the Benue for France, whose military agents by 
 different tactics were rapidly making their way to absorb the upper 
 river. One of these companies had a capital of $800,000 and the 
 I t'ler of $3,000,000. Station after station was established, until 
 tl.crc were ^^imetliing like thirty of these planted on the lower 
 n-.t-r. AH this liad proved a complete barrier to the issue of a 
 Briti-!i rliartcr, as France would have justly and effectually pro- 
 tected agam-t <uch .a course. If this state of things had continued 
 the entire reg; n would have been lost to Fngland. which had done 
 -o much lor its exploratiou and its commercial development. The 
 -itnati. n wa- certainly critical anrl trying, but tlie ever-watchful 
 (r^<\\^: was v'\u:\] [<^ the emergency. The British company greatly 
 u!crea-ed tlieir >taff, niultijilied their stations, and lavished their 
 gow(I.> 111 presents, in order to prevent the native tribes making
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 155 
 
 1884-1885 
 
 treaties with the French ; moreover, by intense competition they 
 greatly enhanced the cost of the native products which formed the 
 commodities of trade. In this way, after a costly struggle, the 
 losses of the French companies became so serious that, after the 
 fall of Gambetta, both of them were induced to retire from the Niger, 
 being partly bought out in cash or shares by the British company, 
 who have still French shareholders on their list with holdings 
 amounting to $300,000. The final deeds of transfer were signed 
 only a few days before the meeting of the Berlin Conference, when 
 the British plenipotentiary was able to announce that no nation 
 but England had any interests on the Lower Niger. 
 
 No sooner had this danger been gotten rid of than another, 
 quite as serious, threatened the company. The events at the 
 Cameroons associated with the name of Dr. Nachtigal will be re- 
 membered, and how it was only under the incitement of panic 
 that England kept her hold on the Oil Rivers region, which was 
 declared a British protectorate in July, 1884. But the Central 
 Sudan was still unsecured by any treaty or declaration of protec- 
 tion, and Germany was not slow to take advantage of this. The 
 feeling against England at the time was intensely bitter in Ger- 
 many, and every possible means was adopted to hamper British 
 operations in Africa. In April, 1885, Flegel, under the auspices 
 of the German African Society and the German Colonial Society, 
 left Berlin for the Niger with intentions that were obvious. But 
 the National African Company, having become aware in time of 
 the German intentions and of the projected scheme, had already 
 taken steps to secure its position on the upper river. Mr. Joseph 
 Thomson had returned in 1884, much shattered in health, from 
 his successful expedition into the ATasai Land. Before the meeting 
 of the Berlin Conference, Sir George Goklie engaged him to pro- 
 ceed up the Niger and secure all the country on its banks by treaty. 
 His departure was delayed by illness, but as soon as he was able 
 he set out on his all-important mission, and even before Flegel left 
 Berlin, he, in March, 18S5, was entering the mouth of the Niger. 
 With a speed that was marvelous but characteristic, Thomson made 
 his way up the Niger to Sokoto and Gando, concluded treaties with 
 the sultans, and secured the allegiance to the company of their 
 great empires. As Thomson returned to the coast triumphant, he 
 met Flegel on his way up on a fruitless errand. 
 
 The company could now show some three hundred treaties
 
 156 AFRICA 
 
 1885-1900 
 
 with native diicfs. securinj:: to them the whole of the river-territory 
 up to. aiui they hohcvcd inchuh'jip^, Burrum at the northeast anp^lc 
 of the Niger hcnil. Iniincchatcly on the withdrawal of the French 
 flaj^ the company had urgvnlly renewed tiieir appeals for a royal 
 charter uliich would ni>i only leave them unohstructed in the de- 
 velopment of tlieir immense territory, but secure the splendid 
 higfhway and the rei^ion to which it gave access for England; hut 
 the issue of a charter was again delayed until July, 1886, chietly 
 owing to scrui)lc's in high quarters as to the possibility of granting 
 a charter over territories which, owing to the Berlin Conference, 
 had to be placed under British protection. At last, however, the 
 whole of the navigable part of this great commercial highway, and 
 its almost efpially great tributary, the Bcnuc. were definitely 
 secured for England, and the National African Company became 
 the Royal Niger Company, of which Sir George Goldie (the real 
 creator of the company) was vice-governor. In 1895 the com- 
 pany had about forty settlements. An elaborate system of justice 
 and administration had been estai^lished, while there was as little 
 interference as possible with the internal affairs of the native states. 
 There was a military force of about 1000 men, w-ith headquarters 
 at L(jkoja, and of course scattered over the territories a consider- 
 able staff of white officials with great numbers of colored assistants, 
 wlio are educated nati\'cs of the West Coast colonies, and to whose 
 hearty cooperation and excellent work the company have acknowl- 
 edged tliat much of their success is due. By January i, 1900, the 
 time seemed ripe fur imperial assumption of the com])any's terri- 
 t(jries ; on this date the latter surrendered its charter, and its 
 possessions became what is now known as Nigeria. The develop- 
 ment of the country is prcx'ceding apace, tlunigh tlie trade is so far 
 entirely in fibers, gums, ivory, kernels, palm oil, pc])])ers, rubber, 
 and other natural products. But, as far as the deadly climate 
 admits, experimenls are being made on a consider.nble scale with 
 C'UYee. Cocoa, .an<l other introduced cultures, and measures are 
 meanwliile being taken to make the most of the natural forest and 
 (<l!ier ])ro(lucts. withcuil exhausting them. 
 
 ()i CMur>e tlie brief career of the Royal Niger Companv was 
 not without troubles .and ditViCullies. It could not, as a government, 
 exjjeml ni ^re tlian it rai-ed by taxation, and as it was not j^rac- 
 ticable to tax tlie nati\es, the administrati\e re\enue de|)ende(l on 
 customs duties; while tlie volume of trade, though growing rapidly.
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 157 
 
 1885-1900 
 
 was insignificant compared with the area occupied. The company- 
 had, moreover, to contend with vigorous and state-supported for- 
 eign aggression, and could only obtain the money for the struggle 
 by a high customs tariff. Unfortunately for imperial interests, this 
 policy raised a great outciy, not only in Germany and France, 
 which naturally desired to cripple the resources of their most active 
 rival in West Africa, but also in Liverpool. A powerfully organ- 
 ized agitation against the company was carried on for some years 
 both at home and abroad. Prince Bismarck, after dispatching his 
 nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, to the Niger as an imperial com- 
 missioner, fulminated in a White Book against the company's 
 taxation, while admitting that its administration was " admirably 
 organized." 
 
 All this resulted in its being compelled, after four years' nego- 
 tiations, to limit its administrative expenditure; so that it had not 
 only to abandon its plans for extension eastward to the valley 
 of the Nile, but also to slacken in its efforts to establish in 
 its acquired territory the peace and order which it had declared an 
 essential preliminary to the development of commerce. It was in 
 vain that the company pleaded that nearly all taxation fell on its 
 own commercial operations as the chief traders in the Niger. Un- 
 der a parliamentary regime votes are more important than argu- 
 ments, while the company could not put its objects before the public 
 without divulging them to France and Germany. As a last 
 resource the company suggested that an imperial subsidy of $250,- 
 000 a year might be granted. This was not conceded, and the 
 strange spectacle was presented of a company willing and even 
 anxious to tax its own commercial operations heavily for imperial 
 purposes, yet denied permission to do so, because similar taxation 
 would have to be borne by other traders, who would be enabled 
 to enter the Niger in safety, thanks to the order established there 
 by the expenditure of the revenue. 
 
 It seems to be a prevailing error that the Berlin Act imposed 
 free trade on the Niger region as it did on the basin of the Congo ; 
 this is quite erroneous. 1'he waters of the British Niger were 
 freed at the Berlin Conference for transit of merchant sliips to 
 regions beyond liritish inllnencc, following the ])rinciple which, 
 since the Congress of Vienna in 1S15, has been adopted for nearly 
 all tlic rivers in lun"(i])c and America which How through two or 
 more states; but the conqjany were at liberty to impose what
 
 158 AFRICA 
 
 1885-1900 
 
 customs rc.c:ula(i<vis tlicy derm necessary ns to lanilinj]^ on their 
 own tcrriti)ric>. 'I'licrc arc numerous ports of entry, and the com- 
 panv were entitled to insist that these and tlicse alone should he 
 u>ed hv vessels: just as all maritime nations have ports where 
 alone vessels mav load or (lisi-hari^e. P>oth dermany and h'rance 
 have endeavored to hrcak throui^h these re.qnlations, and to avoid 
 the dues which have heen imposed, and especially the almost pro- 
 hihitive duties on spirits, but these attempts have invariably proved 
 luisucccssful. 
 
 The Koval Xif^er Company was the first En.c^lish company in 
 modern times to which a charter was .e^ranted for territories under 
 r.ritish ])rotcciion. It was, indeed, preceded for some years by the 
 I'ritish Xorth Borneo Company, but their territories were not 
 placed under r.ritish protection until the .errant of charters to the 
 l-.rilish I'.ast Africa and British South Africa Companies, some 
 time after tlie granting" of the Xiger charter. It has been seen in 
 previous chapters that such instruments were common in ])ast 
 times, from the days of Elizabeth downward. There can be little 
 question tha-t such a method is well adapted for initiating" the 
 (!e\eloj)mcnt of a distant tropical country, the inhabitants of which 
 are to a large extent barbarous, the climate of which is not favor- 
 able for ])crmanent European settlement, atid which is not ripe for 
 the clabnrate and expensive macliincrv of a Crown colony. It 
 secures the region for the power which grants the charter at a 
 mininnmi of outlay, and the rule of the companv mav at any time, 
 sliould the necessity arise, be superseded by a more direct imi)erial 
 administration. A charter is an admirable compromise, a useful 
 first step to something more advanced. The protcctif)n which Great 
 r.ritaiu affords is limited to seciu'ing tlie chartered regif)ns from 
 external aggression on the ]\art of civilized powers; and the main- 
 tenance of internal peace and security lies upon the chartered com- 
 panies. While the government that grants it is thus freed from all 
 exi)cndiiurc, it can impose wliatever conditions it chooses in order 
 t" secure satisfactory administration, and can at any time withdraw 
 tiie charter if the>e conditions are not adhered to. Of the three 
 great Airican cnipanics which have received royal charters, the 
 Ri.y;d Niger Coni])any was the one which came least before the 
 public, hut up to its supcrcession it was the most steadily 
 j)rogrc-.>ivc. \\ith(uit taking the public into its confidence, the 
 C'.n;jany i|niet> aihanced from one post to another, and made
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 159 
 
 1884-1901 
 
 one treaty after another, until its sphere embraced an area of about 
 400,000 square miles. It took precautions, among other things, to 
 forestall attempts on the part of other powers to come between 
 itself and that portion of the Central Sudan which it believed with 
 some justice ought to be within its sphere. 
 
 At first sight it seems anomalous and to be regretted that the 
 region known as the Oil Rivers, extending from the boundary of 
 the colony of Lagos to the Forcados River, and from the Brass 
 River to the Rio del Rey, which may be in part regarded as the 
 delta of the Niger, should have been quite detached from the juris- 
 diction to which the river itself is subjected; but there were reasons 
 for it. As has been seen, B-ritish traders had been settled here 
 for many years, long before the great river was itself known in its 
 lower course. As we have seen, they narrowly escaped annexation 
 by Germany; for there can be little doubt that had Hewett not 
 forestalled Nachtigal, the latter would have had no hesitation in 
 dealing with them as he did with the Cameroons; had he done so 
 he would have secured the greater part of the seaboard between 
 the colony and Lagos. After the Oil Rivers were declared a British 
 protectorate in 1884, they were subject to a consular jurisdiction 
 until 1 89 1, when an imperial administrator and consul-general 
 was appointed, with a staff of vice-consuls, one to be stationed on 
 each river. Taxes were of necessity imposed ; the rough system 
 of justice administered by Courts of Equity, composed of the mer- 
 chants themselves under consular supervision, was superseded by 
 more regular methods, and the Oil Rivers were virtually converted 
 into a Crown colony. 
 
 The Oil Rivers march, on tlicir nortii side, with the colony of 
 Lagos, of all the British colonies in West Africa, the most pros- 
 perous and promising, mainly because it has a reasonable Hinter- 
 land behind it. The rich and thickly jxipulated Yoruba country 
 has been annexed as a protectorate, a country capable of great 
 agricultural development, with large cities populated by an eager 
 trading population. With regard to the other British West African 
 colonies, the enterprise of the French, combined with the British 
 policy of abstention already referred to, has practically restricted 
 the Gold Coast ami Sierra Leone to strips of the seaboard, wiiile 
 tlic Gambia colonv is confined to the banks of the river. Bcjth 
 banks of the Gambia, however, liave Ijeen l>ritish since 1901, and 
 in that same year Aslianti was (Icfinilcly annexed. A protectorate
 
 160 AFUICA 
 
 1896-1901 
 
 pri>claiiiic(l in iS*/) has also added considerably to (lie extent of 
 Sierra Leone. More recently the colony of Niijeria has been 
 formed, for tiie most part (abont nine-tenths) ont of the domains 
 of the Roval .\iL;er C'ompany, which snrrendered its rijj^hts Jannary 
 I, i<)(X). There strennous and irresistible ]>ressure has been 
 brought to bear against the two horrors of the district, slavery 
 and cannib.ilism. All children born after April i, npi, are free. 
 Similar operations fa\()ring civilization and the growth of trade 
 h:i\e been j^ushed forward steadily along the Gold Coast, Lagos, 
 liie (lamhia. and Sierra Leone. Harbor works have been con- 
 structed along this coast. 
 
 I)efore brietly referring to the international treaties by whicli 
 the powers concerned have attempted to delimit the spheres within 
 which their intluence is acknowledged, let us realize the fact that 
 tlic goal of all the three great nations concerned lies in the region 
 arountl Lake Chad, 'i'imbuktu, it has already been ])ointed out, 
 has always dazzled the dreamers of France as the central point of 
 the future great " African I-^mpire," and the key to the Central 
 Sudan, which with some justice has been regarded as one of the 
 ricliest regions of Central Africa. Although Timbuktu has been 
 reduced to a comparatively commoni)lace town, still the Central 
 Sudan Sokoto, Bornu, Bagirmi, Kanem, Wadai, Darfur, to name 
 the principal states is a region which any commercial people 
 might well desire to monopolize. While there" is a large substratum 
 of pagan ])opulation, negroes and luixed breeds, the ruling i)eople 
 are ^bJhamnledan, comparatively civilized, using enormous (juanti- 
 ties of textile and other commodities which Iuiro])e can sujjply. 
 The niling race, the l'\'llatah or Fulah, are of a superior tyjic, 
 totally distinct from the true negro, and coming from the east. 
 Here we have the old semi-barbarous Mohamiuedan pageantry in 
 its ancient gloi-y, combined with intense hatred of the infidel 
 luirt^jjcan. 'J'he French have had many difficulties with such Ab)- 
 hammedan potentates as Samory and Ahmadu. King M'tcsa of 
 Lganda w.-is not to be dealt with so easily as a wretched Congo 
 ch:ef, or e\en as Lobengula; but these Central Sudan potentates 
 may gi\'e more trouble to the ])ower or jjowers that undertake to 
 reduce them to sulfjection tlian all the rest (^f Africa combined, 
 not e\en e\(ei>tiiig Morcjcco. lUit notwithstanding this, or in 
 ignorance (jf it, Creat P.ritain, b'rance, and (lermanv tried to out- 
 race each (AJicr in reaching the Chad regions, b'rance has sent
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 161 
 
 1890-1900 
 
 expedition after expedition from the Senegal Coast and the Guinea 
 Coast, with Lake Chad little better than a huge marsh as their 
 goal. Most of these expeditions are undertaken at government 
 expense. Perhaps the most determined attempt which has been 
 made was the expedition which in 1890 started from the Mobangi 
 tributary of the Congo under M. Paul Crampel. It ascended the 
 Mobangi and struck northward to the Bagirmi country, the south- 
 ern limit of which is only about three hundred miles from the 
 Mobangi. Disaster overtook the expedition on the threshold of 
 Bagirmi, and M. Crampel and all but one of his white companions 
 were massacred. Another expedition under a young naval officer. 
 Lieutenant ]\Iizon, actually entered the river itself in 1890 for the 
 purpose of getting behind the Niger Company's territories in order 
 to secure the Hinterland for France. Notwithstanding the avowed 
 object of the expedition, the company did all they could possibly 
 be expected to do to help Mizon, even going so far as to lend him 
 money and to tow boats up the Niger and Benue. Foiled in his 
 attempt to cut the company off from the Lake Chad region, Mizon 
 entered into relations with the King of Adamawa, from whose 
 country he marched south behind the German Cameroon s to the 
 French Congo. In the summer of 1892 he again set out for the 
 Niger with the avowed object of furthering French commercial 
 interests in Adamawa, and of extending French influence as far 
 in the direction of Lake Chad as possible. He asserted that he suc- 
 ceeded in concluding a treaty with a chief on the Upper Benue, but 
 a German officer in the same region maintained that he also had 
 concluded a treaty with the same chief some days before. M. 
 Dubowski and M. Maistre, starting from the Mo])angi River, and 
 following in the footsteps of Crampel, in 1892- 1893 made their way 
 north through Adamawa, reaching the River Shari, where, accord- 
 ing to their reports, they made treaties with several chiefs. All 
 this activity on the part of France prepared the way for fresh 
 arrangements for the partition of the region to the south of Lake 
 Chad. The French finally reached the lake, and thus effected a 
 union between their Sudanese possessions and those of the Congo, 
 during the years 1899 and 1900. 
 
 Both ]"'rench and (icrman ex])cdlli(>ns had not only the sym- 
 pathy, but the active su])])(>rt oi their governments, who su]5plied 
 considerable sums annually from the treasuries for the (lcvel()[)nient 
 of their African possessions; while the Niger Company, as a purely
 
 162 AFRICA 
 
 1898-1901 
 
 private undcrtakinp. did not cost the Britisli Government a penny. 
 Yet this remarkable tact remains, that the private enterprise 
 vicldcd a fair profit to those eni2:aged in it, while both the French 
 and (lerman sj^hcrcs have involved an expenditure far in excess of 
 any revenue which has l>ecn derived from them. Here, as in other 
 porti(Mis of the British Empire, the Hag has followed the trade; the 
 reverse policy has been that of I'Vance and of Germany in Africa. 
 Indeed there is a strong colonial party in France who are tired 
 of all these expeditions, military and exploratory, who maintain 
 that h'rench annexation has gone far enough, and that the time has 
 come to develop what has already been acquired, which, so far, 
 has only been a source of outlay without return. 
 
 As was to be expected, the various stages of advance in the 
 direction of the Niger and Lake Chad have been marked by inter- 
 national arrangements, not always so clear and well defined as to 
 prevent ambiguity and to obviate disputes between those who were 
 parties to them. Between France and England there have been 
 several arrangements regulating the position of their colonies on 
 the coast, and their respective spheres in the interior. On the 
 Gambia, by the agreement of August lo, 1889, the British sphere 
 is virtually confined to about six miles on each side of the river as 
 far as Yarbutendi. The exports from the Gambia are on an aver- 
 age (1898-1901) about $1,200,000, and the trade is almost entirely 
 in French hands. Until we reach Sierra Leone, French territory 
 is uninterrupted except for a block of 4500 square miles to the 
 south of the Gambia, whicli is all that remains of Portuguese 
 Guinea. It is to be feared that France is now in actual occupation 
 of the whole region from which Sierra Leone could derive its 
 trade. 
 
 Much the same might be said of Liberia, though so far as the 
 wants of its population go, even with all the encroachments of 
 France, the country itself possesses resources enough if they were 
 prr^pcrly developed. But what with tlie presence of a British colony 
 on the nr)rt1i. and tlie l-'rcnch in the Hinterland and on the soutli 
 coast, Liberia has been gradually reduced both in length and 
 breadtli. So far as the prosperity of the country and the welfare 
 of the pripnlatiiin are concerned, annexation by some strong 
 power might not be a calamity: the experiment of an independent 
 civilized African '^tatc can hardlv be said t(^ have been a success. 
 It is a fair example of haw far the native of Central Africa, even
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 163 
 
 1888-1894 
 
 when comparatively civilized, is. if left to himself, capable of 
 developing the resources of his continent. 
 
 By the Anglo-French agreement already referred to, the 
 British Gold Coast colony is permitted to stretch inland to g 
 north latitude; and if the treaties which the French are reported to 
 have made with the natives in the interior are admitted to be 
 valid, the Gold Coast will be in much the same position as Sierra 
 Leone, while on the other side, as was shown in a previous chapter, 
 the Germans have been attempting to creep round from Togoland 
 in spite of the neutral zone that was established by the Anglo- 
 German agreement of 1888. Li their attempts to press into the 
 interior the Germans are more likely to come into contact with the 
 French than with the British. The small wedge of French terri- 
 tory between Togoland and Lagos has the fierce Dahomans behind 
 it; with these France had a severe struggle in 1892-1894, resulting 
 in the practical subjugation of one of the most troublesome native 
 states in Africa, and the establishment of French supremacy. But 
 Dahomey is completely insulated by the treaties of the Royal Niger 
 Company. Thus it is evident that until we approach the former 
 sphere of the Royal Niger Company, France practically claims to 
 be dominant in the interior. From the point of view of haute 
 politique British statesmen may or may not be justified in merely 
 "watching" (as their expression is) these French advances. But, 
 undoubtedly, British trade in the West African colonies has been 
 severely hampered bv these wholesale annexations. England has 
 not sought to enter into competition with France in the advance 
 of the latter into interior regions, at first, because British states- 
 men shirked incurring further responsibility, and latterly, to all 
 appearance, for no other reason than to please France, l^ngland has 
 held her hands. It may be that those whose duty it is to safeguard 
 the interests of the British Empire believe that they have had com- 
 pensation for this abnegation elsewhere. Tt is usual to reproach 
 the West African colonists with never having done much to develop 
 the trade of the interior; they have simply squatted on the coast 
 and taken what was brought them ; Imt the difficulty has been that 
 any more enterprising ])()licy has been discouraged by the home 
 government. 
 
 So far as British interests in this region of Central Africa are 
 concerned, the Anglo-b^-ench agreement of y\ugust 5, 1890, is of 
 the utmost importance. Let us briefly consider its purport. The
 
 16* AFRICA 
 
 1888-1894 
 
 clause which relates to the Xip^er region is as follows: "The 
 Government of Tier Britannic Majesty recognizes tiie sphere of 
 influence of France to the south of the Mediterranean possessions, 
 up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barnia on Lake Chad, drawn 
 in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the 
 Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto; 
 t!ie line to he dctenninc(l by the commission to be ajipointed." 
 Commissioners from the two powers were to meet in Paris to 
 determine the boundaries of the respective spheres, including the 
 region to the west and the south of the Middle Niger, the region 
 in wliich the agents of France have been so busy making treaties 
 without waiting for the decision of a commission which has never 
 met. The line between Say and Barrua is traced very differently 
 by I'rench and Fnglish cartographers. The former make it almost 
 straight, with a tendency to bend southward, the latter, recognizing 
 that the country of Air or Asben is subject to Sokoto, make it take 
 a sharp bend northward, to about i8 north latitude before it 
 swecjis down to Say. The French cartographers make the western 
 boundary line drop directly southward from Say to the Guinea 
 Coast, ignoring Gurma, which is a province of the Sokoto-Gandu 
 empire, and Borgu, with which kingdom the Niger Company has 
 treaties. 
 
 Again, it is maintained on the British side that, in accordance 
 with the spirit of the arrangement. France should abstain from 
 making any annexations to the immediate south of Lake Chad, or 
 to the east of the lake south of the continuation of tlie Say-Barrua 
 line. But as we ha\e seen, tliis is not the l-'rench interpretation, 
 and precipitate and, to a certain extent, successful, efforts have been 
 made to get behind the former Niger Comp.any's si)here, and if 
 possible create a French sphere on the south and east of Lake Chad. 
 B'lrnu, which lies between Sokoto and Lake Chad, is, though some- 
 what decayed, still a powerful Mohammedan state, with five million 
 people, tlic trade of which is wtjrth cultivating: it is within the 
 British spl^.crc. Bagirmi, which lies srtutherist from Lake Chad, 
 is not ,->') adwanccd in civilization as the great kingdom of W'adai, 
 to which it is subject. \\'adai, the most powerful Mohammedan 
 stale in tht- Central Sudan, (;ccui)ies the sjjace l)etween Lake Chad 
 autl Larfr.r. 1 7o.rx)o s<juare miles in .area, with a ])opulation of 
 two milli'^n^. The iKgr(j Mabas. who are tlic riding people, are 
 fanatical Mohammedans, and W'adai will prove one of the most
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 165 
 
 1890-1894 
 
 difficult of all the African states to deal with. Kanem, which lies 
 round the north and east shores of the lake, is also tributary to 
 Wadai. To the east of Wadai all except the western section of 
 Darfur is, according- to the Anglo-German agreement of July, 
 1890, within the sphere of influence of Great Britain. 
 
 It is these Central Sudan states the suzerainty of which has 
 been coveted by France and Germany ; the lake around which they 
 are grouped is the goal to which so many French expeditions have 
 been concentrating- along half a dozen lines. No doubt the Royal 
 Niger Company had a position of advantage over all the others, 
 being, so to speak, within measurable distance of the lake; and it 
 cannot be accused of any lack of enterprise. Those who directed 
 its affairs knew their own interests, and might have been trusted 
 to secure a footing in the Lake Chad states if they had been per- 
 mitted to tax themselves and others to secure the necessary means. 
 If the company had succeeded in overcoming the Mohammedan 
 fanaticism of the Chad states so far as to induce them by peaceful 
 means to enter into friendly relations, it is to be hoped it would 
 have obtained prompt support from the imperial government, 
 though in view of recent events in East Africa this is doubtful. In 
 this way the British sphere might have extended across the heart 
 of the Sudan from the Nile to the Niger, and included one of the 
 most desirable sections of the continent. The Lake Chad region is 
 one of the great centers of tlie traffic in slaves, thousands of whom, 
 captured in the pagan countries to the south, are sent across the 
 Sahara every year; and it will probably be found more difficult to 
 suppress this trade here than in any other part of Africa. 
 
 Here, as elsewhere in Central Africa, the course of events com- 
 pelled a compromise. While blench agents were forcing their way 
 from the west and the south behind the British sphere, with Lake 
 Chad as their goal, well-equipped expeditions from the Cameroons 
 made their way to the Upper Benue with a similar object. This 
 activity on the part of France and Cicrmany rendered inaction on 
 the part of England impossiljle. The Niger Company, however 
 willing, had not the means to proceed eastward from Sokoto and 
 take pcjssession of the states on the south and east of Lake Chad ; 
 while on the other side the culvance from British East Africa had 
 stopped at Uganda, the Congo hVce State forces had planted them- 
 selves on the lj])per Nile, and Darfur seemed as far out of the 
 range of practical enterprise as Khartum. It was clear, then, that
 
 166 AFRICA 
 
 1890-1894 
 
 nn tinaorstandinp: with rccfard to tlic extensive area lying between 
 the C'.inuMoons and the M()l)ans:,M on the one side and the Central 
 Sudan on the other, was incvita])lc. l^ii^Iand's bnsiness was to 
 safo.miaril the sphere 'f the Royal Niger Company on the one side, 
 and the extension oi l>ritish Ivast Africa to the region watered by 
 the Western Xile tribntarics on the other. This latter region was 
 scenred t>) (Ireat P.ritain so far as Germany was concerned by the 
 An,L,d.>-( iennan at^reement of July, 1890. Naturally, therefore, it 
 seeinetl as if she was a much safer neighbor than France to have 
 between the West ami East African British spheres. It was con- 
 sidered, tlien. an excellent stroke of policy to hand over the whole 
 (if this intervening region to Germany and leave her to deal with 
 the l-'rcnch agents who were making their way through the British 
 spV.ere on the west and liehind the German sphere on the south. 
 This policy was given effect in the agreement between Great 
 Britain and (iermany, signed at Berlin November 15, 1893. 
 
 This. then, seemed definitely to settle the difficulty wliich the 
 Royal Niger Comi)any had continually to face through the enter- 
 ])rise of I'rench agents, sf) far at least as the eastern limits of its 
 territories were concerned. 'J1ie enormous concession to Germany 
 ci 'iifirmed the friendship which England had sought to maintain 
 from tlie l)cginning of the African activities of the former. 
 Natur.'illy l-'rance was indignant at the march which had been stolen 
 u]".!i Iicr. and at the apparently successful attempt which had been 
 made hy Great Britain to checkmate her designs upon the Central 
 Sudan states. P>ut she was not prepared quietly to accept the new 
 arrangement. In Africa, it will have been seen, France and Ger- 
 many have always been most accommodating to each other, and in 
 the pre-tnt in~>tance (iermany was as generous as she had been on 
 I'revious occasi(jns. Germany and France, like Germany and 
 I--ngI:!ii;i. liad tlieir unsettled frontier questions. No satisfactory 
 nrran-enieni had ever been come to with respect to the eastern 
 l>'a:n<l.iry (,i tlie (/amer(;ons. The advantage gained by Germany 
 in t!:e arr.nigcmcnt with Great Britain ])lace(l the former in a posi- 
 tion to indiue h' ranee to come to terms; slie had no hesitation in 
 brihi-ig IraiM-e with a large block of the territory secured to her 
 ijy the ag!(- nient cf Xoxember. 1893. preferring her own interests 
 to i:i..-e 01 IjiLiland, even th(;ug]] in so doing she did the latter a 
 ^wK-wliai nnirie'idly ttu-n. i!y a rr .mention signed at Berlin on 
 I rhruary .}. i^<).\, ihc bl(jck of territory accjuired by Germany in
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 167 
 
 1879-1894 
 
 accordance with the arrangement above referred to was divided 
 into two parts ; the western section was retained by Germany, while 
 the eastern section was made over to France. Thus France be- 
 comes the neighbor of England on the extreme western borders of 
 the latter's East African sphere, all along the line, from Darfnr on 
 the north to Bahr-el-Ghazal on the south. No other power is likely 
 to seek a footing in the enormous area which Germany has left to 
 France. According to the Convention of February, 1894, Ger- 
 many retains a considerable stretch on the south shore of Lake 
 Chad. 
 
 To all appearance by the arrangement referred to, France has 
 realized her dream of uninterrupted territory from the Congo to 
 the Mediterranean. The most powerful and most important of all 
 the Central Sudan states, Wadai, was not expressly mentioned in 
 these agreements; nor can it be fairly held to lie east of the line 
 of the Shari. France could not have complained if another power 
 had forestalled her in this desirable state ; but, in consequence of 
 later French movements, Wadai is generally recognized as within 
 the French sphere of operations. If we may judge from what 
 France has done in West Africa during her many years of occu- 
 pancy, it will be a long time before she does anything to develop 
 the resources of the vast area in Central Africa on which she has 
 set her seal. So far as the Central Sudan is concerned, the outlet 
 of its trade has till recently been mainly across the desert to the 
 Mediterranean. One of the main services of the French in their 
 African operations has been the establishment of peace and order 
 in the Senegal and Niger region, the scene of unending petty war- 
 fares before tlie French conquest. 
 
 This seems the appropriate place to refer to certain facts which 
 complicate the problem of the introduction of European influence 
 into these Central Sudan states. On the defeat of the forces of 
 Suleiman in the Egyptian Sudan, by Gordon's lieutenant, Gessi 
 Pasha, in 1879, Rabah, one of Suleiman's officers, fled to the Niam- 
 Niam country, accompanied l^y a considerable force of men trained 
 to fighting in the Sudan. With these Rabali seems to have made 
 his way northwestward to Bagirmi. which, according to very 
 trustworthy reports, he succeeded in conquering. Rabali, indeed, 
 seemed at that time to have liccome the dominant power in the 
 Central Sudan, greatly increasing his forces by additions from 
 among the natives whose country he concpiercd. So powerful,
 
 Ifirt AFHICA 
 
 ^ 1899-1901 
 
 imloeil. (lil lie bc^Miio lli.it. acconliii.q: 1(^ rci){irt, he defeated the 
 Sult.ui ot" Wadai liimselt'. and even conquered Bornu. He was de- 
 fcalcil ami slain I'v a 1mciu-Ii force in 1900; this ended all opposition 
 to the l-'rcncli power in this res^^ion. 
 
 As a se<incl lo the a,t;iconient of 1890, France had no hesita- 
 tion in includin.ir on her maps of Africa the bulk of the Sahara 
 desert as within her sphere. J.ater ai:^reements have confirmed this 
 procedure; hv i8()<) I>aj;irmi. Wadai, Kanem, Borku, and Tibesti 
 were acknowIedj;eiliy French. From the southwest comer of 
 Alt^eria her cartot^rapliers drew a straiglit line southwest to Cape 
 Blaiu-o, iherebv ii^norinj;- the Spanish claims over Adrar. When 
 this line is deflected so as not to interfere with these claims settled 
 by a I-'ranco-Spanish aj^recment of 1901, we have between that 
 line and the eastern boumlary which on French maps extends 
 from Timis in a 7.\^7.:i^ direction southward so as to include the 
 whole of Kanem a total area of something like a million square 
 miles. It should also he noted that in drawing the western line 
 the comjiaratively fine region of Tuat was included, a district which 
 was claimed by Morocco. France regards her conquest of her 
 West African sphere as now complete; and that of Central Africa 
 as far adxanced. 
 
 What is b'rance to do with this enormous area largely of 
 desert? ]'\)r though recent explorations have corrected prevailing 
 notions of the nature of the Sahara, there is no doubt that, with 
 tiie exception of an oasis here and there, the million square miles 
 claimed by h'rance is mostly sand, stone, and scrub. It is true that 
 r.:i(lerneath the Sahara, as under all other deserts, there is a vast 
 store of water. On tlie soutli of Algeria this water has been tapped, 
 nasC'^ have been created, and hundreds of thousands of date-palms 
 planted. This. hr)wever. simply sliows that W'licn the earth is so 
 full (.f people that all the other lands have been utilized for the 
 pnr()-sc.-5 nf humanity, we shall still have the Sahara to fall back 
 u])'>n as a la-^t resource. Meanwhile the Sahara is regarded by 
 l-ranoe nia:n]y as a connecting link between her provinces on the 
 Mediterranean and the interior region claimed by her in the basins 
 ('i tlu- Si:i(.-:il, the Xiger. and Lake Chad. Reference has already 
 been v.v.'.'lv t" the unfortunate expedition unrler Colonel Flatters, 
 '.vua t:a: \ ;c\v of -r.rvcying for a railway route. That disaster 
 -i]:pia--c-d al; tlt-nL(lits of a railway for some years. But after 
 the An;^d . i rcnch agreement the scheme of a Trans-Saharan Rail-
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 169 
 
 1899-1901'. 
 
 way was taken up again with renewed vigor. There were various 
 prehminary surveys to the south of Algeria, and three main 
 schemes were advanced, starting from the three provinces of 
 Algeria; one having St. Louis as its southern terminus, another 
 Timbuktu, and a third Lake Chad. The total length in any case 
 was to be about 2000 miles, and the cost fifty to one hundred 
 million dollars, including the defenses at each station against the 
 attacks of the Tuaregs. The difficulties of a railway across a water- 
 less desert are obvious, but, as the Central Asian Railway proves, 
 not at all insuperable. At present occasional caravans of camels 
 bear commerce of the whole of the Central Sudan, and it is diffi- 
 cult to see how a railway could pay until after many years. Each 
 caravan carries goods to the value of about $50,000 (not including 
 slaves), and probably a million and a half of dollars would repre- 
 sent the total annual traffic between the Central Sudan and the 
 Mediterranean countries west of Egypt. Ostrich feathers and 
 gum are the main exports; gold has long ago disappeared. As to 
 slaves the authentic figures, and they are very old, were for Tripoli 
 alone, about 400,000. A railway might in time succeed in increas- 
 ing the demand for European goods, encouraging the development 
 of the resources of the Sudan, and suppressing slavery. At any 
 rate, part of the dream of France has been realized ; now she can 
 march over French territory from the Mediterranean to the 
 Congo. 
 
 But French dreams are not confined to the construction of 
 railways for the purpose of drawing the commerce of the Sudan 
 down to the French ports on the Mediterranean. Africa is the 
 great central continent of the globe, and by an extension of the 
 projected Sudan lines to the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, say to 
 Mozambique on the east and to St. Louis on the west, what more 
 easy than to draw the bulk of the world's traffic into the lap of 
 France, and so forever destroy the commercial supremacy of Eng- 
 land? On the one side the ocean lines from Lidia, Australia, and 
 the east would converge toward Mozambique, while all the traffic 
 of South America would inevitably find an entrepot at St. Louis, 
 This is a fair sample of llie brilliant visions with which the eyes of 
 the French public arc dazzled ; though it must be said that French- 
 men familiar with the real conditions simply laugh at them. 
 
 Another scheme, equally cliimerical, so far as our present 
 knowledge goes, is that of establishing colonies of thousands of
 
 170 AFRICA 
 
 1894-1910 
 
 l-^ciu-h peasants and small fanners in the <^reat I^end of the Niser. 
 m Mossi. and otlur *" kini^dcnis." as also in other portions of the 
 Sutlan within the >pliere oi l-'ranee. When one remembers the 
 I-"ie:u-h, a\ersii>n to cnni^ration. the stationary conditions of the 
 I-'uiit.-h jK^puIation. and the natnre of tiie climate which prevails 
 o\cr the whole <>f the Xiqer region, it is ditTicnlt to believe that 
 anv man oi sanity and ordinary knowledge could broach such a 
 >chenk". 
 
 1-Vanee's occui)atiiin of the immense territory claimed by her 
 is so far almost pnrely military, involving an annual expenditure on 
 tlic part i^i the mother couiUry of about two million and a half of 
 lioliars. At the same time it should be said that French influence 
 is felt henet'ioiallv at interior posts. At several places on the Upper 
 Senci^a! and its feeders, forts have been built, European houses have 
 been erected, the natives have gathered round in increasing numbers, 
 and ' \ illages oi liberty " for freed slaves and captives have been 
 e->talt!i>;ietl. As these spread. French influence will become more 
 and more dominant, and it is to be hoped peace will be established 
 anioMg the nati\e chiefs, and the rich resources of the interior region 
 be (Ie\ eloped to the profit of all. M. Leroy-Beaulieu calculates that 
 by 1050 probably I'rench West and Central Africa and Madagascar 
 \\;!I he able to pay all their militarv expenses. 
 
 Such, then, is the jirescnt jx^sition of the struggle between the 
 tliree great ])owers for supremacy in the region watered by the 
 .Niger ;ind tlie countries grt)npe(l around Lake Chad. England 
 j,.,s-,e.<t.-, tiiL' whole of the navigable i)orlion of the lower river and 
 niiist of it- great tributary, the Benue. Some of the richest coun- 
 tries. C'^vering ;iljont half a million s(juare miles, fell within the 
 Niger Coniiiany'> si)!;ere; while Captain Lugard, who has done so 
 nir.ch for llriiiM! interests in h'ast Africa, was sent out by the Niger 
 ( "ir.par.y in t'ne -ummer of 1SQ4 to look after its interests in the 
 .:,L:e reg:"ii ^till left unlonched bv l-'rench treaties. He succeeded, 
 :.::: 'Ug oilier t'liiigs. in making fresh treaties confirming those 
 '::t'Ii !;.:d aheady been concluded bv the Niger Company with 
 " ru'i!. 'urii;an\-. .a> Ik'is been seen, has extended her sphere from 
 :.e ( an.c-i ",11-, i , j^ake Cliad, and her boundaries in this direction, 
 '-' liiiaHy settled. -lie may, without distraction, devote her en- 
 .'id le^wune-; to the (levelo])ment of her compact block of 
 ''''-''> ll!t!:(r;.> Iraiue lia> done little but add to her already 
 f\te:.-ue ter::i. \ic~, m .^eiiegaiiibia, iind that is ^till her chief oc-
 
 STRUGGLE FOR THE NIGER 171 
 
 1894-1910 
 
 cupation. Whether when she has reached the Hmits of her enter- 
 prise in this direction she will ever succeed in developing a great 
 commerce in Senegal and the Sudan it is impossible to say; at 
 present, after being at work for three centuries, she has not suc- 
 ceeded in getting results at all proportionate to her enormous out- 
 lay of lives, labor, and capital.
 
 Chapter XIV 
 
 GKRMAN PROGRKSS IN WICST AFRICA. 1865-1910 
 
 FOR various rcasi)ns German prof^^rcss in East Africa has 
 l)t'cii dealt with at j^rcater Icni^'th than will be necessary in 
 tho case oi the other spheres of German influence in Africa, 
 j'ast Africa is the most extensive and commercially the most in- 
 flucntiad of all the German annexations; its short history has been 
 a lni<v and stirrincf one: and the methods adopted in East Africa, 
 and referred to in some detail in a inTceding- chapter, may be taken 
 a>; typical of the Germans. It will, therefore, be unnecessary to 
 deal at such lenj^th with the course of events in German West 
 Africa since the meeting- of tlic I'erlin Coni^rcss. At the date of 
 tlii-^ ("oiii^re-^s Germany had planted her flag on the G(jld Coast 
 ( Toi^oland ). in the Cameroons, and on the coast lyinj^ between the 
 ()rani;e l\i\er and tlie River Cunene. The last-named district is 
 ku.'wn a^ German Southwest Africa, and with that we shall deal 
 before .i^oino- farther north. It lias already been seen that both the 
 lioine ^o\ernnient ;ind the Ca])e had to ^ivc way at almc^t every 
 jtoiiit in face of the unyielding- persistence of Prince Bismarck, who 
 W'iuld not Consent to leave any portion of this coast except Walfish 
 I'.ay under the Rritish llai^. By the bei^inninp;- of 1885 the in- 
 ev:tal'!e had been recognized both in Lcjndon and at Cape Town, 
 and a joint commission w^as appointed to settle details as to 
 Ir. iMiHT- ;tiid individual rights. The commission completed its 
 v.. Tk in September, i^H^. P,y the l>ritish meiuorandum of De- 
 cember J.;. 1SS4. it liad virtually been conceded that no objection 
 uould 111- ra;-i,'il to Ciermany extending her si)hcre in Southwest 
 .\irica :!s far c\i-t a^ _'() ea^t lon_i;itude uj) to 22 of south latitude. 
 It i^ true ih-:t aUem])i> were made to inlhience the Damara chiefs 
 ;:L:.'.iii-! the Gi-rnian prMtectorate, and to induce tliem U) offer alle- 
 .L:;an(r 1.. lai'^^land. I'rixate indixiduals and companies who hatl 
 obtained c.ncc ioiis from tlie native chiefs before Gennany en- 
 tered ihe ! ,!d. tried to make as much of them as possible; but 
 M-.ch .'u-mpi- met witli little encoin-ageiuent from the home
 
 iGERMAN WEST AFRICA 173 
 
 1885-1890 
 
 government. Certain of the islands off the coast were recog- 
 nized by Germany as under British suzerainty, though the claims 
 of British subjects to mining rights on the mainland were cut 
 down to somewhat narrow limits. An attempt was even made 
 to establish a republic under the name of Upingtonia in Ovampo- 
 land, but without success. The German agents continued to 
 acquire rights over the territories of various chiefs in the interior. 
 By agreement with Portugal of December 20, 1886, the River 
 Cunene was fixed upon as the boundary between Portuguese West 
 Africa and German Southwest Africa. In this arrangement with 
 Portugal, as in the Franco-Portuguese arrangement of May, 1886, 
 it was admitted that Portugal was at liberty to extend her dominion 
 right across the continent from her West to her East African pos- 
 sessions. Even before this the British Minister at Lisbon had 
 drawn attention to the fixed idea that had taken possession of the 
 Portuguese Government that " anything likely to interfere with a 
 free expansion eastward of Portuguese territory into the heart of 
 the South Africa continent traverses a fixed purpose of Portuguese 
 colonial policy." It was an easy concession for France and Ger- 
 many to make, as it did not in any way interfere with their 
 respective spheres of influence, but this claim was one that was 
 never conceded by Great Britain. 
 
 It was only in the Anglo-German agreement of July, 1890, that 
 the final delimitation between German Southwest Africa and 
 British South Africa was arranged, events meantime having taken 
 place which will be dealt with in a subsequent chapter, and which 
 quite ignored the " fixed purpose of Portuguese colonial policy " 
 above alluded to. By this agreement the Orange River is recog- 
 nized as the southern limit of German territory as far as 20 east 
 longitude. This gave to German Southwest Africa a total area of 
 some 240,000 square miles, with a scanty population of 200,000 
 natives. 
 
 Though none of the serious military operations which have so 
 materially retarded progress in East Africa have been necessary in 
 Southwest Africa, the first of Germany's colonial ventures has been 
 a constant source of tronljlc. It was only in Octol)cr, 1885. that the 
 great Damara chief, Kamaherero, was induced to accept German 
 protection, and since then he has on more than one occasion en- 
 deavored to cancel bis consent. One powerful chief. Ilcndrik 
 Wittboi, has proved specially refractory, and the acting commis-
 
 ,7i AFUICA 
 
 ' 1885-1894 
 
 <'uM\cr h:\(\ several serious ciii^asfciiients with liim. So difl'iciilt, 
 iiulecil. was it found to sulxluc the chief, that in the end of 1893 
 \'<i\ lMan<:. 'is was suiiersciled hy another cmnmissioncr, who in the 
 suiniuer of 1S04 stuveeded in iiuhicin^ W'itthoi to surrender. Thus 
 <MU- threat oh-^taele to progress has hccn removed. Petty wars be- 
 tween the various trilics of Oamaras and Namaquas are ahnost 
 constantly .joiner f^"- 'I'l^' '^''^ cinhittercd by relij^ious fanaticism. 
 iUit with the strontr military force at the command of the Germans, 
 all the-e (li<turhiii,t: intlucnccs must he suppressed. The claims of 
 Hriti^-h concrssioiniaircs caused considerable trouble for a time, and 
 in iSoj were ileclarcd invalid by the German Government. 
 
 Ilcrr Liiileritz. of course, soon found that without assistance 
 he himself could never do much to develop the resources of so vast 
 a rei^iiMi. In the spriiiq; of 1885, therefore, he made over his 
 riiL^hts. f(^r the sum of ^^^75,000, to a German Colonial Society for 
 S-nithwcst Africa, which was incorporated by the imperial govern- 
 ment, wiili a ca|)ital of $3(X.ooo, capable of being increased. At 
 the >:\wc time an imperial commission was ajipointcd to administer 
 the territ'TN- .m behalf of the ("icnnan Government. Courts were 
 established, and a militarv force provided. Here, as in East Africa 
 aiiil cl>ewhere. the Germans set themselves with zeal and intelli- 
 ger.re to the exploration of their tcrritorv. with a view to ascertain 
 what were its real resources. ICxpcditions were sent out in va- 
 n.iu< directions. They were accompanied by a thoroughly qualified 
 scientit'ic staff, and tlie result is that we have had for some time a 
 \cry c in])lete idea of llic ch.'iracter and resources of Germany's first 
 c. 'I'liy. Though nit highly encouraging, at the same time, the 
 It >er\ati"ns of competent explorers, and the experiments made by 
 Gerniar. setiJcr-, prove that uith capital and industry the coimtry 
 rsay he made to yield a fair reinrn to the farmers and ranchtnen. 
 \ i-ry precise ohserwitions as to rainfall, water supplv. and the char- 
 .uter of t!ie soil have been collected, v.'hich will form a safe guide 
 ;> -iitdhL;". :it undertakings. Cierman farmers might find a home 
 ::: t:ie '.'.i-Imt region- of the interior, but only in small niunbers ; as 
 a lie!l f-r l-.m-opean emigration Damaraland and Xamacpialand 
 arc 0! JHiiitrij cajiacity. In the sniithern ])ortion agriculture, except 
 ' ' '^' "^ !'^'- ' i.'.\ored s|)ots. is impossible. Tn the north, on the 
 ' * ''^ ' ' '''here b-.tii water siip|)Iy and rainf.all are more plenti- 
 
 '' "'^ p'' "iiit N roiild lie grown with advantage. Over the 
 'otn.Ty t.ie r;.ii:ia'l i.-, deficient, but not to such an extent as
 
 GERMAN WEST AFRICA 175 
 
 1885-1894 
 
 was at one time believed ; precise observations show that even in the 
 south enough falls in most years to encourage a system of storage. 
 Cattle and sheep can be reared over nearly the whole of the colony, 
 and a profitable trade is carried on toward Bechuanaland and other 
 countries in South Africa. With proper means of transit the 
 export of wool might be conducted with profit. At present there 
 is a limited trade by sea in cattle and wool with Cape Colony, and 
 the country lying to the north of the German territory as far as the 
 Congo. Until recently the only harbor was the British port of 
 Walfish Bay, which somewhat hampered German operations. But 
 in 1893 a practicable port was discovered near to Swakop Mouth, 
 in German territory, whence access to the interior was easier than 
 from Walfish Bay. Here a new harbor was commenced. 
 
 But it was the much-vaunted mining resources of the country 
 from which rich returns were expected. It was hoped that copper 
 would be found as abundantly in the German protectorate as it has 
 been in the northwest of Cape Colony. Copper no doubt has been 
 found in the interior, and could it be cheaply worked on the spot, 
 and cheaply conveyed to a convenient harbor on the coast, it might 
 pay in a small way. To quote the words of Dr. Schinz, who has 
 himself made a very thorough exploration of this country: " It is 
 well known how little was realized of Liideritz's extravagant hopes. 
 The chief cause of the failure of the undertaking was, no doubt, the 
 inhospitality of the country, and the sand along the coast made the 
 connection with the better land in the interior so difficult that the 
 mineral deposits could only be worked under exceptionally favor- 
 able circumstances. But, inasmuch as the prospecting work of the 
 miners disclosed no deposits or veins worthy of mention, the life- 
 thread of the whole undertaking was cut in twain. The trade with 
 the natives also amounted to nothing from the beginning, for the 
 natives possessed nothing to give in exchange for the goods 
 ofifered." But subsequent investigations have shown that probably 
 this estimate was somewhat too desponding. Not only has copper 
 been found in various places, but also lead and gold, both quartz and 
 alluvial ; but the two latter in such small quantities so far that at 
 present they are not of practical account. 
 
 At various times there have been rumors that Germany would 
 be glad to get rid of her not very i^ronn'sing colony. As an append- 
 age of a settled and progressive and cumiJanitivcly populous country 
 like Cape Colony, this region might be turned to some account, as
 
 no AFRICA 
 
 * " 1886-1906 
 
 .1 s.Muvo oi" \o^h\ supply. l^iit as ati inclepcnclcnt colony with a 
 I.uuo .uiiiuni-iialixc staff, only nuxlerately suited for white settle- 
 iiu-nt. with :\ scanty native popnlation constantly cn<^age(l in inter- 
 trihal wars, it ninst for lon.^- proye an expensiye luxury. Negotia- 
 tions were on more than t)ne occasion on foot for making the 
 conntrv over to a T.ritish syndicate, and that with the approyal of 
 the (K-rnian (Mneniment: hut these at first met with violent pro- 
 te>ts f'-xni the extreme colonial party in Gennany. A compromise 
 was {.lYecteil in the formation of an Anglo-German Company, sup- 
 ported to a great extent hy Ihilish capital. Under the auspices of 
 [h\-> c.'n:i;iny a well-ecinijijK'd expedition was sent out from I^igland 
 in the auiumn of 189-' for the purpose of prospecting and initiating 
 >tei)s fnr tile ikvelopnient of what resources the country possesses. 
 This i)rc>pecting expedition did good work, and its reports as to the 
 minerals and rancliing capacities of the country are on the whole 
 favorable. Se\eral companies and syndicates have been formed 
 ;'.!id are at work, so that on the w-hole the prospects of Germany's 
 Ur< coldny are UK^re i)r()mising than they were ten or a dozen 
 vcar> ago. There are altogether about 4670 whites in the colony, 
 ii;cl',uling 825 tro(>])s: the Germans number about 2600, mostly 
 functi'inarles and soldiers; there are several hundred Boers, also, 
 'i'lie vahie nf the total cxi)()rts in 1901 was about $250,000, and 
 thiC 'nil)' rts S2,oc)o.ooo. The administrative center of the colony is 
 (ir ---Windhoek, some distance in the interior from Walfish Bay, 
 Se\eral giKKl buildings, public and private, have been erected here. 
 W liLM the best is said, it must be admitted that in a country whose 
 .ic^'ricuiuiral capabihtics are limited, which has powerful competition 
 in cattle-iearing. whose mining resources are doubtful, with an 
 ..dniini-tratj. !i which demands a large yearly grant from the 
 (jLVMian I'arlianiLnt. and a coni])anv tliat with its subordinate com- 
 ;.:'.niLs ha- airca'lv sunk a comparatively enormous capital, progress 
 nr;-: be -! -.v. 
 
 T" i:i;:i to tlic much more hopeful region of the Cameroons, 
 it v:. !(.'.;;;d that, by tlie time the Berlin Congress met, Germany 
 ^'i-^ 1. 1:1:;. i;i ]). - -(.>-!(, II liere. and, following her usual method, had 
 already nad ilu- nativL's *' a sharp lesson." This policy had to be 
 < ..rr;ed > ut i^n -r>ei-al occasions, so that it was not till the first half 
 : i>^^'. that al! ''c c< a.-t cliicf-, and tlK)se middlemen just behind 
 ^" t.'"'-' ' o 1 ,! l^ec'ii in the- habit of la])ping the intcrirjr trade, 
 '''^^' " I .: nt rcc'iviled to the German suzerainty. But
 
 GERMAN WEST AFRICA 177 
 
 1885-1894 
 
 these middlemen continued to show reluctance in giving up their 
 profitable calling, and even at a recent date considerable firmness 
 had to be manifested in dealing with them. It is to be regretted 
 that the German officials have in the Cameroons occasionally ex- 
 hibited great want of tact in dealing with the natives, and especially 
 with the imported native troops. This led in 1893- 1894 to some 
 manifestations of rebellion, which were repressed by the commis- 
 sioner by measures of such extreme cruelty as to lead to his recall. 
 No European nation can in this respect afford to cast a stone at an- 
 other, though it must be said that German officials have often 
 shown an uncompromising harshness in their method of dealing 
 with the natives. 
 
 A provisional arrangement as to the northern limit of the 
 German Cameroons territory was come to with England in May, 
 1885. This arrangement was modified in August, 1886, and finally 
 settled by the famous Anglo-German agreement of July, 1890. 
 With France, Germany had no difficulty in making an arrangement 
 as to the southern boundary of her newly acquired territory. On 
 December 24, 1885, an agreement was reached regarding the limit 
 between the German Cameroons and the French Gaboon; and by 
 the agreement of February, 1894 (referred to in the chapter on the 
 Niger), the Hinterland of the Cameroons was definitely fixed. As 
 in other African arrangements, so in that relating to the Cameroons, 
 there were assured to the subjects of the Signatory Powers freedom 
 of trade and navigation, the exclusion of differential tariffs, and 
 other privileges which in practice are found to have little value. 
 Finally, to leave Germany a perfectly free hand, the British Gov- 
 ernment ignored certain treaties made in the name of England ; 
 and the station at Victoria, in Ambas Bay, which had been occu- 
 pied by English missionaries for forty years, was made over to 
 Germany for a payment of $20,000 to the missionary society. 
 
 Early in 1885 Bismarck, in spite of the continued opposition 
 of the anti-colonial party, easily succeeded in carrying the votes nec- 
 essary for establishing the Cameroons as a Crown colony. A 
 governor, with a considerable staff of officials, was appointed, 
 and all the macliinery of government after German methods estab- 
 lished. A series of ordinances was promulgated, imposing dues 
 and taxes of various kinds, and especially levying very heavy duties 
 on the import of spirits. Notwithstanding the express request of 
 Prince Bismarck, the traders in the Cameroons shrank from form-
 
 nrt AFRK A 
 
 1885-1894 
 
 inp tlu'in>clvcs int<-t a corporation for regulating; local afifairs, so 
 that the j^o\crnor iiad to take cognizance of local as well as of more 
 general matters (^f government. The total area included in the 
 CamcnxMis. taking in the territory acquired up to Lake Chad, is 
 (nor io<^.no<'> sfpiare miles, with a population estimated roughly at 
 throe millions and a half, in marked contrast to the conditions which 
 prevail farther south. Indeed here we are in one of the most thickly 
 jvpulatod regions o{ Africa, es[)ecially along the coast and the 
 crooks, and at many points in the interior. 
 
 The coast natives hclong mainly to the Bantu stock, while 
 th<\sc oi the interior are Sudanese. They are keen traders, but the 
 Germans at first fcnmd all their efforts to open up the interior 
 furred by those tribes which inhabit the districts in the immediate 
 interior, and act as middlemen between the people of the interior 
 and the traders on the coast. Mere, as in their other African pos- 
 sessions, the Germans lost no time in sending out expeditions, 
 under tried loaders, to open up the interior. These expeditions, as 
 is usual with such German projects, were partly military and 
 partly exploratc)ry. In attempting to break through the cordon 
 of middlomcn, seri(nis disasters happened to the first expedition 
 utidcr Lieutenant Kund : however. Gennany meant to succeed, and 
 in a marvelously short time established stations at various points 
 in the interior. 
 
