> OF LALIfUKNIA o W £0 3 in 1 JO AdVdfln 3Hi o \ M 3Hi e> THE UBS ARY OF o > VINSOJ Si 1VD JO o I \ o THE UNIVERSITY «£ SB O SANTA BARBARA JO Advaan 3hi o O S NTA 8A8BAHA « o viNsojnvD JO o OF CAllFORNIA u ^ 3^/) JO Awaan jhi <> o ViivaHva viNVS o ■ffi o AiisaaAiNO 3MI o THE IIBRARV OF o o vavaava C^ ^£ n viNdOjnv? JO THE UBRAKY OF o n r s: ^ t n < I. " '•'g CAllFORNIA o y y / viNuojnvs JO ^INV k OF CAllFORNIA ^ ^ n 3 In 2 z 5i > JO AaVii9n jHi \ ) OF CAllFORNIA o m JO AHVIiail 3Hi o Ol • » \ / \ (. THE HISTOEICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE BY EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL D. FORMEKLY REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD THIRD EDITION EDITED BY J. B. BURY, M.A., D.LiTT., LL.D. REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO, 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY lOOB \ I \ " AH rights reserved PEEFATOEY NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION While this book does not rank with the most impor- tant of Mr. Freeman's historical works, it is not too much to say that none of them is more original. It is remarkable for the novelty of its conception, and for the perfectly amazing skill with which he has mar- shalled and set forth numerous arrays of dry facts, which become through his masterly arrangement easy to understand and survey. It has an artistic construc- tion depending on the central idea, which groups the geographical vicissitudes of Europe in relation to the Eoman Empire ; and, though every sentence is thronged with names, it is not a mere book of reference like the meritorious text to the Spruner-Menke Atlas ; it can be read consecutively. It is a book, too, which need never become antiquated. It may be predicted that it will be as fresh and as useful to students a hundred years hence as it is to-day ; and it can always be easily VI PliEFATORY NOTE TO THE TIUIII* EDITION. brought up to date by brief additions, without the necessity of any change in its texture. Such brief additions have been made in the present edition ; the few shiftings in poHtical geography of the past twenty years have been noticed at the appropriate })laces. In editing a manual of this kind, it does not seem incumbent or convenient to treat the text as sacrosanct, as one would treat Gibbon or the author's own Norman Conquest. The practical purpose of the work suggests, and its arrangement invites, insertions in the text rather than an appendix. 13esides insertions of this kind, with the very slight changes which they sometimes necessitated, few alterations have been made. Some footnotes have been modified, some omitted, one or two added ; and a few trifling errors have been corrected. There is one point on which I venture to think that if Mr. Freeman were here to edit this book himself he might have been induced to modify his language. It is his use of the word Aryan. Though ' Aryanism ' was, if I may say so, one of the pillars of his construction of historv, I think he might have been induced to substi- tute the phrase ' of Aryan speech ' in many cases when he committed himself to ' Aryan.' For the truth is that, in designating a people as Aryan, speech was his criterion, and the inference from Aryan speech to Aryan stock is invalid. How the Indo-Germanic tongue spread is still an unsolved problem, but it is PREFATORY NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION. Vll certain that all the European peoples who spoke or speak tongues of this family are not of common race, and many of them probably have very little ' Aryan ' blood. In studying Section 3 of Chapter I., on the ' Geographical Distribution of Kaces,' the reader will do well to bear this caution in mind. J. B. B. PEE FACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. It is now several years since this book was bej^un. It has been delayed by a crowd of causes, by a temporary loss of strength, by enforced absence from England, by other occupations and interruptions of various kinds. I mention this only because of the effect which I fear it has had on the book itself. It has been impossible to make it, what a book should, if possible, be, the result of one continuous effort. The mere fact that the kindness of the publishers allowed the early part to be printed some years back has, I fear, led to some repetition and even contradiction. A certain change of plan was found unavoidable. It proved im- possible to go through the whole volume according to the method of the earlier chapters. Instead of treating Europe as a whole, I found it needful to divide it into several large geographical groups. The result is that each of the later chapters has had to go over afjain some small amount of oround which had been already gone over in the earlier chapters. In some X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. eases later liiilits have led to some cliano'es of view ov expression. I have marked these, as far as I could, in the Additions and Corrections. If in any ease I have failed to do so, the later statement is the one which should be relied on. I hope that I have made the object of the work clear in the Introductory Chapter. It is reaUy a very humble one. It aims at little more than tracino- out the extent of various states at different times, and at attempting to place the various changes in their due relation to one another and to their causes. I am not, strictly speaking, writing history. I have little to do with the internal affairs of any country. I have looked at events mainly with reference to their effect on the European map. This has led to a reversal of what to manv will seem the natural order of tliinos. In a constitutional history of Europe, our own island would claim the very first place. In my strictly geographical point of view, I beheve I am right in giving it the last. I of ("ourse assume in the reader a certain ele- mentary knowledge of European history, at least as much as mav be learned from mv own Cleneral Sketch. Names and things which have been explained there I have not thought it needful to explain again. I need hardly say that I found myself far more competent to deal with some parts of the work than with others. Xo one can take an equal interest in, or have an equal knowledge of, all branches of so wide a subject. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION'. XI Some parts of the book will represent real original research ; others must be dealt with in a far less thoroua-li way, and will represent onlv knowleds'e o-ot up for the occasion. In such cases the reader will doubtless find out the difference for himself. But I have felt mv own deficiencies most keenly in the German part. Xo part of European history is to me more attractive than the early history of the German kingdom as such. Xo part is to me less attractive than the endless family divisions and unions of the smaller German states. In the Slavonic part I have found great difficulty in following any uniform system of spellino-. I con- suited several Slavonic scholars. Each o-ave me advice, and each supported his own advice by arguments which I should have thouoiit unanswerable, if I had not seen the arguments in support of the wholly different advice siven me bv the others. A^-lien the teachers differ so widely, the learner will, I hope, be forgiven, if the result is sometimes a little chaotic. I have tried to write Slavonic names so as to give some approach to the sound, as far as I know it. But I fear that I have succeeded very imperfectly. In such a crowd of names, dates, and the like, there must be many small inaccuracies. In the case of the smaller dates, those which do not mark the great epochs of history, nothing is easier than to get wrong by a year or so. Sometimes there is an actual difference Xll PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. of Statement in different authorities. Sometimes there is a difference in the reckoning of the year. For instance. In what year was Calais lost to Eno'land? We should say 1558. A writer at the time would say 1557. Then again there is no slip of either pen or press so easy as putting a wrong figure, and, except in the case of great and obvious dates, or again when the mistake is very far wrong indeed, there is no slip of pen or press so likely to be passed by in revision. And again there is often room for question as to the date which should be marked. In recording a transfer of territory from one power to another, what should be the date given ? The actual military occupation and the formal diplomatic cession are often several years apart. Which of these dates should be chosen ? I have found it hard to follow anv fixed rule in such matters. Sometimes the military occupation seems the most important point, sometimes the diplomatic cession. I believe that in each case where a question of this sort might arise, I could give a reason for the date which has been chosen ; but here there has been no room to enter into dis- cussions. I can only say that I shall be deeply thankful to any one who will point out to me any mistakes or seemino' mistakes in these or anv other matters. The maps have been a matter of great difficulty. I somewhat regret that it has been found needful to bind them separately from the text, because this looks as if they made some pretensions to the character of PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. XUl an historical atlas. To this they lay no claim. They are meant simply to illustrate the text, and in no way enter into competition either with such an elaborate collection as that of Spruner-Menke, or even with collections much less elaborate than that. Those maps are meant to be companions in studying the history of the several periods. Mine do not pretend to do more than to illustrate chang-es of boundary in a oeneral way. It was found, as the work went on, that it was better on the whole to increase the number of maps, even at the expense of making each map smaller. There are dis- advantages both ways. In the maps of South-Eastern Europe, for instance, it was found impossible to show the small states which arose in Greece after the Latin conquest at all clearly. But this evil seemed to be counterbalanced by giving as many pictures as might be of the shifting frontier of the Eastern Empire towards the Bulgarian, the Frank, and the Ottoman. In one or two instances I have taken some small liberties with my dates. Thus, for instance, the map of the greatest extent of the Saracen dominion shows all the countries which were at any time under the Saracen power. But there was no one moment when the Saracen power took in the whole extent shown in the map. Sind and Septimania were lost before Crete and Sicilv were won. But such a view as I have ffiven seemed on the whole more instructive than it would have been to substitute two or three maps showing the xi\- TREFACE TO THE FIKST EDITION. various losses and gains at a few years' distance from one another. I have to thank a crowd of friends, including some whom I have never seen, for many hints, and for much help given in various ways. Such are Professor Pauli of Gottingen, Professor Steenstrup of Copenhagen, Professor Eomanos of Corfu, M. J -B. Galiffe of Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner of Budapest, Professor A. W. Ward of Manchester, the Eev. H. F. Tozer, Mr. Ealston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and my son-in-law Arthur John Evans, whose praise is in all South-Slavonic lands. SOMEKLEAZE, WeLLS : December 16, 1880. PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The reception which has been <>iveii to the first edition of this book may be taken as showing that it • supphed a real want, and that, notwithstanding some manifest defects, it has been found to be useful. The speedy demand for a second edition has led to a revi- sion, as thorough as the very short time which circum- stances allowed for it has made possible. And I trust that I have made considerable improvements, especi- ally in the early part. I Ijelieve that I have done something to lessen the faults which followed almost necessarily from the circumstances under which it was first written. But I fear that they may still be too clearly seen, even in the present form of the work. I could see also that many improvements might have been made in the maps, especially the earlier ones. But a thorough revision of them would have needed a far longer time than could just now XVI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 1)(^ ixiven to the work. I have therefore done iiothiii" }nore than adapt the last map in the Sonth-Eastern series to the latest arranoements of 1880-1881. It shows how unstaljle a thing political geography is that changes of this kind have already been needed, both in the map and in the text. And I may per- haps be forgiven if I hope that my work in this way may not yet be over. SOMKRLEAZE, WeLLS : September 20, 1881. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTROnUCTIOX. PAtt': Definition of Historical Geography . . . . . 1 Its relation to kindred studies . . . . . .1-2 Distinction between geographical and political names . . 3-5 § 1 . Geographical A sped of Eiirope. Boundai-ies of Europe and Asia ...... 5—6 General geography of the two continents — the gi-eat pen- insulas .......... 6-7 § 2. Effects of Geography on History. Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas — -charac- teristics of Greece and Italy ...... 7-8 Advance and extent of the Iloman dominion ; the Mediteri-a- nean lands, Gaul, ane. Scandinavian settlements . . . . . . .158 Growth of the kingdom of England . . . . .159 The Danish invasions ; division between Alfred and Guthrum ; Bernicia ; Cumberland ...... 159-160 Second West-Saxon advance ; Wessex grows into England ; submission of Scotland and Strathclyde ; Cumberland and Lothian ........ 160-161 Use of the Imperial titles by the English kings ; Northern Empire of Cnut ; England finally united by the Noi-man Conquest . . . . . . . .161-162 Summaiy ......... 162-164 CONTENTS. XXVll CHAPTER VII. THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. PAGE Permanence of ecclesia.stical divisions ; they preserve eai-lier divisions; case of Lyons and Rheims . . . 165-166 Patriarchates, Provinces, Dioceses . . . . . .166 Bishoprics within and without the Empire . . . 166-167 § 1 . Hie Great Patriarchates. The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectvu-es . . .167 Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem . 168-169 Ljiter Patriarchates . . . . . . .169-170 § 2. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy. Great numbers and smaller importance of the ItaHan bishoprics . . . . . . . .170 Rivals of Rome ; Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna . . . 170-171 The immediate Roman province ; other metropolitan sees . 171 § 3. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul ai^d Germany. Gaulish and German dioceses . . . . . . .172 Provinces of Southern Gaul ; position of Lyons . . 172-173 New metropolitan sees ; Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Pai-is ; cojnparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions . . 173-174 Provinces of Noithei-n Gaul and Germany ; history of Mainz 174-175 The archiepiscopal electors ; other German provinces ; Salz- burg, Bremen, Magdeburg ..... 176-177 Modern aiiangements in France, Germany, and the Nether- lands ......... 177-178 § 4. The Ecclesiastical Divisiojis of Sjiain. Peculiaiities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography ; effects of the Saracen conquest . . . . . . .178 Gothic and later dioceses ; neglect of the Pyrenaean bar- rier 178-179 § 5. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands. Analogy between Britain and Spain . . . . .179 Tribal nature of the Celtic episcopate . . . . 179-180 Scheme of Gregory the Great ; the two English pi-ovinces ; relation of Scotland to York 180-181 XXVm CONTENTS. PAGE Foundation of the English sees ; territorial bishoprics . .181 Canterbury and its suffragan ; efiects of the Norman Con- quest 182 Province of York ; Scotland and Ireland . . . 183-184 § li. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Euro-pe. The Sckc 570 § 6. Other Colonies and Possessions of England. T'he Australian colonies . The South-African colonies Eui'ope extended by colonization dinninion ; Empire of India Sunnnaiy .... IXUEX ..... conti-ast . 570-571 . 570-572 with barbaric . 572-573 . 573-575 . 577 HISTOEIGAL GEOGEAPHY OF EUEOPB. CHAPTER I. INTKODUCTION. The work wliicli we have now before us is to trace chap. out the extent of territory which the different states ^;^;;r^ and nations of Europe and the neighbouring lands have °^j ^^^0°"' held at different times in the world's history, to mark g^"'^P^^y- the different boundaries which the same country has had, and the different meanings in which the same name has been used. It is of great importance carefully to make these distinctions, because great mistakes as to the facts of history are often caused through men thinking and speaking as if the names of different countries, say for instance England, France, Burgundy, Austria, have always meant exactly the same extent of territory. His- torical geography, in this sense, differs from physical geography, which regards the natural features of the earth's surface. It differs also from studies like ethnology and comparative philology, which have to do directly with the differences between one nation and another, with their movements from one part of the world to another, and with the relations to be found among the languages spoken by them. But, though historical geography is VOL. I. B 5 INTRODUCTION. CHAP, distinct from these studies, it makes much use of them. — ^ — For the physiccal geography of a country always has a great effect upon its poUtical history, and the dispersions and movements of different nations are exactly those parts of history which have most to do with fixing the names and the boundaries of different countries at dif- ferent times. England, for instance, is, in strictness, the land of the English wherever they may settle, whether in their old home on the European continent, or in the isle of Britain, or in New England beyond the Ocean. But the extent of territory which was in this way to become England was largely determined by *the physical circumstances of the countries in which the English settled. And the history of the English nation has Ijeen influenced, above all things, by the fact that the ixreat Enojlish settlement which has made the Enolish name famous was made in an island. But, when England had become the name of a distinct political dominion, its meaning was liable to change as that dominion advanced or went back. Thus the borders of England and Scotland have greatly changed at different times, and forge tfulness of this fact has led to many misunderstandings in reading the history of the two countries. And so with all other cases of the kind ; the physical nature of the country, and the settle- ments of the different nations which have occupied it, have always been the determining causes of its political divisions. But it is with the political divisions that historical geography has to deal in the first place. With the nature of the land, and with the people who occupy it, it has to deal only so far as they have in- fluenced the political divisions. Our present business in short is, first to draw the map of the countries GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL NAMES. 3 with which we are concerned as it appeared after each chap. of the different changes which they have gone through, -^ — — - and then to point out the historical causes which have led to the changes on the map. In this way we shall always see what was the meaning of any geographical name at any particular time, and we shall thus avoid mistakes, some of which have often led to really im- portant practical consequences. From this it follows that, in looking" at the o-eoo-raphv Distinction '^^ i- o i J ofGeo- of Europe for our present purpose, we must look first grapiiicai s,t the land itself, and then at the nations which occupy ^ai Niimes. it. And, in so doing, it may be well first of all to •distino-uish between two kinds of names which we shall have to use. Some names of countries are strictly geo- graphical ; they really mean a certain part of the earth's surface marked out by boundaries which cannot well be changed. Others simply mean the extent of country which is occupied at any time by a particular nation, an extent whose boundaries may easily be changed. Thus Britain is a strictly geographical name, meaning an island whose shape and boundaries must always be nearly the same. England, Scotland, Wales, are names of parts of that island, called after different nations which have settled in it, and the boundaries of all of which have differed greatly at different times. Spain again is the geographical name of a peninsula which is almost as well marked out by nature as the island of Britain. Castile, Aragon, Portugal, are political names of parts of the peninsula of Spain. They are the names of states whose boundaries have greatly varied, and which have sometimes formed separate governments and sometimes have been joined together.^ Gaul ^ In modern use we speak of Spain as only one part, though B 2 1. INTRODUCTION. CHAP. a'>"aiii is the geographical name of a country which is not so clearly marked out all round by nature as the island of Britain and the peninsula of Spain, but which is well marked on three sides, to the north, south, and west. Within the limits of Gaul, names like France, Flanders, Britanny, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, are political names of parts of the country, whose limits have varied as much at different times as those of the different parts of Britain and Spain. This is the differ- ence between strictly geographical names which do not alter and political names which do alter. No doubt Gaul and Britain were in the beginning political names, names given to the land from those who occupied it, just as much as the names France and England. But the settlements from which those lands took the names of Gaul and Britain took place long before the begin- ning of trustworthy history, while the settlements from which parts of those lands took the names of France and England happened in times long after trustworthy history began, and for which we are therefore ready with dates and names. Thus Gaul and Britain are the oldest received names of those lands ; they are the names which those lands bore when we first hear of them. It is therefore convenient to keep them in use as strictly geographical names, as always mean- ing that part of the earth's surface which they meant when we first hear of them. In this book therefore, Gaid, Britain, Simin, and other names of the same kind, much the larger part, of the peninsula, and of Portugal as another part. But this simply comes from the accident that, for some centuries past, all the other Spanish kingdoms have been joined under one government, while Portugal has remained separate. In speaking of any time till near the end of the fifteenth century of our sera, the word Spain must always be used in the geographical sense, as the name of the whole peninsula. THE MEDITERRANEAN LANDS. i will always be used to mean a certain space on the chap. map, whoever may be its inhabitants, or whatever ^- — — - may be its government, at any particular time. But names like France, Ew/land, Castile, will Ije used to mean the territory to which they were politically ap- plied at the time of which we may be speaking, a terri- tory which has been o-reater and less at different times. A.' C Thus, the cities of Carlisle and Edinburo-h have always been in Britain since they were built. They have sometimes been in England and sometimes not. The cities of Marseilles, Geneva, Strassburg, and Arras, have always been in Gaid ever since they were built. They have sometimes been in France and sometimes not, according to political changes. § 1. GeograplLical Aspect of Europe. Our present business is with the Historical Geography of Europe, and with that of other parts of the world only so far as they concern the geography of Europe. But we shall liave to speak of all the three divisions of the Old World, Europe, Asia, and Africa, in those parts of the three which come nearest to one another, and in which the real liistory of the world begins. TheMedi. These are those parts of all three which lie round the Lands. Mediterranean sea, the lands which o-raduallv came to form the Empire of Eome. In these lands the l)oundaries between the three great divisions are very easily marked. Modern maps do not all place the l^oundary between Europe and Asia at the same point ; some make the river Don the boundary and some the Volga. But this question is of little importance for history. In the earliest historical times, when we have to do only witli the countries round the Mediterranean sea, there can 6 INTRODUCTION. CHAP, be no douljt how much is Europe and how much is — ^^ — - Asia and Africa. Europe is the land to the north of the Mediterranean sea and of the o-reat o-ulfs which run out of it. If an exact boundary is needed in the barbarous hinds north of the Euxine, the mouth of Tanais or Don is clearly the boundary which should be taken. In all these lands the Mediterranean and its gulfs divide Europe from Asia. But the northern parts of the two continents really form one geographical whole, the boundary between them being one merely of convenience. A vast central mass of land, stretching right across the inland parts of the two continents, sends forth a system of peninsulas and islands, to the north and south. And it is in the peninsular lands of Europe that European history begins. Alike in Europe and in Asia, the southern or penin- sular part of the continent is cut off from the central mass by a mountain chain, which in Europe is nearly un- The peiiin- brokcu. Thus the southern part of Europe consists of sulas of Europe the three CTeat peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and what and Asia. /- ^ 1 •> J ■} we may, in a wide sense, call Greece. These answer hi some sort to the three great Oceanic peninsulas of Asia, those of Arabia, India, and India beyond the Ganges. But the part of Asia which has historically had most to do with Europe is its Mediterranean pen- insula, the land known as Asia Minor. In the northern part of each continent we find another system of great gulfs or inland seas ; but those in Asia have been hindered by the cold from ever being of any importance, while in Europe the Baltic sea and the gulfs which run out of it may l)e looked on as form- ing a kind of secondary Mediterranean. We may thus say that Europe consists of two insular and penin- sular regions, north and south, with a orreat unbroken o THE GEEAT PENINSULAS. mass of land between them. But there are some parts chap. of Europe which seem as it were connecting- hnks be- — <— tween the three main divisions of the continent. Thus we said that the three great peninsulas are cut oS' from the central mass by a nearly unbroken mountain chain. But the connexion of the central peninsula, that of Italy, with the eastern one or Greece, is far closer than its connexion with the western one, or Spain. Italy and Spain are much further apart than Italy and Greece, and between the Alps and the Pyre- nees the mountain chain is nearly lost. We might almost say that a piece of central Europe breaks through at this point and comes down to the Mediterranean. This is the south-eastern part of Gaul ; and Gaul may in this way be looked on as a land which joins together the central and the southern parts of Europe. But this is not all ; in tlie north-western corner of Europe lies that great group of islands, two large ones and many small, of which our own Britain is the Greatest. The British Islands are closely connected in their geography and history with Gaul on one side, and with the islands and peninsulas of the North on the other. In this way we may say that all the three divisions of Europe are brought closely together on the western side of the continent, and that the lands of Gaul and Britain are the connectino- links which bind them too-ether. § 2. Effect of Geograpliy on History. Now this geographical aspect of the chief lands of Beginning Europe has had its direct effect on their history. We >« the • T 1 1 /» 1 European might almost take for granted that the history of Europe peninsulas should begin in the two more eastern amono- the three great southern peninsulas. Of these two, Italy and 8 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. Greece, each has its own character. Greece, though it ^ '—" is the part of Europe which hes nearest to Asia, is in a certain sense the most European of European lands. The characteristic of Europe is to be more full of penin- sulas and islands and inland seas than the rest of the Old chanicter- World. Aud Grccce, the peninsula itself and the neigh- istics of ^. "-' Greece; bouriug lauds, arc fuller of islands and promontories and inland seas than any other part of Europe. On the other hand, Italy is the central land of all southern Europe, and indeed of all the land round the Mediter- ranean. It was therefore only natural that Greece should be the part of Europe in which all that is most distinctively European first grew up and influenced other lands. And so, if any one land or city among the Medi- of Italy. terranean lands was to rule over all the rest, it is in Italy, as the central land, that we should naturally look for the place of dominion. The destinies of the two penin- sulas and their relations to the rest of the world were thus impressed on them by their geographical position. If we turn to recorded history, we find that it is a working out of the consequences of these physical facts. Greece was the first part of Europe to become civilized and to play a part in history ; but it was Italy, and in Italy it was the most central city, Eome, which came to have the dominion over the civilized world of early times — that is, over the lands around the Mediter- ranean. These two peninsulas have, each in its own way, ruled and influenced the rest of Europe as no other parts have done. All the other parts have been, in one way or another, their subjects or disciples. The effect of the geographical position of these countries is Advance of also marked in the stages by which Rome advanced the Roman . . .lominion. to tlic general dominion of the Mediterranean lands. GROWTH OF GREECE AND ITALY. 9 She first subdued Italy; then she had to strive for chap. the mastery with her great rival Carthage, a citj^ "— - — which held nearly the same central position on the southern coast of the Mediterranean which she herself did on the northern. Then she subdued, step by step, the peninsulas on each side of her and the other coast lands of the Mediterranean — European, Asiatic, and African. Into the central division of Europe she did not press far, never having any firm or lasting dominion beyond the Ehine and the Danube. Into Northern Eu- rope, properly so called, her power never reached at all. But she subdued the lands which we have seen act as a kind of connecting link between the different parts of Europe, namely Gaul and the greater part of Britain. Thus the Roman Empire, at its greatest extent, con- sisted of the lands round the Mediterranean, together with Gaul and Britain. For the possession of the Medi- terranean lands would have been imperfect without the possession of Gaul, and the possession of Gaul naturally led to the possession of Britain. In this way the early history of Greece and Italy, Effect of and the formation of the Eoman Empire, were affected graphical by the geographical character of the countries them- selves. The same was the case with the other European lands, when they came to share in that importance which once belonged to Greece and Italy only. Thus Ger- Germany, many, as being the most central part of Europe, came at one time to fill something like the same position which Italy had once held. It came to be the country which had to do with all j)arts of Europe, east, west, north, And south, and even to be a ruling power over some of them. So, as France became the chief state of Gaul, it France, took upon it something like the old position of Gaul as 10 INTRODUCTION CHAP. I. Spain and Scandi- navia. The colo- nizing jjowers. a means of communication between the different parts of Western Europe. Meanwhile, as the Scandinavian and Spanish peninsulas are both cut off in a marked way from the mainland of Europe, each of them has often formed a kind of world of its own, haviniy much less to do with other countries than Germany, France, and Italy had. The same was for a long time the case with our own island. Britain was looked on as lying outside the world. Thus the geographical position of the European lands influenced their history while their history was still purely European. And when Europe began to send forth colonies to other continents, the working of geo- graphical causes came out no less strongly. Thus the position of Spain on the Ocean led Portugal and Castile to be foremost among the colonizing nations of Europe. For the same reason, our own country was one of the chief in following their example, and so was France also for a long time. Holland too, when it rose into impor- tance, became a great colonizing power, and so did Den- mark and Sweden to some extent. But an Italian colony beyond the Ocean was never heard of, nor has there ever been a German colony in the same sense in which there have been Spanish and English colonies. Mean- while, the north-eastern part of Europe, which in early times was not known at all, has always lagged behind the rest, and has become of importance only in later times. This is mainly because its geographical position has almost wholly cut it off' both from the Mediter- ranean and from the Ocean. Thus we see how, in all these ways, both in earlier and in later times, the history of every country has been influenced by its geography. No doubt EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHY ON HISTORY. 11 the liistory of each country has also been largely chap. influenced by the disposition of the people who have • — settled in it, by what is called the national character, influence "^ of national But then the geographical position itself has often had character, somethino- directly to do with forminiz the national character, and in all cases it has had an influence upon it, by giving it a better or a worse field for working and showing itself. Thus it has been well said that neither the Greeks in any other country nor any other people in Greece could have been what the Greeks in Greece really were. The nature of the country and the nature of the people helped one another, and caused Greece to become all that it was in the early times of Europe. It is always useful to mark the points both of likeness and unlikeness of the different nations whose history we study. And of this likeness and unlikeness we shall always find that the geographical character, though only one cause out of several, is always one of the chief causes. § 3. Geographical Distribution of Baces. Our present business then is with geography as influenced b\' liistorv, and with historv as influenced by geography. Witli ethnology, with the relations of nations and races to one another, we have to deal onh' so far as they form one of the agents in history. And it will be well to avoid, as far as may be, all obscure or controverted points of this kind. But the great results of comparative philology may now be taken for granted, and a general view of the geographical dis- position of the great European races is needful as an introduction to the changes which historical causes have wrought in the geography of the several parts of Europe. 1 2 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. In European ethnology one main feature is that ^ — ' the population of Europe is, and from the very begin- nings of history has been, more nearly homogeneous, at least more palpably homogeneous, than that of any other great division of the world. Whether we look at Europe now, or whether we look at it at the earliest times of which we have any glimmerings, it is pre- Euiopean eminently an Aryan continent. Everything non- Aryan / consists of the remnants which still remain of the races which the Aryan settlers found in Europe, and which they either exterminated or assimilated to themselves. The later elements consist of non-Aryan races which have made their way into Europe within historical times, and in their case the work of assimila- tion has been much less complete. It follows almost naturally from the position of Europe that the prima3val non-Aryan element has survived in the west and in the ^ north, while the later or intrusive non-Aryan element has made its way into the east and the south. In the mountains of the western peninsula, in the border ^ lands of Spain and Gaul, the non-Aryan tongue of the Basque still survives. In the extreme north of Europe the non-Aryan tongue of the Fins and Laps still survives. The possible relations of these tongues either to one another or to other non-Aryan tongues beyond the bounds of Europe is a question of purely y AKYANS AND NON-ARYANS IN EUROPE. lo philological concern, and does not touch historical chap. geography. But historical geography is touched by "- — • — the probability, rising almost to moral certainty, that the isolated populations by whom these primitive tongues are still spoken are mere remnants of the primitive races which formed the population of Europe at the time when the Aryans first made their way into that continent. Everything tends to show that the Basques are but the remnant of a great people whom we may set down with certainty as the prie-Aryan inhabitants of Spain and a large part of Gaul, and whose range we may, with great probability, extend Extent ot over Sicily, over part at least of Italy, and perhaps as Basques. far north as our own island. Their possible connexion with the early inhabitants of northern Africa hardly concerns us. The probability that they were themselves preceded by an earlier and far lower race concerns us not at all. The earliest historical inhabitants of south- western Europe are those of whom the Basques are the v/ surviving remnant, those who, under the names of Iberians and Ligurians, fill a not unimportant place in European history. When we come to the Aryan settlements, we cannot orciei- of positively determine which among the Aryan races of settie- T-i " ^ T 1 • • • ineiits. Europe were the earliest settlers m ponit of tmie. The members of the great race which, in its many subdivisions, contains the Greeks, the Italians, and the Greeks uud nations more immediately akin to them, are the first among the European Ar^^ans to show themselves in the light of history ; but it does not necessarily follow that they were actually the first in point of settlement. It may be that, while they were pressing through the Mediterranean peninsulas and islands, the Celts Celts. 14 ' INTRODUCTION. CHAP, were piisliino- tlieir way through the sohd central sj land of Europe. The Celts were clearly the vanguard of the Ar3''an migration within their own range, the first swarm which made its way to the shores of the Ocean. Partially in Spain, more thoroughly in Gaul and the British Islands, they displaced or assimi- lated the earlier inhabitants, who, under their pressure and that of later conquerors, have been gradually shut up in the small mountainous region which they still keep. Of the Celtic migration we have no his- torical accounts, but all probability would lead us to think that the Celts whom in historic times we find on the Danube and south of the Alps were not emi- OTants who had followed a backward course from the great settlement in Transalpine Gaul, but rather detach- ments which had been left behind on the westward journey. Without attempting to settle questions as to the traces of Celtic occupancy to be found in other lands, it is enough for our purpose that, at the begui- j nings of their history, we find the Celts the chief inhabitants of a region stretching from the ^Esis to the furthest known points of Britain. Gaul, Cisalpine and Transalpine, is their great central land, though even here they are not exclusive possessors ; they share the land with a non-Aryan remnant to the south-west, and with the next wave of Aryan new-comers to the north-east. The settlements of these two great Aryan races come before authentic history. After them came the J Teutonic races, which pressed on the Celts from the east ; and in their wake, to judge from their place on the map, must have come the vast family of the Slavonic and Slaves, uatious. But tlic mioratious of the Teutons and WAVES OF ARYAN SETTLEMENT. 15 Slaves come, for the most part, within the range of chap recorded history. Our first glimpse of the Teutons ^ — ^ — shows them in their central German land, already occupying both sides of the Eliine, though seemingly not very old settlers on its left bank. The long wanderinf^s of the various Teutonic and Slavonic tribes over all parts of central Europe, their settle- ments in the southern and western lands, are all matters of history. So is the great Teutonic settle- ^ ment in the British Islands, which partly exterminated, partly assimilated, their Celtic inhabitants, so as to leave them as a mere remnant, though a greater rem- nant, as they themselves had made the Basques. And, as the process which made the north-western islands of Europe Teutonic is a matter of history, so also are the later stages of the process which made the northern peninsulas Teutonic. But it is only the later stages which are historical ; we know that in the strictly Scandinavian peninsula the Teutonic inva- ders displaced non- Aryan Fins ; we have only to guess that in the Cimbric Chersonesos they displaced Aryan Celts. But beyond the Teutons and Slaves lies yet Litima- another Aryan settlement, one which, m a purely philo- logical \dew, is the most interesting of all, the small and fast vanishing group which still survives in Lithuania and the neighbouring lands. Of these there is historically really nothing to be said. On the eastern shores of the . Baltic we find people whose tongue comes nearer than any other European tongue to the common Aryan model ; but we can only guess either at the date when they came thither or at the road by which they came. These races then, Aryan and non-Aryan, make up the immemorial population of Europe. The remnants 16 INTRODUCTION. CHAP, of the older nou- Aryan races, and the successive waves • — r-^ — of Aryan settlement, are all immemorial facts which we must accept as the groundwork of our history and our 8. the yoke. Tii the course of the fourth century two new l*eloponnesian cities, Messene and Megalopolis, were founded. In Boiotia again, Plataia and Orchomenos were destroyed by the Thebans, and Thebes itself was destroyed by Alexander ; but these cities were after- wards rebuilt. In Peloponnesos Mykene was destroyed bv the Aro-eians at an earlier time, and was never rebuilt. But most of these changes do not affect geography, as they did not involve any change in the seats of the great divisions of the Greek name. The only excep- tion is that of the foundation of Messene, which was accompanied by the separation of the old Messenian territory from Sparta, and the consequent establishment of a new or restored division of the Greek nation. The ^givan colonies. Colonies in Asia. § 6. The Greek Colonies. It must have been in the time between the days re- presented by the catalogue and the beginnings of contem- porary history, that most of the islands of the -^Egaean became Greek, and that Greek colonies were planted on the ^o'£ean coast of Asia. We have seen that the southern islands were already Greek at the time of the catalogue, while some of the northern ones, Thasos, Lemnos, and others, did not become Greek till times to which we can give aj)proximate dates, from the eighth to the fifth centuries. During this period, at some time Ijefore the eighth century, the whole .^gaaan coast of Asia had become fringed with Greek cities, Dorian to the south, Aiolian to the north, Ionian between the two. The story of the Trojan war itself is most likely a legendary account of the beginning of these settlements ; and this may make us think that the Greek colonization of this coast began in the north, in THE .EG.EAX COLONIES. 33 the lands bordering on the Hellespont. At all events, chap. bv the eiohth centnry these settlements had made the — — • Asiatic coast and the islands adjoining it a part, and a most important part, not only of the Greek world, bnt we may almost say of Greece itself. The Ionian cities, Their eaiiy above all, Smyrna, Ep/iesos, Miletos, and the islands of ° ^* °^^^" Chios and Samos,^ were among the greatest of Greek cities, more flonrishing certainly than any in European Greece. Miletos, above all, was famous for the number of colonies which it sent forth in its own turn. But, if the day of greatness of the Asiatic colonies came before that of the European Greeks, they were also the first to come under the power of the Barbarians. In the course of the fifth century the Greek cities on the continent of Asia came under the power, first of the Lydian kings and Lydiau then of their Persian conquerors, who subdued several Persian of the islands also. It was this subjection of the Asiatic Greeks to the Barbarians which led to the Persian war, with which the most brilliant time in the history of European Greece begins. We thus know the Asiatic cities only in the days of their decline. The coasts of Thrace and Macedonia were also sprinkled with Greek colonies in Thrace •cities, but thev did not lie so thick too'ether as those on the Asiatic coast, except only in the three-fingered penin- sula of Chalkidike, which became a thoroughly Greek land. Some of these colonies in Thrace, as Olynthos and Potidaia, play an important part in Greek history, and two among them fill a place in the history of the world. Thernie, under its later name of Thessalonike, Tiiermc- has kept on its importance under all changes down to our B^zantion. own time. And Byzantion, on the Thracian Bosporus, ^ [In the Iliad Samos means Sainothriice, in the Odyssey it means Kephallenia.] VOL. I. D H4 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. CHAP lojse higher still, becomiiiy', under the form of Constanti- II. & c — — Mople, the transplanted seat of the Empire of Eome. The settlements which have been thus far spoken of can hardly be counted as parts of continuous Hellas, but they may be all counted as coming within the imme- diate Greek world. They were planted in lands so near to the mother-country, and they lay so near to one another, that the whole region round the ^gsean may be looked on as more or less thoroughly Greek. Some parts were wholly Greek, and everywhere Greek influ- ences were predominant. But, during this same period Moieais- of distant enterprise, between the time of the Homeric nies. catalogue and the time of the Persian War, many Greek settlements were made in far more distant lands. All of course came within the range of the Mediterranean world ; no Greek ever passed through the Straits of Herakles to found settlements on the Ocean. But a large part of the coast both of the Mediterranean itself and of , the Euxine was gradually dotted with Greek colonies. These outposts of Greece, unless they were actually con- quered by Barbarians, almost always remained Greek ; they kept their Greek language and manners, and they often spread them to some extent among their Barbarian neighbours. But it was not often that any large tract of country in these more distant lands became so thoroughly Greek as the ^Eo-aean coast of Asia became. We mav say however that such was the case with the coasts of Sicily and Southern Italy, where many Greek colonies were planted, which will be spoken of more fully in another chapter. All Sicily indeed did in the end really become a Greek land, though not till after its conquest by the Eomans. But in Northern and Central Italy, the Latins, Etruscans, and other nations of Italy, were too MOIiE DISTANT COLONIES. 35 strong for any Greek colonies to be made in those parts, chap. On the other side of the Hadriatic, Greek colonies had rr— •: — ' Colonies spread before the Peloponnesian war as far north as Epi- Hadriatic damnos. The more northern colonies on the coast and among the islands of Dalmatia, the Illyrian Ejndauros, Fourth Pharos, Black Korkyra, and others, were among the bT."'^ latest efforts of Greek colonization in the strict sense. In other parts of the Mediterranean coasts the Greek settlements lay further apart from each other. But we may say that they were spread here and there over the whole coast, except where there was some special hindrance to keep the Greeks from settling. Thus, in a great part of the Mediterranean the Phoenicians had got the start of the Greeks, both in Phoenician their own country on the coast of Syria, and in the colonies sent forth by their great cities of Sidon and Tyre. The Phoenician colonists occupied a large part of the western half of the southern coast of the Mediterranean, where lay the great Phoenician cities of Carthage, Utica, and others. They had also settlements in southern Spain, and one at least outside the straits and on the Ocean. This is Gades or Cadiz, which has kept its name and its unbroken position as a great city from an earlier time than any other city in Europe. The Greeks therefore could not colonize in these parts. In the great islands of Sicily and Cyprus there were both Phoenician and Greek colonies, and there was a long struggle Ijetween the settlers of the two nations. In Eg)''pt again, though there were some Greek settlers, yet there were no Greek colonies in the strict sense. That is, there were no independent Greek common- wealths. Thus the only part of the southern coast of the Mediterranean which lay open to Greek colonization D 2 36 GREECE AND THE GIJEEK COLONIES. CHAP. II. Greek colonies in Africa, Gaul, and Spain. Massalia. Colonies on the Euxine. was the land l^etween Egypt and the dominions of Carthage. In that hind accordingly several Greek cities were planted, of which the chief was the famous Kyrene. On the southern coast of Gaul arose the great Ionian city of Massalia or Marseilles, which, like the Phoenician Gades, has kept its name and its prosperity down to our own time. Massalia became the centre of a group of Greek cities on the south coast of Gaul and the east coast of Spain, which were the means of spreading a certain amount of Greek civilization in those parts. Besides these settlements in the Mediterranean it- self, there were also a good many Greek colonies on the western, northern, and southern coasts of the Euxine, of which those best worth remembering are the city of Chersonesos in the peninsula called the Tauric Cher- sonSsos, now Crimea, and those of Sinoj^e and Trapezous on the southern coast. Chersonesos and Trapezous above all deserve notice as being two specially abiding seats of Greek influence. Chersonesos, under the name of Cherson, remained an independent Greek com- monwealth longer than any other, and Trapezous or Trehizond became the seat of Greek-speaking Emperors, who outlived those of Constantinople. Speaking gene- rally then, we may say that, in the most famous times of European Greece, in the time of the Persian and Pelo- ponnesian wars, the whole coast of the Jj^geean was part of the immediate Greek world, while in Sicily and Cyprus Greek colonies were contending with the Phoeni- cians, and in Italy with the native Italians. Massalia was the centre of a group of Greek states in the north- west, and Kyrene in the south, while the greater part of the coast of the Euxine was also dotted with Greek cities here and there. In most of these colonies the MACEDONIA AND EPEIROS. . 37 Greeks mixed to some extent with the natives, and *^'^^^- the natives to some extent learned the Greek language j^j^~' and manners. We thus get the beginning of what we ||[4ficiai may call an artificial Greek nation, a nation Greek in nation. speech, feeling, and culture, but not purely Greek in blood, which has held its place in the world ever since. § 7. Groivih of Macedonia arid Ejjeiros. But while the spread of the Greek language and civilization, and therewith the growth of the artificial Greek nation, was brought about in a great degree . by the planting of independent Greek colonies, it was brought about still more fully by events which went far to destroy the political independence of Greece itself. This came of the crrowth of the kindred nations Growth of *- ^ Macedonia. to the north of Greece, in Macedonia and Epeiros. The Macedonians were for a long time hemmed in by the Barbarians to the north and west of them and by the Greek cities on the coast, and they were also weakened by divisions among themselves. But when the whole nation was united under its o-reat Kino- Philip Mace- Reign of '^ , ^ ^ Philip, B.C. donia soon became the chief power in Greece and the seo-sso. neighbouring lands. Philip greatly increased his domi- nions at the expense of both Greeks and Barbarians, especially by adding the peninsulas of Chalkidike to his kingdom. But in Greece itself, though he took to him- self the chief power, he did not actually annex any of the Greek states to Macedonia, so that his victories there do not affect the map. His yet more famous son Alex- conquests i- "J ox Alexan- ander, and the Macedonian kino-s after him, in like ;]^^'.^.,.^ manner held garrisons in particular Greek cities, and brought some parts of Greece, as Thessaly and Euboia, under a degree of Macedonian influence which hardly 38 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. CHAP. II. Epeiros under Pyr- rhos, B.C. 295-272. The Mace, donian kingdoms in Asia. B.C. 301. Egypt under the Ptolemies. The Seleukid djmasty. Circa b.c. 256. differed from dominion ; but tliey did not formally annex them. Thei conquests of Alexander in Asia brought most of the Greek cities and islands under Macedonian dominion, but some, as Crete, Rhodes, Byzantion, and Herakleia on the Euxine, kept their independence. Meanwhile Epeiros became united under the Greek kings of Molossis, and under Pyrrhos, who made Ambrakia his capital, it became a powerful state. And a little kingdom called Athamania, thrust in between Epeiros, Macedonia, and Thessaly, now begins to be heard of. The conquests of Alexander in Asia concern us only so far as thev called into beino- a class of states in West- ern Asia, all of which received a greater or less share of Hellenic culture, and some of which may claim a place in the actual Greek world. By the division of the em- pire of Alexander after the battle of Ipsos, Egypt he- came the kinodom of Ptolemv, with whose descendants it remained down to the Eoman conquest. The civili- zation of the Egyptian court was Greek, and Alexandria became one of the greatest of Greek cities. Moreover the earlier kings of the Ptolemaic dynasty held various islands in the JEgsean, and points on the coast of Asia and even of Thrace, which made them almost entitled to rank as a power in Greece itself The great Asiatic power of Alexander passed to Seleukos and his descendants. The early kings of his house ruled from the jEggean to the Hyphasis ; but this great dominion was at all times fringed and broken in upon by the dominions of native princes, by independent Greek cities, and by the dominions of other Macedonian kings. And in the third century their dominion was altogether cut short in the east by the revolt of the Parthians in northern Persia, by whom the eastern provinces of the Seleukid kingdom were lopped THE JVIACEDONIAN KINGDOMS. 39 away. And when Antioehos the Great provoked a war chap. with Rome, his dominion was cut short to the west also. — rr; — ' B.C. 191- The Seleukid power now shrank up into a local kingdom ^^^• of Syria, with Tauros for its north-western frontier. Bv the cuttino- short of the Seleukid kino-dom, room Growtii of was given for the growth of the independent states pendent which had alreadv sprung up in Asia Minor. The Asia " -^ ^ -^ Minor. kingdom of Pergamos had already begun, and the b.(. 283. dominions of its kings were largely increased by the *''"*'" ^" Romans at the expense of Antioehos. Pergamos might count as a Greek state, alongside of Macedonia and Epeiros. But the other kingdoms of Asia Minor, Bi- thynia, Kappadokia, Paphlagotiia, and Pojitos, the king- dom of the famous Mithridates, must be counted as Asiatic. The Greek influence indeed spread itself far spread of to the east. Even the Parthian kings affected a certain culture. amount of Greek culture, and in all the more western kingdoms there was a greater or less Greek element, and several of their kings fixed their capitals in Greek cities. Still in all of them the Asiatic element prevailed in a way in which it did not prevail at Per- gamos. Meanwhile other states, either originally Greek or largely hellenized, still remained east of the ^g£ean. Thus, at the south-western corner of Asia Minor, Lykia, though seemingly less thoroughly hellenized than some of its neighbours, became a federal state after the Greek model. Far to the east, Seleukeia on the Tigris, seieukeia whether under Syrian or Parthian overlordship, kept its character as a Greek colony, and its position as what may be called a free imperial city. Further to the west other more purely Greek states survived. The Pontic Herakleia long remained an independent Greek nr-rakieia. city, sometimes a commonwealth, sometimes under 40 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. CHAP. II. B c. 188. tyrants ; and Sinope remained a Greek city till it became the capital of the kings of Pontos. On the north of the Euxine, Bosporos still remained a Greek kingdom. Later poli- tical divi- sions of Greece. The Acliaitin League, B.C. 280. B.C. 191. The Aitolian League. § 8. llie later Geoifraphy of Independent Greece. The political divisions of independent Greece, in the days when it gradually came under the power of Eome, differ almost as much from those to which we are used during the Persian and Pelopoimesian wars, as these last differ from the earlier divisions in the Homeric cata- logue. The chief feature of these times was the power which was held, as we have already seen, by the Mace- donian kings, and the alliances made by the different Greek states in order to escape or to throw off" their yoke. The result was that the greater part of Greece was gradually mapped out among large confederations, much larger at least than Greece had ever seen before. The most famous of these, the League of Achaia, beo-an amono- the old Achaian cities on the south of the Corinthian gulf. It gradually spread, till it took in the whole of Peloponnesos, together with Megara and one or two outlying cities. Thus Sikyon, Corinth, Argos, Elis, and even Sparta, instead of being distinct states as of old, with a greater or less dominion over other cities, were now simply members of one federal body. In Northern Greece the League of Aitolia now became very powerful, and extended itself far beyond its old borders. Akarnania, Phokis, Lokris, and Boiotia formed federal states of less power, and so did Epeiros, where the kings had been got rid of, and which was now reckoned as a thoroughly Greek state. The Macedonian kings held different points at different times : Corinth itself for a good while, and Thessaly and Euboia for longer periods, might be almost counted as parts of their kingdom LATER GEOGEAPHY OF GREECE. 41 This was the state of thmsfs in Greece at the time chap. . II. when the Eomans beoan to meddle in Greek and Mace- ;; — ^— " ^ Komaii lu- donian affairs, and gradually to bring all the Greek and [,7Greece Macedonian lands, like the rest of the Mediterranean world, under their power. But it should be remarked that J this was done, as the conquests of the Eomans always were done, very gradually. First the island of Kor- kc. 229. kyra and the cities of Epidamnos and ApoUonia on the niyrian coast became Eoman allies, which was al- ways a step to becoming Eoman subjects. The Eomans first appeared in Greece itself as allies of the Aito- lians, but by the Peace of Epeiros Eome obtained no b.c. 20.5. dominion in Greece itself, merely some increase of her lUyrian territory. The second Macedonian war made ^^;, '-^"O" Macedonia dependent on Eome, and all those parts of Progress of Greece which had been under the Macedonian power conquests. were declared free at its close. As the Aitolians b.c. i96. joined Antiochos of Syria against Eome, they were b.c. i89. made a Eoman dependency. From that time Eome was always meddling in the affairs of the Greek states, and they may be counted as really, though not formally, dependent on Eome. After the third Macedonian war, Macedonia was cut up into four separate com- u.c. i69. monwealths ; and at last, after the fourth, it became a k.c. 149. Eoman province. About the same time the Leagues b.c hc of Epeiros and Boiotia were dissolved ; the Achaian League also became formally dependent on Eome, and was dissolved for a time also. It is not certahi when Achaia formally became a Eoman province ; but, from this time, all Greece was practically subject to Eome. Athens remained nominally independent, as did Ehodes, Byzantion, and several other islands and outlying cities. Some of these were not formally incorporated with the ^10^1^''''^'' Eoman dominion till the time of the Emperor Vespasian. vespasLi. 42 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. CHAP. II. Nominal freedom of Athens and other cities. Special character of Greek history. Of some, Athens for one, it may l)e donbted whether they were ever formally incorporated at all. Surrounded by the Empire, subject to it in every practical sense of the word, these once sovereion commonwealths sank into mere municipalities without any one moment of formal change, and lived and died the life and the death of the other municipalities of the Eoman world. As we go on with the geography of other lands which came under the Eoman dominion, we shall learn more of the way in which Eome thus enlarged her territories bit by bit. But it seemed right to begin with the geography of Greece, and this could not be carried down to the time Avhen Greece passed under Eoman dominion with- out saying something of the Eoman conquest. From B.C. 146 we must look upon Greece and the neighbouring lands as being, some of them formally and all of them practically, part of the Eoman dominion. And we shall not have to speak of them again as separate states or countries till many ages later, when the Eoman dominion began to fall in pieces. Having thus traced the geo- graphy of the most eastern of the three great European peninsulas down to the time when it became part of the dominion which took in all the lands around the Medi- terranean, we will now go on to speak of the middle peninsula which became the centre of that dominion, namely the peninsula of Italy. Greece and the neigh- bouring lands are the only parts of Europe which can be said to have a history quite independent of Eome, and l^eginning earlier than the Eoman history. Of the other countries therefore which became part of the Eoman Empire it will be best to speak in their relation to Italy, and, as nearly as possible, in the order in which they came under the Eoman power. 43 CHAPTEE III. FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The second of the three great peninsulas of southern chap. Europe, that which Hes between the other two, is that ' — — of Italy. The name of Italy has been used in several Different Tm • 1 -1 1 meanings nieannigs at diiierent times, but it has always meant of the name either the whole or a part of the land which we now call i^ah/. Italy. The name gradually spread itself from the extreme south to the north. ^ At the time when our survey begins, the name did not go beyond the long narrow peninsula itself ; and indeed it hardly took in the whole of that. During the time of the Eoman commonwealth, Italy, in its greatest extent, did not reach beyond the little rivers Macra on one side, near Luna, and Rubico itsmean- ... iiig under on the other side, near Arimmum. The land to the the Roman common- north, as far as the Alps, was not counted for Italy till wealth. after the time' of Ciesar. But the Alps are the natural boundary which fence off the peninsular land from the great mass of central Europe ; so that, looking at the matter as a piece of geography, we may count the whole land within the Alps as Italy. It will be at (Geography of Italy. once seen that the Italian peninsula, though so long and narrow, is by no means cut up into promontories and ^ We shall come as we go on to two uses of the name in which Italy, oddly enough, meant only the northei-n part of the land com- monly so called. But in both these cases the n.ame had a purely poUtical and technical meaning, and it never came into common use in this sense. 44 FORiMATION OF THE ROMAN EMl'IKE. CHAP, smaller peninsulas in the way that the Greek peninsula ' — ' — " is. Nor is it surrounded by so many islands. It is onl}' quite in the south, where the loni»- narrow peninsula splits off into two smaller ones, that the coast has at all the character of the Greek coast, and there only in a The Italian mucli sliQ-htcr deo'ree. Close by this end of Italy lies islands. . ^ . . the great island of Sicily, whose history has always been closely connected with that of Italy. Further off lie the two other great islands of Corsica and Sardinia, which in old times were not reckoned to belono- to Italy at all. Besides these there are several smaller islands, Elba and others, along the Italian coast ; but they lie a good way from each other, and do not form any marked feature in the geography. There is nothing at all like even the group of islands off western Greece, much less like the endless multitude, great and small, in the ^g^an. Through the whole length of the peninsula, like a backbone, runs the long chain of the Apennines. These branch off from the Alps in north-western Italy near the sea, and they run through the whole length of the country to the very toe of the boot, as the Italian peninsula has been called from its shape. From all this it follows that, though Italy was the land which was destined in the end to have the rule over all the rest, yet the people of Italy were not likely to begin to make themselves a name so early as the Greeks did. Least of all were they likely to take in the same way to a sea-faring life, and to plant colonies in far-off lands. § 1. The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily. ^o»- . We seem to have somewhat clearer sio-ns in Italy than Aryans in o ./ Italy. -^e have in Greece of the men who dwelled in the land INHABITANTS OF ITALY. 45 before the Aryans wlio appear as its historical inhabit- chap. ants. On the coast of Liniiria. the land on each side ;- — ^ — ■' Ligurians. of the citv of Genoa, a land which was not reckoned Italian in early times, we find people who seem not to have been Aryan. And these Ligurians seem to have been part of a race which was spread through Italy and Sicily before the Aryan settlements, and to have been akin to the non-Aryan inhabitants of Spain and southern Gaul, of whom the Basques on each side of the Pyrenees remain as a remnant. And in his- torical times a large part of Italy was held by the Etruscans, who had in earlier times held a much Etruscans, greater dominion. These are a people about whose origin and language there have been many theories, but nothing can as yet be said to be certainly known. The Etruscans, in historical times, formed a confederacy of twelve cities in the land west of the Apennines, be- tween the Macra and the Tiber ; and in earlier times they had settlements both more to the north, on the Po, and more to the south, in Campania. If they were a non-Aryan race, the part of the non-Aryans in the geography and history of Italy becomes greater than it has been in any part of Western Europe except Spain. But whatever we make of the Etruscans, the rest of Italy in the older sense was held by various branches of an Aryan race nearly allied to the Greeks, whom we may call the Italians. Of tliis race there were two great Theitai- . ians. branches. One of them, under various names, seems to liave held all tlie southern part of the western coast of Italy, and to have spread into Sicily. Some of the tribes of this Ijranch seem to have been almost as nearly akin to the Greeks as the Epeirots and other kindred nations on the east side of the Hadriatic. Of this branch of the 46 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. III. Italian race, the most famous people were the Latins ; ^^^^^ — ' and it was the greatest of Latin cities, the border city of the Latins against the Etruscans, the city of Rome on '' the Tiber, which became, step by step, the mistress of Latium, of Italy, and of the Mediterranean world. The other ])rancli, which held a much larger part of the peninsula, taking in the Sahines, u^quians, Volscians, Sanwites, Lucanians, and other peoples who play a great part in the Eoman history, may perhaps, not- withstanding considerable differences among them- Opicans. sclves, bc classed together for our purpose as Opicans or Oscans, hi distinction from the Latins, and the other tribes allied to them. These tribes seem to have pressed from the eastern, the Hadriatic, coast of Italy, down upon the nations to the south-west of them, and to have largely extended their borders at their expense. But part of ancient Italy, and a still larger part of Italy in the modern sense, was inhabited by nations other than the Italians. In the heel of the boot were lapygians. tlic lapyc/ians, a people of uncertain origin, but who seem to have had a special gift of receiving the Greek language and manners. And in the northern part, in the lands which were not then counted as part of Gauls. Italy, were the Gauls, a Celtic people, akin to the v/ Gauls beyond the Alps, and whose country was therefore called Cisalpine Gaul or Gaul on this side of the Alps. They were found on both sides of the Po, and on the Hadriatic coast they stretched in early times as far south as the ^sis near Aticona. In the north-east corner of Italy were yet another people, veneti. ^hs Vetieti, perhaps of Illyrian origin, whose name was long after taken by the city of Venice. But during the whole time with which we have now to do, there nies in I 1 GREEKS IN ITALY. 47 was no city so called, and the name of Venetia is always ^^j'^^- the name of a country. ' ' All these nations we may look on as orioinal Greek coio-f •^ nies ir> inhabitants of Italy ; that is, all were there before any- it^iy. thing like contemporary history begins.^ But besides these original nations, there were in one part of Italy many Greek colonies, and also in the island of Sicily. Some cities of Italy claimed to be Greek colonies, with- out any clear proof that they were so. But there seems no reason to doubt that Kyme or Cumce on the western coast of Italy, and Ankon or Ancona on the Hadriatic, were solitary Greek colonies far awaA^ from any other Greek settlements. Cumas, though so far off, is said to have been the earliest Greek colony in Italy. But where the Greeks mainly settled was in the two lesser peninsulas, the heel and the toe of the boot, into which the great peninsula of Italy divides at its southern end. Here, as was before said, there is a nearer approach to the kind of coast to which the Greeks were used at home. Here then arose a immber of Greek cities, stretching from the extreme' south almost up to Cuma^ As in the case of the Greek cities in Asia, the time of SiTeatness of the Italian Greeks came earlier than that of the Greeks in Greece itself. In the sixth century B.C. some of these Greek colonies in Italy, as Taras or Tareiitum, Kroton or Crotona, Sybaris, and others, were among the greatest cities of the Greek name. But, as the Italian nations grew stronger, the Greek cities lost ^ Some may tliink tliat the Cisalpine Gauls ought to be excepted, as the conuiion Roman story represents them as having crossed the Alps fi'om Transalpine Gaul at a time which almost comes within the range of contempoi'ary histoiy. But this is a point about which there is no real certainty ; and it seems quite as likely that the Gaulish settlements on the Italian side of the Alps wei^e as old as those on the other side. • Inhab ^iAm ants o J Sicilv. 4'8 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP, their power, aiul many of tlieiii, Uuma3 among them, — — • fell into the hands of Italian conquerors, and lost their Greek character more or less thoroughly. Others remained Greek till they became subject to Rome, and the Greek speech and manners did not wholly die out of southern Italy till ages after the Christian a3ra. Inhabit- The geography and history of the great island of s/cily. Sicily, which lies so near to the toe of the boot, cannot be kept apart from those of Italy. The mainland and the island were, to a great extent, inhabited by the same nations. The Sikanians in the western part of the island may not unlikely have been akin to the Ligu- rians and Basques ; but the Sikels, who gave their name to the island, and who are the people with whom the Greeks had most to do, were clearly of the Italian Phoenician stock, aud wers nearly allied to the Latins.^ The Phce- Ann. CTi*^f*K colonies, uiciaus of Carthage planted some colonies in the western and northern parts of the island, the chief of which was the city which the Greeks called Panormos, the modern capital Palermo. But the eastern and southern sides of the triangle were full of Greek cities, which are said to have been founded from the eighth century B.C. to the sixth, the earliest point occupied being Naxos on the east coast. Several of these, especially Syracuse on the east coast, and Akragas or Agrujentum on the south, were among the chief of Greek cities ; and from them the Greek speech and manners gradually spread themselves over the natives, till in the end Sicily was reckoned as altoii'ether a Greek land. But for some centuries Sicilian history is chiefly made up of struggles for ^ [This view is improbable. The names Sikan and Sikel can hai'dly be separated ; both peoples probably belonged to tlie same stock, and the Sikel language was probably non-Aiyan.] GROWTH OF ROME. 49 the mastery between Carthaiye and the Greek cities, chap. in. This was in truth a struggle between the Aryan and the — •— — ' Semitic race, and we shall see that, many ages after, the same battle was again fought on the same ground. ^ 2. Growth of the Roman power in Italy. The history of ancient Italy, as far as we know it. Gradual , , , „ , -, , conquest IS the history of the gradual conquest of the whole land of itaiy. by one of its own cities ; and the changes in its political geography are mainly the changes which followed the gradual bringing of the whole peninsula under the Eoman dominion. But the form which the conquests of Eome took hindered those c^onquests from having so great an effect on the map as they otherwise might have had. The cities and districts of Italy, as they were one by one conquered by Eome, were commonly left as separate states, in the relation of dependent alliance, from which most of them were step by step promoted to the rights of Eoman citizenship. An Italian city might Different be a dependent ally of Eome ; it might be a Eoman the Italian "^ cities. colony with the full franchise, or a colony holding the inferior Latin franchise ; it might have been completely incorporated with Eome by being made part of a Eoman tribe. All these were very important political differences ; but they do not make much difference in the look ol" things on the map. The most important of the changes which can be called strictly geographical belong to the early days of Eome, when there were important national movements among the various races of Italy. Eome origin of v/ arose at the point of the union of the three races, Latin, Oscan, and Etruscan, and it arose from an union between the Latin and Oscan races. Two Latin and one Sabine settlements seem to have joined together to form the VOL. I. E 50 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. GHAP. cityofEome; but the Sabine element mast have been ni. "^ , — thorouffhlv latinized, and Rt^nie nuist be counted a Latin Rome a P . Latin city. p-|. ^|^g o'reatest, tliouijh very likely the youno-est, amono- the cities of Latium. Her early Eouie, planted ou a march, rose, in the way in ni'i'nion.*' which marchlauds often do rise, to supremacy among her fellows. Our first authentic record of the early commonwealth sets Eome before us as bearing rule over the whole of Latium. This dominion she seems to have lost soon after the driving out of the kings, and some of her territory right of the Tiber seems to have become Etruscan. Presently Eome appears, no longer as mistress of Latium, but as forming one member of a triple league concluded on equal terms with the Latins as a body, and with the Hernicans. Wars with This Icaguc was engaged in constant wars with its bourT'" neighbours of the Oscan race, the JEquians and Vol- scians, by whom many of the Latin cities were taken. But the first great advance of Eome's actual dominion was made on the right bank of the Tiber, by the B.C. 396. taking of the Etruscan city of Veil. Fifty years later Eome began to engage in more distant wars ; and we may say generally that the conquest of Italy was going on bit by bit for eighty years more. By the end of that time, all Italy, in the older sense, was brought in one shape or another under the Eoman dominion. The neighbouring districts, both Latin and of other races, had been admitted to citizenship. Eoman and Latin colonies were planted in various parts of the country ; elsewhere the old cities, Etruscan, Samnite, Greek, or any other, still remained as dependent allies tion^ortife of Eome. Presently Eome went on to win dominion stateT out of Italy ; but the Italian states still remained in More dis- tant wars B.C. 343. B.C. 296. THE PROVINCES. 51 their old relation to Eome, till the allies received the chap. Eomau franchise after the Social or Marsian war. "^ — — -' The Samnites alone held out, and they may be said to b.c. 89. have been altogether exterminated in the wars of Sulla. The rest of Italy was Roman. § 3. lite Western Provinces. The i^reat change in Eoman policy, and in European geooraphy as affected by it, took place when Rome began to win territory out of Italy. The relation of these foreign possessions to the ruling city was quite difi'erent from that of the Italian states. The foreign conquests of Rome were made into provinces. A pro- Natm-e of ^ _ \ the Roman vince was a district which was subject to Rome, and Piovinces. which was put under the rule of a Roman governor, which was not done with the dependent allies in Italy. But it must be borne in mind that, though we speak of a province as having a certain geographical extent, vet there mioht be cities within its limits whose for- mal relation to Rome was that of dependent, or even of equal, alliance. There might also be Roman and Latin colonies, either colonies really jDlanted or cities which had been raised to the Roman or Latin fran- chise. All these were important distinctions as re- garded the internal government of the different states ; still practically all alike formed part of the Roman dominion. In a geographical survey it will there- fore ])e enough to mark the extent of the different })rovinces, without attendhig to their political, or more truly municipal, distinctions, except in a few cases where they are of special importance. The provinces then are the foreign dominions of Rome, and they fall naturally into two, or rather three, E 2 52 rOEMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. III. Eiisteni and West- ern Pro- vinces. Sicily. First Roman posses- sions in the island. B.C. 241. divisions. There are the provinces of the West, in which the Eomans had chiefly to contend with nations much less civiHzed than themselves, and in which therefore the provincials gradually adopted the language and manners of their conquerors. But in the provinces to the east of the Hadriatic, the Greek lanouage and Greek man- ners had become the standard of civilized life, and their supremacy was not supplanted by those of Rome in any land where they were fully established. But in those parts of the Eastern peninsula where Greek culture had not established itself, the Latin language seems to have spread much as it did in the West. In the further East, in Syria and Egypt, such Greek civilization as there was did not go beyond a mere varnish ; the mass of the people still kept to their old manners and languages as they were before the Macedonian conquests. In these lands therefore the Latin tongue and Eoman civilization made l)ut little progress. The Roman conquests went on on both sides of the Hadriatic at the same time, but it was to the west that they began. The first Roman province however forms a sort of intermediate class by itself, standino" between the eastern and the western. This first Roman province was formed in the great island of Sicily, which, by its geographical position, be- longs to the western part of Europe, while the fact that Greek became the prevailing language in it, as well as its long retention by the Eastern Empire in later tunes, rather connects it with the eastern part. The Roman dominion in Sicily began when the Carthaginian posses- sions in the island were given up to Rome, as the result of the first Punic war. But, as Hieron of Syracuse had helped Rome against Carthage, his kingdom re- mained in alliance with Rome, and was not dealt with SICILY. 53 as a conquered land. It was only when Syracuse turned chap. against Eome in the second Punic war that it was, on ,"; — • — ' '-' ' Conquest its conquest, formally made a Roman possession. Eighty "^g^^''*" years later the condition of Sicily under the Eoman ^Im D-overnment was finally settled, and the settlement may be taken as a type of the endless variety of relations in which the different districts and cities throughout the Roman dominions stood to the ruling commonwealth. The greater part of the island became altogether subject ; state of Sicily. the land was held to be forfeited to the Roman People, and the former inhabitants held it simply as tenants ^ on the payment of a tithe. But some cities were called free, and kept their land ; others remained in name independent allies of the Roman People. Other cities were afterwards raised to the Latin franchise ; in others Latin or Roman colonies were planted, and one Sicilian city, that of Messana, received the full citizenship of Rome. Sicily, by the time of the Greek civi- lization of conquest, was looked on as a thoroughly Greek land, siciiy. The Greek language and manners had now spread themselves everywhere amono- the Sikels and the other inhabitants of the island. And Sicily remained a thoroughly Greek land, till, ages afterwards, it again became, as it had been in the days of the Greek and Phcenician colonies, a battle-field of the Aryan and J Semitic races in the days of the Mahometan conquests. The two oreat islands of Sardinia and Corsica Sardinia i and Cor- \ seem almost as natural appendages to Italy as Sicily sica. )[ itself; but their history is very different. They have played no important part in the history of the world. The original stock of their inhabitants seems to have been akin to the non-Aryan element in Spain and Sicily. The attempts at Greek colonization in them were but 54 FORMATION OF THE EOMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. in. B.C. 288. Cisalpine Gaul. V Founda- tion of Sena Gallica. B.C. 282. Conquest of Cisal- pine Gaul B.C. 201- 101. feeble, and tliey passed under the dominion, first of C'artlia«>e and then of Rome, without any important change in their condition. These two islands became a Eoman province, one which was always reckoned among the most worthless of provinces, in the interval ])etween the first and second Punic wars. Thus far the Roman dominion did not reach beyond what we should look upon as the natural extent of the dominion of an Italian power. Indeed, as long as Italy did not reach to the Alps, we should say that it had not reached the natural extent of an Italian dominion. But the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul cannot be separated from the general conquest of Western Europe. The Roman conquest of Gaul and Sjiain, by gradually spreading the Latin language and Roman civilization over those countries, created two of the chief nations and languages of modern Europe. But the process was simply the continuation of a pro- cess which began within the borders of what we now call Italy. Gaul within the Alps was as strictly a foreign conquest as Spain or as Gaul beyond the Alps. Only the geographical position of Cisalpine Gaul allowed it to be easily and speedily incorporated with Italy in a way in which the lands beyond the Alps could not be. The beginnings of conquest in this direction took place after the end of the Samnite wars. Then the colony of Sena Gallica, now Siniyaglia, was founded on Gaulish soil, and it was presently followed by the foundation of Ariminum or Rimini. The Roman arms were carried beyond the Po in the time between the first and the second Punic war ; after the second Punic war, Cisalpine Gaul was thoroughly conquered, and was secured by the foundation of many GAUL AND SPAIN. 