 Gormrmy. like France, had her eye on Lake Chad, and large 
 ^r.ms wore voted by the Reichstag for the purpose of extending 
 Gorman iiilluoiicc to that lake. An expedition under Zintgraff 
 and .Mornrcn. accompanied by a miltary force and representatives of 
 t!;e trading firms interested in the Camcroons, endeavored in 1890 
 to roac'i Magirmi from the station of Bali as a starting-point. But 
 tlie expedition met with a severe check from the natives; many of 
 it- membors were killed, and Morgen had to make the best of his 
 wa.y d .v.n the Bonne. Later expeditions have been more for- 
 t'.:nato: t:;:it unrjor \'on Stettin penetrated to Yola and made 
 troat:o- trai onalj'cl riernianv to rleal on advantageous terms both 
 V. :t:i I'.rLT'an 1 aiul Iranco. Ivjually successful has been an expedi- 
 t; :i m :::c rpjir-itc direction, resulting in valuable additions to 
 a k-!^ iv.lodge of the cajjabilities of the country. Germany has suc- 
 ( Of led :n f:rmlv ^^ornring her influence, not only on the coast, but at 
 many iriu; .rtant p/hus in the interior. What can be made of that 
 mtor:,'r romains to be seen; the Germans have here the same
 
 GERMAN WEST AFRICA 179 
 
 1890-1910 
 
 problem to solve that must be solved by other European powers 
 which have undertaken the development of tropical Africa. But 
 it may be worth noticing that besides the Cameroons Mountains 
 there are several heights that rise above the plateau in the interior 
 to from 8000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level, which may in future 
 prove useful as sanatoria. Meantime on the coast the busy trade 
 established by British subjects continues to be carried on and in- 
 creased by their German successors. The German " Plantation- 
 Company" and other associations, as well as private traders, have 
 established plantations of coco-palms, cacao, tobacco, sugar, cotton, 
 and other cultures, some of which have given successful results. 
 The staple exports, however, are still the natural products of the 
 country, including ivory, skins, and gums. The palm-oil and palm- 
 kernel trade is so far the most lucrative, though even yet British 
 vessels do as much trade in this as is done by German vessels. The 
 total exports (1908) were valued at almost 14,530,074 marks, and 
 the imports at 17,297,000 marks. Instead of the river hulks in 
 which the old traders used to live, good houses of stone are now 
 to be seen on the banks of the Cameroons River, in which officials 
 and merchants are able to lead fairly comfortable lives. Macadam- 
 ized roads surround all the coast settlements^ while experimental 
 stations and botanical gardens give an air of civilization to the 
 country. The total number of whites in 1908 was 1,128, of which 
 971 were German. A number of these arc officials, merchants, and 
 missionaries. 
 
 Altogether, the Cameroons is one of the most prosperous and 
 promising of German colonics, thanks partly to the energy and 
 administrative skill of its first governor, Baron von Soden. Its 
 revenues, which in 1890 were $72,500, and had to be supple- 
 mented by a grant from the mother country of twice that amount, 
 were estimated for 1908-9 at 7,208,366 marks ; to cover expenses, 
 there is added a subsidy from the government of about 5,000,000 
 marks. Only in exceptional years has this colony been able to pay 
 its own way. Yet, unlike France and England, Germany docs not 
 overburden her colonies with officials, nor arc these paid on anything 
 like the same scale as those who swarm in English Crown colonies. 
 
 Of all the German colonies in Africa the little block of some 
 33,700 square miles known as Togoland has so far been decidedly 
 the most prosperous. Already considerable trade was established 
 on the coast when the German flag was first raised. It forms one
 
 ISO AFRICA 
 
 1888 1910 
 
 of the liipluvays to ami fmm the thickly populated portion of the 
 Sudan. It is of limited extent, with a population roughly esti- 
 mated at Qoo.ooo. N'o expenditure for formidable military expedi- 
 tions into the interior has been necessary, while its administration 
 is simple and inexpensive. It is placed under an imperial gover- 
 nor, with some few other oflicials; unlike the other colonies it has 
 had a local council consisting of representatives of the merchants. A 
 militarv t'orcc of 150 negroes, officered by seven Germans, is suf- 
 ficient to ni.-iintain order. The country is capable of growing al- 
 most a:iv tropical products, while the forests abound in oil palms, 
 catHitchouc. and other woods; though so far the commerce is 
 ahnost entirely a barter trade for palm-oil and palm-kernels. 
 Acconling to latest statistics there are 224 Europeans, including 
 ofticials. in Togolantl ; of these 216 are Germans. In 1901-1902, 
 267 vessels, of about 375,000 tons, entered the ports of the colony. 
 Togoland has al>out thirty-live miles of coast, and is wedged 
 in between bVench territory on the east and the British Gold Coast 
 c>n t!ic west. The approximate limits east and west w^re arranged 
 s .on after the annexation. But here, as in the Cameroons, the 
 Germans did not content themselves with squatting on the coast 
 and waiting for any trade that might come to them. Beginning 
 in 1S85, a scries of expeditions penetrated the interior, some of 
 tl'.cm reaching as far as Mossi, well within the great l>cnd of the 
 Xi:j'cr. Some 130 miles in the interior a station, under the aj)- 
 prii{)riatc name of I>ismarcksburg, was founded, and this is the 
 J) int of (Ic})arture of most of the expeditions to the interior. Only 
 fi'.e day-; from the coast another station, Misa-IIoehe, has been 
 1 'catcd in wiiat is supposed to be a particularly healthful situation. 
 '1 'urc arc -cvcral trading stations f;n the coast, but there is no great 
 o-frrf-,)! as in Lagos or Accra, each tribe having its own trad-j 
 ccMlt. 'I iic l\i\cr X'olta, which forms tlie western boundary of 
 tl.c ( .l.iny. has b(cn j)ro\cd to be navigable by steam Utv some 200 
 ni:.'-;. a la.r! (,f ^^rcat inijiortancc for tlie commercial development 
 I t:;e Country. Cock] caravan roads have been made in various 
 din 'Mi^'n-. The f.ita! exj>orts of the cr)lony (1^)08) were valued at 
 5.915.'") nrirk-;, 'h.- inii)orts at about 6,899.684 marks. The duties 
 l<\i'-i ill V)r>;yn\ uv 're tlian ])aid the expenses of admini^tra- 
 '..!i: 'I'./ 'an ! ]i-;^ ucclcd loss imperial aid than any other of the 
 rjfrrr.an <..!, r,ic. Jn Africa. The German Tftgc.land Company, 
 ^ '' ' ^^''''' ''''ith a view both to commercial operations
 
 GERMAN WEST AFRICA 181 
 
 1888-1910 
 
 and to the establishment of plantations, has already been suc- 
 cessful in both directions; experimental stations are at work in 
 several localities. It is expected that in time coffee will become 
 a product of great commercial importance, while the cocoa-palm 
 is very extensively planted, so that in time cocoanuts and copra 
 may figure among the exports. Maize is extensively cultivated, 
 and most European vegetables can be grown. 
 
 It was only by the Anglo-German agreement of July, 1890, 
 that the boundary between the British Gold Coast and German 
 Togoland was definitely settled. The situation of Togoland is 
 not all that could be desired, in a commercial way; there are no 
 real harbors in German territory, and no navigable streams except 
 the Volta, and as the Volta itself is in its lower course within 
 British territory, it is doubtful how far its navigability may be of 
 advantage to German trade. It will have been seen in a former 
 chapter that it will scarcely be possible for either the Gold Coast or 
 Germany to push their spheres farther inland, as the French on the 
 one side and the Royal Niger Company on the other have by 
 their treaties with the native chiefs practically barred the way to 
 the interior. But should Germany be confined within her present 
 somewhat narrow limits in Togoland, the country is populous 
 enough and its resources abundant enough to yield a good return 
 to modest commercial enterprise.
 
 Chapter XV 
 
 imrrisH KAsr Africa. 1886-1910 
 
 IX iloaliiitr with (Icrmaii ojKTations in East Africa enou.^h 
 \iv.l:\ Ua< lu'cn tliruwn ii|)(m British desij^ns and (lisillusiun- 
 nicn;- in that region to render anythini:;- more than a brief 
 lefcromc iiiineiessarv. Sir John Kirk, who had long hibored to 
 pronii'te British interests in and aronnd Zanzibar, was forced by a 
 )L;o\t.Tnnient whicli had I)een thoronq-hly bulh'ed by Bismarck to 
 lK'>t<.\v the resnUs of his elYorts npon Germany. The Chancellor's 
 vi^ontus policy extorted concessions from the sultan at the can- 
 non's niMnth. and left the Germans in full possession of the choicest 
 re_i,^;' !i i-f tlie cnuiitrv. tliat nf the Kilimanjaro. The British com- 
 ].any. which thon,i;ht it could j^resent a clear title to much of this 
 and oiher T'ast .Xt'rican districts, was obliged to give way and re- 
 '^irict its prf])wsed field df operations. 
 
 'i'iie lir-t Anglo-German agreement was concluded at the end 
 I f 1SS6. I'nder the presidency of Sir William Alackinnon a 
 :!iniil)ir of jh-itisli cajjitalists formed themselves into the British 
 I-.:;-: Africa .\s-^oriation, and set tb.cmselves to acquire rights over 
 I'ie territory which had been rescued from Germany as the British 
 -j:ierf. Mackiiiiion, the founder oi steam communication with 
 /.:n/.ihar. had for long been a favorite with the Sultan of Zanzibar, 
 .and he had no diflicuhy in obtaining from the sultan, under date 
 ..I.'.y J4. 1NS7, a conce-^ion of the ten-mile strip of coast fn;m the 
 t niha on r:e <out!i to l'i])ini at the mouth of the Tana River on 
 < U'-nh. 'i \]]< ( ,:!ce--ion was to be for a term of fifty years. The 
 'nipaiiy i',.!- to ha\e the entire admim'stration of the territory in 
 t'ne sultan'- n::!nc. In consideration for this concession the sultan 
 \-..;- : ' renr.e 'l.c whole amount of the customs dues which he 
 rti e:\i-ii at t::r date of tlie conce>-ion, in addition to fifty per cent. 
 "' ' -' a'l.;!:: ,;i;i] net re\enuc which might accrue to the company 
 ''' ''- '"- '^> duiie- of the ports included in the concessi(jn. 
 "^" '' -i' d:;te agreenuiits were made with a considerable 
 
 ''''"^- c e;.:e:.- in and heyond the main concession, w^hich
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICx\ 183 
 
 1888 
 
 served to complete and extend the grant made by the sultan, giv- 
 ing, indeed, to the company sovereign rights for a distance of 200 
 miles from the coast. With these concessions in their hands the 
 association of British capitalists had no hesitation in approaching 
 the government praying that they might be incorporated by royal 
 charter as the Imperial British East Africa Company. Tliere was 
 no difficulty in obtaining such a charter (September 3, 1888), into 
 the details of which it is unnecessary to enter. It practically au- 
 thorized the company to administer the territory which had been 
 leased to it by the sultan, and any other territories which might be 
 acquired in the future. No important step was to be taken without 
 the consent of the secretary of state; everything possible was to 
 be done to develop the territory and suppress the slave-trade. Ad- 
 ministrators were to be appointed, provision made for the adminis- 
 tration of justice, and for the conduct of the affairs of this new 
 section of the empire on the system of a Crown colony, so far as 
 that was possible under the conditions. The position thus created 
 for the British East Africa Company, like the position of other 
 chartered companies, was a peculiar one. The extensive area em- 
 braced in the limits indicated above, sf^ne 200,000 square miles, 
 was virtually declared a part of the British Empire under the desig- 
 nation of " sphere of influence." The government spent nothing 
 upon it, appointed no officers to administer it, undertook no direct 
 control of its affairs. The company, by its charter, represented the 
 British Government, and carried on all the functions delegated by 
 government to a Colonial administration. Out of its own resources 
 the company had to carry on its trade, develop the commercial re- 
 sources of the country, and endeavor to reap dividends for its share- 
 holders. At the same time it was bound to establish an adminis- 
 tration in its various branches, pay a governor and many officials, 
 maintain a small army, and try to push its way into the interior. 
 This it had to do also under the restrictions of the Berlin Act, as 
 regarded the interior, but not tlie coast, whicli it held under conces- 
 sion from the sultan, thus leaving it free to levy taxes, as the 
 sultan had done, on all goods coming from the interior irrespective 
 of their origin or destination. Tliis right, for which the company 
 continued to pay tlie Zanzibar administration in full, was afterward 
 arbitrarily withdrawn by the British G(n-ernmcnt ; the latter, with- 
 out regard to the rights of the com])any,* placed the coast protec- 
 torate under the free zone provision of the Berlin Act.
 
 IHI AFRICA 
 
 1888 
 
 0!n i.Misly f^r n company to open np and administer an exten- 
 sive tcrrit-Tv m a ccMitincnt like Africa, having: little or no analop^ies 
 uitli India, a vcrv considerable capital would be required, or the 
 c.uiiitry mu<t be >f sucli a character as would yield a fair return on 
 a more or lc<s immediate outlay. In the Nii^er rep:ion there is plenty 
 .>f trade t" be <l.>iic in native products likely to yield a fair return, 
 and the Xii^er Company is authorized to levy considerable dues. 
 In the sphere .ill.Uteil to the British South Africa Company there 
 is repcrted (. be abundance (^f irold ; those interested in its develop^ 
 nuMit have !art;e capital at their command; expensive exploring 
 i\jH-<Iiti<ns an<! the maintenance of many stations are not de- 
 manded: and mucli wi^rk is done by private prospectors. In British 
 V.-.Kt Africa on the contrary the whole work of development de- 
 volved on the ccMiipany; and by its charter it was even prohibited 
 from cxercisincr any monopoly of trade. It is probable that had 
 the founders of the company, with Mackinnon at their head, not 
 l)cen to Some extent carried away by a patriotic spirit, they would 
 ne\ er iiave cast their money into a concern out of which tliey could 
 liar'lly expect to receive any return durinc: their own lifetime. The 
 ff'iiiiders subscribed about $i.200.oon amonc^ them; but although 
 t!-.e nomiiKil caj)it.al was ten million dollars, the actual capital at 
 t!:e ci'mmand of the company never amounted even to two and 
 onedialf millions. 
 
 .\fttr it ..btained its charter the company lost no time in setting 
 to W'^rk t" take j) i<sessir)n of its field, to establish an administration, 
 t<i send I'Ut ])ionecr expeditions, to lay down routes to the interior, 
 .'ind to eli.M ,^(.- positions U^r stations. The tract lying between the 
 C' ast-liiu- alliilted to the company and the great lake, which was 
 i;- \aLrtic b'r.iKlary in tlic interior, was known onlv in a very gen- 
 eral v.riy. '1 lie coast had been to some extent surveyed, though of 
 the actual \;m:;c "1 the liarbors wc liad no very precise information. 
 I '.e I ana l\!\er was known in a general way up to a certain dis- 
 Vi-cc. !)ut I's ( iur-c was very inaccurately laid down. Travelers 
 :.:.d !r:;\erMd ilie cotintry from tlic coast to Kilimanjaro, and 
 n rthward t'. M..niii Keiiia. Mucli information as to the country 
 '' p'^- '' 'a I ludi obtained tln-ough tlie Arabs who traded with 
 ' "' ' ' '^ow 1cm1o-(. of tlic interior tlien possessed did not 
 
 tnniciTial nntlerlakings ; and it was feared tliat 
 ' -. .'. i:!i their warlike rei)Ulation. would be a great 
 I 'n;j).-::-.y"s o])crations. But the comi)any went to
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 185 
 
 1888 
 
 work with promptness and business-like intelligence. The leading 
 spirit in initiating operations on the spot was Mr. George S. 
 Mackenzie, who had already had great experience in Persia with 
 populations not far removed from the type to be met with in East 
 Africa; he was appointed by the company the first administrator, 
 with the approval of the home government. When Mackenzie 
 arrived in Zanzibar in October, 1888, he found that Burghash had 
 died, and that his brother Khalifa occupied the throne of the sultan 
 of Zanzibar. Khalifa not only ratified the original concession, but 
 by another document granted further important facilities to the 
 company for the carrying out of the privileges which had been 
 accorded by his predecessor. The sultan even lent the services of 
 his commander-in-chief, General Mathews, to enable Mackenzie 
 to inaugurate the company at Mombasa, the ancient Arabo-Portu- 
 guese port, which was to be its headquarters. 
 
 At this time the German section of East Africa broke out into 
 open rebellion. Naturally the natives in the British sphere were 
 excited, and it required great tact and care in order to avoid a 
 collision. Unfortunately also the excessive anti-slavery zeal of 
 the missionaries had complicated matters, and greatly irritated the 
 Arab population, whose friendliness it was desirable to secure. 
 Mackenzie had a trying task to face; many domestic slaves had fled 
 from their masters and taken refuge with the missionaries, who 
 refused to deliver them up. The question of domestic slavery in 
 Africa is a difficult one, which cannot be discussed in this place. 
 It must not, however, be confounded with slave-raiding and slave- 
 export. It is a universal institution in Africa, and to attempt 
 suddenly to suppress it would lead to anarchy and disorganization 
 over the whole continent. It is an institution which will only melt 
 away as commerce, enlightenment, and civilization advance, and 
 for the missionaries to blindly interfere in the matter is to defeat 
 the object which they have in view. Happily the administrator was 
 able to deal with the particular case in a way which satisfied all 
 parties except those who are fanatically opposed to all compromise. 
 He was able to liberate some 1400 slaves, and to make such ar- 
 rangements as would enable any slaves within the British si)here to 
 purchase their own freedom within a few months. This course 
 satisfied Arabs, natives, and missionaries alike, and at once estab- 
 lished the reputation of the company for fair dealing. 
 
 The troubles in the German sphere did not then spread to that
 
 ISO AFRICA 
 
 1887-1890 
 
 .! I'.iii^l.mil. Maokctuio set about improving- Mombasa, town aiul 
 barbor; >iic "t" I lor Majesty's sbii)s surveyed tbe latter. Works 
 were U-i,-un wlnib .,MeatIy facilitated navi.qation ; a ligbt rail- 
 wav was C(>n>trueted on ibe island, and suitable buildings were 
 iH-tiun on the mainland. Mackenzie visited all tbe cbief ports 
 aiul made arrani^ements to facilitate tbe company's operations. 
 C"arav;ins were at once sent into the interior, in various direc- 
 tions, to ('pen u|) relations witb the natives, to obtain a better 
 kii"wledL;e o\ the country, and to ascertain tbe best routes to 
 the interior. One of these in a very short time established 
 stations as far as Machako's, an important center 250 miles 
 from the c M-^t. Another proceeded north to tbe Tana River to 
 I'jK'n uj) relations with tiie chiefs in that part of tbe territory, and 
 j)ush on low aril Mount Kenia. These two caravans did excellent 
 Work in e.\i)!oration and in establishing- the company's influence 
 .along the Tana and eventually as far as Uganda. Within six 
 niontlis after Mackenzie's arrival the company's officials were fairly 
 (.-tabl;>!!f(l in the territory, and the active work of opening up the 
 (.Muniry was well begun. 
 
 It was not diily in the Clcrman sphere to the south of the com- 
 j)aiiy"s territories that the company was threatened with difficulties 
 ni carrying on it> work. The position of (jermany in Witu at tbe 
 ni. 'Uth of the Tana was sliown in a i^revious chapter; and it was 
 al-', pointeil (iiit that this jjiece of (jennan territory was utilized by 
 Dr. I'eters as a starting-jjoint from which to hamper the company 
 on li.e north by attempting to obtain concessions w-bich would shut 
 it out eiuirely from tlie interior. Shortly after the company's ex- 
 pediii.'ii- were >eiU out toward ilie \'ana River and the northwest, 
 i'eter'> -ncLeedci in evading the liritish vessels which were block- 
 .I'lmg tile coa-t. and not\vith>tanding the (lisai)proval of the German 
 ;:::. riue-. i.e Liiided in W'itn and organized an expedition Uj) the 
 i'-.ver 'J ana. llis ovten>i])le purpose was to reach and relieve Kmin 
 I'a-iia, wi;.. ',\,;> l)(Iie\e<l to he lieiiimed in bv the Mahdists on the 
 i I'per Xiie: Stanli-y liad set out l)y way of the Congo for his 
 :a- ;;e in lannaiy. i SS j. j'eiers and the C(jmpany's expedition 
 ; :.:\e<l at '. ;.'.r and-eek with eacli other for some time, but never 
 ^''- 1 '<- ' "rn.'.n adventurer planted t!ie llag of his country along 
 t e rr. er. ;i;;d ;iner nraiiercai^ tights willi the Masai and other na- 
 ':<rt('I(d ;n reaching Tganda early in i(S<jo, where 
 ''' u M\vaiiL;a reigned. 'i'hcrc, Catholic and Proles-
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 
 
 im 
 
 1387-1890 
 
 tant missionaries had been struggling for ascendency; the Moham- 
 medan party was strong, and many of the chiefs and people adhered 
 to their old paganism. Mwanga was nominally an adherent of the 
 Roman Catholic faith, though in reality he cared only for the party 
 most likely to keep him in power. The Catholics, more zealous, 
 and perhaps more energetic, than the Protestants, had gained many 
 followers and much influence in the country, and w'ere naturally 
 inclined to favor a German as opposed to an English ascendency. 
 
 When Peters arrived in Uganda in the early part of 1890, he found 
 no difficulty in securing a friendly reception from Mwanga; he 
 succeeded, with the aid of the Catholic missionaries, in inducing the 
 king to make such admissions and concessions as migh.t without 
 difficulty have been construed into a treaty of protection. It may 
 therefore be imagined tliat his chagrin was great when, in the 
 autumn of 1890, having sailed from Uganda to tlie south shore of 
 the lake, he encfjuntcrcd I'jnin I'asha, and found not only that 
 the pasha was " reh'evcd,'' but that the British and German Gov- 
 ernments had come to an understanding as to their respective 
 splieres in I'^ast Africa, whicli rendered all his efforts to extend 
 (jcrman influence of no a\'ail.
 
 188 AFRICA 
 
 1890 
 
 By t!ie Aiis:lo-Gcrinan a.i::rccnient of July, 1890, Germany 
 rctircil conipUtclv from the nortli of tlic line extendincf from the 
 I'lnlu to the oast shore of the lake, Icavinj^ Witu and all the coast 
 north to the river Inh (over which she had declared a prt)tcctorate) 
 to the operations iA the Ihitish ctunpany. The line of delimitation 
 was then carrietl across Victoria Xyanza, and from its west shore 
 to the l)oundary oi the Conj^o I'rcc State. The sphere of Great 
 Britain was rect\t;:iu'7.ed in this agreement as extending along the 
 liib River and far away to the sources of the western tributaries of 
 tlie Nile; the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba were regarded as 
 under Britisli protection, such ])rotection being accepted by the 
 sultan. These islands were outside of the company's concession 
 and cliarter; but there can be no doubt that the company was ex- 
 jK-cted to operate and establish British influence in the sphere 
 allotted to r.ngland under the agreement of 1890, w-liich virtually 
 iiichuled a large section of Victoria Nyanza, the wdiole of Uganda 
 and I'nyort), and j)art of Karagwe, Lake Albert and part of 
 Albert ICdward. and the countries on their shores, as well as the 
 I'gyinian Equatorial Province, and part of Darfur and Kordofan. 
 Of Course this enormous sphere must be regarded as to some extent 
 i!ie pr. iduct of fancv. 
 
 Shortly after Peters left I'ganda it was entered on behalf of 
 the couiiKiny, Ajiril 14, 1890. by two of its officials. These efficient 
 ))ioii(.-cr<. l)y name Jackson and Getlge, bad made their way from 
 .M'.nil;i-;i n.:rtluvcst by Macliako's, th.rough the Masai country, 
 ...]<\ ci'.'.ered I'ganda tin-ougli Usogo. With most of the chiefs on 
 t'.e;r roiUc they liad little difficultv in coming to terms, and in- 
 liiu ing tixni to :iccei)t the company's flag. Owing to the represen- 
 tati.'n> n;a(]e by the I'rcncli Government when the Emin relief 
 i-xpediti-n v.a> organized, setting forth the danger that nn'ght befall 
 ;':(-ir n^i--:'.n if Stanley sought to enter Uganda (it being stated 
 t:.:;t hi- exprihtioii nuglit ])e \ iewed as a ])unitive one to avenge the 
 '''-'''''^'' "' ''i^' Pi-^hop Hannington), Jackson's expedition when 
 It -tartiMJ IP ,111 tlic coa^t was sjiecially instructed not to enter 
 l ;4.in<!.!, :.;-! did So only <)n the apj)eal of the king and tlic mis- 
 :: r:t . k^.ni;;:! Gatliolic and Protestant alike, to help them 
 "' "'^ ' Mohammedan jjarty. Jackson actually declined 
 :n\:iaiiMii, and it was (in\y after the strongest pres- 
 ""^ i''"'' ''! tile king, the niissi(;naries, and tlic chiefs, and 
 ^it;.:. -c by Mwaiiga of i!ie C(jni]jany's Hag. that he decided
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 133 
 
 1890-1891 
 
 to enter the country. When Peters heard of Jackson's approach 
 he was greatly irritated, and beat a precipitate retreat to the south 
 end of the lake, notwithstanding Jackson's request by letter that 
 he would await the arrival of the company's expedition. 
 
 The reports by these early expeditions were of great service in 
 showing the advantages and difficulties of the country through 
 which they passed. They confirmed the statements of previous 
 explorers that, while there were great stretches along the m.agnifi- 
 cent plateau country of Lykipia and in Usogo suitable for industrial 
 development and for the settlement of Indian and Persian colonists, 
 the region nearer the coast suffered greatly from want of water. 
 Much of the country was well adapted for cattle and agriculture : 
 some of the natural products might be turned to account, and of 
 course a certain amount of ivory was obtainable. Stations were 
 established at intervals, partly as trading centers and partly as 
 stages for the caravans which were to be sent for traffic and ex- 
 ploration into the interior. 
 
 The great problem forced upon the company was that of com- 
 munications. It was evident that so long as the only means of 
 transport was the African native, commerce could not advance be- 
 yond the lowest stage. Camels, donkeys, and mules were experi- 
 mented with, but all of them demand practicable roads and an 
 adequate supply of water and food. Everytliing seemed to point 
 to the desirability of constructing a light railway from the coast to 
 the lake, a distance of some 500 miles. For more than half this 
 distance the ground was so level as to render construction ex- 
 tremely easy. Beyond that was the enormous Mau escarpment, 
 making a descent and corresponding ascent of some 3000 or 4000 
 feet, but reported as presenting no difficulty to the engineer. As a 
 matter of fact, though the first mention of the company in the 
 official correspondence between iMigland and Germany was in 
 connection witli a railway, the company declared its resources 
 unequal to more than a few miles of tramway beyond Mombasa. 
 The Act of the Brussels Congress of 189 1 afforded the company a 
 lever wherewith to move the government in the matter, for it im- 
 posed upon the governments which signed it the obligation of 
 taking effective means, among other things, of suppressing slave- 
 raiding and slave-export. With respect to British East Africa, it 
 was represented that the most effective means was the construction 
 of a railway from the coast to the lake, which would render pack-
 
 190 AFRICA 
 
 '"^ 1890-1891 
 
 anijnals unpr.M"it;il>!c aiul unnecessary. The result was that Lord 
 S.ili>lnirv"s ^-ncnunont made a j^rant of $100,000 in 1891 for a 
 railuav i;ur\cv. tlu* ifnipany to pay any expenses incurred in excess 
 of t!iat sum. I'luler an experienced Indian cn.c:ineer officer, Cap- 
 tain MacvK nald. t!ie survey expechtion did excellent work. It 
 traced a firaoticahle rmitc at moderate cost as far as the lake, and 
 added prcativ to oiu" knowledi^c of the country in its vicinity. It 
 was inidcr-t.Mtd tliat tlie errant for the sur\'ey was to be followed 
 hv a i:rant i^r the railway, and a i^rant at the rate of three per cent. 
 <Mi .1 ti\ed sv.m t'<^r i!ie ccMistruction of such a railway was ap;-reed 
 uiK.n. As r.-.:.i;iit have been expected, the construction of a railway 
 at imperial cxjiciise was stnMip^ly objected to in several quarters, 
 on the cr'-uiid mainly that it was the company's business, and en- 
 tirely ftr its heiielit. Political events at home, however, led, as 
 win be sieii, t<i a certain chanc:e of policy in luist Africa; the rail- 
 wav is still incnmjilete. Nile steamers nov; run from Khartum to 
 (u.nd"k. 'r. .. Ihu let us return to U,c:anda. 
 
 \\;:cn Jack-en and Gedj^e entered the country they found it 
 in a state h-rderiii^^- en anarchy under the weak and cruel Mwani^^M. 
 l"athnlic<. I'ri'te-tants. and Mnhammedans were plotting and coun- 
 ttr-plottini; ; Mwani^^a was fouiid to be almost entirely in the power 
 of tlie " I'rciich ])arty." as tlic Catholic missionaries called them- 
 M-!vc-~. and ihcy were openly inimical to British domination. Event- 
 u;i:!\ jarksiiU returned from the interior in the summer of the same 
 year with cn\(i\'- fn Mil tlie chiefs of Us^anda and Uso.^o, who came 
 to ^ce f-r tlirm-cKes whether the I'aii^lish were supreme at the 
 C'ia-t. Mcanwliile Cied.^c was reduced to despair by the conduct 
 <{ ^hv,;n_L,^l and liis j)arty. and. retirinij^ to the south shore of the 
 lake. conii-i-]t(! on at least temporary abandonment of Ug^anda. 
 
 Wl.ik- at tl'.f South end of tlie lake dedp^c learned that Emin 
 ra.-!ia V, a> at Ihikiiinbi. the Im-ciicIi mission statiim. with a large 
 f' n c. ,';; r-'ulr f> r I'ganda. A Kltcr from Emin informed him 
 tk;* ' r 1: .d l\'Ar-\ treaty in his possession, and was i)roceeding to 
 r-.'.ii k'. "a- MpreM:nta;i\e of His Majesty tlic hjiii)eror of Ger- 
 :i ;t?;v -. (-in!ir.--!oin,r f^r I'kast Africa, t(; watch over any infringc- 
 I'H- -ai'i treat}-."' Xinc days later, 011 Ocl(jber 1 i, the y)asha 
 ' ' :!.'"!"!:i (ledge of tlic Conclusion of ilie Anglo-German 
 '-"''^' '' j':ks- I, iS'K>, wiiich definitely assigned Cganda to the 
 }'' '.-' f iulucMce. 
 
 i'' ' '' "11 (ii i!ic July agreement public r>pinion in
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA l91 
 
 1890 
 
 England became greatly excited over Uganda. Partly owing to 
 the efforts of the Germans to get hold of it, partly to the critical 
 position of British missionaries, and the danger of the triumph of 
 the " French " party, partly to the strong representations made by 
 Stanley on his return from the Emin Pasha expedition as to the 
 great industrial and strategical value of the country, partly to a 
 feeling that no other power but England should have control of 
 the Nile sources, the country was almost unanimous in urging the 
 company to press forward and take possession of Uganda. The 
 British agent and consul-general at Zanzibar, Sir C. Euan Smith, 
 telegraphed on February 15, 1890, strongly recommending, as soon 
 as possible, the dispatch of a thoroughly equipped expedition to 
 Uganda ; the cost, though heavy, would be partly recovered ; any 
 delay would enable the Arabs to recover their position. In the 
 following month Sir William Mackinnon was advised by the For- 
 eign Office of the dispatch of tvv^o envoys to the court of King 
 Mwanga, by whom the British Government intended to send back 
 presents to the king. It was intimated that " the cultivation of a 
 cordial understanding with the King of Uganda is of the greatest 
 importance to the future interests and prosperity of the Imperial 
 British East Africa Company." A further communication from 
 the Foreign Office on April 2 took for granted that " the principal 
 object which the East Africa Company has in view, after establish- 
 ing its position on the coast, is to secure permanent influence in 
 Uganda, and that steps have been taken for that object by the dis- 
 patch of caravans." It was asked what these steps were, in order 
 that they might be communicated to the agent " in anticipation of 
 the arrival at Zanzibar of a mission from Uganda, said to be now 
 on its way to the coast." It is only fair to the company, in view 
 of subsequent events, to give these details, and to point out that it 
 would be somewhat difficult to place upon the charter the construc- 
 tion embodied in this last communication. Under the circum- 
 stances it was practically impossible for the company to hold back 
 from Uganda. It was universally regarded as the agent of the 
 government, and tlierc can be no doubt that its directors cherished 
 the belief that support in some form would be accorded to this 
 great and expensive enterprise, an enterprise to which the com- 
 pany's own means were inadequate. Looking back to the many 
 articles which ap])cared in tlie ])ress at the time, it is evideiU that 
 the belief was shared by the British public. No doubt tlie company
 
 iqo A V U I C A 
 
 ' **" 1890 
 
 lu'pcil that it wouUl reap some return for its outlay in a g^reat in- 
 iicase \u lis trailiii.i;- operations, and it liad sonic j^rounds for bc- 
 Iu-mul; iliit a railway fn>ni tiic coast to the lake would be con- 
 >tnuie.i n'.i.Ur the guarantee of the l^ritish (lovernnient. lUit 
 r\ (.;'. whiii .iH litis is taken into consideration, it must be admitted 
 liad tlie imperial sentiment not been to some extent mingled with 
 |)ure!y c. nnnenial cciisideralions, the company, with the means at 
 its c.'mm.iii.l. nii);ht iiave hesitated to take a step so full of risk and 
 in\ Kini; m> Iar.<;e aa; outlay. l>y whatever motive the directors 
 were actaated. ihev vielded to the pressure of public opinion and 
 the leiiroMiiiatiiins of the i^'^overnment. At the same time, it must 
 be p. iiited (lilt, that the latter did not in so many words commit 
 :tHli" l>i lend the cv>!npany substantial support, or indemnify it for 
 ..iiv .aitlav in safei^uardiiiL;" imj)erial interests. 
 
 lUit tl;e strong; mail whom the situation refpiircd was already 
 at liaiul. Captain V. 1 ). Lu^ard. who had previously shown his 
 r.ptiiuile for dealini:- with refractory Arabs and native chiefs in 
 Xyasaland. entered the service of the company early in 1890. He 
 i;ad slmwn his capacity for orp^anization. and his high quality as a 
 l)iniKer explorer in the expedition which he conducted from Mom- 
 basa to .Macliako's shortly after his arrival in East Africa. He 
 was ordered to ])rocccd U) Uganda, with the small force at his 
 I'jniinand, i< > carry out the forward policy which the company had 
 rc.>'l\(.(I to adopt in deference to the pressure brought to bear 
 r-lji !i it. and to which at the time it was not unwilling to yield. 
 S..!.litrs, purlers, and camp-followers, all told. Taigard had only 
 .V>< n]vn at his ccrinmand. With these he made forced marches 
 tr. 11: l\;kuyi \ and on December i(S, 1890, he entered Mengo, the 
 <a;i:tal "i r-anda. much to the surprise of Alwanga and all his 
 r!:iei-. W'ii'iin a few days after his arrival, with Cromwellian 
 'lei >..:] ai;'l dcUrniiiiation, he induced Mw'anga to sign a treaty 
 " '.'. V'l'^nig liie supremacy of the company, but only for two 
 Mv. aiiL^M declared that if <a greater white man than Lugard 
 ai:;.c-l. ];c sli-,;;".] transfer his allegiance; evidently his mind had 
 been n.->v;iad by I'L-tcrs. Lugard and his two or three white 
 ^'''' 1' '- :'- ha.! a tr\ ing part to play. They established their 
 ''I' '! ' '' nnnanding ))o^ition. and proceeded quietly and un- 
 ' -tt-ntatioii,]y t'. foriify it; they had the advantage of a Maxim 
 '"'" '''' '"'id at fir~t ill ci ,;istaiit apprehension of attack; but in 
 ' '<.'! t' admit that the l>ritish officer was his
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 193 
 
 1890-1891 
 
 best friend. Lugard gave it to be clearly understood that he would 
 favor neither one party nor the other, but that he would maintain 
 the authority of the British company against all parties. His 
 perfect fairness was in time recognized ; and the effectiveness of his 
 measures to abolish anarchy and establish trade and peace was 
 so evident that both Catholics and Protestants were compelled to 
 admit it. This state of feeling was no doubt in part induced by 
 the fact that the Mohammedans were hovering on the outskirts of 
 the country, ready to rush in and take advantage of the dissensions 
 among the Christians. 
 
 By the spring of 1891 the English position was so strong that 
 Lugard felt at liberty to leave Uganda in charge of one of his 
 officers, Captain Williams, and undertake a pioneer journey to the 
 westward. But the position of the Mohammedans on the outskirts 
 of the country was so menacing that he felt it desirable first of all to 
 deal with them. He did not consider it advisable to take any direct 
 part in the conflict himself, but under his guidance both Christian 
 parties united, and their forces were so well organized that the 
 Mohammedans were completely routed on May 7. This naturally 
 greatly increased Lugard's influence, and he was able without re- 
 turning to Mengo to set out on an expedition to the west shores of 
 the Victoria Nyanza and westward to Lake Albert Edward and 
 Mount Ruwenzori. He had no difficulty anywhere in winning 
 the confidence of the chiefs and natives, and in inducing them to 
 accept the authority of the company. He was able to form a com- 
 paratively high opinion of the country and of its suitability for 
 industrial development under a stable administration. At Lake 
 Albert Edward he discovered some valuable salt mines, and erected 
 a fort to guard them. On the slopes of Mount Ruwenzori he built 
 another fort, and proceeded northward to Lake Albert. Here at 
 Kavalli's he found some thousands of Emin Pasha's followers who 
 had been left behind by Stanley when the explorer proceeded to 
 the coast with Emin, and were evidently living in comfort and 
 peace. Lugard had little difficulty in inducing Emin's old follow- 
 ers to go with him ; and many of them took service in Uganda 
 under the company. He succeeded in defeating the notorious 
 Kaba Rega, King of Unyoro, and erected a number of forts to 
 secure the footing he had gained in this interesting region. Lugard 
 found that Emin had preceded him at Ruwenzori and on Lake 
 All>ert ; but the paslia could not in(kicc his former followers to
 
 V)t AFRICA 
 
 1891-1892 
 
 throw in tlioir lot with liini and the Germans. When in the end 
 oi iS<)i I.n.i^ard returned to I'l^anda, he had firmly laid the founda- 
 tion (^f r.riti-h su]Mein;icv in all the rej^ion hctween Lake Victoria 
 on the one -^ide ;uu! Lakes Alhert and Albert Edward on the other. 
 He hail ri<l the rej^Mon from the cruelty and oppression of Kaba 
 Keira's d<Mi!iiiation. and established conlulencc among- the natives, 
 and lovaltv to the name of I'Jigland. Nothing was wanted but that 
 t!u' garrixMis in the forts should be strengthened, and Lugard's 
 \>^Vw\ e^niimied. in order to render this region a center of civiliza- 
 tion for all C'entral Africa. 
 
 WluMi, on December 31. t8oi. the captain returned to Uganda, 
 be r uii.I tlie ciMiditii^n of things not so favorable as when he had 
 left. Tliere had been incessant intrigues on the part of the Catholic 
 or l-'reiicli partv: the I'n^tcstants had not been so discreet as they 
 might ha\e been: while the weak and inconstant Mwanga had been 
 induced to try to free himself from his allegiance to the company. 
 It h:\< been clearlv proved that the iMTuch missionaries bad been 
 imp'Tiing arms and ammunition: some T-'rench ])riests arrived from 
 luir pe (Ml Januarv u, iSq-'. and the bishop bad gone out to meet 
 tluMii. and returned with them. With them came the information 
 tliat the- conipanv had intimated its intention of withdrawing from 
 I'ganda. failing an\- support ivom the go\-crnment. The l-'rcnch 
 were in many ways the stronger party, and there is little doubt that 
 t!u' b:<li' ]). with a certaintv of sticcess. resolved to try CfMiclusions 
 \\\\]\ :;ie [""iMte-^tants. Tiritish supremacv was at stake, .and Captain 
 Lu-ard pronijitly (li>tributcd what arms be could spare to the weak 
 but i'lya! Protestants. .At the same time be begged the bishoj;) to 
 c:i'!ea"oii' t^ re-train liis co-religionists, but without success. A 
 tr;!^::!g ir.cidcnt in t!ie Inazaar seems to have led to what was 
 v':-!r.:!lly an att;uk 1 >\ tlic Catholic upon tlie Protestant party 
 on January 24. !S()_>. l.ugard fell bound in the interests of the com- 
 ^iaiid to e^ix'U'^c the cause of the latter. Mrmy 
 ".nul''nd in the earlv half of iKgj as to the " crucl- 
 \ l.iiLiard and his partv against the Catholics: l)Ut 
 I all tlie I'acts pro\ed that he acted with justice 
 a'::y. \'. li:]c maintaining the su])remacv of the company 
 l: ^iTcat Piita.ni. King Mwanga rmd many of the 
 ;t ( ;iti-,.^]i(-^ tied: others were succored ])y T>ugard 
 w !:!< latter rcttn-ned to I-jigland in the autinun of 
 " ' !] re rc-torcd ])eace; the Catholics were settled 
 
 jiaiiy and 
 
 ''1 
 
 re;- 'i:- n: 
 
 :i>\\v 
 
 tit- " e-.r- 
 
 <':-(. 
 
 an i-xan!:: 
 
 sa.ti' 
 
 and in:;:a: 
 
 .. : ., i; 
 
 a~< re]-rc-( 
 
 :-:'-.l 
 
 1 :::.-e:f. 
 
 i;.-:'^
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 195 
 
 1891-1892 
 
 on the northwest of Lake Victoria, the Protestants in Uganda, and 
 the Mohammedans in a province of their own. King- Mwanga was 
 restored, a new treaty was concluded in March and Uganda made 
 over in perpetuity to British protection. 
 
 Meanwhile the directors of the company in England had be- 
 come somewhat appalled at the vast responsibility thus forced upon 
 them. Their comparatively insignificant capital of two and a half 
 million dollars could not maintain the administration of a million 
 of square miles; and in the absence of powers to raise taxes they 
 did not consider themselves justified in spending the money of the 
 shareholders on enterprises so far distant from their base of opera- 
 tions. In August, 1 89 1, after its hopes that the government would 
 sanction a subsidy for a railway were defeated, the company gave 
 it to be understood that it would be compelled to withdraw from 
 Uganda. At this the missionary public took alarm, and subscribed 
 a very considerable sum of money to enable the company to main- 
 tain Lugard at his post for a time ; but the company undertook only 
 to hold on there till the end of 1892. When the news of the revolu- 
 tion in Uganda reached England there was an outcry against the 
 company for threatening to abandon the country under such con- 
 ditions, leaving the Protestants at the mercy of the Catholics 
 moreover, it was said it was in the hope that the company would 
 remain in Uganda and extend its operations that Lord Salisbury 
 had asked the House of Commons to incur the expense of a survey 
 for a railway. With this, however, the company maintained it had 
 nothing to do ; the railway was the affair of the government, whose 
 duty it was to construct it, in order, by so doing, to carry out the 
 obligations undertaken by Great Britain as a signatory of the act 
 of the Brussels Conference. As a matter of fact the original in- 
 tention of Lord Salisbury to obtain a vote for the construction of 
 a railway was departed from, and Parliament was merely asked to 
 vote money for a preliminary survey. 11ie company by tliis time 
 had spent all 1)ut aljout $r, 000,000 of its capital. It became evident 
 that with this not much could be done to meet the expenses which 
 would be absolutely necessary to continue the occupation of 
 Uganda and maintain the position secured by Lugard to the west- 
 ward. Besides, the company was primarily a trading organization ; 
 the power to raise taxes, though jjromised by the imperial govern- 
 ment, was still willihcld ; and the revenue from customs did not 
 amount to much, llie crisis in the company's affairs, and in the
 
 196 AFRICA 
 
 1892-1893 
 
 (Koijpntion of the iinnicnsc splicrc allotted to Enfrland by the An^lo- 
 Cicrnian ami Aiii^lo- Italian a.i,'rccmcnts. was reached in the summer 
 (^f iS>j. when L'Td Salisbury's government was succeeded by that 
 of Ciladstonc. A C'abinet Council was held in the end of Sep- 
 tember, and on the .^oth a letter from the Foreis:n Office was sent 
 to the company acccptini; " the princijile of evacuation," but offer- 
 ing' assistance to tlie comi)any to prolonj^ the occupation to the end 
 of March. iS);v 
 
 Th.e a!!eni])t to make the abandonment of Us;"anda a party 
 question failed; f(^r it was seen that "abandonment" of all that 
 had been trained in I'-a>t Africa, and not temporary retirement, was 
 what certain extreme partisans had in view. There were so many 
 and \aricd interests at stake that public opinion ranged itself very 
 emphatically a.irainst abandonment. Lugard, who returned to Eng- 
 land at the critical moment, addressed crowded audiences all over 
 the country, and so intensified public opinion on behalf of retention 
 tl'.at thic ^"\ernment became convinced that even temporary evacu- 
 ati' !i W'luld nut be tolerated. Ilaj^pily their communication to the 
 c>>mpaiiv was so ingeniously wordcfl that it afforded them a loop- 
 hole for e.scape ; "abandonment," we are assured, was never in 
 their tlnuii^hts. The simjjle and obvious course would have been 
 to send Lu.L,'ard back as soon as ])ossiblc to continue his beneficent 
 wwfk either directly under the im])crial government or through the 
 agency of tlic C( iiipany. This, howexcr, it was felt, would be too 
 sudden a riglit about-face for certain influential members of the 
 C abinet : so tlu'it, in deference to them, a middle course was adopted, 
 (.'aplain >dacd' iii.'ild. \\!m IkuI gone out to sur\ey the railway route 
 fri'in the coa-t to the lake, was ordered, while on his way to the 
 (':!-t. b' return t'> I'ganda. and rcj)ort on the cNcnts connected with 
 t!ie e:'.il war tiiere. I'.ut tliis was not enough; it was rcsol\-ed also 
 t'l -end a e"nimi--ii)n to I'ganda to inquire into the ])osition and to 
 fiu:i>h ni;"rniati'ai lo tlie government to enable them to decide as 
 t" --'C ";n---(.- t'l be ultiinatelx- addpted. The most reasonable sec- 
 ''''1 ' I '^''<-' ' aliMft wanted tn art tln-ough the company, which had 
 a.i i!- ni.-Mlmici-y < 'U the sput; but liie ruling spirit in the Cabinet 
 \'-'-:^'\ 11' t f.r!i lio,.:i tM .ucli a pM-MpMsal. Sir Ccrrdd Portal, the 
 ' ' ' '':' i'!t:'l!\c ai /an/.ibar. was appf)inted as commissioner 
 ' bro UK an- I if dealing with the counlrv, whether 
 '-' /'!n/;h:;r -r ( m ':n-\'. i-c." and with hiiu were associated 
 '' ' "' ' ' '' /en l!:-ii!-Ii i .rtic(-rs and other Ivnglishmen expcri-
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 197 
 
 1893 
 
 enced in East African affairs. The expedition, accompanied by 200 
 of the Sultan of Zanzibar's soldiers and an army of porters, left 
 the coast early in January, 1893. 'I'^c ^^^^ Englishmen in Uganda 
 who were holding the position on behalf of the company and of 
 their country were notified by the speediest possible means of what 
 had taken place, so that when Portal and his expedition arrived all 
 w^as undisturbed. Portal arrived in Uganda on March 17, 1893, 
 and on the 31st of the month the company's flag was hauled dow^n 
 from Kampala, and the Union Jack raised in its place. The com- 
 missioner spent two months in the country investigating matters 
 and trying to readjust the relations between the different parties, 
 mainly to give satisfaction to the Catholics for the treatment they 
 complained of receiving from the British officials. 
 
 Portal found that in reality the three so-called religious 
 parties. Catholics, Protestants, and Mohammedans, were hostile 
 political factions, ready at any moment to fly at each other's throats. 
 By the arrangement which Lugard had made the country was so 
 divided between the parties that each was confined to a sphere of its 
 own. Portal modified this arrangement so far as to give to the 
 French or Catholic party territory taken from the Mohammedan 
 sphere. This irritated the Mohammedans, whose remonstrances 
 w-ere interpreted by Captain Macdonald, who had been left in 
 charge by Portal on his return to the coast, as a threat of rebel- 
 lion. The consequence was that in the summer of 1893 the 
 Mohammedans were attacked by the combined Catholics and 
 Protestants, large numl)ers driven from the country, and the 
 rest fcjrced to remain quietly in one of the districts assigned to them 
 by Lugard. The result has been mainly to the advantage of the 
 Catholic party. In addition to the districts assigned to the 
 Catholics for occupation, they were allotted exclusive rights for 
 their missionary operations o\'er the whole country between Buddu 
 and Lake Albert Edward as well as Soutliern Unyoro up to the 
 shores of Lake Albert. The Protestant operations were confined 
 to Northern Uganda and tlie country of Usoga on the east. When 
 it is borne in mind that the Catliolics regard themselves as the rep- 
 resentatives of h^rancc, the wisdom of this arrangement is doubtful, 
 in view of the operations of the French in the region to the west 
 of the Upper Nile. 
 
 Under date May 29, 1893, Portal made a fresh treaty with 
 King Mwanga, by which Ugruida virtually Ijccame a protectorate
 
 liKS AFIUC'A 
 
 1893-1894 
 
 i>f C.mm! I'ritaiii. When he took his departure from Ufifanda he 
 Icit U-h'.iul him Mveral I)ritish oiliccrs inuler Macdonald, the actinii; 
 aihniin>ii.iti'r. Amon;; these were Major Owen, who was sent 
 west to I^ike All)ert Ildward to witluhaw the .L,^arri.son.s from the 
 two remotest forts estahhshed by Lut^ard, a proeeechns;' for which 
 it would he dilVunll to lind any ade(|nate reason. To make amends 
 for the ahandonment of the stront^holds farther south a series of 
 forts was erected hctween Lake Albert and the Kafu River, tlie 
 b. 'undarv <<i L'nvoro. with the intention of ])rcventint^- any further 
 :ncur>ions Si lUhward by Kabba ]\c<^a of LJnyoro. b'arly in 1894 
 .Nbii'r Owen, acting- under instructions, for the protection of 
 I'nI!^ll iiucrots in t!ie Nile \alley, made Ins way down the Nile as 
 f.ir ;;s \\ adciai. where he planted the Britisli Hag'. By these and 
 tiicr mea-urcs the qooil woi-k Ijci^un by Captain Lui^ard was in a 
 mca>-n;e contirnu-d and coniinned; for althou^'h, to save a|)pcar- 
 ancr-;, I', .rtal considered it acKisablc to make a few^ modihcations 
 in li:- :ir;ani,anicn!s. the virtual residt of his mission was to con- 
 firm tile hi^li I'pinion formed bv impartial judges of the ability, 
 tact, and hunianii\- with which that ofhcer had carried out his most 
 tryin^r mission to L'^anda. 
 
 As the result of Portal's missi(^n the T^>ritish Government was 
 Compelled to Conic to a dciinite decisi(jn with reference to Uj^anda 
 and t!ie wIimIc re<,Mon between that and the coast. The abandon- 
 irienl of I'l^anda had ceased to be a practical (luestion, if indeed it 
 w .is e\er >eriwu>ly contemplated excej)! by a few extreme i)oliticians 
 .-.iK.r \iew< on !ui|)erird (|iiestions hud but slender support in the 
 ( ;;utry. Loid I'l.sebery as l-'oreit^ni ?\Iini>ter, and later as Prime 
 M'.in-ter, liad a din'irnlt \ydvl to ])lay. It is recoj^iiized that had be 
 heen free to iiill.i\\ liis own inclinati(jns there could have been no 
 doubt lii.'it he. like Ijird Sali>bury, would have ])rocceded not only 
 t ' 1 ccupy I'LTanda. but to secure against the ai;"ij^ressions of France 
 .'.nd the C'ciiL,-^!! l-'ree State the whole of the sjihere accorded to 
 British imUience by tlie An^io-derman and Ani,do-Italian ai^rce- 
 r.)eni-. In t!ii^ I'ure cinnot be rniy doubt that he wouKl have been 
 '-.:pp <rted by il.e niaJMiiiy ci' his (avu j)arty as well as bv the whole 
 ' ' ^'''^" ^ )pp">il!oii. i'.ut it is notorious that the few extreme anti- 
 :n-pena!i-t-, -n iiie Ilou>e (jf C(jnimons were re^jresented in the 
 ( abinet by nii-K-teis w Ix-e inllucnce comj)e]led the Prime Minister 
 * > a C'im]>:i '::;i-c: \.l'!{li culd neither sati-.fv himself nor the coun- 
 try .:t !ar,L;c. In Jiuie, iS( ;, it was ainiounced in Parliament that
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 199 
 
 1893-1894 
 
 the government had resolved to retain Uganda, and to administer 
 it as a protectorate under a commissioner. But this apphed only 
 to Uganda proper, which was a territory of comparatively limited 
 area ; the relations of the commissioner to the countries beyond, to 
 Unyoro, Toro, and the other native states between Uganda and 
 Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, were of a very vague character. 
 He was to maintain friendly relations with the chiefs, to discourage 
 the slave-trade, and generally maintain peace. Not only Uganda, 
 but practically the whole region between Lake Victoria and Lakes 
 Albert and Albert Edward is within the jurisdiction of the Uganda 
 Commissioner; the British here, then, are bound by the terms of the 
 Anglo-German agreement to give effect to the rules of the Berlin 
 Conference. Considering the peculiar geographical position of 
 Uganda this is inevitable, especially if the ^rlave-trade is to be con- 
 trolled and the frontiers of the protectorate proper defended from 
 attack. 
 
 With regard to the region lying between Uganda and the coast 
 it was nominally to be under a different regime. It was to be 
 placed under a sub-commissioner, in turn responsible to the Brit- 
 ish agent in Uganda. " His first and main duty," to quote the 
 words of the Under Foreign Secretary, " will be to take charge of 
 the communications between Lake Victoria and the coast. His duty, 
 of course, will extend to establishing such friendly relations with 
 the natives as will enable these communications to be maintained, 
 and also to establishing such relations as shall make it possible for 
 British capital and enterprise to enter that country, and the inter- 
 vening country between Lake Victoria and the coast if disposed to 
 do so." Combined with the fact that the British East Africa Com- 
 pany had already made treaties with most of the chiefs in this 
 region, treaties approved of and accepted by the British Govern- 
 ment, and virtually placing the region under British protection, it 
 is evident that the sub-commissioner's duties were not to be very 
 different from those of the Commissioner of Uganda. At present 
 the total annual sum allotted as a grant in aid for the administra- 
 tion of Uganda and the intervening country is about $650,000; 
 this is increased from local resources by about $195,000. 
 
 There still remained to be dealt with the ten-mile strip of coast 
 which had been leascfl by the Sultan of Zanzil)ar to the British East 
 Africa Company. The company, when it retired from Uganda in 
 March, 1893, retained posts in Kikuyu, at Machako's and one or
 
 ooo AruicA 
 
 1890-1895 
 
 two nlniT< in the intcrit^r. tluis praclicnlly confining: its operations 
 within the<c hniits. The t^nvcriinicnt hesitated to make up its niind 
 what course to take; it could nc^t. without the consent of the com- 
 pany, deal wit!i the coast strip held under concession, or attach it 
 to tl>e suh comuiissionership: nor could it withdraw the company's 
 charter without reison assicfued. In the hci^inninj^ of 1895 the 
 p>venuneiit otTcrc<l the company, on hehalf of Zanzihar, $1,000,- 
 tv>o in satisfaction of all its claims, including- its assets, with a sum 
 i->{ $2^0.000 f(^r tlic ce^-!<Mi (^f its charter. Thus ended the career 
 oi a companv from which so much was expected; and that, had it 
 not been for the e.\i,c:encies of party politics in England, might still 
 have hecn continuing the work so well begun by Captain Lugard. 
 It is only fair to remember that the founders of the company 
 stepped into the breach at a critical moment. 
 
 The government, on the retiring of the company from Witu, 
 felt compelled to take a step which led to a distinct retrogression of 
 r.ritish policy in Africa. When, in accordance with the Anglo- 
 (lernum agreement of 1890, the W^itu country was made over to 
 (Ireat Britain, it was (May, 1891) placed under the control of the 
 company, the leg-al status of slaverv abolished, and the India Civil 
 and Crimin'il Code established throughout the country. The com- 
 pany becanie di^-atisfied with the treatment of the government, and 
 in 1893 intimated tliat it would not be responsible for the adminis- 
 tration of W'itu after July 31 of tliat vear. The result was that 
 Witu was placed by the government under the sultanate of Zanzi- 
 h:[]-. .Mi'liammcdan law established, and the legal status of slavery 
 re>t"red, a retrogr.'ule and wholly nnneccssarv step for which the 
 r.rit;-!i C'i\crnment has not vet been able to offer any excuse. The 
 l-a-.t .\irican Comija.nv itself surrendered its charter two years 
 later. 
 