55 Roman and Latin colonies. The Eonian and Latin chap. Ill- franchises were gradually extended to most parts of — ' the country, and at last Cisalpine Gaul was formally incorporated with Italy. bc. 43. Closely connected with the conquest of Cisalpine conquest /^ 1 ' 1 o 1 °^ Liguria Gaul was the conquest of the other non-Italian lands and Venetia. within the boundaries of modern Italy. These were Liguria to the soil th- west of Cisalpine Gaul and Venetia ^ to the north-east. Both these lands held out longer than Cisalpine Gaul ; but by the time of Augustus they were aU, together with the peninsula of Istria, counted as part of Italy. The dominion of Eome in this region was secured at an early stage of the conquest by the foundation of the great colony of Aquileia. We thus Pounda- see that, not only Venice, but Milan, Pavia, Verona, Aquiieia, Eavenna, and Genoa, cities which played so great a part in the after history of Italy, arose in lands which were not originally Italian. But we also see that Italy, with the boundaries given to it by Augustus, took in a somewhat lari>-er territory to the north-east than the kingdom of Italy does now. The lands within the Alps may be fairly said to have been conquered by Eome in self-defence, and we are tempted to look on the three great islands as natural parts of an Italian dominion. The conquests of the Eomans in lands altogether beyond their own borders began in Western Europe with the conquest of Spain, Spain. which began before that of Transalpine Gaul. Spain connexion "^ , , .of Spain and Gaul, using the names in the geographical sense, andOaui. have much which binds them together. On the borders of the two countries traces are still left of the old >/ non-Aryan inhabitants who still speak the Basque Ian- ibemns in . . ? Spain. guage. These represent the old Iberian inhabitants of o6 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. ni. Celts. Greek and Phcenician settle- ments. First Ro- man pro- vince in Spain. B.C. 218- 206. B.C. 49. B.C. 133. Final con- quest. B.C. 19. Spain and Gaul, who, when our history begins, stretched into Gaul as far as the Garonne. But the Celts, the first wave of the Aryan migration in Europe, had pressed into both Gaul and Spain ; in Gaul they had, when trustworthy history begins, already occupied by far the greater part of the country. The Mediterranean coasts of Gaul and Spain were also connected together by the sprinkhng of Greek colonies along those shores, of which Massalia was the head. And, beside the primitive non-Aryan element, there was an intrusive non- Aryan element also. In southern Spain several Phoenician settlements had been made, the chief of which was Gades or Cadiz, beyond the straits, the one great Phcenician city on the Ocean. And, between the first and second Punic wars, Carthage obtained a large Spanish dominion, of which New Carthage or Cartha- gena was the capital. It was the presence of these last settlements which first brought Spain under the Eoman dominion. >S'a- guntum was an ally of Eome, and its taking by Han- nibal was the beoinnino- of the second Punic war. The campaigns oi' the Scipios during that war led to the gradual conquest of the whole country. The Car- thaginian possessions first became a Eoman province, while Gades became a favoured ally of Eome, and at last was admitted to the full Eoman franchise. Mean- while the gradual conquest of the rest of Spain went on, till, after the taking of Numantia, the whole peninsula, except the remote tribes in the north-west, had become a Eoman possession. These tribes, the Caritabrians and their neighbours, were not fully sub- dued till the time of Augustus. But, long before that time, the Latin language and Eoman manners SPAIN AND TRANSALPINE GAUL. 57 spread fast through the country, and in Augustus' chap. time southern Spain was altoo-ether romanized. It was ^ — <-. — ' only in a small district close to the Pyrenees that the sp^inf *^ ancient lanouaae held out, as it has done ever since. The conquest of Spain, owing to the connexion of Trans- the country with Carthaoe thus beaan while a laro-e <^^"^- part even of Cisalpine Gaul was still unsubdued. And the Eoman arms were not carried into Gaul beyond the Alps till the conquest of Spain was pretty well assured. The foundation of the first Roman colony at Aquce ^j Sextice, the modern Aix^ was only eleven years later than the fall of Numantia. The Eomans stepped in as b.c. 122. allies of the Greek city of Massalia, and, as usual, from helping their allies they took to conquering on their own account. A Eoman province, includino- the colo- TheTrans- '- alpine nies of Narbonne and Toulouse, was thus formed in the Province. ' B.C. 125- south-eastern part of Transalpine Gaul. The advance ^°^' of Eome in this direction seems to have been checked by the invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones, but through that long delay Eoman influences were able to establish themselves more firmly. This part of Gaul was early and thoroughly romanized, and part of it still keeps, in its name of Provence^ the memory of its having been ^ the first Eoman province beyond the Alps. The rest of Gaul was left untouched till the great campaigns of Cassar. It is from Csesar, ethnologer as well as conqueror, conquests . *" .of Ceesar. that we get our chief knowledge of the country as it b-c 58-51. was in his day. Transalpine Gaul, as a geographical Bounda- ~' rics of division, has well-marked boundaries in the Mediterra- Trans- alpine nean, the Alps, the Ehine, the Ocean, and the Pyrenees. Gaui. But this geographical division has never answered to any divisions of blood and language. Gaul in Caesar's 58 F0K3IATI0N OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. III. Its three divisions, ami their inhabi- tants, Iberian, Celtic, and German. J Romaniza- tion of Gaul. Perma- nence of the ancient geography. ^1 Roman Africa. day, that is Gaul beyond the Eoniaii province, formed three divisions — Aquitaine to the south-west, Celtic Gaul ill the middle, and Behjiv Gaul to the north-east. Aquitaine, stretching to the Garonne — the name was under Augustus extended to the Loire — was Iberian, akin to the people on the other side of the Pyrenees': a trace of its old speech remains in the small Basquf, district north of the Pyrenees. Celtic Gaul, from the Loire to the Seine and Marne, was the most truly Celtic land, and it was in this part of Gaul that the modern French nation took its rise. In the third division, Belgic Gaul, the tribes to the east, nearer to the Ehine, were some of them purely German, and others had been to a great extent brought under German influences or mixed with German elements. There was, in fact, no unity in Gaul beyond that which the Eomans brought with them. In seven years C^sar subdued the whole land, and the work of assimilation began. The Eoman language gradually displaced all the native languages, except where Basque and Breton survive in two corners ; but in a large part of Belgic Gaul the events of later times Ijrought the German tongue back again. There is no Eoman province in which, among all changes, the ancient geography has had so much effect upon that of all later times. In southern Gaul most of the cities still keep their old names with very little change. But in northern Gaul the cities have mostly taken the names of the tribes of which they were the heads. Thus Tolosa is still Toulouse ; but Lutetia Parisiorum has become Paris. The lands which we have thus gone through, Cis- alpine Gaul with Liguria and Venetia, Spain, and Transalpine Gaul, form a marked division in historical ^ AFRICA. 59 o-eography. They are those parts of Western Europe chap. which Eome conquered during the time of her Com- < — " monwealth, and they are those parts which have mainly kept their Eoman speech to this day. But these did not make up the whole of the lands where Eome planted her Latin speech, at least for a while. The conquest of Britain belongs to the days of the Empire ; but Eome, during the Commonwealth, made another conquest, which, though not in Europe, may be counted as belonging to the Western or Latin- speaking half of her dominion. This is that part of Africa which Eome won as the result of her wars with Carthage. The only African possession won by Eome durincf the days of the Commonwealth was Africa Piovinco . " . . . . of Africa, in the strictest sense, the immediate dominion of bc- i^e ; Carthage. This became a province when the Punic wars were ended by the destruction of Carthage. The - neighbouring state of Numidia, after passing, like Carthage itself, through the intermediate state of a dependency, was made a province by Csesar, being- called New Africa, the former African province be- of New Africa, comino- the Old. Ciissar also restored the city of Car- b.c. 49. ^ _ *^ ^ Restora- thasre as a Eoman colony, and it became the chief tionand "--' '' greatness of the Latin-speaking cities of the Empire, second '^^^^^^ only to Eome herself. But in Africa, just as in Britain, the land never was thoroughly romanized like Gaul and Spain. The Eoman tongue and laws there- fore died out in both lands at the first touch of an invader, the Enolish in one case and the Saracens in the other. The strip of fertile land between the sea on one side and the mountains and the Great Desert on the other received, first Phoenician and then Eoman civilization. But neither of them could really take root Jar- ie. 60 FORMATION OF THE IIOMAN EMPIRE. CHAP, there in the way that the Roman civilization took root — — in Gaul and Spain. § 4. The Eastern Provinces. Contrast The Hadriatic sea may be roughly taken as the between ^ o ^ tiieEast- boundar^' between the Eastern and Western parts of era and i^ 3i!!;,t!^!!. tlie Roman dominion. In the West, the Romans car- ried with them, not only their arms, but their tongue, their laws, and their manners. They were not only conquerors but civilizers. The native Iberians and Celts adopted Roman fashions, and the isolated Greek and PhcBuician cities, like Massalia and Gades, gra- dually became Roman also. East of the Hadriatic the state of things was quite different. Here the lan- guage and civilization of Greece had, through the conquests of the Macedonian kings, become everywhere Greek civi- predominant. Greek was everywhere the polite and lization in . the East, literary language, and a certain varnish of Greek manners had been everywhere spread. In some parts indeed it was the merest varnish ; still it was every- where strong enough to withstand the influence of Latin. Sicily and southern Italy are the only lands which have altogether thrown away the Greek tongue, and have taken to Latin or any of the languages formed out of Latin. East of the Hadriatic Latin nowhere displaced Greek, unless in a few isolated colonies. But in those parts of the Eastern peninsula into which Greek cul- ture had not spread itself, that is, in a large part of the Illyrian and Thracian lands, Latin undoubtedly dis- placed the native languages, just as it did in the West. The Rouman people, keeping their Latin name and speech to this day, are the witness of that fact. Still no part of the eastern half of the Roman dominion ever became THE EASTERN PROVINCES. 61 thorouiylily Eoman in the same wav as Gaul and chap. * ' III. Spain. — . — ' With these exceptions, the whole of the lands east of the Hadriatic may, as opposed to the Latin-speaking lands of the west, be called, in different degrees, Greek- speaking lands. There are some wide distinctions to be Distiuc- drawn among them. First, there was old Greece itself among the and the Greek colonies, and lands like Epeiros, which provinces. had become thoroughly Greek. Secondly, there were the kingdoms, like Macedonia in Europe and Pergamos in Asia, which had adopted the Greek speech and manners, but which did not, like Epeiros, become Greek in any politi- cal sense. Thirdly, there were a number of native states, Bitliynia and others, whose kings also tried to imitate Greek ways, but naturally could not do so as thoroughly as the kings of Macedonia and Pergamos. Fourthly, beyond Mount Tauros lay the kingdoms of Syria and Lauds Egypt, which were ruled by Macedonian kings, which tIutos. contained great Greek or Macedonian cities like Antioch and Alexandria, but where there were native languages, and an old native civilization, which neither Greek nor Eoman influences could ever root out. We shall see as we go on that Tauros makes a great historical boun- dary. The lands on this side of it really came, though very gradually, under the dominion of the Greek speech and the Eoman law, and remained under them till the Turkish invasions. Beyond Mount Tauros both the Greek and the Eoman element lay merely on the surface, and therefore those lands easily fell away when they were attacked by the Saracens. We must now go through such of the lands east of the Hadriatic as were formed into Eoman provinces during the time of the Eoman Commonwealth. 02 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. But aoain, between the Latin and the Greek parts III. . . ,^"' — of the Roman dominion tliere was n border hind, Provhices. iiJ^int^lV' ^^^^ huuls hekl l)y the L>reat lllyrian race. The southern parts of Illyria came within the reach of Greek influences, and it was through tlie a flail's of Illyria that Rome was first led to meddle in the affairs of Greece. The use of the name Illyria is at all times very vague ; but it has a more definite meaning The king- as the name of a kino'dom whose caijital was Skodra, dom of _ '^ ^ ' skodia. and which, in the second half of the third century, was a dano-erous neighbour to the Greek cities and islands B.C. ics. on that coast. This kingdom was involved in the third Macedonian war, and it came to an end at the same time. As usual, it is not easy to distinguish how nuich, it any, of the country actually l^ecame a Roman pro- vince, and how much was left for a while in the inter- mediate state of dependent alliance. But, for all prac- tical purposes, the Illyrian kingdom of Skodra formed from this time a part of the Roman dominion. With the fall of Skodra, the parts of Illyria which lay further to the north, l^eyond the Ijounds of the Greek world, first came into notice. The Greek colonies in Dal- Daimatian uiatla had played their part in the first Illyrian war ; but the land itself, whose cities were to become an outlying frino-e of Italv Ivino- east of the Hadriatic, is now first heard of as a distinct country formed by a separation B.C. 150. from the kingdom of Skodra. The first Dahnatian war soon followed ; but it was not till after several wars B.C. 34. that Dalmatia became a province, and even after that Roman tluie thcrc wcrc several revolts. Before long, Dalmatia Dalmatia. was scttlcd witli sevcral Roman colonies, as Jadeni or Zara, and, above all, Salo?ia, which became one of the chief cities of the Roman dominion. The neigh- bouring lands of Libumia, Istria, and the land of the ILLYRIAN AND GREEK LANDS. 63 lapodes, were gradually redu(,'ed during- the same chap. period. Istria, like the neighbouring land of Venetia, j;^~;~~' was actually incorporated with Italy, and Pola, under ^^f^j^^fy the name of Pietas Julia, became a Roman colony. We have already traced the process bv which old The •^ ± •/ outlying Greece and the neiwhbourino- lands of Macedonia and p^'^/^^ ~ '-^ lands. Epeiros gradually sank, first practically, and then for- mally, into parts of the Eoman dominion. We have seen how hard it is to say at what particular moment many of the Greek cities and islands sank from the relation of obedient allies into that of acknowledged subjects, while we may doubt if some of them were formally annexed at all. Thus the Greek cities on the Euxine do not Their late formal an- seem to have been formally annexed till a late jjeriod nexation. of the Eastern Empire. Other outlying Greek lands and cities became so mixed up with the history of the Asiatic kinodoms that thev will come in for a mention alono- with them. Crete kept its independence to conquest ° . -^ ^ . of Crete, become a nest of pirates, and to be specially con- b.c. e?, quered. It then formed one province with the then recent conquest of Kyrene, the one great Greek settle- ment in Africa, which had become an appanage of the Macedonian kings of Egypt. The same had been the fate of Cyprus, an island which had always l^een partly Greek, and which had been further hellenized under its Macedonian kinas- Cyprus too became a of Cyprus, ' ^ B.C. 58. provhice. Thus, before Rome lost her own freedom, she had become the formal or practical mistress of all the earlier abodes of freedom. Men could not yet foresee that a time would come when Greek and Romaji should be words havinu" the same meanini]^, and when the place and name of Rome herself shcnild be transferred to one of the Greek cities which Vespa- sian reduced from formal alliance to bondage. 04 FOR-MATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. III. The Asiatic Provinces. B.C. 191- 188. Province of Asia, B.C. 133- 129. Bithynia. B.C. 74. Overthrow of Mithri- dates. B.C. 64. Lykia. Ill Hoiiiau history one war and one conquest always led to another, and, as the affiiirs of Illyria had led to Eoiiian interference in Greece, so the affairs of Greece led to Koman interference in Asia. The first war which Eome waged with Antiochos of Syria led to no immediate increase of the Eoman territory, but all the Seleukid possessions on this side Tauros were di- vided among the allies of Eome. This, as usual, was the first step towards the conquest of Asia, and it was quite according to the usual course of things that the first Eoman province beyond the^ga3an,the province of ^4sm, should be formed of the dominions of Eome's first and most useful allies, the kings of Pergamos. The mission of Alexander and his successors, as the representatives of Western civilization against the East, now passed into the hands of Eome. Step by step, the other lands west of Tauros came under the formal or practical do- minion of Eome. Bithynia was the first to be annexed, and this acquisition was one of the causes which led to the second war between Eome and the famous Mithri- dates of Pontes. His final overthrow brought a number of other lands under Eoman dominion or influence. The Greek cities of Sinope and Herakleia obtained a nominal freedom, and vassal kings went on reigning in part of Pontos itself, and in the distant Greek kingdom of Bosjjoros. Eome was now mistress of Asia Minor. The land was divided among her provinces and her vassal kings, save that the wise federal commonwealth of Lykia still kept the highest amount of freedom that was consistent with the practical supremacy of Eome. The Mithridatic war, which made Eome mistress of Asia in the narrower sense, at once involved her in THE ASIATIC PROVINCES. 65 the affairs of the further East. Tio-ranes of Armenia chap. . III. had been the chief ally of Mithridates ; but, though " — • — ' his power was utterly broken, no Armenian pro- vince was added to the Eoman dominion for a long time to come. But the remnant of the Seleukid monarchy became the Eoman province of Syria. As Province of Syria. usual, several cities and principalities were allowed bc.'oi. to remain in various relations of alliance and depen- dence on the ruling commonwealth. Among these we find Judcea and the rest of Palestine, sometimes Palestine. under a Eoman procurator, sometimes united under a single vassal king, sometimes parted out among vari- ous kings and tetrarchs, as suited the momentary caprice or policy of Eome. In all these various rela- tions between the native states and the ruling city we have a lively foreshadowing of the relations between compari- son with Enizland and her subject and dependent lands in India. British The conquests of Eome in these regions made her more distinctly than ever the representative of the West against the East, and these conquests presently Rome the •^ i J. ^ champion brought her into collision with the one power in the oftheWest. known world which could meet her on at all equal terms. She had stepped into the place of Alexander and Seleukos so far as that all those parts of Alex- ander's Asiatic conquests which had received even a varnish of Hellenic culture had become parts of her dominion. The further East beyond the Euphrates was again under the command of a great barbarian power, that of Parthia, which had stepped into the HerrivaUy place of Persia, as Eome had stepped into the place of tiii^. Greece and Macedonia, Eome had now again a rival, in a sense in which she had not had a rival since the overthrow of Carthage and Macedonia. VOL. I. F 06 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP. III. ^■^ , Conquest of Egypt. K.c. !!1. Pax Bomana. One only of the Macedonian kingdoms now re- mained to be gathered in. The annexation of Egypt, an annexation made famous by the names of Kleopatra, Antonius, the elder and the younger Caesar, completed the work. Eome was now fully mistress of her own civilized world. Her dominion took in all the lands round the great inland sea. If, here and there, her formal dominion was broken by a city or principality whose nominal relation was that of alliance, the dis- tinction concerned only the local affairs of that city or principality. Within the whole historic world of the three ancient continents, the Eoman Peace had begun. Eome had still to wage wars, and even to annex pro- vinces ; but those wars and annexations were now done rather to round off and to strengthen the territory which had been already gained, than in the strictest sense to extend it. § 5. Conquests under the Empire. At the same moment when the Eoman common- wealth was practically changed into a monarchy, the Eoman dominion was thus brought, not indeed to its greatest extent, but to an extent of which its fur- ther extension was only a natural completion. There Conquests sccms a ccrtaiu inconsistency when we find Augus- nnder Au- , i • i i gustusand tus laviusf dowu a rule aojamst the enlargement of Tiberius. ^ ^ ^. , . , . . the Empire, while the Empire was, durmg his reign and that of his successor, extended in every direc- tion. But the conquests of this time were mainly conquests for the purpose of strengthening the fron- tier ; the occasional changes of this and that city or district from the dependent to the provincial relation,, or sometimes from the provincial to the CONQUESTS UNDER THE EARLY EMPIRE. 67 dependent, are now hardly worth mentioning. Be- chap. tween Augustus and Nero, or, at all events, between ' — ' Auo-ustus and Vespasian, all the dependent lands in lucoipora- Asia and Africa, such as Mauritania, Kappadokia, dependent ' -t- s ' kingdoms. Lykia, and others, were finally incorporated with the Empire to which they had long been practically sub- ject. These annexations can hardly be called con- quests. And when the small corner of Spain which still kept its independence was brought under the Roman power, it was merely finishing a work which had been begun two hundred years before. The real conquests of this time consisted in the streno-thenin^ of the Euro- strength- . ening pean frontier. No frontier nearer than the Rhine and of t^? *■ t'rontiei". the Danube could be looked on as safe. This lesson was easily learned ; but it had also to be accompanied by another lesson which taught that the Rhine and the Danube, and not any more distant points, were to be the real frontiers of Rome. This brinsfs us both to the lands which were then our own and to the lands which became our own in after times. During the reign of Augustus two conquests which most nearly concern our own history were planned, and one of them was attempted. The an- nexation of the land which was to become England was talked of ; the annexation of the land which then was England, alonsr with the rest of the German lands, was seriously attempted. But the conquest of Britain was put off from the days of Augustus to the days of Claudius. The attemi)t at the conquest Attempted conquest of Germany, which was deemed to have been already of cer- *' ' _ _ '' many. carried out, was shivered when Arminius overthrew »-c- ]}- ' A.D. 9. the legions of Varus. The expeditions of Drusus and Germanicus into northern Germany must have brought a.d. 19. F 2 G8 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAP, the Eoiuan armies into contact with our own fore- TII. ^- — ' — lathers, for the first time, and, for several ages, for the last time. But from this time the relations between Eome and southern Germany begin, and constantly increase in importance. The two great rivers were fixed as a real frontier. The lands between the Alps and the Danube, Rcetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pmino7iia, with Moesia on c.niquests tlic lowcr Dauubc, were all added to the Empire during Dunube. tlic rcigu of Augustus. Thesc were strictly defensive annexations, annexations made in order to remove the dangerous frontier further from Italy. Beyond the Eliine and the Danube the Eoman possessions were mere out- posts held for the defence of the land between the two o-reat streams. Meanwhile, while the attempt of the conquest of Germany came to so little, an attempt at conquest Attempt at the other end of the world, in the Arabian penin- on Arabia. B.C. 24. sula, came to even less. It marks the policy of Eome and the gradual nature of her advance that, while these more distant conquests were made or attempted, Thrace. Thvace Still retained her dependent princes, the only land of any extent within the European dominions of Eome which did so. But Thrace, surrounded by Eoman provinces, was in no way dangerous ; it might remain a dependency while more distant lands were incorporated. It was not till uniformity was more sought after, till, under Vespasian, the nominal freedom of so many cities and principalities came to an end, that Thrace became a province. Such parts both of Thrace and of the neighbouring lands as had not adopted Greek culture, learned the Latin tongue, and gradually came to take the Eoman name which some of their inhabitants still bear. And it was then too that, amono- BRITAIN. 69 her latest formal acquisitions in Europe, Eome annexed chap. the city which was, in the course of ages, to take her O ' Annexa- tion of Byzantion. i;.c. 84. own place and name in a truer sense. Thus, in the days between Augustus and Trajan, the conquests which Eome actually made were mainly of a defensive and strengthening character. To this rule there is one, and only one, exception of any impor- ^ tance. This is the annexation to the Roman world of Conquest of Britain. the land which was looked on as another world, the - conquest of the greater part of the Isle of Britain. But the annexation of Britain, though it did not come under the same law as the defensive annexations of Eeetia and Pannonia, was naturally suggested by the annexa- tion of Gaul and by the visits of the first Csesar to the island. No actual conquest however took place till the reiiin of Claudius. Forty years later, the Eoman con- ciaudius. "^ . . . . B.C. 43. quests in Britain were pushed by Agricola as far as the Agricoia./ isthmus between the friths of Forth and Clyde, the boun- dary marked by the later rampart of Antoninus. But the lasting boundary of the Eoman dominion in Britain cannot be looked on as reaching beyond the line of the southern wall of Hadrian, Sevenis, and Stilicho, between the Solway and the mouth of the Tyne. The northern part of Britain remained unconquered, and the con- quest of Ireland was not even attempted. For us the conquest of the land which afterwards became our own has an interest above all the other conquests of Eome. But it is a purely geographical interest. The British victories of Ca;sar and Agricola were won, not over our own forefathers, but over those Celtic Britons whom our forefathers more thorouglily swept away. The history of our own nation is still for some ages to be looked for by the banks of the Elbe •(1 FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. cH.vr 111. Tin- Eiistern conquests of Tnijan. Conquests of Trajan. A.D. 98- 117. His Asia- tic and European conquests. Conquest of Arabia Petr»a. A.D. 106. Dacia. A.V. 106. aiul the Weser, not by those of tlie Severn and the Thames. Britain was the last to be won of the Western pro- vinces of Eonie, and tlie first to be lost. Still it was, for more than three hundred years, thoroughly incor- porated with the Empire, and its loss did not happen till that general break-up of the Empire of which its loss was the first stage. But between the conquest of Britain and its loss there was a short time in winch Eome ao-ain extended her dominion in the old fashion, both in Europe and Asia. This was during the reign of Trajan, when the Eoman borders were again widely ex- tended in both Europe and Asia. Under him the Danube ceased to be a boundary stream in one continent and the Euphrates in the other. But a marked distinction must be drawn between his Asiatic and his Eui'opean warfare. Trajan's Asiatic conquests were strictly mo- mentary ; they were at once given up by his successor ; and they will be better dealt with when we speak in another chapter of the long strife between Eome and her Eastern rival, first Parthian and then Persian. The only lasting Asiatic conquest of Trajan's reign was not made by Trajan hmiself, namely the small Eoman province in Northern Arabia. The European conquests of Trajan stand on another ground. If not strictlv defensive, like those of Auo-us- tus, they might easily seem to be so. The Dacians, to the north of the lower Danube, were really threaten- ing to the Eoman power in those regions, and they had dealt Eome more than one severe blow in the days of Domitian. Trajan now formed the lands which are now known as Transylvania and Little Walachia into the Eoman province of Dacia. Thus this province did CONQUESTS OF TRAJAN. 71 not include the present kingdom of Eoumania ; it only ^^j^^- took in that part of it which lies west of the river ' "-"' Aluta.^ The last province to be won was the first to be given up ; for Aurelian withdrew from it, and ^.d. 270. transferred its name to the Moesian land immediately south of the Danube. For four hundred years more that great river remained the northern boundary of the Empire in this region, marking, it may be, that the wisdom of the Illyrian who withdrew within the elder frontier was greater than that of the Spaniard who advanced beyond it. The Roman Empire was thus gradually formed summary. by bringing, first Italy and then the whole of the Medi- terranean lands, under the dominion of the one Roman city. In every part of that dominion the process of conquest was gradual. The lands which became Eoman provinces passed through various stages of alliance and dependence before they were fully incorporated. But, in the end, all the civilized world of those times \ became Roman. Speaking roughly, three great rivers, Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates, formed the European and Asiatic boundaries of the Empire. In Africa the Roman dominion consisted only of the strip of fertile land between the Mediterranean and the moun- tains and deserts. Britain and Dacia, the only two great provinces lying beyond this range, were the last conquered and the first given up. In Western ^ [Great Walachia, east of the Aluta, Avas coinmitterl to the super- vision of the military commanders in Lower Mcesia. The western boundary of the Dacian province did not coincide with the Theiss, but with an in-egular Kne drawn from Orsova to Kis Sebes. The plain of the Tenies was joined to Upper Mcesia. See Domaszewski's article in Arch.-E]ngr. Mittheihcngen, xiii.] 72 FORMATION OF THE llOMAN EMPIRE. ciiAr. EuroDe and in Africa Konie carried her lanpuaoje and 111. ^ . o o — ' — ' her civihzation with her, and in those lands the Eoman speech still remains, except where it has been swept away by Teutonic and Saracen conquests. In all those lands, from the Hadriatic to Mount Tauros, which had been brouoht more or less under Greek influences, the Greek speech and civilization stood their ground, and in those lands Greek still survives wherever it has not l)een swept away by Slavonic and Turkish conquests. In the further east, in Syria and Egypt, where there was an old native civilization, neither Greek nor Eoman influences took real root. The differences between these three parts of the Eoman Empire, the really Eoman, the Greek, and the Oriental, wiU be clearly seen as we e"o on. 73 CHAPTER IV. THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. § 1. The Later Geograj^hy of the Empire. The Roman dominion, as we have seen, grew up by the chap. successive annexation of endless kingdoms, districts, and ~ — ' — ' cities, each of which, after its annexation, still retained, whether as an allied province or a subject state, much of the separate being which it had while it was indepen- dent. The allies and subjects of Rome remained in a va- riety of different relations to the ruling city, and the old names and the old geographical boundaries were largely preserved. But, as the old ideas of the commonwealth wiping out of old gradually died out, and as the power of the Emperors divisions O J ' ^ ^ under the gradually grew into an avowed monarchy, the political Empire. change naturally led to a geographical change. The Roman dominion ceased to be a collection of allied and subject states under a single ruling city ; it changed into a single Empire, all whose parts, all whose inhabit- ants, were equally subject to its Imperial head. The old distinctions of Latins, Italians, and provincials, died out when all free inhabitants of the Empire became ahke Romans. Italy had no longer any privilege; it was simply part of the Empire, like any other part. The geographical divisions which had been, first inde- pendent, then dependent states, sank into purely ad- ministrative divisions, which might be mapped out afresh at any time when it was found convenient to 74 THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, do SO. Italy itself, in the extended sense which the IV. "^ — — ' word Italy had then come to bear, was mapped out afresh into regions as early as the time of Augustus. These divisions, eleven in number, mark an epoch in Newdivi. the process by which the detached elements out of Italy umU'i- wliicli tlic Eouiau Empire had grown were fused to- Augustus. 4 1X1 gether into one whole. As long as Italy was a collec- tion of separate commonwealths, standing in various relations to the ruling city, there could not be any systematic division of the country for administrative purposes. Xow that the whole of Italy stood on one level of citizenshif) or of subjection, the land might be mapped out in whatever way was most conve- The eleven iiient. But the elcveii regions of Augustus did not Regions. , work any violent change. Old names and old boun- daries largely remained. The famous names of Etruria, Latiimi, Samnium, Umbria, Picenum, Lucania, Apulia and Calabria — these two last forming a single region — still lived on, though not always with their ancient boundaries. And, though all the land as far as the Alps was now Italy, two of the divisions of Italy kept their ancient names of Gaul on this side the Po and Gaul beyond the Po. Liguria and Venetia, now Italian lands, make up the remainder of Northern Italy. Italy had thus been mapped out afresh; what was done with Italy in the time of Augustus was done Divisions with the whole Empire in the time of Constantine. under Con- ■•• What Italy was in the earlier time the whole Empire was in the later ; the old distinctions had been wiped out, and the whole of the Roman world stood ready to be parted out into fresh divisions. Under Diocletian, the Empire was divided into four parts, forming the realms of the four Imperial colleagues of his system, the two stantine. A'EW DIVISIONS OF ITALY. 75 Au^usti and their subordinate Csesars. Diocletian's chap. "& IV. system of government involved a practical degrada- j^i^^igi^.j tion of Eome from the headship of the Empire. EmpTre Augusti and Co3sars now dwelled at points where cieSin.^'"" their presence was more needed to ward off Persian and German attacks from the frontiers ; Eome was for- saken for Mkomedeia and Milan, for Antioch, York, and Trier. The division between the four Imperial colleagues lasted under another form after the Empire was reunited under Constantine, and it formed the Reuuion under Con- OTOundwork of the more lasting division of the Empire stantine. into East and West between the sons of Theodosius. pijisiou between The whole Empire was now mapped out according to a *^Th°e'cf scheme in which ancient geographical names were largely ^"p'ggj preserved, but in which they were for the most part used in new or, at least, extended meanings. The Empire was divided into four great divisions called Prsetorian Pre- The four . , . , Praetorian fectures. These were divided into Dioceses — a name Piefec- ^ ^ ^ ^ tures. whose use in this nomenclature must be kept quite apart from the ecclesiastical sense which was borrowed from it — and the dioceses aijain into Provinces. The four great prefectures of the East, Blyricum, Italy, and Gaul, answer nearly to the fourfold division under Dio- cletian ; and we may say that, in the final division, Illyricum and the East formed the Eastern Empire, and Italy and Gaul formed the Western, But it is only roughly that either the prefectures or their smaller divisions answer to any of the great national or geo- graphical landmarks of earlier times. The Prefecture of the East is that one among- the four Prefecture . . . , oftheEast.. which least answers to anything in earlier geography, natural or historical. Its boundaries do not answer to those of any earlier dominion, nor yet to any great 76 THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, division of race or laiio-uaoe. It stretched into all the IV "^ — — three continents of the old world, and took in all those parts of the Empire which were never fully brought under either Greek or Roman influences. But it also took in large tracts which we have learned to look on as part of the Hellenic world — not only lands which had been, to a great extent, hellenized in later times, but even some of the earliest Greek colonies. The four dioceses into which the Prefecture was divided formed far more natural divisions than the Prefecture itself. Dioceses of Thrcc of tlicsc wcrc Asiatic. The first, specially called the East, , -rt \ the East, took in all the possessions of Eome beyond Mount Tauros, together with Isauria, Kilikia, and the island of Cyprus. Its eastern boundaries naturally fluctuated according as Rome or Persia prevailed on the Euphrates and the Tigris, fluctuations of which we shall have again to speak more specially. The diocese Egypt, of Egypt, besides Egypt in the elder sense, took in, under the name of Libya, the old Greek land of the Asia. Kyrenaic Pentapolis. The diocese of Asia, a reminder of the elder province of that name and of the kingdom of Pergamos out of which it grew, took in the Asiatic coasts of the iEgaean, together with Pamphylia, Lykia, and the ^gsean Islands. The diocese of Pontos, pre- serving the name of the kingdom of Mithridates, took in the lands of the Euxine, with the fluctuating Arme- nian possessions of Rome. Besides these Asiatic lands, the Eastern Prefec- Dioceseof turc Contained one European diocese, that of Thrace, Thrace. which took in the lands stretching from the Propontis to the Lower Danube. The names of two of its provinces are remarkable. Rome now boasts of a province of Scythia. But, among the varied uses of that name, PREFECTURE OF THE EAST. it has now shrunk up to mean the land immediately chap. south of the mouths of the Danube. The other name — — r— is Eiiropa, a name which, as a Eoman province, means Provi nice the district immediately round the Xew Eome. Con- '"°^''" stantine had now fixed his capital on the site of the old Byzantion, the site from which the city on the Bos- poros might seem to bear rule over two worlds. With whatever motive, the name of Europe was specially cfiven to that corner of the Western continent where it comes nearest to the Eastern. Nor was the name ill- chosen for the district surrounding the city which was so long to be the bulwark of Europe against invading Asia. And, besides the New Eome, this Prefecture, as con- ^^33,^ taining those parts of the Empire which had belonged of tiie to the great Macedonian kingdoms, contained an unusual Prefecture, proportion of the great cities of the world. Besides a crowd of less famous places, it took in the two great Eastern seats of Grecian culture, the most renowned Alexandria and the most renowned Antioch, them- selves only the chief among many other cities bearing the same names. All these, it should be remarked, were comparatively recent creations, bearing the names of individual men. That cities thus artificially called into being should have kept the position which still belonged to the great Macedonian capitals is one of the most speak- ing signs of the effect which the dominion of Alexander and his successors had on the history of the world. The nomenclature of the second Prefecture marks prefecture how utterly Greece, as a country and nation, had died " ^"" out of all reckoning. The Prefecture of the Eastern Illyricum answered roughly to European Greece and its immediate neighbours. It took in the lands stretching from the Danube to the southern point of Peloponnesos. cum. 78 THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. Greece, as part of the Eomaii Empire, was included IV — ,-^ — - under the name of the barbarian land through which Home was first brought into contact with Greek affairs. She was further included under the name of the half- barl)arian neighbour who had become Greek through the process of conquering Greece. In the system of Prefectures, Greece formed part of Macedonia, and Macedonia formed part of Illyricum. So low had Greece, as a land, fallen at the very moment when her tongue was making the greatest of all its conquests, when a Greek city was raised to the rank of another Eome. The Illyrian Prefecture contained the two dio- Dioceses of ccscs of Macedoiiia and Dacia. This last name, it will be and Dacia. remembered, had, since the days of Aurelian, withdrawn to the south of the Danube. The Macedonian diocese contained six provinces, among which, besides the fami- liar and venerable names of Macedonia and Epeiros, we find the names, still more venerable and familiar, of Thessaly and Crete. And one yet greater name lives on with them. Hellas and Grcecia have alike vanished from the map ; but the most abiding name in Grecian history, the theme of Homer and the theme of Polybios, has not Provinceof perislicd. Among all changes, Achaia is there still. Prefecture lu thc iicw systciu Italy and Eome herself were in no way privileged over the rest of the Empire. The Italian Prefecture took in Italy itself and the lands which might be looked on as necessary for the defence and maintenance of Italy. It took in the defensive conquests of the early Empire on the Upper Danube, and it took in the granary of Italy, Africa. Its three dio- ceses were Italy ^ Illyricum, and Africa. Here Illyricum strangely gave its name both to a distinct Prefecture and to one diocese of the Prefecture of Italy. The ILLYRICUM, ITALY, AND GAUL. 79 special Italian diocese stretclies as far beyond the bounds chap. of the Italy of Augustus, as the Italy of Augustus ^^^^^^^ stretched beyond the bounds of the Italy of the old ^^'''^^'' Commonwealth. The Gaulish name has now wholly vanished from the lands south of the Alps. The new Italy has spread beyond the A1]3S, and reaches to the Danube. Two Esetian provinces, P?^ma and Secimda, form part of it. Three other provinces are formed by the three great islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, which are now reckoned as Italian. Twelve Provinces are left for Italy in the more usual sense of the name. In the new division the name of Liguria withdrew to the north into the old Gaul beyond the Po, a change which accounts for the often puzzling use of the Ligurian name in after times. The former Liguria' became the province of the Cottian Alps. Venetia remained in its corner. Three provinces, yEmilia and Flaminia south of the Po, Valeria in central Italy, took their names from the great Eoman roads, as the roads themselves took their names from Roman magistrates. The ancient names of Tuscia — the newer form of Etruria — Picenum, Campania, Apulia with Calabria — Calabria still keeping its older meaning — still survive, but often with changed boundaries. Campania specially has spread into Latium, the district to which the name still cleaves in modern usage. The diocese of the Western Illyriciim took in iiiyricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum. The third diocese, that of Africa, took in the old Africa, Numidia, and Africa, western Mauritania. The union of these lands with Italy may seem less strange when we remember that the colony of the first Csesar, the restored Carthage, was laeatnesg the greatest of Latin-speaking cities after Rome herself, ti.a-e. The fourth Prefecture took in the Roman dominions ,,/aau i""^ 30 THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. c MAI', ill Western Europe, the great Latin-speaking provinces >^—^ beyond the Alps. Among the seven provinces of Spai7i si.:.i..; its „j,g reckoned, not only the Balearic islands, a natural African • i i territory, appeudaiie to the Spanish peninsula, but a small part of the African continent, the province of Tingitana, stretching from the now Itahan Africa to the Ocean. This was according to the general law by which, in almost all periods of history, either the masters of Spain have borne rule in Africa or the masters of Africa have f borne rule in Spain. The diocese of Gaul, with its Diocese of ^ ^*'"'' seventeen provinces, keeps, at least in name, the boundaries of the old Transalpine land. It still num- bers the two Germanics west of the Ehine among its provinces. The five provinces of the diocese of of Britain. Britain took in, at the moment when the Empire was beginning to fall asunder, a wider territory than Eome had held in the island in the days of her greatest power. The exploits of the elder Theodosius, who drove back the Pict by land and the Saxon by sea, for a moment Province of added to the Empire a province beyond the wall of Valcntia. c ^7 i A.n. a(i7. Hadrian, which received the name of \ alentia. § 2. Tlie Division of the Empire. Change The mapping out of the Empire into Prefectures, position and its division between two or more Imperial col- or Rome. , , . . . leagues, led naturally to its more lasting division into what were practically two Empires. The old state of things had altogether passed away. Eome was no longer the city ruling over subject states. From the Ocean to the Euphrates all was alike, if not Eome, at least Romania ; all its inhabitants were equally Eo- mans. But to be a Eoman now meant, no longer to be a citizen of a commonwealth, but to be the subject of an THE EASTERN AND WESTERN EMPIRES. 81 Emperor. The unity of the Empire was not broken chap. by the division of its administration between several — — Imperial colleagues ; but Eome ceased to be the only Imperial dwelling-place, and, from the latter years of the third century, it ceased to be an Imperial dwelling- place at all. As long as Eome held her old place, no lasting division, nothing more than an administrative partition among colleagues, could be thought of. There could be no division to mark on the map. But, when the new system had fully taken root at the end of the fourth century, we come to a division which was com- paratively lasting, one which fills an important place in history, and which is capable of being marked on the map. On the death of Theodosius the Greats the ^. . . ■•• ■' Division of Empire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius JJ^tweTn^'^ taking the Eastern provinces, answering nearly to the Sheodo! "^ Prefectures of the East and of Illyricum, while Honorius IT'sgs. took the Western provinces, the Prefectures of Italy and Gaul. Through the greater part of the fifth century, the successors of Arcadius and of Honorius formed two distinct lines of Emperors, of whom the Eastern reigned at Constantinople, the Western most commonly at Ravenna. But as the dominions of each prince were alike Eoman, the Eastern and Western Emperors were still looked on in theory as Imperial colleagues charged with the administration of a common Eoman dominion. Practically however the dominions of the two Em- perors may be looked on as two distinct Empires, the Eastern having its seat at the New Eome or Constan- tinople, while the Western had its seat more commonly at Eavenna than at the Old Eome. This division of the Empire is the great political feature of the fifth centurv ; but the fate of the two VOL. I. G Practically two Em- pires. 82 TILE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. Empires was widely different. From the very begin- — r^ — iiino- of the Empire, Eome had had to struggle with Eiu-mieBof two clilef eiiemies, in the East and in the West, in Europe and in Asia, the nature of whose warfare was widely different. In the East she had, first the Parthian Rivalry aud tlieu the regenerate Persian, as strictly a rival u.'iaana power on equal terms. This rivalry went on from the moment when Eome stepped into the place of the Seleukids till the time when Eome was cut short, and Persia overthrown, by the Saracenic invasions. But, except during the momentary conquests of Trajan and during the equally momentary alternate conquests of Eome and Persia in the seventh century, the whole strife was a mere border warfare which did not threaten the serious dismemberment of either power. This and that fortress was taken and retaken ; this and that province was ceded and ceded back again ; but except under Trajan and again under Chosroes and Heraclius, neither power ever saw its existence and dominion Eivahy seriously threatened. The Eastern Empire naturally with Persia ... . . . passes on inherited this part of the calling of the undivided to the -^ '^ Eastern Empire, the long strife with Persia. iimpire. •*■ ^ ^ At the other end of the Empire, the enemy was of quite another kind. The danger there came through Teutonic the lucursious of the various Teutonic nations. There incursions in the was uo ouc Tcutouic powcr which could be a rival to Western ^ ^ Empire, Eome in the same sense in which Persia was in the East ; but a crowd of independent Teutonic tribes were pressing into the Empire from all quarters, and were striving to make settlements within its borders. The task of resisting these incursions fell to the Western Empire. The Eastern Empire indeed was often tra- versed by wandering Teutonic nations ; Teutonic powers THE TEUTONS IX EAST AND WEST. 83 arose for a while on its frontiers ; but no permanent char Teutonic settlement was ever made within its borders, ~ — • — ' No Teu- no dismemberment of its provinces capable of beino- tonic ."^ settle- marked on the map was made, whether by Teutonic ^ents . , . '" the or by any other invaders, till a much later time. Eastern •^ ^ Empire. But the Western Empire was altogether dismembered and broken in pieces by the settlement of the Teutonic nations within it. The geographical aspects of the two Empires during the fifth century are thus strikingly unlike one another ; but each continues one side of the history of the undivided Empire. It will therefore be well to trace those two characteristic aspects of the two Empires separately. We will first speak of the Teu- tonic incursions, through which in the end the Western Empire was split up and the states of modern Europe were founded. We will then trace the geographical aspect of the long rivalry between Rome and Persia in the East. ^ 3. The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire. Our subject is historical geography, and neither ethnology nor political history, except so far as either national migrations or political changes produce a di- rectly geographical effect. The great movement called the Wandering of the Xations, and its results in the The wan- ' . . . . . dering of settlement of various Teutonic nations within the the Na- tions. bounds of the Eoman Empire, concern us now only so far as they wrought a visible change on the map. The exact relations of the different tribes to one another, the exact course of the migrations which led to the final settlement of each, belong rather to another branch of inquiry. But there are certain marked stages in the relations of the Empire to the nations beyond G 2 84 THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, its borders, certain marked staij^es in the OTOwtli and IV. . ^ . • — • — ' mutual relations of those nations, which must be borne in mind in order to explain their settlements within chungesiu the Empire. It will be at once seen that the geo- thf iiomoii- - p 1 /^ • • ciatmoof oraphv and nomenclature oi the (jrerman nations in tl.eTci.to- \ /. ^ • n 1 • Trv. nic nations, the third ceiiturv IS lor the most part quite dinerent from their geography and nomenclature as we find it in Ca;sar and Tacitus. New names have come to the front, names all of which play a part in history, many of which remain to this day. Meanwhile, with one or two exceptions, the older names sink into the back- ground. It is therefore hardly needful to go through the ethnology and geography of Tacitus, or to deal with any of the controverted points which are suggested thereby. We have to look at the German nations purely in their relations to Eome. AYe have seen that the history of Eome in her western provinces was, from an early stage of the Warfare on Empire, a struoo'le with the Teutonic nations on the the Rhine / ^* anil the Eliiiie aud the Danube. We have seen that all at- Danube. tempts at serious conquest beyond those boundaries Roman camc to iiotliinfif. The Eoman possessions beyond the posses- , ^ sions two great rivers were mere outposts for the better beyond ^ those security of the land within the rivers. The district beyond them, fenced in by a wall and known as the Ar/ri Deatmates, was hardly more than such an out- lying post on a great scale. The struggle along the border was, almost from the be<>innino- a defensive struggle on the part of Eome. We hear of Eoman conquests from the second century to the fifth ; but they are strictly defensive conquests, the mere recovery of lost possessions, or at most the estabhshment of fresh outposts. From the moment of the first appear- nvers NATIONS ON THE ROMAN FRONTIER. 85 ance of Eome on the two rivers, the Teutonic nations chap. were reall}^ threatening to Eome, and the warfare of ' — -' Eome became really defensive. From the very be- oinnino- too a process seems to have been at work Formatiou <^ ~ ^ of confede- amono- the German nations themselves which greatlv "^a-cies f^ among the Strengthened their power as enemies of Eome. New Germane. nations or confederacies, bearing, for the most part, names unknown to earlier times, begin to be far more dano-erous than the smaller and more scattered tribes of the earlier times had been. These movements among the German nations themselves, hastened by pressure of other nations to the east of them, caused the Teutonic attacks on the Empire to become more and more formidal^le, and at last to grow into Teutonic settlements within the Empire. But, in the course of this process, several stages may be noticed. Thus the JIarcoma?mi and the Quadi play a part in this history Marco- niauni and from the very beginning. The Marcomanm appear m Quadi. Caesar, and, from their name of Markmen, we may be sure that they were a confederacy of the same kind as the later confederacies of the Franks and Alemanni. In the first and second centuries the Marcomanni are dangerous neighbours, threatening the Empire and often penetrating beyond its borders, and their name appears in history as late as the fifth century. But they play no part in the Teutonic settlements within the Empire. They do not affect the later map ; they had no share in bringing about the changes out of which modern Europe arose. Their importance ceases just at the time when a second stage begins, when, in the course of the third century, we begin to hear of those nations or confederacies whose movements really did affect later history and geography. ^(i THE DISIMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. cHAi'. In the tliird and fourth centuries the history of — '— modern Europe begins. We now begin to hear names Beginning' -*■ '- ofm.xien. ^yi^eh huve been heard ever since, Franks, Alemans, KurDpoiui history. Sa.vous, all of them great confederacies of German conf.aeni tribcs. Defence against German inroads now becomes eies. 'O^ Defensive tliG chief busluess of the rulers of Eome. The invaders WAlfllVt' of 1 T • 1 1 1 i • 1 Kome. were constantly driven back ; but new invaders were as constantly found to renew their incursions. Men of Teutonic race pressed into the Empire in every con- ceivable character. Besides open enemies, who came with the hope either of plunder or of settlement, crowds Germans of Gemians scrvcd in the Eomaii armies and obtained E.np'iie. lands held by military tenure as the reward of their services. Their chiefs were promoted to every rank • and honour, military and civil, short of the Imperial dignity itself. These were changes of the utmost importance in other points of view ; still they do not directly affect the map of the Empire. Lands and cities were won and lost over and over again ; but such changes were merely momentary ; the acknowledged boundaries of the Eoman dominion were not yet altered ; it is not till the next stage that geography begins to be directly concerned. Beginning Tliis last stao'e bes'ins with the early vears of the of national o <_ ..." kingdoms, fifth ccntury, and thus nearly coincides with the divi- sion of the Empire into East and West. Gothic and other Teutonic kings could now march at pleasure at the head of their armies through every corner of the Empire, sometimes bearing the titles of Eoman officers, sometimes dictating the choice of Eomaii Emperors, sometimes sacking the Old Eome or threatening the New. It was when these armies under their kino-s ■&' settled down and formed national kinodoms within the THE TEUTONIC SETTLEMENTS. 87 limits of the Empire, that the chano-e comes to have an chap. "^ IV. effect on the map. In the course of the fifth century . — - the Western provinces of Eome were rent away from her. In most cases the loss was cloaked by some Im- perial commission, some empty title bestowed on the victorious invader ; but the Empire was none the less practically dismembered. Out of these dismember- ments the modern states of Europe gradually grew. It will now be our business to mve some account of those nations, Teutonic and otherwise, which had an immediate share in this work, passing lightly by all questions, and indeed all nations, which cannot be said to have had such an immediate share in it. The nations which in the fourth and fifth centuries Teutonic Settle- made settlements in the Western provinces of Eome meuts in ^ . the West. fall under two chief heads ; those who made their set- tlements by land, and those who made them by sea. This last class is pretty well co-extensive with the settlement of our own forefathers in Britain, which must be spoken of separately. Among the others, the Settie- 1 • 1 1 • • o nients nations which play an important part m the fourth within the and fifth centuries are the Goths, the Vandals, the Bur- i/imdians, the Suevi, and the Franks. And their settle- ^ ments again fall into two classes, those which passed away within a century or two, and those which have had a lasting effect on European history. Thus it is plain at the first glance that the Franks and the Fmnks, Burgundians have left their names on the modern map. Bmgun- The Suevi have left their name also : but it is now found suevi', only in their older German land ; it has vanished for ages from their western settlement. The name of the Goths has passed away from the kingdoms which they ooths, ^ 88 THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. tHAP. founded, but their presence has afTected the history of ' ' — ' both the Sp2 THE DISiMEMBEExMENT OE THE EMPIEE. CHAiv 'I'he West -Goth rei<>iis in Spain and Aquitaine ; the ^ — l)ur"undian reians in the lands between the Ehone and the Alps. Italy and the lands to the north of the Alps and the Hadriatic have become, in substance though not in name, an East-Gothic kingdom. But the^^countries of the European mainland, though cut ofl" from Eoman political dominion, are far from being cut off from Eoman influences. The Teutonic settlers, it conquerors, are also disciples. Their rulers are every- where Christian ; in northern Gaul they are even Orthodox. Africa, under the Arian Vandal, is far more utterly cut off from the traditions of Eome than the lands ruled either by the Catholic Frank or by the Arian Goth. To the north of the Franks lie the independent tribes of Germany, still untouched by any Eoman influence. They are beginning to find them- selves new homes in Britain, and, as the natural consequence of a purely barbarian and heathen conquest, to sever from the Empire all that they conquered yet more thoroughly than Africa itself was severed. Such is the state of the West. In the East the Eoman power lives on in the New Eome, with a dominion constantly threatened and insulted by various enemies, but with a frontier which to the north has hardly changed shice the time of Aurelian, which to the east has, after many changes, pretty well come back to what it was in the days of Hadrian. No lasting Teutonic settlement has been made within its borders. In its endless wars with Persia, its frontier sometimes advances and sometimes retreats. In our next chapter we shall see how much of life still clung to the majesty of the Roman name, and how large a part of the ancient dominion of Eome could still be won back a^ain. 103 CHAPTEE V. THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE E:MPIRE. § 1. The Reunion of the Empire. The main point to be always borne in mind in the chap. history, and therefore in the historical geography, of — '— ' ,.,.-. Continuity the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, is the continued of Roman ^ _ rule. existence of the Eoman Empire. It was still the Eoman Empire, although the seat of its dominion was no longer at the Old Eome, although for a while the Old Eome was actually separated from the Eoman dominion. Gaul, Spain, Africa, Italy itself, had been lopped away. Britahi had fallen away by another process. But the Eoman rule went on undisturbed in the Eastern part of the Empire, and even in the West the memory of that rule had by no means whollv died out. Teutonic kinpjs Position of , " the Teuto. ruled in all the lands of the West ; but nowhere on nic kings. the continent had they become national sovereigns in the eyes of the people of the land. They were still simply the chiefs of their own people reigning in the midst of a Eoman population. The Eomans meanwhile everywhere looked to the Ceesar of the New Eome as their lawful sovereign, from whose rule they had been unwillingly torn away. Both in Spain and in Italy the Gothic kings had settled in the country as Imperial lieutenants with an Imperial commission. The formal aspect of the event of 47G had been the 104 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. V. ■Recovery of teiTitoiy l)v tlie Empiiv. Extent of the Roman dominion at the ac- cession of Justinian, 527. Conquests of Justi- nian. reunion of tlie Western Empire with the Eastern. It was perfectly natural therefore that the sole Roman Emperor reigning in the New Rome should strive, when- ever he had a chance, to win back territories which he liad never formally surrendered, and that the Roman inhabitants of those territories should welcome him as a deliverer from barbarian masters. The geographical limits within which, at the beginning of the sixth cen- tury, the Roman power was practically confined, the phasnomena of race and language within those limits, mio-ht have suggested another course. But considera- tions of that kind are seldom felt at the time ; they are the reflexions of thoughtful men long after. The Roman dominion, at the accession of Justinian, was shut up within the Greek and Oriental provinces of the Empire ; its enemies were already beginning to speak of its sub- jects as Greeks. Its truest policy would have been to have anticipated several centuries of history, to have taken up the position of a Greek state, defending its borders asrainst the Persian, withstanding or inviting the settlement of the Slave, but leaving the now Teutonic West to develope itself undisturbed. But in such cases the known past is always more powerful than the unknown future, and it seemed the first duty of the Roman Em- peror to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient extent. It was durino- the rei"ii of Justinian that this work was carried out through a large part of the Western Empire. Lost provinces were won back in two conti- nents. The growth of independent Teutonic powers was for ever stopped in Africa, and it received no small check in Europe. The Emperor was enabled, through the weak- ness and internal dissensions of the Vandal and Gothic kingdoms, to win back Africa and Italy to the Empire. CONQUESTS OF JUSTINIAN. ' 105 The work was done by the swords of Belisarius and chap. jSTarses — the Slave and the Persian were now used to ~ — — ' win back the Old Eome to the dominion of the New. The short Vandal war restored Africa in the Eoman vamiai war. sense, and a large part of Mauretania, to the Empire. "'33-535. The lono- Gothic war won l^ack Illyricum, Italy, and the (xothie '-' war. Old Eome. Italy and Africa were still ruled from -'37-554. Eavenna and from Carthasfe ; but they were now ruled, not by Teutonic kings, but by Byzantine exarchs. Meanwhile, while the war with the East-Goths was Conquest . of southern going on in Italy, a large part of southern Spam was Spain. won back from the West-Goths. Two Teutonic king- doms were thus wiped out ; a third was weakened ; and the acquisition of so great a line of sea-coast, together with the great islands, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands, gave the Empire an undisputed supremacy by sea. In one corner only did the Imperial frontier even nominally go l^ack, or any Teutonic power advance at its expense. The seaboard of Provence, Piovence ceded which had long been practically lost to the Empire, was ^°^^^l.^ now formally ceded to the Franks. Yet the coins of the ^'■^^■ Provencal cities, down to a much later time, show that they clave at least to the memory of their old allegiances to Eome and Caesar. In a geographical aspect the map of Europe has Geogra- seldom been so completely changed within a single changes , . , . „ T- • • ' k '"Tier generation as it was during the reign 01 Justinian. At Justinian. his accession his dominion was bounded to the west by the Hadriatic, and he was far from possessing the whole of the Hadriatic coast. Under his reign the power of the Eoman arms and the Eoman law was again extended to the Ocean. The Eoman dominion was indeed no longer spread round the whole shore of the Mediterranean ; 100 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, the Imperial territories were no longer continuous '- — ' as of old : but, if the Empire was not still, as it had once been, the only power in the Mediterranean lands, it had again become beyond all comparison the greatest Effects of power. Moreover, by the recovery of so large an extent conquests, of Latiu-speakiug territory, the tendency of the Empire to chano-e into a Greek or Oriental state was checked for several centuries. We are here concerned only with the geographical, not with the political or moral aspect of the conquests of Justinian. Some of those conquests, like those of Trajan, were hardly more than momentary. But the changes which they made for the time were some of the most remarkable on record, and the effect of those changes remained, both in history and geography, long after their immediate results were again undone. <^ 2. Settlement of the Lombards in Italy. The conquests of Justinian hindered the growth ot a national Teutonic kingdom in Italy, such as grew up in Gaul and Spain, and they practically made the cradle of the Empire, Eome herself, an outlying dependency of her great colony by the Bosporos. But the reunion of all Italy with the Empire lasted only for a moment. The conquest was only just over when a new set of Teutonic conquerors apjjeared in Italy. These were Pannouian the Lomhards, who, in the great wandering, had made kingdom of , _ ^ . the Lorn- their wav into the ancient Pannonia about the tune bards. that the East-Goths passed into Italy. They were thus settled within the ancient boundaries of the Western Empire. But the Eoman power had now quite passed away from those regions ; the Lombard kingdom in Pannonia was practically altogether beyond the Impe- rial borders ; it had not even that Eoman tinge which THE LOMBAEDS IN ITALY. lOT affected the Trankisli and Gothic kingdoms. To the chap. east of the Lombards, in the ancient Dacia, another •— ^ Teutonic kingdom had arisen, that of the Gepidce, a Gepidse. people seemingly closely akin to the Goths. The pro- cess of wanderinii' had brouoiit the Turanian Avars into Avars. those parts, and their presence seriously affected all later history and geography. With the Gepidse in Dacia and the Lombards in Pannonia, there was a chance of two Teutonic states growing up on the borders of East Teutonic powers and West. These might possibly have played the same on the ' *" , Lower part in the East which the Franks and Goths played in Danube. the West, and they might thus have altogether changed the later course of history. But the Lombards allied themselves with the Avars. In partnership with their The Gepidffi barbarian allies, they overthrew the kingdom of the over- •^ ^ ^ thrown by Gepidse, and they themselves passed into Italy. Thus *^''',^°"'- the growth of Teutonic powers in those regions was ^^^''^■ stopped. A new and far more dangerous enemy was ^ard^^ass. brought into the neighbourhood of the Empire, and '^7°^**^^'" the way was opened for the Slavonic races to play in some degree the same part in the East which the Teutons played in the West. But while the East lost this chance of renovation at Teutonic hands, the Lombard settlement in Italy was the beginning of a new Teutonic power in that country. But it was not character . . '^^ *he a power which could possibly grow up into a national r^ombard ^ . , ^ -' ^ ^ kingdom. Teutonic kingdom of all Italy, as the dominion of the East-Goths might well have done. The Lomljard con- incom- r. -r -, . I plete con-^ quest 01 Italy was at no time a complete conquest ; j^art quest of of the land was won by the Lombards ; part was kej^t by the Emperors ; and the Imperial and Lombard pos- sessions intersected one another in a way which hindered the growth of any kind of national unity under either 108 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. I.nmbtii'd dnchies. Inqirrial possessions ill Italy. Ravenna taken by the Lom- bards, •e. 7-')3. power. The new settlers gradually founded tlie great Lombard kingdom in the North of Italy, which has kept the Lombard name to this day, and the smaller Lombard states of Spoleto and Beneventum. But a large part of Italy still remained to the Empire. Eavenna, the dwellino-place of the Exarchs, Rome itself, Naples, and the island city of Venice, were all centres of districts which still acknowledged the Imperial rule. The Em- perors also kept the extreme southern points of both the peninsulas of southern Italy, and, for the present, the three great islands. The Lombard kings were con- stantly threatening Eome and Eavenna. Eome never fell into their hands, but in the middle of the eighth century Eavenna was taken, and with it the district specially known as the Exarchate was annexed to the Lombard dominion. But this greatest extent of the Lombard power caused its overthrow^ : for it led to a chain of events which, as we shall presently see, ended in transferring not only the Lombard kingdom, but the Imperial crown of the West, to the hands of the Franks. Koman province in Spain recovered by the Goths. 534-572, •fil6-C24. § 3. Rise of the Saracens. But, before we give any account of the revolutions which took place among the already existing powers of Western Europe, it will be well to describe the geogra- phical changes which were caused by the appearance of absolutely new actors on both sides of the Empire. One point however may be noticed here, as standing apart from the general course of events, namely, that the Eoman province in Spain was won gradually back by the West-Goths. The inland cities, as Cordova, were hardly kept forty years, and the whole of the Imperial possessions in Spain were lost during the reign of KIVALRY OF EAST AND WEST. 109 Heraclius. Thus the areat dominion which Justinian chap. had won back in the West, important as were its his- — — ' torical resuhs, was itself of very short duration ; a large part of Italy was lost almost as soon as it was won, and the recovered dominion in Spain did not abide longer than ninety years. But meanwhile, in the course of the seventh cen- turv, nations which had hitherto been unknown or unimportant began to play a great part in history and greatly to change the face of the map. These new powers fall under two heads, those who appeared on the northern and those who appeared on the eastern frontier of the Empire. The nations which appeared on the north were, like the early Teutonic invaders of the Empire, ready to act, if partly as conquerors, partly also as disciples ; those who appeared on the east were the champions of an utterly different system in religion and everything else. In short, the old rivalry of the East and West now takes a distinctly aggressive form on the part of the East. As long as the Sassanid dynasty lasted, Eome and Persia still con- wars tinned their old rivalry on nearly equal terms. The RomeaiKr Persia. long wars between the two Empires made little differ- ence in their boundaries. In, the last stage of their warsof . Chosroes warfare, Chosroes took Jerusalem and Antioch, and and He- raclius, encamped at Chalkedon. Heraclius pressed his eastern co3-628. victories beyond the boundaries of the Empire under Trajan. But even these great campaigns made no lasting difference in the map, except so far as, by weakening Eome and Persia alike, they paved the way Extension of the for the greatest change of all. More important for' geography was a change which took place at somewhat ^0°"!^" earlier time when, during the reign of Justinian, the Euxine. 110 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. The AraV)iaii vivssals of Rome ami Pei'sia. Rise of the ■Saracens. Arabia united under Malioniet, «22-632. Conquests of the .Saracens. TJdinan power was extended on the Eastern side of the l^^uxine in Colchis or Lazica. The sonthern borders of each Em})ire were to some extent protected by the dominion of dependent Arabian kings, the Ghassanides beinj? vassals of Eome, and the Lachmites to the east of them being vassals of Persia. But a change came presently which altogether overthrew the Persian kino-dom, which deprived the Roman Empire of its Eastern, Egyptian, and African provinces, and which o-ave both the Empire and the Teutonic kingdoms of the West an enemy of a kind altoo'ether different from any against whom they hitherto had to strive. The cause which wrouo-ht such abiding changes was the rise of the Saracens under Mahomet and his first followers. A new nation, that of the Arabs, now became dominant in a large part of the lands which had been part of the Roman Empire, as well as in lands far beyond its boundaries. The scattered tribes of Arabia were first gathered together into a single power by Mahomet himself, and under his successors they undertook to spread the Mahometan religion wherever their swords could carry it. And, with the Mahometan religion, they carried also the Arabic language, and what we may call Eastern civilization as opposed to Western. A strife, in short, now begins between Aryan and Semitic man. Rome and Persia, with all their differences, were both of them Aryan powers. The most amazing thing is the extraordinary speed with which the Saracens pressed their conquests at the expense of both Rome and Persia, forming a marked contrast to the slow advance both of Roman con- quest and of Teutonic settlement. In the course of less than eighty years, the Mahometan conquerors formed RISE OF THE SARACENS. Ill a dominion o-reater than that of Eome, and, for a short chap. *— V • time, the will of the Caliph of the Prophet was obeyed — • ' from the Ocean to lands beyond the Indus. In a few i^ossof ". the East- campaigns the Empire lost all its possessions beyond ^,™^P^°^-f Mount Tauros ; that is, it lost one of the three great ^"^^^-g diyisions of the Empire, that namely in which neither Greek nor Eoma.n civilization had ever thoroughly taken root. Wliile the Eoman Empire was thus dismembered, the rival power of Persia was not merely dismembered, but utterly overwhelmed. The Persian nationality was Saracen *' conquest of a^ain, as in the days of the Parthians, held down under Pema a foreign power, to revive yet again ages later. But the Saracen power was very far from merely taking the place of its Parthian and Persian predecessors. The mission of the followers of Mahomet was a mission of universal conquest, and that mission they so far carried out as altOQ-ether to overthrow the exclusive dominion of Eome in her own Mediterranean. Under Justinian, if the Imperial possession of the Mediterranean coast was not absolutely continuous, the small exceptions in Africa, Spain, and Gaul in no way interfered with the maritime supremacy of the Empire, and Gaul and Spain, even where they were not Eoman, were at least Christian. But now a gradual advance of sixty-four years annexed the Eoman dominions in Africa to saracen conquest of the Mahometan dommion. Thence the Saracens passed Africa. ^ ()47-711. into Spain, and found the West-Gothic kingdom an of Spain. easier prey than the Eoman provinces. Within three years after the final conquest of Africa, the whole peninsula was conquered, save where the Christian still held out in the inaccessible mountain fastnesses. The Saracen power was even carried beyond the Pyrenees 112 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. V. Saracen provinces in Gaul, 713-755. Effects of Saracen conquest. Different fates of the Eastern, Latin, and Greek provinces. 647-709. Greatest extent of Saracen province^. 750. into the province of Septimania, the remnant of the Gaulish dominion of the West-Gothic kings. Narbonne, Aries, Nimes, all became for a while Saracen cities. In this way, of the three continents round the Mediterranean, Eome lost all her possessions in Africa, wliile both hi Europe and Asia she had now a neigh- bour and an enemy of quite another kind from any which she had had before. The Teutonic conquerors, if fonquerors, had been also disciples ; they became part of the Latin world. The Persian, though his rivalry was religious as well as political, was still merely a rival, fighting along a single line of frontier. Hut every province that was conquered by the Saracens was utterly lopped away ; it became the possession of .men altogether alien and hostile in race, language, manners, and religion. A large part of the Eoman world passed from Aryan and Christian to Semitic and Mahometan dominion. But the essential differences among the three main parts of the Empire now showed themselves very clearly. The Eastern provinces, where either Eoman or Greek life was always an exotic, fell away at the first touch. Africa, as being so greatly romanized, held out for sixty years. The provinces of Asia Minor, now thoroughly Greek, were often ravaged, but never conquered. Spain and Septimania were far more easily conquered than Africa — a sign perhaps that the West-Gothic rule was still felt as foreign by the Eoman inhabitants. With the conquest of Spain the undivided Saracenic Empire, the dominion of the single Caliph, reached its greatest extent in the three continents. Detached con- quests in Europe were made long after, but on the whole the Saracen power went back. Forty years EXTENT OF SARACEN CONQUEST. 