 Surli tlien wa^ the jjfsilion of affairs in that portion of British 
 l-.a>t .\frica lying between the coast and the eastern shores of Lakes 
 .\lbert an'l Alijcrt IMward. Meanwhile im])ortant arrangements 
 were being made with re-^peet to a portion at least of the extensive 
 r.-iti-b >;,':(re lying beyond lint limit, the claims to which Lord 
 !' ~'.b(ry\ gM\ernnient re]i( ntedly declared it had no intention of 
 '~'ng. In tlic cliaptrr dealinr; with the Congo b'ree State 
 e iia- Iir'M ni,-if!c {> tlif fact that in 1891 a formidable expe- 
 '';:ti..!i \sa< -^ent frMni tl-t- CongM ir,\vard the Upper Nile. It is not 
 ; .ear th.'it t'-.e (.]< ':,n cvrr succeeded in establishing a footing
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 201 
 
 1893-1894 
 
 at Lado, which was beheved to be its objective point; and it is 
 known that in the early part of 1894 it received a severe check from 
 the natives of the Niam-Niam country. Still there is no doubt that 
 if the force from the Congo Free State had not actually established 
 itself on the Nile within the British sphere, it was making every 
 effort to do so. As has been pointed out, King Leopold, as 
 sovereign of the Congo Free State, maintained that in thus push- 
 ing on to the Upper Nile, he was within his right in accordance 
 with an agreement made with the late Sir William Mackinnon. 
 But both Salisbury and Rosebery declined to recognize any such 
 right, and repeatedly vvarned King Leopold that he was trespassing. 
 But the movements of the French on the Upper Mobangi intro- 
 duced complications. It was known that a strong French expedi- 
 tion, fully equipped with boats and well armed, had been on the 
 Mobangi during 1893- 1894. ^^ was stated that the expedition was 
 only waiting for the arrival of Colonel IMonteil to proceed west- 
 ward toward the Nile. Rumors of other French expeditions from 
 west and east were also afloat. It was known that apart from the 
 acquisition of territory in Africa, France was anxious to obtain 
 such a footing on the Upper Nile as would give her a controlling 
 voice in Egyptian affairs. She never was a party to the Anglo- 
 German and Anglo-Italian agreements, and considered herself 
 unfettered by their conditions, at least to the extent of being at 
 liberty to take possession of any part of the British sphere which 
 had not been actually occupied. Between France and the Congo 
 Free State on the one hand, and the anti-imperialist section of the 
 Radical party on the other, the hold of England on the extensive 
 and valuable territories conceded to her beyond the great lakes 
 seemed precarious. The position of Lord Rosebery, then Foreign 
 Minister in a Cabinet an influential section of whose members was 
 either indifferent or positively hostile to extension of the empire, 
 was a difficult one. He had many interests to consider. Had he 
 taken the bold and most effective course, of following up Major 
 Owen's expedition, to come to terms with the people on the Upper 
 Nile, and plant the Britisli flag on its banks, he would have had 
 the support of the country and of Parliament, but he might have 
 wrecked his party. He adopted what seemed at first sight a strange 
 compromise. It was impracticable in the immediate future to send 
 a British expedition to take possession of the region beyond the 
 L^pper Nile, toward which, on tlie Bahr-el-Ghazal, it was believed
 
 .>0o AFRICA 
 
 1893-1894 
 
 the IVoruli were a.Ivatieins;. As the forces of the Conj^o I'Vec State 
 were fii llie >|''l. whv imt in. ike the best of tlic situation and utih/.e 
 llietn as a hntlrr between i'leneh ainhitiini and the Ul)i)er Xile? 
 Stub seein> to have been tlie train of rcasoiiinj:^ which led to the 
 ai;rienient oi Nbiv i J. iS()4. between Cireat Britain and King 
 Leop.'ld as s-'\eret^n iA the C'tnii^o b'rce State. By this agree- 
 ment Leopold reci't^iiized llie right vi Great Brit.ain to tlie 
 territories a^sii^ned to her by the Anglo-(jerman and Anglo-Itahan 
 ai;rernu-nts, and an\- snbsecinenl niocbl'ications could not affect this 
 rtc<!;niiion. lie agreed to accept from the British Government a 
 le;i-e of .i consider;d)Ie .are.a of this territory, extending from Lake 
 Albert t" bevoiid b'ashoda, and stretching westward to the twenty- 
 fiftli de;^ree ot east longitude and the water-parting between the 
 basifis ,.1 the Xile and the Congo, so as to bar the further advance 
 of I'reiich claims, lie bound himself not to ac(piire ])olitical rights 
 in t!;e-e territories, and as a return granted to Great Britain a lease 
 of .1 .-trij) sixteen miles in breadth from the most northerly port on 
 Lake Tanganyik.'i to the most southerly port on Lake Albert Kd- 
 w.ird. .1 strip, be it noted, bordering on the western frontier of Ger- 
 man I-.a>t Africa; be agreed, moreover, to an adjustment of the 
 wc-tern froutirr of Ib-itisli C^Milral .\frica to the advantage of 
 l'.i-;t;-h iiUeri'-i-. Tliis arrangement seemed at first sight a triumph 
 "f diplomacy. It seiiled detniilcly the irritating question of the 
 fr. '!!tier lu-;\\<.cn the Congo V]\v States and the British sphere in 
 !:;c :\-gi"n of Lakes .Mweru and I'.angueolo. It gratifietl the a.^jjira- 
 ti' :.- of tli,.-c who \\(_re ambitious to see an uninterrupted British 
 li-:c extfiid fr. Ill tlie Cape to the Xile, if not to Cairo. Above all, 
 n '.u-p -ed a broad bulYer between the l-'rench sphere and the Xile, 
 f' -r i:ie r-u;e to the north of the tenth parallel was supposed to be 
 etYe tivLJy barred by the Mahdists. .And linally. it turned to the 
 :;'. ...na-t.- of Britisli ilaims the ])osition which had been obtained 
 by t'.r I .rce- f tlie Congo I'ree Slate on the Ci)])er Nile. 
 
 1- v.a- r. ' io bf expected that b^'ance would cpnetly sul)mit to 
 
 ^ e;::;<':atic ;i Ciecl; in t!;e i^ame of grab which she was jjlaying 
 
 ' ' '' ' 'iier 1 ,ni' 'jtran ])i wcrs in Africa, luigland being her most 
 
 Mu- arranL't tnenl look ])lace just at the lime when 
 
 Yout a miiii-iry; and tlie llrst act of the new min- 
 
 ' :: -'lU'inn pr. -test against the jjerfidv and illegality 
 
 . .', Iiile til'' k'rcnch press wanild be satisfied with 
 
 advance '>\ tlie h reiicli fcjrce. It was maintained
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 203 
 
 1893-1894 
 
 that according- to the BerHn Act, the Congo Free State had no 
 right to go beyond the fourth parallel north ; that the right of pre- 
 emption which had been accorded to France precluded the Free 
 State making any arrangement with another power without her 
 consent; that this attempt to annex the former Egyptian province 
 of Bahr-el-Ghazal was a direct violation of the integrity of the 
 Ottoman Empire, which France for the moment felt it her duty 
 to champion. But it is doubtful if even in France the contentions 
 put forward were taken seriously ; France herself has had no hesita- 
 tion in ignoring the " rights " of Turkey in Africa when it suited 
 her purpose. She had for the moment been defeated in the game 
 she was playing, and it was not in her nature to take her defeat 
 with composure. 
 
 England and the King of the Belgians were equally involved 
 in French indignation. Colonel Monteil was ordered at once to 
 proceed to the Mobangi and take command of the forces there 
 awaiting his arrival. He was not to hesitate to take extreme meas- 
 ures to expel the officials of the Congo Free State from the stations 
 on the Mbomu tributary of the Mobangi, considerably to the north 
 of the fourth parallel, which had been established there for some 
 time. Moreover, it was understood he was to push on Nile-ward 
 and plant the French flag, if necessary by force, in the face of any 
 opposition that might be offered by the forces of England's royal 
 lessee. But the astute king had no intention of surrendering the 
 advantages he had secured. Before the arrangement with Great 
 Britain he had been negotiating with France with reference to the 
 stations of the Congo Free State in the Mbomu country to the north 
 of the fourth degree. The negotiations were promptly broken off 
 by France when the agreement came to light, not without a sus-- 
 picion in some quarters that the game had been prearranged ; for 
 after the storm of indignation had somewhat died down the king 
 easily succeeded in persuading the French Government to renew 
 them. Evidently he had an eye solely to his own interests in ob- 
 taining access to the Albert Nyanza and the Nile; in that respect 
 he was neither better nor worse than the other powers. He treated 
 England in East vVfrica precisely as Germany did in West Africa. 
 He gave up all claim as lessee to a considerable portion of the ter- 
 ritory acquired under tlie agreement of the previous May. By an 
 agreement signed at Paris, August 14, 1894, Leopold renounced 
 all right of occupation or inlluence in the territory leased to him
 
 904 A F H 1 C A 
 
 1890-1894 
 
 f)v Grcnt Britain nortli of 5 30' north latitude. This Hne, it will 
 !>e seen, touches the Nile a short distance north of Lado. In return 
 for this reminciation on the i)art of Leopold, France agreed to move 
 the honndarv of the O^igo Free Slate considcrahly to the north of 
 the fourth parallel. The northern boundary of the Free State in 
 the cast was nicved to about the fifth degree, thus violating the 
 limit which hVance a few weeks before maintained according to the 
 Berlin Act was inviolable. 
 
 Germany, with less bluster than France, but with more firm- 
 ness and directness, protested against the cession to Great Britain 
 as lessee of the strip of territory along her East African frontier 
 between I^akes Tanganyika and Albert Edward. This was regarded 
 f)y her as a violation of the understanding which had been reached 
 in 1S90 as to the western boundary of German East Africa, which 
 Germany insisted should march with the Congo Free State. There 
 was, however, little hesitation on the part of Great Britain in as- 
 senting to the cancellation of the lease of the strip objected to, and 
 the resumption in full by Leopold of the one concession he had 
 made. 
 
 Such then in brief is the story of the most exciting transaction 
 in the partition of Africa which took place in 1894. In England 
 the views exj)rcssed at the outset were mostly colored by political 
 prejudices. On the one side the arrangement with Leopold was 
 unreservedly condemned as weak and humiliating; on the other it 
 was regarded as a clever compromise ; it has certainly not succeeded 
 in securing the (object ostensibly aimed at. But, at the time, imme- 
 diate action was necessary; it was impracticable to send a sufficient 
 force to take possession of the British sphere on the Upper Nile; 
 the course ado])ted seemed to secure the end in view, and no doubt 
 would have done so had King Leopold adhered to his original un- 
 <lertaking; but this would have implied the active hostility of 
 I-'rance. 
 
 Xotv.-itlistanding its troubles in connection with Uganda, the 
 British ].:[>{ Africa Company was not idle elsewhere. Ernest 
 Berkeley. wIki had liad considerable experience in the East African 
 consular s(^-]-vic(.'. assumed tlie office of administrator in 1891, anrl 
 under I:!i-!i i!ic enterprises of the company were conducted energet- 
 ically and economically. The Tana was carefully explored, and 
 found to be an uncertain waterway; the troublesome Sultan of 
 W itu was induced to settle down quietly; friendly relations were
 
 BRITISH EAST AFRICA 205 
 
 1890-1895 
 
 entered into with the chiefs along the coast as far as the River Jub, 
 the boundarj^ between the British and Itahan spheres, and the capa- 
 bihties of the river as a trade route were investigated, with the 
 result that it was found to be navigable for 400 miles of its course. 
 Specialists were employed to examine and report upon the planting 
 and agricultural capacities of the coast regions, with results very 
 favorable to the prosecution of industries. By an agreement with 
 the sultan in 1891 the lease for fifty years of the strip of coast 
 claimed by him was converted into a grant in perpetuity in consid- 
 eration of an annual payment of about $80,000. The whole length 
 of the coast-line thus acquired measured 400 miles. The customs 
 dues rose steadily from $35,000 in 1889 to $80,000 in 1892. Un- 
 der Dr. Stewart of Lovedale an industrial institution for training 
 natives was established near Machako's, and at the expense of Sir 
 William Mackinnon a good road was made from the coast. A 
 greater sense of security began to prevail in the interior, and sev- 
 eral of the most troublesome tribes, including the j\Iasai, sent large 
 numbers of the people down to the coast to make friends with the 
 company. Small experiments had been made with Indian immi- 
 grants ; these were successful, but there were difficulties in the way 
 of obtaining such immigrants in numbers sufficient to colonize on 
 a large scale. Notwithstanding mistakes and misfortunes, the 
 company during the years of its existence must be admitted to have 
 done much for the effective occupation and development of the 
 regions between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast. It withdrew 
 from Uganda and Witu in 1893, and in June, 1895, a British pro- 
 tectorate was proclaimed over the regions in question. This was 
 divided for administrative purposes into the East Africa and the 
 Uganda protectorates. 
 
 Although it did not directly affect the operations of the com- 
 pany, the declaration in the summer of 1890 of a Britisli protec- 
 torate over the islands of Zanzijjar and Pcmba tended to give it 
 a greater feeling of security cind permanence. A regular adminis- 
 tration under British auspices was formed by agreement, Octo1)cr, 
 1891, in the sultan's restricted dominions, which must tlicreforc 
 be regarded as distinctlv within the British sphere. It is deserving 
 of note tliat when Sir Gerald Portal was apiiointcd Co,mmi>sioner, 
 he was authorized to exercise, under an Order in Council, a general 
 supervision over the terri'.nrics iiiimediately under Britisli inHucnce 
 in Eastern Africa. This was in reality an ackncjwlcdgment of im-
 
 '>or, A V K I ( A 
 
 1692-1910 
 
 IH-rial ro^j-K-^nsiliilitv for the ndtiiinistratioti of the entire British 
 splare in l-".ast Africa. 
 
 The Sultan (>f Zanzibar now receives a fixed sum and retains 
 fiis private estates, the pubhc revenues beinj::^ wholly administered 
 hv Hritish otVicors under the direction of the consul-general. But 
 tl:c rcvciuics c^f the state have .shrunk much since the time when 
 Z.uuibar wa*^ independent under the late Sultan Burj^hash, whose 
 rc\emic ainouiUed to about ^1,150,000 yearly. This is due in part 
 to t!u- I'xs (if the German coast, and so of the chief ivory caravan 
 route, partly also to the creation of Zanzibar as a free port in 1892, 
 and to t!ic workini:: of the free system of the Berlin Act; the restora- 
 tion of import duties in 1899 for Zanzibar, though only five per 
 cent, ad zalorcni, v ill tend toward a substantial increase of revenue.
 
 s 5 s
 
 Chapter XVI 
 
 THE ITALIAN SPHERE AND THE ISLANDS. 1875-1910 
 
 AS was the case with Germany, Italy very soon after it be- 
 came a united kingdom sought to obtain possessions 
 L abroad. So long ago as 1875 ItaHan vessels were hovering 
 around Sokotra, and compelled England to place her imperial stamp 
 upon the island. Tripoli was for a time a sore temptation also to the 
 young kingdom on the other side of the Mediterranean, but fear of 
 complications with France and Turkey induced her to keep her 
 hands off. We have seen that, although in 1870 a spot in Assab Bay, 
 just inside the Red Sea, was purchased as a coaling station, it was 
 not till 1880 that the Italian Government even nominally took it 
 over. From this as a starting-point the Italian possessions in the 
 Red Sea spread northward. Southward they could go no farther 
 than Raheita, as the French station of Obock barred the way. Italian 
 explorers and missionaries had been active in this part of Africa 
 for years; but it was not until July, 1882, that the Italian Govern- 
 ment took actual possession of the territory and Bay of Assab. Un- 
 til 1885 Italy's footing in the Red Sea hardly extended beyond 
 Assab ; but in that year, taking advantage of Egy])t's difficulties 
 with the Mahdists, she took ix)ssession of the Beilul and of the im- 
 portant port of Alassawa, the Egyptian garrison of the latter being 
 compelled to quit, "iliese advances were taken with the connivance 
 if not the approval of England. Had Italy not taken and held 
 Massawa, it might have fallen into the hands of the Mahdists. 
 Italian domination rapidly extended all along the coast, so that by 
 1888 it reached from Cape Kasar on tlie north to the French 
 colony of Obock in the south, some 650 miles. 
 
 These advances on the part of Italy were not regarded, as 
 may be believed, with anything like complacency by King John of 
 Abyssinia. The hostile action of the latter led to what was really 
 a war between the Italian garrison and the Abyssinian army; at 
 Dogali, in January, 1887, an Italian force was almost annihilated. 
 But this did not prevent Italy from adhering to what she had 
 
 207
 
 S08 A 1' RICA 
 
 1887-1894 
 
 paincil. and nttcmptiti.q: t(> push licr innuence into the interior. 
 After till- iIiMth t'l" KiiiiT J"hn the interior fiosts of Keren and 
 AMuar.i wcro tHiupictl. as well as other places not far from the 
 co.i^l. hnt i;i\ini; ccniinand of the routes to the lofty tahleland. 
 Kuiur John was >uci\cdcd hy Mcnekk. Kinii^ of Shoa, who slioweil 
 sonic inclination to estahlish friendly relations with the Italians. 
 r.y an ai^recnient of May, iS8(). confirmed and renewed in Octoher 
 of the ,s;iine vcar. a treaty of ** mutual protection " was entered into 
 l)etween Menelek and the Kin<; of Italy. This was naturally re- 
 j,Mrded as in elYect jjlacini!;- Ahysinnia under the protection of Italy, 
 th.'Uj^li on more than one occasion thereafter Menelek formally 
 reimdiated any such interpretation, the protection, he maintained, 
 heint,'- as niiuh on his side as on that of Italy. By various decrees 
 in iS'jd and i8(ji the Italian ])ossessions on the Red Sea have been 
 c :i>tituteil into the colony of Eritrea, with an autonoinous admin- 
 i>tration and the manai^ement of its own finances. These, however, 
 have to be subsidized by Italy, which spent about twenty-five million 
 dollars on her Red Sea colonies between 1887 and 1892. The area 
 of the territory is about 88.500 square miles, with a population of 
 Siinic 450.cxx:. lari^ely nomadic, while that of the foriner so-called 
 jiri'tectorate of Abyssinia was about 195,000 square miles, includ- 
 iiiLT Shoa, KafTa, Harrar, and other places claiined by King 
 Menelek. 
 
 In July. 1804, owiiifT to the threatening attitude of the Dervish 
 forces at Kassala on the northwest frontier of Abyssinia, a large 
 It.ilian force proceeded from the post at Keren, thoroughly de- 
 feateil t:ic Dervishes and cajitured Kassala. By an arrangement 
 v/ith laigland in March, 1891, Italy was permitted to occupy 
 Ka^>ala if necessary for military purposes, only, however, on con- 
 fiitiiMi tliat ii sliould be temj)orary, and that she should give it up 
 V. laiiever Iv<yj)t was in a position to take it over. The immense 
 alvantaL^a's t.) Italy of occupying the frontier post are evident; it 
 r..'.tur,!lly ],' 'V^ked the hostility of the Dervishes, but the success 
 'I the Italian- excited the active hostility of King Menelek of 
 Aliy--in!;!, -1 tiiat between the Der\ishes on the one side and the 
 A!,y^-::]i.i;;^ ,11 t!ie 1 tlier, the resources of Italy in money and men 
 V. ere .-t:\erely .-trained. 
 
 litti Italy v.a- iiot Content with securing a position on the Red 
 Sea. Snice Mie ci.uld m-t obtain Sok(jtra, she turned her attention 
 to lac barren coa-.i I'l-pu-itc on the African mainland, inhabited by
 
 THE ITALIAN SPHERE 209 
 
 1884-1901 
 
 the fiercely independent nomads, the Somalis and Gallas. In Febru- 
 ary, 1889, the Sultan of Obbia, on the Somali coast, placed his 
 sultanate under the protection of Italy. In April of the same j-ear 
 the Italian sphere was extended to the country between 5 33' and 
 8 3' north latitude by treaty with the Sultan of the Mijertine 
 Somalis, who at the same time bound himself to make no treaty 
 with any other power regarding the rest of his territory. A treaty 
 of 1901 confirms this arrangement. On the other side, in Novem- 
 ber, 1889, the Somali coast from the sultanate of Obbia to the 
 mouth of the Jub River was declared to be within the sphere of 
 Italy. 
 
 Here was a stretch of some 800 miles of coast, with vague 
 extension inward, added with wonderful rapidity to Italy's " for- 
 eign possessions." It apparently did not concern her that the coast 
 was little better than a sandy waste; she had a vague idea that 
 somehow it might be a convenient back door to Abyssinia and 
 Shoa, all the more if the Jub River were found to be a practicable 
 waterway. At the mouth of the river the Italian sphere and the 
 British overlapped. As the Sultan of Zanzibar had ceded to the 
 British company his territory as far north as Warsheikh, Italy 
 obviously claimed what already belonged to another power. How- 
 ever, there was no difficulty in coming to an understanding. The 
 British company very readily conceded all its claims on the coast 
 to the north of the Jub, on the understanding that Italy would not 
 be too exacting as to the delimitation between the spheres of the 
 two powers in the incerior. W'hen, however, it came to actual 
 negotiations, Italy showed but little disposition to minimize her 
 claims. The boundary between the spheres of the two countries was 
 settled by agreement in March, 1891. In Somaliland and Galla- 
 land this gave to Italy an area of 355,000 square miles, on which 
 there was a scanty population of some one and a half million. The 
 whole area claimed by Italy in Africa was over 600,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 A further delimitation between the British and Italian spheres 
 in Somaliland was made by agreement between the two countries 
 May 5, 1894. Hie British protectorate in Somaliland dates from 
 1884, in which year Great Britain occupied Ijerbcra, Bulbar, and 
 Zaila. By an Order in Council dated September 10, 1889, a pro- 
 tectorate was proclaimed over tlic whole coast from Ras Jibuti to 
 Bandar Ziyada. By an agreement concluded with France in 1888
 
 .110 ATUICA 
 
 1687-1910 
 
 the iHMindnrv between the P.ritish and Frcncli protectorates ran 
 from the Ciiilf 't' la jura toward Ilarrar. This inii)orlant town, 
 since 1SS7 occupied by Kiii.q: Menelck. was not to be seized l)y either 
 ixnver, each rctainin^r the rii;ht to prevent any other nation from 
 takini: pos>c-si(in. I'.y the ai^rccnient of 1894 Great Britain waived 
 her rij^lit in favor o\ Italy, if the latter cared or dared to take pos- 
 session. 'I"his detlnitely .settled the limits of British Somaliland, 
 which covered an area of 75.000 S(|nare miles, but in 1897 by a ces- 
 sion ill favor of Abyssinia the territory was reduced to 68.000. 
 l':;uu-e. as u>u:\\. protested as^ainst this arrani^enient. maintainin.L^ 
 that it was a violation of that of 1888. Less protj^ress has been made 
 in Soiu.dil.md than elsewhere in the British colonies, owing' to the 
 licrce .and intractable population. This protectorate was subject 
 to the Indi.ni riovernment till 1898. 
 
 It.dy then, like other great powers of Europe, acquired a fair 
 1. 'Ttion of tlie continent in the scramble for Africa. A small and 
 pru<lent minority in the Italian I\ar1iamcnt attempted in vain to 
 t'plio-e the craving for an "African lunpire '' which had seized 
 ni^eiienited Italy. Italy's African territory, with its numerous 
 ot'tlci.al^ .and its African corjis of over 6000 officers and men, was a 
 dr.iin on the resoiu'ces of a coimtry whose financial difficulties arc 
 notorious. Massawa is no doubt an important port, and its trade, 
 .as the learling gate from the sea to Abyssinia, is capable of con- 
 siderable dcclopment. The monopoly of the trade of Massawa 
 may be w onh ha\ ing. I>ut the advantage of most of the other 
 territory claimed by Italv is doubtful. Unless her resources and 
 Ikt j)M\\er iiuTt-ase immensely, she can never expect to have any 
 real b.ojd (j\er the most inaccessible and most mountainous country 
 of Africa, with a p(;pulation fiercely inde])endent. As for the coun- 
 try in tl-,e S'-mah' interior, its commercial value can never be great. 
 P.oth n>>rth .ami south. Italy has England to compete with. On the 
 n'-rtheni coa-t of .*~^o!naliland Engkmd is supreme from Tajura 
 P.ay to near ("ape Gnardafui; her port at Berbera draws to it most 
 of t:ic commerce of the interior. Meantime it is to Italy's credit 
 t ;at r.er e.\[)l-rer> are doing much for a knowledge of her sjihcre, 
 c-petia'.'y m ti:c SMmaliland interior, which they assure us is better 
 I-a-mrrd ;.:;,! l.etur watered tlian has been generally believed in the 
 p.i~t. It sli'.uld be nr.tcd that travelers in Somaliland in 1894-1895 
 I -.M-.d it ovcrrnn by the tror,ps of King Menclek, who were ravisli- 
 i:!g t!ie !an-l. .and claying or carrying t)ff as slaves the bulk (jf the
 
 THE ITALIAN SPHERE 
 
 211 
 
 1887-1910 
 
 population ; this appears to be but the beginning of activity on the 
 part of Abyssinia, which is designed finally to wrest the region 
 from its nominal possessors. 
 
 For the sake of completeness reference may be briefly made to 
 the destiny of the principal African islands. Sokotra and the Zan- 
 
 
 zibar islands have already been dealt with. The great island of 
 Madagascar is virtually a French protectorate. Tlic connection of 
 France with Madagascar is of ancient date. The island was known 
 to Marco Polo and the i\rabs, and was discovered, so far as Europe 
 is concerned, by the Portuguese navigator Diego Diaz in 1500. 
 Both Portuguese and Dutch, in the sixteenth and the begnming of 
 the seventeenth centuries, tried in vain to establish themselves on 
 the island. In the early ])art of the latter century the French cs-
 
 oio AFRICA 
 
 1644-1897 
 
 taMishcd thptii!;clvcs in Mndnt^ascar, to which they gave tlie name 
 of lie Dauphin or I-Vance Orientale. Fort Dauphin, at the south 
 end of tlic island, was founded in 1644; it was destroyer! in 1672, 
 and manv o{ the colonists who had settled in the island were 
 ninssacrrd. I^v variinis decrees in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 a-ittirics JMviirh rights to Madagascar were asserted. In 1750 the 
 little island of Sainte Marie, off Madagascar, was ceded to France, 
 though the IVcnch were expelled eleven years after; but the island 
 h;is rcniaiiicd hVench ever since. Fort Dauphin was reconstructed 
 in 1 70S. I'roin 1773 to 1786 the TTungarian Count Benyovski tried 
 to cst.il)li-li IVench infhience. but without success: equally unsuccess- 
 ful was another attemi)t in the first year of the nineteenth century. 
 The island was taken possession of by Great Britain in 181 1. In 
 th.o Trcity of I^iris. Madagascar is not mentioned among the colo- 
 nics which were not to be restored to France, and although the 
 Fnglisli governor of Mauritius attempted to maintain that INTada- 
 gascar was a dependency of the latter, he did not succeed. At the 
 same time British influence has become strong in the island through 
 the labors of missionaries. The London Missionary Society, as 
 well as other British societies, have secured the adhesion of thou- 
 sands of the Ilovas, the ruling people in Madagascar, but the 
 I'ritish Government has never seriously attempted to assert any 
 claims to domination, though early in the century there were 
 treaties of friendship between England and the Madagascar rulers. 
 Tlic small islands of Nossi-Be, Nossi-Mitsiou, and Nossi-Cumba 
 were taken possession of in 1845 by the French, who had been 
 a'tLinpting in preceding years to make their influence felt on the 
 ni.iin i-l.Mul. Other efforts were made in succeeding years to 
 (.-t.il )';-'] I-"rcnch iiillucnce. but without success. Under various 
 I'lctcxt'^ 1-Vaiicc made war upon the Malagasy from 1883 until 
 .-'. treaty was concluded in October, 1885, literally establish- 
 ::;,:; a l->cncli protectorate over the island, with the cession of 
 t!ic r.:iv oi Diego Suarez near its northern extremity. By the 
 .\n;^d'>-I->cn('i a-rccmcnt of August, 1800, the French protectorate 
 ' vc-r Mad.iL^'-.-iM-ar v.a^ recognized by Great Britain, in return for 
 \'^' '"l;!!' v.lcd-nKiit by I'rance of a British protectorate over 
 / Mizibar. It car,!i' it be said that the Malagasy have ever thoroughly 
 -'!. .uinl^cd tu k'n-ncli influence, though all the foreign relations of 
 t!.- i^'rnid are :-ni)|)OQ{.rl \n be in the hands of France. In 1804- 
 i'*^';.; l-raii'c ma(K; a determined effort to strengthen her hold
 
 THE ITALIAN SPHERE 213 
 
 1897-1910 
 
 and secure complete control of the island's interests. In 1897, 
 after the crushing of an insurrection by General Gallieni, it was 
 declared a French colony, and the Hova monarchy was suppressed. 
 The resources have never been developed to any extent. Roads are 
 almost non-existent. Commercial advance .'iince the conquest has 
 been seen chiefly in the increase of imports. France tried in 1897, 
 with some success, to gain for herself a larger share of the Mada- 
 gascar trade by the imposition upon the colony of the general 
 French tariff. Though it is doubtful if ever it could be colonized 
 by Europeans in the true sense, the highlands of the interior are 
 healthful, and are capable of being turned to good account, both for 
 cattle-rearing and agriculture. The people themselves, especially 
 the Hovas, are Malays, a higher type than the Africans, and 
 under good guidance might do much to render their island of great 
 commercial value. 
 
 The neighboring island of Mayotte was ceded to France in 
 1840, while the Comoros, halfway between Madagascar and the 
 African coast, were taken possession of in 1886. The island of 
 Bourbon, afterward named Reunion, has belonged to France since 
 1764. Mauritius was occupied by France in 171 5, but was taken 
 by England in 18 10, and at the Treaty of Paris, in 181 5, it 
 remained British, with, as satellites, Rodriguez, the Amirantes, the 
 Seychelles, and various scattered small islands, while Reunion was 
 restored. 
 
 On the other side of Africa it may be said that the Azores, 
 ]\Iadeira, and the Cape Verde Islands have been Portuguese since 
 the fifteenth century, as the Canaries have been Spanish. Various 
 islands off the West Coast are attached to the territories on the 
 mainland opposite which they lie. Fernando Po was ceded to 
 Spain by Portugal in 1778, as was the Island of Annobon. Principe 
 and San Thome have been Portuguese since the fifteenth century. 
 St. Helena, usually regarded as an African island, was taken from 
 the Dutch by the Englisli in 1650. Ascension was occupied by 
 Great Britain in 181 5, and in the year following the distant islets 
 of Tristan D'Acunha were occupied by the same powers. 
 
 Thus all these fragmentary appendages of the great continent 
 have been picked up by various powers of Europe and no African 
 island now remains to be occupied.
 
 Chapter XVII 
 
 BRITISH CFNTRAL AND SOUTH AFRICA 
 
 1S77-1895 
 
 THE extension of the Britisli sphere in South Africa and in 
 the roL^ion watered by tlic Zambezi and its atllncnts has, 
 since 1SS5. l)een rapid and immense. Up to 1884. British 
 Suutli Africa, with the excci)tion of tlie colony of Griqualand West, 
 did not extend licyond the Oran.q-c River. The impulse given to 
 fartluM- extension has been seen in connection with German anncxa- 
 tiiMis in Si'Utiiwest Africa. lUit the attention both of the imjjcrial 
 government and of the Cape Government was directed to the 
 region vaguelv kncnvn as Ik^cluianaland even before this period. 
 During the four years of British occupation of the Transvaal 
 from 1877 to 1 88 1 comparative peace was maintained on its borders. 
 P>ut no sooner had the Transvaal reassumcd its independence than 
 it became involved in disputes with the tribes on its western 
 borders. The result was intertribal wars and a struggle for 
 supremac\- among tlie riwal chiefs. This aft'orded an opi)ortunity 
 i>'V Boer intervention, with the result that enormous areas of the 
 neighboring licchuanaland were acquired, and two Boer states 
 f'.u!uk-(l. Stcllaland and Goslienland. This condition of things C(mu- 
 pellcd tl'.c British Go\erniucnt to consider what measures should 
 l>e ad'!])!*-' 1 to ])rotcct tlie iiUerests of the empire and of Cajjc Colony 
 in thi< part of S^auh Africa. 1"hc convention of h'"ebruary, 1884, 
 Ir-.ed the wc-tern limits ui the Transvaal, and as a consc(|uence it 
 v.as decided {a proclaim a I>ritish protectorate in I'iechuanaland. 
 Ji'!i!i M.icl (M/it-. \\]i(i had labored as a nu'ssionary for manv years 
 i!i tlii^ ]);;;{ of Africa, was in 1884 appointed Deputy Com- 
 nn<-:i"ncr !. P.eclnianaland. .and in this capacitv concluded treaties 
 v.-it!i several of t!ie cliiefs. P,ut this did not jircvent tlie 'j>ansvaal 
 l'.'ir> ii'.ni ri'.iiAcning and endeavoring to secure a large piece 
 f tlie I W-clinaiialand tcnitor}. Later, when Cecil J. Rhodes suc- 
 ' et 'led .M.u l.ii:/ie a^ I )e])Utv ( "oiuniis^ioner, he refused to I'ecognize 
 ::;e c!;;nn.> .-el u\> by tlie Bcjer.^ ; and in (jrder to i)Ut an end to all 
 
 2li
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 215 
 
 1884-1890 
 
 disputes and to secure the whole territory for Great Britain, Sir 
 Charles Warren was commissioned, at the end of 1884, to proceed 
 to Bechuanaland with a strong force. He accomplished his mission 
 with complete success. The boundaries of the Transvaal were re- 
 stricted to those laid down in the convention of February, 1884; 
 and the British sphere was extended northward to 22 south lati- 
 tude. All this was accomplished by August, 1885, and in the fol- 
 lowing month the southern portion of the territory (south of the 
 Molopo River) was erected into a Crown colony under the name 
 of British Bechuanaland. The colony, including later extensions, 
 covering some 51,000 square miles, was incorporated in 1895 with 
 Cape Colony; the region to the north as far as the Zambezi, cover- 
 ing 213,000 square miles, being constituted the British protec- 
 torate of Bechuanaland, with British residents and a strong police 
 force to patrol the country. In the northern part of this area the 
 remarkable chief Khama was supreme, and it was only after long 
 conferences with Warren that this chief at last agreed to accept 
 protection. In this district the only rights to be considered w^ere 
 those of the natives ; there was little difficulty in coming to an un- 
 derstanding as to the claims of Germany. It was a question of 
 annexation eitlier by Great Britain or by the Transvaal, and in this 
 case the stronger power had no scruples in using its strength. 
 
 The wide region between the Orange River and the Zambezi 
 is one in which British missionary effort (we need only mention 
 the .names of Moffat and Livingstone) had been long active and 
 fairly successful, and with which English traders had had dealings 
 for many years. Vv'hatever views may be held as to mission work 
 in the abstract, there can be no doubt of the practical benefits 
 secured by the conversion of such chiefs as Sechele and Khama 
 from the ways of their forefatliers, and, in the case of Khama, the 
 change is generally admitted to ha\e been a vast improvement. At 
 present, however, we are only concerned to show that British inllu- 
 ence was already paramount here, and that it was therefore natural 
 for the British Gcnernment t(j prevent a Boer annexation. But the 
 truth is, as will have been seen from ])revi(>us chapters, that by 
 1885 all considerations for what are called "native rights" had 
 disappeared before the 1)1 ind scranil)lc. It was in tlie nature (^f 
 things that Great l>rilain sliould try to make up for the loss of 
 Damaraland by taking all tliat she could lay hands upon to the 
 north of Cape Colony. k^\en before 1890 she had distinctly given
 
 .1(5 AFUICA 
 
 1808-1895 
 
 it ti-> be iin(!otst<->(^<l, as will be seen, that she rccfardcd the Zambezi 
 as the nalural iitTlhcrn houiuiary of her South African possessions. 
 This principle was. however, adopted much too late to be of avail 
 in securintr a perfectly united British South Africa. It was only in 
 iS/vS that the conccjition seems to have taken shape; and by that 
 time two independent Bi^er republics had been established, and the 
 idea was so slow in takinj^f r<>ot that so late as 1884 Germany was 
 allowed to cut oCf from the possibility of annexation an enormous 
 b!'H:k on the west. Basutoland, it is true, was annexed in 1868 
 and Gri(iualand West in 1877: but from that time till 1885, with 
 tlie exception of the fruitless attempt to annex the Transvaal, little 
 ad\aiice was made. W'e have seen the important measures taken in 
 1SS4 and 1SS5 (Ml the west oT the Transvaal ; and on the east of that 
 rciniblic the lH)crs were as ca.c^cr to make annexations as tliey were 
 in the we-t. Tt was natural tliat the Transvaal should endeavor to 
 nhtain an independent outlet to th - sea, from which she was barred 
 bv Swaziland. Ti^nq-aland, and Zululand on all of which countries 
 she had her eye for years. In 1884 a party of Boers took possession 
 ('\ t!ie western part oi Zululand, and established an independent 
 Slate, the New Republic; and when Zululand was in 1887 declared 
 British territory, this section was handed over to the Transvaal. 
 Swaziland also, which forms an indentation on the east of the 
 'IVansvaal. had lon^ been coveted by the Boers; by the Convention 
 i>i i8f)0 it was placed in a transition state, and as a result of the 
 r.cgotiatii ins between flreat T.ritain and the Transvaal in 1893-1895, 
 it was made over in l\'bruary. 1895, to the latter, with certain re- 
 strict i"ns as to tlie rii^lits of tlie natives and of British subjects.^ 
 But tl:e B'cr republics were effectually prevented from acquiring 
 any -ecii'di of tlie coast. 
 
 Th'in.Lch Germany liad .c^ivcn the British Government a general 
 a<-v.:-a;K'c tliat slic would not seek any further annexations south of 
 iJe'.^g a liay, it was none the less difficult for enterprising Germans 
 in -'arcli df fre-li ilclds to rc-i-^t temptation so long as any pf)rtion 
 <){ tlie great area sr,nth of the Zambezi was unannexed. Moreover, 
 tlie I'-'tr-. o\cr fni tlic lookout for new lands into which to trek, 
 liad ! -A'j; ag i fivcfl t'leir eves nn the cmmtry nortli (^f the T.impopo, 
 knn,v II i:ciicra];v a< M.italiclcl-ind, ruled over by Lobengula. with 
 w.i' ;:;, .\;uii \].c M:i[n]>c\c'^ were in their old home, the British 
 
 ' ' tV." P,. ..r \\';.r it- 't.-it';^; has lu.t bcni (k-fiiiitcly fixed. It is ruled by
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 217 
 
 1870-1888 
 
 Government made a treaty of friendship in 1836, The reports of 
 rich gold mines contained in this territory were well known, and, as 
 has already been seen, in 1870 Sir John Swinburne formed a com- 
 pany for working- the Tati region in the southwest of Matabelc- 
 land. Other travelers and sportsmen gave the most favorable ac- 
 counts, not only of the gold of the country, but of the suitability of 
 a large portion of the high plateau known as Mashonaland for 
 European settlement and agricultural operations. When Sir 
 Charles Warren was in Bechuanaland in 1885 several of his officers 
 made journeys to Matabeleland, and their reports all tended to 
 show the desirability of taking possession of that country; indeed 
 Sir Charles was assured that Lobengula would welcome a British 
 alliance as a protection against the Boers, of whose designs he was 
 afraid. At that very time an expedition was being planned in the 
 Transvaal for the purpose of taking possession of Mashonaland. 
 One correspondent, writing to Sir Charles Warren, in May, 1885, 
 described the situation as follows: 
 
 " The Boers are determined to get a footing in Mashonaland 
 (their condition being so wretched, and Mashonaland being the 
 finest agricultural land in South Africa), by thus taking the Mata- 
 bele on the flank and gradually acquiring their territory by con- 
 quest, from thence overspreading all the independent tribes to the 
 west and south of here. I also had good proof that the Germans 
 and Portuguese are working quietly but slowly to acquire as much 
 of these lands and the Transvaal under their protectorate as occa- 
 sion will allow of; and believe that they as well as the P)Oers and 
 other nations are only waiting to hear what action the British Gov- 
 ernment will take to settle on tlieir own. The natives all showed 
 the greatest desire to be under British protection, chiefs as well as 
 their subjects, and their hatred and fear of the Boers." 
 
 In 1882 an attempt was made by the Transvaal to induce 
 Lobengula to sign a treaty, but the chief was too wily; in 1888. 
 however. President Kriiger tried to make out that such a treaty had 
 been concluded. I'ut the old friendship with lingland was not for- 
 gotten, even after Lobengula succeeded his father in 1868. As the 
 most powerful chief norlli oi tlie Limpopo, he was extremely 
 jealous of interference, although he had recently suffered a crush- 
 ing defeat at the hands of the Bechuanas. 
 
 As a result of Warren's mission to Bechuanaland, and of the 
 reports furnished by the agents he sent into Matabeleland, the
 
 1887-1888 
 
 attention of advoiitmcrs and prosjwctors was more and more 
 drawn toward tlu- l.itur conntry. The Portnguese liad l)ecn elec- 
 trified int.' activity l'\ llie eviiits of the past two years. That the 
 attention of the Ihiti^h Clovernnient was directed to Matal)eleland 
 even in 1S87 is evident from a protest in Aug^ust of tliat year, on 
 t!ie part o\ l.ird SaHsl)ury. aj^ainst an ofiicial Portuguese maj) 
 claiming a sectiin of that country as within the Portuguese sphere. 
 Salishury then clearly stated that no pretensions of Portugal to 
 Mataheleland could he recognized, and that the Zambezi should be 
 regarded as the natural northern limit of P>ritish South Africa. 
 The Prime Minister reminded the Portuguese Government that 
 according to the P)erlin Act no claim to territory in Central Africa 
 could he allowed that was not supported by effective occupation. 
 The Portuguese Government maintained, and with justice, that 
 this a|)plied only tt) the coast, hut Salisbury stood firmly to his posi- 
 tion. Portugal appealed to her long historical connection with 
 Central Africa, antl to the evidences which still existed of previous 
 occui)atii>n. She sent hurried expeditions up the valleys of some 
 of tlie souiliern tributaries of the Zambezi, and pointed to what she 
 maiiUaincil were the ruins of old forts and the existence of orange 
 trees as c\i(k-iiic of her former occupation of the country. Giving 
 tlie fullc-t weight to all that tlic l\jrtuguese themselves have been 
 able to ad(lu>.-f in favor of their claims to a trans-African dominion 
 and lo the p. '^-^ession of Mashonaland, it is impossible to admit that 
 tiie:r occu]);ition had ever been effective away from their ports on 
 the coa-^t and one or two stations on the river. Their country, 
 niorei'\er. was on the verge of lKUikrui)tcy, and they had not the 
 resource- wherewith to develop the enormous area claimed by 
 t'c-m. '1m liave allowed IN;rlugal to acquire what she claimed in 
 Ainca v::;- t -Inn out tlie center of the continent, including some 
 'I the ni-M pi. .mining regions of tropical Africa, from all 
 civili/;;!;' -v.. 
 
 Grrni;.-!-, Pwcrs. Portuguese, were all ready to lay tlieir hands 
 on l!.e c-;;n;-y cl.iinied by L<ibengu!a, wlien P.ngland intervened 
 an. I ti.ok ;t .,r.: of their hand.-. P.y the end of 1887 the altemjjts ui 
 ::,e 1 ran-', a,J hi.er- 1m ohi.iin a IkjUI over Mataheleland had readied 
 a cr:-i>. 1: !,er;ui:e e'v idenl that no time was to be lost if England 
 \'. ;;- l> -err.re i;;e /..inilH/i ,ls the noi-thern limit of extension of her 
 S-ut.-i Air;..;!! p. -t- -i.,n-. Lol.iengnla hini.-:elf was harassed and 
 anxiou-, ,; ; tiie -Ic-ign- .,1 tlie Poer^ on the (jiie hand, and the
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 219 
 
 1888 
 
 doings of the Portuguese on the north of his territory on the other. 
 In the Rev. J. Smith Moffat, Assistant Commissioner in Bechuana- 
 land, England had a trusty agent who had formerly been a mission- 
 ary for many years in Matabeleland, and had great influence with 
 Lobengula, Under the circumstances it does not seem to have been 
 difficult for Moffat to persuade the king to put an end to his troubles 
 by placing himself under the protection of Great Britain. On March 
 21, 1 888, Sir Hercules Robinson, governor of Cape Colony and 
 British High Commissioner for South Africa, was able to inform 
 the home government that on February ii Lobengula had ap- 
 pended his mark to a document securing to England supremacy in 
 Matabeleland over all her rivals. This brief document may well 
 be quoted here: 
 
 " The chief Lobengula, ruler of the tribe known as the Aman- 
 debele, together with the Mashona and Makalaka, tributaries of the 
 same, hereby agrees to the following articles and conditions : 
 
 " That peace and amity shall continue forever between Her 
 Britannic Majesty, her subjects, and the Amandebele people; and 
 the contracting Chief Lobengula engages to use his utmost endeav- 
 ors to prevent any rupture of the same, to cause the strict observ- 
 ance of the treaty, and so to carry out the spirit of the treaty of 
 friendship which was entered into between his late father, the Chief 
 Umsiligazi, with the then governor of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 in the year of our Lord 1836. 
 
 " It is hereby further agreed by Lobengula, chief in and over 
 the Amandebele country, with its dependencies aforesaid, on behalf 
 of himself and people, that he will refrain from entering into any 
 correspondence or treaty with any foreign state or power, to 
 sell, alienate, or cede, or permit or countenance any sale, aliena- 
 tion, or cession, of the whole or any part of the said Amandebele 
 country under his chieftainship, or ujion any other subject, without 
 the previous knowledge and sanction of Her Majesty's High Com- 
 missioner in South Africa. 
 
 *' In faith of which, I, Lobengula, on my part, have herev/ith 
 set my hand at Gubu]u\vay(j, Amandebcleland, the ilth day of 
 February, and of Her Majesty's reign the fifty-first." 
 
 To this important d(;cument was appended " Lo Bengula X 
 His Mark," with llie names of two witnesses, and the signature of 
 J. S. Aloffat, as ^Assistant Commissioner. 
 
 Many similar so-sailed " treaties " have been signed by Afri-
 
 oo.) A F RICA 
 
 1888 
 
 can chiefs in favor o( various powers. It is doubtful wliether, as a 
 rule, these chiefs have any iilea wliatever of the significance of what 
 thcv are tloiiij^. l.ohenj^ula, however, Hke Sechele and Khama in 
 Heclnianalaiul. was. thciiiih a somewhat savage heathen, a man of 
 shrew (Ine-N ar.vl intelhgence. (|uite aHvc to his own interests. Still 
 it is doubtful if lie realized the full purport of the treaty, the object 
 of whicli was. I'f course, to sweep Matabeleland and its dependen- 
 cies within the limits of the British Empire. However, for the 
 moment it relieved him from any api)rchensi()ns of interference from 
 Boers or rortuguese. and secured to British South Africa uninter- 
 rupted access to the Central Zambezi, and the opportunity of devel- 
 i'l)ing a region reported to be rich in gold and in agricultural possi- 
 bilities. 
 
 The publication of the treaty was, as might be expected, fol- 
 lowed by reclamations on the part of both the Transvaal and of 
 Tortugal. Before the British hold was firmly established over the 
 country attemjjts were made by large parties of Boers to trek into 
 Matabeleland. not. it is to be feared, without the countenance of the 
 governniont t)f the republic. Hiough these attempts caused anx- 
 iety at the time, tliey never resulted in action. Individual Boers as 
 well as individual Englishmen attempted to poison the mind of 
 Lol)ngula against the British. But the king remained throughout 
 faithful to his engagements. Indeed, it w^as not Lobengula himself 
 wh(j gave any cause for anxiety during the initial stage of the Eng- 
 li-ii occui)atioii. He was a j)owerful chief, but even he was obliged 
 to deicr {() the wishes of his indunas, or sub-chiefs, and his army. 
 1 lis regimeni>. composed of tliousands of young men, eager to wash 
 tiicir >])ears in blood, were difficult to restrain; they were hungering 
 t< " eat up ' all tlie wliite men in the country. Had it not been for 
 t!.e LMcalc-l tact and forbearance on the part of the British represen- 
 taii\i-^ wliu visited the ccnmtry in the early days of the treaty, terri- 
 \'\- (!i>a-ters would have ha|)pened. Lobengula himself kei)t a firm 
 li;iiiil over his warriors, but even he was at times apprehensive that 
 tl;ey migla Ijiir-^t out beyond all control. But this trying initial 
 per: ! jj-i-e'l without disaster; as a matter of fact, the treaty was 
 thoro\i;;hiy (liMtiv-cd in jMTsence of the three chief indunas, and 
 war -:gi;cd Ly Lobengula in their j)resence. 
 
 l'orir.L,^il \', a.-, not -o easy to deal with as the South African 
 Kei^uhhc. In:ii!(Ml!aiely on the jjuljlication of the treaty she advanced 
 her .!'! j^v < i;-;. i;^, but was not bukl enough to intr(jducc any claim
 
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 ^
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 221 
 
 1888-1889 
 
 over the territory occupied by the Matabeles. Whatever right she 
 may have had to the country was completely annulled when Loben- 
 gula's father took possession of it by force of arms. But she main- 
 tained that Lobengula's claim to include the country on the east, 
 occupied by the conquered Mashonas, Makalakas, and other tribes, 
 was invalid ; that these territories had of old been occupied by Por- 
 tugal, and that in fact they were included in her province of Sofala ; 
 and this it would be useless to deny. From the first, however, Salis- 
 bury took up a firm position, and while admitting his readiness to 
 adjust boundaries at a suitable time, maintained absolutely that 
 Mashonaland was subject to Lobengula, and therefore within the 
 British sphere of influence. It remained of course to be decided 
 what territory could fairly be included within Mashonaland and the 
 other districts claimed by Lobengula ; but the vague claims put for- 
 ward by the Portuguese could only be met with a firm assertion of 
 the rights acquired by Great Britain under treaty. The important 
 point was as to the eastern boundary of the territory claimed by 
 Lobengula, and the western extension of effective occupation by 
 Portugal. What complicated the problem was ignorance of the 
 geography of Eastern Mashonaland, shown not only by Great Brit- 
 ain, but also by Portugal, though the latter, according to her own 
 statements, had been in the occupation of the country for four cen- 
 turies. Lobengula himself, inspired very possibly by the " well- 
 informed " Englishmen who were flocking about his " court," had 
 no doubt as to the extent of his own possessions. In a letter from 
 him, dated November 24, 1888, he claimed the whole country east- 
 ward to beyond the Sabi River, on the north to the south bank of 
 the Zambezi from Tete upward, and even a large tract on the north 
 side of the river. The letter containing these claims on the part of 
 the king was brought to England by two of his indunas, who were 
 sent by him in the beginning of 1889, in order to see with their own 
 eyes " The Great White Queen," who, he had been informed, no 
 longer existed. 
 
 No sooner was the treaty signed than Lobengula was besieged 
 for concessions of land, the main object of which was to obtain 
 the gold with which the country was said to abound, especially in 
 the east, in Mashonaland. The king was perplexed; hence the 
 embassy to England. But by this time, the first half of the year 
 1889, important preliminary steps had l)een taken toward the actual 
 occupation of the country on the part of tlie Brilisli.
 
 J2 AFIITCA 
 
 1888 
 
 One K. A. ^[aiinc! played an important part in influencing 
 Lohcn}::;^u!a tn j)Iaco his trust in ICnLjland and her (juccn. No sooner 
 was the treaty made known in Iuii,dand than he was en5^ajT:cd 
 as the atrent of a syndicate of capitahsts to proceed to Matahcle- 
 land and cndca\ctr to obtain from Lohengula a concession of mining" 
 rit^hts. It does not affect the vahchty or tlic imperial importance 
 of the treaty that some of those who were beliind it had had their 
 eyes all alnicT upon the desirability of procuring" mining conces- 
 sions in MashiMialand under tlie aegis of British protection. As 
 a matter of fact, it would seem that the first persc^n actually to make 
 jiroposals to the I'.ritish Government on the subject was George 
 Cawstmi. member of a financial firm in the City. On May 4, 1888, 
 Cawston wrote to the Colonial Office, "It is the intention of 
 my>clf. in conjunction with others, to send a representative to 
 Matabeleland to negotiate with Lobcngula for a treaty for trading, 
 mining, and general purposes." He asked if they could reckon 
 upon the support of the British Government in this undertaking. 
 Lord Knutsford replied that the British Govcrniucnt could not in- 
 volve itself in mining concessions, and the same intimation was 
 sent to Lubcngula. with the caution that lie must look out for 
 himself in these matters. At the same time Knutsford stated that 
 in order to be regarded as valid, .any concession obtained must 
 have the sanctirtn of the British Commissioner for South Africa. 
 I'urther correspondence took i)lace between Cawston and his friends 
 and Knutsford, with the result that, under the name of " The 
 Exploring Company," a syndicate was formed for the purpose of 
 acf[uir:ng and working the mining wealth of Mashonaland. But 
 tliougli Cawston seems to ha\e been the first to ajijiroach the 
 g' i\ crnniL-nt ^villl a definite scheme, and although lie lost tio time 
 in -ending out Maund after lie had satisfied the Colonial OlTice as 
 to Iii- C'im])anv. an^tlier company or syndicate, being on the spot, 
 had the ad\-aiilage of h.im. The moving spirit of this syndicate was 
 Cecil J kli-de-. 
 
 Thi- man. whose name has been S(j prominent in connection 
 with imjjcrial sclicme^ north and south of the Zambesi, and who 
 in 1N95 was created a mem])er of I Icr Majesty's I'ri\y C^oun- 
 cil, v/a< \)"r\] in iS'.^ and was the son of an I"Jigli>-h clergyman. 
 I.ea\ing m1:...'1 :,i liic age t'\ sixteen he was I'ompellcd to go 
 to .'^outli Airn.,! on account of his health, and there with his 
 broilicr to, I: tc i '.ii'.iing lie was in the early ruih to Kimberley,
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 223 
 
 1871-1889 
 
 and amassed very considerable wealth in connection with diamond- 
 mining. Although unable to attend the university before leaving 
 for Africa, he had determination enough to come home and take 
 his degree at Oxford after a residence of some years in South 
 Africa had restored his health. He was, after his return, connected 
 with the organization of Bechuanaland as sub-commissioner, and 
 did much to secure that territory without reduction or diminution 
 for England. For several years he was a member of the Cape 
 Parliament, and in 1890 became Premier of the colony. The 
 actions and utterances of Rhodes in later years showed that he 
 was not actuated simply by the desire to accumulate a fortune; 
 indeed, the impression made upon those who knew him best was 
 that he was indifferent to money for its own sake. \\'hatever 
 may have been his original motives for seeking to secure a leading 
 share in the partition of Matabeleland, his aim seems rapidly to 
 have developed into the ambition of forming a great South African 
 Confederation, extending far into the heart of Africa, and joining 
 hands with the British sphere on the Upper Xile. His conduct not 
 only with regard to ]\Iatabeleland, but also in connection with his 
 attempt to federate all the South African states, to acquire Damara- 
 land from Germany, and to spread British suzerainty over the 
 wide region on the north of the Zambezi, can only be adeciuately 
 explained on the supposition that he was actuated by sijme such 
 political motive. The later events of his life and the conditions 
 of his will would seem to indicate a still wider ambition, namely, 
 that of uniting a sort of culture-federation the great Anglo- 
 Saxon communities of the world. At all events, after the treaty 
 had been ratified, Rhodes, himself keeping in the background, lost 
 no time in acquiring rights over Lobengula's territory. IjV tlie 
 time Maund reached Matabeleland he found tliat tlic king had, only 
 a few days prex'iouslv, granted a full concession of all mining rights 
 to Messrs. Rudd, Alagnire. and 1"Iu)m])Son. Tlie concession was 
 obtained on behalf of the Gold iMclds of South Africa Coni])any and 
 a syndicate, of which ]\les?rs. Rlmdcs, Kudtl, and I'cit were the 
 principal representatives. At first it seemed as if tliere would be 
 some difficulty in reconciling tlie claims of this company with tlic 
 rights which Maund maintained had been ])nmised to him jjcr- 
 sonally by Loljcngula, and wliicli had been taken o\-cr by the IC.x- 
 ploring Company. But RIkuIcs, who came t(^ i'jigland in the sum- 
 mer of 1889, had little difiiculty in C(;ming to an understanding
 
 224 AFRICA 
 
 1889 
 
 Willi the Exploring: Onnpnny. with the result that the two interests 
 were aiualt^ainatcil. The Tati field still reniainetl in the hands of 
 Sir John Swinhtnne ami his company, though little apparently 
 hail been done to deveh^p it. 'VUvrc were still earlier concessions 
 obtained from Li'l)ciii;nla by Haines, which had passed into other 
 hands: these also were taken over by Rhodes. 
 