113 later they lost Sind^ their furthest possession to the East. chap. Five years later Spain became the seat of a rival dynasty, ^ — ■— — ' which after a while grew into a rival Caliphate. In the ygg^^'''^"" same year the Saracen dominion for the first time went back in Europe. The battle of Tours answers to the Battle of . . . Tours. repulse of Attila at Chalons ; it did not make changes, 732. but hindered them ; but before lon^ the one province Fiankish ^ •'■ conquest which the Saracens held beyond the Pvrenees, that of °^ ^®p*'- mania. Septimania or Gothia, was won from them by the '^^^• Franks. § 4. Settlements of the Slavonic Nations. The movements of the sixth century began to bring into notice a branch of the Aryan family of nations which was to play an important part in the afiairs both of the East and of the West. These were the various Move- . raents of nations of the great Slavonic race. We are concerned the slaves with their history only so far as it affects that of the Empire, and for the present only of its Eastern provinces. They made their way into the Empire in the same diversity of character as the Goths at an earher time ; and it would seem that the march of Theodoric helped to open a way for their migrations. But their main importance began in the sixth century, when the movements of the Avars seem to have had much the same effect upon the Slaves which the movements of the Huns in the fourth century had upon the Teutons. The inroads of the Avars had, as we have seen, checked the growth of Teutonic powers on the Lower Danube, and had led to the Lombard settlement in Italy. But the Avars only formed the vanguard of a number of Tura- nian nations, some of them at least Turkish, which were now pressing westward. The Avars formed a great VOL. I. I Ill THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAr. V. Kingdom of the Avars. Magyars, Ac. North- western and South- eastern Slaves. Analogy between Teutons and Slaves. Slavonic settle- ments under Heraclius. c. 620. kiiiii-doin in the lands north of the Danube ; to the east of these, along the northern coasts of the Euxine, bor- derincr on the outlying possessions and allies of the P>mpire in those regions, lay Magyars, Patzinaks, and the greater dominion of the Chazars. All these play a part in Byzantine history ; and the Avars were in the seventh century the most dangerous invaders and ravagers of the Eoman territory. But south of the Danube they appeared mainly as ravagers ; geography knows them only in their settled kingdom to the north of that river. Even that kingdom lasted no very great time ; the real importance of all these migrations consists in the effect which they had on the great Aryan race which now begins to take its part in history. The Slaves seem to have been driven by the Turanian incursions in two directions, to the North-west and to the South-west. The North-western Slaves do not become of impor- tance till a little later. But the South-western division plays a great part in the history of the sixth and seventh centuries. Their position with regard to the Eastern Empire is a kind of shadow of the position held by the Teutonic nations with regard to the Western Empire. The Slaves play in the East, though less thoroughly and less brilliantly, the same part, half conquerors, half disciples, which the Teutons played in the West, During the sixth century they appear only as ravagers; in the seventh they appear as settlers. There seems no doubt that Heraclius encouraged Slavonic settlements south of the Danube, doubtless with a view to defence against the more dangerous Avars. Much like the Teu- tonic settlers in the West, the Slaves came in at first as colonists under Imperial authority, and presently became practically independent, A number of Slavonic states SETTLEMENTS OF THE SLAVES. 115 thus arose in the hinds north and east of the Hadriatic, as Servia, Chrobatia or Croatia, and Carmthia, of which the first two are historically connected with the Eastern, and the third with the Western Empire. They pressed within the borders of the ancient, and even of the modern Itahan kingdom ; Istria and much of Venetia settie- becanie largely Slavonic. So did Dalmatia yet more istria, thorouolily, with the exception of the maritime cities, and *" ... . Dalmatia. which, among man}^ vicissitudes, clave to the Empire. And even among them considerable revolutions took place. Thus Salona was destroyed, and out of Diocle- oestiuc- . ... -^ ' . _ tion of tian's palace in its neighbourhood arose the new city of ^*^°"*' Spalato. The Dalmatian Epidauros was also destroyed, Oi'gi" of -* ^ . " Spalato and Ragusa took its place. In many of these inroads *»^J^ Slaves and Avars were mixed up together ; but the lastino- settlements were all Slavonic. And the state of thinofs which thus beo-an has been lastinsf ; the north- eastern coast of the Hadriatic is still a Slavonic land with an Italian fringe. In these nii<>Tations the Slaves displaced whatever uispiace- '^ _ ment of tli« remnants were left of the old lUyrian race in the lands myians. near the Danube. Tliev have themselves to some extent taken the lUyrian name, a change which has sometimes led to confusion. But the movement for a while went much furtlier south. The Slaves pressed on into a large part of Macedonia and Greece, and, during the seventh and eighth centuries, the whole of those lands, except Extent of . . . Slavonic the fortified cities and a friiioe alono' the coast, were settlement. practically cut off from the Empire. The name of Slavinia reached from the Danube to Peloponnesos, leaving to the Empire only islands and detached points of coast from Venice round to Thessalonica. Their settlements in these reo'ions i?ave a new meaning^ to an ancient name, I -2 iXG THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, and the word Macedonian now began to mean Slavonic, V <- — ' The Slavonic oecupation of Greece is a fact which must neither be forgotten nor exaggerated. It certainly did Nature of not amount to an extirpation of the Greek nation ; but seuiemont it Certainly did amount to an occupation of a large part of the country, which was hellenized afresh from those cities and districts which remained Greek or Eoman. While these changes were going on in the Hadriatic and .iEgaean lands, another immigration later in the seventh century took place in the lands south of the lower Danube, and drove back the Imperial frontier Settlement to Haiiuos. Tliis was tlic iiicursioii of the Bulgarians^ of the Bui- . ^ , , . garians. auotlier Turaniaii peo23le, but one whose history has been different from that of most of the Turanian immi- grants. By mixture with Slavonic subjects and neigh- bours they became practically Slavonic, and they still The East- remain a people speaking a Slavonic language. Thus ern Empire . i • -n i • • ^ • -r -x cut short in the iiuipirc, tliough it Still Kcpt its posscssioiis 111 Italy, its own peninsula, together witli the great Mediterranean islands — though its hold on Western Africa lasted on into the eiofhth "^ft' century — though it still kept outlying possessions on the northern and eastern coasts of the Euxine — was cut short in that great peninsula which seems made to be the immediate possession of the New Eome. Moral in- But, exactly as happened in the West, the loss of fluence of , , , _ \ Constanti- political domiiiion carried with it the fyrowth of moral nople. '-' dominion. The nations which pressed into these pro- vinces gradually accepted Christianity in its Eastern form, and they have always looked up to Constantinople with a feeling the same in kind, but less strong in de- gree, as that with which the West has looked up to the oAhe elder Eome. But, at the beginning of the eighth century, Empii^. though the Imperial power still held posts here and POSITION OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 117 there from the pillars of Herakles to the Kimmerian chap. Bosporos, Saracens on the one side and Slaves on the ^ — ' other had cut short the continuous Eoman dominion to a comparatively narrow space. The unbroken posses- sions of C^sar were now confined to Thrace and that sohd peninsula of Asia Minor which the Saracens con- stantly ravaged, but never conquered. Mountains had taken the place of rivers as the great boundaries of the Empire : instead of the Danube and the Euphrates, the Roman Terminus had fallen back to Haimos and Tauros. (^ 5. The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks. Meanwhile we must o-o ])ack to the West, and trace Growth ^ ot the the growth of the great power which was there growing Franks. up, a jDower which, while the elder Empire was thus cut short in the East, was in the end to supplant it in the West by the creation of a rival Empire. For a while the Franks and the Empire had only occa- sional deahngs with each other. Next to Britain, which had altogether ceased to be part of the Roman world, the part of the Western Empire which was least affected 1)y the re-awakening of the Roman power in the East was the former province of Transalpine Gaul. The power of the Franks was fast spreading, both in their old home in Germany and in their new home in Gaul. The Frankish '' conquest victory of Chlodwio- over the Alemanni\\\2i(}ie, the Franks o^,'^® 'J '-' Alemanni, the leading people of Germany. The two German '^^^''^ powers which had so long been the chief enemies of the Roman power along the Rhine were now united. Throughout the sixth century the German dominion of the Franks was growiui)-. The Frankish supremacy was oftheThu- , "" . , , ringians, extended over Thiiringia, and later in the century loosely c 531 ; I] 8 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. V of Bavaria CHAT, over Bavaria. The Bavaria of this age, it must be remem- bered, has a much wider extent to the south than the Bavaria of modern geography, reaching to the northern borders of Italy. The Bavarians seem to have been them- selves but recent settlers in the land between the Alps and the Danube; but their inmiigration and their reduction under Frankish supremacy, which became a real domi- nion in the eighth century, made the lands immediately south of the Danube thoroughly Teutonic, as the earlier Frankish conquests had done by the lands immediately west of the Eliine. Long before this time, the Franks had greatly extended their dominions in Gaul also. In the Conquest later years of Chlodwig the greater part of Aquitaine taiiie [.507- was wou froui the West-Goths. Further conquests at 511] 'wul Buigundy. their expense were afterwards made, and about the 532-.-)34. ^ Novem- sauic tluic Buro^uudy came under Frankish supremacy. populaua. o »/ x ^ •''''"•^- The Franks now held, either in possession or de- pendence, the whole oceanic coast of Gaul ; but they were stiU shut out from the Mediterranean. The West- Goths still kept the land from the Pyrenees to the Ehone, the land of Septimania or Gothia. The land which was specially Provincia, the first Eoman posses- sion in Transalpine Gaul, the coast from the Ehone to the Alps, formed part of the East-Gothic dominion of Theodoric. An invasion of Italy during the long wars between the Goths and Eomans failed to establish a Frankish dominion on the Italian side of the Alps. But as the Franks, by their conquest of Burgundy, were now neighbours of Italy, it led to a further enlargement of their Gaulish dominions, and to their first acquisition Cession of of a Mediterranean seaboard. It was now that Massa- Provence. 53C. lia, Arelate, and the rest of the Province were, by an Imperial grant, one of the last exercises of Imperial CONQUESTS OF THE FRANKS. ]19 power in those regions, added to the kingdom of the chap. Franks. By the time that the Eoman reconquest of ^^^;;;7^ Italy was completed, the Frankish dominion, united for Si^^^"'"' a moment under a single head, took in the whole of "'°"^" Gaul, except the small remaining West-Gothic territory, together with central Germany and a supremacy over the southern German lands. To the north lay the still independent tribes of the Low-Dutch stock, Frisian and Saxon. As the Frankish dominion plays so great a part in European history and geography, a part in truth second only to that played by the Eoman dominion, it will be needful to consider the historical position of the Position of the Franks. Then- dominion was that of a German people Franks. who had made themselves dominant alike in Germany and in Gaul. But it was only in a small part of the Frankish territory that the Frankish people had actually settled. It was only in northern Gaul and central Germany, in the lands to which they have permanently given their name, that the Franks can be looked on as really occupying the land. In their German territory they of course remained German ; in northern Gaul their position answered to that of the other Teutonic nations which had formed settlements within the Empire. They were a dominant Teutonic race in a Eoman land. Gradually they adopted the speech of the conquered, while the conquered in the end adopted the name of the conquerors. But the fusion of German and Eoman was slower in the siow fusion of Frankish part of Gaul than elsewhere, doubtless be- Franks ^ _ ' andRo- cause elsewhere the Teutonic settlements were cut off '"'"^s- from their older Teutonic homes, while the Franks in Gaul had their older Teutonic home as a back- 1:^0 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. V. t'leriium nnd Gaul- ish (lopen- deiK-ies of the Franks. Etlmologj' of Sou til - em Gaul. Divisions of the Fi-iinkish dominions. oTound. Beyond the bounds of these more strictly Frankish lands, German and Gaulish, the dominion of tlie Franks was at most a political supremacy, and in no sense a national settlement. In Germany Bavaria was ruled by its own vassal princes ; in Gaul south of the Loire the Frank was at most an external ruler. Aquitaine had to be practically conquered over and over again, and new dynasties of native princes were constantly rising up. The Teutonic element iu South- ern Gaul, an element much slighter than the Teutonic element in Northern Gaul, is not Frankish, but Gothic and Burgundian. The native Eomance speech of those lands is wholly different from the Eomance speech of Northern Gaul. In short, there was really nothing in common between the two great parts of Gaul, the lands south and the lands north of the Loire, except their union, first under Eoman and then under Frankish dominion. And in Armorica the old Celtic population, strengthened by settlers from Britain, formed another and a yet more distinct element. Thus within the Frankish dominions there were wide national diversities, containing the germs of future divisions. It needed a strong hand even to keep the Teutonic and the Latin Francia together, much more to keep together all the dependent lands, German and Gaulish. During the ages when the Empire was being cut short by Lombards, Goths, Slaves, and Saracens, the Frankish dominion was never in the like sort cut short by foreign settlements ; but its whole history under the Merowingian dynasty is a history of divisions and reunions. The tendencies to division which were inherent in the condition of the country were strength- ened by endless partitions among the members of the THE FKANKS IN GERMANY AND GAUL. V21 reigning house. Speaking roughly, it may be said chap. that the more strictly Frankish territory showed a " — — tendency to divide itself into two parts, the Eastern or Teutonic land, Austria or Austrasia, and Neustria, the Austria and Western or Eomance land. These were severally the NemtHa. germs which grew into the kingdoms of Germany and France. As for the mere name of Francia, it fared like Use of the name other names of the kind ; it shifted its geographical use Frcuma. according to the wanderings of the people from whom it was taken. After many such changes of meaning, it gradually settled down as the name of those parts of Germany and Gaul where it still abides. There are the Teutonic or Austrian Francia, part of which still keeps the name of Frankeii or Franconia, and the Romance or Neustrian Francia^ which by various annexations has grown into modern France. At last, after endless divisions, reconquests, and re- The Kaii- unions, of the different parts of the Frankish territory, the Dukes, ' _ ^ _ "^ ' 687-752 ; whole Frankish dominion was again, in the second half JV'^fg^^ of the eighth century, joined together under the Austra- sian, the purely German, house of the Karlings. The Dukes and Kings of that house consolidated and ex- tended the Frankish dominion in every direction. Under Pippin and Charles the Great, the power of the ruling- race was more firmly established over the dependent states, such as Bavaria and Aquitaine. Under Pippin Pippin . conquers the conquest of the province of Septimania, once Gothic, septi- mania. in his day Saracen, extended the Frankish power over the '^02. whole of Gaul ; and under Charles the Great, the Frank- conquests . , , . . . of Charles ish dommion was extended by a series of conquests in t'^e Great. *[ ^ 7f!8-814. every direction. Of these, his Italian conquests were rather the winning of a new crown for the Frankish king ■than the extension of the Frankish kinjidom. But the 122 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. German character of the Prankish power. The three great powers of the eiglith century ; Eomans, Franks, Saracens. Character of the Caliphate. The Saracen dominion in Spain. conquest of Saxony at the one end and of the Spanish March at the other, as well as the overthrow of the Tannonian kingdom of the Avars, were in the strictest sense extensions of the Frankish dominions. The Frankish power which now plays so great a part in the world was a power essentially German. The Franks and their kings, the kings who reigned from the Elbe to the Ebro, were German in blood, speech, and feeling ; but they bore rule over other lands, German, Latin, and Celtic, in many various degrees of in- corporation and subjection. Thus the effect of the Saracen conquests was to lea^e in Europe one purely European power, namely the kingdom of the Franks, one power both European and Asiatic, namely the Eoman Empire with its seat at Constantinople, and one power at once Asiatic, African, and European, namely the Saracen Caliphate. Through the eighth century these three are the great powers of the world, to which the other nations of Europe and Asia form, as far as we are concerned, a mere back- ground. But the Caliphate, as a Semitic and Mahometan power, could be European only in a geographical sense. Even after the establishment of the independent Saracen dominion in Spain, the new power still remained an exotic. A great country of Western Europe was no longer ruled from Damascus or Bagdad ; but the emir- ate, afterwards Caliphate, of Cordova, and the king- doms into which it afterwards broke up, still remained only geographically European. They were portions of Asia — in after times rather of Africa — thrusting them- selves into Europe, like the Spanish dominion of Car- thage in earlier times. The two great Christian powers, the two great really European powers, are the Eoman and FRANKISH CONQUEST OF LOMBARDY. 12S the Frankish. We now come to the process which for chap. a while caused the Eoiiian and Frankish names to have ^ the same meaning within a large part of Europe, and by which the two seats of Eoman dominion were again parted asunder, never to be reunited. The way by which the Eoman and Frankish Relations ^ of the powers came to affect one another was throuo-h the Franks ^ _ ^ ^ ^ and the affairs of Italy. The steps by which the Imperial power Emphe. was, during the eighth century, weakened step by step in the territories which still remained to the Empire in central Italy are, either from an ecclesiastical or from xheimpe- . ,,.'.,. -, . p . . rial posses a strictly historical point oi view, oi surpassing interest, sionsin Italy. But, as long as the authority of the Emperor was not openly thrown off, no change was made on the map. The events of those times which did make a chanoe on the map were, first the conquest of the Exarchate by Lombard the Lombards, and secondly, the overthrow of the of the Exarchate. Lombard kinordom itself by the Frank kino* Charles Over- ^ , -^ ^ throw the Great. The Frankish power was thus at last of the Lombards established on the Italian side of the Alps, but it must by charies. be remarked that the new conquest was not incor- porated with the Frankish dominion. Charles held Lombards a separate his Italian dominion as a separate dominion, and kingdom. caUed himself Kino- of the Franks and Lombards. He also bore the title of Patrician of the Eomans ; but, though the takino- of that title was of great political sionificance, it did not affect o-eography. The Title of . . . . . . . . Patrician. title of Patrician of itself implied a commission from the Emperor, and, though it was bestowed by the Bishop and peojDle of Eome without the Imperial consent, the very choice of the title showed that the Imperial authority was not formally thrown off. Charles, as Patrician, was virtually sovereign of Eome, 124 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, and his acquisition of the patriciate i)ractically extended • — his dominion from the Ocean to the frontiers of Nominal Benevcntum. But, down to his Imperial coronation of the in the last week of the eighth century, the Emperor who reiii'ned in the New Eome was still the nomi- nal sovereign of the Old. The event of the year 800, witli all its weighty significance, did not practically either extend the territories of Charles or increase his powers. Effect of ^^^^^ ^^^® Imperial coronation of Charles is one of !'l'i3'?Z!^ the s^Teat landmarks both of history and of historical Chalks. geography. The whole political system of Europe was changed when the Old Eome cast off its formal alle- giance to the New, and chose the King of the Franks and Lombards to be Emperor of the Eomans. Though the powers of Charles were not increased nor his domi- nions extended, he held everything by a new title. The Fmai divi- I^oi^^an Empire was divided, never to be joined together Emp?ie. ^ again. But its Western half now took in, not only the greatest of its lost provinces, but vast regions which had never formed part of the Empire in the days of Trajan himself. Again, the distinctive character of the older Eoman Empire had been the absence of nationa- lity. The whole civilized world had become Eome, Glowing and all its free inhabitants had become Eomans. But uationahty Empirer'' ^^^^ ^^^^ ^"^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ dlvislous of the Empire amiGreek. ^^^S^^^^ to assuuic Something like a national character. East and West alike remained Eoman in name and in political traditions. The Old Eome was the nominal centre of one ; the New Eome was both the nominal and the real centre of the other. But there was a sense in which both alike from this time ceased to be Eoman. The Western Empire passed to a German FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 125 king, and later changes tended to make his Empire chap. more and more German. The Eastern Empire mean- • — -^ while, by the successive loss of the Eastern provinces, of Latin Africa, and of Latin Italy, became nearly co- extensive with those parts of Europe and Asia where the Greek speech and Greek civilization prevailed. From one point of view, both Empires are still Eoman ; from another point of view, one is fast becoming- German, the other is fast becoming Greek. And the Rivalry of *-' the two two powers into wliich the old Eoman Empire is thus Empires. split are in the strictest sense two Empires. They are no longer mere divisions of an Empire which has been found to be too great for the rule of one man. The Emperors of tke East and West are no longer Lnperial colleagues dividing the administration of a single Empire between them. They are now rival potentates, each claiming to be exclusively the one true Eoman Emperor, each boasting himself to be the one true representative of the common predecessors of both in the days when the Empire was still undivided. It is further to be noted that the same kind of The two Cahphates. change which now happened to the Christian Empire, had happened earlier in the century to the Maho- metan Empire. The establishment of a rival dynasty at Cordova, even though the assumption of the actual title of Caliph did not follow at once, was exactly analogous to the establishment of a rival Empire in the Old Eome. The Mediterranean world has now four great powers, the two rival Christian Empires, and the two rival Mahometan Caliphates. Among these, it naturally follows that each is hostile to its neighbour of the opposite religion, and friendly to its neighbour's rival. The Western Emperor is the 12G THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP, enemy of the Western Caliph, the friend of the Eastern. — — - The Eastern Emperor is the enemy of the Eastern Rivalry ^ *' of the Eni- (^;i]}pii the friend of the Western. Thus the four pires and 1 ' <;aiii)hrttes. fyy^^^ powers stood at the beginning of the ninth century. And it was out of the dismemberments of the two great Christian and the two great Mahometan powers that the later states, Christian and Mahometan, of the Mediterranean world took their rise. Extent of It is a point of geographical as well as of historical lingian importauce that Charles the Great, after he was crowned Empire. ^ Emperor, caused all those who had been hitherto bound by allegiance to him as King of the Franks to swear allegiance to him afresh as Eoman Emperor. This marks that all his dominions, Frankish, Lombard, and strictly lloman, are to be looked on as forming part of the Western Empire. Thus the Western Empire now took in all those German lands which the old Roman Emperors never could conquer. Germany became part of the Roman Empire, not by Rome conquering Germany, but by Rome choosing the German king as her Emperor. Contrast of Tlic bouudaries of the Empire thus became different its bounda- ries with from what they had ever been before. Of the pro- those of -^ ^ Emirl" vinces of the old Western Empire, Britain, Africa, and all Spain save one corner, remained foreign to the new Roman Empire of the Franks. But, on the other hand, the Empire now took in all those lands in Germany and beyond Germany over which the Frankish power now reached, but which had never formed part of the elder Empire. The long wars of Charles with the Saxons led to Conquest their final conquest, to the incorporation of Saxony with 772-804. the Frankish kingdom, and, after the Imperial corona- tion of the Frankish king, to its incorporation with the Western Empire. THE CAROLING! AN EMPIRE. 127 The conquests of Charles had thus, among their chap. other results, welded Germany mto a single whole. For — • — though the Franks had long been the greatest power in Germany, yet Germany could not be said to form a single whole as long as the Saxons, the greatest people of Northern Germany, remained independent. The conquest of Saxony brought the Frankish power for the first time in contact with the Danes and the other peoples oi Scandinavia. The dominions of Charles took in what was then called Saxony beyond the Elbe, that is the modern Holstein, and the Eider was fixed as the Boundary of the northern boundary of the Empire. More than one Eider. Danish king did homage to Charles and to some of the Emperors after him ; but Denmark was never incor- porated with the Empire or even made permanently dependent. To the east, the immediate dominions of Slavonic ^ allies and ' Charles stretched but a little way bevond the Elbe ; but neigh- / " bours. here the Western Empire came in contact, as the Eastern had done at an earlier time and by a different process, with the widely spread nations of the Slavonic race. The same movements which had driven one branch of that race to the south-west had driven another branch to the north-west, and the wars of Charles in those regions gave his Empire a fringe of Slavonic allies and dependents along both sides of the Elbe, forming a barrier between the immediate dominions of the Em- pire and the independent Slaves to the east. To the overthrow south Charles overthrew the kino-dom of the Avars ; he kingdom. . 796. thus extended his dominions on the side of south-eastern Germany, and here lie came in contact with the southern branch of the Slaves, a portion of whom, in Carinthia and the neighbouring lands, became subjects of his Empire. In Spain he acquired the north-eastern corner li^S THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. V. The Span- isli March. 778. Division;; of the Empire. Kingdom of Aqui- taine. Death of Charles. 814. Kingdom of Italy. Use of the name Fraucia. as far as the Ebro, foniiiiig tlie Spanish March of his kinndom and Empire. Thus the new Western Empire took in all Gaul, all that was then Germany, the greater part of Italy, and a small part of Spain. ^ It thus took in both Teutonic and Romance lands, and contained in it the germs of the chief nations of modern Europe. It was a step towards the formation of those nations when Charles, following the example both of earlier Eoman Emperors and of earlier Frankish kings, planned several divisions of his dominions among his sons. Owing to the deaths of all his sons but one, none of these divisions took effect. And it should be noticed that as yet none of these schemes of division agreed with any great natural or national boundary. They did not even foreshadow the division which afterwards took place, and out of which the chief states of Western Europe grew. In two cases only was anything like a national kingdom thought of. Charles's son Lewis reigned under him as king in Aqidtaine, a kingdom which took in all Southern Gaul and the Sjjanish March, answering pretty nearly to the lands of the Provencal tongue or tongue of Oe. And when Charles died, and was suc- ceeded in the Empire by Lewis, Charles's grandson Bernard still went on reigning under his uncle as King of Italy. The Kingdo7n of Italy must be understood as taking in the Italian mainland, except the lands in the south which were held by the dependent princes of Beneventum and by the rival Emperors of the East. During this period Francia commonly means the strictly ^ The geographical extent of the Frankish dominion before and after the conquest of Charles is most fully marked by Einhard, Vita Karoli, c. 15. THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS IN BEITAIN. 129 Frankisli kino-doms, Gaulish and German. The words chap. . . . .V. Gallia and Germania are used in a strictly geographical ^- — • — sense. ^ 6. Northern Eurojye. Meanwhile other nations were beginnino- to show scandina- vians and themselves in those parts of Europe which lay beyond English. the Empire. In north-western Europe two branches of the Teutonic race were fast growing into importance ; the one in lands which had never been part of the Empire, the other in a land which had been part of it, but which had been so utterly severed from it as to be as if it had never belonoed to it. These were the Scandinavian nations in the two great peninsulas of Northern Europe, and the English in the isle of Britain. The histor}^ of these two races is closely connected, and it has an important bearing on the history of Europe in general. In Britain itself the progress of the English arms stages of had been gradual. Sometimes conquests from the conquest of Britons were made with great speed : sometimes the English advance was checked by successes on the Brit- ish side, by mere inaction, or by wars between the different English kingdoms. The fluctuations of victory, and consequently of boundaries, between the English kingdoms were quite as marked as the warfare between the English and the Britons. Among the many Teutonic The settlements m Britani, small and great, seven kmg- kingdoms. doms stand out as of special importance, and three of these, Wessex, 3Iercia, and Northumberland, again stand out as candidates for a general supremacy over the whole English name. At the end of the eighth ^.eSof century a large part of Britain remained, as it still centufy.*'' VOL. 1. K 180 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. CHAP. V. Celtic Ktntes. West Saxon supremacy under Ecgberht. 803-837. The Scan- dinavian nations. The Danes. remains, in the hands of the elder Celtic inhabitants ; but the parts which they still kept were now cut off from each other. Cornwall or West-Wales^ North- Wales (answering- nearly to the modern principality), and Strath- clyde or Cumberland (a much larger district than the modern county so called) were all the seats of separate, though fluctuating, British states. Beyond the Forth lay the independent kingdoms of the Picts and Scots, which, in the course of the ninth century, became one. It was the West-Saxon kingdom to which the supremacy over all the kingdoms of Britain, Teutonic and Celtic, came in the end. Ecgberht, its king, had been a friend and guest of Charles the Great, and he had most likely been stirred up by his example to do in his own island what Charles had done on the mainland. In the course of his reign, West-Wales was completely conquered ; the other English kingdoms, together with North- Wales, were brought into a greater or less degree of dependence. But both in North- Wales and also in Mercia, Northumberland, and East-Anglia, the local kings went on reigning under the supremacy of the King of the West-Saxons, who now began sometimes to call himself King of the English. In the north both Scot- land and Strathclyde remained quite independent. That part also of the Teutonic race which lay alto- gether beyond the bounds of the Empire now begins to be of importance. The Banes are heard of as early as the days of Justinian ; l3ut neither they nor the other Scandinavian nations play any part in history before the time of Charles the Great. A number of small states gradually settled down into three great kingdoms, which remain still, though their boundaries have greatlv changed. The boun- THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. 131 daiy Ijetween Denmark and the Empire was, as we chap. have seen, fixed at the Eider. Besides the peninsula ^^ — ^—^ of Jutland and the islands which still belong to it, Denmark took in Scania and other lands in the south Extent of of the great peninsula that now forms Stceden and aadNor- way. Norway. Norway, on the other hand, ran much further inland, and came down much further south than it does now. These points are of importance, because they show the causes of the later history of the three Scandinavian states. Both Denmark and Norway had a great front to the Ocean, while Swithiod and Gauthiod, the districts whose union formed the orioinal kinfjdom of Sweden, had no opening that way, but were altogether Sweden. turned towards the Baltic. It thus came about that for some centuries both Denmark and Norway played a much greater part in the general affairs of Europe than Dauisiiand Sweden did. Denmark was an immediate neighbour settle" r> 1 -T" • T r» ments. of the Empire, and from both Denmark and Norway men went out to conquer and settle in various parts of Britain, Ireland and Gaul, besides colonizing the more distant and uninhabited lands of Iceland and Greenland. Meanwhile the Swedes pressed eastward Pressure of on the Finnish and Slavonic peoples beyond the Baltic, the Eaat. In this last way they had a great effect on the history of the Eastern Empire ; but in Western history Sweden counts for very little till a much later time. During the period which has been dealt with in summary. this chapter, taking in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, we thus see, first of all the reunion of the greater part of the Eoman Empire under Justinian — tlien the lopping away of the Eastern and African provinces by the conquests of the Saracens — then the K -2 132 THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. cHAi'. liraclual separation of all Italy except the south, ending V *" r — - in the re-estabhshment of a separate Western Empire under Charles the Great. We thus get two great Chris- tian powers, the Eastern and Western Empires, balanced by two great Mahometan powers, the Eastern and Western Caliphates. All the older Teutonic kingdoms have either vanished or have grown into something wholly diflerent. The Yandal kingdom of Africa and the East-Grothic kingdom have wholly vanished. The West-Gothic kingdom, cut short by Franks on one side and by Saracens on the other, survives only in the form of the small Christian principalities which still held tlieii- ground in Northern Spain. The Frankish kingdom, by swallowing up the Gothic and Burgun- dian dominions in Gaul, the independent nations of Germany, the Lombard kingdom, and the more part of the possessions of the Empire in Italy, has grown into a new Western Empire. The two Empires, both still politically Eonian, are fast becoming, one Ger- man and the other Greek. Meanwhile, nations beyond the bounds of the Empire are growing into impor- tance. The process has begun by which the many small Teutonic settlements in Britain i^rew in the end into the one kinodom of Enirland. The three Scan- dinavian nations, Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians or Northmen, now begin to grow in importance. In a religious point of view, if Syria, Egypt, Africa, and the more part of Spain were lost to Christen- dom, the loss was in some degree made up by the conversion to Christianity of the Angles and Saxons in Britain, of the Old-Saxons in Germany, and of the other German tribes which at the beofinnino- of the sixth century had still been heathen. At no time in V. SUMMAEY. 133 the world's history did the map undergo greater changes, chap. This period is the time of real transition from the older state of things represented by the undivided Roman Empire to the newer state of things in which Europe is made up of a great number of independent states. The modern kingdoms outside the Empire, in Britain and Scandinavia, were already forming. The great continental nations of Western Europe had as yet hardly begun to form. They were to grow out of the break-up of the Carolingian Empire, the Eoman Empire of the Franks. 134 CHAPTErt Yl. CHAr. VI. Dissolu- tion of the Fmnkisli dominion. The chief states of modern Europe spring out of it. National kingdoms not yet formed. Extent of Francin. Separate being of Italy and Aquitaine. THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. § 1. The Division of the Prankish. Empire. The great dominion of the Franks, the German king- dom which had so strangely grown into a new Western Eoman Empire, did not last long. In the course of the ninth century it altogether fell to pieces. But the process by which it fell to pieces must be carefully traced, because it was out of its dismemberment that the chief states of Western Europe arose. Of all the possessions of the Carolingian Empire in Germany,. Gaul, Italy, and Spain, it was only Italy, and some- times Aquitaine, which showed any approach to the character of a separate or national kingdom. Northern Gaul and central Germany were still alike Francia ; and, though the Eomance speech prevailed in one, and the Teutonic speech in the other, no national distinction was drawn between them during the time of Charles the Great. Among the proposed divisions of his Empire, none proposed to separate Neustria and Austria, the Western and the Eastern Francia. But Italy did form a separate kingdom under the superiority of the Em- peror ; and so for a while there was an under-kingdom of Aquitaine, answering roughly to Gaul south of the Loire. This is the land of the Provencal tong-ue, the DIVISIONS UNDER LEWIS THE PIOUS. 135 tongue of Oc, a tongue which, it must be remembered, chap. reached to the Ebro. It is in the various divisions, <^ — - contemplated and actual, among the sons of Lewis the Division ^ under Pious, the successor of Charles the Great, that we see Lewis the Pious. the first approaches to a national division between Ger- fjis* '■ ^ glimpses many and Gaul, and the first o-limmerino-s of a state of Modem •^ & o France. answering in any way to France in the modern sense. The earliest among those endless divisions that we need mention is the division of 817, by which two new Division of subordinate kingdoms were founded within the Em- pire. Lewis and his immediate colleague Lothar kept in their own hands Francia, German and Gaulish, and the more part of Burgundy. South-western Gaul, Aquitaine in the wide sense, with some small parts of Septimania and Burgundy, formed the portion of one under-king ; south-eastern Germany, Bavaria and the march-lands beyond it, formed the portion of another. Italy still remained the portion of a third. Here we have nothing in the least answering to modern France. The tendency is rather to leave the immediate Frankish kingdom, both in Gaul and Germany, as an undivided whole, and to part off its dependent lands, German, Gaulish, and Italian, union of But, in a much later division, Lewis granted Neustria ami Aqiii- to his son Charles, and in the next year, on the first step death of Pip2:)in of Aquitaine, he added his kingdom creation to that of Charles. A state was thus formed which ^ss. answers roughly to the later kingdom of France, as it stood before the long series of French encroach- character ments on the German and Burgundian lands. The western I • ^ If 11 T n • -t • Kingdom. kmgdom thus formed had no definite name, and it answered to no national division. It was indeed mainly a kingdom of the Eomance speech, but it did not loO BECUNIsUNa OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAT, answer to any one of the great divisions of that '- — speech. It was a kingdom formed by accident, because Lewis wished to increase the portion of his youngest son. Still there can be no doubt that we have here the first be^innino- of the kin^xlom of France, thouo'li it was not till after several other sta^'es Division of that the kingdom thus formed took that name. The Verdun. ' i • i 8«. filial division of Verdun went a step further m the direction of the modern map. It left Charles in pos- session of a kingdom which still more nearly answered to France, as France stood before its Burgundian and German annexations. It also founded a kinsfdom which roughly answered to the later Germany before its great extension to the East at the expense of the Slavonic nations. And, as the Western kingdom was formed by the addition of Aquitaine to the Western Francia, so the Eastern kingdom was formed by the addition of the Eastern Francia to Bavaria. Lewis of Bavaria became kin^ of a kingdom which we are tempted to call the kingdom of Germany. Still it would as yet be premature to speak of France at all, or even to speak of Germany, except in the geo- Kingdoms orapliical sense. The two kingdoms are severally the of the East- ^. '- *' em and kiuodoms of tlic Eastcm and of the Western Franks. Western "- Franks. But betwccu tlicsc two statcs the policy of the ninth century instinctively put a bari'ier. The Emperor Lothar, besides Italy, kept a long narrow strip of territory between the dominions of his Eastern and Western brothers. After him, Italv remained to his son the Emperor Lewis, while the borderlands of Ger- oi'lttimr i^^^y ^^^^ ^^^1 passed to the younger Lothar. This S"' ^^^^^^' having thus been the dominion of two Lothars, LoSe. ^^^^ ^^1^ name of Lotharingia, Lothringen, or Lorraine, DIVISION OF VERDUN. 