 To attempt to enter into and explain all the intricacies of the 
 complication of companies and sub-companies, and their mutual 
 relations, which have interests of more or less importance in Mata- 
 bcleland, would i)e beyond the scope of this work. There were 
 various chancres and modifications; the principal companies uniting 
 as the Central Search Association, and that again developing into 
 the I'niteil Concessions Company. However, these interests, with 
 tlie rights of the Exploring Company, were concentrated in the 
 company which early in 1889 took measures to obtain a charter 
 for the development and adnu'nistration of the country. In April 
 of that year the tw-o leading companies approached Lord Knutsford 
 v>ith a view to obtain a charter for the territories claimed by them. 
 After protracted negotiations, in which Rhodes w^as the most promi- 
 nent representative of the interested companies, the charter sought 
 for was granted by the queen on October 15, 1889. 
 
 Tiie principal field of the operations of the British South 
 Africa Company was defined in the charter to be " the region of 
 South Africa lying- immediately to the north of British Bechuana- 
 land, and to tlie north and west of the South African Republic, 
 and to the west of the Portuguese dominions." The company 
 was also empowered to accpiire any further concessions, if approved 
 of by ilie Secretary of State. All the usual provisions of such 
 charters \\ere included in tlie present one. and the comi)any was 
 virtually authorized, not only to develop, but to administer the 
 countries tor which they had obtained concessions, subject always 
 to tlie :i]j])roval of the above-mentioned secretary. In short, the 
 company was cmpMwcied to act as the representative of the im- 
 ])cn:il goxernmcnt. willinut, however, obtaining any assistance from 
 t:;e govciiiiriCiit tn bear tl:e exjjense of the administration. On 
 tlie c(..mra;y. iiie coni]);iny made a handsome contribution toward 
 the coni])leti-n <>\ the te]egra])li line into the Bechuanaland protec- 
 torate, and C'.iii])leted the railway from Kimberley to Vryburg. 
 I he K:mbcrley-Vi\br,rg section was taken over by the Cape Gov- 
 ernment afier iis completion by tlic Chartered Company.
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 225 
 
 1889 
 
 The capital o the company was five million, since increased 
 to twenty-five million, dollars. It is not easy to define the relations 
 of the Chartered Company to the various other companies which 
 had mining interests in the country. In itself it was not a consolida- 
 tion of the interests of those companies. Its functions were to ad- 
 minister the country and to work the concessions on behalf of the 
 concessionaires, in return for which it was to retain fifty per cent, 
 of the profits. The concessionaires guaranteed $3,500,000 of tl:;- 
 Chartered Company's capital. The position was a curious and 
 anomalous one, leading to misunderstanding, so that it is not sur- 
 prising that very soon an attempt was made really to combine the 
 whole interests in the country in the Chartered Company. Here 
 again it may be pointed out that the Bechuanaland section of the 
 region included in the charter has, for the present, been placed 
 under the administration of the governor of British Bechuanaland, 
 so that on the south of the Zambezi the operations of the company 
 were in the meantime confined to Matabeleland and the other 
 countries claimed by Lobengula. 
 
 All this activity on the part of England naturally embittered 
 Portugal more and more. In the latter part of the year 1889 
 Colonel Pavia d'Andrade, an able officer who had been connected 
 with the Sofala district, and had done much good exploring work 
 therein, was making his way up the valleys of the Mazoe and 
 other tributaries of the Zambezi, distributing Portuguese flags 
 among the natives, and endeavoring, too late, to establish a sem- 
 blance of " effective occupation." The Portuguese Government, 
 moreover, created a new district of Zum1)o, on tlie south of the 
 Zambezi, which embraced some 30,000 square miles of the territory 
 claimed by Lobengula as within his dominions. It is only fair to 
 Colonel d'Andrade to state that his efforts to extend Portuguese 
 influence and develop the resources of the country claimed by Por- 
 tugal on the south of the Zambezi date back quite ten years before 
 Lobengula signed his treaty. It may enable us to understand the 
 position of Portugal in the country to the east of Mashonaland, if 
 it be remembered that so long ago as 1878 ])'y\ndra(le obtained what 
 was known as the Paiva d'Andrade concession, the object of which 
 was to exploit the resources and es])ccially the gold of the region 
 known as Manika. Next year this was transferred to the Societe 
 Gencrale du Zanibece of Paris, which sent out a large commission 
 of experts under D'Andrade to report on the country. Hie Paris
 
 t!.'n A F R 1 C A 
 
 1888-1889 
 
 ci'inpanv did iK^t onisidcr the reports of tlicse experts sufficiently 
 ciicoiirai^incr. and tliey declined to i^o further in the matter. D'An- 
 dradc thou tried to ohtain cai)ital in London, and succeeded in 
 foriuinir the Conipauhiii Africatui and the Ophir Company. Spas- 
 modic attempts were nu-ulo under these companies to work the old 
 mines o\ part of Manika. 
 
 In iSSS the rij^'hts of these companies were made over under 
 certain conditions to the Mozambique Company, which was author- 
 ized to undertake a great variety of enterprises, and which to some 
 extent resemliled in its objects the British Chartered Company, 
 althdugli it tlocs noi seem to have been accorded any powers of 
 adiuinistration. A good deal of English capital was embarked in 
 this company, and its agents were set to find and work the gold 
 reported to abound in the IManika interior, on the eastern slopes 
 of what may be generally regarded as the Mashonaland plateau. 
 The most potent chief in this region persistently refused to have 
 anything to do with the Portuguese or any other whites. He had 
 bcc":i succeeded by his son, with whom the Portuguese maintained 
 they had made a treaty of protection, though as a matter of fact 
 the vacillating chief showed himself ready to make treaties with 
 anyone prepared to supply him wnth unlimited alcohol. Unfortu- 
 nately for Portugal, the energetic D'Andrade was not supported as 
 he deserved to be in his attempts to extend Portuguese influence and 
 develop the East African possessions. All Portugal did was to 
 grant enormous areas, under the title of " Pra::os dc Corona," or 
 Crown farms, to persons, mainly half-castes most of whom were 
 indejjcndent of the government, and differed little from slave-hold- 
 ing, slave-trading native chiefs. In the jNIanika territory the most 
 ])owcrful of these half-castes was De Souza, known as Gouveia, 
 from his place of residence. He could command from 7000 to 
 8rxDO native irregulars; with the assistance of these l\jrtugal had 
 been carrying on militarv r)peratir)ns along tlie Zambezi and in 
 the Manika district. In 1SS8 and iS(S9 considerable activity was 
 di.-played in bringing out steamers and ammunition. 
 
 'i'hus it will be seen that when the British South Africa Com- 
 pany was prc]),-irc'l to enter into active occupation of the territories 
 which tiiey were authorized to cx])loit, they had on the one hand 
 the bands (jf Lobcngula eagci" to wash their spears in white blood, 
 ' n tlie <<)\\i\\ t!ic liocrs of the 'iVansvaal, embittered at being pre- 
 \cined fmm iickking to the north of the Limpopo, and on the east
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 227 
 
 1889-1890 
 
 and the northeast the Portuguese trying to raise a wall of claims 
 and historical pretensions. All the time the Lisbon Foreign Office 
 was besieging the Colonial Office with an incessant discharge of 
 correspondence and reclamations, which it need hardly be said made 
 but little impression. 
 
 The relation of the British Government to the Chartered Com- 
 pany and its sphere is very clearly stated in a communication from 
 Lord Knutsford to the High Commissioner shortly after the charter 
 was granted. " The queen can, of course, at any time annex or 
 declare a protectorate over any part of the territory within which 
 the company operates, and in the absence of any paramount neces- 
 sity for such annexation or protectorate, or of the failure or mis- 
 conduct of the company, security of tenure is granted to the com- 
 pany for the limited period of twenty-five years, which is deemed 
 by Her Majesty's government the shortest period within which 
 the company can be expected to develop and perfect the public part 
 of its enterprise; while there is reserved to the government of 
 the day, at the end of that time, and at every succeeding period 
 of ten years, the right of considering, in the interests of the empire 
 generally, and of South Africa in particular, how far the adminis- 
 trative and public power of the company should be continued." 
 
 At the same time Lord Knutsford wrote to Lobengula in 
 the queen's name, explaining clearly the significance of the charter, 
 and strongly urging him to deal only with the company and refrain 
 from making grants of land to private adventurers. The total area 
 of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, which formed tlie main sphere 
 of the company, is about 144,000 square miles, with a native popu- 
 lation estimated at 515,000. It is in the main a high tal^leland, 
 rising in the Mashona country to 5000 and 6000 feet, on the whole 
 well watered, and with a considerable area said by those familiar 
 with it to be admirably adapted to agriculture and even to European 
 colonization. Over much of it cattle-raising may be carried on to 
 a practically unlimited extent. As in all parts of trc^pical Africa, the 
 low-lying lands are unhcaltliful ; but on the higher plateaus, even 
 during the rainy season, Euro])eans may with rcasona])Ie care pre- 
 serve their health. The general impression produced by tlic reports 
 of those who have visited and lived in the country is that Matabele- 
 land and its dependencies constitute a region exceptionally favor- 
 able, considering its latitude, to development by lun-opean effort. 
 As to its gold resources, the most glowing accounts were given and
 
 028 A F R I C A 
 
 1890 
 
 tlie most extravngfant hopes entertained; inspired by such concep- 
 tions of this Land of Promise, early in the summer of 1890, the first 
 pioneer expeditioti set out to take possession. 
 
 W'itli respect to its base of operations, the British South Africa 
 Companv. it i^.iav lie remarked, was much more favorably situated 
 than cither oi its sister companies in East and West Africa. Brit- 
 isli Kast and West Africa are both tropical without mitigation. 
 Tlicv have imiIv the coast as a base-line, with savages and an un- 
 subdued n\adless country to deal with from the beginning. The 
 South Africa Company, on the otb.er hand, had a long-settled, tem- 
 perate colony to start from, with half a million of white population, 
 railwavs. telegraphs, and other resources of civilization to form 
 a base of operations, and fall back upon if needful. There was no 
 difticulty tlien in collecting a special police force of 500 men and 
 a band of 200 pioneers. After the rainy season the body of 700 
 adventurers marched northward to take possession of the latest ad- 
 OAuon to the empire. The pioneers were men provided by con- 
 tract. 
 
 Frederick Selous. who knew the country better than any other 
 white man, took the lead in making a road from the Macloutsie 
 River, which formed the real starting-point, northeast and north 
 over the gradually rising plateau to Mount Hampden. 400 miles 
 nearer the Zambezi, which it was resolved to make the objective 
 of tlie expedition. Lobengula gave his consent to the expedition, 
 the only stipulation being that a route should be chosen well to 
 tlie cast of Matal)e]eland proper, so as to avoid all risk of collisicMi 
 witli tl:e thousands of young warriors scattered in kraals all over 
 the chief's d.niinions. It was exiiected that an attempt would 
 l)e maile by tliese to attack the Britisli force as it made its 
 way !:~r:hward : but as a inattcr of fact no difticulties what- 
 e\cr v.cre experienced in tliis respect. A start was made from 
 v.\Q ?.!::c!"i:t-ie River on T'^-'iie 25. 1890. and by September u 
 M' unt Ilanipdeii was reached. A road, necessarily rough, was 
 n-:ade n t'.e niarcli nortr.v.ard : forts were built at certain inter- 
 vals. ^n1a!] garri-rns placed in th.em. and every precaution taken to 
 render t'.-.e '.cci:pation effective. Tlic ]ieadf[uarters were formed 
 c! j-e : I M. ::r;t II'mp'kMi. where Vorl Salisbury was l)uilt, and there 
 ;n a remarkably -p.r rt time a town grew up, with its public build- 
 :r.g--. cLurcl'Cs. =choo! = . hr.tels. lawyers, and land.-agents. stores and 
 '^ - " ^ r' c-..cour-e. and. on an elemcntarv scale, all the
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 229 
 
 1890-1892 
 
 Other institutions which are characteristic of the social and public 
 life of any body of Englishmen. 
 
 Of course the pioneer expedition to ocajipy Ma-,h onaland was 
 not unattended by blunders and mistakes : but v. htn every deductioa 
 is made, the story of the expedition deserves to \jt remembered as 
 a memorable episode in connection with the expan-ion of the British 
 Empire. When the goal was reached the pior.eer f'.rce v.as dis- 
 banded, as had previously been arranged. To ei':h man vcere al- 
 lotted a considerable area of ground and right-, over a certain portion 
 of the gold reefs which he might be =t fortunate a- to discover. 
 These disbanded pioneers immediately began prt-.pecting in all di- 
 rections in search of gold, and taking stock tf the capacity of the 
 country for settlement and agricultural develttntent. But there 
 was not much time before the rainy season came upon them. ; and 
 the rainy season of 1890-1891 is one to be rernentbered in the history 
 of Rhodesia. At any time this seastn :s trying entugh. and de- 
 mands on the part of the white man rational precautions to preserve 
 his health and avoid disaster; but this v.as an exceptional year. 
 and, as usual, somicone had blundered. The pitneer force had been 
 wretchedly provided both with food and v.-ith medicines : the supplies 
 which were to have follovred the ftrce v.ere. through some mis- 
 understanding, stopped. The result v/as v.-icespread suftering and 
 many deaths. Still, with indomitable pluck the m.ajority of the 
 men made the best of their situation. But the nevrs of their suf- 
 ferings, combined v/ith the dam.aging repcrts sent honte by Lord 
 Randolph Churchill, who made an expedition to the country after 
 the rainy season, the conduct of the Portuguese, and other circum- 
 stances, all tended to give the nev; territory a bad name v.onclt 11 
 did not deserve. But all these things did net damp the ardor either 
 of the pioneers or of the contpany. The raih.vay v,-as carried from 
 Kimberley to Vryburg. 150 mile?. An English ccm.pany vras later 
 formed by the Chartered Cc-mpany to extend the line of railway 
 north from Vryburg. Early in 1602 the telegraph vras c:ntinued 
 to Salisbury, which wa; t::cn hrougn; into cirect communication 
 with London. Since tiien it ha? been carried .' n to Umtah and 
 Beira. in accordance voti: Kit odes" scheme to c;n-truct a te.egrapn 
 line "from the Cape t :> Cair:=/" or at least to L ganda. for v.-nicn 
 an African Trans-Continental Telegraph Company v,as formed -n 
 December. 1893. A line ir.m Z.mla and Blantyre in the Xya^a 
 res:ion has been carried --utii to meet to^e line fr.m Sa.i-ijury.
 
 230 AFRICA 
 
 1892-1895 
 
 'rhcie were, in i(K)2, 1405 miles of line. Before the end of 1895, 
 ihroiii^ii liic cncri;"y of Klioilcs. what was only a few years ago the 
 unknown heart of savage Africa was bronght into almost instan- 
 taneous communication with luu'ope. Salisbin"y increased in size, 
 new tinvns were begun elsewhere, a regular postal and telegraph 
 service, yielding a considerable revenue to the company, was esiab- 
 li>iied, and i.iibengula was at last induced to give the company 
 riij'.ns over tlic land as well as the mines. The result was that 
 
 Cy>f cf Good ,!. 
 
 MAP SHOVA/IKO 
 BRITISH CEN-TR/kS, 
 
 SOUTH ATRICA. 
 
 Cape and Transvaal farmers took up large areas of ground for 
 agricultural and cattle farms. Other sources of revenue for the 
 cnnijjany lia\e been mining and trading licenses, and standdiold- 
 iugv Hut >lill tlicre has been very great outlay, and not much 
 t'luld lie di'iie for ilie real development ni the country until rapid 
 .ind ci'.ea]) ci 'nimunications were established with the outside world, 
 i'.ut ;!;:- wa- xealou^Iy j)uslie(l forward. 'J'he railway now extends 
 from Cape Town to lieira and will soon be extended to Lake Tan- 
 .i^anyika. Hem-y M. Stanley is on rec(rd as believing that the 
 ( ape to Cairo railroad will Ije an accomplished fact before 1925. 
 
 .\- nn;;i:i ha\e been exj)ected, the action of the pioneer force 
 was v.atC.ei'. v. itli jeal ais and resentful eyes l)y Portugal. An 
 agrecinen; \.;i> conCr,i](<| between j-jigland and Portugal in .August, 
 i.'^9o, by \\'.:;ch liie ea.-:ern limits ui tlie .South .Africa Company's
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 231 
 
 1890 
 
 claims were fixed, and the course of the unknown Sabi River, from 
 north to south, was taken as a boundary. But this did not satisfy 
 either Portugal or the company, and the treaty was never ratified. 
 It was, however, taken as the basis of a modus invendi, pending 
 further negotiations. In the meantime D'Andrade, Gouveia, and 
 one or two other Portuguese officers had returned to iManika, and 
 made their way up to the edge of the plateau. 
 
 The abortive treaty referred to above was not actually accepted 
 as the basis of a modus vivendi till November, 1890. Archi- 
 bald R. Colquhoun, who had done good service in India and the 
 East, had been appointed administrator of the British company's 
 territory. He was succeeded by an intimate friend of Rhodes, Dr. 
 Leander S. Jameson, who had given up a lucrative practice at Kim- 
 berley to accompany the pioneers; Selous was another on the 
 administrative staff. In the previous September Colquhoun, 
 with a few companions, went down to ]\Iutassa"s Kraal, in the 
 Manika country, and without difficulty induced him to conclude a 
 treaty making over his country to British protection. IMeantime 
 D'Andrade, Gouveia, Rezende (representing the ^Mozambique 
 company) and one or two others, with an armed force of 
 Gouveia's men, were on their way to Mutassa's. Colquhoun 
 resolved to take decisive measures. A small force was sent over 
 under Major Forbes, who on arriving at ]\lutassa's found the 
 village occupied by tlie Portuguese. Notwithstanding his greatly 
 inferior force, he made his way into the village and arrested D'An- 
 drade, Gouveia, and Rezende. Tlie two former were taken pris- 
 oners to Fort Salisbury, and the latter allowed to return to Massi 
 Kessi, which was provisionally occupied by a small force of the 
 company's police. D'Andrade and Gouveia were sent to the Cape. 
 
 This incident caused great excitement at tlie time, and gave 
 rise to very bitter feelings in Portugal against England. A band 
 of student volunteers was raised in Eisbon, and amid patriotic dem- 
 onstrations was hurriedly sent out to the mouth of the Pungwe, 
 with the apparent intention of niarcliing up to Manika and dri\ing 
 out the British. Xecdicss to say. few of them left the coast. Ob- 
 viously these relations between the two countries could not long 
 continue; they were brought to an end by the ratification of a new 
 agreement, signed on June ti, iS()i, under wliich Porlgnal can 
 hardly be said to have fai'cd so well ;is she wimld lia\e done under 
 tlie one repudiated by llic Cortes in tlie pre\'ion^'- \-ear. 'i'lie boun-
 
 232 AFRICA 
 
 1891-1892 
 
 (larv l->ot\vecn the Hritisli OMiipatiy's territories was drawn farther 
 cast that! in the iirevious treaty. Ahhoiigh (lUiij^niiiyana, Kin.e^ of 
 (^lazalaiul. sent two envoys to En::lancl in the summer of 1891, to 
 otTer his alleiriancc to Great Britain. Lord Sahsbury was firm, and 
 dech'ned to take liim under Britisli protection, except as to tliat 
 p<^rtion which is. acconhng to the Anglo- Portuguese agreement, 
 witliin the British sphere. 
 
 There is no doubt that by the new treaty the company added 
 considerably to its gold-producing territory. Further, according 
 to the terms of the arrangement, the navigation of the Zambezi 
 and the Shire was declared free to all nations. A maximum duty 
 of three per cent, was all that Portugal was allowed to charge, for 
 a period of twcnty-fFve years, for goods in transit from the cast 
 coast to the ccnnpany's territories. Other mutual privileges were 
 granted, and Portugal agreed to undertake the construction of a 
 railway from the mouth of the Pungwe to the plateau, but under con- 
 ditions which would prevent her delaying the undertaking for an 
 indefinite period. There were delays and difficulties in carrying out 
 the scheme, the accomplishment of which was absolutely necessary 
 for the (levcloi)mcnt of ]\Iashonaland, so that it was not till 1892 
 that the railway was actually begun, some seventy miles being fin- 
 ished in a short time. The railway was carried well through the 
 country infected by the tsetse fiy.^ Although the gauge adopted 
 was narrow and the construction light, and although the embank- 
 ments were so low that damage is done near the coast when the 
 Country is flooded, the line was reported to be good and serviceable 
 and likely to satisfy the needs of traffic for some time. 
 
 The main difficulties seemed thus to have been overcome, and 
 by the summer of 1892 the company was in undoubted possession 
 of its territory, though to a large extent paralyzed from want of 
 a v:\\)\(\ and cheap means of communication with the outer world. 
 Although care was taken from the first to avoid collisions willi 
 the Matahcle, their repeated forays against the Maslionas, wlio 
 arc under tlic comi)any's protection, cuhuinated on July 18, 1893, 
 in a raid such as could not be overlooked. While efforts were 
 made to obtain a peaceful solution of the difficulty, preparation for 
 any funh.er iiovtjHties which might be forced on the company was 
 
 - Tln\ i', ,-111 iiiMct whose bile is f.'ital to cattle, and injurious even to horses 
 aii'I fl'j.:s. Rcrciit i v''!<.iirc stfaivfly inclines to prove it the cause of a certain 
 IiA.i! fh-ca-c of the negroes, called the bleeping sickness.
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 233 
 
 1893-1894 
 
 not neglected, and the High Commissioner authorized the com- 
 pany's administrator, Dr. Jameson, to take all necessary steps to 
 provide for the safety of the settlers. In the beginning of October 
 the Matabele attacked the company's police force near Victoria, 
 and the Bechuanaland border police; and on October 6 the com- 
 pany's force of about 620 men advanced westward from Charter 
 and Victoria, while other forces, consisting of the Bechuanaland 
 border police, the company's police, and natives under Khama, 
 advanced from the south toward Buluwayo. After a difficult march 
 and several battles, the power of Lobengula was broken, and he 
 fled with the remainder of his troops. On November 2 the com- 
 pany's forces entered Buluwayo without opposition, and since then 
 a new town has been rapidly springing up, and Buluwayo in the 
 west threatens to rival Salisbury in the east as a center of activity ; 
 the former, like the latter, has already its newspapers, hotels, races, 
 churches, and other institutions indispensable to the settled Briton. 
 In the beginning of 1894 Lobengula died, and the company entered 
 into full possession of his territories. No doubt such a collision was 
 inevitable sooner or later, and the company were not sorry that 
 an excuse for action occurred so soon. All these operations were 
 accomplished without any aid from imperial troops or imperial 
 money. An attempt on the part of the home government to inter- 
 fere too largely in the settlement of Matabeleland was resented in 
 South Africa. The result has been that the imperial government 
 retained but a slender hold over the company's territories, which 
 will be ultimately absorbed in the South Africa Confederation that 
 seems inevitable. An attempt, however, on the part of Rhodes to 
 fix a tariff in favor of British goods, including the company's ter- 
 ritories in the South African Customs Union, was vetoed by the 
 home government. The success, not only of the short campaign, 
 but of the country generally, was admitted to be largely due to 
 the administrative capability of Rhodes' right-hand man, Dr. 
 Jameson. 
 
 The final, or at least provisional, settlement of Matabeleland 
 was effected in an agreement between the home government and 
 the British South Africa Company, dated May 9. 1894. Probably 
 such an agreement is unique in the history of the British Empire. 
 It was a mark of the change which had taken place in the ten years 
 since the scramble for Africa began, that instead of the home gov- 
 ernment dictating terms to a chartered company for a territory
 
 ojJi A F R I C: A 
 
 1891-1894 
 
 tliat was not even a Cnnvn o)lo:iy, tlie company should be dealt 
 witli as if it were an inilei)cn(lcnt power, practically insisting on its 
 (uvn terms. The lust clause defines the territory over which the 
 t^perations of the company may extend, and it will be seen that it 
 includes much more than Matabeleland and Mashonaland. The 
 territories referred to in the memorandum, are " those parts of 
 South Africa hounded by British Bechuanaland. the German pro- 
 tectorate, the Rivers Chobe and Zambezi, the Portuguese posses- 
 sions, and the South African Republic.'' The administration of 
 this territory is to be conducted by the company in accordance with 
 its charter, anil under an administrator and a council of four, com- 
 poseil oi a judge and three other members. The administrator is 
 appeiinied by the company, of course with the approval of the Sec- 
 retary of State, who is, nonu'nally at least, supreme over the whole 
 administration. The administrator holds his ofifice for three years, 
 but may be reappointed. The four members of the council are ap- 
 pointed by the company, with the approval of the Secretary of State. 
 The judge can be removed only by the Secretary of State, while the 
 otlicr three members are at the mercy of the company. One of the 
 three retires every two years, but may be reappointed. The company 
 pays tlie salaries of the administrators and all other officials. Provi- 
 sions are made for subordinate magistrates, for a land commission, 
 f( >v ]( icating natives on land adequate for their maintenance, and vari- 
 ous (jthers connected with administration and the development of the 
 tcrriluries. in all of which the company are virtually supreme, so 
 long as ncjthing is done "to diminish or detract from the powers 
 CMufcrrcd by llcr Majesty's Order in Council of 'May 9, 1891, or 
 by tlie charter incorporating the company." An order made by 
 the Sovereign in Council is supreme over all. But in effect, it will 
 he <i-en. the conij)any liad it all their own way. They are absolute 
 owners of all mines, and cither for mining purposes, for railways, 
 f^r towns, or any other public works, they are entitled to take 
 lan<l from the natives, so long as they locate the latter elsewhere. 
 
 IMIOI 
 
 le.s and Jameson visiicd luigland in the end of 1894 and suc- 
 ci-CMf'l in -ecuriiig siill further concessions confirming the supremacy 
 oi Riiodf^ ,'111(1 tiie coni])anv. Rhodes decided, among other things, 
 t > !;ike over I'lc direct administration of the company's extensive 
 territi.ric- iiorili (^f tlic Zambezi. 
 
 '1 he cwin])aiiy was thus unfettered in its activities. The country 
 on il.e v hole 1- one of the must favorable in South Africa fur agri-
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 235 
 
 1894-1895 
 
 culture and cattle-raising, while the testimony as to the abundance 
 of its gold-bearing reefs is overwhelming. I^^Ien and money alone 
 were lacking. The former poured into the country and in 1895 
 over two million acres had been appropriated. The regulations of 
 the company both with regard to land and to mining were liberal, 
 and the man who could arrive at Salisbury or Buluwayo with only 
 a few dollars in his pocket had a fair field before him, if he was 
 willing to work. As to money, the company's resources were 
 heavily taxed by its early operations; but there was no lack of 
 capital when it became clear that it could be profitably applied. 
 Cheap and rapid communication has been the main desideratum; 
 and as this was supplied, the great obstacle to rapid and profitable 
 development was removed. ]\Iany competent authorities maintain 
 that portions at least of ]\Iashonaland and ]\Iatabeleland are well 
 adapted for white colonization in the special sense of that term. 
 That is a matter that can only be tested by experience, such experi- 
 ence as cannot be acquired in a single generation. 
 
 It may be stated that in 1893 the company acquired a conces- 
 sion from the native chief of an extensive territory in the Lake 
 Ngami region, which it was proposed to colonize by Cape farmers. 
 At the same time the company continued to pay tribute to the king 
 of Gazaland for certain concessions in his territory, notwithstand- 
 ing the claims put forward by Portugal. 
 
 While the incidents on the south of the Zambezi were keeping 
 all Europe in a state of excitement, equally stirring events were 
 taking place on the north of the river, where also a great area was 
 being included in the British sphere. 
 
 England's connection with the Lake Xyasa region, it has been 
 seen, dates from tlie time of Livingstone's great Zambezi ex|)e(liti()n 
 (1858-1864). As the result of Livingstone's work Scotch and Eng- 
 lish missions were established near the Shire, which joins tlie lake 
 with the Zambezi, and on tlie shores of the lake itself. Li 1S78 
 a trading company consisting of Scotch merchants was formed 
 under the name of " The Livingstone Central Africa Comjjany," 
 for opening up to navigation and trade tlie rivers and lakes of 
 Central Africa to which tlic Zambezi is the approach. This was the 
 com]:)any known afterward as the African J>akcs Cf)m])any, later 
 the African Lakes Corporation; its cajjital was at first .^^loo.ooo, 
 afterward increased to $500,000. Its aims wei^e soniewliat ambi- 
 tious; the acquisition of land, the f(jrmati'.'n of pkinlation.,, ihe in-
 
 236 A F RICA 
 
 1871-1886 
 
 troduction of various cultures, the establishment of trade, the trans- 
 pvirt of q;iiO(!s. wore anions;- the means by which the subscribers were 
 to carry out their objects. It was understood, moreover, that the 
 ci^mpanv would act as a sort of secular adjunct to the missions 
 establisiied in the rci^ion. It can hardly l)e said that the operations 
 of the comjiany were, until recently, conducted with any great 
 amount of energy. Stations were established on the Shire and on 
 the west shores of the lake; and a highroad, the Stevenson Road, 
 was made between Lake Nyasa and Lake Tanganyika. Planting 
 on a small scale was carried on and some little trade was done. 
 The boats belonging to the company were of service in carrying 
 the missionaries and their stores to the stations in Nyasaland; but 
 for the development of the country much more was effected by 
 l)rivate initiative than by the operations of the company. The 
 Blantyre Highlands to the east of the Upper Shire were found ad- 
 mirably adapted to the culture of coffee, and by 1887 promising 
 plantations had been established. By that year, through the united 
 efforts of the missionaries, the company, private traders, and the 
 consul at Mozambique, British interests in the region around Lake 
 Xyasa had become very considerable. Comparatively feeble as 
 the efforts of the African Lakes Company had been, they certainly 
 did more for the legitimate development of the resources of the 
 country than did the efforts of Portugal during the long centuries 
 she had been on the Lower Zambezi. Until Germany entered the 
 field, Portugal does not sccni to have disturbed herself greatly as 
 to the British occupation t)f the country on the Shire and Lake 
 Xyasa. I^ut when the scramble became general, when Germany, 
 I-'rancc. luigland, and the King of the Belgians were sweeping one 
 region after another into their grasp, Portugal became alive to 
 her critical ])osition on the continent. Li return for what she re- 
 garded as certain concessions to Germany and France, each of these 
 jjowcrs in iSSf) professed to recognize the right of the King of 
 I'ortng,-;! to those territories wliich lie between the Portuguese pos- 
 se-:~i'.n- of Angola and Mozanil)i(|ue, without i)rejudice. however, 
 to the claims oi oilier ])o\\ers who might already lia\e exercised 
 their " -o\crcign and civilizing iniluence " in the region in ([ues- 
 tion. luKjugh has been said already of tlie supposed rights <jf 
 Portugal to a trans-African Lmjjire. Portugal, it is j)robable, never 
 serioudy hc'icvcd that lier claims would be entertained by Great 
 Britain; -he no doubt imagined if she made these claims extensive
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 237 
 
 1887-1888 
 
 enough that it might be possible to save something out of the 
 scramble. As in the country south of the Zambezi, so on the north 
 of the river, Portugal made haste in her attempts to obviate the 
 results of her long neglect by rushing in and planting her flag on 
 the threatened territory. 
 
 In this connection a passage from a dispatch by Lord Salisbury 
 to the British Minister at Lisbon, dated June 25, 1888, is v^orth 
 quoting: " It is, as Senhor Barros Gomes admits, a disputed point 
 whether, nearly 300 years since, a Portuguese traveler did, or 
 did not, see the waters of Lake Nyasa; the decision of this con- 
 troversy has no practical value at the present day as regards the 
 political situation. It is, on the other hand, an undisputed point 
 that the recent discoveries of the English traveler Livingstone were 
 followed by organized attempts on the part of English religious and 
 commercial bodies to open up and civilize the districts surrounding 
 and adjoining the lake. Many British settlements have been es- 
 tablished, the access to which by the sea is by the Rivers Zambezi and 
 Shire. Her Majesty's Government and the British public are much 
 interested in the welfare of these settlements. Portugal does not 
 occupy, and has never occupied, any portions of the lake nor of 
 the Shire; she has neither authority nor influence beyond the con- 
 fluence of the Shire and Zambezi, where her interior custom-house, 
 now withdrawn, was placed by the terms of the Mozambique tariff 
 of 1877." 
 
 During 1887 Portugal endeavored in vain to advance her 
 claims by voluminous correspondence, intended to prove her his- 
 torical rights. An attempt in 1888 to close the Zambezi to navi- 
 gation by British vessels had to be abandoned in face of the per- 
 sistent demands of Lord Salisbury. In other ways, through her 
 Mozambique authorities, she did her utmost to hamper the com- 
 munications of the African Lakes Company ; but before Lord Salis- 
 bury's firm stand all these attempts had to give way. 
 
 During 1888 the British position in the Lake Xyasa region was 
 complicated by the hostility of the Arab slave-dealers against the 
 missionaries and the trading companies. The Arabs were naturally 
 alarmed at the progress made by British influence in the region, 
 a progress which in tlie end might, they feared, extinguish their 
 occupation. Hostilities Avere carried on for some months in the 
 district on the west of the Lake Nyasa, and it was in connection 
 with these that the name of Captain Lugard first came prominently
 
 2H8 AFRICA 
 
 1888-1889 
 
 iK'forc the Hn'tisli puMio. lie rendered valuable service apfainst the 
 Arabs atui their native allies, and jjiobably was the means of pre- 
 venting; a wholesale niassaerc of the iirilish i-.i the country. The 
 Portnpiesc otlieials at Mozambique diil their utmost to hamper the 
 I'rilish bv prevent ini,^ the importati(~>n of much-needed ammunition 
 and weapons. It was not until the advent of the experienced Johns- 
 ton, as the British represeiitative in Nyasaland. that an understand- 
 iiiiT was reacheil between the Arabs and the Lakes Company, the 
 >inews o\ war beint^ supplied in a j^^reat measure by the British South 
 Africa Company, to the extent of about $350,000. While slavc- 
 tradinj:]: was by no means extiiii^uished. it was to a considerable 
 extent suppressed. thous;:h much yet remains to be done ere it is 
 abolishcvl entirely. L'nfortunately the cvi<lcnce is only too con- 
 vincini; that men calling- themselves l'ortug"uese subjects do 
 (|uite as much as the Arabs to continue the traflic noi"th of the 
 Zaiubczi. 
 
 While in 1S88 tlicsc troubles were harassing the British occu- 
 ])ants of Xyasaland. Porlu.qal was making a final determined effort 
 to (ibiain possession of a region which she had so long neglected. 
 So late as October. iiS8(S. the British Minister at Lisbon was able 
 t'l a-~,-ui'e Senlior (ionics lliat luigland had no intention of estab- 
 lishing exc!usi\c juiixliction over the I>akc Xyasa region; she 
 sinii)ly (le-ired unhampered freedom for her missic^iaries and 
 trader.-. This neutral attitude did not long continue. Toward 
 t!;e end of iNSS the consul at Mo/.ambiciue reported that a formid- 
 able expedition \\as on its way to the Shire River and the west 
 s!ii>re of L-ikc Xyasa. dliough this cxjjcdition reached tlic south 
 .-h.'re oi the lake, its reception bv the natives was so unfavorable 
 lliai in t:ie >i)ring of iSSc; it was resolved at Lisbon to send a relief 
 cxpfii;l;"n lo it- aid, under the ccmmand of the famous Ser])a Linto. 
 .\bor.t t!;e same tune a ro\-aI decree established and endowed a 
 ]< UKin ('at;:"lic mi->ion n]\ the soutli shore of Lake Xyasa. 'Jdie 
 i'.rA-:!!: n "i tliis \\a> o])\i(,us. LdTorls were, moreover, made by the 
 I'ortugiK-e autlioritics at .Mo/.aml)i(jue to induce \arious chiefs in 
 t'.e ne:,L:'iborhoud of ilie lake to declare themselves vas.-als of J'or- 
 ti:ga!. br.L wiih'.ui Micce--. The expedition under Ser])a PiiUo, 
 b -v'. c\cr. c.-iu-cd more anxict\- tlian aTi\- other effort on the part 
 oi !'. .rtu-rd to oindij (ircat liritain; aixl bv the mitldle of ]X><<) it 
 became ;uip:;re;ii ;l;ai no half-mea-nres would suffice, and that if 
 ' !''! were to ~cc;;rc Iier inlere-Is on tiie ivjrlh of tlic /am-
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA S39 
 
 1889-1890 
 
 bezi, she must do so by placing the region under her flag, and so 
 including it within the sphere of British influence. By this 
 time Johnston, who had done excellent service in West Africa, 
 had reached his post as British consul at Mozambique, charged 
 as such w^ith the care of British interests in the interior; he was 
 not the man to allow himself to be outwitted. Whatever may have 
 been his secret instructions, he took with him a supply of British 
 flags, and lost no time in making his way to the Shire River, w'hich, 
 it soon become obvious, was tlie ultimate destination of the force 
 under Serpa Pinto. By the latter part of 1889 this force had been 
 increased to some five thousand. Serpa Pinto professed that tlie 
 expedition was a peaceful one, his object being merely to pass 
 through the country of the Makololo for the purpose of exploring 
 in the region of Lake Nyasa. These Makololo were the remnants 
 of those who had accompanied Livingstone in his first great expedi- 
 tion across Africa, and had settled in the country to the west of the 
 Sh.ire. Here they soon became dominant, and though only a hand- 
 ful, made themselves masters of the whole country. The action of 
 the Portuguese force belied the ])rofessions of its commander. The 
 Alakololo were attacked and many of them killed. They had 
 always remained attached to the English, and Acting Consul Bu- 
 chanan, who resided at Blantyre, lost no time in formally declaring 
 the Makololo country under the British flag, at least to the north 
 of the junction of tlie Ruo and the Shire. This action was con- 
 firmed by Consul Johnston when lie arrived on the scene, and 
 subsequent treaties with nati\'e cliicfs, both in the Shire district, 
 on the west of Lake Xyasa. and as far as Lake Tanganyika, to 
 which Johnston proceeded, barred the way against further Portu- 
 guese aggression. Johnston's acti\'ily in securing jjrilish interests 
 in this important region was admirable; tlie country is caj)able 
 of considerable industrial devcloiJUienl, nut only in the IJiantyre 
 highlands, Init in tlie kjfty j)lateau lying between Lakes Xyasa and 
 Tanganyika, and is comparatively favorable t(j the residence of 
 Europeans. 
 
 IMeanwhile the Portuguese officials on the Sliire continued to 
 annoy British traders and explorers, and tlic Tortnguese .authorities 
 in Mozambiciuc did what they could to h;iiiiper Britisli commerce. 
 Commissioned by Rhodes, Jo-c])h Tliomsoii, tlie eminent African 
 explorer, accompanied by Craiit, ascended tlie .Sliire for the ])iir- 
 I)ose of proceetling westward to Lake Bangw cjIo. While proceed-
 
 240 A ! H I C A 
 
 1890- 18d1 
 
 iiij; aliniqf llic Shire lie was actually fired upon at the instig-ation 
 I't the I\>rtiiiruesc. hut without iuiuriuus results. The real object 
 oi the expetlitiou. as of another seiU out at the same time under 
 Sharpe. was lo secure the country ot' Kataui^a. lyiui^ on the west 
 of Lake Mweru, for the British South Africa Comi)any. The dis- 
 trict coveted undoubtedly lay within the cartographical limits of 
 the Congo h'ree Slate, and uoi unnaturally the King of the Belgians 
 resented this attcnii)t to snatch from his grasp a country reputed 
 to be rich in gold and coi)per. The king might easily have been 
 induced to enter into an arrangement with Rhodes had the latter 
 shown more dii)lomac\ ; as it was, a Belgian Katanga Company 
 was immediately formed, and the country was speedily taken pos- 
 session of in the name of the l*"ree State. 
 
 Rhodes not only sought after Katanga, but had the ambi- 
 tion of sweei)ing under the sway of his Chartered Company the 
 region worked by the Lakes Company and all the territory north 
 of the Zambezi. The Lakes Company, it has been seen, was never 
 characterized by stupendous enterprise; their operations bad always 
 been, probably from lack of funds, on a petty scale. Rhodes of- 
 fered therefore to incorporate the company with the South African 
 Company, and to allow them a handsome annual subsidy. Johnston, 
 who had come home after securing British interests on the north 
 of the Zambezi, returned to his post in the spring of 1891, as 
 commissioner and consul-general for British Central Africa, and 
 administrator of what is now ofticially designated the British Cen- 
 tral Africa ])rutectorate. To enable Johnston to carry on his 
 Work of administration and development, tlie British South Africa 
 Comj)any agreed to contribute $50,000 a year; the actual sum 
 turned in during tliree years far exceeded that. Tlie commissioner 
 acted as agent for the company, wliicli claimed the whole of the 
 terniiiry out-~ide of Xyasaland projicr, under which are included the 
 d'-tricts in the Lake Xyasa region, in which Ijritish missionaries 
 ha\e becri at work for many years, and which are uiider direct 
 nTiperial .-'.dministration. Johnston had witli him a small staff, 
 ::K!u(i:!ig an engineer olVicer and a jjractical botanist; he took up his 
 ;;eadquanerN ai the consulate at Zomba, to the north of Blantyre. 
 and on I'.i- arri\al '-et h.imself at once to the establishment of an 
 adrnin>trarion to tlie furtlierancc of legitimate trade, and to tlie 
 encMin-.-iLTcnicm oi tin- industrial development of the extensive region 
 ! ''"' " ':- r:;-e. lli- \v(jrk was fticilitatcd bv tlie ratification
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 241 
 
 1891-1894 
 
 of the Anglo-Portugnese agreement of June ii, 1891, wliich settled 
 all disputes as to boundaries. By this agreement the whole of the 
 region to the north of the Zambezi, west of the Shire and Lake 
 Nyasa, to the Barotse country on both sides of the Upper Zambezi 
 is included in the British sphere; so that by this arrangement, some- 
 thing like 500,000 square miles were added to the British sphere, 
 including some of the best w^atered and most promising portions of 
 Central Africa. 
 
 Johnston began his work of organization with the country 
 south of the lake. The missionaries, who had hitherto been 
 supreme in these parts, did not take kindly to the intrusion of the 
 civil power, and some friction was at first the result. Much more 
 serious was the friction which took place between Johnston and the 
 slave-trading chief ]\Iakanjila on the south shore of the lake. An 
 encounter between a small English force and the chief resulted disas- 
 trously for the former. But the commissioner could not submit 
 quietly to such a defeat. While dealing effectively with other hostile 
 and slave-raiding chiefs, it was not till the beginning of 1894 that 
 he felt himself in a position to attack Makanjila's stronghold. He 
 had in the meantime been reinforced by additional Sikhs from India 
 and by two new gunboats on the lake. The Makanjila had himself 
 been murdered by a relative, and a new Makanjila reigned in his 
 stead, having some 2000 men at his command. In the end of 1893 
 and beginning of 1894 the new Alakanjila was completely defeated, 
 and in March, 1894, he made his submission to the British authori- 
 ties; so that one of the most formidal^le obstacles to the development 
 of Nyasaland and the suppression of the slave-trade has been 
 removed. 
 
 Though much has thus been accomplished, and although the 
 region on the south of the lake is now under command, much 
 remains to be done on the west of tlie lake and in the rest of tlic 
 sphere ere slave-raiding chiefs and slave-dealing Arabs can l)c finally 
 gotten rid of. In dealing with native chiefs, however, and with 
 Aral), or so-called Arab, settlers and traders, the greatest tact and 
 patience are needed, l^o attempt to sweep slavery off the face of the 
 continent at one blow will result only in the defeat of the object 
 aimed at. But Johnston had shown on more llian one occasion 
 that he knew how to deal both with natives and with Arai)s. and 
 there was every reason to hope that under his administration the 
 British Central Africa protectorate would dcxelcjp into a land of
 
 2+2 AFRICA 
 
 1891-1894 
 
 pc;u-c and settled indnslry. Tin's linpc lias been realized in no 
 <m:\\\ dcRTce. JdhnsttMi divided the protectorate on Lake Nyasa 
 .111(1 the coiiiitrv bcviMul into provinces and districts; there are ont- 
 lyinj^ posts as far as T.ake Mwcni, on tlie borders of the Conpfo JMee 
 State. A considerable revenue is raised by customs duties and 
 taxation. The luiropcan population is about 450, mostly P>ritish 
 sulMCCts. Moreover, traders arc settlinj^ in the lower rc,q:ion, while 
 Aral)s rec(\i::ni/c(l as traders of repute liave stations in various parts 
 of the Hritish sphere. The total native population is about 900,000, 
 thou,q-h lar.trc areas have been devastated i)y slave-raidin<:::. Blantyre 
 has a population (^f about 100 Ruropcans and 6000 natives. It has 
 manv cj-ood houses and a handsome church of brick, built entirely 
 bv native labor. The Shire province, lyinc^ round the soutlicrn 
 shores of Lake Xvasa, is rrovcrncd much after the manner of a 
 Crown cttliMiv. It is divided into twelve districts, each with its 
 staff of oflkials. There are postoffices and custom-houses, and a 
 newspaper, and the telcq^raph has been rapidly extended to the 
 Zambezi, so that Zomba and Blantyre are in tele.cfraphic connecti(m 
 with luigland. Good roads arc beint^ made in all directions, and 
 steps arc beincf taken to connect the Lower Shire, past the rapids, 
 by means of a railroad with the lake. Coffce-plantini:^ has been 
 preatly extended, anrl the produce fetches the hii^hest price in the 
 foreiicrn market. Rice and wheat arc j^frown successfully, while 
 experiments are also beinic^ made with succar, tea. tobacco, and oilier 
 product^, which there is every reason to believe will prove successful. 
 Oats and barley thrive in the uplands, while merino sheep and Xata1 
 ponies ^-cem to jirosjier. Natives come to Rlantyre froin all quar- 
 ters scekinc: work. The Shire itself has become a hi,G;-hway of com- 
 merce. On this river and Lake Nyasa there are three cjfunboats: 
 there i^ also an armed force of over 200 Sikhs, with several hundred 
 black p ilice. commanded by Lnp^lish officers and Sikh non-commis- 
 sionc'l Mfiiccrs. There is besides an armament of artillery with 
 mountain ^^1111^. At the Chinde mouth of the Zamliezi. the l"*ortu- 
 <ry,cr=iQ Gr,\(Tiimcnt has very liberallv c^rantcd a small piece of land 
 called the HritiNl) Concession, cm wiiicli .cfoods may be landed and 
 transshipped free (<i duty. There are six missionarv societies at 
 wnrk. mainly Scr)tch : tlicv have shown g^reat practical sense, and 
 ha\e lifHi"! reinarkahly '^uccc^'^fnl in manv wavs. 
 
 'I li'.nT-T.n rc-turned in '^haltered health in the end of iJ^qi from 
 his ex[)ed!fi' >n t*, Lake P.an,c,'-weolo. He traversed the plateau region
 
 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 243 
 
 1891-1896 
 
 between Lakes Nyasa and Bangweolo in various directions, and 
 his report to the company speaks in glowing terms of the sakibrity 
 of the region and of its suitabiHty for pLantations and for cattle- 
 raising. Meantime Rhodes, who visited England in the latter part 
 of 1892, floated a scheme for the construction of a line of telegraph 
 through the heart of Africa, joining all the lakes and bringing the 
 Cape into communication with Cairo. 
 
 The succeeding history of Rhodesia has been, for the most 
 part, a steady advance along the lines laid down by its founder. 
 It is now divided into Southern, Northwestern, and Northeastern 
 Rhodesia; of these divisions Southern Rhodesia is. of course, the 
 region best suited for true colonization. Northwestern Rhodesia is 
 the formerly disputed district of Barotseland. This whole region is 
 being developed as no other part of the interior has been ; the death 
 of the moving spirit has but little affected the progress of his 
 enterprises. 
 
 But the recent history of Rhodesia has had its dark pages also. 
 Early in 1896, the Matabeles, a strong and warlike tribe, taking 
 advantage of the opportunity offered by the Jameson raid and its 
 sequel, broke out in rebellion. A prominent cause of the revolt was 
 to be found in the shooting of seemingly healthy, but actually in- 
 fected cattle by the British authorities, during the " rinderpest." 
 This proceeding was completely beyond the comprehension of the 
 natives, who saw in it simply an intention to ruin them by a reckless 
 reduction of that which constituted their sole wen 1th. This and 
 several other contributing causes were seized upon by the native 
 witch-doctors, who worked the population up to a frenzy. Consid- 
 erable bloodshed ensued, and several hot engagements. Finally, 
 after some decisive successes of the British, Cecil Rhodes, witli 
 astonishing sang^-froid, made his way unarmed into the midst of 
 the black hordes and. partially by promises, jiartially by threats, re- 
 duced the chiefs to subordination. Tt is estimated that the total re- 
 pression of the Matabele rebellion by f^rce of arms would have cost 
 $25,000,000 and numerous lives. This action is but one of many 
 which marked Rhodes out as a man far beyond the ordinary, what- 
 ever one's opinion may be as to his general character and influence. 
 
 A rising in Mashonaland followed the Alalabele rebellion in 
 June, 1896, but was more easily controlled. Tn conscf|uence, how- 
 ever, of these disorders and of the mortality among the cittlc. the 
 development of the country received a shock which might h.-ivc been
 
 j>4+ A V nic A 
 
 1896-1898 
 
 more marked had it not been for the contemporary discoveries of 
 pold. At tlie same time an enquiry was on foot to determine, among 
 otiier assiq:ned causes of the rebellion, the extent of asserted " com- 
 pulsory labor " in Rhodesia : and the result of the investij^ation, 
 which decided the question of its prevalence in the affirmative, cast 
 a further shadow on the reputation and prospects of the country. 
 Xcverthcless. proq^rcss has been made alonj^ all lines since this period. 
 In iS<)8 a dci^rcc of representative i]^overnmcnt was assured to the 
 settlors (^f Southern Rhodesia; and a resident commissioner was ap- 
 pointed by the Secretary of State. This ap])cars to strenii^then the 
 imperial jxtwer in this rce^ion, and is doubtless one of the prelimina- 
 ries to the assumption of full imperial possession. Northwestern 
 and Xortheastern Rhodesia are administered by the British South 
 African Company alone.
 
 Chapter XVIII 
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 
 
 (By the Editor) 
 
 THE author has stated that the main Hnes of the final parti- 
 tion of Africa had already been laid down by the year 
 1895. Practically no African districts then existed which 
 were not comprehended at least within one or other of those vague 
 delimitations known as spheres of influence. The scramble had 
 been sufficiently vigorous and protracted to lead to the appropriation 
 of all that was as yet undivided, not only in Africa, but in the rest 
 of the habitable (not to say uninhabitable) world. Not only this, 
 but to all general intents and purposes the boundaries had been fixed 
 by various international agreements, so that rivalries for this or 
 that comparatively petty advantage were all that remained of the 
 grand-scale collisions of previous years. 
 
 Into these latter details it is not the purpose of this supple- 
 mentary chapter to enter; here it is intended rather to trace the 
 most important of the later transfers of territory, and to give some 
 account of the recent and characteristic development of the districts 
 already acquired in 1895 by the several powers. In other words, 
 the present cliapter will deal wnth more general questions of adjust- 
 ment and policy, rather than with specific matters of geographical 
 delimitation and local administration.^ 
 
 Before entering upon the discussion of territories, eitlicr owned 
 or virtually owned by European nations, a word should be said of 
 what may be called the Arabian portions of Africa. As these 
 (together with Liberia and Abyssinia) do not come in strictness 
 within the scope of the present volume, except as they ha\'e formed 
 and are likely to form objects of interest to the F.uropean powers 
 in their projects and adjustments, a short characterization will 
 
 ^ For information on these latter points not interpolated in the text, readers 
 arc referred to Mr. Keltie's work in the Statesman's Year i^iok, as well as to 
 his and the editor's bibliography at the end t>f the present vuluuic. 
 
 21.5
 
 g46 A 1' H I C A 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 suiTico. The vet independent ^^ollanlmcdan states of the north of 
 Africa (Morocco. Triiu)!!. I'cz/.an. Barca, etc.) are of an essentially 
 unpn>{;rcs>i\o, barharic type of civilization; but they are warlike 
 and resist cniKjiiest with vi^i^or. Islam here stands in the path of 
 hi^lier civilization, as it is ever wiMit to stand, inflexible, fanatic, 
 and conteiujitnons. \\'hocver undertakes to reduce and govern 
 those rei;ions will have the task of the Spaniards and Americans 
 in Sulu and Mindanao, of tlie Dutch in the Malay Archipelago, and 
 of tlie nei.q:hl)(>r!ng- French in W'adai and Bagirmi. Commercial 
 advantage is the only thing offered by the Christian that the Mos- 
 lem wants; and his attitude in the taking of it resembles that of a 
 l.^rd condescending to deal with his slave. It is worth while to 
 form, from this brief notice, sotne conception of the destiny of 
 lain i)ean enterprise and expansion in their inevitable entrance into 
 these regions. 
 
 From this group of states, in consequence of recent events, 
 Morocci> must be singled out for especial attention; for her status 
 cannot fail to be altered within a short time. Up to several years 
 ago it wa^ supposed in a general way that France and Spain had 
 about efjual claims to a Moroccan protectorate, if any considerable 
 alteration of the stalits quo were to take place. But it was also 
 recognized that France, being next neighbor to Morocco, possessed 
 the advantage of being on the ground, and of being able more easily 
 to show real or ostensible cause for redressing actual or other en- 
 croachment. Some adjustment of French and Spanish claims took 
 I>lace. However, disorder in ]\rorocco took on a more international 
 f. 'nil of nienace, and in April, IQ04, the world was surprised by the 
 publicailiii (if an Anglo-l'^rench agreement, whereby Great Britain 
 sccnicd tli>pM>c(l to recognize French predominance in Morocco in 
 return, f. .r the abandonment of the shadowy b^'ench claims in Fgypt. 
 Xo jxirticiiLir objectiiui was heard, however, until the German 
 ]"mj)c',-i .r initiated a \igorous policy of protest which stirred the 
 v.alers to the extent of retiring the French Minister, Delcasse, who 
 had >trcii'i' ii-ly ojjposed tiie Gcrm.an pcjlicy. It later a])peared that 
 I'.e I\';ti-cr was intent only upon the maintenance of the "open 
 ;'. r "" in Muroccti: and tlie I-^rench Gfn-ernment a.doptcd tlie same 
 jKilicy of concili;;ti<Mi. In (jrdcr, JKnvever, to settle the whole matter 
 jrabhcly, an international conference was called to meet (1905} at 
 .\!c,^cr:r.':- i:: Sj-ain. Mnr'icco lias been a sonrce of trouble tc) the 
 .'-(.\ (.-rrd iiali'^n- owniii^^ possessions within its borders, for years.
 
 AFRICA SINCE 18 95 247 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 notwithstanding the convention at Algcciras, and France experi- 
 enced so much difficulty, that on May 25, 1907, it made public its 
 intention to enforce its demands upon Morocco, which included 
 the settlement of all claims secured in the convention above men- 
 tioned. It also demanded the thorough punishment of all those 
 who were causing trouble for French officials. Previous to this, 
 on March 25, 1907, French troops had been sent to Ouja, one of 
 the towns on the frontier of IMorocco, with orders to remain until 
 reparation was made for the murder of Dr. Maucomp, a French 
 citizen. On July 4th, of that same year, Great Britain demanded 
 the release of its distinguished citizen. Sir Harry MacLean, who 
 had been commander of the sultan's body guard. Both demands 
 were acceded to. Not satisfied with the trend of events, however, 
 on September 6, 1907, France and Spain declared their intention 
 of taking possession of the principal Moroccan cities, owing to the 
 permission granted them by the Powers, which had agreed to ex- 
 tend the scope of the specifications of the Algeciras convention. 
 Naturally, the people of Morocco rebelled against this, and January 
 II, 1908, proclaiming Mulai Flafid sultan, they declared a holy war. 
 France and Germany entered into a complete agreement regarding 
 ]\I(jrocco, on May 27, 1908, which simplified matters somewhat, 
 but this agreement was not signed until February 9, 1909. In the 
 meanwhile Spain was forced into action Vv'ith the ]\Ioors, and King 
 Alfonso himself directed some of the movements. The Moors 
 practiced such atrocities upon the Spanish residents at various 
 points, that the sultan ordered them to cease. At first the floors 
 were successful in the engagements between them and the Span- 
 iards, the latter meeting with severe losses at ]\,lclilla. ^Morocco 
 applied to the J'owcrs asking intervention, and refused on 5>cptcni- 
 ber 21, 1909, to withdraw that note upon the demand of Spain. 
 The tide turned against the Moors who lost 400 men in action. 
 Further developments showed that y)ul)lic opinion was against 
 the Moors, as the diplomatic corps of Tangier refused its interven- 
 tion in the matter. Tired of war, the AToorish tribesmen requested 
 the Spanisli go\-crnment to open peace negotiations, on Octol)or 
 26th, and on November 27th, the Spanish ea])inct flccided to with- 
 draw its troops from ?\IorrK"co. anrl i()TO rjpcned with relations be- 
 tween Spain and Morocco diplomatically arranged. 
 