137 a name which part of it has kept to this day. This chap. kingdom, sometimes attached to the Eastern kingdom, ^ — — - sometimes to the Western, sometimes divided between the two, sometimes separated from both, always kept its character of a l^orderland. The kingdom to the The I, . . -,.-, -, , c TT- T • Western west of it, ni hke manner took the name oi Karoiimiia, Kingdom called which, accordino- to the same analosfv slioiild be J^aro- r- . . . . Ungia, Karlingen or Charlaine. It is only by a caprice of lano'uao-e that the name of Lotharinoia has survived, wliile that of Karolingia has died out. Meanwhile, in south-eastern Gaul, between the Buiguiidy, or the Rhone and the Alps, another kino-dom arose, namelv -^fidaie *" . " Kingdom. the kingdom of Bur calls himself Bex, till the time came when his rank as chap. King oi" Grei-many or of the East-Franks became simply — - — a step towards tlie higher title of Emperor of the Romans. But it must be remembered that the special connexion between the Eoman Empire and the German connexion *■ _ _ between kinodom did not begin at once on the division of 887. the O o Eastern Arnulf indeed, the first German King after the division, ^|jf^^^'^'" made his way to Eome and was crowned Emperor ; and Empu-e. '' ^ Imperial it marks the position of the Eastern kingdom as the coronation i "of Arnulf. chief among the kingdoms of the Franks, that the West- so«- Frankish kino- Qdo did homage to Arnulf before his Homage of ~ ° _ Odo to lord's Imperial coronation, when he was still simply Amuif. German king. But the rule that whoever was chosen King of Germany had a right, without further election, Final . union of to the kingdom of Italy and to the Eoman Empire, Germany -' with the beean only with the coronation of Otto the Great. Empire CI •/ under Otto- Up to that time, the German king is simply one among the Great. the kings of the Franks, though it is plain that he held the highest place among them. This Eastern or German kingdom, as it came out of the division of 887, had, from north to south, nearly Extent of the Ger- the same extent as the Germany of later times. It n>Miking- •^ dom. Stretched from the Alps to the Eider. Its southern boundaries were somewhat fluctuating. Verona and Aquileia are sometimes counted as a German march, and the boundary between Germany and Burgundy, crossing the modern Switzerland, often changed. To the North-east the kingdom hardly stretched beyond the Elbe, except in the small Saxon land between the Elbe and the Eider. The great extension of the German power over the northern Slavonic lands beyond the Elbe had hardly yet begun. Towards 40 15EGINNI^TI OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. t^HAP. VI. The Crtvintliiun mai'ks. The ^'reat BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP boundaries, the whole land was not in the hands of the .-V" . Kino- of the West-Franks. He had only a supremacy, which was apt to become nearly nominal, over the vassal princes wlio held the great divisions of the ■riio great kino'dom. South of the Loire the chief of these vassal states were the duchy of Aqiiitaine, a name which now means the land between the Loire and the Garonne — the duchy of Gascony between the Garonne and the Pyrenees — the county of Toulouse to the east of it — the marches of Septimafiia and Barce- lona. North of the Loire were Britanny, where native Celtic princes still reigned under a very doubtful supremacy on the part of the Frankish kings — the march of Flanders in the north — and the duchy of Burgundy, the duchy which had Dijon for its capital, and which must be carefuhy distinguished from other duchies and kingdoms of the same name. And, The Duchy greatest of ah, there was the duchy of France, that is Western or Latin France, Francia Occidentalis or Latina. Its capital was Paris, and its princes were called Duces Francorum, a title in which the word Francus is just beginning to change from its older meaning of Frank to its later meaning of French. From this great duchy of France several great fiefs, as Normandy Anjou aud Champagne, were gradually cut off, and the cut off from -, r* • i i -r^ Frauce. iDart of Fraucc between the Seme and the Lpte was 912. granted to the Scandinavian chief Eolf, which, under him and his successors, grew into the great duchy of Normandy. Its capital was Eonen, and this settle- ment of the Normans had the effect of cutting off France and its capital Paris from the sea. The modern French kingdom gradually came into being during the century after the deposition of THE WESTERN KINGDOM. 143 C^liaiies the Fat. Durini? this time the crown of the chap. Western kingdom passed to and fro more than once "-— - — ' between the Dukes of the French at Paris and the Fluctua- tions be- princes of the house of Charles the Great, whose only tween the ^ Duchy of immediate dominion was the city and district of Laon the French •^ at Pans near the Lotharingian border. Thus, for a hundred '^'^^^^^^ years, the royal city of the Western kingdom was ggg^gg^; sometimes Laon and sometimes Paris, and the King of the West-Franks was sometimes the same person Union of the French as the Duke of the French and sometimes not. But Duchy with the West- after the election of Hugh Capet, the kingdom and J^^^'Jj^J' the duchy were neyer again separated. The Kings ^^'^■ of Karolingia or the Western kingdom, and the Dukes of the Western Francia, were now the same persons. France then — the Western or Latin Fran- xewmean- ■'■ _ ing of the cia^ as distino-uished from the German Francia or word Franken — properly meant only the King's immediate dominions. Though Xormandy, Aquitaine, and the Duchy of Burgundy, all owed homage to the French king, no one would haye spoken of them as parts of France. But, as the French kings, step by step, got possession of the dominions of their yassals and other neighbours, the name of France gradually Advance spread, till it took in, as it does now, by far the French kingdom. greater part of Gaul. On the other hand, Flanders, Barcelona, and the Norman Islands, though once under the homage of the French kings, fell away from all connexion with the kingdom without haying eyer been brought under the immediate soyereignty of its kings. They haye therefore never been reckoned as parts of France, Thus the name of France supplanted the name of Karolingia as the name of the Western kingdom. And, as it happened ranee. 144 15EG1NMNG OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. that the Western kings kept on the title of Rex Fnincoram after it had been dropped in the Eastern liexFrnn- kingdom, the title gradually came to mean, not King of the Franks, Ijut King of the French, King of the new Eomance-speaking nation which grew up under them. Tlius it was that the modern kingdom and nation of France arose through the crown of the Western kingdom passing to the Dukes of the Western Francia. Paris is not only the capital of the kingdom ; it is the kernel round which the kingdom and nation CHAP. VI. Title of cor mil. Origiu of the Frenel nation. Paris the kernel of France. arew The Middle Kingdom or Bur- gundy. Various meanings of the name Bur. ffiiiuh/. The French Duchy. The King- dom of Burgundy or Aries. Of all geographical names, that which has changed its meaning the greatest number of times is the name of Burgundy. It is specially needful to explain its different meanings at this stage, when there are always two, and sometimes more, distinct states bearing the Burgundian name. Of the older Burgundian king- dom, the north-western part, forming the land best known as the Buchy of Burgimdy, was, in the divi- sions of the ninth century, a fief of Karolingia or the Western kingdom. This is the Burgundy which has Dijon for its capital, and which was held by more than one dynasty of dukes as vassals of the Western kings, first at Laon and then at Paris. This Burgundy, which, as the name of France came to bear its modern sense, may be distinguished as the French Duchy, must be carefully distinguished from the Royal Burgundy, the Middle Khii/dom of our own chronicler. This is a state which arose out of the divisions of the ninth century, and which, sometimes as a simple kin, 1 Greek Western Empire was fast becoming German, so the character. Eastern Empire was fast becoming Greek. And a Rivalry of religious distinction was soon added to the distinction em ana ''" , Western or of lano'uao'e. As the schism between the Churches Greek and '^ ° _ Latin came on, the Greek-speaking lands attached themselves chm-ches. to the Eastern, and not to the Western, form of Christianity. The Eastern Empire, keeping on all its Eoman titles and traditions, thus became nearly identical with what may be called the artificial Greek nation. It continues the work of hellenization which was beoTin bv the old Greek colonies and which went on under the Macedonian kings. Xo power gives Fluctua- tions in more work for the oeo<>raplier ; throu"'h the alternate the extent ^ ^ , . of the periods of decay and revival which make up nearly the Empire. whole of B^'zantine history, provinces were always being lost and always being won back again. And it supplies also a geographical study of another kind, in the new divisions into which the Empire was now mapped out, divisions which, for the most part, have very little reference to the divisions of earlier times. The Themes or provinces of the Eastern Empire, The . . Themes as as they stood in the tenth centurv, have had the privi- aescribed •^ ^ ' . ^ by Con- leofe of beinii^ elaborately described by an Imperial geo- stantine no J J L n Porphyro- grapher in the person of Constantine Porphyrogennetos.^ genn.-tos. ^ See the .•special treatise on tlie Tliemes in the third vohime of Themo l.')0 BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP. lie speaks of the division as comparatively recent, and — < — of some themes as having been formed ahnost in his own time. The themes would certainly seem to have been mapped out after the Empire had been cut short both to the north and to the east. The nomencla- ture of the new di\isions is singular and diversified. Asiatic Some ancient national names are kept, while the titles of others seem fantastic enough. Thus in Asia Paplda- gonia and Kaj)padoMa remain names of themes with some approach to their ancient boundaries ; but the Armeniac theme is thrust far to the west of any of the earlier uses of the name, so that the Halys flows through it. Between it and the still independent Armenia lay the theme of Chaldia, with Trapezous, the future seat of Emperors, for its capital. Along the Saracen frontier lie the themes of Koloneia, Mesopotamia — a shadowy sur- vival indeed of the Mesopotamia of Trajan, of which it was not even a part — Sebasteia, Lykandos, Kappadokia, and Seleukeia, called from the Isaurian or Kilikian city of that name. Along the south coast the city of Kihyra has given — in mockery, says Constantine — its name to the theme of the Kibyrraiotians, which reaches as far as Miletos. The isle of Samos gives its name to a theme reaching from Miletos to Adramyttion, while the theme of the u^ycean Sea, besides most of the islands, stretches on to the mainland of the ancient Aiolis. The rest of the Propontis is bordered by themes bearing the strange names of Op>sik,ion and Optimatdn, names of Latin origin, in the former of the Bonn edition. The Treatise which follows, ' cle Admiuistrando Imperio/ is also full of geogiaphical matter. [Two earlier lists are given in the ' De Ceiimoniis ' (in the first volume of the Bonn edition), book ii. chap. 52 (pp. 713-4 and 727-8), and chap. 50. The system of Themes originated in the seventh centuiy.] THE THEMES. 151 which the word obsequium is to be traced. To the chap. east of them the no less strangely named Thema ' — ' Boukellarion takes in the Euxine Herakleia. Inland and away from the frontier are the themes Thrakesion and Anatolikon^ while another Asiatic theme is formed by the island of Cyprus. The nomenclature of the European themes is more TheEm-o- •"■ peau inteUigible. Most of them bear ancient names, and Themes. the districts which bear them are at least survivals of the lands which bore them of old. After a good deal of shifting, owing to the loss and recovery of so many districts, the Empire under Constantine Porphyrogen- netos numbered twelve European themes. Thrace had shrunk up into the land just round Constantinople and Hadrianople, the latter now a frontier city against the Bulgarian. Macedonia had been pushed to the east, leaving the more strictly Macedonian coast-districts which the Empire still kept to form the themes of Strymon and Thessalonike. Going further south, the name of Hellas has revived, and that with a singular Use of the name accuracy of application. Hellas is now the eastern side Heiks. of continental Greece, taking in the land of Achilleus. The abiding name of Achaia has vanished for a while, and the peninsula which had been won back from the Slave again bears its name of Peloponnesos. But Lake- daimonia now appears on the list of its chief cities instead of Sparta. This and other instances in which one Greek name has been supplanted by another are witnesses of the Slavonic occupation of Hellas and its recovery by a Greek-speaking power. Off the west coast the realm of Odysseus seems to revive in the theme of Kepliallenia, which takes in also the mythic isle of Alkinoos. Such parts of Epeiros and Western 152 BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP. VI. The Hndri- iitic huuls. Posses- sions of the Knipin' in Itrtlv. Cherson. Seeming Asiatic iharactei- oi the EmxMre. Nature of its Euro- pean pos- sessions. Maritime supremacy of the Empire. Greece as clave to the Empire form the theme of Xikopolis. To the north, on the Hadriatic shore, was the theme of Di/rrhachion, and beyond that agam, the Pahnatian and Venetian cities still connted as outlying- portions of the Empire. Beyond the Hadriatic, southern Italy forms the theme of Lombardy and Calabria — the latter name has now moved from the heel to the toe — hiterrupted by the principahty of Salerno, while Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi were outlying posts like Venice and Eagusa. Sicily was still reckoned as a theme ; but it was now wholly lost to the Saracen. And far away in the Tauric pemnsula, the last of the Hellenic common- weahhs, the furthest outpost of Hellenic civilization, had sunk in the ninth century into the Byzantine theme of Cherson. The first impression conveyed by tliis geographical description is that the Eastern Empire had now become a power rather Asiatic than European. It is only in Asia that any solid mass of territory is kept. Else- where there are only islands and fringes of coast. But they were almost continuous fringes of coast, fringes wliich contained some of the greatest cities of Christen- dom, and which gave their masters an undisputed supremacv by sea. If the Mediterranean was not a Byzantine lake, it was only the presence of the Saracen, the occasional visits of the Northman, which hindered it from being so. Then again, the whole history of the Empire, if it is a history of losses, is also a history of recoveries, and before long the Eoman arms again l^ecame terrible by land. The picture of Constantine Porphyrogennetos shows us the Empire at a moment when neither process was actually going on ; but the times betore and after his reii?n were times, first of loss beCtIN>;ing of the Spanish kingdoms. 153 and then of recovery. The details of these changes chap. will come at a later period of onr inquiry ; their general "~ • ' result was that, while, at the time of the division of the two Empires, the Imperial power in Eastern Europe was almost wholly cut down to the coasts and islands, early in the eleventh century the Eastern Kome was again the The East- head of a solid continental dominion which made it under Basil the undoubtedly the greatest among Christian powers, a second. dominion greater than it had been at any time since the Saracenic and Slavonic inroads began. § 3. Origin of the SjMuish Kingdoms. The historical geography of two of the three great Southern peninsulas is thus bound up with that of the Empires of which they were severally the centres. The case is quite different with the third great penin- Position of sula, that of Spain. There the Eomaii dominion, even the province which had been recovered by Justinian, had quite passed away, and it was only a small }>art of the land which was ever reincorporated, even in the most shadow}^ way, with either Empire. Spain was now conquered by the Saracens, as it had before been The Saia- conquered by the Eomans, with this difference, that it quest. ^ -^ 710-71:;. had been amon^ the lono'est and hardest of the Eoman conquests, while no part of the Saracen dominion was won in a shorter time. But, if the Eoman conquest was slow, it was in the end complete. The swifter Saracen conquest was never quite complete ; it left a remnant *by which the land was in the end to be won back. But the part of the land which withstood the Sai'acen was, as could hardly fail to be the case, the same part as that whicli lield out for the longest time against the Eoman. Tlie mountainous i-egions of the North 15-1 llEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUIIOPEAN STATES. CHAP, were never wlu)ll\' conquered. Cantahria and Astiiria, VI. " . . . 7-7-^ — which had been so slow in siibniittino* to the Eoman, unHedwitii ^^^li^'li ^^^^^ uexev fully sulmiitted to the Goth, now c«ntftbnn, .^^^.^^^j^ becauie the seat of resistance under princes who claimed to represent the Gothic kings. These indepen- dent territories grew to the south, and other Christian states arose to the east. The story of their growth will come in a later chapter. But early in the eleventh century the whole north-western part of Spain, and a considerable fringe of territory in the north-east, had Begin- bceu formed into Christian states. Among these had castiitMuui been laid the foundations of the two famous kingdoms Aragon. , ^ ~ of Castile and Aragon. Portugal did not arise till a later stage. Historj- of Of these three, Castile was fated to play the same part Castile and i t i -ixr • -r-i i t t i t-i Aragon. that was play ccl by Wessex m England and by France m Gaul, to become the leading power of the peninsula. Aragon, when her growth had brought her to the Mediterranean, was to fill for a long time a greater place in general European politics than any other Spanish power. The union of Castile and Aragon was to form that great Spanish monarchy which became the terror Portugal, of Europe. Meanwhile Portugal, lying on the Ocean, had first of all to extend her borders at the cost of the common enemy, and afterwards to become a beginner of European enterprise in distant lands, a path in which Castile and other powers did but follow in her steps. buhe"""^ Meanwhile the advance of the Christians was cdiphate. l^^lp^^^ ^jy tlie division of the Saracenic power. The' Caliphates of the East and of the West fell to pieces, exactly as the Christian Empires did. The undivided Mahometan dominion in Si)ain was at the height of its? power in the tenth century. Yet even then, amid THE SLAVONIC STATES. 155 many fluctuations, the Christian frontier was on the chap. whole advancino" in the north-west. In the north-east " — • — Christian progress was slower. Early in the eleventh 1028. century, the Caliphate of Cordova broke in pieces. Out of its fraoTuents arose a crowd of small Mahometan kingdoms, and it was only by renewed invasions from Africa that the Mahometan power in Spain was kept up. § 4. Origin of the Slavonic States. We left the l)orders of both the Eastern and the Slavonic and Tura- Western Emi^ire beset by neig-hbours of Slavonic race, "i^n ima- ^ •' '-^ sions. who, in the case of the Eastern Empire, were largely mingled with other neighbours of Turanian race. Of these last, Avars, Patzinaks, Khazars, have passed away ; they have left no trace on the modern map of Europe. With two of the Turanian settlements the case'is different. The settlement of the Bulgarians, the foundation of a BuI- kingdom of slavonized Turanians south of the Danube, has been already mentioned. Another Turanian settlement to the north of the Bulgarians has been of yet greater importance in European history. In the last years of the settlement ninth century the Finnish Magyars or Hungarians, the yarsor ' Turks of the Bvzantine wiiters, beaan to count as a lians, 895. power in Europe. From their seats between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube, they pressed eastward into the lands which had been Dacia and Pannonia. The Bulgarian i)ower was thus confined to the lands south of the Danube, and Great Moravia, a Great name which then took in the western part of modern Hunoarv, fell avIioUv under MaaV'^i* dominion. This settlement is one which stands altogether bv Peculiar itself. The Magyars and the Ottoman Turks are the of the *^ , . Magyar only Turanian settlers in Euroi)c who have grown into settlement. 1 .'ifi BEGINNING OF THE 3[0DERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP, perinanent Turanian powers on European ground. The — '- — ' Bulgarinns liave been lost in the mass of their Slavonic neio'hbours and subjects, whose language they have adoi)ted. Magyars and Ottomans still remain, speaking a Turanian tongue on Aryan soil. But it is only the Magyars that have grown into a really Euro- pean state. After appearing as momentary ravagers The Kin-- in Germany, Italy, and even Gaul, the Magyars settled Hun-ary. dowu luto a Christian kingdom, which, among many fluctuations of supremacy and dependence, has re- Eftectof mained a distinct kingdom to this day. The Christi- ita religious . __ ^ connexion auity 01 Huugary however came from the Western with Rome. Church and not from the Eastern. And this fact has had a good deal of bearing upon the history of those regions. But for this almost incidental connexion with the Old Eome, Hungary, though settled by a Turanian people, would most naturally have taken its place among the Slavonic states which fringed the dominion of the New Eome. As it has turned out, difference of religion has stepped in to heighten difference of blood, and Hungary has formed a kingdom quite apart, closely connected in its history with Servia and Bul- garia, but running a course which has been in many things unlike theirs. The Mag- The geographical results of the Magyar settlement ratethr' Were to place a barrier between the Northern and the and South- Southern Slaves. This it did both directly and indi- ein Slaves. i rni 7-» • 7 rectiy. ihe Fatzmaks pressed into what had been the former Magyar territory ; they appear in the pages of the Imperial geographer as a nation with whom the Empire always strove to maintain peace, as they formed a barrier against both Hungarians and Russians. This The , % . ^ Russians, last uamc begins to be of importance in the ninth TURANIAN SETTLEMENTS. 157 century. A part of the Eastern branch of the Slavonic chap. race, united under Scandinavian rulers and bearing a "^- Scandinavian name, the Eussians were cut off from the Eastern Slaves south of the Danube by the new Turanian settlements. The Magyars again parted the South-eastern Slaves from the North-western, while the Eussians were still neighbours of the North-western Slaves. The "eoi^n'aphical position of these three divi- Effects of *- *- . the geogi-ii - sions of the Slavonic race has had an important effect phicai posi- tion of tlic on European history. The South-eastern Slaves in slaves. Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia, and the neisrhbourino' lands, History of ' ' . the South- formed a debateable ground between the two Empires, eastern the Magyar kingdom, and the Venetian republic, as soon as Venice grew into a distinct and conquering state. These lands have, down to our own time, played an important, but commonly a secondary, part in history. In later times their history has chiefly consisted in successive changes of masters. But the power of Servia, among many shiftings of its boundaries and relations, must be looked on as forming an element in Europe down to the Ottoman conquest. The history of the North-western Slaves mainly consists in different TheNorth- ^ ^ western degrees of vassalage or incorporation with the Western slaves. Empire. But, besides several considerable duchies, there grew up among them the momentary dominion of Great Moravia and the more lastincf kin^^doms of Bohemia Bohemia, ^ ^ . . Poland. and Poland. Of these two, Poland established its com- plete independence of the Empire, and became for a while one of the chief powers of Europe. Eussia meanwhile, Eussiu. forming a third division, appears, in the ninth and tenth centuries, first as a formidable enemy, then as a spiritual conquest, of the Empire and Church of Con- stantinople. Eussia had then already assumed the 158 BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. cHAr. character wliicli it has aoain imt on in later times, VI. — • — that of the one <>reat European jjower at once Slavonic in race and Eastern in faith. Eussia is now fully established as an European power. The variations of its territorial extent must be traced in a distinct chapter. § 5. Northern Europe. The Scan- The Europeau importance of the Scandinavian na- settie- tions at this time chiefly arises from their settlements in various parts of Europe, and specially in Britain and Gaul. The three great Scandinavian kingdoms were already formed. Sweden was doing its work towards the east ; the Norwegians, specially known as North- men, colonized the extreme north of Britain, the Scan- dinavian earldoms of Caithness and Sutherland, to- gether with the islands to the north and west of Britain, Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, the so-called He- brides, and Man. They also colonized the eastern coast of Ireland, where they were known as Ostmen. And it was from Norway also that the settlers came by which the coast of France in the strictest sense, the French duchy, was cut off from the dominion of Paris to form the Duchy of Normandy. But the chief field for the energy of Denmark properly so called lay within the limits of that part of Britain which we may England now begiu to call England. It was during this period and Den- . . . • <_ i. mark. that the united Ens^lish kino-dom o'rew up, that the 789-1017. , ^ & O i > many English settlements in Britain coalesced into one English nation. And this work was in a singular way promoted by the very cause, namely the Danish in- vasions, which seemed best suited to hinder it. Up to this time the great island had been in truth, NORTHERN EUROPE. 159 as it was often called, another world. It had but little chap. V X. influence on any of the lands which formed part of either " — ' of the continental Empires, and it was but little influenced by them. The English history of these times, a history Fonnatiou which is specially connected with geography, consists of Kingdom of Eii*^- two great facts. The first is the union of all the English iami.° states in Britain into one English kingdom under the West-Saxon kinsfs. The other is the establishment of a vague supremacy on the part of those kings over the whole island. The dominion established by Ecgberht was west- in no sense a knis^dom of Enoiand. it consisted snnply supiemaey "^ "^ , under in a supremacy on the part of the West-Saxon king Ecgberht. over all the princes of Britain, Teutonic and Celtic, save only the Picts, Scots, and Welsh of Strathclyde or Cumberland. The smaller kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, and Essex, formed appanages for West-Saxon cethel- ings ; but the superiority over East-Angiia, Mercia, Northumberland, and the Welsh princes was purely external. The change of this power into an united English kingdom holding a supremacy over the whole The island was largely helped by the Danish incursions invasions. and settlements. These incursions beij^an in the last years of the eighth century ; they became more fre- quent and more dangerous in the middle of the ninth; and in the latter part of that century they grew from mere incursions into actual settlements. This was the result of the fjreat stru<>-o-le in the davs of the first ^thelred and his more famous brother ^Elfred. By -^Elfred's treaty with the Danish Guthrum, the West- Division Saxon king kept his own West-Saxon kingdom and all .Eihedlnd the other lands south of the Thames, together with aVs. ''"^'™' western Mercia. The rest of Mercia, with East-Anglia and Deira or southern Xorthumberland, passed under 16U BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP. VI. Beruicia iiotDAuisli. Scandina- vian settle- ments in Cumber- land. Increase of the imme- diate king- dom of Wessex. Second West- Saxon adTance. 910-9.14. Wessex grows into England. First sub- mission of Scotland and Strath- clvde. 923. 926. Danish rule. Jkniicia, or nortlieni Xorthumbeiiaud from the Tees to the Forth, still kept its AngHaii princes, seemintjly under Danish supremacy. Over the lands which thus became Danish the West-Saxon king kept a mere nominal and precarious supremacy. In Scot- land and Strathclyde the succession of the Celtic princes was not disturbed ; but in part at least of Strathclyde, in the more modern Cumberland, a large Scandinavian population, though probably Norwegian rather than Danish, must have settled. By these changes the power of the West-Saxon kino- as an overlord was fjreatlv cut short, while his immediate kingdom was enlarged. The dynasty wliich had come so near to the supremacy of the whole island seemed to be again shut up in its own kingdom and the lands immediately bordering on it. But, by over- throwins^ the other Eniilish kinirdoms, the Danes had prepared the way for the second West-Saxon advance in the tenth century. The West Saxon king was now the only EngUsh king, and he further became the English and Christian champion against intruders who larirelv remained heathen. The work of the first half of the tenth centurv was to enlari^-e the Kingdom of Wessex into the Kinadom of Enoiand. Eadward the Elder, King, not merelv of the West-Saxons but of the English, extended his immediate frontier, the frontier of the one Ens-hsh kino-dom, to the Humber. Wales. Northumberland, English and Danish, and now, for the first time, Scotland and Strathclyde, all acknowledged the EngUsh supremacy. Under .Ethelstan Northum- berland was for the first time incorporated with the kingdom, and after several revolts and reconquests. it finally became an integral part of England, form- THE EMPIRE OF CNUT. 161 ino" sometimes one, sometimes two. Enoflish earldoms, chap. Meanwliile Cumberland was subdued bv Eadmund, — • — Cumber- and was criven as a fief to the kin^s of Scots, who ^*"d , *- >- granted as commonly granted it as an appanage to their sons, g^^fj^'^^^ Meanwhile, partly, it would seem, by conquest, partly ^^°- ■^ _ _ " " Lothian by cession, the Scottish kinofs became possessed of the granted to ^ ^ Scotland. northern part of Xorthmnberland, under the name of the earldom of Lothian. Thus, in the second half of the tenth century, a single kingdom of England had been formed, of which the AVelsh principalities, as well as Scotland, Strathclyde, and Lothian, were yassal states. Thus the English kingdom was formed, and with The it the English Empire. For the English kings in EnTpire. the tenth and eleyenth centuries, acknowledsfins" no superiority in the Ca3sar either of East or West and holding within their own island a position analogous to that of the Emperors on the mainland, did not scruple to assume the Imperial title, and to speak of them- useofthe selves as Emperors of the other world of Britain. The titles."'^ kingdom and Empire thus formed were transferred by the wars of Swegen and Cnut from a West-Saxon to a Danish king. Under Cnut England was for a Northern moment the cliief seat, and Winchester the Lnperial cuut. . . . . ^ . 1016-1035. city, of a ]Sortliern Empire which might fairly claim a place alongside of the Old and the Xew Eome. England, Denmark, Xorway, had a single king, whose supremacy further extended oyer the rest of Britain, over Sweden and a large part of the Baltic coast. That Empire split in pieces on Cnut's death. The Scandi- navian kingdoms were again separated; England itself was divided for a moment. The kingdom, acain re- united, first passed back to the West-Saxon house, and Norman then, by a second conquest, to the Xorman. After this loTe^io!'' VOL. 1. M 162 BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP. VI. England finally united by William. last revolution a division of the kingdom was never more heard of. William the Conqueror put the finish- ino- .'■stroke to the work of Ecijberht, and made Eno^land for ever one. And, by uniting England under the same ruler as Xormandy, and by thus leading her into the general current of continental affairs, he gave her an European position such as she had never held under her native kings. Summary. The West- em Empire suid the Imperial Kingdoms. France The Eastern Empire. Thus gradually, out of the state of things that followed the final division of the Empire by the election of Charles the Great, the chief nations of Europe were formed. The Western Empire, after many shiftings, took a definite shape. The Imperial dignity and the two royal crowns of Italy and Burgundy were now attached to the German kingdom. The Empire, in short, though keeping its Eoman titles and associations, and with them its influence over the minds of men, practically became a German power. Its history from this time mainly consists in the steps by which the German Emperors of Eome lost their hold on their Italian and Burgundian kingdoms, and of the steps by which the German dominion was extended over the Slaves to the East. To the West the Western Kingdom has altogether detached itself from the Empire ; the union of its crown with the Duchy of France has created the French kingdom and nation, with its centre at Paris, and with a supremacy, as yet little more than nominal, over a large part of Gaul. As the Western Empire becomes German, the Eastern Empire becomes Greek ; in the early years of the eleventh century it again forms a powerful and compact state, ruling from Naples to Antioch. Of the states to the north of it, Bulo-aria, SmDIARY. 163 Servia, Hungary, Eussia, have taken their position chap. VI. among the Christian powers of Europe, though Servia, for a short time, and Bulo-aria, for a much lono-er time, ^^^l^c ' ~ ' o ^ states. were actually reincorporated with the Empire. The powers of Poland and Bohemia have arisen on the borders of the Western Empire. Prussia, Lithuania, and the Finnish lands to the immediate north of them remain heathen. In Spain, the Christians have won spain. back a large part of the peninsula. Castile and Navarre are already kingdoms ; Aragon, though not yet a kingdom, has begun her history. In Northern Europe, the three Scandinavian nations are clearly TheScan- distinguished and firmly established. Within the isle kingdoms. of Britain the kino-doms of Eno-land and Scotland were formed in the course of the ninth and tenth centuries, and the union of England and Normandy in the England eleventh opened the way to altogether new relations mandy. between the continent and the great island. In short, at the time of the separation of the Empires, we can hardly say that any of the modern, or even mediaeval, powers of Europe existed in anything like their later shape. By the end of the eleventh century all are in • being, except Portugal, the Sicilian kingdoms, and the states which have come into beino- in much more recent times. Havini>- then reached a sta<>-e when most of the European powers have come into being, and when the two Eoman Empires are fast becoming a German and a Greek power alongside of other powers, it will be well to change the form of our present inquiry. Thus far we have treated the historical geography of Europe as a whole, gathering round two centres at the Old and the New Rome. It will henceforth be more M 2 164 BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES. CHAP, convenient to take the liistorv of the great divisions .-^ — of Europe separately, and to trace out in distinct t-hapters the later changes in the boundaries of each state down to our own time. But before we enter on the historv of these geographical and political divisions, Ecciesias- [t Will be Well to take a view of the ecclesiastical graphy. dlvlsions of "^N'estcrn Clnistendom, which are of great importance, and which are constantly referred to in the times with which we are now concerned. 165 CHAPTEE VII. THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. The ecclesiastical geography of Western Europe was chap by this time formed. The great ecclesiastical divisions were now almost ever^-where mapped out, and from of eccle- siastical hence they are more permanent than the political divi- geography. sions. The ecclesiastical o-eosraphy in truth constantly nei^ of tllG gccIG" preserves an earlier poHtical geography. The eccle- siasticai . ,,... , ^ "^ T ^ ^ ' T divisions. siastical divisions were always mapped out according Theyrepre- to the political divisions of the time when they were ^vii divi- sions. established, and they often remained unaltered while the political divisions went through many revolutions. Thus in France the dioceses represented the jurisdic- tions of the Eoman cities ; in England they repre- lUustia- -,, . -r~ii-ii*-i ^ ' ' f tions from sented the ancient Jinghsh kingdoms and principali- England ties. In both cases they outlived bv many ao-es the France. political divisions which they represented. While the political map was altered over and over again, the ecclesiastical map lasted down to quite modern times, with hardly any change beyond the occasional division of a large diocese or the occasional union of two smaU dioceses. Thus the greater permanence of the ecclesiastical map often makes it useful as a standard for reference in describing political changes. To take an instance, the city of Lyons has been at Lyons and Rheims. different times under Buraundian and under Frankisli 166 ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. CHAP king-s ; it lias been a free city of the Empire and a city — ,-- — of the modern kina'dom of France. Bnt, among all these changes, the Archbishop of Lyons has always remained Primate of all the Gauls, while the Arch- bishop of Elieims has held a wholly different position alongside of him as first prelate and first peer of the modern kingdom of France. Paris meanwhile, the political capital of the modern kingdom, remained till the seventeenth century the seat of a simple bishopric, a suffragan church of the province of Seiis. In this way the ecclesiastical divisions will be found almost everywhere to keep up the remembrance of an earlier political state of things. As the Empire became Patriareii- Christian, it was mapped out into Patriarchates as well ates, Pro- , vinces, as luto Prcfectures. Under these were the metro- Dioceses. politan and episcopal districts, which in after-times borrowed, though in a reverse order of dignity, the Divisions civil titles of provinces and dioceses. As the Church within and without the carried her spiritual conquests beyond the bounds of Empire. ^ ^ ■'•^ _ ■'^ the Empire, new ecclesiastical districts were of course formed in the newly converted countries. As a rule, every kingdom had at least one archbishopric ; the smaller principalities, provinces, or other divisions, be- came the dioceses of bishops. But the different social conditions of southern and northern Europe caused a marked difference in the ecclesiastical arrangements of the two regions. In the South the bishop was bishop of a city ; in the North he was bishop of a tribe or a district. Within the Empire each city had its bishop. Thus in Italy and Southern Gaul, where the cities were thickest on the ground, the bishojDS were most numerous and Bishops of their dioceses were smallest. In Northern Gaul the cities cities and c -\ ^ • i of tribes, are fewer and the dioceses larger, while outside the CHARACTER OF ECCLESIASTICAL DIVISIONS. 167 Empire, the dioceses wliicli represented a tribe or prin- chap. cipality were larger again. Also again, within the - — -.