 T>iberla and Abyssinia arc both aiiMni:?!ies. The former has a 
 supposedly repatriated population, l)nt it is an African ethniml
 
 5i8 A 11 I C A 
 
 1699-1910 
 
 niixture of a fantastic type. The case is difTcrcnt with Abyssinia, 
 always in rcahty, and sir.ce 1S96 tmcc nn^re nominally, independent; 
 for, althoutjh anomalous as having long been a professedly Christian 
 native stale, it is in reality a community of advanced and progress- 
 ive savages, and their destiny has been shrewdly guided by 
 MoTiolek 11. the aged fox who died March 30, 1910. The Canary 
 Islands arc administered as a province of Spain. These African 
 pcx^sessioiis cover some 250,000 scjuare miles, and have a population 
 ot about ijo.ooo. 'J'hcy are of little value and should be sold; the 
 deficit in their budget, as estimated for 1902, was almost $400,000. 
 
 Xo other European possession in Africa, excepting those of 
 Spain, can vie with the colonies of the Italians in point of diminu- 
 tiveness and generally undesirable character. Italian expansion 
 had taken its rise under the ominous dual sponsorship of megalo- 
 mania among ideas and of Crispi among men. The general tem- 
 per of the movement was most clearly seen in Italy's relations 
 with Abyssinia, over which she claimed a protectorate from 1889 
 to 1896; tliC}- were compounded of ignorance (geographical as well 
 ns ctlmological ). self-complacency, and raslmess. Italy was so self- 
 sritiM^ed in lier pose as representative of Menelek in the concert of 
 ])('V.ers that she ignored or failed to perceive the unceasing and 
 hostile operations of the Frcncli. No attention was given to the 
 fcrmati'in of a correct view of llie Abyssinians or of their customs 
 and i)reju(liccs; the yoke of the half-acknowledged protectorate was 
 made not easy, but galling. An awkward move leading to the 
 occu])ation of the ancient capital, Adowa, in the holy country of 
 'I'igrc, prcci;)ifated general hostilities; and the Italians suddenly 
 found themselves o])p()sed to the only strong and well-organized 
 Airican state, a state whose warlike population prided itself upon 
 its independence and its successes against invaders. They had 
 looked u\) n the Ai)yssinian army as a "horde," an easy prey for 
 five lumchcd Italians with a little artillery; they found it armed with 
 rapid- fire gi;ns and drilled by iM'ench tacticians. On March i, 1896, 
 iJ.OfK) Italians rasldy attacked the Abyssinian army of 80,000 and 
 v.crc all but annihilated. 
 
 In t'lc treaty which followed this battle of Abba Garima, the 
 j)r' >terio!:iic < . er Abyssinia was gi\en up and the Abyssinian terri- 
 tory v.l-.icii :.,'id l)C(n occupied was evacuated. Kassala, which had 
 been " licld in trust " for Egypt, was restored to that government. 
 Here. tic-,. Abyssinia returned to an independent status, in name 
 a> m rca, ::y; and Italy was relieved of her questionable })rotectorate 
 Wit:; ]',- -Mijxisin;;- figures, elscwlicrc ,ri\-en, of area and population.
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 249 
 
 189S-ldlO 
 
 The so-called colony of Eritrea (the possession on the Red Sea 
 coast) has not been the object of much enthusiasm since the Abys- 
 sinian catastrophe; the disillusionment caused by that disaster was 
 too shocking, the actual loss too severe. Yet it should be recorded 
 that Italy's policy of administration among her sterile sand-dunes 
 has been far from discreditable, especially under the direction of the 
 unfortunate General Baratieri. In 1892, according to Brunialti, 
 Italy had achieved " a modest but true success, without exaggera- 
 tion, uncertainty, or weakness," in her endeavor to benefit Eritrea 
 in ways hygienic, economic, judicial, and educational. Civil had 
 replaced military government with the appointment of Baratieri 
 in 1892. 
 
 Before leaving Italy it should be stated that she has had her 
 eye on Tunis in the past, and at one time even took some half-steps 
 toward obtaining a lien on the country through the construction of 
 railroad lines. Here, however, she was again outwitted and out- 
 done by France ; and has since taken refuge in querulous complaints 
 and muttered threats, and in a diversion of her dimly-conceived 
 colonial schemes to the less-promising Tripoli. She is not likely to 
 play an important part either here or in her own arid and stifling 
 colony. 
 
 Eritrea now contains some 88,500 square miles, with 450,000 
 population, and the Somali protectorate, 100,000 square miles, with 
 400,000 population. There are but few miles of railroad or tele- 
 graph, and commerce does not meet former expectations; an Italian 
 pearl fishing company was formed in 1898, operating in the small 
 archipelago of the Red Sea, 
 
 The case is scarcely better with Portugal. Like Italy, she lacks 
 size, population, and capital, and borrows a feeble present impor- 
 tance from a striking past. But, unlike Italy, she possesses energy 
 insufficient even passably to manage and develop her possessions; 
 even a reverse of any magnitude is beyond her. Angola, although it 
 is said by Johnston to be the most flourishing of the Portuguese 
 colonies in Africa, may be dismissed with short shrift, as may Por- 
 tuguese Guinea and the coast islands ; despite occasional rumors to 
 the contrary, little or nothing of interest or moment is actually done. 
 These sections of the continent vegetate in dullness undisturbed. 
 As has been seen, the political twistings and turnings in South 
 Africa have stirred the Alozambique region to the old activity of
 
 a-io A F U I C A 
 
 1895 1910 
 
 complaint mid pretense so characteristic twenty years ago. lUit 
 all the intnrinatioM available in late )ears tends to show that ]>roj^ress 
 lias left rortui;.d nntonchcd and nndistnrhed, so far as any whole- 
 some ctVccts on the ct)Ionies q'o. l\)rtu.^"ars possessions in Africa 
 all combine to form a financial strain npon the state, and what was 
 saitl oi them in iS<)3 will do very well for a decade later. Delagoa 
 r.ay has been connected with the Transvaal frontier, and its rail- 
 roads and commercial relations, including; ac^reeincnts concernini^^ 
 transit of i^oods. have been arranqed snbse(|nently to the Boer War 
 between 1-Jii;land aiul I'ortiii^al (December, 1901). Some miles of 
 railroad anil telegraph lines have been put into operation, and there 
 exist jirojects oi further extension. 
 
 There is less of change to report in the status of the Congo 
 I'Tee Slate than would have been anticipated ten years ago. it 
 remains a j)iece oi King Leopold's private property, constituting a 
 personal estate unrivaled throughout human history in size and 
 imjioriance. Its connection with I'elgium is still a ]mrely personal 
 one. and pnnnises so to continue during the life of the king. The 
 general disi)(>>ition is to leave the work in his hands as long as possi- 
 ble. Leopold, it will be reci)llecte(l, made a will in 1889 by which 
 Lelgium was to inherit his Central African domains; and. although 
 considerable inertia and o|)i)(xsition had to be overcome. Belgium 
 recognized the right of annexation by the Act of July 3, 1890. All 
 tile legal and constitutional diniculties were gotten out of the way 
 in iS(;_i by the introduction into Article L of the Belgian Constitu- 
 ti.iii of a ])aragrai)h relating to colonics. In 1895 the project of 
 aniiexatiMU was actually broached in the legislative body, but 
 eiKonntered such determined opposition that it was practically 
 >hel\ed. 
 
 I'loin tl;e time wlicn Leopold was authorized to assume the 
 tiih- of -o\ereign <jf the Congo State (1885) Belgium has thus 
 t 'Xed with her prede-tiiUMJ " colonv." She has even advanced funds. 
 thoiufh wiih a " >tring attached."' The present status is jiractically 
 th.it I.I iS()(). l;y the act of that year, lielgium ad\-anced a sum of 
 S";.()( K>.o(j() and obtanied tlie right oi taking (ner the .African de- 
 l""!'if!iry ;:t ;iii\- dnte witliin ten and a half )'ears from the signature 
 I the a(t. h was thoiighl b\- many that the Congo .State would 
 :.M- -.iaini-;i!I_\ i.;;', in l',c-igiiiin )ii i()()i. lint on August 10 of that 
 \>jy ilse Main-, ui i^no \\:\-. rcairiniUMl. iielginm renouncing the 
 lej/.i; ii.eu: ^>i aihauce (iinludiiig a :-,ub-e<iiient grant in 1895 of
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 261 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 some $1,360,000) and interest, and reserving still the right of 
 annexation. 
 
 This action seems, in the face of the eagerness of other powers, 
 like over-conservatism, indecision, or faint-heartedness ; but there 
 are some authorities who explain it, or seek to excuse it, on other 
 grounds. Some say the king is at last deriving profits " too 
 welcome to be rapidly parted with " ; and it is asserted by others 
 that the thrifty Belgians do not wish to assume the necessarily large 
 deficits of the Congo's early years deficits which have seriously 
 depleted the large private fortune of the king while Leopold stands 
 ready to guarantee them, thus avoiding all risk of financial loss, 
 while practically assuring final possession. But, according to 
 Boulger, a Congo State partisan, " Instructed opinion is unanimous 
 in Belgium that, in the interests of everyone concerned, it w^ould be 
 unwise to change the existing state of things on the Congo during 
 the life of King Leopold. Under the present system the Belgians 
 possess all the advantage of a colony without any of the incon- 
 veniences, and, as long as the king survives, the situation will 
 remain unchanged." But the situation nears its change, for the 
 king is an old man. There is, moreover, no doubt that the defer- 
 ment of the consummation is gradually adding to the anticipated 
 charm of union ; for earth-hunger is a consuming ])assion of nations, 
 small as well as great. 
 
 During the years since 1895 there has been a regular advance 
 of outposts into the less-known regions assigned to the State in the 
 course of partition. One of the most noteworth}- of these was the 
 expedition in 1897 to tlie headwaters of the Nile, which established 
 Belgian influence in this important region, and directly aided the 
 operations of the Sirdar of Egypt by striking a serious blow at the 
 ]\Lahdists. Liternally also the region has been reduced to better 
 order; the administration has been adjusted and regulated, legal 
 machinery set up, and civil law extended thrcnighout the State 
 (May, 1897). Between 1886 and 1897 criminal cases, mostly for 
 theft or assault, have been taken cognizance of in greater and 
 greater numbers (622 in the latter year as against 62 in the former). 
 1'lie land system also lias ])ecn regulated, by a division of holdings 
 into three classes tliosc of natives, of non-natives ("registered 
 lands "), and of the Crown (vacant areas). 
 
 1"he construction of railroads and telegraph lines has been 
 steadily pushed forward, some of the former anticipating projected
 
 ^I'-.o AFRICA 
 
 1895 1910 
 
 I->cncli lines nrross the river. n\v\ pfivinp^ to tlie Free State an 
 iinineiisc eoinioinic advaiita^-e o\cv close competitors. Nine hun- 
 (Ireil atlditional tuiles arc now ready for c(mstruction under a ninety- 
 nine-year concession to a r.cl,q:ian company. Kng-inccrinp; difficulties 
 of manv kinds, to say nothin.^- of tiiosc attendinjjf transportation of 
 materials of construction, and enlistment of an adefjuate labor sup- 
 ply, liavc Somehow been surmounted. The wealth of the interior 
 is now within two days of the coast, and much risk of delay and loss 
 has been remincd from commercial enterprise. The teleg'raph has 
 t^onc almost pace for pace with the railroads; to overcome peculiar 
 local conditions of dampness, etc.. use has been made of phosphorized 
 bronze wire and steel posts. The telephone is operated to a less 
 extent. 
 
 In the midst of what would appear to be p^eneral peace and 
 prosperity, however, the friction incident to the contact of two 
 widely alien races has manifested itself from time to time. It will 
 be remembered that the earliest bcG^innings of the b'ree State were 
 bound up with an anti-slavery at^itation, and the very first clause 
 of the penal code placed slavery, even in its domestic form, 
 outside the law. Ijut the State was set down in an area peculiarly 
 cursed by this institution in its basest form, and by other objection- 
 able savai^^e practices, such as cannibalism. It has strus^gled, or, as 
 some of its critics maintain, it has feigried to strus^gle with these 
 elements from the first. 
 
 Xow, to understand the difficulties of the African colonizinj^ 
 j)ower. it must be borne in mind that natives clincf very tenaciously 
 to their ancient customs, even when what forei.^'ners req'ard as 
 incnmjjarably superior is offered to tlieir contemi)lation and imita- 
 tion. They resent interference the more bitterly, inasmuch as such 
 customs are i^cnerally sanctioned by the local reli.c^ion, to say nothing 
 of t;mc-l;al]owc(l usage. Slaverv and cannibalism are two such 
 customs, comparable in their vitality and general acceptation to 
 ]jrivate property or monogamy among ourselves. It is not at all 
 wonderful, therefore, if in a few years a handful of lun'opeans 
 mnke but in-igniticant progress against them. Again, slavery is not 
 all of a single t}pc ; it is generally conceded that the institution as it 
 exists in the domestic form among unt( niched savage tribes is a 
 mild institution, and is preferable to the system of indiscriminate 
 slaughter of the \-an(juished which appears to precede it in the course 
 of social evolution. This domestic form has not been the (jne
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 253 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 singled out by European powers for immediate and ruthless eradi- 
 cation. 
 
 It is the system of slavery identified with the operations of the 
 Arabs against which all European governments must proceed. This 
 kind, in all its shamefulness and barbarity, is the direct outcome of 
 the appearance of America on the scene. It was in the effort to supply 
 the abnormal demand for slaves in America that the raid system be- 
 came organized, by which tribe hunted tribe, and through which 
 bloodshed abounded. Unspeakable atrocities attended the coastward 
 retreat of the raiders, negro and Arab alike. But it was not long 
 before the Arab, with his keen business scent, succeeded in creating 
 a practical monopoly of this bad business ; and then the natives fell 
 back almost universally into the position of the hunted. The Arab 
 traffic has been, of course, largely eastward-bound, though to some 
 extent it has been deflected across the desert. 
 
 The only effective way to proceed against these evils is through 
 forcible and coercive measures, and this has been the method of the 
 Belgians, among others. It was soon clear that the Arabs were the 
 objective point; and it was found that the natives, though they saw 
 no harm in the local form of slavery, and will come to see it only 
 after generations of instruction, w^ere eager to aid the anti-slavery 
 operations for reasons of self-interest and preservation. There was 
 no lack of opportunity for the opening of hostilities on a large scale; 
 the Arabs were eager for a decisive conflict, for their razzias were 
 being checked, their hold on the Arabized negro chiefs was being 
 loosened, and, worst of all for a Mohammedan, they were obliged 
 to pay a tax on ivory to the despised and hated Christian. A wan- 
 ton massacre in 1892 brought on the crisis and led to the destructive 
 Arab campaign of 1892- 1894, elsewhere mentioned. The annihila- 
 tion of the Arab power ended the devastating raids of former years, 
 brought about tlie rq)lacement of disaffected native chiefs and a 
 general disarmament of dangerous elements in the State. It is 
 claimed that the resulting peace and security have affected favorably 
 the advance of the negroes in agricultural and other settled pursuits ; 
 and that the slavery system is now practically obsolete in the Congo. 
 But it should be noted that owing to tlie fact tliat the system has 
 not been rejected by an essential change in the intellectual and moral 
 attitude of the native, the Congo State, as wel! as other e(|uatorial 
 governments, has had to exhibit tlic greatest acutcness and foresiglit 
 to forestall the ruses of th(j,se who w(jnkl perpetuate the system of
 
 254 AFRICA 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 compulsion under pretenses of various tlegfrecs of plausibility. Reg- 
 ulations provide for the oflicial inspection of the so-called contracts 
 l)ct\veen natives and employers, for the limitation of the duration of 
 labor and other such questions. 
 
 In governing the natives the Belgians have been successful 
 if success be taken to mean an increase of peace and order. There 
 are indications that this result has been too often accomplished 
 through the exhibition of savage cruelly dishonorable t(^ European 
 civilization. Serious mutinies in the native military contingent have 
 certainlv occurred, the worst of them being that of the Batetela 
 forces in 1897. closely followed by that of the Dhanis column in the 
 same year. Here, again, the prt)mpt resort to force has solved the 
 situation. There has been more censure of the Belgians for the 
 employment of violent measures than for anything else except per- 
 haps for the vending of spirits and for the encouragement of canni- 
 balism. It is therefore necessary to distinguish an excusable and 
 inevitable employment of prompt measures from actions that may 
 well be charged up as crimes against humanity; and the distinction 
 should be perfectly clear when the latter are pointed out. 
 
 In 1897, in the House of Commons. Sir Charles Dilke proposed 
 a new conference, in view of the following assertions: "That the 
 officers of the (Congo) State encouraged cannibalism, or at least 
 systematically sanctioned it during the Arab campaign," and " that 
 they are debasing the black races, and paving the way to their 
 extinction, by the introduction of alcohol, and, more specifically, 
 of gin." And in the papers of recent date there have been a number 
 of references to cruelty in the Congo region on the part of Belgian 
 officers.- These are serious charges, and it should be recalled that 
 the last two have been lodged against the Germans also, especially 
 in the neighboring Cameroons. .Some of these matters will be taken 
 up later in this chapter, in conncctiDn with the German ])ossessions, 
 and it sliould Ijc borne in mind tliat mncli tliat will there be said is 
 designed to apply, with jjroper modifications, to otlier tropical col- 
 onies, including the region at present under discussion. 
 
 It is certain that the laws of the Congo Slate arc in form well 
 
 * Of late a formal .if;itriti''n hns l)ci.ii ori^nnizrd in this conntry. .n^ well as 
 elsewhere, for tlie puri)osc of fnr(-!!iL; iln' i-ou- of tlit* Coiil^o iriieltics ;iii(l 
 1.1 '.fTy. The c-i-r riijriiii-t I.eopold lia^ certainly \jrv\\ ^tri-iv^llK ivil, c -pcrially 
 -.; no adcquat'- ri-l)iittal ha- been olnrci. The a--erti'^in-> iiia'lc .are in j^^cncr.il 
 \ .:"..'' :- .ai;.! a'i;^;M(; ,; , i, ,n> of tlio-'- JKTiuith rchear-cil. and ]\:i\v liccii so 
 vo'' '; ' : ' ynf; no f;ril;.T arromU in thi- nla'-r.
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 255 
 
 1895 1910 
 
 conceived, and that the intentions of Leopold have appeared to be 
 those of a cultured and generous mind (although there are those 
 who regard him as the greatest international bandit of our time) ; 
 thus were the Indian laws of Spain, and such were many Spanish 
 kings, in the setting of their times. Abuse was not prevented in 
 either case. It does not excuse the act to harp upon the commis- 
 sion instituted for the protection of the natives, nor to quote, as 
 Boulger does, the legal enactments. It appears, however, taking 
 up Sir Charles Dilke's specific charges, that he has misrepresented 
 the attitude, by not considering the environment, of at least one 
 prominent Belgian officer. Baron Dhanis, to whom he actually refers 
 in connection with the encouragement of cannibalism. No doubt 
 the baron's commissary was occasionally embarrassed, with plenty 
 of locally acceptable food within reach, in the shape of the newly- 
 slain enemy. But there appears no real proof that he bade his men 
 fall to. It will be noted that he was one of about six human beings 
 present who held European ideas about the eating of human flesh ; 
 and that there were at least io,ooo indispensable auxiliaries, over 
 whom he had no absolute power, who thought differently. Until 
 further evidence is forthcoming, it seems possible to accuse this 
 officer of nothing more than an enforced yielding to the situation, 
 with, perhaps, too small a show of resistance. 
 
 As for the sale of spirits, Boulger believes that it has decreased 
 in later years. Such statements are hard to prove. The temptation 
 is certainly very strong to give to natives the thing they most crave 
 and for which they will work or bargain when no other inducement 
 would stir them from their lethargy. And it is not possible for a 
 new government in a wild country to control unscrupulous individ- 
 uals. It was impossible for the United States Government, which 
 has nothing to accuse others of. if it would; and it has been equally 
 impossible for all other governments when ill-adjusted to a spacious 
 environment. No doubt the stigma will be removed as the powers of 
 stable government extend. It is to be noted, though it is of no 
 value as an argument, that the accuser's nation itself has taken 
 part in a lucrative trade in a debasing commodity which " paves the 
 way to extinction." 
 
 In the preceding paragraj^hs it has been shown that the state 
 whicli em])arks u])on tlie government of a tropical dependency 
 exposes itself to vicissitudes of tlie gravest cliaracter. It is impossi- 
 ble for such a government, at least at first, to control a tropical area
 
 Zr>6 AFHK A 
 
 1895 1910 
 
 in such an ctTiciciit way ns to curb the brutish passions of the unruly 
 nnd vicinus whom it is able to restrain in the lionic-land. Praise or 
 blame must be dealt out, then, in accordance with the effort put 
 forth by the colonial power to adapt itself to new conditions. All 
 the colonizing^ nations have been accused, and with justice, of cruelty 
 or the non-restraint of cruelty the British in the Pacific, the Span- 
 ish in America, the Portugi'uese and Dutch in the Malay Archipel- 
 ago, the l-'rench in Indo-China. the Americans in the Philippines. 
 Against the Belgians, in addition to the charges cited above, accusa- 
 tions of the most serious nature have been made by PI. R. Fox 
 Bourne, in a recent work on the Congo State."' He lays the blame 
 at the doors of the government itself, which he accuses of indiffer- 
 ence to the dictates of common humanity. The " curse of rublxjr '' 
 has fallen not upon the individual trader only, but upon the adminis- 
 tration itself, so that oppression of the severest nature has resulted, 
 especially in tlie enforcement of unpaid labor and in the collection 
 of taxes levied capriciously and without the slightest regard for the 
 economic or moral welfare of the native. Deli-ncjuency in the pay- 
 ment of these requisitions has resulted in the destruction of whole 
 villages, and. worse still, in the mutilation of men, women, and even 
 cliildren. It is asserted by a number of witnesses that hundreds of 
 r-glit hands were preserved, by smoking them, as proofs to the 
 government officials that delinquencies had not gone unpunished. 
 If oiie-fjuarter of the charges made in this book are true, tlie Congo 
 State deserves the reprobation of the world : for here, it will be 
 noted, it is not a question of the unavoidable conditions of tropical 
 governments, but of administrative incapacity and impotence, or 
 even crinnivanrc and ciiconragcmcnt. 
 
 All (luring the early i)art of 1908, the affairs of the Congo Free 
 State were the subject of heated debates in the Belgium parliament, 
 and finally on August 3r(l, the goverinnent annf)nnced its willing- 
 ness to submit all disputes to arbitration, being forced to this fleci- 
 sir>n by popidar ripinion. On August 20, 1908, the Belgium Cham- 
 ]>tr of I)(pntir> j)assed an annexation treaty with regard to the 
 Con;^'-*) IVfc .^;ate. which later was considered and passed l)y the 
 senate. 'I h<- terrible atrocities in the C'ongo I'Vec State reached 
 such a height that on Januar\- 28. 1909, the United States govern- 
 
 " C;v;!:'/.-it:on in ronj.ro]aii(l : A Story of Tntt-rnrition.-il Wrong-doinq; " ; with 
 .1 T'r'fr.t'iry Note ]iy Sir Charles W. I)i!l:o, T.r)n(ioii, IQ03. An answer to tliis 
 .-.;.' k i- r-'itcniptcd in II. \V. W'ack. "The Slorv of the Congo Free State," New 
 
 ^^rk, P/s
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 257 
 
 1895 1910 '^"' 
 
 ment withheld its recognition of Belgium sovereignty in this state. 
 Further demonstration of popular opinion with regard to this 
 matter was shown in the sentencing of Lieutenant Arnold of Bel- 
 gium to twelve years' imprisonment for his atrocities in the Congo. 
 Owing to the prevalence of disease in the Congo, measures were 
 adopted to stamp out the more virulent types, and King Leopold 
 promised on October 28, 1909, to contribute a large sum to be 
 used for this purpose. Since the accession of Albert I, the people 
 of the Congo have hopes of a great betterment in the administra- 
 tion of their affairs. 
 
 It would not be fair to leave the Congo State without a frank 
 recognition of the enterprise, energy, persistence, and skill of the 
 royal founder. With little encouragement he carried on a 
 grandiose undertaking which may yet become the agency in 
 spreading peace, security, and civilization where, a short while ago, 
 these were quite unknown. 
 
 To the facts which have been given in preceding pages con- 
 cerning German Africa, no addition need here be made. But it is 
 all-important, for an understanding of Germany's general attitude 
 and colonial policy, to take a somewhat wider view and perspective 
 of her colonial activity as especially exemplified in Africa. 
 
 It should be noted, first of all, that Germany began her opera- 
 tions under the guidance of a consummate master-spirit, and with 
 the enlightened idea of profiting as far as possible by the experience 
 of older colonizing nations and by the aids of modern science. This 
 is the bright side of the picture. It must be recognized, however, 
 that in spite of the best intentions, the Germans were unable to 
 realize the utter unfitness of elaborate codes and of a minutely 
 differentiated bureaucracy to the conditions of colonial life; and 
 that they erred in trying to carry over to the colonies that military 
 system, in all its rigidity, which had served them so well in 1S70 and 
 before. There was too much red tape and a too frc([ucnt brandish- 
 ing of the " mailed fist." Let us see to what tlicsc factors have led. 
 
 Lmdcr the guidance of Bismarck, it is in all ways pn^bable 
 that British methods, and in particular the device of the Crown 
 colony, would have been early a'^loptcd had it not been for the stub- 
 bornness of a conservative Rciclistag. 1'lie cliaiiccllor was helj")e(l 
 out of a rather embarrassing situation by the aclicn of the Colonial 
 Societies in the formation of Cliartcrcfl Companies; later, with his 
 rare resourcefulness, he was able t(j turn these Icss-wishcd-for alter-
 
 258 AFRICA 
 
 1895 1910 
 
 natives into instruments to secure the realization of his original 
 plans. For it siutuld be noted that the economic and political condi- 
 tions which rendered possible the almost sovereign and independent 
 activities of the earlier Chartered Companies had been considerably 
 modified: so that the Chartered Company was in itself more or less 
 of an anachronism. This tact was Udt long liidden from the mind 
 of the shrewd statesman, and he proceeded to develop to its full a 
 subsidiary use of the Chartered Company, z'ic, that of a convenient 
 screen behind which a modern slate can jjursue its policies of exten- 
 sion and annexation iluring periods when, for reasons of external 
 or internal policy, direct action is less to be desired. 
 
 So suited to its ultimate purpose was this device that by 1892, 
 the recalcitrant group having submitted to changed conditions 
 wherein it was, nolens z'oU'fis. committed to a non-renunciation of 
 already existing interests, all the African companies had lost their 
 independence, and actual annexation was all but inevitable. The 
 German possessions are now practically Crown colonies. 
 
 The comprehensive intellect of the great chancellor likewise led 
 him to support the Cerman leaning toward scientific thoroughness 
 in the matter of investigation of soil, climate, and other vital condi- 
 tions, so that it may be said of the Germans that they alone, among 
 great colonizing nations, ai:)])lie(l from the first to the settlement of 
 the difficult problems of tropical colonization the accumulated experi- 
 ences of mankind. Tliis dexterous management of a bloodless 
 expansion and the enlightened method (jf ai)[)roaching a great task 
 are achievements of which to be proud. 
 
 But the shadow-side is dark. Apparently the machine-like 
 system of the home-land could not be adjusted so as to meet easily 
 an extreme contrast of environment. Tlie bureaucratic regime 
 under which matters of social adjustment had too often to be 
 referred to tlie "green l)aize " in iJerlin. put back seriously the 
 early (leveloi)ment of tlie colonies, under l)oth tlie com])anies and the 
 state. -Xnd. most of all. the exaggeralinn of militarism and its 
 attendant services and burdens acted as a check to possible immigra- 
 tion and peaceful industrial development, 'i'he streams of immigra- 
 tion were little detlected ; the colonial pojuilalicm increased but 
 slowly. What new countries need is a Imikc and adaptable system, 
 capable di a myriad of local modificali' >n-> to meet with all speed 
 ;iri-:ng I'ica! lu-cl-. 
 
 In regard :' the iiaii\e>, the niilitar\- <li-])i i^ition \\ori\cd a dual
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 259 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 result. The Germans acted in a way to be thoroughly understood 
 when they taught " sharp lessons " to unruly savages ; their display 
 of force was wholesome and effective. But the spirit of the subal- 
 tern, puffed up with the dignity of unaccustomed command, was 
 too much abroad in the land ; and the natives were treated again and 
 again more curtly and capriciously than is consistent with mutual 
 good-will and native subordination. 
 
 To this tendency of the young petty officer exercising an uncon- 
 trolled if local command are due likewise, in part, those atrocities 
 perpetrated upon the native peoples of which accounts were rife in 
 1896. But to this cause, as productive of fits of blind rage that 
 know no measure, several others must be added, if the Cameroons 
 atrocities, and those of the Belgian Congo as well, are to be justly 
 understood. The Germans are notoriously poor colonizers of the 
 tropics, being affected by the contrast of climate in a way seldom 
 seen in the case of Southern Europeans. This, as any student of 
 the subject of acclimatization will recognize, upsets the bodily func- 
 tions, and, above all, the nervous system. It is also to be noted, in 
 a case of this kind, whether the incoming race is careful to take 
 precautions, in view of the climatic change, to suit itself to its 
 environment. Changes of food and dress, relaxation of social 
 forms, etc., are indispensable; and sexual and alcoholic excesses are 
 especially to be shunned. The military caste-system stood out 
 strongly against the former adaptations ; as for the later, while 
 sexual vice seems to have been an exception among tlie Germans 
 and Belgians, alcoholic indulgence, invited by the enervating cli- 
 mate, seems to have been characteristic at least of the former. The 
 Germans imported and drank their heavy beer, as at home ; but what 
 was temperance on the Rhine became intem])erance under the 
 ecjuator. Hiese C(;nsi(lerations are amply sufllcient to explain tliat 
 condition, recognized as pathological by German writers, to whicii 
 they gave the name of TropcnkoUcr (Tropic-madness). 
 
 Nothing of this kind is encouraged by the l>crlin Government. 
 Investigations have been made in the ojjen and summary ])nm'slimcni 
 accorded the guilty. But the eradication of the diniculty is to he 
 attained less by legal than by prophylactic measures, as tlic fore- 
 going remarks are designed to sliow. 
 
 In spite, however, of tlicir carlici- successes In ibe criVrln'ng nt 
 native revolts, llic Germans ha\'e not been <]);ire(] e\i)en<e, slreiuMii^ 
 effort, and humiliati(;n in natixx wars. (Jwing prcvaih'ii-ly to the
 
 260 AFRICA 
 
 189S-1910 
 
 svstctn as outlined above, tlicy came into open conflict several years 
 ai;o ( 1903) with tlio Hottentots and Ilercro of their possession in 
 Southwest Africa ami the end is not yet. The physical features 
 of the land and the peculiar type c^f warfare practiced by the foe 
 have contributed formidable dangers to the local German domina- 
 tion. In tryins^ to track down the guerrilla bands in the desert and 
 in fcvcr-rogions. a relatively large number of privates and a choice 
 selection of yt>ung olllccrs have been killed in battle or by disease. 
 l^\cn Iefcat has been suffered by the Kaiser's troops, and white 
 l)risoncrs are said to have been burned at the stake. The trade and 
 the indr.strics of the colony, such as they were, have been ruined, and 
 emigration thither further discouraged. 
 
 As tlie war has gone on. further defections have occurred, and 
 the situ^'.tion has not apjjreciably bettered. -Meanwhile the Social- 
 ists .':i](l others in (k-rmany who have opposetl the expansion policy, 
 have had ammunition put at their disposal. Up to the end of 1905, 
 nearly u.ooo troops have been eiuployed in the colony, and the 
 ci'st has mounted to $4,000,000; that is, about $2500 for every 
 wliite settler, or $5000 a head for the purely German population. 
 And the final issue cannot yet be clearly foreseen. 
 
 Tlie Germans, with characteristic directness, have contributed 
 to discussion of tlie nati\e labor-r|uestion the principle of " compul- 
 s iry labor." It may fairly be said that of all the systems designed 
 to create and maintain a supply of labor in the tropics, slavery alone 
 has uni\ersally attained its end. Economic incentives are all but 
 iif.jjotcnt in the tropics, taken as a whole; and substitution as exhib- 
 :;eil in t';e " CMrih'e-system " has had no satisfactory outcome. Yet 
 ;];e w'lik must ])c (l<jnc by some race other than the white, owing to 
 ti.e i;i;ihi!ity of ilie latter to withstand the tropical climate under a 
 regime nf manual lab ir. Xovv' a number of inlluential German pub- 
 !:r:-ts frai,kly ixvMgnize tlicsc conditions and jjroposc a sort of return 
 tn tlie r^iu'^h and-ready system of long ago. Their arguments de- 
 ceive l)r:ei nutiii'; \i<v. wliatever else may be said of them, they wit- 
 ness to a clear cniiiprei'.ension o] the conditions of racial survival and 
 e.\i!i;(,t:i .11. It is tiic belief of these writers that the native races of 
 t.ie ea:ih !ia\e no mure right to a life of idleness than the members 
 <f a civi'i/ed race; that only in jjroportion as they fall in with the 
 L^eneral iii' .-. enient of civilization have they any claim to an undis- 
 turbed pm-uance of ii:c:r aim-. It is also asserted, with justice, that 
 >eri.4i> ;.. - 1" ui r-'Miie Kind i;es at the bottom of all advance in civili-
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 261 
 
 1893-1910 
 
 zation, and that it must therefore form one of the earliest stages ni 
 race-education if that is to he conferred hy a superior race. It is 
 also clearly recognized that the alternatives which lie before the na- 
 tives are conformity to the type of civilization represented by the 
 dominant races and this demands of everyone, at least in theory, 
 his share of struggle and effort or extinction. From the stand- 
 point, therefore, of both the European and the native, it is well that 
 the latter should be forced to labor. 
 
 There are not many weak points in this argument if the gen- 
 eral premise be granted that advanced races of men must endeavor 
 to lift up their less fortunate competitors ; but there are many serious 
 difficulties in constructing the working programme based upon it, 
 for any system of compulsion of the weaker lends itself easilv to 
 abuse in the hands of the unscrupulous. The Germans have recog- 
 nized this, and sought to provide for it; with how much success the 
 future will show. In their relations with the natives several notably 
 successful administrators . have adopted the motto : Severity with 
 Justice {Strcngc mit Gerechtigkcit) ; the former element is not likely 
 to be wanting among military bureaucrats, but for the latter a 
 responsible and honest colonial administration must answer. 
 
 Sir Harry H. Johnston, an experienced British administrator, 
 has said of the Germans: "It will be seen, I fancy, when liistory 
 takes a review of the foundation of these iXfrican states, that the 
 unmixed Teuton Dutchman or German is on first contact with 
 subject races apt to be harsh and even brutal, but that he is no fool 
 and wins the respect of the negro or Asiatic, who admire brute 
 force; while his own good nature in time induces a softening of 
 manners when the native has ceased to reljel and i)cgun to cringe. 
 There is this that is hopeful and wliolesome about tlie Germans : 
 They are quick to realize their own defects, and equally (juick to 
 amend them. As in commerce, so in government, tlicy obscr\-e, 
 learn, and master the 1)est princi])les. The politician would be very 
 shortsighted who underrated the greatness of the German character, 
 or reckoned on the evanescence of German dominion in strange 
 lands." 4 
 
 Attention has already been drawn to the steady and sure prog- 
 ress of the French in tlie Sahara and Sudan; how no ()p])()rtnnity 
 has been neglected of cutting into the ancient trade-region whicli 
 iormed the Hinterland, or back-country, of the West African scill(>- 
 mcnts, Mr. Keltic has indicated the chagrin of the British and 
 4 Johnston, "Colonization of Africa," p. 1^58.
 
 iC,? A V R T C A 
 
 1893 1910 
 
 (icrniaiis at beinqf fluis cunnncd to the coast. Tlifs l-Vcnch policy 
 iias hoon, lio\\c\cr, almost universally successful, although it 
 receivcil a sc\ere check in the so-called Fashoda affai''. later to be 
 touched u\)ou in connection with the British operations in the Kgyp- 
 iati Suilan. It is here iuUended to su])i)letncnt the preceding- account 
 cf the I'lcnch colonies in Africa by affording a rather ukm^c intimate 
 \ iew oi hrcncli activity iii the formerly Turkish states of Algeria 
 and Tunis: ami. further, to set forth several characteristic aspects 
 of I'rencli colonial policy there exemplified. 
 
 From the generally unprofitable and ill-managed colonial pos- 
 sessions of tl'.c l-'rcnch. Tunis is set apart as a ** model colony," 
 while Algeria has ever been a thorn in the ilesh. In order to under- 
 sKuul this contrast, a comparison of the various conditions of the 
 two colonies will be necessary; by elimination of the factors found 
 in ci'mnion. a rc-idue of dissimilarity will be discovered which 
 sl:o;:l(l contain the germs of diverse development. Features of the 
 local ph\-sica! geography may be dismissed in a word, for both 
 colonics Consist (^f an almost identical formation: a strip of fertile 
 land near the coast and a desert back-countrv. Climate and marine 
 influences ditTer in no important degree; there are no contrasts in 
 phy-ical nature whicli could account for more than a slight diversity 
 of development. 'J'he same may be said of population: it is a com- 
 1 inrition of Arab and Arabized Berber, completely under the dom- 
 'nation of Mohammedanism, with all that tin's inij^lies of fanaticism 
 and hosiility to Western civilization. Both colonies are ])ractic.'dly 
 C'lually distant from and e(|uallv connected by means of communica- 
 ti'U with the mother-country. This comparison might be extended 
 to minor details of ecoiKjmic, social, and other conditions without 
 revealing any essential dissimilarity in the environment in which 
 the Fiencli v.cre to act. 
 
 Bnl whttn tliei^e is instituted a comparis(Mi of administrative 
 ])o]icy, a- exhibited in the two countries, the case is altered. Tunis 
 liiier-. not <.n!y froni .\lgeria, i)ut from all other I'^-ench colonies 
 ot .-'.ny -:/c and im])ortance in haxing been cmanci])atc(l from the 
 lane (i I'le i)r:nri])le of "assimilation" so characteristic of the 
 -y-:e;ii-I'.\ ing (Janl. This is due largely to the fact that Tunis is a 
 'a:e ac'iiii-iiion and that its administration is. for this and other 
 re- r-. a jir. idnct of ilie le^s exuberant sj)irit of late years: this 
 .-t'!n:ir:i~iration li;i\inM- likewise fallen to the wise hands of Bourde 
 : ' }"''- ^ anilioii. men of modern and ])'ractical genius.
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 263 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 The policy of " assimilation " consisted in an unrelaxing effort 
 to assimilate the local to the French type. It cannot remain hidden 
 to the candid student that France has long- regarded herself, and, 
 in the light of modern history, with some show of reason, as the 
 most liberal, enlightened, and intuitively progressive of nations. 
 She is not alone in this characteristic attitude, but has exhibited it 
 more dramatically, perhaps, than any of her fellow-nations. This 
 persuasion has led to a twofold attitude toward other peoples, and 
 especially toward lower races : a light contempt for their indigenous 
 institutions, beliefs, etc.. and a missionary benevolence that attempts 
 to exhibit to or to introduce among the benighted the loftiest (/. r., 
 French) ideals. The contempt has too often been leased upon over- 
 weening self-satisfaction, ignorance, and bias, and the benevolence 
 has been too insistent, not to say intrusive. 
 
 Now the Mohammedan population of Algeria and Tunis, as 
 has been intimated above, had no great lust for innovation ; tlicy, 
 too, were satisfied as to the superiority of their own civilization. 
 Consequently when the French, in the ardor of their world-mission, 
 tried to assimilate Algeria to the French type in respect of govern- 
 ment, law. marriage, etc., they met an open opposition, which, if 
 quelled under the military hand, changed form into a stolid inertia 
 and veiled hostility which rendered healthy and mutually beneficial 
 contact of races all but impossible. French instability was rendered 
 the more unstable by ill-directed and fruitless efforts to create some 
 common ground, upon which cooperation could proceed, other tlian 
 tlie natural one of mutual or even one-sided toleration. As tlie 
 reasoning of the French was largely of the a priori variety, little 
 progress was made. It is impossil^le to give here more than an 
 indication of measures thus based upon uninformed sentimentality, 
 but the follfjwing may suffice. It seemed to tlie French very desira- 
 ble that tlie nalix'cs should naturalize themselves as French citizen-, 
 and thus jiartakc, at least, oi tlic dignity of a glorious connectimi. 
 But the nati\es did not perceive the advantage, and in spite o' 
 various inducements, rnilv 1131 Mns-ulman^ were naturalized 
 between 1(865 and li^^Q. The pf)licv of mixed marriages bctv.'een 
 the French and the natives has also 1)cen I'.'ivore'i and furtliercd : 
 but few such union- occur {22 in the triennird period i(S<);-- iS'jr)) : 
 a like ill-success has attended the attemj>t tr) intrt'duce hrenoli vcn\v< 
 of law and legal procediure, liere as in indo-Cliiu.-i ; thi- li.'i- v.>rked 
 hardshiji to tlic nati\e p' -jiiilat it 'H. and lin- Ivcn: it in n -iriir <\ cmi
 
 ^64 AFRICA 
 
 I895-1910 
 
 stant irritation. Finally, as an indication of instability the form 
 .'f cfovernnicnt of Alj^eria has been very inconsistent, ranging from 
 niilitarv despi^tisni. tlirongli a well-meaning but inopportune intro- 
 ducti<m of a civil regime, to incorporation as a French department. 
 
 A further light is cast upon the causes of dis(|uiet and ill-success 
 in Algeria, if we observe the elTects of the absence of "assimila- 
 tion " in Tunis. In considering Tunis it should be constantly borne 
 in mind that its administration was enabled to profit largely by the 
 obviously analogous antecedent case of Algeria. Tunisian policy 
 has exhibited in a remarkable degree the elsewhere absent toleration. 
 Tl-.e French began their occupation of Tunis so naturally and delib- 
 erately that, as Fallot says, " Even before it began to have an official 
 existence, and before it had found a name and a permanent form, 
 tlie government which was to regenerate Tunis and give it its place 
 in the civilized world had already fixed roots in the soil of the land; 
 all it l\-id to do was to develop normally." And so, " instead of 
 wiping out the past, and importing all at once the admiiiistrative 
 organism of the protecting country, France was thus led to preserve 
 ilie greater part of the old organization, while progressively modify- 
 ing and ameliorating it for the purpose of adapting it to the new 
 ciindilitins in uiiicli the country was about to develop." The author- 
 ity of the bey remained ostensibly intact, though each of his acts 
 v. as inspired or C';nn.se!cd by a French resident; and the low^er 
 forms of governmeni were preserved under a similar system. The 
 slieiks were retained as tax-collectors, and the natives were respon- 
 sible to their own tribunals in cases where Europeans were not 
 in\-o!ved. In >.luirt. " tlie indigenfms society has been stripped of no 
 ])art tji its own organization; it has simply been obliged to give to 
 that organizaiion more methodical forms, and to eradicate its 
 abuses." 
 
 Tin's description reminds one of the ideal view of the super- 
 p^i-it:on of ihc Dutch administration upon the native system in Java; 
 m.'iknig all(n\ar,ce for some exaggeration, its results have been sat- 
 i-f.Mtory. This is the only practical way U) manage a j)opulation 
 v.Iktc the native^ ])rcdominate to such an extent in numbers over 
 tin- l',!i:( pf.-iii ])opulation; and it is an especiall\' politic method of 
 (!c:.'i:ig \'.i*ih native tribes of so restless and dangerous a stamp as 
 tl'C .\r;J)> and iic:"i;crs. 
 
 IU-''rc k'a\;iig tlic snhjcct of French colonial administration 
 an'l :'- i::c. ,iigr;!;iic.T a fmllier striking example may be cited. One
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 265 
 
 I895-19I0 
 
 of the theories applied extensively in Algeria touched upon the 
 location and distribution of population-centers. The authorities in 
 Paris had very pronounced ideas upon this subject, based, unfor- 
 tunately, upon small knowledge of local conditions, and an even 
 greater ignorance of the laws determining the distribution of settle- 
 ments in a new country. It is an astonishing fact that whole groups 
 of settlers were obliged to move this way and that in order to satisfy 
 Paris-made theories as to the orderly distribution of population. 
 They were also forced to live in an " agglomeration of houses," 
 often far from their fields. The colonists, naturally enough, tended 
 to settle in spots w^hich promised the greatest return for their labors, 
 and to these places they desired that roads should be constructed. 
 But no such homely and practical ideas found lodgment in the brains 
 of the colonial directors (one of the chief of these being Louis 
 Napoleon) ; their proposed shifting of the nuclei of settlement had 
 for one of its main objects the lining of systematically planned roads 
 with villages aptly located at the normal grand cs haltcs. 
 
 Algeria and Tunis, owing to their climate, which resembles that 
 of Southern Europe, and to their proximity to the same region, 
 have been the objective point for a far larger European emigration 
 (from France, Spain, Italy, and Malta) than any other of the 
 French possessions in Africa. They have consequently benefited 
 far more along lines of economic development; European cultures, 
 especially those of the vine and of cereals, have been introduced suc- 
 cessfully; the Algerian viticulture has had many years of great 
 advance coincidently with the appearance of the destructive phyllox- 
 era in Southern Europe. Gradually also peace and order have been 
 extended, and the unruly desert tribes have been repressed. Safer 
 trade-routes have been opened and railroads built, extending into tlie 
 Sahara Desert and tapping some of the caravan outlets of the Sudan 
 trade. The long-projected and already partially executed Trans- 
 Sahara Railway extended in July, 1903, to 32" north latitude. 
 Advance in commerce under French rule has been particularly 
 marked in Tunis; and it should be noted that three-fourths of the 
 Algerian trade, and a large part of the Tunisian, goes to h^rance. 
 But industry is very backward in Als^x'ria and is feeble in Tunis; 
 even the agriculturists suffer from tlic ]-'rcnch custom of looking to 
 the state for reimbursement in case of unfortunate risks. 
 
 Perhaps the worst thing that can be said of hVench colonization 
 in these districts is that it is costly costly not only to the state, but
 
 ^266 AFRICA 
 
 189S 1910 
 
 CO the settler as well. The land-system has been very unfortunate 
 in Algeria ; it is better in Tunis, being based upon the Torrens sys- 
 tem, once enipU>yed in Australia. Monopolistic companies have suc- 
 ceeded. ho\vc\ er. in getting: control of large tracts in Algeria, as 
 tliey (lid in Clerman Southwest Africa, and holding them for pre- 
 pc^sterous prices ; and in Tunis absenteeism of landlords is no uncom- 
 mon ctMuplnint. The cost to I'^ance has been particularly severe in 
 Algeria: it is eaK'ulatcil that she has spent there between seven and 
 eight hundred millions of dollars. And yet, to take only a couple of 
 instances, the I'rench themselves admit that what they have done 
 for education in these colonies is entirely unworthy of France; and 
 in spite of heavy guarantees to the railroads, tlie tariffs of the latter 
 remain, for the most part, prohibitive. The French are, however, 
 hopeful as to the future of both colonies. 
 
 Any attcni])t to discuss the last decade of African colonial his- 
 tory would lack perspective if it did not give the bulk of its space to 
 the I'.ritisli and tlieir operations and enterprises. Aside from the 
 brief story of the tragic end of Italian pretensions to an .Abyssinian 
 protectorate, the history of all the rest of Africa since 1895 is tame 
 and monotonous compared with that of Egypt, and, above all, of 
 South Africa. 'Jhe events of this history are in the minds of all, 
 and, in tlie case oi the Anglo-Boer conllict, at least, partisanship is 
 rife; the design of the present treatment can scarcely go beyond the 
 effort to j)lace an impartial interpretation upon almost contemporary 
 events. i^)Ut, in order to conceive these facts in the setting of their 
 develoi)me!it, it will be necessary to supply a certain historical back- 
 ground not provided for in the original design of this book. First, 
 tlien. let us consider tlie case of Egyi)t. 
 
 The notable victory of Lord Kitchener in 1898 in the Egyptian 
 Sudan was Init a prelude to the final act in the inexorable advance 
 of British influence over the ancient kingdom of the Pharaohs; 
 or. as it might with reason he said, of the invasion of a new north- 
 ern race upon a degenerate subtropical civilization. After the con- 
 '[ue>l l)y the Turk- in 15 17 I^gypt stiffered the fate of all countries 
 Vvh'ch l:a\e fallen beneath their bigoted, brutish rule, and for cen- 
 tnric- \(geiated in a degener.acy (jf civilixation. In fact, from 1500 
 <^n I'-g>pi cut hut an insignificant figure in the world until the be- 
 g'.nni'ig (jf ilic nineteenth century; the modern history of the 
 country date^ in reality from the invasion by Xapoleon Bonaparte 
 in 1798. !'.} {].:[[ f;ini(ius and somewhat theatrical expedition was

 
 AFRICA SINCE1895 267 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 attention attracted to it. But the stay of the French was short; 
 Bonaparte, though successful in the Battle of the Pyramids, was 
 forced to abandon his Eastern projects as a consequence of Nelson's 
 victory on the Xile, and by 1801 the last of the French soldiers 
 had been conveyed home by the British fleet. Out of the turmoil, 
 however, that attended these operations arose Alohammed Ali, a 
 dangerous and powerful leader, later recognized l)y the sultan as 
 governor of Egypt. He established by energetic and barbaric 
 measures a power afterward bequeathed, at least in name, to his 
 successors as khedives of the province. Ali was a rebellious vassal, 
 and it was only through the intervention of Russia that the Otto- 
 man Empire was enabled to hold him in a nominal subjection; he 
 practically won his independence, but paid, for form's sake, an 
 annual tribute to the sultan. Ali thoroughly reconstructed the 
 government of Egypt, and his work was carried on liy the next 
 forceful member of his line, his grandson Ismail, who succeeded to 
 the rule in 1863. The latter, however, was a man of more reck- 
 less stamp ; by his extravagance, and in spite of pitiless taxation, 
 he raised the debt of the country from sixteen and one-fourth to 
 four hundred million dollars, and later became so hopelessly in- 
 volved in his finances that England and France were obliged to 
 intervene and assume control of the country in behalf of their bond- 
 holders. Ismail was forced to resign in 1879 '^"^^ ^^'^s succeeded by 
 his son Tewfik. The powers constituting the dual protectorate un- 
 dertook to collect the taxes, etc., and to restore tlie country to sol- 
 vency; the controllers appointed by these powers were the real 
 rulers of the land. 
 
 But while these reforms were being put into operation the 
 whole situation was perturbed by the appearance on the scene of 
 Ahmed Arabi, a military adventurer, who forced himself into the 
 ministry of war as its head. An attempt to reduce tliis turbulent 
 character within bounds resulted in the stirring up of a fanatical 
 excitement based upon the rumor that Islam was in danger; and 
 as a conse(|uencc the lives and property of foreigners in l^gypt 
 were gravely menaced. While the Porte was tardily deciding on 
 action, a collision occurred between the British admiral and the 
 Arabi government which resulted in the bombardment of Alex- 
 andria in July, 1882. In August of the same year British forces 
 under Lord W'olseley shattered Arabi's power at Tel-el-Kebir. 
 
 During this i)eriod France had been unable to undertake the
 
 >GS A 1< U 1 C A 
 
 1B93-1910 
 
 part which fell to her n;^ n joint member of the dual protectorate. 
 t'^r tiio Iiaiid of r.i^niarck still rested heavily upon the nation. C'onse- 
 (|iHT.tly Great r>ritain was left alone as the " policeman of Europe " ; 
 ;ind hy various eventualities, and despite reiterated assertions of 
 intention to c\acuate. was oblicfcd to remain in the country year 
 after year. During' all this period she has had to contend, amongf 
 ther things, with the open or veiled jealousy of I'Vanoe. The 
 latter felt that s!ie had lost advantages and prestige, and let slip 
 no (^Importunity of setting; the powers by the ears over the Egyptian 
 situation. 
 
 It would be a long and. to a certain extent, a tedious story to 
 rocMint the labors of England in Egypt. Nubar Pasha, an en- 
 lightened prime minister of ]\gypt, is credited with the dictum that 
 I'gvp! needed t'.\-o things justice and water. ]^>oth of these have 
 Iiren gi\en in ukut botuitiful measure by the tutelary power, and, 
 in additio:!. a successful race has been run. under heavy handicap, 
 against bankrufitcy, while the fellah has been converted into a 
 trained and competent soldier. Sanitation and hygiene have been 
 t lught in some manner, tlie government schools liave been regulated, 
 ti;e civil service improved, and a deal of training has been afforded 
 in government. The enormous labors entailed in these Ijrielly 
 recounted activities can be better appreciated by those who will 
 read and ponder over some such volume as Eord Milner's " Eng- 
 land in ]\gypt." Whatever may ha\-e been the faults of her admin- 
 i-iration. lilngland has sent her best men to I'^gypt, and they have 
 W' 'rkcd des])cratcly and self-sacrificingly against formidable odds. 
 
 Se\cral of tiie most important sjjccific services ])erf()rmed may 
 be briefly recounted. Justice was given througli the reorganizatio-;! 
 of corrupt courts, and tlie establishment of the so-called Mixed 
 Tribunals. In th.e sixties and seventies of tlie last century I\gypt 
 u'a- the Mecca of rogues of all dyes, and the consular courts which 
 had {() do with " foreigners " \\-ere incompetent and lax. European 
 ])L'iintitis were awarded the most absurd and pre])osterous demands 
 .'tiraiii^t n;'.live defendants. Ihit this condition of affairs became 
 i:;!olcrab!e. I'oi only to l'"-gy])t. but to the luu"oi)ean powers as well. 
 -'> tiiat in iS^T) a -ingle slr(<ng jurisdiction was instituted for the 
 co;i~';!,-ir C'-i:ri-. The Mixed 'I'ribunals. as their name implies. 
 -cniiT'! !.i t;ie nati\-cs some representation in cases which touched 
 Vitally i: cir o\'. n material welfare. Much of the credit for their 
 estab'i-^h'.r.'jiil tails lo England, though her power was not then
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 269 
 
 1895 1910 ""^ 
 
 supreme ; and hers is the full credit for their rrmintenance and de- 
 velopment along- proper lines in the years succeeding- 1882. 
 
 Another administrative betterment which may be ranked under 
 the head of justice in a broader sense, is that of the system of 
 taxation. This is a more intricate subject and is dealt with in 
 detail in more special works. But it may be covered in brief by 
 the statement that Egypt, which, under Turkish and khedival mis- 
 rule, was ground down by capricious and unjust taxation, is now 
 prospering under a system which, with all its faults and still exist- 
 ing severity, approximates nearer and nearer, as time goes on, the 
 type recognized as Occidental and enlightened. 
 
 The provision of water called in part for activities of another 
 sort, although the same firm hand in administration, typified by 
 Lord Cromer, had constantly to be in evidence. As everyone 
 knows, the life of Egypt through ages has been tlie Nile. For the 
 earliest and most primitive contrivances for irrigation, as well as 
 for the gigantic labors of modern times, one idea has been the 
 motive force, to supply an ever-widening riparian area with tlie 
 life-giving and life-supporting moisture. In 1833 ]\Iohammed Ali 
 began a dam across one branch of the Nile, at the apex of the 
 delta, in order to hold back a greater volume of water. This scheme 
 was l^ettered by the project of Linant Pasha, who proposed a regu- 
 lating barrage, intended to command the distribution of water in 
 both the Damietta and the Rosetta branches during the summer, 
 but leaving free passage in time of flood. By his influence Linant 
 at this time saved the Pyramids themselves, for the ruthless ]\'Ioham- 
 med had decreed that they should be destroyed to furnish stone 
 for his enterprise. Preliminary works were jjegun under tlie sys- 
 tem of forced {corvee) labor in 1833. Owing", hovrever, to 
 Mohammed's recklessness and impatience, the natural development 
 and selection of means and methods were much liindercd, and tlie 
 whole was not completed (under anotlier plan) until 1861. Tl;e 
 total cost was in the neighborhood of $20,000,000, later increased 
 by considerable sums. But though insuflicient in its completed 
 state, the dam was able to hold back the water to some degree, and 
 the result was an increase of the cotton crop from about /_', 000.000 
 pounds, the figure for 1861, to about 363,000,000 pounds in 18S4. 
 The imperfect nature of the superstructure, wliicli ])ecame very e\ i- 
 dent in 1885, has since that date re])eate(lly manifested itself, so 
 that year by year enonnon.T ,-uni-; !ia\e been expended un rciii;;--
 
 j>70 AFRICA 
 
 1893 1910 
 
 nnd reconstruction. Tlie cotton crop has steadily risen, however, 
 from 1890 to 1899, being in the latter year about 643,000,000 
 
 poumls. 
 
 The furtlier extension of the dam and reservoir system is 
 a British acliicvemcnt of the most recent years. It was found in 
 the middle nineties of the last century that the barrag^c had reached 
 its limit uf usefulness, and consecjucntly the country its maximum 
 of prosperity under then existing- conditions. To render further 
 development pc^ssible the crop area must be ausftncnted, and this 
 was possible only under the influence of a larc^er and belter rei^^ulatcd 
 watcr-su])ply. The Enij^lish undertook, therefore, to build a dam 
 and rescrvt>ir far up the river, across the head of the Assuan cata- 
 ract, north of I'hilae. This was one of the most ambitious enq-ineer- 
 ing projects of modern times, and its successful completion and 
 financinj:^ another undeniable triumph for the British in Egypt. 
 
 The foundation stone was laid Fcbruarv i _'. iS(j9. and tlie 
 (lam was opened l^ecember 8, 1902.^ These works, toin^ethcr w ilh 
 a J75o-foot barrage at Assiut, cost between $100,000,000 and 
 SiJ5,ooo,CK30. The dam itself is about a mile and a quarter long 
 and about 100 feet thick at the base. The difference between the 
 water-level above and below is 67 feet. Experts liavc calculated 
 that the reser\-oir tluis formed will hold encnigli water for a year's 
 full supply to every town and village in the United Kingdom. It is 
 n )w po-.>ib]e to store water to the extent of one tlKmsand million 
 t(tns: the sluices may be opened early in ]\Iarch, and for four months 
 a good I'.ead of water for irrigating purposes can be maintained. 
 Here is an improvement of the most \ital kind; tlie habitable area 
 is pusi'.ed forward, as the desert is driven back, and room for ex- 
 p.'msion of po])ulation is afforded. All this means material wealth 
 and comfort. Tlie most that hostile critics of Great Britain's 
 l-",gypiian acti\-ity iia\c to say is that justice is n<:)t always iiupartial. 
 tliat the Ijigii<hmen have their eyes on the main chance, that some 
 of i!;em are r(gues and almost all are arrogant. But tliese are 
 inevitable, natural, and social characteristics, and are of distinctly 
 inferior consequence as compared witli the acturd advances in civ- 
 iiizaii^n u'liich the luigHsli lia\e made p(*>sil)lc. 
 
 I^gypt. though nominally a pro\ ince of the Turkish Emj)ire, 
 ha- long been in reality a potential protectorate of Great Britain. 
 
 " '1 !: '! rt.-il:'""- \'.:;- rc.i!!y cciiipKu li.. llic ciul uf July, I9OJ. cUvcU 
 li.'/nlli.- ahc:.'! (!' r- .
 
 AFRICA SINCE 18D5 271 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 But the action that set the seal upon Egypt was that Sudan cam- 
 paign of Lord Kitchener of which the closing years of the last cen- 
 tury heard so much. From most ancient times the connection be- 
 tween Egypt and the Eastern Sudan has been of the closest; 
 Rameses II. is said to have first annexed the latter to the former. 
 In more recent times Mohammed Ali had sent his son ( 1819) to seize 
 and pacify the Sudan; and in 1870 Ismail pushed the frontier to the 
 equator. Until 1882 Egyptian power in this region was all but 
 unquestioned. In the latter year occurred the \Iahdist revolt, in 
 consequence of which the southern provinces were for the time being 
 lost. The Mahdi, nominally a sort of Messiah whose advent was 
 expected as a herald of the latter days, was in reality an astute leader 
 who worked upon the blind religious fanaticism of the rude type of 
 Mohammedans who occupied the Egyptian Sudan. The Mahdi 
 with whom we are dealing (for there were several others) was, as 
 was natural in a Messiah, a leader in denunciation of the extortion 
 of the Turkish Government. He gathered a large and enthusiastic 
 following, many of them dervishes, who held life in contempt and 
 regarded death in battle against unbelievers as the surest road to 
 eternal bliss. He was utterly underrated by the Egyptian Gov- 
 ernment until his strength had grown to menacing- proportions. 
 Then several victories of the Mahdi induced the government to 
 send out Hicks Pasha with a rabble of undisciplined troops, in- 
 cluding Turkish mercenaries and the scum of the towns. This 
 force was annihilated in Kordofan in 1883; and soon afterward 
 followed the surrender of Slatin Bey in Darfur, the destruction of 
 Baker Pasha's army, and otlier reverses. Discretion played no 
 part in the disposition of the Egyptian Government, for it was only 
 by the urgency of Lord Cromer that renunciation of the Sudan was 
 forced upon it in 1884. This was followed by the mission of Gen- 
 eral Gordon, who was to report upon the situation in the Sudan, 
 upon the best mode of evacuation, and of securing the safety and 
 good administration of the coast districts. The tragic death of 
 Gordon at his post two days before the relief-force dispatched by 
 the tardy British Government arrived is an occurrence well known 
 and much lamented. The net result of all these reverses w;is tliat 
 the lower boundary of Egypt was now fixed at Wadi Haifa, 
 and all south of that point was abandoned to tlie Alahdi, that is, 
 to barbarism and degeneracy. This, says Lord Milner, was the 
 result of the "limited liability system" of the British in Egyi)t,
 
 .'7'^ A 1' U I C A 
 
 1893 1910 
 
 But if tlic prudence (^f the Hritisli counseled a retirement from 
 a p<\<iti(>n no Imiger tenable, it was with no idea of ultimate 
 .-'.handMinicnt. but rather of renewed and better ori^ani/.ed elTort. 
 Pnrinjx the thirteen years that intervened between the evacuation 
 of the Sudan and the battle of Omdurman jireparations of the 
 most far-sii^hted and careful nature were bein<^ made to insure 
 the comjilcto nnd overwhelming sujieriority of F-gypt in its old 
 dinninions; for it was essential to the country, living as it did on 
 the bounty of its one river, that the sources of the latter should be 
 the jiroperty of ncuie other than itself. Toward regaining the old 
 jiro\inccs one (^f the first measures was the reorganization of the 
 l-'gyj)tian army, with the result tliat the fellaheen soldiers who 
 tied shamefully before the dervishes in the Hicks disaster, learned 
 to stand and resist in a trulv soldierly way; and to the Egyptian 
 regiments were added others composed of the wild and fearless 
 Sudanese blacks. Arrangements were also made to secure co- 
 'jK'ralion on the part of the Italians from Kassala arrangements 
 which would doubtless have proved of avail had it not been for the 
 disaster to the Italian arms in iHqC>. 
 
 After preparations al(^ng all lines, which rendered Kgvpt north 
 r>f Wadi Haifa secure as it had never been before, the final cam- 
 j)aign against the ^^ahdists began in March. i<*^96, under the com- 
 mand of Sir Herbert Kitchener. It is imjiossiblc here to detail 
 the measures which rendered Kitchener's .-'.(Ivance only a degree 
 le-s sure tlian the forces of nature tiiemsc1\-cs. 11ie Sirdar was 
 a man of iron, and his system was a skiiifiil, patient, inexorable 
 < 1K-. Among jiis most remarkable acliieNcnuMits was the construc- 
 tion of the desert railroafl south from W'adi Haifa, to which, as 
 attording an efficient sn])port tf) e\'ery onwai'd mo\-cment, the cam- 
 |i;iign owed much of its success. Amid continuous engagements. 
 Miiall and great, this wrjrk was resolutely ad\anced until the line 
 caclicil tlie Xile at Abu H.amcd, 203 miles acoss the desert from 
 \\ adi Ilalfa. After the victory of Atbara it was extended i/cS 
 miles ir.i"ilKT. and tlie final is<ue of the oncoming struggle was 
 thus rcndcri-d perfectly sure and evident in adxance. On .S(-])tem- 
 l.'cr J occurred tlie battle of Omdurman and the destruction of the 
 Mahdi^t pMwer. 'j'he next day a religious service was held at Khar- 
 iMMi, where C lord' in had fallen. The Mahdi had died some years 
 ''<;"rc, and a!th.f.nL,di the new leader, the so-called Khalifa, escaped, 
 C'lnplcte ijac:ficati"n was the work of but a short time. The vSirdar
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 273 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 was appointed governor-general of the Egyptian Sudan January 
 19, 1899. The Khalifa was finally defeated and slain in South 
 Kordofan in November, 1899, and his active lieutenant, Osman 
 Digna, was captured early in 1900. 
 
 Thus was the Sudan province secured for Egypt through Brit- 
 ish aid and direction. It could not be otherwise than that the 
 British hold on Egypt was hereby strengthened; it was explicitly 
 admitted by Lord Salisbury that Kitchener's victory totally changed 
 the face of things, and there were many who looked for the imme- 
 diate proclamation of the Egyptian protectorate. This, however, 
 did not take place ; the British and the Egyptian flags float together 
 over the recovered country, and England is still the adviser- 
 nation. 
 
 The benefits which England has given Egypt have been briefly 
 referred to above; what she did for her in the operations of 1896- 
 1898 may be best told in the words of the victor himself: "You 
 may take it, that during the two and a half years' campaign extra 
 military credits to the amount of two and a half millions have been 
 expended. In this sum I have included the recent grant for the 
 extension of the railway from Atbara to Khartum, the work of 
 which is already in hand. Well, against this large expenditure we 
 have some assets to show; we have, or shall have, 760 miles of rail- 
 ways, properly equipped with engines, rolling stock, and a track 
 with bridges in good order. . . . Well, for this running con- 
 cern I do not think that three thousand pounds a mile will be con- 
 sidered too high a figure. This represents. two and a quarter milHons 
 out of the money granted, and for the other quarter of a million we 
 have two thousand miles of telegraph line, six new gunboats, besides 
 barges, sailing-craft, and the Sudan." 
 
 It has been intimated that the activity of Great Britain in 
 Egypt is unpalatable to a considerable party within the country 
 itself. The greater part of recent British troubles have cornc from 
 the young Khedive xVbbas Hihni, who succeeded 1>wfik in Janu- 
 ary, 1892, and who proceeded straightway to adopt, not the con- 
 ciliatory and progressive ])olicy of his father, Ijut the arbitrary, 
 extravagant and high-handed programme of Ismail. A consicleral)lc 
 number of malcontents have been, of course, always ready to wurk 
 through, or in cooperation with, [he khedivc, and though h"n;;l,'ii]'l 
 can doubtless carry through any measures which it may i-Ica^v her 
 to advocate, this o])position is at times very irritating and irks-jiiic.
 
 j>74 AFRICA 
 
 1S95-1910 
 
 luip^lnnd lias likewise been obligfcd to meet old French pretensions 
 ami jealousies, the latest prominent exhibition of which occurred 
 in connection with the so-called I''ashoda affair. Durinjjf the difii- 
 cnltics in the Sudan, just related, the l-rench had improved the 
 o|)lx)rtunity to move up along the White Nile to the town of 
 I'ashoda, Here the British, when thcv were reducing the long- 
 abandoned province to order, found Major Marchand ensconced. 
 I'or a time it looked like war between the two powers, but the 
 determined stand taken by the British in sending Marchand about 
 his business made it perfectly evident to bVance that slie was deeply 
 in earnest ; and a prompt acquiescence was the result. The Anglo- 
 i'Vench understanding alluded to above, while treating of Morocco, 
 practically waives b^-ench claims in Egypt. If in return for such 
 sha(U>wy rights b'rance shall have obtained real privileges in Mo- 
 rocco, she will have struck a very advantageous bargain. 
 
 I\gypt is. then, to Great Britain something between a sphere 
 of influence and a protectorate; it is virtually a Britisli possession, 
 for n(3 serious objection could be sustained against the declaration 
 of a British protectorate over the country. Whatever may be said 
 in bluster or in anger, a sense of justice would concede to England 
 an overwhelming interest in the lands and peo])le among which 
 slic lias so long lal)ored as guardian and tutor. Tliis being the 
 case, the real '' occupation " of Egypt will probably be put off till 
 circumstances seem ])cremptorily to demand it; for the British have 
 been characterized in their colonial activity by a disposition to 
 procrastinate ratlier than to anticipate in such matters. 
 
 We now come to the most considerable event in contemporary 
 African history, the conquest of tlie Boer Republics, and their con- 
 \cr-ion into liritish colonies. Tliis constitutes a series of events 
 wh.icli is comprehensible onlv in the light of antecedent S<nitli 
 African history. It is manifestly impossil)le in' a work of this 
 nature to more tlian briefly summarize this pa^t ; tlie reader wlio 
 W' aild know more, and in more detail, is referred U) the m.any 
 excellent writers, for the most part accessible in luiglish, who deal 
 exiian-tively with the subject. 
 
 Tlie carflinal facts to be considered, if one would form an 
 imparti.i! judgment, on the basis of broad issues, of the y\nglo- 
 i'>"er (litVicuhie^ and final conflict, are two: the character of the 
 i*."er ]j' ijjui.'iti' n. wliicli i.> largely a function oi its j)liysieal einirou- 
 n;e:r. ;in'! tlie i.atui'e 'i\ the aggre-i^ioii which it was forced to meet.
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 275 
 
 1895 1910 ' 
 
 The natural environment of the Boers may be briefly covered by 
 the statements of James Bryoe that the region south of tlie Zam- 
 bezi is nearly one-half desert, of about the quality of the sage- 
 brush area of Nevada; and that of the remainder, by far the larger 
 part, is much too dry for agriculture, resembling in its nature the 
 ranching districts of Wyoming. ^Migration, as a rule, will not 
 pay, and there is no forest area. The country is suited to a pas- 
 toral and semi-nomadic population, and to no other. From this 
 it follows that the mining settlements which formed so speedily 
 after the discovery of diamonds at Kimberley (1870) and of 
 gold at the Witwatersrand (1884), are by their nature epliemeral. 
 and not likely to pass into the form of a settlement-colony until 
 several other sparsely inhabited areas of the world are better filled. 
 or until the arts of life are considerably advanced. That is, the 
 Boer population is the one best fitted to the environment in ques- 
 tion, the only one, really, that has demonstrated its ability to live 
 and reproduce under such unfavorable conditions. 
 
 Concerning this Boer people much has been written from an 
 unscientific standpoint of enmity or partisanship. This may be 
 set aside in toto. Approaching the matter from the standpoint 
 of antecedent history and human evolution, the following con- 
 siderations emerge : seventeenth centtuy population, composed in 
 no small degree of Dutch Calvinists (and later of Huguenots). 
 were, for one reason or another of dissatisfaction with the home- 
 system, dri\en across the seas. These recalcitrants were at first 
 irritated, retarded, and oppressed by the incompetent and selfish 
 Dutch East India Company until they receded farther and farther 
 from the coast, and plunged ever more deeply into a rude and 
 harsh natural environment, wherein they came into contact with 
 a grade of civilization, or non-civilization, much cruder and coarser 
 than their own. Like all other frontier societies placed in similar 
 conditions and almost wholly segregated from the outside world, 
 they sank in large degree to the level of their surroundings. In 
 the case of the Dutch this led t(; an exaggeration in the rigidity 
 and severity of the one element in their previous life which they 
 were enabled to retain their religion. 
 
 All this was particularly true of the Boers of the Transvaal, 
 as the farthest removcrl from cixilization, and proportionately Ic-s 
 evident in respect to those of the Orange Im-cc .'^tate and of Cape 
 Colony itself. This bituati(jn ])ersisted into the jjcriod of the g"'''
 
 276 AFRICA 
 
 189S-1910 
 
 discoveries. In 1880 the bulk of tlic Boers of the RepubHcs were, to 
 nuist intents ami puriKvscs, of a pronounced seventeenth-century 
 tyj)e (if civilization: indeed, in many cases tliey were inferior in 
 education, i^cncral culture, etc.. to the Hollanders, and especially 
 tn the Ilut,uien()ts. from whom they derived their descent. One 
 author says they were " narrow, strong, tyrannical, and pious. Their 
 faults have been born of their virtues, and their virtues of their 
 faults, and both faults and virtues have resulted from the condi- 
 tions oi their life and the mixture of their blood." This is a 
 good statement of a part of the truth ; it should be supplemented by 
 some portrayal of their actual manners and customs and mode 
 of living, in order to unfold its implications. The Boers' organiza- 
 tion of industry was primitive, their trade petty and of the barter- 
 type, and of progress in the arts there was practically none. They 
 wore self-satislied. and callous to the feelings and sufferings of 
 oiliers. Sexual morality was lax, as is evidenced by the number 
 of Dutch half-breeds, or Bastards; and matrimony was based upon 
 the sordid motives and exhibited the conjugal relations character- 
 istic oi a low civilization. Government was of a patriarchal, des- 
 p-'tic type and of a limited range, as is inevitable in a loosely-knit 
 pastoral community; laws were unstable and easily and capri- 
 ciously alterable. To the very last the executive was not bound by 
 the courts, but readily and with impunity overrode them. Finally, 
 tlic Boer religion, over which sentimental people have become en- 
 tliusiaslic and which drew to the subjects of President Kriiger 
 tilt- unintelligent sympathy of the undiscriminating and uninformed, 
 i> Inn little removed from the stern and uncompromising faith of 
 t!:ai fierce " cliosen people " whose after-type the Boers have con- 
 ce;\eil theniscKcs to be. The ideal man was Joshua, who smote 
 lii> enemies hi]) and thigh, arid the ideal deity was not Christ, but 
 tlie .-nicieiit lahvch of the savage Semitic tribes. Piety was of 
 ll'.e r;tr.ali>tic. formal, and verbal sort, and like Boer " democracy," 
 re-en. i)!e'l tiie type witli which the Jioers were too often credited 
 i;i ii;inK" rather than in essence. With perfect candor and in 
 Ho ho-tiie sen-e, t!ie majority of the Boers might well have been 
 .-lyled, as lluti<,in graphically denominated them, "mental mum- 
 mies." 
 
 'iliis is one side of the jjicture; to an American of these 
 latter day- a de-cription of tlie aggression to which these peasant 
 farnie;-.- w e:e -r.hiecicd i-> scarce! v uecessarv. lie can fill in tlie
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 ^7 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 details for himself. For no American is without experience of the 
 restless and often unscrupulous energy of modern industrial enter- 
 prise and its promotion. When to this disquieting element were 
 added the confusion, recklessness, and rascality which attend the 
 opening of mining operations for precious stones and ores even 
 though these latter were, chiefly because of the peculiar nature 
 of the gold-reefs, far from extreme in form, in the Transvaal 
 some idea may be formed of the consternation with which the 
 conservative Boer people viewed their prospective fellow-citizens 
 and the latters' projects. 
 
 The conflict between Boer and foreigner resolved itself shortly 
 into one of civilizations rather than of races ; if the struggles in 
 South Africa appear to many to have been due to the friction 
 attendant upon the contact of races, this is chiefly because the 
 so-called races represented distinct and incompatible stages of 
 civilization. For the more modern of these stages Great Britain 
 stood as champion; but it must be realized that the British were 
 not the only aggrieved parties; being in the majority, they repre- 
 sented a body of malcontents which contained, among members 
 of other nationalities, a number of Americans. If one is to pass 
 on the merits of the actual contentions of the two parties, which 
 is as yet an extremely difficult matter for others than the vendors 
 of snap-judgments, the following consideration should never be 
 lost sight of, namely, that sympathy leans predominantly to tlie 
 side of those who are conceived to be figliting for 1 liberty and re- 
 ligion, especially if they are fewer in number and are defending 
 their own hearth-stones. Among Americans it is likewise the 
 rule that sympath}^ is felt for a " sister-repuljlic," if it is conceived 
 to be undergoing oppression at the hands of a monarchical power. 
 No careful man should allow liimself to be influenced by such 
 catch-words; he should realize that the case of Briton and Boer 
 alike must depend upon the " cumulative effect of a large number 
 of dry and often teclmical details," for the sifting of wliich the 
 hand of time and the arduous labor of the candid historian are 
 all-essential. 
 
 One fact early became patent to tlie J]oers, by tl'.eir mode of 
 life rendered self-sufiicing and impatient of interference: that tliey 
 would soon be far outnumbered by tlie swarming prospectors and 
 immigrant adventurers. They could not kce[) tlie latter out oi 
 the country indeed for fiscal and other reasons they desired tlicir
 
 278 A F R I r A 
 
 169S-1910 
 
 presence but they could exclude ihcin from political power, and 
 that, as the first and nu)st evident recourse, they tried to do. It 
 was not that they clearly foresaw that the miners and prospectors 
 were, by tiie very nature of their employment and motive of com- 
 iuLjf. an epiiemeral clement in the population, sure to disappear when 
 eitiier a fortune was made or the metal deposits exhausted; they 
 simply desired a maintenance of the status quo ante of the political 
 power, and they held to it awkwardly and arbitrarily, but not 
 without a certain strong right and justification. Neither side was 
 able to understand the other, even if both had been patient and 
 sincere, for too many decades of development lay between. The 
 situation resolved itself, therefore, into a desperate defensive on the 
 part of tlie political " ins " (the Boers) and an even more energetic 
 and often unscrupulous offensive on the part of the preponderant 
 number of political "outs" (the Uitlanders,^ or aliens). It was 
 into this struggle that the British Government was finally drawn, 
 as champion of the *' outs." 
 
 The collision of these two civilizations issued, then, in a com- 
 bat for political Dower ; it was the increasingly wider oscillations 
 between tactics.^ Boer restrictions and Uitlander resistance thereto, 
 which was generally e([ually tactless, that made the situation in- 
 creasingly intolerable for both parties. But it should not for a 
 nn)ment be lost sight of, in one's disgust at the narrowness of 
 many uf ilie Boers, that capitalistic agitation and the auri sacra 
 funics contributed only too often the motive force of Uitlander 
 resistance, destroyed again and again the slow growth of relations 
 of mutual tolerance, and finally led the lnn"ghers, through the in- 
 defensible Jamcsrm Raid, to an exasperation which, in their stub- 
 burn niinds, took on the form of implacable, irreconcilable hostility 
 to modern ci\ilization and to progress in all its forms. By the 
 stress of contlict each of the types in conflict was forced to an 
 extreme. 
 
 Viewed from this broad and general standpoint, it becomes 
 almost irrelc\ant to ])ronouncc upon the right (~r wrong of Boer or 
 alien in what wa> lo follow. The Boer represented the type suited 
 to the local en\ ironment, the stranger the type suited to the modern 
 w(jrl(l. The latter was siut, by whatever means, at least tem- 
 porarily and while its absorbing interest in the coimtry lasted, to 
 predominate: in all human ])robability it will prevail in the end, 
 ' rronouncfd (approximately) '' oyt-lahndcrs."
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 279 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 whatever the fate of the gold-fields may be. And the Boer, like 
 the native races, must fall in with the current of the world-move- 
 ment or disappear. 
 
 The conflict and outcome being thus inevitable, the exact 
 manner in which each evolved itself becomes, though important, in 
 a sense subsidiary and of less engrossing interest. The actual 
 events which led up to the war can be only briefly sketched in 
 this chapter. It is not at all probable that tlie Boer Republics would 
 now be British colonies if no gold discoveries had taken place ; it 
 was the influx of the foreigners that brought on the crisis of 
 war. 
 
 There was, however, plenty of friction before the eighties. The 
 British never got along well with the Boers : the latter are difficult 
 for any civilized nation to endure, and it is significant that the 
 Germans and the French, who need settlers for Southwest Africa and 
 for Madagascar, though tliey have discussed the feasibility of in- 
 viting or encouraging the Boers, have decided, in view of their 
 turbulent character, not to do so. The British have also, it must be 
 admitted, made an exceptional numlDcr of errors from the outset 
 in dealing with the Boers. " England," says Bryce, referring to the 
 early period. " managed things ill. She altered the system of courts 
 and local government, reducing the riglits which tlie ])eople had 
 enjoyed. She insisted on the use of the English language to the 
 exclusion of Dutch. In undertaking to protect the natives and the 
 slaves, whom the Dutch were accusecl by the l^^nglish missionaries 
 of treating very harshly, she did what was right, but the farmers 
 complained that the missionaries sometimes maligned thera and 
 greatly resented the attention which was p^iid to tlie charges. 
 Finally, she abolished slavery and allotted a very inadequate sum as 
 compensation to the South African slave-owners, much of which 
 sum never reached their hands, because it was made payable in 
 London," 
 
 In later times England annexed tlie Transvaal (i^//) against 
 the will of a large number of the inhabitants; and though this 
 move saved the country from utter bankruptcy and was personally 
 approved by President Burgers, the benefits conferred were more 
 than outweighed in B.oer minds by the arrogant ])olicy which 
 ensued. Taxes were levied stringcntlv u]ion a ])coj)!c who had al- 
 ways resisted all taxation: and delay in LM'\ing frc,' lo^-al go\ei-ii- 
 ment was so great as to can>e tlic people to (lc^i)air (;t e\cr gt-'itm.i;
 
 280 AFRICA 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 it. Finally, with an excess of political impotence, the Gladstone 
 Government placed itself in the position of awardins^ to a temporarily 
 successful armed resistance what it had refused just before to 
 peaceful rejiresentations. All the bitterness of former years re- 
 mained ; and it was now mingled with contempt for what appeared 
 to be duplicity and cowardice. 
 
 The two republics were left (1881 and 1884) in what they at 
 least considered complete independence. During the period of 
 lukewarmncss toward colonial expansion preceding the panic-time 
 ushered in by the liand of Bismarck, this arrangement was regarded 
 by the British Government as at least endurable. But with the 
 recrudescence of colonial activity it appeared to many that tl:e 
 existence of these unsettled and still hostile societies in the neigh- 
 borhood of newly ac(|uired British possessions constituted a real 
 danger to the well-being of the empire in South Africa. About 
 this time came the gold discoveries and the arrival of a horde of 
 fttreigners in the almost primitive Transvaal. The Boer Govern- 
 ment of this republic (with which \\c are mostly concerned, for 
 tlie Orange State was comparatively aloof from the theater of 
 action, and was on the whole friendly to the British) began its 
 restrictive measures with tlie imposition of heavy fiscal dues, not 
 only upon the allotment of concessions, but upon the means of 
 exploitation and existence of the incomers such as cement, dynamite, 
 and food. Tn return for a heavy taxation it secured for the popu- 
 lation practically none of the necessities and com forts of a civilized 
 government. Sanitation was unknown; municipal works were 
 contemi)tuously neglected; the police were ignorant, brutal, and 
 corrupt, and often more to be feared than tliose from whom they 
 were sujjposcd to prcjtect life and property. Despite continued 
 remonstrance, alcohol was allowed to enter the mining district in 
 large quantities, thus demoralizing the labor supply at the mines. 
 The go\-ernmcnt likewise accentuated the dift'ercnces ni race and 
 civihxation by 'blocking a natural development of tlie educational 
 sy-tcni toward tlic employment and teaching of l-jiglish. In fact, 
 no reasi inahic a(I\-ance in education and schools ccjuld be expected 
 from a peii])!e of sncli amazing ignorance and illiteracy. 
 
 'I lie Hoers clung to the reins of political power through the 
 cxpcd:(.nt of elevating and complicating the requirements of citi- 
 zen-liip: ihi<, of course, was the \ital point, as was recognized 
 \ V bolii i're-idcnt l-'rvi-ei- and .Sir Alfred Milner in their later
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 ^81 
 
 189S-I910 
 
 conferences ; given the franchise on any terms comparable to those 
 in vogue in other states, and the Uitlanders could redress their 
 own grievances. Meanwhile the Boer Government drew a revenue 
 from the foreigners totally out of proportion to its former slender 
 income, and, since it accorded these no real part in the government, 
 it appeared to them to be fattening upon them like a huge para- 
 site.^ Thus from the apparently unfavorable soil of vaunted Boer 
 integrity and piety there sprang up a rank growth of sordid corrup- 
 tion which cannot be explained away. 
 
 The political power remained for the most part in the hands 
 of the old burghers, and it was wielded with redoubled severity 
 after the Jameson Raid of December, 1895, ^i^fl^ by the unscrupu- 
 lousness and precipitancy of Rhodes and his lieutenant, put Kriiger 
 ostensibly in the right and absolutely cut off all chance of reform. 
 In view of a conflict seen by the Boer authorities to be inevitable, 
 augmented revenues derived from exorbitant charges on the aliens 
 and their enterprises were applied in providing the apparatus of 
 war. The Orange State had meanwhile thrown in its lot with that 
 of the fellow-republic whose acts it had so often disapproved, but 
 whose civilization and fate were thought to be its own. 
 
 Meanwhile the Uitlanders had stirred up British irritation by 
 the story of their woes at the hands of the Boers whose side, 
 naturally enough, was not known, or was ignored. The franchise 
 became the apple of final discord, representing as it did more real, 
 but less concrete and conclusive objects of strife. The current 
 toward war soon waxed too strong, however, for confinement of 
 any kind ; in spite of belated Boer concessions, the candor of which, 
 as emanating from President Kriiger, was always in doubt, the 
 conflict drew on. The necessary increase of the insufficient British 
 garrisons in South Africa became apparent to the Boers, and, judg- 
 ing the time to be ripe, they put forth an insolent and pretentious 
 ultimatum (October 9, 1899), whose non-acceptance was followed 
 by a Boer invasion of the soutliern colonies. 
 
 The story of tlie war and its outcome is well known. Starting 
 out with jaunty confidence that a parade to Pretoria, where the 
 Christmas-time would be spent, would settle the whole difiiculty. 
 the British finished by spending some tliirty months, considerably 
 
 ^The Uitlanders were 60,000 to the P.ocrs' 30,000, according to Krii^uM-'s 
 own estimate; they owned three-fifths of the land in tlie country and paid 
 nine-tenths of the taxation.
 
 S8 
 
 A 1' U I C^ A 
 
 1895-1906 
 
 over $1,000,000,000," and 100.000 lives in the strug^gle. Faults of 
 armv orcrani/ntion and awkw.ird strategy revealed, to the surprise 
 of the uninitiated, the antiquated character of the British army. 
 The most disastrous fault of this organization was its incapacity 
 for adaptation to the local war-conditions. In some respects the 
 reverses of Hraddock in America were lived over again, for the 
 atteinjit was persistently made to wage warfare of the luiropean 
 type against antagonists who employed a system almost as primi- 
 tive as that of the French and Indians. The Boers, though drilled 
 and instructed on the eve of war by iM'cnch and other tacticians of 
 the highest rank, were uniformly unsuccessful in general mass- 
 engagements, and naturally so. Their forte was guerrilla war- 
 fare, and here they exhibited that astonishing mobility, entUirance, 
 and courage which- so long ballled the British in their conllicts with 
 DeW'et. Had the conditions of communication, transportation, and 
 of the arts in general been of the eighteenth century type, and had 
 Great Britain been as involved in foreign complications as she was 
 
 ^ Tlie following table will give some idea of the cost of the South African 
 War as compared with other British wars; will indicate also, to some degree, the 
 nictliods of financing the several contests: 
 
 Name of War 
 
 Duration Total Cost | Taxation Borrowing 
 
 AvcraRc 
 
 Cost per 
 
 \'ear 
 
 1. War in Ireland and witli' 1 ! i I 
 
 Iraiico (1688-1697) 10 years. 32,644,000 16,090,000 1 6,553,000 | 3,627,000 
 
 I I '"' ^'^'''^ or 5'''" j 
 
 2. War of Spanish Succession! i I I I 
 
 <i7..ji7i3) 12 vears.: 50,685.000: 21,280,000 29,405,000 ,,,2.,, ,,00 
 
 ! or 42',; 1 or 58'/;. ^ 
 
 ,>. War witli Spain (171S-172O 4 vcars. ' 4,547,000 3. 5-15. 000 i 1,002, 000 
 
 I ; , ..r 78',; I or 2 2',;, 
 
 4. War witli .Spain and ! ranee; i 1 
 
 <i7Jo-i74^) 10 vcars.' 43,65;,ooo! i3.93'.oool 20,724, "00 
 
 I ' i "'' J-'''' "' ^^''" 
 
 ". I>itt'i (Seven N'crn.-,' War)' j i , 
 
 'i;;6i763) R years., 82,624,000 | 22,605,000' 60,018,000 
 
 ! ' ' 1 or 27'-; , or 73',;. 
 
 6. \\ .-.r v'.itii Amcri' an Ccilo- j | , 
 
 - 117761785) ,f, years.' 97, 590, 000' 3,039,000' 04,560,000 
 
 |io years.' 97, 590, 000 
 
 7. War ui;!; I-iance (170!-' I 
 
 1^15; 23 years. ^ 83 i ,446,000 
 
 8. War ;!! K'--ia ( 1^54-5.-- 
 
 T y,, 
 
 '' yr'e 
 
 9. .S.'i('/i A'l': ,;;i H'.ir ( 1899- 
 
 ''>"2) 4 y-'Tr 
 
 ars.j 69,278,000 
 
 2 I2,6o9,0(jO 
 
 39l.I4R,ooo ' 44').29S.f>oo 
 
 ..r 4 7',r I "r 53'/r 
 
 29.562.000 i 30,7 I 5. "00 
 or Ai'/r i ' 57'" 
 
 62.436.0001 150,173,000 
 or 29'/^ I or 7i'/n 
 
 1, 1 39,000 
 4.365,000 
 10,328,000 
 9,760.000 
 36.150,000 
 34,639.000 
 53,152,000 
 
 n-n.ni I-. R. ]",iirclii!rl. " TIu- iMiiancing of the South African War," in 
 Annals <-i the .\merican Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. x.x., No. 3, 
 
 .\'oV<-n!'",T. I';0_'. i)um- ,S.^. )
 
 AFRICA SINCE 1895 283 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 in 1780, a closer likeness to the American Revolution might have 
 been presented. 
 
 However, this was not to be, for, with the aid proffered by 
 her colonies, England was enabled finally to effect a conquest. The 
 republics became respectively the Orange River Colony (May 24, 
 1900) and the Transvaal Colony (September i, 1900), and were 
 placed under a British governor. The British acted with extreme 
 leniency and generosity in victory; $40,000,000 was voted by 
 Parliament for the repatriation and aid of the Boers ; by November, 
 1902, 50,000 out of 70,000 burghers had been restored. The 
 Transvaal Boers were then lent money without interest for three 
 years, subsequently to bear interest at three per cent., to aid them 
 in regaining their former station in life. The British Colonial 
 Minister himself visited South Africa ostensibly to inspect and 
 ameliorate the conditions of the erstwhile enemy. An equal promi- 
 nence was accorded to the Dutch language, and the Roman-Dutch 
 law was allowed to remain in force. A large sum even was spent in 
 buying up and restoring the farmers' family Bibles, characteristic 
 souvenirs that had attracted the campaigners. 
 
 Martial law was discontinued in the Transvaal in 1902, and 
 both the colonies were granted representative institutions with the 
 prospect of self-government on the model of other British colonies 
 of settlement as soon as circumstances would permit; and that 
 the latter clause is no idle or cynical proviso the history of British 
 colonization in the nineteenth century may stand witness. ]\Iean- 
 while, the prospects of the development of the whole region ac- 
 cording to the modern mode are higher than ever before, although 
 it remains to be seen whether a fusion of races and of civilization 
 can be effected. The disappearance of two leading figures from the 
 South African stage, the representatives respectively of the most 
 conservative and the most progressive tendencies, cannot but have 
 an effect upon the possibilities of reconciliation. There were many 
 people who urged the Uitlanders to have patience until President 
 Kriiger died, on the ground that he alone stood between them and 
 their rights, and his retirement and death have doubtless removed 
 the sturdiest of the champions of the old regime, while the still 
 earlier passing of Cecil Rhodes has effaced forever from South 
 Africa the curse as well as the blessing of his portentous presence. 
 However it may be in the future, the fact that in the trying years 
 just past the Dutch element of tlie Cape remained largely neutral.
 
 84. AFRICA 
 
 189S 1910 
 
 if not loyal, q^ivcs promise of the s;ro\vth of mutual compatibility 
 ixtwccii the races, ami is a witness to a p^rowini^ realization on the 
 part of many inveterate recalcitrants of the blcssincfs which attend 
 on British rule, and more than make up for its faults. But the con- 
 trast in civilizatiiMi. with whicli this discussion of the Anj^lo-Boer 
 relations bet^an. must be borne constantly in mind, if one is not to 
 be discouratjed at any slowness, halting^, or even rctrog^ression of 
 what is called progress, as time j^oes on. It is too early to draw 
 conclusions of any value as to a chanj^ed material status of the 
 country, disorganized and demoralized as it has been during and 
 since tlie war. But it cannot be otherwise under l>ritish rule but 
 that material civilization should advance, and that these backward 
 states should begin to play a part in the world commensurate with 
 their capacities. 
 
 Among the as yet theoretical projects in the now consolidated 
 British South Africa is that which lias for its aim the federation of 
 this whole section of the empire. Tlie Australian movement has 
 been contagious, and very likely, in so far as the new projects are 
 the result of such contagion, they are precipitate. But no student 
 seriously doubts that this series of colonies, in so far as they consti- 
 tute true colonies of settlement, are sometime to proceed through 
 the stages already traversed by Canada, the Australasian posses- 
 sions, and the United States, and at length emerge as new states, 
 directing tlieir own affairs in only nominal dependence upon, if not 
 in real indeiJendence of. the mother country. In those environing 
 C'tnditions which determine the form of societies, South Africa 
 resembles the Australian settlements rather tlian the American, 
 lia\ing a somewhat less opp(jrlunity than the former even for se- 
 curing a thorougiily in(lej)en(lcnt and self-sufficing station. It is 
 a 'juestion alxAc all of the natural or ac(|uired capacity for actual 
 c )ionizaiion, tliat is. for agriculture, and the limits of such capacity 
 arc likely to mark the extent of independent or quasi-independent 
 btate-> u<v a long future. 
 
 Duriiii; tlu' later \):in of 1908, and the early part of TOO9, British 
 and I)ulr!i drlrc^ra'us fruin the .^outh African colonics met at Dur- 
 ban, Xatal. and drafted a constitution imiting all the states. In 
 December, K/xy, all i)arties were j)lcased with the appointment of 
 ll'Tbert C;iad-t'iiic a>^ ;;'overnor-general of South Africa, and his ar- 
 ri\d ;!iere in the earh- p:n"t of loio. was a time of rejoicing ffir the 
 pc pie o\-cr whose dc-tinies he is to i)reside.
 
 AFRICA SINCE 189 5 284a 
 
 1895-1910 
 
 Beside the prominent roles played by Egypt and South Africa 
 in the latter-day history of British. African possessions or spheres 
 of influence, the relatively uneventful histor}- of the rest falls into 
 insignificance. The latter are tropical colonies and have made their 
 recent history, as has been shown, in an orthodox manner. In all 
 these colonies the Europeans constitute only a vanishing and 
 ephemeral element in the population. The climate is deadly, espe- 
 cially on the west coast; it is said that between the British pos- 
 sessions on this coast and England, there have been usually two 
 governors cii route the new go\'ernor on the way to his post pass- 
 ing the dead bod}^ of his predecessor as it was being borne home 
 for burial in native soil. It is likewise true that the expenditure for 
 these colonies considerabl}' exceeds, as a rule, the revenue col- 
 lected. This appears to be a necessary condition in a tropical col- 
 ony where compulsory labor of all kinds is forbidden. The national 
 gain in such cases is not fiscal, then, ]:)ut must be estimated under 
 public wealth, if there is any material return at all. As a matter 
 of fact, a government seems willing to continue to balance the bud- 
 get of such colonies from a variety of subjectixe reasons of national 
 pride, vanity, or asserted humanitarianism. The usual formula 
 no stranger to Americans is: "We are there, and cannot with- 
 draw." Sinister reasons for such an apparently losing course arc 
 sometimes discovered in the undue influence of interested persons 
 or groups; but the reasons just mentioned are certainly the osten- 
 sible and doubtless predominantly the real motive forces in the 
 breasts of tiie unimaginative and dogged British and other taxpay- 
 ers "the forgotten men" vvdio foot the bills in the final ac- 
 counting. 
 
 These latter remarks on tropical colonics may be taken to 
 apply to most of the African settlements of all the participating 
 nations, for practically all of Africa is of this type, except the 
 southern tip. What tliey all desire, excluding other than individ- 
 ual and national aims, is trade. Tliey want the characteristic prod- 
 ucts of Africa in so far a.s these sup[)lemcnt existing I)nt insnlfi- 
 cient temperate zone products, or fill a \-oi(l locally impo^sil)le I'l 
 satisfaction. What tliese articles are the eniichuling c!iai)ter un- 
 dertakes to show. A wonderful advance in the civilizing of South 
 Africa was mad.e bv the Imildiiig of the r.ailroad between l.ovito 
 Bay, through Benguella and extending in an almost direct line 
 across Africa to Katanga. There it joins the Cape to Cairo rad-
 
 2S4b A F R T C A 
 
 1S9S-1910 
 
 roatl. The huililincr of this r.iilroad has hronjjht Pretoria 3,000 
 miles nearer to Europe, and consequently that much closer to the 
 centers o{ advanced civilization. The openinj^-up of Africa began 
 in trade, and any effective proj^rcss in this line has been through 
 trade and ccnnmercial enterprise, directly or indirectly, alone. If 
 the status <>f the [lopulation shall be thereby raised, it is primarily 
 through trade, which, with an insufficient approach to justice, has 
 been called the "handmaid of civilization." 
 
 The trip df Col. Roosevelt to Africa has done more to awaken 
 interest in tiiat continent than all the events which have preceded 
 it for m.uiy years, b'or months the newspapers were full of the 
 adventures of this most representative of Americans, and his safe re- 
 turn was hailed with joy by millions. The start of his expedition, 
 which went out under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institute. 
 fur the purpose of securing rare and unusual specimens of animal 
 life, left New York City, March 23, 1909, and arrived in Naples, 
 April 5th. Col. Roosevelt was met and welcomed by the king, but 
 made only a brief stay, arriving at Port Said, April 9. The expe- 
 dition went from Mombasa, northwest to Uganda; Ihencc t) 
 Nairobi, and on back to Kiiarloum, where Col. Roosevelt was met by 
 Mr>. Roosevelt and their (lau.:4htcr. Miss Ktliel RdoscvcU. His asso- 
 ciates on the cxjiedition were Dr. and Col. Edgar A. Mearns, 
 [''dmund Hcllcr, a trained naturalist; J. Alden Loring, a collector 
 <.f small animals of world-wide reputation, and his son, Kcrmil 
 Roriscvclt. who was the official photograjiher of the expedition. 
 He was joined by R. J. Cunninghamc, an I'^nglishman, who had 
 acted as guide for a number of famous travelers. 
 
 The expcditirin, from a scientific standpoint, has been an im- 
 mense success, '["he .Smitlisonian Institute has been enriched be- 
 yipiif] the wildf.-t exi)cctntions of the illustrious explorer. His en- 
 tire jovirnc}" h'K ]>ccu one continual triumj)h, nati\'e chiefs as well 
 a'^ ;lie liighc.-i wliicials of the \arious governments, \'\ing with each 
 other to firi liiiii liunor. From Africa, the Roosevelt party sailed to 
 Italy, wlure tlie Ising ,'ind dignitaries awaited to show Col. Roc>.~e- 
 \e!t the li'rjiors liitluTto onl\- accorded to reiLTninir rulers.
 
 ECONOMICAL VALUE OF AFRICA
 
 Chapter XIX 
 
 THE KCONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 
 
 SUCH. then, in brief, is the story of the "scramble for 
 Africa " and its results. It will enable us to form some 
 idea of the value of the share which has fallen to each of the 
 p(nvcrs who have been enj::faged in the scramble if we endeavor to 
 realize what are the leading characteristics of the geography of 
 Africa, so far as these bear upon its economical development. 
 
 It was a prevalent belief among the ancient Greek and Roman 
 geographers, and even down to the time of the Arab occupation, 
 that the torrid ;:one of the earth, and especially of Africa, was 
 uninhabitable on account of its heat. Though not precisely in the 
 sense in which these ancients meant it, there is a great deal of truth 
 in this, l-'rom the Kin'opean point of view. Central Africa is be- 
 h'eved by most authorities to be uninhabitable, or at least uncolon- 
 i7:able, on account of its heat. 
 
 There is anotlier impression very prevalent at the present day, 
 for which African tra\clcrs reproach us. We are apt. we are told, 
 to forget that Africa is not a little bit of a country like England or 
 iM-aiice or Italy or even India, but that it is a great continent em- 
 bracing some IT. 500.000 square miles 5000 miles long from north 
 to soutli, and 4500 miles wide at its broadest part; and that, as a 
 C'-ntinent stretching over some 70"^ of latitude and nearly as many 
 i>\ longitude, it must have many varieties of feature, of climate, of 
 pri ducts, of ])eoplc. W'liile there is no doubt much justification 
 ii>r tlic rc]irMacli. the popular conception is. after all, not so very far 
 wrdiig. Africa is the most miiform. the most monotonous, of all 
 the continents; amid all its varietv there is a certain sameness, a 
 ccriain family li]<cncss from north to south and east to west. 
 
 This ci'Uijjrirative unif(rmity of the continent of Africa, and 
 tlie fact "f it- i!a\ing been so repellent to tlie intervention of white 
 r.-'ccs reared in temperate latitudes, can to a large extent be ac- 
 ('. iK-Jed i',v by coni])aring the situation of Africa with that of the 
 ntMcr continents. It lies almost evenly balanced on each side of the 
 
 i?H6
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 287 
 
 equator, between about 40 north and 40 south latitude. The 
 equinoctial hne which passes through its center does not touch the 
 Euro-Asiatic continent. The Tropic of Cancer, which skirts the 
 south of China and passes through the center of India and Arabia, 
 leaving the bulk of the Euro-Asiatic continent to the north, runs 
 across the north of Africa, leaving only about 3,000,000 square 
 miles between it and the ^Mediterranean ; while less than 1,000,000 
 square miles lie to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn, at the 
 other end of the continent. Again, tlie whole of North America is 
 outside of the tropics. Of the southern half of that continent, 
 much of the tropical area is occupied by the ocean with its moder- 
 ating influences; and, while the larger part of South America is 
 within the tropics, still a very considerable portion is situated to 
 the south of Capricorn, and down almost to the verge of Antarctic 
 influences. While the climate of the southern sp.ores of Europe is 
 very similar to that of the Mediterranean coast of Africa, and 
 while the southern peninsulas of Asia are purely tropical, everv 
 variety of climate is found between that and the ice-bound shores of 
 Siberia. In the other hemisphere, while the feet of the Nortli 
 American continent are laved by the warm waters of tb.e Gulf 
 Stream, its head is almost within hail of tlie North Pole. Of 
 Australia even, the larger half is outside tropical influences, and its 
 non-tropical shores face tlie broad ocean and not landlocked seas, as 
 do the north and northeast coasts of Africa. Africa, then, is tlie 
 tropical continent par excellence. Of its total area some two-thirds, 
 almost 8,000,000 square miles, lie between the tropics, and have 
 the sun vertical twice a year, while the rest of the continent is more 
 or less sub-tropical; so that, so far as climate goes, the popular con- 
 ception is not far wrong. TLxen of America only about one-third 
 of the land is within the tropics. 
 
 Here, tlien, we have a barrier to European intercourse and 
 settlement which does not exist to anything like tlic same extent on 
 any other continent. It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader 
 how this question of latitude acts as a barrier to the European 
 occupation of the bulk of .-Vfrica. Pcrha])s it is not wise to be ti m . 
 dogmatic on the subject, for the data we possess arc scanty in tlic 
 extreme. But there is no doubt that among those who are entitled 
 to speak with authority on the subject it is held that without an 
 enormcjus advance in the arts, colonizatifm, in the proper sense "i 
 the term, is inii)o^sihlc in a trupical muntry, unless the European
 
 iiSS AFRICA 
 
 can chanpfc liis constitution ; unless in tlic course of ages a variety is 
 tlevclopcd (lifTerinj; materially from the races that now occupy at 
 least Northern and Central Europe and such a variety would 
 practically cease to be European. 
 
 Another serious setback to Africa is its regularity of contour. 
 Tlunigh Africa is more than three times the size of Europe, and 
 although it is practically an island while Europe has an extensive 
 lantl frontier, the coast-line of Africa measures only about 15,000 
 miles in length, while that of Europe is ig.ooo miles. A glance 
 at a map of the world will show how this marked difference arises. 
 There is not a single indentation on the coast of Africa worthy of 
 the name: the coast-line all round looks like a barrier to keep back 
 the beneficent advances of the ocean. Compare the north coast of 
 .Africa with the opposite coast of Europe, with its long Adriatic 
 and its Black Sea. with its entrances and offshoots. There is noth- 
 ing in the whole round of the African coast to compare on the one 
 hand with the great sea-arms and magnificent natural harbors that 
 mark the west coast of Europe, including the British Isles, nor with 
 the richly broken Atlantic coast of North America on the other. 
 There is only one estuary of real magnitude on the whole continent, 
 that of the Congo; hence partly the great hopes entertained of the 
 future of that river. Such second-rate harbors as those of Delagoa 
 Bay and Mombasa are reckoned valuable possessions in Africa, for 
 which nations struggle. This monotonous outline of the African 
 coast acts disadvantageously in tw-o ways from the point of view 
 of European enterprise. In the first place, the lack of deep oceanic 
 indentations deprives the great bulk of the continent of the benef- 
 icent influences which contiguity to the sea brings with it; and, in 
 the second place, it deprives the navigator and trader of ready 
 iiighways to the interior. Thus the mere character of the contour 
 of the coast has contributed to retard the development of the con- 
 tinent. At the same time, let us recall the fact that the spread of 
 raih'oads over the continent would tend greatly to counteract the 
 C' >nimcTcial disad\antages arising from the lack of deep arms of 
 the sea, navigable rivers, and natural harbors. Railroads are the 
 .c;rrat Icvelcrs, shattering old geographical traditions, and tending to 
 place all continents on a more equal footing, so far as communica- 
 i! ns are concerned. 
 
 i'assing from the contour of the coast-line to the configuration 
 ' : -urface of tlie continent, we find liere again certain charac-
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 289 
 
 teristics which distinguish Africa from all the other continents. 
 except perhaps Australia, which might have been as far behind 
 in civilization as Africa had its latitude been different. The sur- 
 face of Africa is nearly as monotonous as its outline. There is 
 only one mountain range worthy of the name, that of the Atlas, 
 which extends along the northern rim of the continent from Tunis 
 to the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and rises at its loftiest point, 
 Miltsin, to 13,000 feet. Eastward we find a line of detached 
 heights, between the Nile and the Red Sea, with one or two points 
 over 6000 feet, and leading us on to the great mountain mass of 
 Abyssinia, rising in terrace after terrace to a culminating height of 
 15,000 feet, with a cap of perpetual snow. Proceeding southward 
 over a lofty plateau, we come upon another smaller mass of ele- 
 vated land on the northeast and east of Victoria Nyanza, which is 
 marked by such magnificent heights as Elgon, 14,000; Kenia, 
 18,000; and Kilimanjaro, 20,000 all of them old volcanoes, and 
 one of them, Dunye-M'buro, not yet extinct. Scattered over the 
 region between this and Lakes Nyasa and Bangweolo we find a 
 few points rising to over 5000 feet, but there is no other mountain 
 range till we meet the Drackensberg in Southeast Africa, rising in 
 places to 10,000 feet, and extending under varying names and at a 
 lower level southwest and west into Cape Colony. Between lliat 
 and the Cameroons only one or two spots reach a height of over 
 6000 feet. In the small mass of Cameroons we rise to 13,700 feet, 
 and find ourselves in an old volcanic region continued into I'^er- 
 nando Po and neighboring islands. Between tlie Cameroons and 
 Lake Chad, Mount Atlantika shoots up beyond the general level of 
 the plateau; while Ruwenzori (20,000 feet) and its neighboring 
 summits, to the south of Albert Nyanza, may be taken as bclongin;;' 
 to the great volcanic series around Victoria Nyanza and nortli Id 
 Abyssinia. Even the Saliara is not so deadly level as is j)()])nfarly 
 believed; there is a line of heights running northwest from Darfm-, 
 and culminating in Tibesti in a summit which deserves to be called 
 a mountain, for it rises to over 7000 feet. 
 
 But when all is put together the really mountainous regions 
 of Africa amount to little compared with the great size of tlic 
 continent. We have nothing in Africa that can compare in com- 
 parative mass and extent with the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Apen- 
 nines, the Carpatliians. the Scandinavian ranges, in iMiropc, not 
 to mention the Himalayas and the stupendous ranges ot C'eiiiral
 
 290 AFRICA 
 
 Asia, and tlie Andes and Rocky Mountains tliat nin the whole 
 length >i the American continent. This hick of groat mountain 
 ranges uiH)n the African continent must be regarded as another 
 serious (lra\vl)ack to its econoinical development, since it markedly 
 alTects its rainfall and the distribution of its water supply. Nearly 
 all the mountain regions we have referred to iK'ar c\ idencc of 
 gigantic volcanic activity at a past period in the history of the 
 continent. The geological history of the continent is. no doubt, 
 one of great interest. That at a recent period Africa was con- 
 nected with Eurojie no one doubts, but the idea that the present 
 surface of the Sahara is an old sea-bed has been abandoned in the 
 face of recently accumulated evidence. Over much of the conti- 
 nent the old Plutonic rocks prevail immensely over the recent erup- 
 tive rocks, just as the older sedimentary do over the recent tertiary 
 or quaternary. Both orders appear to be generally intermingled 
 and largely ass(X'iated with semi-crystalline and mctam(M-i)hic 
 fomis. In a general way the com])osition of the soil of Africa is 
 favorable enough to the varied requirements of humanity; its great 
 want is water. 
 
 It is a striking fact that, notwithstanding the paucity of great 
 mountain ranges in Africa as compared with Europe and Asia, the 
 general mean elevation of tiie former is greater than in cither of 
 the latter. In the case of Africa it is from 1900 to 2000 feet, while 
 that of ]uu\)pe is only 1000 feet and Asia 1650 feet. This reveals 
 to us the great characteristic feature of the surface of Africa a 
 high ]:)latcau, descending almost everywhere in terraces to the coast. 
 All round the coast is a strip varying in breadth, but generally coni- 
 j)aratively narrow, of not more than 500 feet in height. l>ut the 
 great bulk of the continent is a plateau of from 500 to 2000 feel, 
 nuich nearer to the latter than th.e former. Indeed, the mass of the 
 continent south of the ecpiator, exclusive of a consideraljle section 
 of the Congo basin, is from 2(X)o to 5000 feet, with a broad belt 
 including the great lakes [jushiiig northward far beyond the erjuator 
 iiUi.) the l'i)per Xile basin and Abyssinia. Scattered (ner this, 
 we ha\e seen, are ])atches which rise to o\er 6000 feet. The cen- 
 tral j)oni(,n of this, trending northeast from Damaraland to 
 Abys-inia. and from 500 to looo miles wide, may be said to aver- 
 age 5000 feet in height. The northern half of the continent, while 
 rctaini;ig its ])]ateaii character, has a considerably lower general 
 altitude. avcrai;ing 1500 feet. tlKJUgh much of it rise< to jooo feet.
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 291 
 
 In Africa, in short, the rehef of the land, instead of being concen- 
 trated in one or two enormous mountain ranges, has been spread 
 over the continent with wonderful equality. 
 
 The practical importance of the plateau character of the sur- 
 face of Africa will be apparent when the influence of altitude in 
 modifying temperature is kept in view. The mean annual isotherm 
 of 70 is almost coincident with the north coast of Africa, and just 
 comes inside the south coast. The mean annual isotherm of 80'^ 
 is in the north almost coincident with the Tropic of Cancer, and on 
 the south enters at the Guinea Coast, but sweeps so abruptly south 
 as to include the bulk of Africa south of the equator. These are 
 enormous average temperatures to embrace a continent; no other 
 land-mass has anything like them. Over a large area of the con- 
 tinent the usual day temperatures are of course much higher, and 
 were it not for the rapid nocturnal radiation. Central Africa would 
 really, as the ancients believed, become uninhabitable on account of 
 the heat. 
 