— - Empire the bishop), as bishop of a city, always took his title from the city ; outside the Empire, especially in the British islands both Celtic and Teutonic, the bishop of a tribe or principality often bore a tribal or territorial title. Within ilie Empire the territorial Territorial titles were known only m the case oi metropolitans, metro- ... politans. Prelates of that rank, besides their local title as arch- bishops of this or that city, often took a territorial title from the kingdom or principality within which they held metropolitan rank. This practice is found both within and without the Empire. Such titles as Primate of all the Gauls, Primate of all England, Primate of Normandy, Primate of Munster, borne by the arch- bishops of Lyons, Canterbury, Eouen, and Cashel, are familiar instances. § 1. The Great Patriarchates. The highest ecclesiastical divisions, the Patriarchates, ThePatri- thougli they did not exactly answer to the Prefectures, suggested were clearly suggested by them. And whenever the fectures. boundaries of the Patriarchates departed from the boundaries of the Prefectures, they came nearer to the great divisions of race and language. For our purpose, it is enough to take the Patriarchates, as they grew up, after the establishment of Christianity, in the course of the fourth and fifth centuries. The four older ones were seated at the Old and the New Rome, and at the two great Eastern cities of Antioch and Alexandria. Out of the patriarchate of Antioch the small patriarchate ol' Jerusalem was afterwards taken. This last seems a piece of sentimental geography ; the other divisions were 1C)S ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. cHAi'. eiuiiieiilh' practical. Whether we k)ok on the orioinal VII. * . , '^ . — . — iurisdictioii of the Bishop of the Old Rome as takiiii)^ Rome. •' ^ '-' ill the Avliole prefecture of Italy or only the diocese of Extemicii Italy, it is certain that it was gradually extended over Empire. '*^ tlie two prefectures of Italy and Gaul. That is, it took in the Latin part of the Empire, and it thence spread over the Teutonic converts in the West, as well as over Hungary and the Western Slaves. The Patri- constanti- arcliate of Constantinople or New Eome took in the "°P®- Prefecture of Illyricum, and three dioceses in the Prefecture of the East, those of Thrace, Asia, and Pontus. This territory pretty well answers to the extent of the Greek language and influence. But the two dioceses of the lUyrian prefecture, Dacia and Mace- donia, were, possibly through some confusion arising out of the two meanings of the word Illyricum, claimed by the Popes of Old Eome. But, when the Empires and Churches parted asunder, Macedonia and Greece were not likely to cleave to the Western division. But the claims of the Popes over Dacia, in the form of the Bulgarian kingdom, led to many difficulties in later Its relation tliiies. Ill coui'se of time the Byzantine patriarchate totheEast- • • i i t-> • t-i • ern Empire becaiiic ueai'ly coextensive with tJie Byzantine Empire, jind to the . " Slaves. and it became the centre of conversion for the Slaves of the East, just as the patriarchate of Old Rome was for the Teutons of the West. The patriarchate of Antioch. Antioch, before its dismemberment in favour of the Jerusalem, tiiiy patriarchate of Jerusalem, took in the whole diocese of the East, and the churches beyond the limits of the Empire in that direction. The patriarchate of Aiexau- xilexaudria answered to the diocese of Es^ypt, with the churches beyond the Empire on that side, specially the Abyssinian church, which has kept its nationality THE PATRIARCHATES. 169 to our own time. That these Eastern patriarchates chap. VII. have been for ages disputed by claimants belonging to different sects of Christianity is a fact which concerns both theolou'v and historv, but does not concern o-eo- graphy. Whether the see was in Orthodox or heretical — that is commonl)' innational — hands, the see and its diocese, the geographical extent on the map, remained the same. These then are the five o-reat patriarchates which Later '~ ^ ... > , nominal formed the most ancient o-eo p southern part. But from that very fact it follows that the ecclesiastical divisions of Italy are of less historical importance than those of most other Western countries. Small size lu soutlicrn Italy above all, the bishoprics were so provinces, numcrous, and the dioceses therefore so small, that the archiepiscopal provinces were hardly so large as the episcopal dioceses in more northern lands. So it is in the islands ; Sicily contained four provinces and Effect Sardinia three. The pecuhar characteristics of Italian of the , ... common- liistory also hmdered ecclesiastical o-eography from wealths on ^ -^ ^ & & r J theposi- beino- of the same importance as elsewhere. Where tion of the ^ -•; prelates, evcry city became an independent commonwealth, the bishops, and even the metropolitans, sank to a lower rank than they held in the lands where each prelate was a o-reat feudal lord. Relation to It follows tlicu that tlicrc are only a fgw of the arch- tlie Roman _ _ '' see. bishoprics and bishoprics of Italy which at all stand out in general history. The growth of the Eoman see also more distinctly overshadowed the Italian bishops Rivals of than it did those of other lands. The bishoprics which Rome. have most historical importance are those which at one time or another stood out in rivalry or opposition to Milan. Eome. Such was the great see of Milan, whose province took in a crowd of Lombard bishoprics ; such was the Aquiieia. patriarchal see of Aquileia, whose metropolitan juris- diction took in Como at one end and the Istrian Pola ITALY. 17] at the other. The patriarchs of Aquileia. standmoj as chap. VII. they did on the march of the ItaUan, Teutonic, and — Slavonic lands, grew, unlike most of the Itahan prelates, into powerful temporal princes. Ravenna was the Eavenna. head of a smaller province than either Milan or Aquileia ; but Eavenna too stands out as one of the churches which kept up for a while an independent position in the face of the growing- power of Eome. Milan and Eavenna, in short, never lost the memory of their Imperial days ; and Aquileia took advantage, first of a theological difference, and secondly of its temporal position as the great border see. In the rest of Italy the case is different. Eome The . . immediate herself was the immediate head of a laro-e province Roman *- Province. stretching from sea to sea. Within this the suhurbi- carian sees, those close around Eome, stood in a special and closer relation to the patriarchal see itself. Their holders formed the order of Cardinal Bishops. The famous cities o^ Genoa, Bologna, Pisa, Florence, and Meu-opoii- Siena, were also metropolitan sees, though their eccle- central ..... Italy- siastical dignity is quite overshadowed by their civic greatness. Lucca has been added to the same hst in modern times. The provinces of Pisa and Genoa are ^is* ^^^^ ■*■ Genoa. notable as havino- been extended into the island of Corsica after its recovery from the Saracens. The his- tory and extent of the Italian dioceses is, with these few exceptions, a matter almost wholly of local ecclesiastical concern. In the south the endless archiepiscopal sees The southern preserve the names of some famous cities, as Capua — provinces. the later Capua on the site of Casilinum — Taranto, inSiciiy. Bari, Otranto, and others. But some even of the me- tropolitan churches are fixed in places of quite secon- dary importance, and the simple bishoprics are endless. 172 ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. CHAP. § 3. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and _^L_^ Germany. Bv takino" a siii^ie view of the ecclesiastical arrano'e- ments of the whole of the Western Empire on this side of the Al})s and the Pyrenees, some instructive lessons may be learned. Such a way of looking at the map will bring out more strongly the differences between bishoprics of earlier and later foundation. And, if we GaiUish take the name of Gaul in the old geographical sense, German takius^ iu tlic German lands west of the Ehine which dioceses. "" formed part of the older Empire, we shall find that several ecclesiastical provinces may be called either Gaulish or German. With the boundaries of the French kingdom we have no concern, except so far as the boundarv between the Eastern and Western kino-doms of the Franks did to some extent follow ecclesiastical lines. Modern annexations of course have had no regard to them. Province Ou first crossiug tlic AIds from Italv, we find the of Soutli ^ ^ *- ' Gaul. ecclesiastical phtenomena of Italy continued in the lands nearest to it. The two provinces of Tarantaise (answer- ing to the civil division of Alpes Pennince) and Embrun (Alpes Maritimce), which take in the mountain region between Italy and Gaul, are of small size, thouo-h ot course in the actual mountain lands the bishoprics are Tarantaise. less tliick ou the grouud. The Tarantasian province con- tained only three suffragan sees, Sitten, Aosta, and Saint John of Maicrienne, three bishoprics which now belong to three distinct political powers. But in the southern Embrun. part of the province of Embrun, which reaches to the sea, the bishops' sees are thick on the ground, just as they are in Italy. So they are in the small provinces GAUL. 173 of Aiv (Narbonensis Secundd) and Aries. But, as soon chap. . . VII. as we o-et out of Provence into those parts of Gaul which — ■— ^ '-' ^ Aix and were less thoroughly romanized, and where cities, and ^'■^«^- consequently bishoprics, lay less close together, the ph^enomena of the ecclesiastical map begin to change. The Provencal provinces of Aix and Aries are bounded to the north and west by those of Vienne (which with vienne. Aries answers nearly to the civil Viennensis) and Narbonne (answering nearly to Narbonensis Prima). Narbonne. These provinces are of much greater size, and the suffragan sees are much further apart. To the west lies Audi., answering to the oldest Aquitaine or Novem- Audi. jwpulana, and to the north of these, in the remainder of Gaul, the original provinces are of still greater size. Most of them answer ver}' nearly to the older civil divisions. Aquitania Prima becomes the province of Bourses, Aquitania Secunda that of BourdeaiLv. Lug- Bomges, dunensis Prima, Secunda, Tertia, and Quarta, answer deaux, to Lyons, Rouen, Tours, and Sens. Of these Lyons, as Rouen', ^ Tours, and having been the temporal capital, became the seat of Sens. the Primate of all the Gauls. The province of Eouen too answers very nearly to the duchy of which that metropolis became the capital, and from which its archbishop took his metropolitan title. These are the oldest ecclesiastical arrangements, closely following the civil divisions of the Empire. These divisions lived through the Teutonic conquests ; and, though here and there a see was translated from one city to another, they were not seriously interfered with till the fourteenth century. Pope John the Twenty-second raised Founda- tlie see of Toidouse in the province of Narbonne and prdvhices^ that of Alby in the province of Bourges to metropoli- and Aiby, tan rank, thus forming two new provinces. He also 174 ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. CHAP. VII. Avij;jnon, 1475. Paris, 1G22. founded new l)ishoprics in several towns in these two new provinces and in that of Narbonne. In the next century Sixtus the Fourth made the church of Avicpion metropohtan. These changes help to give this whole dis- trict more of the special character of Italy and Provence than originally belonged to it. Lastly, in the seven- teenth century the province of Sens was also divided, and the church of Paris became metropolitan. Some of these changes show how closely the ecclesiastical divisions followed the oldest civil divisions, and how slowly they were affected by changes in the civil divi- sions. When Gaul was first mapped out, Tolosa was of less account than Narbo ; the Parisii and their city were of less account than the great nation of the Senones. Tolosa became the royal city of the Goth ; but it did not rise to the highest ecclesiastical rank till ages after the Gothic kingdom had passed away. Paris, after having been several times a momentary seat of dominion, became the birthplace of the modern French kingdom. But it had been the continuous seat of kings for more than six hundred years before it became the seat of an archbishop. As we draw nearer to German o-round, the eccle- siastical boundaries are found to have been somewhat more strongly affected by political changes. The Besan^on. ecclcsiastical province of Besancon answers to Maxima Sequanorum ; but it is not quite of the same extent ; the boundary of the German and Burgundian kingdoms passed through the Roman province : its eastern part is therefore found in a German diocese. The province of Rheims answers nearly, but not quite, to Belgica Se- cunda : for the ecclesiastical province took in some terri- Rheims. GERMANY. 175 torv to the east of the Scheie!. Here aeain the boundary chap of the Eastern and Western kingdoms passed through the - — — province. The metropoUtan city lay within the region which became the kingdom of France, and it became the ecclesiastical head of the kingdom. Yet one of its suffragan sees, that of Camhray, was a city of the Emjjire. The province of Trier took in no part of Trier, 785. the Western kingdom; but, besides the old province of Belgica Prima, \t stretched away over the German lands even beyond the Ehine. Wlien the old Gaul- ish bishopric of Colonia Agrippina became metro- Kbin, 785. politan under Charles the Great, its province took in nearly all the old Gaulish province of Ger mania Secunda ; but it too came to stretch beyond the Ehine and beyond the Weser. These two metropolitan sees, Trier and Koln, were old Gaulish bishoprics of the frontier land. The see of Mainz has no certain his- Mainz, 747. torical being before Boniface in the eighth century. It too was founded on what was geographically Gaulish soil ; but the greater part of its vast extent was strictly German. Three only of its suffragans, Worms, Speyer, and Argentoratum or Strassburg, were even geographi- cally Gaulish. Xo province has had more fluctuating boundaries : the elevation of Koln to metropolitan rank cut it short to the west, while it grew indefinitely to the north, south, and east, as its boundaries were enlarged by conversion and conquest. To the east it was cut short in the fourteenth century, when the king- dom of Bohemia and its dependencies were formed into the ecclesiastical province of Prag. The famous bishop- Prag, 1344. ric of Bamberg, locally in the province of Mainz, was Bamberg *^ , (Babeii- from the beginning innnediately dependent on the see berg), 1007. of Rome. 170 ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. CHAP. VII. The- thivf ceolesias- tical Electors and Arcli- chan- cellors. Salzburg, 798. Bremen or Hamburg;, 788. 1223. Magde- burg, 908. These three great archbishoprics of tlie frontier hiiul, all of whose sees were on the Gaulish side of the Ehiiie, remained distinguished by their tenqjoral rank during the whole life of the German kingdom. All the German prelates became princes ; but only these three were Electors. These ecclesiastical electors were also the Arch-chancellors of the three Imperial kingdoms, Mainz of Germany, Koln of Italy, Trier of Gaul. But, as the Frankish or German kingdom spread to the north-east, new ecclesiastical provinces were formed. The bishop- ric of Salzburg became metropolitan under Charles the Great, with a province stretching away to the east towards his conquests from the Avars. The bishopric of Bremen, another foundation of Charles the Great, was transferred under his son to Hamburg, as a metropolitan see which was designed to be a missionary centre for the Scandinavian nations. After some fluctuations, the see was finally settled at Bremen, as the metro- polis of a province, which had now become in no way Scandinavian, but partly Old-Saxon, partly Wendish. Lastly, Otto the Great founded the metropolitan see of Magdeburg on the Slavonic march. Thus the German kingdom formed six ecclesiastical provinces, all of vast extent as compared with those of Southern Europe, and with their suffragan sees few and far apart. The difference is here clearly marked be- tween the earlier sees which arose from the very beginning in the Eoman cities, and the sees of later foundation which were gradually founded, as new lands were brought under the dominion of the Empire and the Church. Still the old tradition went on so far that each bishop had his see in a city, and took his name from that city. Though the German dioceses were of LATER CHANGES. 377 large extent, yet none of the German bishoprics were chap in strictness territorial. ^^ — < — - As regards more modern changes, the number of dioceses in France was greatly lessened by the con- cordat under the first Buonaparte. But the main ecclesiastical landmarks were to a great extent re- spected. Thus the Archbishop of Eouen keeps the old extent of his province and his title of Primate of Normandy, but, of the seven Norman dioceses, Lisieuos has been joined to Bayeux and Avranches to Coutances, while the boundaries of Rouen and Evreuos have been changed to adapt them to the modern departments. So, more lately, the great diocese of Le Mans has been divided into the two dioceses of Le Mans and Laval, answering to the modern departments of Sarthe and Mayenne. These are types of the kind of changes which have been made in other parts. The Archbishop of Lyons meanwhile keeps his title of Primate of all the Gauls, but both he and the Archbishop of Eheims now yield precedence to the modern metropolitan of Paris. In no part of Christendom have the ecclesiastical Modem ec- divisions been more completely upset in modern times divisions of Germany than thev have been in Germany. The country has been and •^ . . France. mapped out afresh to suit the boundaries of patched-up modern kingdoms. Mainz and Trier are no longer metropolitan sees, while the modern map shows such novelties as an Archbishop of Miinchen and an Arch- bishop of Freiburg. Long before, under Philip the changes of Second of Spain, those parts of the German kingdom second in which had become practically detached under the lands. Dukes of Burgundy underwent a complete change in their ecclesiastical divisions. Cambray and Mechlin in Cambray, . . Mechlin, the province of Eheims, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. VOL. I. N 178 ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. CHAP. VII. Peculiai-i- ties of Spanish ec- clesiastical geography. Old divi- sions lost, and mapped out afresh after the recovery from the Saracens. Ecclesias- tical divi- sions under the West- Goths. Tarragona, Zaragoza, Valencia. of Kolii, became metropolitan sees. Later political cliano'es have made these three cities members of tliree distinct political powers. 6 4. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain. The ecclesiastical history of the Spanish peninsula presents pli£enomena of a different kind from those of Italy, Gaul, or Germany. In Italy and Gaul the ecclesiastical divisions go on uninterruptedly from the earliest days of Christianity, Western Germany must count for these purposes as part of Gaul. In eastern Germany the ecclesiastical divisions v^ere formed in later times, as Christianity was spread over the country. In Spain the country must have been mapped out for ecclesiastical purposes quite as early as Gaul. But the Mahometan conquest of the greater part of the country, followed by the Christian reconquest, caused the old eccle- siastical lines to be wiped out, and new divisions had to be traced out afresh as the land was gradually won back. The ecclesiastical divisions of Spain in the time of the Gothic kingdom simply reproduce the civil divisions of the period, as those civil divisions are only a slight modification of the Eoman provinces. Lusitania and BcBtica survived, with a slight change of frontier, both ks civil and as ecclesiastical divisions. Tarraconensis was for both purposes divided into three, Tarraconensis^ Carthagenensis, and Galloecia. As the land was won back, and as new ecclesiastical provinces were formed, the number was greatly increased, and some of them found their way to new sites. Thus the Tarraconensian province was again divided into three, those of Tarra- gona, Zaragoza, and Valencia, answering nearly to the kini>dom of Arao-on. New Carthage lost its metro- SPAIN. 179 politaii rank in favour of the great metropolis of chap. Toledo. Avliicli nunil^ered Cordova and Valladolid amono- ^ — ..^ — - its suffrao-ans. Leavino- out some anomalous districts, the rest of the peninsula formed the provinces of St. James of Compostella, Burgos, Senile, Granada, with compos- Braga, Ecora, and the later metropolis of Lisbon, the gos,seviiie, last three answerino- to the kino-dom of Portuo-al. And bianadA. Biaga, it must be remembered that the Pvrenees did not form Evora! Lisbon. an eternal boundary in ecclesiastical, any more than in civil, geography. As the kingdom of Xavarre stretched on both sides of the mountains, so did the diocese of Pampeluna ; and to the west of it the Gaulish diocese Dioceses of of Bayonne took in ground which is now Spanish, iimaand All these are survivals of a tniie when, to use the phrase of a later day, there were no Pyrenees, or when at least the same rulers, first Gothic and then Saracen, reigned on both sides of them. ^ 5. The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands. The historical phsenomena of the British islands have The British points in common with more than one of the continental countries. In a very rouoh and g-eneral view of thing-s, Britain has some analogies with Spain. It is not alto- o-ether without reason that in some leo-endary stories the names of Saxons and Saracens get confounded. In both cases a land which had been Christian was overrun by conquerors of another creed ; in both a Christian people held their ground in a part of the country ; in both the whole land was won back to Christianitv, thouo-h by different and even opposite processes in the two cases. But there is no reason to believe that the Celtic The Ccitic churches in Britain and Ireland had anything like the same complete ecclesiastical organization as the Spanish N 2 180 ECCLESIASTICxVL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. I'u.vr. VII. Tribal episcopacy. ycheme of Gregoi-y the Great. Two equal provinces in Britain. {•liurclies under the Goths. The Celtic episcopate was of an irregular and anomalous kind, and, in its most intelligible shape, it was, as was natural under the circumstances of the country, not a city episcopate, hardly a territorial episcopate, but one strictly tribal. This is nearly the only fact in the history of the early Celtic churches which is of any importance for our purpose. It might be too much to say that traces of this peculiarity were handed on from the Celtic to the Enoiish Church. The little likeness that there is between them is rather due to the fact that in Northern Europe generally, whether Celtic or Teutonic, a strictly city episcopate like that of Italy and Gaul was something which in the nature of things could not be. In truth the antiquities of the Celtic churches may fairly be left to be matter of local or of special eccle- siastical inquiry. Their effect on history is slight ; their effect on historical geography is still slighter. For our purpose the ecclesiastical geography of Britain may be looked on as beginning with the mission of Augus- tine. The English Church was formed, and the Welsh, Scottish, and Irish Churches were reconstructed, partly under its authority, altogether after its model. In the original scheme of Gregory the Great, Britain was to be divided into two ecclesiastical provinces nearly equal in extent, the two metropolitan chairs being* placed in the two greatest Eoman cities of the island, London and York. The Celtic churches were to be brought under the same ecclesiastical obedience as the heathen English. As Wales was to form part of the lot of the southern metropolitan, so Scotland was to form part of the lot of the northern. This scheme was . • ENGLAND. 181 never fully carried out. The circumstances of the con- chap. ■tXTT version caused the southern metropolis to be fixed at — r— - Canterbury instead of London, and the contemplated geographical partition of all Britain proved a failure. Wales was indeed brought into full submission to Can- terbury ; but Scotland was never brought into the same Relation full submission to York. The allegiance of the Scottish Scottish sees to their Northumbrian metropolis was at all times to York, very precarious, and it was in the end formally thrown off altogether. Of this came the singular disproportion in the territorial extent of the two English ecclesiastical provinces. Canterbury, since the EngHsh Church was suffragan thoroughly organized, has had a number of suffragans center- winch would be unusual anywhere on the continent, ym^.°^" while York has always had comparatively few, and for a considerable time had practically one only. The actual provinces and dioceses of England were Poimda- gradually formed, as the various English kingdoms eSsthig ^ embraced Christianity. As a rule, each kingdom or independent principality became a diocese. And, except in the case of a few sees fixed in cities which Temtoriai kept on something of old Eoman memories, the bishops ^'^ °^^"'"'" were more commonly called from the people who formed their flock, than from the cities which in some cases contained their chairs. For in many cases the hisliop-settle, as our forefathers called it, was not placed in a city at all, but in some rural or even solitary spot. It was not till the time of the Norman Conquest that a movement began which, systematically placed the ecclesiastical sees in the chief towns ; from that time the civic title altogether displaces the territorial. As Kent was the first part of Teutonic Britain to accept Christianity, the metropolitan see of the south 182 ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE. CHAP. VII. Canter- bury. Rochester. London. Dor- chester or Win- chester. Sherborne, Wells, Kamsbury. Elmham. Dor- chester or Lincoln. Worcester. Hereford. Lichfield. Exeter, 1050. Salisbury, 1078. Ely, 1101>. was lixed at the East-Kentish capital of Canterbury. It was thus fixed in a city which has at no time held that temporal preeminence which has in different ages belonged to York, Winchester, and London. After Canterbury the earliest formed sees were Rochester for the under-kingdoni of West-Kent, and London for the East-Saxons. The independent conversion of the West- Saxons led to the foundation of the great diocese whose see was first at Dorchester on the Thames and then at IVinchester, and from which the sees of Sherborne, Wells, and licunslmry were gradually parted off. The East- Ancrles formed a diocese with its see at Elmham ; the Middle-Ano'les settled down, after some shiftings, into the vast diocese stretching from the Thames to the Humber, with its see, like that of the older West-Saxon diocese, at Dorchester. The West-Mercian lands formed the dioceses of the Hwiccas at Worcester, of the Mage- siietas at Hereford, and the great diocese of Lichfield, stretchino- northward to the Eibble. The South-Saxons, whose bishopric kept its tribal name down to the Norman Conquest, had their see at Selsey. Devonshire and Cornwall formed two dioceses, with their sees at Crediton and Bodmin. Considerable chano-es were made in the times immediately before and immediately after the Norman Conquest. The bishoprics of Cornwall and Devonshire were united in the siiio-le diocese of Exeter. Those of Sherborne and Eamsl)ury formed the new diocese of Salisbury. By an opposite process, the huge diocese of Lincoln was dismembered by the foundation of an episcopal see at Ely. The sees of some other dioceses were also changed, commonly according to the continental practice of placing the Ijishop's chair in the chief city of the diocese. Then the see of the bishopric SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 188 of Somerset was removed to Batli^ tliat of Dorche>dom of Hunoarv formed two Latin provinces, those of Strigonium or Gfran, and of Kolocza ; the latter had a very fluctuating^ boundary to the south. The Dalmatian coast, the borderland of all powers and of all religions, formed three Latin provinces. Jadera or Zara, on her pen- insula, was the head of a small province chiefly made SUMMARY. 18" up of islands. Another metropolitan had his throne in chap. the very mausoleum of Diocletian, and the province of ^- . "— Spalato stretched some way inland over the lands which Spaiato. have so often changed masters. To the south, the see of Ragusa, the furthest outpost of Latin Christendom Ragusa. properly so called, had, besides its own coasts and islands, an indefinite frontier inland. This marks the furthest extent to which it is needful to trace our ecclesiastical map. It is the furthest point at which Latin Christianity can be said to be in any sense at home. The ecclesiastical organization of the crusading and Venetian conquests further to the south and east has but little bearing on historical geography. But, within the bounds of Latin Christendom, the ecclesiastical divisions l^oth of the provinces and dioceses within the older Empire and wliat we may call the missionary provinces beyond it, are of the highest importance, and they should always be kept in mind alongside of the political geography. 188 CHAPTEE VIII. THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. The division of 887 parted off from the general mass — , — of the Frankish dominions a distinct Kingdom of the domofthe East-Fvanks, the acknowledoed head of the Frankish East Franks kini>'doms, which, as being distinguished from its fellows s Germany, as tlic Eegnum Teutonicum, may be best spoken of as a Kingdom of Germany. But the lasting acquisition of the Italian and Imperial crowns by the German kings, Merging of aud their later acquisition of the kingdom of Burgundy, domintiie gradually tended to obscure the notion of a distinct German kingdom. The idea of the Kingdom was merged in the idea of the Empire of which it formed a part. Later events too tended in the same direction. The Em- The Italian kingdom gradually fell off from any practical perors lose . •ii* it^ citji Italy and alleofiauce to its nommal kino- the liimperor. feo did the Burgundy, ^ . . hut keep oreatcr part of the Buro'undian kiiio-dom. In Germanv Germany. or O O ^ • meanwhile, though the powers of the German kings who were also Emperors were constantly lessening, their authority was never wholly thrown off tiU the present century. The Emperors in short lost their kingdoms of Italy and Burgundy, and kept their kingdom of Germany. In the fifteenth century the coronation of the Emperor at Kome had become a mere ceremony, carrying with it no real authority in Italy. In the six- teenth century the ceremony itself went out of use. The THE THREE KINGDOMS. 189 Burgundian coronation at Aries became irregular at a chap. VIII very early time, and it is last heard of in the fourteenth - — r— century. But the election of the German kings at Fourth Frankfurt, their coronation, in earlier times at Aachen, Arils'^ises. afterwards at Frankfurt, went on regularly till the last 1792. years of the eighteenth century. So, while the national assemblies of Italy and Burgundy can hardly be said to have been regularly held at all, while they went altogether out of use at an early time, the national Endurance assembly of Germany, in one shape or another, never man Diet. ceased as long as there was any one calling himself Emperor or German King. The tendency in all three kingdoms was to split up into separate principalities and commonwealths. But in Germany the principalities and commonwealths always kept up some show of connexion with one another, some show of allegiance to their Compari- Imperial head. In Italy and Burgundy they parted off Germany, Italy, and altogether. Some became absolutely independent ; some Burgundy were incorporated with other kingdoms or became their distant dependencies ; some were even held by the Emperors themselves in some other character, and not by virtue either of their Empire or of their local king- ship. Thus, as the Empire became more and more TheEm- nearly coextensive with the German Kingdom, the tmedwitir distinction between the two was gradually forgotten. The small parts of the other kingdoms which kept any trace of their Imperial allegiance came to be looked on as parts of Germany. In short, the Western Empire became a German kingdom ; or rather it became a The Em German Confederation with a royal head, a confederation comes a Confedera- which still kept up the forms and titles of the Empire, tion. As no Gennan king received an Imperial coronation 1530. after Charles the Fifth, it micfht in strictness be said ra])hv of the German kingdom is lutemai " *- geography the o-reatest difficultv of such a work as the present. To of Ger- <-> ^ ^ many. trace the boundaries of the kingdom as against other kingdoms is comparatively easy; but to trace out the endless shiftings, the unions and the divisions, of the countless small principalities and commonwealths which arose within the kingdom, would be a hopeless attempt. Still the growth of the dukes, counts, and other princes Growth of the prinei- of Germany into independent sovereigns is the great paiities. feature of German history, as the consequent wiping out of old divisions, and .shiftino- to and fro of old names, is the special feature of German historical geography. The dying out of the old names has an historical changes in nomen interest, and the growth of the new powers which ciature. have supplanted them has both an historical and a political interest. It is specially important to mark that the two powers which have stood at the head of Germany in modern times in no way represent any of the old divisions of the German name. They have 202 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIH. C^rit;iii of I'russirt i\nd Autitria. Amilogie?. between Briinden- buvf; and othei' march - hind-. o-rown out of the outlying marks planted against the Slave and tlic Magyar. The mark of Brandenburg, the mark against the Slave, has grown into the kingdom of Prussia, the Imperial state of Germany in its latest form. The Eastern mark, the mark against the Magyar, has grown into the archduchy which gave Germany so many kings, into the so-called Austrian ' empire,' into the Austro-Hungarian monarchy of our own day. The crrowth of Brandenburo- or Prussia again affords an instructive comparison with the growth of Wessex in England, of France in Gaul, of Castile in Spain, we miolit even add, of Eome in her first advance to the headship of kindred Latium. In all these cases alike, it has been a marchland which has come to the front and has become the head of the united nation. Thegi-eat Starting from the division of 887, we shall find uudeiThe several important landmarks in the history of the FS-ish German kingdom which may help us in this most ir.25. ' ' difficult part of our work. Under the Saxon and Frankish kings, while the kingdom is enlarged by Slavonic conquests to the east and by the definite ad- hesion of Lotharingia to the west, the great duchies still form the main internal divisions. The kingdom is still made up of the four duchies of the Eastern Francia. Saxony, Alemannia and Bavaria, together with the great Decline of bordcrlaud of Lotharingia. Under the Swabian kings theDuchies , under the we scc the brcak-up of the great duchies. In the case Swabian Kings,^ ^ of Saxony the process which was everywhere silentl} and gradually at work was formally carried out in the greatest case of all by Imperial and national authority. End of the The Gauverfassung, the immemorial system of Teutonic {"ISxoi communities, now finally changes into a system of terri- Priiidpiui- torial principalities, broken only by the many free cities ties. THE DUCHIES AND THE CIRCLES. 20 C and the few free districts which owned no lord but the chap. VIII. King. In the twelfth century we see the beginnings of — — the powers which became chief at a later day, the the march powers of the eastern marchland. Here lay Saxony in 1254-1512. the later sense, a power of no small moment in German and even in European history, but which has been altogether overshadowed by two other powers of the eastern frontier. The twelfth century is specially marked as the time when the two states which have had most to do with the making or unmaking of modern Germany begin to find their place in history. It is then that the two great marchlands of Brandenburg and Austria begin to take their place among the leading- powers of the German kingdom. The time from the so-called Interregnum to the legislation under Maximilian is marked by the further grow'th of these powers. It is further marked by the beginning of that Growth of 1C1T ' ^ '^^^ House connexion of the Austrian duchy, and 01 the imperial of Austria. crown itself, with lands beyond the bounds of the King- dom and the Empire which led in the end to the special and anomalous position of the House of Austria as an European power. Durinsf the same period comes the Separation • Tvr 7 7 7 °^ Switzer- practical separation of Switzerland and the Netherlands hmd, 1495- l i^ ^ ^ 1648. from the German kinodom. In short, it was durino- of the Ne- ~ ' •- therhxnds, this age that Germany in its later aspect was formed. i43o-i648. The leijislation of Maximilian's reio-n, the attempts which Legislation ^ T under Max- were then made to bring the kingdom to a greater '"i^j.""'' degree of unit}^, have left their mark on geography in the division of Germany into 6'iVe/^5. This division. Division '' _ ^ into circles, though it was not thoroughly complete, though it did 1500-1512. not reach to every corner of the kingdom, was strictly an administrative division of the kingdom itself as such ; Ijut the mapping out of the circles, the difference 1^04 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAT VIU. Thirty Yeavs'War, lCl.S-1648. Powers holding lauds with- in and without Germany. Austria. Sweden. Union of P.randen- hurg and Prussia. Rivalry of Prussia and Austria. Hannover and Great Britain, 1715. of wliicli ill point oi' size is remarkable, was itself allefted by the geographic al extent of the dominions of the princes who held lands within them. The circles were, in a faint way, a retnrn to the ancient duchies, the names of which were to some extent kept on. The two Sa,i'Ou circles. Upper and Lower, and the three circles of Franconia, Sicabia, and Bavaria^ all kept ancient names, and most of them kept some measure of geographical connexion with the ancient lands whose names they bore. The other circles, those of Upper and Lower Rhine, of West/alia, Austria, and Burgundy — the last name beini>- used in a sense altosjether new — arose out of later changes. The seventeenth century is marked in German his- tory by the results of the Thirty Years' War and of other changes. Its most important geographical result was to carry on the process which had begun with the Austrian House, the growth of powers holding lands both within and without the Empire. Thus, besides the union of the Hunoarian kino'dom with the Austrian archduchy, the King of Sweden now held lands as a prince of the Empire, and the same result was brought about in another way b}^ the union of the Electorate of Brandenburg with the Duchy of Prussia. This, and other accessions of territory, now made Brandenburg as distinctly the first power of northern Germany as Austria was of southern Germany, and in the eighteenth century the rivalry of these two powers becomes the chief centre, not only of German but of European politics. The union of the Electorate of Hannover under the same sovereign with the kingdom of Great Britain further increased the number of princes ruling both within Germany and without it. Lastly, the wars of THE DUCHIES. 205 the latter years of the eig-hteenth and the beoinnino- chap. . . . VIII. of the nineteenth century led to the dissolution alike -- — ^— 1 ' 1 1 f> 1 T^ "n • Dissolution of the German kmo-dom and of the Eoman Jinipire. ottheKing- ° , . . dom, 1806. Then, after a time of confusion and foreign occupation, comes the formation of a Confederation with boundaries The Ger- man Con- nearly the same as the later boundaries of the kingdom, federation, •^ . . ^ . 1815-1866. But the Confederation itself now appears as something quite subordinate to its two leading members. Ger- many, as such, no longer counts as a great European power, but Prussia and Austria, the two chief holders Austria and •'■ Prussia at once of German and of non-German lands, stand forth greater than the among the chief bearers of European rank. Lastly, the Confedera- changes of our own day have given us an Imperial Germany with o-eooraphical boundaries altoo'ether new. The new J O ^ ^ ^ '^ Confedera- a Germany from which the south-eastern German lands t^n and Empire, are cut off, while the Polish and other non-German isee-isvo. possessions of Prussia to the north-east have become an integral part of the new Empire. The task of the geographer is thereby greatly simplified. Down to the last chano-es, one of his greatest difficulties is to make his map show with any clearness what was the extent of the German Kino-dom or Confederation, and at the same time what was the extent of the dominions of those princes who held lands both in Germany and out of it. By the last arrangements this difficulty at least is altogether taken away. Under the Saxon and Frankish Kings, then, the old Germany names, markino- the ureat divisions of the German Saxonand ' . '^ '; . Frankish people, still keep their predominance. All smaller Empire. divisions are still subordinate to the great duchies. The great , *" Duchies. Amoni? these, the kernel of the kmL'"dom, the Eastern Eastern Francia, is the only one whose boundaries had little cutoff 206 CHAP. Ylll. rrom ••\tonsiou. Krontior jiosition of Sivxony, iukI Alo- lutinniti. KxiTOsed position of liOtlmr- iiigia and Uurjrundv. Vanishing of Francia. Its eccle- siastical Dukes. Analogy with Wessex. THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. or no chance of being extended or lessened at the cost of foreign powers. It had the smallest possible frontier towards the Slave. On the other hand, Saxony has an ever Ihictuating boundary against the Slave and the Dane; Bavaria marches upon the Slave, the Magyar, and the Kino-dom of Italy, while Alemannia has a shifting frontier towards both Burgundy and Italy. Lotharingia, and Burgundy after its annexation, are the lands which He exposed to aggression from the West. Ii is perhaps for this very reason that, of the four duchies which preserved the names of the four great divisions of the German nation, the Eastern Francia is the one which has most utterly vanished from the modern map and from modern memory. Another cause may have strengthened its tendency to vanish. The policy of the kings forbade that the Frankish duchy should become the abiding heritage of any princely family. The ductil title of the Eastern Francia was at two periods of its history borne by ecclesiastical princes in the persons of the Bishops of Wurzhurg ; but it never gave its name, like Saxony and Bavaria, to any ruling- house. The English student will notice the analogy by which, among all the ancient English kingdoms, Wessex, the cradle of the EngHsh monarchy, is the one whose name has most utterlv vanished from modern memorv- The only way to grasp the endless shiftings and divisions of the German principalities, so as to give anything like a clear general view, will be to take the great duchies, and to point out in a general way the steps by which they split asunder, and the chief states of any historical importance which rose out of their THE DUCHY OF SAXONY. 