 When it is remembered that as a general rule tempera- 
 ture decreases by 1 for every 300 feet of altitude, the great ad- 
 vantage of the plateau character of Africa, so far as the European 
 is concerned, must be at once evident. WHien such altitudes are 
 available as we find in Africa around the great lakes Victoria, tlie 
 two Alberts, Tanganyika, Nyasa, and the district between the last 
 tv/o, as also in the Cameroons and tlie Abyssinian highlands with 
 ordinary care and a fair constitution to start with, a lengthened 
 residence and reasonable activity become possible, and. if on the 
 verge of the tropics, even colonization may be practicable ; tliough 
 the last statement must be taken with caution. For. be it remem- 
 bered, it is not the mere heat of the tropics that tells on the ICuro- 
 pean constitution ; there is the malaria engendered in the low-lying 
 regions, and even in the uplands in some places. I^Iore trying even 
 than this, both to man and beast, is the excessive variation of tem- 
 perature between day and night. The difference between summer 
 and winter temperature in some parts of Africa is very great ; in 
 the Central Sahara and in l>echuanaland it is as much as 36 ', and 
 in Southwest Africa even 60 '^. Such a difference can be j)r()vi(le(l 
 for. But when there is a sudden lowering of the temperature at 
 sundown in a tropical or sub-tropical moisture-laden atmos])here it 
 is apt to tell severely on the European constitution. This is one 
 point that has yet to be tested in Maslionaland. which, thougli snb-
 
 *i92 AFRICA 
 
 tropical, is in some respects a country tliat promises well for 
 Kuropean occupation. 
 
 These are a few of the advantages and disadvantagfes of the 
 plateau character of tropical Africa, so far as concerns the influence 
 of the climate on the European constitution. It entails, however, 
 still another obstacle to free commercial development. The pla- 
 teau, which prevails almost everywhere, slopes down in terraces 
 more or less rapidly to the coast, and down these terraces the 
 rivers from the interior must make their way, with the result that 
 we Hnd the ccnirscs of the Nile, the Niger, the Congo, the Zambezi, 
 more or less interrupted by cataracts. These are a serious obstacle 
 to navigation. Fortunately on the Niger the break occurs far up 
 the river, leaving a long, clear waterway, but on the Congo we 
 meet with some 200 miles of unnavigable cataracts, beginning at 
 abtjut 150 miles from the sea, and so cutting off from direct access 
 tlic 1000 miles of splendid waterway above, which leads into the 
 licart of Africa. Had it not been for this we cannot doubt that 
 the Congo would have been traced from below long before Stan- 
 ley's brilliant achievement from above. At the same time, as has 
 already been pointed out, these geographical disadvantages can be 
 to a large degree nullified by the construction of railroads. No 
 doubt both in Europe and America river-navigation is of impor- 
 tance, but it is insignificant compared with the importance of rail- 
 road communication. American rivers are not infrequently flanked 
 by railroads built directly on their banks. In fact, the judicious 
 introduction of railroads would greatly enhance the value of the 
 African waterways. 
 
 IVevailing winds have much to do with temperature, and still 
 mcjre perhaps with rainfall ; and it is to be feared that here we 
 touch upon one of tlie weakest of Africa's many weak points. On 
 tlie cast coast tlie prevailing winds are toward the continent, bring- 
 ing with tlicm a fair sui)ply of moisture: all around the Gulf of 
 f Guinea tlie ocean sends an ample tribute of moisture, while farther 
 south the Cf>ld Uenguela current tends to diminish the supply. The 
 northeast trades just skirt the Sahara coast, and do it little good, 
 wliile tlic winds tliat cross the Mediterranean and Red Sea have 
 ci! ready parted with most of their moisture to the Euro-Asiatic 
 l.'in'i-ina'^s, and what little remains is levied by the coast-lands. 
 \\ hat. then, are the results of these influences so far as the supply 
 of moisture, tlie rainfall oi the African continent, is concerned?
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 293 
 
 It should be remembered that we have precise and continued ob- 
 servations for very few places in Africa. From such meager data 
 as we have we find that the region of greatest rainfall is round the 
 Niger mouths and south along the coast to the Ogove, with one or 
 two patches on the coast to the south of the Gambia. There we 
 may have over lOO inches annually. On the Lower Niger region, 
 up by the Benue, and on a sweep from the Upper Benue down to 
 the vicinity of the Congo mouth, and probably including some of 
 the northern tributaries of the Congo, the rainfall is estimated to 
 average from 50 to 100 inches annually. The same amount is 
 found along a broad strip of the Upper Guinea coast, and over an 
 extensive area in the heart of the continent, on the Middle and 
 Upper Congo and its great feeders, and around the gTeat lakes. 
 There is also a patch on the Tana River region, to the northeast 
 of Victoria Nyanza, and a strip on the east coast from Mozambique 
 to the River Jub. But the great bulk of the center of the continent 
 from the Niger and Benue on the north to the Zambezi on the 
 south has about 50 inches, reaching on the Upper Congo and its 
 feeders 100 inches. Fifty-inch patches are found on the coast of 
 Algeria and Tunis, over a considerable area of ^Morocco, and into 
 Abyssinia. Over much of the western IMediterranean border, on 
 the southern face of the Atlas, we have at least from 10 to 25 
 inches. A similar supply prevails over a belt of varying breadth 
 reaching east from the mouth of the Senegal along the Central 
 Sudan States and on the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile. A 
 still wider belt to the north of this receives from 5 to 10 iiiclics, but 
 it merges into the Sahara, where the annual average is less than 
 5 inches too little to be of any avail for cuUivaticr,-;. 1'o the 
 south of the Zambezi tlie raiiafall is about 50 inches on tlie cast 
 coast and on to the edi^e of the Mashonaland plateau, grathially 
 diminishing to 25 inches, and still further the farther westward. 
 The western half of this reginn north of the Orange River 
 has the minimum rainfall. On the coast of Cape Colony they have 
 50 inches and over, but this rapidly diminishes as wc leave the coast. 
 The northeast horn of Africa, including Somaliland. has from lo 
 to 25 inches, with the exception of an area from Lake l\U(Ii^lf lo 
 beyond the JuIj, where the rainfall is from 5 to to inches. Thu<, 
 then, except in the center of the continent, in trupieal Afriea the 
 rainfall is almost ex'erywherc ina(le(|nate for iii(lii-,!i ial (i])(i-at!()n- ; 
 so that where Luropeans might settle, ^n far a> tempei-atm e l; ' .
 
 29i AFRICA 
 
 the water supply is defective. Even in the central l)clt, especially 
 in East Africa, there are considerable areas of desert met wiih 
 where the water supply is almost r.il. 
 
 Closely related to th.c supply of water from above is that on 
 the surface oi the continent. One of the most characteristic fea- 
 tures of Central Africa is its group of great lakes Victoria Xy- 
 anza. Albert and Albert Edward Xyanzas, Tanganyika, Mweru, 
 Bankweolo. Xyasa just on the eastern edge of the region where 
 tlie rainfall may l>c from 50 to icxd inches. On the northern edge 
 of the 25 to 50-inch area we find Lake CIkhI. wliicli is really not 
 much more tlian an enormous swamp varying very greatly in area 
 according to the season. South from the southern edge we find a 
 corresponding swampy lake, Xgami, which may be all that remains 
 of a muchi greater lake, into which, at no very remote period, the 
 Zambezi may have discharged its waters. The only other lakes 
 of any consequence in Africa are Lake Dcmhea, among the 
 Abyssinian Mountains, and Lake Rudolf, to the northeast of 
 X'ictoria X'yanza, situated in a comparatively dry region, and 
 forming the receptacle of an inland drainage basin. But the great 
 mass of lacustrine waters is concentrated in the center of the 
 continent. 
 
 It is not surprising, then, to find that the rivers of Africa, with 
 one exception, draw their supplies from the center of t'r.e continent. 
 The Xile drains the waters of the tlirce Xyanza-. and one of it-^ 
 chief eastern feeders comes from a lake of Abyssinia. Tlic 
 Congo may be said' to rise in Lake luingweolo, w!:i!e the Tangan- 
 yika sends its contribution to the same river. Many tributaries 
 ci-me from the soiuli, drawing th.cir v.-aters from tliat great sponge, 
 as Livingstc>nc called it. an eriormous marshy region that may be 
 said to form the water-parting l^ctwcen the Congo and Zambezi, 
 whence the latter rises, a*^ well as th.c Coan7a, wh.ich makes its way 
 t ) the west coast. W'liile tiie Xigcr itself is fed from the rai:iy 
 rc'^'-'on of Western Africa, its great trihuU'.ry. the Benue, comes 
 f : in th,e central 7. .nc. 'i'h.cse arc the i- w: great river-system-^ of 
 A'rica and t!:e X:!e :- ']'e cvAv one which, in anv ])art of its course. 
 rc-:cMe< Ijcvotyl t'lc tr. ];ics. Tlie Sencg.;! and the Gambia, thougli 
 tropica!, are in^-q-iiTicaiit : t'le Tj'mpopi; is a!o small, and is of 
 dor.l/.fnl r.t-hiy f-r navi;^ati. mi. while tiic Orar.i'C is not much Ix^tter 
 tlian a r.rgc t Trent. Pry ri\er-l)etl< r.r "* v.adirs '' are found in 
 many place- ..t--<!e \\:c tii.pics, even in t'.c Sahara, hi this enor-
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 295 
 
 mous desert we find wadies of very great length, and along these 
 are signs that at one time they may have been permanently flowing 
 rivers. Even now, wlien the rain has been more than usually 
 copious, they may contain water for a few days, and water can 
 always be obtained by digging. On the other side of the continent, 
 again, in the Cape region and the countries around its borders, the 
 dry river-beds may suddenly become destructive torrents. But, as 
 a general rule, outside the tropical area permanently flowing water 
 is rare. 
 
 The foregoing is an attempt to exhibit, with necessary brevity 
 and generality, the leading data wdiich may be said to go to consti- 
 tute the surface geography of Africa. All that appears on that 
 surface, or that may be gotten out of it by human exertion, mav be 
 said to be an outcome of the various factors with which we have 
 been dealing. We have first the position of the continent on the 
 earth's surface, i. e., latitude; then we have the outline or contour 
 of the coast, and its relations to the surrounding oceans ; the con- 
 tours or hypsometric characteristics of the surface ; the distribution 
 of the sun's heat, the prime iniluence of all ; the direction of the 
 prevailing winds, and the distribution and amount of the moisture 
 which they bring; the supply of surface water, or hydrography of 
 the continent. What, then, do we find as the first outcome of 
 these various influences ? 
 
 To begin with, in tlie great central region, the region of fairly 
 abundant rainfall and of generally ample surface water supply, we 
 find, on the whole, spontaneous tropical exuberance f)f vegetation 
 and plentiful animal life. Even here, especially in I^ast Africa, 
 there are, however, great patches of poor scrub-land, or steppe 
 country, little better than desert. But the main feature is rich 
 grass-land covered with trees, sometimes in clumps, sometimes con- 
 densed into forests of no great extent, very generally of an open 
 ]jark-like character. In the region of most abundant rainfall, 
 around the coasts of the (julf of Guinea, in ])atches along tlic 
 Eenue, on the L'])])er Congo and its tributaries, and generally 
 wherever we find the rainfall most abundant, we lia\e genuine 
 tropical forests, thtjugh nothing, it would seem, to compare in con- 
 tinuous extent with tlie great fore^t region of Soutli America. 
 Here, then, in the great ceni ral bell, from lo'' north to 20" soutl;, 
 the region of true tropical licit and tropical rainfall, we lia\i' 
 nature spontaneously exuberant. Outside tlii.^ region there are
 
 '.i)G AFRICA 
 
 few districts of which the same can be said; it mainly depends on 
 the rainfall. South of the central and eastern Zambezi, except 
 the low-lying Manika counti^'. the district where there is a fairly 
 ;ilnindant extra-tropical rainfall, including Mashonaland, Mata- 
 heleland. parts of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, and east 
 and south Cape Colony, we find grass-lands with trees, though 
 not ver\' evenly distributed, and liable to he affected by capricious 
 rainfall. Similar patches are found in Abyssinia, along the valley 
 of the Nile, and along the slopes of the Atlas and the Western 
 -Mediterranean coast-lands. 
 
 North of the central belt and between the Mediterranean 
 coast, and also over most of the northeast horn of Africa, is found 
 an area cither absolutely desert, or the next stage to it poor 
 steppe, scrub, or other land of a like nature. 'J'his area covers 
 soinetliing like 4,000.000 square miles one-third of the continent. 
 Of this about one-half is pure desert, the veritable sandy Sahara. 
 'Ihe true Sahara is not one compact area. On its south, with a 
 varying breadth, we have the so-called steppe or scrub-land, much 
 of which is really fairly good grass-land at certain seasons of the 
 year, with vegetation of a shrubby or scrubby character. This 
 broadens out to the north of the Senegal, and extends in a wide 
 strip along the west coast region. It pushes its way right into the 
 center of the Sahara, and broadens out into the Ahaggar high- 
 lands. Another wedge runs north from Darfur into the Tibesti 
 C'liintry, wliile the same characteristics prevail over most of the 
 northeast horn of Africa. On the other side of Africa we find a 
 strij) of true desert along the west coast from the Coanza to the 
 Orrmge River. This sjjreads out on the south of the Zambezi. 
 Over about twothirds of South Africa, and extending well to the 
 sr)uth of the Orange River, we have the scrub or steppe character- 
 istics known in the Cajjc region as the Karroo. 
 
 Thus. then, in Africa, we have at least 2.000,000 square miles 
 of true desert, and i)robably about a similar area of land at a stage 
 ;i!)o\e the (lc>ert, \arying from tlic poorest scrub to latid that may at 
 some time of the year yield a fair amount of grass with only the 
 natural moisture that may fall to its share. This, of course, is a 
 general statement, for it is wholly imi)ossible to draw any hard- 
 and-fa-i line In^ween absolutely good and absolutely bad land; nor 
 i^ there any matlu-maticrd line between tropical and non-troj)ical 
 region-. We fmd (;;;<es of verdure in the most desert regions, and
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 297 
 
 desert areas surrounded by exuberant vegetation. If we compare 
 the distribution of surface with the distribution of rainfall, we 
 cannot but be struck with the very close relations that exist between 
 the two factors. Indeed, this factor of rainfall influences other 
 factors in a remarkable way, not only in Africa, but all over the 
 world. In South Australia every inch of rain above a certain 
 quantity may, it has been calculated, be worth hundreds of thou- 
 sands of dollars to the wheat farmer. 
 
 Indirectly also rainfall influences the distribution of animals ; 
 for graminivorous animals go where they find the most abundant 
 food, and the carnivorous follow in their train. The distribution of 
 the larger carnivores and of venomous animals is of no little 
 practical importance, for they constitute a certain amount of 
 danger to the opening up of the continent by Europeans; but it is 
 an element which may for practical purposes be neglected. Indeed, 
 the existence of the larger animals, whatever order they belong to, 
 may actually promote the opening up of the continent, seeing that 
 they attract the sportsman, who may act as pioneer for the trader 
 and the missionary. But from the commercial point of view the 
 most important of African animals is no doubt the elephant, which 
 is, in a general way, found from the edge of the northern desert 
 region to below the Zambezi. From the latter region it is rapidly 
 retiring northward. It used to be found quite near the south coast, 
 but in the Cape Colony proper it is now only found in a preserve. 
 Rarely now is the elephant found near any coast, and there can be 
 little doubt that, unless its destruction is placed under stringent 
 regulation, the existence of this animal wm'11 soon be confined to the 
 most inaccessible regions. As might be expected, the elephant is 
 found to be most abundant in the central region of ]i]entiful rainfall 
 and exuberant vegetation ; and, in reckoning up the commercial 
 assets of Africa, it must be taken into account. 
 
 Much more important for the development of Africa than tlie 
 distribution of animal life on its surface is the extent to which 
 minerals are found beneath it. Until the geology of the continent 
 is more completely worked out, only the vaguest statements can l)e 
 made on the subject. Gold was found in Africa even in remote 
 times, and the gold mines of ^Mashonaland and :\lanika. so ])romi- 
 nent in our day, were worked long before the Portngncse touched 
 the shores of the continent, and the massive ruins fotnid scattered 
 over that regfion are evidence enough of the fact. 1"hat gold exists
 
 !2t)S AFRICA 
 
 in i^rcal ahiimlancc not only in thai region but over mucli of the 
 area st)Uth of the Zambezi, in the west as in the cast, there can be little 
 (iouht. North of the Zambezi, in the Lake Nyasa region, it is also 
 foniul. The (loltl Coast deserves its name: but unfortunately the 
 climate is a great obstacle to the working of the mines. Inland from 
 the Ked vSea. on the cast of Nubia and down by llarrar, it is also 
 found, and was probably worked there in the old Egyptian times. 
 Silver is also fi>und there, and both gold and silver in Abyssinia. 
 Ciold has been worked in Senegambia. and silver in Morocco, 
 -Algeria, and Tunis. In some of the last-mentioned places these 
 precious metals may not be abundant, still it may pay to work them. 
 Si>. far, then, tlie most coveted of all metals seems to exist in the 
 greatest abundance on the south of the Zambezi. 
 
 Still farther south, in Mashonaland. Natal, the Transvaal, and 
 the Cape, we lia\e reason to believe there is a fair supply of coal, 
 l')Ut so \:\i- Africa can hardly be said to boast of its coal supply, 
 while iron, and lliat of a very fine quality, is fairly abundant in 
 several regions, and long has been worked by the natives. In the 
 Transvaal, on the west of Lake Nyasa. to the west of tlie Upper 
 Zambezi, in Tibcsti. in Abyssinia and Darfur, in the Victoria 
 Nyanza region, and along the shores of Tunis, Algeria, and Mo- 
 rocco, this useful metal is found in remarkable quantities. Copper 
 also is found in the Transvaal, and in great abundance on the south 
 of the Orange River, in Daniaraland. and in Katanga, west of Lake 
 Langewcolo. It is believed also to exist in cpiantity in the Congo 
 region, in Algeria. Morocc(\ and possibh' in Darfur. Nor must 
 we overlook the diamonrls of Kimbcrley. ]^)Ut as yet wc know loo 
 little of Africa to be able to sav with any confidence wliat are its 
 mineral riches. .And when they are found, their mercantile value 
 will (lej)cnd upon tlicir accessibility. 
 
 Indeed this accessiljility is the important factor which must be 
 taken into account in estimating the value to humanity of this 
 jK'culiar cotitiiient. We ha\e already seen that there are no 
 ocean higliway^ into the heart of Africa. Its coast-line is 
 iK-arly a^ mnnotdiiousU- regular as a circle. Natural har- 
 l," r> are few and far between. Still, that is a diftlculty which 
 e;!gineering -cicnce can (j\ercome if the interior itself were easily 
 acce<-ili!e. lint we liave seen that the waterways, which look so 
 magnificent on liie map. and wliich lead into tlie lieart of tlie Cf)nti- 
 ncnt. are decejiti\e in their a])pcarancc. We lia\e seen that the four
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 
 
 299 
 
 great rivers of Africa, in making their way clown from the plateau 
 to the coast, are all more or less broken by cataracts. The cataracts 
 of the Nile are not so bad that they may not be overcome, and as 
 a waterway it is fairly useful, and might be more so if the countries 
 to which it gives access were under moderately good government. 
 
 However, the railroad that runs along its side for many miles i> a 
 much more important trade-route than tlie river itself. l'^)rtunately 
 the Niger presents some hundreds of miles oi fairly clear ualer- 
 way, though its moutlis are troublesome, and sludlows and sand- 
 banks have to be avoided, lis great tributary, the I'enne, is navi- 
 gable by small steamers for hundreds of miles, at lea^t in the wet 
 season; and, as it goes almost direct ca-^t, it leads int.) the he.-ii-t 
 of the continent. These two rivers run through unc <'t the r-elie-t
 
 300 A RICA 
 
 rcjjions of tropical Africa. Tlic Congo, we have seen, after some 
 150 miles of splendid waterway, suited for vessels of considerable 
 size, is barred by jog miles of rapids, above which there is a clear 
 TOGO miles of navigable river; while some of its great tributaries, 
 north and south. aiUl hundreds of miles of fair routes. The railroad 
 now beini^ constructed past the rapids will, if ever it is completed, 
 render this one ni the finest trade-routes in Central Africa. As 
 for the Zambezi, if once its fickle mouths are passed, steamers of 
 moderate size may .q-o up. during part of the year, as far as the 
 Kebrabasa rapids (200 miles), though shoals must be avoided; 
 above that point it is only adapted to canoes. The Shire tributary, 
 which leads into Lake Xyasa, though also interrupted by rapids, 
 is navigable for small steamers. Thus all these ajiparently great 
 rivers have defects more or less serious, decreasing their value as 
 highways to the interior. The Xiger is the freest, and, with suitable 
 rtuds wlien needed, will suffice for the trade of the region for a 
 long time. The same may be said of the Congo now that the rail- 
 road is built, or in the process of completion. What is more doubt- 
 ful is whether the tratTic over tlie line will for a long time be suffi- 
 cient to make the railroad pay. 
 
 Except in those parts where Europeans have been settled for 
 some time, that is, on th.e north and south borders, there are no 
 roads in Africa worthy of the name none on which any large 
 traffic could be conducted. Large areas, it is true, in the center 
 of the continent are so level that even wheeled vehicles could be 
 run over tlie land ; but that also would not amount to much in the 
 way ui commerce. Africa is, however, covered with a network of 
 rn:id> of a kiiul native paths leading from village to village, formed 
 by the naked feet of many generations of villagers, but only broad 
 enough to adnn't of single file. Beasts of burden are of course 
 scarcely available on such tracks, and. as a matter of fact, over the 
 great ])art of Africa the native himself is the only i)east of burden; 
 under such conditions no serious commerce is possible, and the 
 sy-:eni of wholesale slavery almost inevitable. Tn Xorth Africa, 
 all over the doert. in F,gyi;t, and in the Sudan states, of course, 
 the camel is fijund, by whose aid alone has it been possible to create 
 high.ways across the desert. In Somaliland there is a fine breed 
 "f d nkcys. and there camels are also largely used. In the Sudan 
 ^tatc- the hor^c lias been introduced, but mainly for riding i)ur- 
 p"-(--. WliCic 1-.11I-. pcaii> arc largely settled no doubt modern
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 301 
 
 means of locomotion are found, but the state of things described 
 is rather of Africa in what we may call its natural condition, before 
 the modern European invasion began. It seems strange that the 
 natives have never attempted to utilize the African elephant as the 
 Indian has done its Asiatic congener. There is some evidence that 
 in the Roman times the elephant was used for fighting and carry- 
 ing purposes, but his domestication never seems to have become 
 general on the continent. There is a prevalent opinion that the 
 African elephant never can be subdued to the uses of humanity; 
 but no serious experiments in recent times have yet been made. 
 There is some reason to hope that, now that Europe has taken 
 the continent in hand, something will be done to discover whether 
 this native force cannot really be utilized. But in time, no doubt, 
 every region likely to yield results to commerce will be tapped by 
 railroads. To the south of the Zambezi a network is being rapidly 
 constructed. The same may be said of Algeria and Tunis. In 
 both the British and German spheres in East Africa there are indi- 
 cations that in no long time the interior will be accessible partly 
 by railroads and partly by roads. 
 
 In dealing with the conditions of Africa, without doubt the 
 most important factor to be met with on the surface of the conti- 
 nent is the native himself, both from the point of view of science 
 and of the economical development of the continent. It is quite 
 impossible to deal here with tlie ethnology of Africa, vastly inter- 
 esting as it is. Though language is not always a safe guide 
 to ethnical affinities, still, on the whole, in Africa it presents us 
 with a very important key to the great divisions of its popula- 
 tion. To the superficial observer all Africans seem at first 
 very much alike; in the same way, no doubt, to the African all 
 Europeans, all whites indeed, have a family resemblance. Color 
 has much to do with this. But while in Africa, as among the 
 American Indians, and as among a large part of the population of 
 Central Asia, there is a general continental type, there is in reality 
 great variety, from the light-brown, regular-featured Berber in 
 the north to the yellow, ugly Hottentot in the south. In a general 
 way the northern and northeastern part of the continent is given 
 up mostly to people of Semitic and TTamitic stocks. A? we ;!i)^ 
 proach the Central Sudan this merges into the true negro type, 
 which prevails over the wlu^le of tlie Xigcr basin down throiigii 
 Senegambia and along the Gold Coast, cast-southeast to the region
 
 302 AFRICA 
 
 aiiunul the \*icti>ria Xyniua, throwing a broad wedge northward 
 into tlie 'rihhu ccuintn- of Sahara. Just wlicre the continent l)cgins 
 t(i narrinv. and we touch upon the Congo basin, we meet with what 
 is known as the r>antu-spcaking stock, with its various subdivisions, 
 of wliich the Zuhi may be taken as a liigh type. Scattered among 
 both .XcgnKS and Hantus are found remnants of various others 
 tvjies. Round about the great lakes the ruhng people are really 
 llamitic. In many places over the center of Africa pygmy tril)es 
 are met with, remains probably of an aboriginal race who may have 
 had the continent to themselves long before Hamities, Negroes, 
 and Hantus invaded it from Asia, and to whom the Dushmen may 
 be allied. The Hottentots also seem to be a very early people, quite 
 unlike any otlier .African race. The Fulah people, a superior race 
 wh.o prevail in the Central and Western Sudan, differ in many 
 respects from other .African races. These are the main distinctions 
 of race-types in Africa so far as linguistic characteristics go. But 
 from the point of view of the exploration of Africa, and the devel- 
 opment of its resources by luiropcans. the important question with 
 regard to the natives is Will they be a help or a hindrance? On 
 other continents, in North America, in Australia, the (piestion has 
 liccn solved by practically getting rid of the natives altogether. 
 In Africa this cannot be done, any more tlian in India, even if 
 cnncci\cd to l)e to the interest of progress to do so. However 
 it may be in the very remote future, at present little can be accom- 
 ])'!<lie(l in Central Africa without the help of the natives. The na- 
 ti\cs of Africa, except in the more intensely Moslcmized parts in the 
 nortli, can ne\er be said to ha\e any serious hindrance to explora- 
 tiiui. 'ihey are thcmsc'l\es in many ])arls very keen traders. Nearly 
 the wliole of North Africa (except Abyssinia) is .Mohammedan, 
 and that tells in two \\a}'s. It certainly raises the native in the scale 
 of cixilization ; nt the same time it is a])t to create a fanatical 
 n\e:"-:on to I^uropcan intercourse. Tliat has been the great ob- 
 stacle in the Central Sudrm. in Sokoto. Kanem, Wadai. and neigh- 
 li'ir;ng states which aic \et ju'actically independent. l'^"ance has 
 o\erc'i?ne i' in Tuni'^ anrl Algeria; it is dormant in I\gy])t; in the 
 old l\c,^yp;ian .Siulrui it i> r.ami)ant among tlic Mahdists and .Se- 
 non->;ic-; in .Mnrocco it i> still a barrier to free intercourse. The 
 peo;;!e of Novtli Africa. Moslem or other, are fairlv industrious, 
 and it once tiieir enmity were overcome they might co(")j)cratc 
 \ c-y etfe ' -''; I ;iM-, .jicaiH.
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 303 
 
 For the future development of Africa it is, however, with 
 the Negroes and Bantus we shall have mainly to reckon. Without 
 labor we cannot develop the continent. We are often told that 
 the Negro is a lazy being, who never will be trained to habits of 
 industry. But as a universal statement facts belie that assertion. 
 When he can pick up his living with a minimum of exertion, he 
 will do so that is savage nature. But in South Africa, in the 
 Cape, the Transvaal, Natal, West Africa, and elsewhere, he does 
 w^ork, and that often with great steadiness and regularity. On 
 some of the plantations of the Germans inland from Zanzibar, be- 
 fore the recent troubles, the people came quite w^illingly to work, 
 induced to do so by the wages offered. At the same time, it must 
 be admitted that voluntary hard W'ork is not congenial to a people 
 who, for ages, have been accustomed to do no more tlian tliey were 
 forced to do. It may be possible, by judicious treatment, to lead 
 the natives on to industrious habits ; but we must not expect, in 
 this and other matters, to force them in a generation or two up 
 to a stage which it has taken us 2000 years to reach. Meantime, in 
 Cape Colony and Xatal it has been found necessary to introduce 
 labor from India and the Malay .\rchipelago. 
 
 There are many questions suggested by the consideration of 
 this subject of the natives of Africa into which we cannot liere 
 enter. With the intervention of ICuropean powers, the cessati(^n 
 of native wars, and the suppression of slave-raiding, the native 
 population is bound to increase. According to the estimate of 
 Ravenstein, one of the most competent authorities, the total popu- 
 lation of Africa does not exceed 130.000,000, /. c, only about ten 
 to a square mile, though other authorities estimate it at Joo,ooo,oo(\ 
 But the continent, comparatively poor as it is, is capable of sus- 
 taining a much larger population. 
 
 If the European occupation and exploitation of tlic continent 
 continues, as it is almost bound to do, something must be dnne 
 with and for the natives. It is to be feared thai, so far. Christ i.ui 
 missions have not had the effect hoped for. But belter meilKul-^ 
 are being introduced. The great thing is to remember tliat tlie-e 
 natives have a long leeway to make up: that violent and sudden 
 interference with old-established domestic institutions will do no 
 good; that tact and firmness and just treatment will accomplish 
 a great deal; and that a Negro cannot by any amount of civili/.iuL: 
 influences be evolved into a iMU'dpeaii,
 
 304 A F III C A 
 
 What. then, is the practical result of our inquiry, with special 
 reference t.i the economical value of Africa? Within what limits 
 is it likely to bo of utility, not only to the sparse indigenous popu- 
 lation, hut to humanity at lari^e, and to Kuro])e in particular? The 
 obstacles which have hitherto kept it behind all the other continents 
 will alwavs have more or less weight; but they are obstacles which 
 are by no means invincible. Let us first take the central zone, 
 tropical Africa, two-thirds of the continent, which has been the 
 chief field of the recent scramble. Most of the natural riches of 
 the continent are concentrated in this region. Even in gold and 
 silver, in copper and in iron, it seems to have fairly abundant stores. 
 The animal product, ivory, comes mainly from this region. Here 
 we meet with the great forests and a wealth of vegetation of all 
 kinds, yielding such natural products as rubber, cocoanut and palm 
 t)ils, ground-nuts, valuable seeds of various kinds, fibers, gums, 
 and many other natural products of commercial value. We know 
 from actual experiments that much of this area is well adapted to 
 such cultivable products as rice and maize, tobacco and coffee, 
 indigo and cotton. Bananas and other tropical and subtropical 
 fruits grow in abundance, or could be cultivated to any extent. 
 In many districts cattle are raised in enormous numbers, and under 
 skilled direction could be increased and im])roved in quality, both 
 for food purposes and for their hides. Goats are common, and in 
 the Central Sudan sheep are raised. About the fertility of the 
 S(3i!. over at least one-half of the area, there can be no doubt. Thus 
 it is evident that if we simply confined ourselves to the natural 
 products of Central Africa, and utilized them judiciously, so as not 
 1^1 exhaust them, a fair commerce could be created. Still the mere 
 natural animal and vegetable products of a tropical country could 
 nc\er \:eld a trade of great dimensions; the demand is too limited, 
 granted that t!ie supply is abundant. The common food products. 
 the cmmon textiles corn of all kinds, cotton, wool, hemp these 
 with the useful minerals form the vast bulk of commerce of our 
 own and e\ ery other country. At present it is estimated that the 
 total cx;)ori- of tlic whole of Central Africa by the east and west 
 cija>t-, (lu iMi amount to more than $100,000,000 annually. Even 
 i'i:> is con-idcred by some authorities an excessive estimate; yet 
 it i^ a grc;i; deal le-^ than the export trade of Canada alone. If 
 we cirM arid !' tlii- the cultivation, on a large scale, of some of 
 the u-ci-" ' icfciied to ab(j\e, and if iliesc could compete
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 305 
 
 favorably with similar products from other parts of the world, the 
 commercial value of Africa would be greatly increased. More- 
 over, as the population increased, as colonization advanced and 
 wants multiplied, the native market itself might become of increas- 
 ing importance. 
 
 What, then, is wanted to develop the natural resources of 
 Africa, and utilize the capabilities of its soil? First of all, we must 
 have easy and cheap means of communication if a great export 
 and import trade is to be developed. There may be the finest cattle, 
 rice, corn, tobacco, tea, coffee, in the world, around Tanganyika, 
 Albert Nyanza, Victoria Nyanza, Xyasa ; but if the produce can 
 only be brought to the coast on men's or even elephants' backs, 
 it would not have a chance of success. Of course, if the river- 
 navigation were improved, if the impassable sections of the Congo 
 and the Niger, the Nile and the Zambezi, were bridged by railroads, 
 it would greatly improve the prospects of success. Still more, if 
 there were direct communication by rail from the heart of the conti- 
 nent. But this is a prospect of the distant future. In that future 
 the population of the world, at its present rate, will have vastly in- 
 creased, and increased supplies of the common necessaries of life 
 will be required. Meantime, in addition to making the best of the 
 native products, we can do little more than experiment, and, as 
 a matter of fact, experiments are being made in various quarters. 
 Until, however, the transport question of products in bulk has 
 been solved, the central regions of Africa, tliough fertile, are prac- 
 tically useless. But in the meantime experiments should be made 
 universally. We want to know what can be made of the vast plateau 
 region round the great lakes, and of the low countries which they 
 dominate. The rivalr}^ among the so-called European splieres in 
 Africa is so great that in a very few years we must have a much 
 more precise idea than we have now of what can be made of this 
 whole region. 
 
 It is here, however, that the importance of the consideration 
 already discussed becomes apparent: if the way were ([uitc clear, 
 otherwise, if means of communication were all tliat could be wished, 
 through what human agency is the work to be carried on? So far 
 as our present knowledge goe>. tlic native is absolutely indispen- 
 sable to the development of tropical Africa. Our somewliat scaiUy 
 experience tends to prove that Europeans, even sDiitlicrn I'jn-oj)cans. 
 could not do the hard dailv work that is rcciuirecl in the forest, in
 
 306 A l< 11 1 C A 
 
 the ficKl. in plantations, in mines to render Central Africa of com- 
 mercial \aluc. It is not only the malaria that constantly broods 
 over the coa^t and the low-lyini^ ri\cr-courses, and is set at liberty 
 to poison tlic ;iinuis])l;erc wlicn the rolling soil is stirred; the mere 
 heat oi the tropics >ccnis lo incapacitate Europeans for work of 
 this kind.. If, then, llie native cannot he employed in this direction, 
 labor must be introduced I'mm religions the natives of which could 
 l>e readily accliniali/.cd. Bui experience proves, as has been said, 
 that there is no reason completely to despair of the African native; 
 that in time he may take to fairly regular hal)its of industry. 
 
 But what about the white man himself? .Vpart altogether 
 from the ([uestion oi hard manual daily labor, can he settle in 
 Central Africa in any great numbers? The prevailing belief on 
 the subject has been already referred to; but even after obtaining 
 all the informalion ]);'S-il)!e from men who have had experience 
 in \ari(^us parts of Afiica, tlie data which we possess on the sub- 
 ject are extremely scanty. We find on the Xyasa-Tanganyika 
 ])lateau nn'ssionaries and traders living with their wives and chil- 
 dren : but the experiment has not been tried long enc^ugh to admit 
 of any conclusion being drawn. I'Jiiin i\isha lived in the equatorial 
 province ft)r twelve years; so did Mackay. the missionary, in 
 I'gaiida ; and there are other isolated instances of the same kind, 
 llut what is wanted is a thorough investigation of the whole sub- 
 ject of luir()j)ean residence in trojjical countries, based on existing 
 data, .and on data to be collected in the future from Central Africa. 
 We know absolutely th.at oxer nearl_\- the whole (jf the west coast 
 of tro])ical Africa ti re>idence of only two years is risky, and it is 
 so too o\er nutch of the ea.^t coast. With regard to the higher 
 land- in tlie center, the general belief is that a healthy and vigorous 
 huni;.n race, say a race of our own type, could not be reared for 
 man}- succe>'-ive generations e\en on the high ]:)lateaus of Central 
 Africa. 'I"he exiieriinenl will; Southern lun-o])cans Italians. 
 r";'-c;_-|^^_ .^]ja:i!.-Ii. M.'ilioe. Portuguese lias ne\er been tried on suf- 
 iicient!}- great ti ^cale to admit of safe conchi^ious being dra.wn. 
 Meaii;:;,:e tl;e jjn'b'eni is not of immediate moment. It \vould be 
 nia'lne-- i- , cncanage colcjui/.ation in the true sense of the term in 
 Central Africa at pre-ent. If the continent is to be developed, 
 !-.r.roj;can n;c;i luii-t gij .and fix themsehcs at v.arious f.a\()ral)lc 
 >tat:<.':i- (j-.xr iiic center, but they mn.-t go as unattached pioneers. 
 
 .'.'ii\v, Lr:e://. .-^ to ;',e iv^rtli and tlic -"Uth of the coininent.
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 307 
 
 The Sahara we need not discuss. There is plenty of water under- 
 neath its inhospitable sands. On the borders of Algeria that water 
 is being tapped with great success, and hundreds of thousands of 
 date-trees are yielding profitable results ; but the demand for dates 
 is not such as to encourage their cultivation over 2,000,000 square 
 miles. Under French domination, especially if railways are con- 
 structed across the desert, no doubt oases will be created at intervals, 
 but the Sahara is likely to remain much as it is until a very remote 
 future. The grass-lands which fringe its southern border and 
 go on to the fertile Central Sudan might no doubt be turned to 
 good account for cattle and sheep, and in time will be. With 
 regard to the countries along the jMediterranean border, certainly 
 much of the Tripoli coast region is not much better than desert ; 
 but Tunis, Algeria, Morocco, along the coast-lands, and the lower 
 slopes of the Atlas and the valleys among the mountains, notwith- 
 standing the occasional lack of rainfall, are all of distinct value, 
 both from the point of view of commerce and colonization. With 
 regard to European colonization, a ccimmunication on the subject, 
 received from Sir Lambert Playfair, British re])resentative in Al- 
 geria, may be quoted ; it may be held as applying to all Mediterranean 
 countries : 
 
 " I think it would be almost impossible for any Anglo-Saxons 
 to settle here as actual laborers. They could work in agricultural 
 pursuits during the winter months as well as, or better than, in 
 England, but they would never stand the heat of summer, except 
 perhaps in a few very favored localities. As employers of labor, 
 of course, the case is different, and anyone could live and prosper 
 here. Marshal MacMahon made the experiment; he got out a 
 colony of Irish, men, women, and cliildren, but tlicy wci'c a 
 complete failure; many died and tlie remainder liad to be sent 
 home very soon. They suffered from fe\-cr, sunstroke, and general 
 demoralization. With regard to the Latin races it is quite dillcrent ; 
 but for them colonization in tin's country would be at a standstill. 
 The Italians in the east and the S])aniar(ls in tiic west arc the most 
 useful classes of the population. Witli tlieni may lie classe(i Maltese 
 and natives of tlie south of iM-ancc. Otlier Mediterranean nations 
 are not represented here. It is (|nite wonderful to see how tlu' 
 Spanish alfa-gatherers uien, wrmien, and ehildi'en sujiport \\\c 
 alternations of great cold and intense heat on the high plateau^, 
 with liardlv anv shelter: an baigli'^li lahiM-ei- \v''rking tiiere in <u\\]
 
 308 A F R I C A 
 
 nier would l)e dead in a week. As a .q'eneral rule, you may safely say 
 that natives of northern Europe cannot support the climate of North 
 Africa as actual laborers, and only moderately well as employers 
 of labor." 
 
 This, of course, applies with very much greater force to 
 Central Africa. Still, even in North Africa, the natives themselves, 
 the Arab and Jew population, can never he dispensed with, and must 
 cooperate with the luiropeans in developing the countries. Iron 
 abounds, silver is found, cereals, \incs, tobacco, olives, and other 
 products are extensively grown, nnd no doubt there is ample room 
 for industrial development in all these countries, including Mo- 
 rocco. There is no reason why Greeks and other southern Euro- 
 peans could not settle with their families in Egy^pt ; but, so far as 
 actual work goes, Egypt is not for the European. Along the region 
 watered by llie Nile there is no doubt that Egypt is capable of much 
 greater development than she has yet attained. 
 
 With regard to South Africa that is to say. Africa south of 
 the Zambezi here we find that the western half, and the south 
 away from the coast, have but a scanty rainfall. The natural 
 \egetable products are of but poor account ; even ivory is now 
 obtained in comparatively insignificant quantity. But to balance 
 this, it is tlie richest region in all Africa for minerals. It is one 
 of the most productive gold regions if not absolutely the most 
 productive in tb.e world. The return of the output of gold from 
 November, 1891, to June. 1900, was 125,662 ounces. It is through 
 its gold that Australia has been able to advance so rapidly in all 
 directions: so it is likely to be in South Africa, especially in at- 
 tracting a large and vigorous white population. The diamonds 
 r.f South Africa are well known, and its coal, its iron, its copper, 
 are natural riches of high importance. Notwithstanding the 
 meagerness of its rainfall, the southern half of the region has 
 ])rnvcd a fine field for sheep and cattle raising, not to mention 
 o.-tricli-farming. The inhabitants have already found out methods 
 of storing tlie rain which docs fall, and no doubt they will find 
 means of tapi)ing the underground water sui)ply. The country may 
 grow all the corn it requires for its own wants, though it may never 
 iiave mucli ti^ spare for export. It is a splendid vine region, and 
 botli tea and sugar can be grown successfully in some parts. In 
 other ]i:i.r[- well to tlic north, where the water-supply is abundant, 
 the general altitude i< .-o great Ihat it is lujpcd that in time it may
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 309 
 
 become the home of hundreds of thousands of people of European 
 origin. Even in the subtropical parts, away from the low-lying 
 regions and the river-beds, Europeans seem to prosper. It is not, 
 therefore, surprising to find that South Africa already sustains a 
 white population of considerably over 500,000, and that it has 
 been colonized by generations of Europeans, who thrive as well 
 as they do at home. While the native cannot, of course, be com- 
 pared to the English mechanic or peasant or navvy, he still works 
 well enough in his own way, while thousands of ]\Ialays and Indian 
 coolies have been imported. South Africa, in short, is the one 
 region in wdiich we can say w4th confidence that European coloniza- 
 tion, in the fullest sense of the term, is possible. It does an annual 
 trade amounting to over $200,000,000. 
 
 It is tropical Africa, because it constitutes the bulk of the 
 continent, wdiich forms the great problem of the future to be 
 faced by those European nations which have taken the desti- 
 nies of Africa upon their shoulders; and what is true of that 
 applies more or less even to the small sections outside of the 
 tropics. Had Africa been in the same geographical position 
 as North America, or even Australia, the problem would have 
 been simple enough; it is to be feared it would have been 
 solved by getting rid of the natives altogether. It may be 
 that in the far future science may discover some means of accli- 
 matizing Europeans in tropical Africa, but so far as our present 
 knowdedge goes, that is impossible. }vlen and even w'omen may with 
 due precautions live in tropical Africa for years, but sooner or 
 later they must return to recruit their exhausted energies in their 
 native air. All evidence seems to indicate that the colonization 
 of Central Africa by whites is impossible : that means, of course, 
 that if the resources of the continent are to be developed, it must 
 be by the help of the natives. By themselves it does not seem at 
 all probable that the natives could ever do more than live from hand 
 to mouth, or would ever do more work than absolute necessity 
 compelled them to do. If, then, anything is to be made of Central 
 Africa, and of its natural resources mineral, vegetable, and animal 
 and if the capabilities of its soil are to be turned to good account, 
 it must be done by the natives under tlic guidance of others who 
 have reached a higher stage of ci\-ilizati! 'n than ihey have. 
 
 The subject is so important that we may be par(K)ne(l for retcr- 
 ring to it (jnce again in this concluding cha|)ter. It is often said.
 
 ino AFRICA 
 
 althons:h there arc iimloubtcd instances of African natives being 
 induced to undertake hard work, for wages, of their own free will, 
 that tlie African native never will work unless forced to do so. 
 Well, there are various kintls of force; slavery is not the only fonn 
 of compulsion that can be brought to bear on humanity. How far 
 force, even of the most gentle kind, may be used for the ostensible 
 good of a people at the stage of development of the African is too 
 delicate a question lo discuss here. The compulsion exercised by 
 the Dutch in their ICast India colonies has certainly led to good 
 results for all concerned. Arab domination in Africa is not in the 
 least desirai)lo; but undoubtedly the Arabs on the Middle Congo, 
 lx?f(^re they were ejected by the Belgians, had greatly changed the 
 face of the country and elevated the condition of their retainers by 
 sheer force of example. Many Arabs had settled in the Middle and 
 Upper Congo region: they had sown fields of rice, planted bananas 
 and other trees, built themselves good houses, and otherwise shown 
 their followers how to live in comfort. The latter were not slow to 
 imitate their masters, and several towns of comparatively good 
 houses had grown up, and large areas been brought under cultiva- 
 tion. The natives, who a few years ago lived in the wildest savagery, 
 come hunilreds of miles voluntarily to beg for work in these planta- 
 tions. Many of them have been trained to various trades; in this 
 region a church, designed by a Scotch missionary, was built entirely 
 by tlie nati\es under a s\-stem of free labor. The missionary and 
 his colleagues taught the natives to make bricks, burn lime, and hew 
 timber. All the materials were found on the spot, except glass 
 internal littings, and some portion of the roofing; and they were 
 put togetlier. brick ujKjn brick, by the natives themselves, free la- 
 borers under wliite superintendence. Here there is not the least 
 suspicion of compulsion; and the result is wonderful, though cer- 
 tainly exce])tio!inl. 
 
 ITicre is one thing upon which all the powers, it is hoped, are 
 now at least tlieMrctically agreed, and tliat is, that slave-raiding and 
 slave-ex j)ort must lie put down. If Africa is e\er to be governed 
 and utilized, there i< no doubt that tlie sla\-e-trade is doomed, and 
 that on the eri-t coast it will '^oon be as nearly extinct as it is on 
 tiie we-i. hit'inal dome-tie '^Iavcry is another tiling; it will only 
 vanish wlien I'.iiropean nations will not permit the districts in whicli 
 tliey are inten-^ied t(j he denuded of labor in order to supply slaves 
 to v.- irl-; ''(.' ere. au'! wlicn tlic adwantage of free labor conns
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 311 
 
 home to the native (who must before tlien rise degrees higher in 
 the scale of civiHzation than he is now). The act passed by the 
 Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference in 1890-1891, and signed by all 
 the leading powers, as well as those having an interest in Africa, has 
 for its object the suppression of slave-raiding, the control over arms, 
 and the stoppage of the importation of spirituous drinks. The obli- 
 gations imposed upon the powers are very serious, and if faithfully 
 and unitedly carried out would soon accomplish the object of the 
 act. We give the leading provisions of the act as summarized by 
 P. L. M'Dermott in his excellent work on " British East Africa " : 
 
 On September 17, 1888, the Marquis of Salisbury addressed 
 a dispatch to Lord Vivian, the British Ambassador at Brus- 
 sels, suggesting that the King of the Belgians should take the 
 initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at Brussels to 
 concert measures for the " gradual suppression of the slave-trade 
 on the continent of Africa, and the immediate closing of all the 
 external markets which it supplies." After a sketch of the present 
 state of the sea-borne slave-trade, the markets supplied by it, and 
 the difficulties encountered in clearing the seas of the traffic, Lord 
 Salisbury represented that, while the British Government would 
 cheerfully continue " to bear the burden of further measures to 
 effect the common object," they felt that the altered political condi- 
 tions of the African seaboard now called for united action on the 
 part of the powers responsible for its control, with a view to closing 
 the foreign slave-markets and discouraging tlie internal slave-hunts. 
 
 The conference assembled at Brussels in November, 18S9, and 
 continued its sitting till July 2, 1890, when a general act was agreed 
 to, embodying the conclusions of their deliberations. Tlie confer- 
 ring powers, " equally animated," in the words of the preamble. 
 " by the firm intention of putting an end to the crimes and devasta- 
 tions engendered by the traffic in African sla\'cs, protecting effec- 
 tively the aboriginal populations of Africa, and ensuring for tliat 
 vast continent the benefits of ])cace and civilization." declared tliat 
 the most effective means for counteracting the slave-trade in the 
 interior of Africa are the following: 
 
 1. Progressive organization of the administrative, judicial, 
 religious, and military services in the African territories i)lacc(l 
 under the sovereignty or protectorate of civilized nations. 
 
 2. Gradual establishment in the interior, by tlic ])o\vcrs to 
 which the territories arc subject, of strongly occupied stations in
 
 S12 AFRICA 
 
 such a way as to make their protective or repressive action efifectively 
 felt in the territories devastated by slave-hunting". 
 
 3. Construction of roads, and in particular of railroads, con- 
 necting; the advanced stations with the coast, and permitting easy 
 access to the inland waters, and to such of the upper courses of the 
 rivers and streams as are broken by rapids and cataracts, in view 
 of substituting- economical and rapid means of transport for the 
 present means of carriage by men. 
 
 4. Establishment of steamboats on the inland navigable waters 
 and on the lakes, supported by fortified posts established on the 
 banks. 
 
 5. Establishment of telegraphic lines, ensuring the communica- 
 tion of posts and stations with the coast and with the administrative 
 centers. 
 
 6. Organization of expeditions and frying columns to keep 
 up the communication of the stations with each other and with the 
 coast, to support repressive action, and to ensure the security of 
 high-roads. 
 
 7. Restriction of the importation of firearms, at least of mod- 
 ern pattern, and of ammunition, throughout the entire extent of the 
 territories infected by the slave-trade. 
 
 The powers were authorized by Article IV. to delegate their 
 engagements under the act to chartered companies, while them- 
 selves, however, remaining " directly responsible for the engage- 
 ments which they contract by the present Act." and guaranteeing 
 the execution thereof. Great Britain had already for many years 
 watclied the maritime slave-traffic with her cruisers at a considerable 
 annual expense; but as Lord Salisbury confessed in his dispatch 
 suggesting the conference, the policing of the high seas and coast 
 waters had proved to be of but little efficacy in suppressing the 
 .'^lave-trade. The primary object of the conference was to direct 
 measures of repression and extinction against the evil at its sources 
 in the interior, by the adoption of as many of the means enumerated 
 as were practicable. Thus tlie duty imposed on Hrcat Britain is to 
 open up her African "Sphere in such a way as to render slave-raiding 
 not only imj)os<ible. but unprofitable. It remains to be seen how 
 far slie will do her duty in this respect. 
 
 With the help of the natives, then, what could be made of 
 .Africa' At present. Africa occupies a ])oor place in the commerce 
 (-t the world. Its total cxj)orts hardly exceed $300,000,000. India
 
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF AFRICA 313 
 
 alone, covering only 1,500,000 square miles, exports to the value 
 of $450,000,000. Of the African $300,000,000 some two-thirds 
 come from the Mediterranean states and Egypt on the one side, 
 and South Africa on the other, leaving only one-third for the 
 whole of the center of the continent. Surely more could be made 
 of it than this. Even if its oil, and its gums, and its rubber, and 
 other natural vegetable products were developed as they might be, 
 they w^ould yield far more to commerce. At present the world is 
 fairly well supplied with such products from other quarters; the 
 time will come, however, as population grows, when the world will 
 require additional fields for food and other supplies. Barren and 
 dry as much of Central Africa is, there is ample space for cultivation 
 of various kinds, and for the raising of sheep and cattle. Grain 
 and cotton, indigo and tea, and tobacco, coffee, and sugar, are all 
 products adapted to various parts of Central Africa. We can do 
 without drawing upon Africa for these things at present, but the 
 time will come when she must become one of the feeding-grounds 
 of the world. Moreover, with the spread of European domination, 
 native wars must cease, and slave-trading be abolished, and so the 
 population is bound to increase. Surely if India, on 1,500,000 
 square miles, can sustain 300,000,000 of people, Africa, on 
 11,500,000, might well be the home of three times its present popu- 
 lation; and we cannot doubt that if the African were as industrious 
 as the native Indian his continent would bear a very different aspect 
 from that which it does at present.
 
 APPENDIX
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 
 
 The following table has been compiled (in round numbers) from the States- 
 man's Year Book. The figures relating to population represent in most cases 
 the roughest of estimates; and, in some places, are derived from censuses, 
 which, though the most recent, are some years old : 
 
 British Africa : 
 
 West Africa: Area; 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Lagos 
 
 Nigeria 
 
 South and Central Africa: 
 
 Cape Colony and dependencies.... 
 
 Natal 
 
 Orange River Colony 
 
 Transvaal Colony 
 
 Basutoland 
 
 Bechuanaland Protectorate 
 
 Rhodesia 
 
 British Central Africa Protectorate 
 East Africa: 
 
 Zanzibar and Pemba 
 
 British East Africa Protectorate.. 
 
 Uganda Protectorate 
 
 Somaliland 
 
 Islands: 
 
 Sokotra 
 
 Mauritius and dependencies 
 
 St. Helena, Ascension and Tristan 
 
 da Cunha 
 
 Fren'ch Africa: 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Western Saliara 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Senegambia and Niger 
 
 French (iuinea 
 
 Ivory Coast 
 
 f^ahomey 
 
 Congo 
 
 SI 7 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population, 
 
 4.500 
 
 90 , 000 
 
 34,000 
 
 1,076,000 
 
 71,300 
 
 I , 500 , 000 
 
 29 , 000 
 
 I , 500 , 000 
 
 400,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 277,000 
 
 2,410,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 I , 000 , 000 
 
 50 , 000 
 
 387 , 000 
 
 1 20 , 000 
 
 I , _7o , 000 
 
 10,300 
 
 2()4.000 
 
 213,000 
 
 200 , 000 
 
 380,000 
 
 1 , 20( ) , 000 
 
 42,200 
 
 I , OOn , 000 
 
 1,000 
 
 200 , 000 
 
 350,000 
 
 4 , 000 , 000 
 
 80,000 
 
 4 , 000 . 000 
 
 60,000 
 
 300 , 00( ) 
 
 1,380 
 
 T 2 , 000 
 
 1,100 
 
 380 , 000 
 
 130 
 
 I , 000 
 
 184,500 
 
 4,740,000 
 
 5 1 , 000 
 
 I ,000,000 
 
 ,544,000 
 
 J, 550. 000 
 
 806 , 000 
 
 .1,523,000 
 
 _' 1 , 000 
 
 .^ 000, 000 
 
 05,000 
 
 J. J()0,000 
 
 I 16,000 
 
 J ,(i; m.Odi 1 
 
 ( )0 , 000 
 
 I ,oon.uiu 
 
 450,000 
 
 10,000,000
 
 818 A r r E M) I X 
 
 I'rench Africa , coMtinurd: Arc 
 
 Somali Coast ami (U-pondciKics. . . 
 
 Kmnion 
 
 Madagascar and Islands 
 
 ("If-rman Akkiia: 
 
 ( Cmicrooiis) Kamcnui 
 
 ro.;^olaiul 
 
 Southwest Africa 
 
 I'ast A frica 
 
 PonnGiKSE Africa : 
 
 Angola 
 
 Kast Africa 
 
 Guinea 
 
 St. Thome and Principe 
 
 Cape Verde Islands 
 
 Spanish Africa: 
 
 Rio de Oro and Adrar 
 
 Rio Muni and Cape San Juan.... 
 
 I'Vrnando Po. Annahon, Corisco, 
 
 I'.lobey, San Juan 850 23,700 
 
 Italian Africa: 
 
 I'.ritrca ^8,500 450,000 
 
 Somaliland loo.ooo 400,000 
 
 Nominally Turkish Africa: 
 
 Kj!n,pt, etc 400,000 1,000,000 
 
 I'-Kyptian Sudan 950,000 2,000,000 
 
 Tripoli. Barca, I-'czzan 400,000 1,000,000 
 
 Indei'kni)F.nt. or nominally so: 
 
 Abyssinia 150,000 3,500,000 
 
 Conpo I'ree State 900,000 30,000,000 
 
 Liberia 35, 000 2,o<)0,ooo 
 
 Morocco 219,000 5,000,000 
 
 Square Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 i.i,ooo 
 
 50 , 000 
 
 c/yl, 
 
 173,000 
 
 2j8,6oo 
 
 2,560,000 
 
 IQI.IOO 
 
 3 , 500 , 000 
 
 33.700 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 322.450 
 
 200,000 
 
 3^,200 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 485, CXX) 
 
 4 , 1 20 , 000 
 
 301,000 
 
 3,120,000 
 
 4.440 
 
 820,000 
 
 360 
 
 42, 100 
 
 1,480 
 
 147.400 
 
 70,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 140,000
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following comprehensive list of books represents the consensus of 
 opinion respecting the literature of the subject of Africa and has been prepared 
 for the publishers with the advice of librarians and specialists in African affairs. 
 An extended bibliography, including works on related subjects as well as tlie 
 hundreds of books, pamphlets, articles, etc., of descriptive, geographical, philo- 
 sophic, missionary or historic interest, to say nothing of official reports and Blue 
 Books, would be out of keeping with the practical purpose of this reading 
 list. In general, preference has been given here to the more recent literature 
 pertaining to the Continent, though some standard works, generally accepted as 
 permanent contributions, have been preserved. The titles of tlie works them- 
 selves will for the most part sufficiently indicate their scope and character, 
 but an occasional brief comment is added. 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 American Economic Association. " Essays in Colonial Finance." Publication 
 of August, 1900. 
 
 Bacon, R. H. " Benin, the City of Blood." New York. 
 The story of the Benin Expedition of 1897. 
 
 " Bibliotliequc Coloniale Internationale." 13 vols. Rruxelles, 1895-1899. 
 
 Boshart, A. " Zchn Jahre africanisehcn Lebens." Leipzig, 1898. 
 
 Bourne, E. G. " Essays in Historical Criticism." New York, 1901. 
 
 Brown, Robert. " The Story of Africa and its Explorers." London, i8<;5. 
 
 Brunialti, A. " Le Colonie dci^li Italiaui." Torino, 1897. 
 
 Bryce, J. " Impressions of South Africa." Third edition. London, i8()0. 
 
 Butler, A. J. " The Arab Conquest of Egypt and tlie Last Thirty Years of 
 Roman Dominion." Oxford, 1902. 
 
 Chailley-Bert, P. "La Tanisie et la Colonisation I'rancaise." Pari-^, 1896. 
 
 Charme, P. De " Compagnics et Socictes Cohmialcs /Ulemandes." Paris, 1903. 
 
 " Per deutsche Export nach den Tropen." Berlin, 1900. 
 
 Churchill, Winston Spencer. " The River War." 2 vols. London, 189*). 
 
 A military chronicle of the reconqucst of the Sudan, with a general survey 
 of the geography and history of the country by way of introduction. 
 
 Colquhoun, Archibald C " Matabeleland : the War and our Position in South 
 Africa." London, 1893. 
 The author is well-informed and his discussion of tlie proceedings of the 
 British South Africa Company, of which he was the first adnuui-trator, 
 furnishes a reliable accotuit. 
 
 Congo Free State Commission of Enquiry Report " The Congo." New YorV, 
 1906. 
 
 Dennison, Maj. C. G. '' A Fight to a Finish." New York, 1004. 
 
 Includes a chapter on the commencement of tlie Transvaal War of iR^^i, 
 but is mainly taken up with reminiscences of the Great llocr War of 
 1899- 1 902. 
 
 Dilke, C " The Briti^,il ICmpire." Lond(jn, 1800.
 
 sjea lii HLiodK A r 11 V 
 
 Povlc. A. C "The War in South Africa. Its Cause and Conduct." London. 
 
 r.tjerton. H. IL "A Sliort History of British Colonial Policy." London, i8<;7. 
 Lilis. Lt.-Col. A. B. "A History of the Gold Coast." London, 1893. 
 
 rhis represents an important contribution to colonial history. The story 
 of the (iold Coast is traced from Herodotus's account of the circumnaviga- 
 tion of Africa to the coming of the Portuguese. Dutch, l'"rcnch and English 
 and the development under their exploitation. 
 I-'ailot. 1'." L'Avenir Colonial de la France." Paris. 1901. 
 Fisher. W. E. G. "The Transvaal and the Boers; A Short History of the 
 South African Republic with a Chapter on the Orange Free State." 
 London, 1900. 
 I'itzner. " Dcutschcs Kolonial-Handbuch." 2d edition. Berlin, IQOI. 
 Fitzpatrick. T. P." The Transvaal from Within." New York, 1899. 
 
 As its subtitle indicates, this volume is a " private record of public affairs." 
 Griftin. A. P. C. " List of Books with References to Periodicals Relating to 
 the Theory of Colonization. Government of Dependencies, etc." 2d 
 edition. Library of Congress. Washington. 1900. 
 This is a valuable list, containing many titles of important books and 
 periodical articles in all languages. 
 Hensman, H. "A History of Rhodesia." London. 1900. 
 
 Coinpiled from official sources. 
 Hort-ilct. Sir F. "The Map of Africa by Treaty." 2(1 edition. London, 1897. 
 llinde. Sidney Langford. "The Fall of the Congo Arabs." New York, 1897. 
 Hubson. J. A. "The War in South Africa. Its Causes and Effects." New 
 York. 1900. 
 Part 1 otTers a detailed presentation of the Boer Republics in 1899. The 
 latter portion of the volume is chiefly devoted to an analysis of economic 
 and political conditions. 
 Hoogt, C. W. van der. "The Story of the Boers. Narrated by Their Own 
 Leaders." New York, 1900. 
 Prepared under the authority of the South African Republic. 
 Hooker. L. Roy. " The Africanders, a Century of Dutch-English Feud in South 
 Africa." Chicago, 1900. 
 A general outline. 
 Ireland. A. "The Anglo-Boer Conflict, Its History and Causes." Boston, 
 1900. 
 A brief presentation. 
 Ingram, J. !. " Natalia." London, 1897. 
 
 .\ condcn.-ed history of the exploration and colonization of Natal and 
 Ziiluland. 
 Johnstfjn, Sir Harry H. "A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien 
 Races." Cambridge, 1899. 
 The author of this volume is himself a striking figure in African explora- 
 tion. As a traveler and organizer, as well as historian of the continent. 
 he has accomplished much. This volume stmimarizes and reviews the 
 general hi>tory of the attempts of A^^ia and luirope to colonize Africa. 
 This book, while not particularly well suited to the beginning of study of 
 Afnri. form> an admirable supplement to the present volume of Keltic. 
 Jones. C. H. "African Exploration from Herodotus to Livingstone." New 
 
 York, KS75. 
 Ki-au'-. A. i !. ' .Xlrica." (Staiifor(i'> " Comi)eudium of Gcograpliy and 
 Travel' ). j \oN. London, l'6<)'^.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 32J3 
 
 A general work covering the geography, ethnology, etc., of the African 
 continent. 
 Keller, A. G. " Essays in Colonization. Reprints from the Yale Review." 
 New Haven, Conn., 1902. 
 Deals with the German and Italian Colonies, giving bibliographies. 
 Kingsley, M. H. '" The Story of West .A.frica." London, 1899. 
 Kingston, W. H. G.'" Great African Travellers, from :\lungo Park to Stan- 
 ley.'" New York, 1882. 
 A good collection of lives of African explorers. 
 Klose, H. "' Togo unter deutschcr Flagc^c." Berlin. 1899. 
 Kruger, J. S. P. "The Memoirs of Paul Kruger, Four Times ]\esidcnt of 
 
 the South African Republic. Told by Himself." New York. 1902. 
 Latimer, Elizabeth Wormley. " Europe in Africa in the Nineteenth Century." 
 
 Chicago, 1895. 
 Lavisse and Rambaud. " Histoire Gcneralc." Paris, 1893-1901. 
 Leroy-BeauHeu, Paul. " Dc la Colonisation chca Ics I'cuplcs Modcrncs." 5th 
 edition. 2 vols. Paris, 1902. 
 This, on the whole, is the best general book on colonies. 
 Lugard, Capt. F. D. "The Rise of our East African l-lmpire."' 2 vols. London, 
 
 1893- 
 
 An account of British East Africa from the beginning of British intlucncc. 
 
 The maps are valuable and the illustrations excellently supplement the 
 
 text. The reputation of the author in African matters is well known. 
 Masni, Th. " L'Etat Independent du Congo a l' Exposition de Bruxclles- 
 
 Tcrvneren en 1897." Bruxclles, 1897. 
 Meinecke, G. ''Die deittschen Kolonien in Wort iind Bild." Leipzig, 1900. 
 Milncr, Sir Alfred.'" England in Egypt." 6th edition. London, ]S()(). 
 
 By many considered the standard work on the Egyptian question. The 
 
 author has bulked large in the history of British Africa. 
 Mullins, J. W. '"The Wonderful Story of Uganda." London, 1004. 
 Murray, R. W. (Ed.). "South Africa from Arab Domination to r.;iti>h Rule." 
 London, 1891. 
 
 More accurately designated as a history of the PortugK^e in .Southeast 
 
 Africa. The articles are by various writers, with an introducti'm to liu- 
 
 whole by Prof. A. H. Keane. Good maps. 
 Musgrave, George Clarke. '" In South .Xfrica with lUiller." Bn-ton. kjoo. 
 
 A first-hand record of the South African war. :\ IxH.k of per-oual observa- 
 tion and experience, very vivid and reaflable in ^lylc. 
 North American Reviciv. ()ctf)bcr, DccenilKT, iSoo; Jan;i;ir\. 1000. 
 
 Interesting articles on the British- Boer conllin. exhibiting Ik.iIi sides of 
 
 the controversy. 
 Nuova Antologia. 1H97. 
 
 Furnishes much of our informatinn regarding thr Italian ('..lunii'-^ in 
 
 Africa. 
 Peters, Dr. Carl. " New Light on Dark Africa." Tran-^Ialod by 1 Julclicn. 
 London. 1891. 
 
 This is a narrative of the German I'.min Ta^ha ixpcdilii-n, 
 Ratzel, F. "The History of Mankind." ;, vl-.. .\'>'v. N'ur!., [S-/. iSf>^. 
 
 A general ethnography, with full dcMTii)ti.,n. <.l ili^' Xirnan n.iiuc tnbc^. 
 Sanderson, Edgar. ".Africa in the Niutiec ;iih (/(ui'ii-" .\cw \'>r\.. iS<>S, 
 
 Treating Africa a-; a '(ii^cuvcry of the ninct-.-i nlli .!T.;nr>," thi l"Mik dr.-ii- 
 
 with the events in every part of tlic ronlnicnt v. huh are oauicitrd wit!; 
 
 its new signiticancc in v. "rid piili'ic-,.
 
 i\tn HI HL io(; u A r n y 
 
 Saiissurc. L. dr " Psyrholo^iic dr hi Ci^Ufnisotioti l-raiii^aisr dans srs raf Ports 
 avec Irs socu'ti's itniignics." Paris. 180Q. 
 
 Schmidt. Rochus. " f'>cutsilihitnis Kolonictt." 2 vols. ncrliii, x'^p. 
 
 SicvirN-llaliii, W. " Ajrika. lime AWgcmcinc Landcskundc." Leipzig, i<>)i. 
 An cxii'llciit m'lior.il work. 
 
 St.itilcy. H. M. In D.irkcst Africa." New York, i8<x). 
 
 ,\ti account of tlic search for and rcscnc of lunin Paslia. 
 
 " The Con^o and the J'onnding of the I'rec State." London, 1885. 
 
 Stanley. II. M., and others. "Africa; its Partition and Fntnre." New York, 
 'i8y8. 
 
 Stc( von-i. C. \\'. " F.gypt in 1808." F.dinhnrgli, 1808. 
 
 With Kitdicner to Khartnm." Edinhnrgh, 1898. 
 
 Stengel. K. Fredierr von. " D\c RcchsxcrhalUiissc dcr dctitsclicn Scltut::- 
 t^ibictr." Leip;Mg. 1901. 
 
 riionisoii, H. C. " Rliodesia and it.s Government." London. i8f>S. 
 
 Tliral, G. McCall. "History of Sonth Africa; History of the Boers or Emi- 
 grant Farmers." London, 1888. 
 
 'I'he Same: '" i486-i6<ji ; 1601-1795." London. 188S. 
 
 The Same: " RepuhUcs and Native Territories. 1854-1872." London. 1880. 
 
 Valuable and conscientious works, based on original documents preserved 
 in the Cape archives, etc. 
 
 'liiiu-s (London). "The 'I ivies History of the War in South .Africa, 1899- 
 IQOJ." I-'dited by L. S. .Xmery. 2 vols. London, 1900-iyoj. 
 
 Traill, 11. D. "Lord Cromer, a Biography." London. 1897. 
 
 Wack. Henry W. "The Story of the Congo Free State. Social. Political, and 
 i-Aonomic .Aspects of the Belgian System of Government in Central 
 Africa." New York and London. 1905. 
 .\ (kliuce tif King Leopold. Considerable historical matter. 
 
 Wet. C. R. I)e. " Three Years' War." New York. 1902. 
 
 White. :\. S. "The l-!.xpansion of Egypt under the Anglo- l-'.gyptian Condo- 
 minium." London, 1899. 
 
 WiHidward, W. H. " .'\ Short History of the E.xpansion of the British ICm- 
 pirc, 1500-1870." Caml)ridge, 1899. 
 Tlii-> i> one of the very bc>t short treatises on the Briti>li Colonies. 
 
 Zuunurmann. A. " Die Koloxialpolitik Grusshritaunicns." 2 vols. Berlin. 
 1898- 1899. 
 
 TRAVEL AND I)1-:SCRI PTIOX 
 
 .\ttcrlniry. \. P. '" Islam in Africa." New "^'ork. iSii) 
 
 .\'.i-tin, .Major II. II. "Among Swamps and Giants in I'quatorial .Africa." 
 Li'mdi/n, li;0J. 
 
 -"With .Mncdnnald in I'ganda." Ldudon. i'>03. 
 
 n.ikcr. Sir S W "The .Mljcrt N'van/a and F..\pIoration of the Nile Sources." 
 
 X.-.v V,,rk. 1.^71. 
 P.ei'.t. J. 'llu')>! -"The Ruined Ciiie- of Mashonaland." New ^'ork. 189;^. 
 
 .\ rcrnrf! '<. e\plMratioii> and excavati'Mis made in i8'jT by the authrir and 
 
 hi- v, iff. \s:i:'. ^Muie general dc-criptinn (jf the country, including the man- 
 
 v<-r- .-.id ri;-tf'iii- (if the {JTc-eut i)eiip!i-. 
 Blaik;.-. Dr. W C - " Pcr-i^al Life of Druid Li\ ing>tone." .Ww Wnvk. 18.S2. 
 
 T!..- ta!id-ird Iji^ i.-^raplis . c'liclly from luipublidied journaD. li-ttt-r-, etc. 
 Cad-iick, Helen. " .A Wlutr Wuman in Central Africa." l.MuiK.m. i'>oo.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 325 
 
 Callaway, Bp. H. '" Nurserv Tales, Traditions and Histories of Zulus" Vol 
 I. Natal, 1868. 
 
 A very interesting and in many ways unique compilation, giving text, trans- 
 lation and notes. 
 
 " Religious System of the Amazulu." Natal, 1870. 
 
 Cameron, V. L. " Across Africa." New York, 1888. 
 
 The journal of a journey from Zanzibar to Benguela. Particularly valu- 
 able as a record of the manners and customs of the natives met with. 
 
 Very fully illustrated. 
 Churchill, Lord Rand. S. " Men, Mines and Animals in S. Africa."' New York, 
 1892. 
 
 Describes the author's investigations of the gold mining prospects, with 
 
 some account of his travel and sport in Mashonaland. 
 Decle, L. " Three Years in Savage Africa." London, 1897. 
 Edwards, Amelia B. '" A Thousand Miles up the Nile." London, 1891. 
 Ellis, A. B. "The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West .\frica." 
 
 London, 1890. 
 ' The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa." Lon- 
 don, 1894. 
 
 Both important books for ethnology and philology. 
 Elmslie, W. A. '' Among the W'ild Ngoni." London, 1899. 
 
 On the work of the medical missions. 
 Emin Pasha (Dr. Schnitzler). "Letters and Journals." New York. 1888. 
 
 This is a translation of the German edited work and contains cliieHy his 
 
 correspondence. The descriptions of his explorations in Central .\frica arc 
 
 indeed graphic. 
 " Emin Pasha, his Life and Work." Compiled from his Journals by G. 
 
 Schwartzcr. 2 vols. London, 1898. 
 Fox-Bourne, H. R. " Civilisation in Congoland. A Story of Tutcrnational 
 Wrongdoing. With a prefatory note by Sir Charles Dilkc." London. 1903. 
 
 An attack on King Leopold's administration. 
 Fuller, F. W. "Egypt and the Hinterland." New York, 1901. 
 
 A book of reference on the Jigypt of to-day. Sympathetic in its discus>iou 
 
 of the difficulties of the native Christians. 
 Greswell, W. " Geography of Africa South of the Zambesi." 
 
 Contains also notes on the industries, wealth and social procuress of tlic 
 
 states and people. 
 Hazzledine, G. D. " The White Man in Nigeria." London. 1004. 
 Hitchman, Francis. "Captain Sir Richard Burton: iiis i'.arly, I'matc and Pub- 
 lic Life." 2 vols. London, i8<S7. 
 
 This contains an abridgment of his travels and ex])!or;itinn--. 
 Jessett, Montague George. " The Key to South .Africa: I )rl;!i;o;i i:.i\." N'<\v 
 York, 1899. 
 
 A short history of the port, with an account of il-^ trade, d. -.cripiion of 
 
 the natives, the country, etc. 
 Johnston, H. H. "Kilinia Njaro l^xpedition." London, 1K85, 
 
 An account of the scientific exploration of tlic l-la-tcrn lOi'iriiori,;] r.'K'ion. 
 
 Contains niaps and illustration^-. 
 "The River ("ongo : from it-^ mouth to P,ol(,l)o." Lon<ion. iSS; 
 
 One of the bc>t account-, of tin- Con,^o n-gioii. 
 Keane, A. H. "'ilie Boer States. Land and P'-op!c." London, njoo. 
 Kingsley, M. II. " 'i'ravel-; in West .\fric;i, Congo. I'r;nic-;i:-. Criro. Cnner- 
 oons." London, i.'^)7.
 
 li^C B I B L I () (1 U A P U Y 
 
 -" West African Stmlics." London, 1890. 
 
 Little. \V. J. KnoN. " Sketches and Studies in South Africa." London and 
 Pluladelphia. iS<. 
 Studies combining narrative, descriptive and liistorical account. 
 Livingstone, Dr. D. "Missionary Travels and Researches in Soutli Africa." 
 London, i^^57 
 An out of print book l)ut accessible in si)ine lil)raries. An interesting ac- 
 count rertecting conditions in the years 1840-1856. 
 
 Narrative of an l^xpcdilion to the Zambesi and its Tributaries. London, 
 
 1865. 
 Also out of print. Covers the years 1858-1864. 
 
 Popular accounts, covering Iwth of these periods, were published in 1875 
 and are more easily available. 
 
 " Last Journals in Central Africa." 2 vols. London, 1880. 
 
 Papers covering the years 1865-1873. Kditcd by Rev. H. Waller. 
 ?kIacdonald. Rev. Janies.^ " Myth and Religion." New York, 1893. 
 
 The author was for long a missionary in African fields. 
 ^L'lcdunald. Rev. Duff. "Africana: or the Heart of Africa." 2 vols. London, 
 1882. 
 A very good and comprehensive account of the manners and customs, 
 folklore, myths, etc.. to be found in East Central Africa. 
 Mathers. K. P. " Zambesia : England's El-Dorado in Africa." London, i8gi. 
 Matthews. Dr. J. W'. " Inwadi Yami." London. iScS8. 
 
 This is a record of twenty years' personal experience in South Africa, 
 witli a good account of the Kimberley diamond mines and mining. 
 Mockler-l-'erryman, Major .V. 1'. "' Rritisli Wc^t .\frica. its Rise and Progress.'' 
 _'(1 edition. L(jn(lon, KXK). 
 A good general handbook, with emphasis on present phases, though at 
 the same time filling in many details of history omitted by earlier writers. 
 Contains considerable matter of general description and an interesting 
 chapter on folklore. Maps and illustrations good. 
 Molyneux, Maj.-Gen. \V. C. 1*". " Campaigning in South Africa and Egypt." 
 New York, 1806. 
 .\ personal record with interesting sidelights on history. 
 Moore. J. E. S. "The Tanganyika Problem." London. 1903. 
 Morel, r--dmund D. " King Leopold's Rule in Africa." New York, 1905. 
 
 A study of modern conditions. 
 Noble. I-'. P. '"The Redemption of Africa." 2 vols. New York, i8<)9. 
 
 Of great value to the student of social conditions. 
 P.irtrif!i^i.'. C. " Cro-s River Natives." London, 1905. 
 St l.t:j(r. Capt. S E, "War Sketches in Color." London. U)0T,. 
 
 :\ \oliime of unique value and charm. It constitute'^ ;i collection of reminis- 
 cence- of the Boer War. but combines the artist's portfolio with the 
 lit'-rarv note book. The sketches are reproduced with iJ.istei exf|uisiteness 
 of rr.lnr 
 San'i'itiai'. 1". ]\ " Ijght Month- iii .-oi Ox-Wagon" London. t88o. 
 
 1 Crfjs-cd .Africa, from the .Atlantic to the Indian 
 <'I I,y Alfred I'.lwes. _' \ols. Philadelphia. 1881. 
 the fainoMs Portugue-c explorer. Maps. etc. 
 art of Africa." London. 1878. 
 travel and up to it- time one of the best descrip- 
 
 L/IMl. 
 
 S<r[,;i-!'i 
 
 t,,, A. ,lr "linw 
 an. cU ." Tra:>i;i 
 
 I'-r- 
 Schw. 111; 
 
 '.::.;! narrativi- oi 
 :rtl), G. "'JV.c 11 
 
 A r. 
 
 ord of three year 
 
 t;-.c 
 
 accour.t.- of till- r
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Selous, F. C "Travels and Adventures in South East Africa." London, 
 1893. 
 
 Most excellent from every point of view, reliable in its record of observa- 
 tions during eleven years as pioneer and sportsman, and marked by a 
 
 straightforward, engaging style. 
 Sibree, Rev. James.'" The Great African Island." London, 1879. 
 
 Probably the most important book on Madagascar, with an account of 
 
 the various scientific researches which have opened up the island to our 
 
 knowledge. 
 ' Madagascar and Its People." London, 1885. 
 
 Chiefly on missionary prospects in that day. 
 Stanley, H. M. " How I Found Livingstone." London, 1874. 
 
 Travels, adventures and discoveries. 
 " Thro' the Dark Continent." London, 1879. 
 
 An illustrated description of the Nile sources, the Lake regions, and the 
 
 Congo. 
 " My Dark Companions and their Strange Stories." London, 1893. 
 
 A collection of camp-fire tales, mostly animal stories, arranged and edited 
 
 by the African explorer. 
 Theal, G. McC." Kaffir Folklore." 
 
 This is a volume of translation by the African historian, including some 
 
 introductory discussion of the mj'thology and customs of the people. 
 Thomson, Joseph. " To the Central African Lakes and Back." London, 1888. 
 
 " Through Masai Land." London, 1887. 
 
 Trollope, Anthony. " South Africa." London, 1880. 
 
 A description of Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Griqualand \\\"^t, 
 
 Orange Free State and native territories in 1877. 
 Tyler, J. "Forty Years in Zululand." Boston, 1891. 
 
 A discussion from the missionary's standpoint. 
 Willoughby, Sir John C. " Narrative of Further Fxcavations at Zimbahjc." 
 London, 1893. 
 
 A continuation of Bent's investigations.
 
 INDEX
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abba Garima: battle of (1896), 248 
 Abbas Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt : reign 
 
 of, 273 
 Abyssinia: description of, 247 
 Adda : sold to the English, 36 
 Africa, History of: North Africa 
 from the ancients to the Arabs, 3 ; 
 the Portuguese in Africa, 15 ; the 
 beginning of rivalry, 2."] ; stagna- 
 tion and slavery, 35 ; the position 
 in 1815, 42; sixty years of prepara- 
 tion, 47; preliminaries to partition, 
 58 ; England, France, and Portu- 
 gal in Africa, 71 ; Germany enters 
 the field, 86; Germany in the 
 Cameroons and the Gulf of Guinea, 
 105 ; the Berlin Conference and the 
 Congo Free State, 114; German 
 East Africa, 127, the struggle for 
 the Niger, 147 ; German progress 
 in West Africa, 172; British East 
 Africa, 182; the Italian sphere and 
 the islands, 207; British Central 
 and South Africa, 214; Africa since 
 1895, 245 ; the economic value of 
 Africa, 286 
 African Company of Merchants : char- 
 tered, 2,^ 
 AfricaTi Exploration Fund of the Royal 
 Geographical Society : established, 
 62 
 African Lakes Company: formed, 235 
 African Lakes Corporation: formed, 
 
 235 
 African Trans-Continental Cnmi>any : 
 
 formed, 229 
 Ahmadu : skctcli of. 148; concludes 
 
 treaty witli the I'rcnch, 149 
 Ahmed Aral)i : rebellion of, 267 
 Ait: purchased by a Frenchman, 56 
 
 Albert Nyanza : discovered, 54 
 Alcohol : agitation against the sale of, 
 
 in Africa, 254 
 Alexander the Great, King of Macedon : 
 
 conquers Egypt, 9 
 Alexandria: bombardment of (1882), 
 
 267 
 Algeria: conquered by France, 47; un- 
 der French rule, 262 
 Algeciras Conference, The (1905), 246 
 Ali Bey : promotes rebellion in Africa 
 
 against Portugal, 39 
 Amirantes, The : sketch of, 213 
 Amru Ibn al Aasse : invades Egypt, i r 
 Anderson, Karl Johan : explorations 
 
 of, 52 
 Andrade, Pavia d' : his work in Africa, 
 
 225 
 Anglo-Belgian Agreement (1894). 202 
 Anglo-French Agreements: (188S), 
 
 209; (1889), 150; (1890), 163, 212; 
 
 (1904), 246 
 Anglo-Gtrman Agreements: (hSSri), 
 
 182; (1888), 163; (1890), 165, 166, 
 
 173, 177, 181, 188; (1893), i(>6 
 Anglo-German Company: formed. 176 
 Anglo-Italian Agrceineiit : {1891), 
 
 209 
 Anglo-Portuguese Agreements: (1890), 
 
 230; (1891), 231, 241 
 Angola: present condition of, 240 
 Angra Pequena : claimed l>y t!ie Dutcli. 
 
 38; annexed to Germany. 104 
 Anliaya, Pedro de : his campaigns in 
 
 Africa. 2T 
 Annobnn: sketch of, 213 
 Arabs: tlieir influence in Atru'.i, 58; 
 
 uprising of, 121 
 Archinard, Colonel: his campaiKHs in 
 
 Africa, 151 
 Ascension Isl.and : occupied by (.real 
 
 Britain, 213 
 
 331
 
 M^> r N D K X 
 
 X^ii.imi: .iiMu-Mil liy I'u.ul.nul. i;o Ki--inarck. Count lIcrlHTt; liis iievjotia- 
 Vssiiiic: <!;iimo<l by l-'raiuw jg timis witli lMi.i;l;inI, i)S; his mission 
 
 \tl>.ir;i : h.iltlc of (iStXt), -7-: to I.oiuloii, lo,^ 
 
 Arorcs; sketch of. JiJ Risniarckshur;; : foiiiukd. iSo 
 
 Blatityri' : (KscTiption of. 242 
 Hoors : history of. 275 
 
 B Holts, William: his expedition to Africa. 
 
 40 
 
 IJaKanioyo: growth of. 14.^ Uoinhay. .Africa: founded. 51 
 
 n.iikie. Wilhani Balfour: explorations Bonnier, Colonel: occupies Timbuktu, 
 
 nf. 50 15_' 
 
 Baincs. lluiinas: explor;itions of. 52 Bounie, 11. R. I'ox : brings charges 
 Bilker. Sir S.unuel Wliitc: explorations against the administration in Congo 
 
 i't". 54: arouses an intere^^l in Af- I'ree State, 254 
 
 nca. 51) Bourbon, Island of: sec Reunion 
 
 Bamb.irra'> : skelcli of, 148 Bourd: his administration of Tunis 
 Band<lin. Count: founds the .Society atTairs, 262 
 
 for <u'nn;ni ("(donizatiim. I2ij lirrindenburg African Company : founded 
 I'araticri. Ceneral : in Abyssinia, 24Q 31 
 
 l^arrcto. I'ranci-co: explorations of, _',^ Brazza, Coiuit Pierre Savergnan de: 
 I'.artli. liciurich: explorations of. 50. establishes I'rcnch influence in Cen- 
 
 147 tral Africa, 50; sketch of. 71 
 
 Ba-el .Mi>->ionary Society: work of, 92 1?razzaville : founded, 72 
 
 Basutolaiid : annexed l)y Circal I'ritain, British Bechuanaland : organized as a 
 
 51. Si, ji() crown colony. 82. 215 
 
 B:uete!;i Muiiuy. The (1897). 254 British Central Africa: sketch of, 
 I'.ay.il. i^r: concludes treaty with the 214 
 
 Ali'KiUiy (if b'uta Jallon, 150 British I'^.ast Africa: sketch of, 1S2 
 
 iK!j;i:ui K;it:uiga Company: formed. 240 British ICast Africa Comi)any. lmi)erial : 
 Bill, Kin.u : nfi,fwtiates for luirnprrm pro- founded, 132; leases land, 130; 
 
 uctio!i. Ill chartered. 183 
 
 Bi,n\o\-ki. ( (innt Mauric August: at- British South Africa: sketch of, 214 
 
 UiniJt^ i.i e-iabiish French inlluence British South Africa Company: work 
 
 in .\!a'!a,L',;!.-car. 212 of, 22S 
 
 Berln-ra; held by i-jigland, 85 Erne: his explorations in Africa, 32 
 
 I'erkeley. l->iuM : beconus administra- Brussels Conference, The (1876), 62 
 
 ti r if Brit!-li Fa.-t Africa. 204 ]'.uchner, Max: explorations of, 90 
 
 B'-rli:! C. i;.ferri:(e. The ( iS84-i8,S5 1, 7S. Buluwayo : growth of, 233 
 
 1:4 Burton, .Sir Richard h'rancis : arouses 
 I'.;:i;:! r. ].o;i< <iu-favc: his work in an interest in Africa, 59 
 
 Afri.a. 150 Bushiri: leads insurrection, 140; death 
 B;-ni:irc!.; < Bi-marck-ScIniidiau'-en), Otto of. 141 
 
 !.'!iiard Leopold, i'rince von: hi> 
 
 '-'.unaie of Portugal as a colonial 
 
 P'".S'r. 7S : int1ui-:ic( d by (lerm.aii C 
 
 A IF!. -a:; 'ra^lc;-. yn: rules Cerman 
 
 euipir. . ^j : ih t riinues to create a Cabinda : jjlundered and destroyed 
 
 cvl'jiua! ciiii)irt;, 93; IK-(Jtiate^ with ( i7-3), 3'' 
 
 li.e Bntidi j-i reign Otflce, 95. 103; Cabol, Sebastian: explorations of, 19 
 
 ' - Iraiiio. African policy, no; hi^ Caillie, Rene: explorations of, 42, 47 
 
 .Ki; -.di- in r( L'ard to the Cameroon-, Cam. Diogo: explorations of, 18 
 
 '-: ! :- ilii-nn^ fvr lui-t Africa, Cambon, Jule-,: his administration of 
 
 'Ji Tunib allairs. 262
 
 INDEX 33-7 
 
 Cameron, Verney Lovett : his explora- D, E 
 
 tion of Africa, 59 
 
 Cameroons, The: annexed by Germany. Dahomans : resist the French, 163 
 
 113; made a crown colony, 177; Dar-es-Salaam : growth of, 143 
 
 condition of, 170 Darfnr: annexed to Egypt, 56 
 
 Canary Islands: sketch of. 213; present De Sousa : sketch of, 226 
 
 government of. 248 Decken, Karl Klans von dcr: cxplora- 
 
 Cannibalism : in the Congo Free State, tions of. 54 
 
 252 Delagoa Bay : present status of, 250 
 
 Cape Blanco: rounded, 17 Dhanis Mutiny. The (1897), 254 
 
 Cape Bojador; rounded, 17 Dias, Dinis: explorations of. 17 
 
 Cape Colony: captured by the English, Diaz, Bartholomew: explorations of, 18 
 
 38; growth of, 51 Diaz, Diego: discovers Madaga.-car. 21 r 
 
 Cape of Good Hope: discovered, 18 Dieppe: importance of, in tlic Middle 
 
 Cape to Cairo Railroad : plans for. 230 Ages, 15 
 
 Cape Verde: doubled, 17 Dilke, Sir Charles: brings diarges 
 
 Cape Verde Islands: sketch of. 213 against the administration in Congo 
 
 Caron, Lieutenant: navigates the Niger, Free State. 254 
 
 149 Dogali : Abyssinians attack Itali;in gar- 
 Catharine of Braganza : marries Charles rison at, 207 
 
 II of England, 34 ICannes, ('A\: explorations of, 17 
 
 Cawston, George: sketch of, 222 East Africa Plantation Company: 
 
 Central Search Association: organized, formed, 139 
 
 224 Egypt: sketch of her lii-^tory. 2(h) 
 
 Ceuta : siege of (1415), 15 Klizabetli, Queen of I'jiglaml : cliarfcrs 
 
 Charles II, King of England: charters Afric;ui Company, 30 
 
 African Company, 31; marries l",l-llaj Omar: ai war witli thu I'rencli. 
 
 Catharine of Braganza, 34 48 
 Chartered Company: sketch of, 22s VA Miua (St. Jorge (I:i Mina) : found- 
 Churchill, Lord Randolph: his report ed. 18: captured by the Dutcli, 36 
 
 concerning Ma>hona]and, 229 Eniiu Pasha: l)(.leaguered i)y tlie M;didi. 
 
 Cintra, Pedro de : explorations of, 17 138; enters tlie >ervice of (ierm;iuy, 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas: liis efforts for the 143; the (lermau expecHtion for 
 
 abolition of slave-trade, 40 rehef of, i8() 
 
 Colquhoun, Archibah! R. : sketch of, 231 England: in Africa. 71: present .African 
 
 Coffee Industry: in Africa, 144 possessions of. jdd 
 
 Comoros: sketch of, 213 Eritrea: present condition of. 240 
 Congo Free State: created, 116; exports 
 
 of, 124; revenues and expeudittires 
 
 of, 125: present status of, 250 F 
 Congo Railway Company: cr)nipK'tf- 
 
 its line, 126 l\ibri, I'riedrich : inllueurr Germau 
 
 Congo 'i'rcaty (1S84), 7(1 rr)loni/,'tiou rtiort-. 01 
 
 Copper: in (ierm.au West .\friea, 175 l''(iu.iu(lo Po : s],, ti-!i .if. ji; 
 
 Covilliam. Pedro de : t'Xi)l(jrations of. 1' iugo : ^m],! to ihc I'liijish. ;,'i 
 
 iX l'"l.ittt r~ : .ut'iiijit to -uTMN .11! \fnc;iii 
 
 Crain[)el. Paul: tiis .\fric:ui i-\p.'dl( in':, r;iih-M:id, .vi 
 
 ,f)( l''!i-.!.'<-l. kolii-; I : ixpiiw.itiiiu >\. 00 ; bi- 
 
 Croft. J:unes .Mexandcr : bi- worK- in lui- i-n im \fnr.i. 1;; 
 
 Afrira, 153 1 '"i 1 ).inp!iiii k'-tJi mI, .m 
 
 Cunlia, Tristan d;i : hi:, eau,p;i!;.;n , in I'^rt S.ili Ihm;. : biidt, .'.S 
 
 ,\f,-i(-;,_ 21 It.iiuc: III \f:i'.i. 71; pre -1 Nfti'.in 
 
 Cyrcne : founded, 7 po i-r. !, .''!
 
 384 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Kranccvillc : founded, 72 
 Franco-Ciornian Convention (1894), 166, 
 
 77 
 Franco- Portuguese AKrccnicnt C1886), 
 
 >73 
 l-'ranco-Spanish ARrccnicnt (iQOi). i(>8 
 Frederick William I, the (ireat Elector 
 
 of Hrandenhurn: fosters African 
 
 trade. 31 
 Trere, Sir Hartlc : his rnis.sion to Africa, 
 
 55 ; his influence on African affairs, 
 
 '>5 
 I>ey, Colonel : at war with Samory, 149 
 Fronde, James Anthony: his mission to 
 
 Africa. 8? 
 F'ulah ; description of, 148 
 
 Galliciii. Joseph Simon: his expedition 
 through Africa, 149; crushes insur- 
 rection in Madagascar, 213 
 
 (ialton. I'"rancis: explorations of. 52 
 
 Ciama. Vasco da : explorations of, 18 
 
 Gamhetta, Leon : his intUiencc on Afri- 
 can affairs, 154 
 
 Gedge : his explorations in Africa, 188 
 
 German African Company: work of. 
 8() 
 
 German Aiui-Sla\ery Society: places a 
 steamer on I.ake Nyasa. 142 
 
 German Colonial Society: formed, 90; 
 unites with the German Coloniza- 
 tion Society. 138; incorporated, 174 
 
 German Colonization, Society for : 
 founded, 129 
 
 German l-'.a^t Africa: sketch of, 127 
 
 German l-"a>l Africa Company: found- 
 ed, 130; incorporated by imperial 
 charter, 13S; buys the coa>t rights 
 of the >:llan of Zanzibar, 142 
 
 German I'.a-t Africa S(jcicty : experi- 
 ment-; with tea, coffee, and otlier 
 culture-. 144 
 
 (irrni;;n Planter^' Company: formed, 
 13'' 
 
 Grrma-i Piru'.t.-ition ("ompany : work f>f, 
 '7') 
 
 Gcrnuin .S'ji:i!i\vc-t African Company: 
 f>'.ta;!;- land, lod 
 
 Gern-.an 'I'o;;o!and Conijjany : >kcU-h of, 
 
 German West Africa: sketch of. 172 
 
 Germany: enters the .Xfrican field, 86; 
 in the Cameroons and the Gulf of 
 Guinea, 105; present African pos- 
 sessions of, 237 
 
 Gessi Pasha : defeats the forces of 
 Suleiman (1H79). 167 
 
 Ciuinea, F>ench : Germans settle in, 107 
 
 Gold Fields of South .'\frica Company: 
 obtains rights in Matabeleland, 223 
 
 Goldie, Sir George Taubman : checks 
 F'rench plans for Africa, 152; influ- 
 ence of. 154; made vice-governor of 
 the Royal Niger Company, 136 
 
 Gonsalvez, Antonio: explorations of, 
 17 
 
 Gordon, Charles George: his mission 
 to the Sudan, 271 
 
 Goshenland : founded, 214 
 
 Graaf Reinet : magistracy established at, 
 ^7 
 
 Grand Bassam : claimed by France, 49 
 
 Cjrant, James Augustus : arouses an in- 
 terest in Africa, 59 
 
 Griqualand West : annexed by Great 
 Britain. 80, 216 
 
 Granville, George Levcson-Gowcr, Earl 
 of : negotiates the Congo Treaty. 75 
 
 Gungunyana, King of Gazaland : sends 
 envoys to England, 232 
 
 H, I, J 
 
 Haggard, Henry Rider; visits East 
 
 Africa, 133 
 Hanno: his colonizing expedition along 
 
 the coast of Africa. 6 
 Hawkins, .Sir John: his voyages to 
 
 Africa. 29 
 Hecat;eus of Miletus: makes a map of 
 
 the world, 8 
 Heligoland: ceded to Germany, 145 
 Hendrik Wittlioi : resists Germans, 173 
 Henry the Navigator, Prince: career of, 
 
 Herodotus: visits Africa, K 
 
 Hewett. Consul: his mission to Africa, 
 109 
 
 Hick> Pa-lia: his campaign against the 
 .Mahdi. 271 
 
 Homem. Va^co Eeniandcz : explora- 
 tion > of. 23
 
 INDEX 
 
 335 
 
 Imperial British East Africa Company: 
 see British Elast Africa Company, 
 Imperial 
 
 International African Association : 
 founded, 62 
 
 Ismail, Khedive of Egypt: rc';^n of, 267 
 
 Italy : in" Africa, 207 ; present African 
 possessions of, 249 
 
 Jackson: his explorations in Africa, 188 
 
 Jameson. Leander S. : appointed admin- 
 istrator for British South African 
 Company, 231 ; effect of his raid, 
 281 
 
 John, King of Abyssinia: at war with 
 the Italian garrisons, 207 
 
 John II, King of Portugal : given title 
 of Lord of Guinea, 18 
 
 Johnston, Alexander Keith (1844- 
 1879) : his work in the Lake Nyasa 
 region, 238 
 
 Johnston, H. H. : obtains land at Mount 
 Kilimanjaro, 132. 134 
 
 Johnston, Sir Harry H : quoted on (jcr- 
 man administration in Africa, 261 
 
 Joseph Frederick : concludes treaty with 
 Liideritz, 99 
 
 Jiihlke: his expedition to Africa, 1,30 
 
 Jung, Emil : influences German coloniza- 
 tion efforts, 91 
 
 K 
 
 Kaffraria: annexed to Cape Colony, 51 
 
 Kairwan : founded, 1 1 
 
 Kakoma: founded, 90 
 
 Kamaherero : accepts Gc^rman protec- 
 tion, 173 
 
 Kanem : tributary to Wadai, 165 
 
 Karcma: founded, 63 
 
 Kassala : captured I)y tlic ltalian^ 
 (1894), 208; restored to Egypt, 24S 
 
 Kerckhoven, Van der : his dealings v, itli 
 the Arabs, I2[ 
 
 Kerstcn, Otto: explorations of, 54 
 
 Khalifa, Sultan : leases laud to tlio Ger- 
 mans, 130; concludes treaties witb 
 the Englisli, 185 
 
 Khama : conclude^ a treaty witli tlic 
 Britisb, 82 
 
 Kilwa: founded. 13 
 
 Kimbrrley: discovery of (b;unond> at, 
 
 275 
 
 Kirk, Sir John : his work in Africa, 55 ; 
 his influence in Africa, 84: sketch 
 of, 131 ; resignation of, 136 
 
 Kitchener, Sir Herbert: his campaign in 
 the Sudan, 266. 272 
 
 Kordofan: annexed to Egj-pt, 56 
 
 Krapf, Johann Ludwig: arouses an in- 
 terest in Africa, 59 
 
 Kriiger, Stephanus Johannes Paul : bis 
 conferences with Sir Alfred Mihicr, 
 280; death of, 283 
 
 Kund, Lieutenant: his campaigns in 
 Africa, 178 
 
 Lagos: acquired by England. 49; Ger- 
 man factory established at. 92 
 
 Laird, Macgregor : leads African move- 
 ment, 153 
 
 Lake Nyasa Region : description of. 235 
 
 Lander. John : explorations of, 50 
 
 Langenburg, Prince Hohenlohe: founds 
 the German Colonial Society, 129 
 
 Leopold II, King of the Belgians: plans 
 exploration and civilization of 
 Africa, 60; made ruler of Congo 
 Free State, 117; wills his African 
 possessions to Belgium, 250 
 
 Leopoldville : founded, 69 
 
 Liberia: resources of, 162; description 
 of, 247 
 
 Linant Paslia : sketch of, 2(k) 
 
 Livingstone, l);i\ id : explorations of. 
 52; effect u( his work in Africi, 
 215. 235 
 
 Livingstone CeiUr.il Africa Coniiiany : 
 formed. 235 
 
 I.ivonius, \'iri--.\ilniiral : iirges ;inncxa- 
 tion of Z;nizih;ir, ^^7 
 
 I.oi)cngul.'i : rrfu-i- to courliidr trr.iiy 
 with 'I'ransN a;il. 217; .it \\;ir with 
 tlic r'.riti-h. J,^,^ 
 
 Lok, Jolui : lii> voy;igi-s t'> .\fric;i, 28 
 
 Lokoja : f(pun(led, 50 
 
 London Missionary Society: work of. 
 01. -12 
 
 Ijidcnt/ : ^kct.'li of, 1)7 
 
 Liig.'ird. i-'. I).; hi- nii-'ion in Africi. 
 I7f); (;]' r- tin- ^rivirc of ilic I'.riti h 
 l''.;i~t Africa C'oinii.iii v. 102; his 
 icrvice ag;iiii-t llu' .\i-ih-. 2,^8
 
 8S6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 M 
 
 Macdonald. Captain : surveys for an 
 African railway, IQO 
 
 Mackenzie. George S. : his work in 
 Africa. 1S5 
 
 Mackenzie. John: appointed Deputy 
 G>nnnissioner to Bcchuanalancl, 214 
 
 Mackiiuion. Sir William: his negotia- 
 tions with the sultan of Zanzibar. 
 K4; leads movement for relief )f 
 lunin I'asha. i.^; president of the 
 Ikitish East Africa Association, 
 i8j: his work in British East 
 Africa. -?05 
 
 MacMalion. Comtc Marie Kdmc Patrice 
 Maurice dc. Due de Magenta, 
 rresideiU of the I'rcnch Republic : 
 arbitrates luiglish and Portuguese 
 claims in Africa. 5_' 
 
 M'Quccn : urges British government to 
 establi^li claims in the Niger region, 
 SO 
 
 M'tc-a; his interviews with Stanley. 60; 
 resists the French. 160 
 
 Maba<: sketch of. 164 
 
 Madagascar: French attempt to gain a 
 footing in. 56: sketch of. 211 
 
 Madeira: sketch of. 213 
 
 Magdoshu: founded. 13 
 
 Mahdi. The: sketch of, 271 
 
 Mahinkis: sketch of. 148 
 
 Mandiiigoes: sketch of. 148 
 
 Maria Theresa. Holy Roman Empress: 
 attempts to acquire African posses- 
 .ion^, 40 
 
 Martin V. Pope: confer.-, grant of Afri- 
 can territory on Portugal. 17 
 
 Ma.-honaland : description of. 227; up- 
 rising in (}Hi/)), 243 
 
 Matabele: rebellion of, 243 
 
 Matabeleland : sketch of, 2l6, 227 
 
 Matluw-. Cjeneral : in the service of 
 the -Itaii of Zanzibar. 132 
 
 Mainid. I".. R : influences Lobengula. 
 222 
 
 Ma-'ritiu- : -kttrh of, 213 
 
 Ma_\o;te: taken by the French, 56; 
 -t-.ttrh of, 213 
 
 M<1!'.. Duarte de : founds Mozambique, 
 
 M(:.i'(.k I. Kir.:,' <-'f .\hy inia : !ii- rc- 
 
 i.itioii- u;th !t'i!>-. _'r>'^ 
 
 Mencick II, King of Abyssinia; ability 
 of. 247 
 
 Milner, Sir Alfred : his negotiations with 
 President Kniger. 280 
 
 Misa-Hoehe: founded, 180 
 
 Mizon. Lieutenant: his African expedi- 
 tion, 161 
 
 MofTat, Robert : effect of his work in 
 Africa, 215 
 
 MofTat, J. Smith: his mission to Mata- 
 beleland, 21Q 
 
 Mohammed .Mi, Khedive of Egypt: 
 reign of, 267 
 
 Mombasa : improved by luiglish, 1S6 
 
 Monomotapa, Treaty of (i6,p). 24 
 
 Monteil, Colonel : his campaign in 
 Africa. 151 
 
 Moore: visits King Bell, lii 
 
 Morgen: his expedition in Africa, 178 
 
 Morocco: French claims in, 246 
 
 Mozambique: founded, 21; siege of 
 (1698), 39 
 
 Mozambique Company: sketch of, 226 
 
 Mwanga; sketch of, 187 
 
 N, O 
 
 Nachtigal, Gustav : arouses an interest 
 in Africa. 50; made consid-general 
 of Africa, 103 
 
 National African Company : organized, 
 
 154 
 New Republic: founded. 216 
 Niger, The: struggle for, 147 
 Nigeria: formed, 156 
 Niniegucn, Treaty of (1678-1679). 3^, 
 Nioro: captured by the French (i8yi), 
 
 151 
 
 North Africa: sketch of, 3 
 
 North German Missionary Society: 
 
 work of, 92 
 Nossi-Be: taken by the French, 56; 
 
 sketch of, 212 
 Nossi-Cuniba : sketch of. 212 
 Nossi-Mitsiou : sketch of. 212 
 Nubar Pasha : sketch of, 2ri8 
 Obbia : placed under the protection of 
 
 Italy. 2og 
 ()I)Ock: bought by the French, 56 
 Oil Rivers Region: declared a British 
 
 protectorate. 155; government of, 
 
 '59
 
 INDEX 
 
 337 
 
 Omdurman: battle of (1896), 272 
 Orange Free State: founded, 51 
 Orange River Colony: organized, 283 
 Othman : effect of his death, 147 
 Otyimbingne: purchased by German 
 
 missionaries, 94 
 Owen, Captain : obtains territory for 
 
 England in Africa, 51 
 
 P, Q 
 
 Park, Mungo: explorations of, 42 
 Peters, Karl : leader in the Society for 
 German Colonization, 129; sketch 
 of, 129; his expedition to Africa, 
 130; his expedition for the relief of 
 Emin Pasha, 186 
 Pfeil, Count Joachim: desires increase 
 of German influence in Africa. 128; 
 leader in the Society for German 
 Colonization, 129; his expedition to 
 Africa, 130 
 Phoenicians: circumnavigate Africa, 5 
 Pinto, Serpa : his mission to the Lake 
 
 Nyasa region, 238 
 Pogge, Paul : explorations of, 90 
 Portal, Sir Gerald: his mission to 
 
 Uganda, 196 
 Porto Novo : claimed by France. 49 
 Portugal: in Africa, 15, 71; her claims 
 in the Lake Nyasa region, 236; pres- 
 ent possessions in Africa, 249 
 Possession Islands: claimed by the 
 
 Dutch, 38 
 Principe: sketch <A, 213 
 PtoK-my (ca. 140 a. d.) : sketch of, 9 
 Puttkamer, Robert Victor von : his 
 
 mission to tho Niger, 157 
 Quetta : sold to the English, 36 
 
 R 
 
 Rabah : conquests of, 167 
 
 Rebmann : explorations nf, 53; arouses 
 
 an interest in Africa, 59 
 Reunion (Island of I'ourbon) : sketch 
 
 of, 213 
 Rheni'^h Mission: work of 94 
 Rhodes, Cecil J. : refuses to recognize 
 
 Boer claims in Bechuanaland, 214; 
 
 sketch of, 222; attempts to create ;i 
 
 British protective tariff in South 
 Africa, 233; crushes Matabele re- 
 bellion, 243; death of 283 
 Rhodesia: development of, 243 
 Robinson, Sir Hercules: his mission to 
 Bechuanaland, 86; governor of Cape 
 Colony, 95 ; concludes treaty with 
 Lobengula, 219 
 Rodriguez : sketch of, 213 
 Rohlfs, Gerhard: desires increase of 
 German influence in Africa, 128; 
 appointed consul-general of Zanzi- 
 bar, 128 
 Rosebery, Earl : his African policy, 198 
 Royal African Company: work of, 31 
 Royal Geographical Society: establishes 
 
 an African Exploration Fund, 62 
 Royal Niger Company: organized, 156 
 
 .Sahara, The : value of, 168 
 
 St. Helena: sketch of, 213 
 
 St. Jorge da Alina: see J"l Mina 
 
 St. Lucia Bay : annexed to Cape Colony, 
 
 106 
 St. Paul de Loanda : founded. 21 
 Sainte Marie : reoccupied by tiie I'Vencli. 
 
 56, 212 
 Salisbury. Robert .'\rthur TailxU Ga--- 
 
 coyiic Cecil, Marquis of: .igrees to 
 
 make uo annexations that would 
 
 interfere with the German spliere, 
 
 138 
 Samory (Saniadu) : sketch of, 1(8; :it 
 
 war with the I'reiicli, 149; captured 
 
 by tlie French, 151 
 San .Salvador: growth of, 20 
 San Thome: skctcii of, 213 
 Scheriug, Captain: amiexes Aiigra I'e 
 
 (]uena tf) (ierinain-, 104 
 Scliwt-infurth, (Jeorg .'\ugusl : arou.M's 
 
 an interest in Afrir.i, 50 
 Segri: caplured by the hVeneli (iS(>o), 
 
 151 
 Seiou';, b'rederick : his work in .*^oiuh 
 
 .^friea. 2j8 
 Sefl)en Sultan: his campai^Mi in Afrir.i, 
 
 39 
 Senuf^: '^ket(-ll nf. 1)8 
 Seychelles, I lie : ketcli of. .M3
 
 838 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Scy'iil Biirghasli. Sultan of Zanzibar : 
 his negotiations witli tlie British. 
 
 Scyiil Majid. Iniaiin: conlirnied in his 
 
 posso>>ioiis, 5j 
 Scy'id Said, linaun: skotch of, 53 
 Sharp, Granville : secures slave decision, 
 
 40 
 Sierra Leone: English attempt to colon- 
 
 SiKcira. Gonsalvo da: explorations of, 
 -,> 
 
 Siinlia, Sultan : his relations with Euro- 
 peans. 133 
 
 Slatin Bey: defeat of, 271 
 
 Slavery and Slave-Trade : main treat- 
 ment. 35; sketch of, 38; domestic 
 slavery in Africa, 185 ; abolished 
 in the Witu country, 200; in the 
 Lake Nyasa region, 238; in the 
 Congo Free State, 252; present con- 
 dition of. 310 
 
 Smith, C. Euan : British consul-general 
 in Africa, 140; recommends ex- 
 pedition to Uganda, 191 
 
 Soden. Baron von : governor of the 
 Cameroons. 179 
 
 Sokotra. Island of: annexed by Eng- 
 land, 85 
 
 Solomon, King of Israel: equips fleets 
 for commercial voyages, 6 
 
 Somaliland : under British protection, 
 209 
 
 S])ain : present African possessions of, 
 247 
 
 Speke : arouses an interest in Africa, 59 
 
 Stanley. Ilcnry Morton: explorations 
 of, 52; influence of his explorations. 
 59: goes to the relief of lunin 
 Pa>ha. 138: his faith in the Cape 
 to Cairo Railroad, 230 
 
 Stcll.-ilaiKJ : foiuidcd, 214 
 
 Stettin, von: his expedition in Africa. 
 
 178 
 
 Steuart. Jamr<: constructs a railroad in 
 Africa, 83; establishes indvistrial 
 school in Africa. 205 
 
 Strauch: secretary of the African As- 
 sociation. 65 
 
 S'.:dan : hi-tory of. 271 
 
 Suez Canal : opened. 56 
 
 Silrinian: his forces defeated (1879), 
 707 
 
 Swinburne. Sir Jolm : spreads British 
 influence in Africa, 83; forms min- 
 ing company, 217 
 
 Swellendam : magistracy established at, 
 37 
 
 T, U 
 
 Tanganyika: discovered, 53 
 
 Tangier: under English rule, 34 
 
 Tel-el-Kebir: battle of (1882), 267 
 
 Thomson, Joseph: his work in Africa, 
 155. 239 
 
 Timbuktu : description of, 149 ; occupied 
 by the French, 152 
 
 Togoland : made a German protectorate, 
 III ; condition of, 179 
 
 Tonga Treaty (1887), 81 
 
 Towrson, William : his voyages to 
 Africa, 29 
 
 Transvaal: founded, 51; under British 
 occupation (1877-1881), 214; an- 
 nexed by England, 279 
 
 Transvaal Colony : organized, 283 
 
 Trans-Saharan Railway : schemes for, 
 168; building of, 265 
 
 Tripoli : Italian claims in, 249 
 
 Tristam, Nuno: explorations of, 17 
 
 Tristan D'Acunha : occupied by Great 
 Britain, 213 
 
 Tropenkoller (Tropic-madness) : de- 
 scription of, 259 
 
 Tuaregs: resist the French, 152 
 
 Tuckey : explorations of, 47 
 
 Tunis: annexed by France, 80; Italian 
 claims in, 249; under FVench rule, 
 262 
 
 L'^ganda : luiglish attempt to gain a foot- 
 hold in, 190; made over in perpe- 
 tuity to British protection, 195 
 
 LInited African Company: formed, 78; 
 assumes all the British interests on 
 the Niger River, 154 
 
 LInited Concessions Company: organ- 
 ized, 224 
 
 Upingtonia : attempts to establish, 173 
 
 V, W 
 
 Victoria: founded, 50; placed under 
 British protection, in; ceded to 
 Germany, 177; battle of CiX(;3). 233 
 
 Victoria Nyanza : discovered, 53
 
 INDEX 
 
 339 
 
 Vohsen : German consul-general in 
 
 Africa, 140 
 Wadai : description of, 164 ; recognized 
 
 as within the French sphere of in- 
 fluence, 167 
 Walfish Bay: claimed by the Dutch, 38; 
 
 annexed to the Cape, 82, 106; value 
 
 of, 94 
 Warren, Sir Charles : his conquests in 
 
 South Africa, 82; his mission to 
 
 Bechuanaland, 215 
 Washington Colonization Society : work 
 
 of, 49 
 Weber, Ernst von : influences German 
 
 colonization efforts, 92 )iotc; desires 
 
 increase of German influence in 
 
 Africa, 127 
 Wilberforce, William: his efforts for the 
 
 abolition of slave-trade, 40 
 
 Windham, Thomas: his voyages to 
 Africa, 28 
 
 Winton, Sir Francis de : succeeds Stan- 
 ley in Africa, 70; governor of the 
 International Congo Association, 116 
 
 Wissmann, Hermann von: explorations 
 of, 90; appointed Imperial Commis- 
 sioner of East Africa, 141 
 
 Witwatersrand : discovery of gold at, 
 275 
 
 X, V, z 
 
 Yoruba : made a British protectorate, 
 
 159 
 Zanzibar: conditions in, 206 
 Zcila: held by England, 85 
 Zintgratf: his expedition in Africa, 178
 
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 Los Angeles 
 
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