207 divisions. To beoiii with the o-reatest, the duchy of chap. *- . . -, . VIII. Saxony consisted of three main divisions. West/alia, • — ,-^— T 7-1 ' 7 rni • • ^ Saxony ; Enqern or Aiurna, and hasttalia. lliuringia to the its three south-east, and the Frisian lands to the north-west, may westfaiia, Angria, be looked on as in some sort appendages to the Saxon Eastfaiia. duchy. The duchy was capable of any amount of extension towards the east, and the lands gradually Growth of. ^^ Saxony at won from the Wends on this side were all looked on as theexpense of the additions made to the Saxon territory. But the great slaves. Saxon duchy was broken up at the fall of Henry the Breakupof .the Duchy, Lion. The archiepiscopal Electors of Koln received ii82-ii9i. the title of Dukes of Westfaiia and Engern. But in Duchy of the greater part of those districts the grant remained merely nominal, though the ducal title, with a small actual Westfalian duchy, remained to the electorate till the end. The name of Sa.wny, as a geographical New use of ^ ^-^ (• f r ^ *'^^ name ex23ression, now clave to the ii,astialian remnant oi the saxomj. old duchy, and to Thuringia and the Slavonic con- quests to the east. In the later division of Germany these lands formed the two circles of Upper and Loicer ^axony ; and it was within their limits that the various The saxon states arose which have kept on the Saxon name to our own time. From the descendants of Henry the Lion himself, and from the allodial lands which they kept, the Saxon name passed away, except so far as they became part of the Lower-Saxon circle. They held thei)- place as princes of the Empire, no longer as Dukes of Saxony, but as Dukes oi Brunswick, a house which gave Eome Duchy of , Brunswick. one Emperor and England a dynasty of kings. After some of the usual divisions, two Brunswick principal!- its divi- sion, 1203. ties finally took their place on the map, those of Lune- Liineburg hurg and Wolfenbuttel, the latter having the town of fenbiitt'ei i!OS Till', l.MT»ERIAL KINGDOMS. ciivr VIll. lilinebur^ iicquiros the bislioj) rics of Bvf iiten itiul Verilfii, 1715-171!!. Eli'ctoniti' of Han- novor or Brunswick riiinebnr^', lWt-2. Till' new Siixonv. Beruhavd duke of Saxonv, llSO-121-i. Sachsen- Lauen- burg. 142:j. Divisions and unions. 1547. niim^wick for its capital. The LUnebuvg- duchy grew, l.atc ill the seventeenth century it was raised to the electoral rank, and early in the next century it was linalh' enlarged by the acquisition of the bishoprics oi' Bremen and Verden. Thus was formed the Electo- rate, and afterwards Kingdom, of Hannover, while the simple ducal title remained with the Brunswick princes of the other line. The Saxon name itself altogether withdrew in the end from the old Saxony to the lands conquered from the Slave. On the fall of Henry the Lion, the duchy of Saxony, cut short by the grant to the archbishops of Kohl, was granted to Bernhard of Ballensted, the founder of the Ascanian House. Of the older Saxon land his house kept only for a while the small district north of the Elbe which kept the name of Sachsen- Lauenbnr(j, and which in the end became part of the Hannover electorate. But in Thuringia and the con- quered Slavonic lands to the east of Thuringia a new Saxony arose, which kept on somewhat of the European position of the Saxon name down to modern times^ The new Saxony, with Wittenberg for its capital, grew, through the addition of Thuringia and Meissen, into the Saxon electorate which played so great a part during the three last centuries of the existence of the German kingdom. But in Saxony too the usual divisions took place. Lauenljurg parted off; so did the smaller duchies which still keep the Saxon name. The ducal and electoral dignities were divided, till the two, united under the fomous Maurice, formed the Saxon electorate as it stood at the dissolution of the kingdom. It was in short a new^state, one which had succeeded to the Saxon name, but which in no other THE ^^EW SAXONY. 209 wav represented the Saxony whose conquest cost so chap. many campaigns to Charles the Great, VIII. Another power which arose in the marchLind of The Mark of Bran- Saxon and Slave, to the north of Saxony in the later deubmg. ; sense, was the land known specially as the Mark, the groundwork of the power which has in our own day risen to the head of Germany. The North Mark of . Saxony became the Mark of Brandenburg. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, under Albert the Bear Reign of and his house, the Mark greatly extended itself at Bear.iisi- the expense of the Slaves. United for a time with the union with kingdom of Bohemia, it passed into the house of the 1373-1415. Burgofraves of Niirnherq, that House of HohenzoUern House of Cfc t/' Hohenzol- which has grown step by step till it has reached Im- l^^"^' ^^^''• perial rank in our own day. The power thus formed presently acquired a special character by the acquisi- tion of what may be called a German land out of Germany, a land which afterwards gave its princes a higher title, and which by its geographical position led irresistibly to a further increase of territory. Early in the seventeenth century the Electors of Brandenburg acquired by inheritance the Duchy of Prussia, that union of • -n T-» • r> Branden- is Eastern Prussia, a fief, not of the Empire but of burg and Prussia, the crown of Poland, and which lay geographically leii-ieis. apart from their strictly German dominions. The com- p/jf^gj^ jj^. mon sovereign of Brandenburg and Prussia was thus ofToiS the man of two lords ; but the Great Elector Frederick bJcSmes William became a wholly independent sovereign in his 1701'°'"' duchy, and his son Frederick took on himself the kingly title for the land which was thus freed from all homage. ^ Both before and after the union with Prussia, the Electors of Brandenburg continued largely to increase their Ger- VOL. I. P 210 THE IMPERIAL KIN(;D0MS. lilAl'. VIII. 1 533-1 6'2M. Woslfrtliivn possessions of Hnm- ilonlmrp, IGU-lf.CO. 170i-174-». Acquisi- tions in Pome- ranift, It*.38-1G48. 1710-1719. Later ac- quisitions of Prussia.' German character of the Prussian Monarchy. Spread of the name of Prussia. man doininions. A temporary possession of the princi- pality of Jdgenidorf in Silesia, unimportant in itself, led to "-reat events in later times. The acquisition, at various times in the seventeenth century, of Cleve and other outlying Westfalian lands, which were further increased in the next century, led in the same way to the modern dominion of Prussia in western Germany. But the most solid acquisition of Bi-andenburg in this age was that of Eastern Pomerania^ to which a further increase of terri- tory, includini]f the town of Stettin, was added after the wars of Charles the Twelfth of Sweden. The events of the Thirty Years' War also increased the dominions both of Brandenburg and Saxony at the expense of the neigh- bouring ecclesiastical princes. The later acquisitions of the House of HohenzoUern, after the Electors of Bran- denburg had taken the kingly title from their Prussian duchy, concern Prussia as an European power at least as much as they concern Brandenljurg as a German power. Yet their proper place comes in the history of Germany. Unlike the other princes who held lands within and without the German kingdom, the Kings of Prussia and Electors of Brandenburg have remained essentially German princes. Their acquisitions of territory out of Germany have all been in fact enlargements, if not of the soil of Germany, at least of the sphere of German influence. And, at last, in marked contrast to the fate of the rival House of Austria, the whole Prussian do- minions have been incorporated with the new German Empire, and form the immediate dominion of its Im- perial head. The outward sign of this special position of Brandenburg, as compared with Holstein or Austria, is the strange extension of the Prussian name. Nothing of the same kind has taken place in the case of the BEANDENBURG AND PRUSSIA. 211 dominions of the other princes who held both German chap. and non-German lands. The Duke of Holstein was ~ — ' King of Denmark, but Holstein did not come to be called Denmark. The Archduke of Austria was Kinir of Hungary, but Austria never came to be called Hungary ; the change in that quarter was rather the other way. The Elector of Brandenburg was also King of Prussia, and the name of Prussia has gradu- ally spread itself over Brandenburg and all his other dominions. Within Germanv the oi'eatest enlaroement of the dominion of Prussia — as we may now begin to call it instead of Brandenburg — was the acquisition of by far the greater part of Schlesien or Silesia, hitherto part of conquest of Silesia, the Bohemian lands, and then held by the House of i74i. Austria. This, it should he noted, was an acquisition which could hardly fail to lead to further acquisitions. The geographical characteristic of the Prussian do- Geographi- , *" '^ _ ^ _ cal cliarac- minions was the wav in which they lav in detached t«i-ofthe '' ^ Prussian pieces, and the enormous extent of frontier as com- ^01111111008 pared with the area of the country. The kingdom itself lay detached, hemmed in and intersected by the territory of Poland. The electorate, with the Pome- ranian territory, formed a somewhat more compact mass ; but even this had a very large frontier com- pared with its area. The Westfalian possessions, the district of Cottbus, and other outlying dominions, lay quite apart. The addition of Silesia increased this cha- racteristic yet further. The newly won duchy, barely joining the electorate, ran out as a kind of peninsula Position of l^etween Saxony, Bohemia, and Poland. Silesia, first as a Polish and then as a Bohemian fief, had formed part of a fairly compact geographical mass ; as i)art of p 2 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CllAl'. VIII. A«.-«|uisi- tious from Poland, ITTU-lTll.".. Their geo- trrnpliioiil chavaoU'r. 177'i. 1798 1795. East- Friesland, 1744. the .>^;iim' dominion with Prussia and Brandenburg, it wa:^ an all but isolated land with an enormous frontier. The details of the Polish acquisitions of Prussia will be best uiven in our survey of Poland. But it should be noted that each of the portions of territory which were added to Prussia by the several partitions has a geo- oraphical character of its own. The addition of West- Prussia — that is the geographical union of the king- (U>m and the electorate — was something which in the nature of things could not fail to come sooner or later. The second addition of South-Prussia might seem geo- graphically needed in order to leave Silesia no longei' peninsular. The last, and most short-lived addition of New-East- Prussia had no such geographical necessity as the other two. Still it helped to give greater com- pactness to the kingdom, and to lessen its frontier in comparison with its area. Another acquisition of the House of Hohenzollern during the eighteenth century, though temporary, de- serves a passing notice. Among its Westfalian annexa- tions was East-Friesland. The Kin<>- of Prussia thus became, during the last half of the eighteenth century, an oceanic potentate, a character which he presently lost, and which, save for a moment in the days of con- fusion, he obtained again only in our own day. Parts of Saxoiiy held by foreign kings. A large part of Saxony, both in the older and in the later sense, thus came to form part of a dominion con- taining both German and non-German lands, but in which the German character was in every way pre- dominant. Other parts of Saxony in the same ex- tended sense also came to form part of the dominions of princes who ruled both in and out of Germany, but SAXOX POSSESSIONS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 213 in whom the non-German character was yet more chap. VIII. predominant. The old Saxony beyond the Elbe, the ^ — — ' modern Holstein, passed into the hands of the Danish Hoistein: Kino's, Its shiftino- relations towards Denmark and its relation Germany and towards the neighbouring land of Sles- wiek. wich, as haying become matter of international dispute between Denmark and Germany, will be best spoken of when we come to deal generally with the Baltic lands. The events of the Thirty Years' War also made the Swedish kings for a while considerable potentates in northern Germany. The Peace of Westfalia con- German . ^ ^ ten-itories firmed to them nestern Fomerania and the town oi of Sweden, 1618-1815. Wisniar on the Balti(% and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verclen which gaye them an oceanic coast. But these last lands were afterwards ceded to Hannover, and 1720. the Pomeranian possessions of Sweden were also cut short by cessions to Brandenburg. But the possession of Wismar and a part of Pomerania still gave the Swedish kings a position as German princes down to the dissolution of the Empire. These are the chief powers which rose to historical importance within the bounds of Saxony, in the widest sense of that word. To trace every division and union which created or extinguished aii}' of the smaller principalities, or even to mark every minute change of Free cities . of Saxony. frontier among the greater powers, would be impossible. But it must be further remembered that the Saxon circles were the seats of some of the oreatest of the free cities of Germany, the leading members of the Han- The Hanse '' ' '^ Towns. seatic Leao-ue. In the growth of German (commerce the Rhenish lands took the lead, and, in the earliest days of the Hausa, Koln held the first place among its cities. The pre-eminence afterwards passed to havens nearer o I J THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, lo the Ocean and the I^ahic, where, among a crowd of — ^— others, tlie Imperial cities of Lilheck and Bremen stand Brenu-n. ^^^^^ forcniost, and with them Jfamhun/, a rival which has ill later times outstripped them. And at this point it may be noticed that Ltibeck and Bremen specially illustrate a law which extended to many other of the episcopal cities of Germany. The Bishop became a The cities priiice, and held a greater or smaller extent of territory hishJ^rics. hi temporal soyereignty. But the city which contained his see remained independent of him in temporal things, and knew him only as its spiritual shepherd. Such were the arclibishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Ltibeck. principalities which, after the change of reli- gion, passed into secular hands. But the two cities always remahied independent commonwealths, owning no superior but the Emperor. Franconia. The iicxt aiiioiig tlic great duchies, that of Eastern Francia, Franken, or Franconia, is of much less im- portance in European history than that of Saxony. Its ducal title lived on to the end ; but it was borne only by Bishops of ecclesiastical dukes, the Bishops of Wiirzhunj. Ancient Dukes. " Francia cannot be said to be in any sense continued in any modern state. Its name gradually retreated, and Extent of the circlc of Franken or Franconia took in only the the Circle. r. i • -it rrn most eastern part of the ancient duchy. The western and northern part of the duchy, together with a good deal of territory which was strictly Lotharingian, be- Tiie came part of the two PJienish circles. Thus Fidda, the Rhenish ^ Circle.. greatest of German abbeys, passed away from the Frankish name. In north-eastern Francia, the Hessian principalities gi'ew up to the north-west. Within the Franconian circle lay Wilrzbunj, the see of its FRANCONIA AND BAVARIA. 215 episcopal dukes, as also the other great bishopric chap. of Bamberg, together with the free city of Nilrnber;/, ' — ' and various smaller principalities. In the Ehenish lands, both within and without the old Francia, one Ecclesias- tical states chief characteristic is the predominance of the eccle- on the , ^ Rhine. siastical principalities, Mainz, Koln, Worms, Speyer, and Strasshurg. The chief temporal power which arose in this region was the Palatinate oj the Rhine, a power which, like others, went through many unions and divi- sions, and spread into four circles, those of Upper and Lower Ehine, Westfalia, and Bavaria. This last district, though united with the Palatine Electorate, was, from the early part of the fourteenth century, distinguished from the Palatinate of the Ehine as the Oherpfalz or Upper Palatinate. To the south of it lay the Bavarian Bavaria. principalities. These, united into a single duchy, formed the power which grew into the modern kingdom. But neither this duchy nor the whole Bavarian circle at all reached to the extent of the ancient Bavaria which bordered on Italv. The early stages of the Thirty shiftings between Years' War o-ave the Ehenish Palatinate, with its elec- Bavaria ~ and the toral rights, to Bavaria; the Peace of Westfalia restored Jg*^**"'^*^- the Palatinate, leavino- Bavaria as a new electorate. Electorate ' <^ of Bavaria, Late in the eighteenth century, Bavaria itself passed to JJ^^^^^^ ^^ the Elector Palatine, thus forming what may be called f^rj^^^°' modern Bavaria with its outlying Ehenish lands. This acquisition was at the same time partly balanced by the cession to Austria of the lands east of the Lm, known cession to as the Innviertel. The other chief state within the 1778. '' Bavarian circle was the great ecclesiastical principality Arch- of the archbishops of Salzburq in the extreme south- of'saiz- ^ '^ burg. east. The old Lotharingian divisions, as we see them in 210 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CH.vr. VIll. Ijothar- ingia. Ijower IjO- tharitigitv. Puchy of lx)th- ringon or Ix>rraiiio. Klsass. Circle of Swabia. Ecclesias- tical powers of Swabia. Part of Swabia becomes Switzer- la'ifl. Baden. Wiii-ttem- berj?. the time of the oreat ducliies, utterly died out. The states which arose in the Lower Lotharingia are among those which silently fell ofl" from the German Kingdom to take a special j)osition under the name of the Nether- lands. The special duchy of Lothringen or Lorraine was held to belong to the circle of Upper Ehine. Elsass also formed part of the same circle, the circle which was specially cut short by the encroachments of France. The Swahian circle answered more nearly than most of the new divisions to the old Swabian duchy, as that duchy stood without cotmting the marchland of Elsass. Xo part of Germany was more cut up into small states than the old land of the Hohenstaufen. A crowd of principalities, secular and ecclesiastical — among them the lesser principalities of the Hohenzollern house — of free cities, and of outlying possessions of the houses of Austria, made up the main part of the circle. Strassburg, Augsburg, Coiistanz, St. Gallen, C/iur, Zu- rich, are among the great bishoprics and other eccle- siastical foundations of the old Swabia. But, as I shall show more fully in another section, large districts in the south-east, those which formed the Old League of High Germany, had practically fallen away from the kingdom before the new division was made, and were therefore never reckoned in any circle. Two Swabian principa- lities, the mark of Baden, and Wurttemberg, first county and then duchy, came gradually to the first place in this region. As such they still remain, preserving in some sort a divided representation of the old Swabia. Two important parts of the old kingdom, two circles of the division of Maximilian, still remain. These are the lands which form the circles of Burgundy and SWABIA AND AUSTRIA. 217 Austria. These are lands which have, hi earher or chap. later times, wholly fallen off from the German King- — • — dom. The Austrian circle was formed of the lands in circle ot Austria. southern Germany which gradually gathered in the hands of the second Austrian dynasty, the House of Habsburg. Starting from the original mark on the Hunsfarian frontier, those lands yrew, first into a great Growth oi German, and then into a great European, power, and of Austria. the latest changes have made even their German lands politically non-German. The growth of the Austrian House will therefore be properly dealt with in a sepa- rate section. It is enough to say here that the Austrian Extent of '- "^ _ its German xlominion in Germany gradually took in, besides the ia"ci«- (OTginal duch}^ the south-eastern duchies of Stele r mark or Styria, Kcirntlien or Carinthia, and Krain or Ca?miola, with the Italian borderlands of Gortz, Aquileid, and part of Istria. Joined to these by a kind of geographical isthmus, like that which jonis Silesia and Brandenburg, lay the western possessions of the house, the Bavarian county of Tyrol and various outlying strips and points Tyrol. of land in Swabia and Elsass. The growth of the Loss of Confederates cut short the Swabian possessions of Aus- I'^ncis. tria, as the later cession to France cut short its Alsatian possessions. Still a Swabian remnant remained down to the dissolution of the Kinadom. The kingdom of Bohemia, with the dependent lands of Moravia and Si- Bohemia and its lesia. though held by the Archdukes of Austria and tiopend- •^ •' eiiqies. giving them electoral rank, was not included in any German circle. The Austrian circle moreover was not wholly made \x\) of the dominions of the Austrian house ; besides some smaller territories, it also took in the bishoprics oi Trent mi^ Briven nw t lie debnt cable tVon- Trent und /• T 1 11 • Brixen. tier 01 Italy and old Bavaria. 218 THE LMPEKIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, vill. Circle of lUii-fiumly. I)oiniuion of the Vftlois Dukes within the Eun>ii"e. The liui)erinl Xetliei- huids. County of Burgundy. Flanders and Artois released from homage to France, 1.-.26. The Bnvgundian circle was the last and the strangest use of tlie Jkiriiiindian name. It consisted of those parts of the dominions of the Dukes of Burgundy of the House of Yalois which remained to their descendants of the House of Austria at the time of the division into circles. These did not all lie strictly within the boun- daries of the German kingdom. Within that king- dom hideed lay the Northern Netherlands, the Frisian lands of Holland, Zealand, and West-Friesland, as also Brabant and other Lothariiigian lands. But the circle also took in the County of Burgimdy or Franche- Comte, part of the old kingdom of Burgundy, and lastly Flanders and Artois, lands beyond the bounds of the Empire. These were fiefs of France which were released from their homage to that crown by the treaty between Charles the Fifth and Francis the First of France. The Burgundian circle thus took in all the Imperial fiefs of the Yalois dukes, together with a small part of their French fiefs. As all, or nearly all, of these lands altogether fell away from the German kingdom, and as those parts of them which now form the two kingdoms of the Low Countries have a certain historical being of their own, it will be well to keep their more detailed mention also for a special section. Germany changed from a kingdom to a confede- ration. Sketch of the pro- cess, 1800- 1815. § 2. The Confederation and Empire of Germany. Our survey in the last section has carried us down to the beginning of the changes which led to the break- up of the old German Kingdom. Germany is the only land in history which has changed from a kingdom to a confederation. The tie which bound the vassal princes to the king became so lax that it was at last thrown off altogether. In this process^ CONFEDERATION AND EMPIRE. 219 foreign invasion largely helped. Between the two pro- chap. cesses of foreign war and domestic disintegration, a ^ — — ' chaotic time followed, in which boundaries were ever shifting and new states were ever rising and falling. In the end, nearlv all the lands which had formed the The Ger- ' " man Bu7id, old kingdom came together again, with new names and ^^'^^• bomidaries, as members of a lax Confederation. The The new Coiifede- latest events of all have driven the former chief of the ;;?tio" "^»-ether put an end to the peninsular position of Silesia, even as regarded the strictly German possessions of Prussia. The kingdom was at the same time rendered more compact by the recovery of part of its Polish possessions under the name of the Grand Duchy of Posen. In western Germany again Prussia now made great acquisitions. Its old outlying Ehenish and Westfalian possessions grew into a large and toler- ably compact territory, though lying isolated from the great body of the monarchy. The greater part of the territory west of the Ehine which had been ceded to France now became Prussian. The Prussian dominions now took in the cities of Koln, no longer a metropolitan see, Aachen, Trier, Milnster, and Paderhorn. The main part of the Prussian possessions thus consisted of two detached masses, of very unequal size, but which seemed to crave for a closer geographical union. The Principality of Neufchdtel, which made the Prussian king a member of the Swiss Confederation, will be mentioned elsewhere. Of the other powers which entered the Confedera- tion for the German parts of their dominions, but which also had territories beyond the Confederation, Austria recovered Sahburcj, Tyrol, Trent, and Brixen, together with the south-eastern lands which had passed to France. Thus the territory of the Confederation, THE GERMAN COMFEDERATION. 225 like that of the old Kingdom, again reached to the chap, "" . VIII Hadriatic. Denmark entered the Confederation for Hoi- <-^-^ stein, and for a new possession, that of Lauenburg, the o^Deu!*^^' duchy which in a manner represented ancient Saxony. Hoktein The Kinii' of the Netherlands entered the Confederation biu„ '^^^^ for the Grand Duchy of LiLvernbiira, part of which how- Luxem- . . burg. ever was cut off to be added to the Ehenish possessions of Prussia. Sweden, by the cession of its last remnant Sweden gives up of Pomerania, ceased aUoaether to be a German power, Pome- ' ^ rani a. There were thus five })owers whose dominions lay partly within the Confederation, partly out of it. In the case of one of these, that of Prussia, the division Prussia the 1 r^ 1 r-i • 1 greatest between German and non-German territory was purely German Power. formal. Prussia was practically a purely German power, and the greatest of pureh* German powers. Her rival Austria stood higher in formal rank in the Confedera- Austria. tion, and her princes ruled over a much greater con- tinuous territory ; but here the distinction between German and non-German lands was really practical, as later events have shown. It has been found possible to compari- sliut out Austria from Germany, To shut out Prussia position would have been to abolish Germany allogether. Han- and " , _ Prussia. nover, thou"fh under a connnon sovereion with Great Britain, was so completely cut off from Great Britain, and had so little influence on British politics, that it was Hannover. practically as nuicli a purely German state before its separation from Great Britain as it was afterwards. In the cases of Denmark and the .Netherlands, princes the Hob greater part of whose territories lay out of Germany Luxen held adjoining territories in Germany. Here then were materials for political questions and difllculties ; and in the case of Denmark, these questions and difficulties became of the highest inqjortance. VOL. I. Q isteni and ixn- burt .)0(j THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. >UAX. Amon<^- those members of the Confederation whose _^"^_ territory hiy wholly within Germany, the Kingdom Kingdom of Baviiria stood first. Its newly acquired lands to of Bavoria. ^^^^ ^qxMIi Were given back to Austria ; but it made lar^e acquisitions to the north-east. Modern Ba- varia consists of a large mass of territory, Bavarian, Swabian, and Prankish, counting within its boundaries the once free cities of Augsburg and Niirnherg and the great bishoprics of Bamberg and Wiirzburg. Her Besides this, Bavaria recovered a considerable part SrriSry. of thc aucicut Palatinate west of the Ehine, which adds Speyer to the list of Bavarian cities. The other wurttem- statcs wliich borc the kingly title, WiirUemberg and sI7ony. the renniant of Saxony, were of nmch smaller extent. Saxony however kept a position in many ways out of all proportion to the narrowed extent of its geo- graphical limits. WUrttemberg, increased by various additions from the Swabian lands of Austria and from other smaller principalities, had, though the smallest of kingdoms, won for itself a much higher position than had been held by its former Counts and Dukes. Along with them might be ranked the Grand Duchy Baden. of Bade?!, witli its strange irregular frontier, taking hi Heidelbersf and Constanz. Anions^ a crowd of smaller states stand out the two Hessian principalities, the Hessen. Grand Duchy of Ressen-Darmstadt, and Hessen-Cassel, whose prince still kept the title of Elector, and the Oldenburg. Grand Duchy of Nassau. The Grand Duchy of Olden- burg nearly divided the Kingdom of Hannover into two Anhait. parts. The principalities of Anhalt stretched into the Prussian territory between Halberstadt and the newly Bruns- wou Saxou lauds. The Duchy of Brunswick helped to Wick divide the two great masses of Prussian territory. In STATES OF THE CONFEDERATION. 227 the north MecUenhurq remained, as before, unequally chap. '- . * VIII. divided between the Grand Dukes of Schwerin and ,-^-^ Strelitz. Germany was thus thoroughh" mapped out burg. afresh. Some of the old names had vanished ; some had a'ot new meaninofs. The o'reater states, with the exception of Saxony, became greater. A crowd of insignificant principalities passed away. Another crowd of them remained, especially the smaller Saxon duchies in the land which had once been Thurino-ian. But, if we look to two of the most characteristic features of the old Empire, we shall find that one has passed away for ever, while the other was sadly weakened. No ecclesiastical principality revived in the ^'o eccle- siastical new state of things. The territory of one of the old v^md- . . " pality. bishoprics, that of Luttich or Liege, formerly absorbed Liittich by France, now passed wholly away from Germany, and Belgium. became part of the new kingdom of Belgium. Of the free cities four did revive, but four only. The three The four ^ FreeCities. Hanse Towns, no longer included in French depart- ments, and Frankfurt, no longer a Grand Duchy, entered the Confederation as independent commonwealths. Germany, for a while utterly crushed, had come to Revival of life auain ; she had airain reached a certain measure "atiouai ' . . ." life- of national unity, which could hardly fail to become closer.^ The Confederation thus formed lasted, with hardly any change that concerns geography, till the war of 1866. The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, which had. Division of Luxem- ' No influence was more powerful for this end than the Zollverein '^"''»' ^^^^• or customs union, which began in 1818 and gi-adually united most of the German states for certain purposes. But as it did not affect the boundiu-ies or the governments of sovei-eign states, it hai-dly concerns geography. Xeitlier do the strivings after more perfect union in 1 848 and the following years. Q 2 '2'2S THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Will- ill Sleswitk illul Holsteiii, lMlH-1851. Cession o( the Duchies to Austriii iind Prus- sia, 18C4. .\b(ilition of the Con- federation. Exclusion of Austria. North-Ger- man Con- federation. Cession of Sleswick anil Hol- stein to Pi-uss a, 1»6G. Prussian annexa- tions. All the Prussian lands ad- mitted to the Con- federation. 1)V tlu- niiniioenieuts of 1815, been held by the King of the Netherlands as a member of the German Con- fedei-alion, was, on tlie separation of Belgium and the Netherlands, cut into two parts. Part was added to Belgium ; another part, though quite detached from the kinadom of the Netherlands, was held bv its king- as a member of the Confederation. In 1839 he also entered it for the Duchy of Limburg. The internal movements which Ijegaii in 1848, and the war in Sleswick and llolstein which began in the same time, led to no lasting geographical changes. In 1849 the Swabian principa- lities oi If ohenzollern were joined to the Prussian crown. Tlie last Danish war ended by the cession of Sleswick and Holstein, together with Lauenburo- to Prussia and Austria jointly, an arrangement in its own nature provisional. Austria ceded her rio'ht in Lauenburo- to Prussia in the next year, and in the next year again came the Seven Weeks' War, and the great geographical changes which followed it. The German Confederation was abolished ; Austria was shut out from all share in German affairs, and she ceded her joint right in Sleswick and Holstein to Prussia. The Northern states of Germany became a distinct Confederation under the presidency of Prussia, whose immediate dominion was increased by the annexa- tion of the kingdom of Hannover, the duchy of Nassau, the electorate of Ilessen, and the city of Frankfurt. The States south of the Main, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, and the southern part of Hessen-Darmstadt, remained for a while outside of the new League. The non-German dominions of Prussia, Prussia strictly so called with the Polish duchy of Posen and the newly acquired land of Sleswick, were now incorporated with the Confedera- tion; on the other hand, all that Austria had held within THE NORTH GER.MAN CONFEDERATION. 229 the Confederation was now shut out of it. Lummhurg chap. ^Iso was not inckided in the new League, and, after some — .^-' T . .1 , • -1 ,1 Settlement disputes, It was m the next year recognized as a neutral of Luxem- territory under its own duke the Kino- of the Xether- lands. The httle j^rincipaUty oi Lieclitenstein was perhaps Liechten- forgotten altogether; l)ut, as not being included in the Confederation, nor yet incorporated with anything •else, it must be looked on as becoming an absolutely independent state. Thus the geographical frontiers of areatgeo- gi-apliical Oermany underwent, at a smoie blow, changes as great L-hanges, as they had undero-one in the wars of the French Eeyo- lution. The geography of the presiding power of the new League was no less changed. That extraordinary extent of frontier which had hitherto been characteristic of Prussia was not wholly taken away by the new annexations, but it was greatly lessened. The kingdom, as a kingdom, is made far more compact, and the two great detached masses in which it formerly lay are now joined together. ]\Iore- over, the geographical character of Prussia becomes of much less political importance, now that her frontier marches to so great an extent on the smaller members ■of the Leaofue of which she is herself President. Xext AVaiwith "^ r» /T" 1* 1 • 1 Finance, came the war with France, the first eiiect ot which i«7o-i87i. was the admission of the southern states of Germany The into the new League, which presently took the name of Empii-e. . " - - . -p., Incorpora- an Empire, with the Prussian King as hereditary Lm- tion of the ^ "" Southfini peror. Then by the peace with France, nearly the states. whole of Elsass, including Stnissbiirg, and part of ofTisass- r T • • • t I- -t r 1 J. n Lothrin- Lothanngia, including Jletz, were restored to LTermany. gen, i87i. They have, under the name of Elsass-Lothrinijen, become an Imperial territory, forming part of the Empire and owning the sovereignty of the Emperor, 280 THE IMPEKIAL KINGDOMS. I HAT. Vlll. I'lu' IniiH' rial titlf. The new Empire a revival of the Ger- iii;m Kinjj- dom, but not of the Roman Empire. Compari- son of the old King- dom and the new Empire. N'anie of Prussia. Position of Berlin. Formation of the new Empire. l>m not bet'Oiuiiii^' pari oi" the kingdom of Prussia or t)f any other German state. The assumption of the Imperial title could hardh' be avoided in a confedera- tion whose constitution was monarchic, and which num- bered kiiiixs among its members. No name but that of Emperor could have been found to express the relation between the presiding chief and the lesser sovereigns. Still it must be borne in mind that the new German Empire is in no sense a continuation or restoration of the Holy Piomaii Empire which fell sixty-four years before its creation. But it may be fairly looked on as a restoration of the old German Kingdom, the King- dom of the East-Franks. Still, as far as geography is concerned, no change can be stranger than the change in the boundaries of Germany between the ninth century and the nineteenth. The new Empire, cut short to the north-west, south-west, and south-east, has grown somewhat to the north, and it has grown prodigiously to the north-east. Its ruling state, a state which contains such illustrious cities as Aachen, Koln, Trier, and Frankfurt, is content to call itself after an extinct heathen people whose name had most likely never reached the ears of Charles the Great. The capital of the new Empire, placed far away from any of the ancient seats of German kingship, stands in what in his day, and long after, was a Slavonic land. Germany, with its chief state bearing the name of Prussia, with the place of its national assemblies transferred from Frankfurt to Berlin, presents one of the strangest changes that his- torical geography can show us. But, strange as is the geographical change, it has come about gradually, by the natural working of historical causes. The Slavonic and Prussian lands have been o-ermanized, while the THE NEW EMPIRE. 231 western parts of the old kinodom which have fallen away chap. "" VIII have mostlv lost their German character. Those Ger- ,-^^ man lands which have formed the kernel of the Swiss Confederation have risen to a higher political state than that of any kingdom or Empire. But the German lands which still remain so strangely united to the lands of the Magyar and the southern Slave await, at however distant a time, their natural and inevitable re- union. So does a Danish population in the extreme north await, with less hope, its no less natural sepa- ration from the German body. Posen, still mainly Slavo- nic, remains unnaturally united to a Teutonic body, but it is not likely to gain by a transfer to any other ruler. The reconstruction of the German realm in its present shape, a shape so novel to the eye, but preserving so much of ancient life and ancient history, has been the greatest historical and geographical change of our times. § 3. The Kingdom of Italy. We parted from the Italian kingdom at the moment Smaii geo- ^ ^ graphical of its separation from the Eastern and Western kino-doms importance ^ *- of the kmg- of the Franks. Its history, as a kingdom, consists in ^^omas little more than its reunion with the East-Frankish crown, and in the way in which the royal power gra- dually died out within its hmits. There is but little to say as to any changes of frontier of the kingdom as such. As long as Germany, Italy, and Burgundy ac- knowledged a single king, any shiftings of the frontiers of his three kingdoms were of secondary importance. When the power of the Emperors in Italy had died out, the land became a system of independent conmion- wealths and principalities, which had hardly that degree of unity which could enable us to say that a certahi •)-.;o THE IiMPErUAJ. KINGDOMS. _<•_ cHAF. territory was added to Italy or taken from it. Even if ^"l— a certain territory passed from an Italian to a German or liui-uundian lord, the cession wrought a change in the iVonticr of this or that Italian state; it hardly wrought a change in the frontier of Italy itself. The Changes on sliiftiugs of frontier along the whole Alpine border have f.!mu.'r!"^ been considerable ; but it is only in our own day that we can say that Italy as such has become capable of extendino- or lessening her borders. When, in 1866, Case of Venice and Verona were added to the Italian kingdom, Verona. • i r> • r t t ttt- that was a distmct change m the frontier ot Italy. We can hardly give that name to endless earlier changes on the same marchland. In the fourteenth century, for caee of iustaucc, the town of Trieste^ disputed between the patri- um.^' archs of Aquileia and the commonwealth of Venice, was acknowledged as an independent state, and it pre- sently gave up its independence by commendation to the Duke of Austria. It is not likely that the question entered into any man's mind whether the frontiers of the German and Italian kingdoms were affected by such a change. Whether as a free citv or as an Austrian lordship, Trieste remained under the superiority, for- mally undoubted but practically nominal, of the common sovereign of Germany and Italy, the Eoman Emperor or King. Whether the nominal allegiance of the city was due to him in his German or in his Italian character No eastern uiost likely uo oiic Stopped to think. East and west, or western frontiers, the Italian kingdom had no frontiers ; the only question which could arise was as to the relation of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia to the kingdom itself or to any of the states wlii<'h arose within it. To the south of the Imperial kingdom of Italy lay the independent Lom- bard duchies, and the possessions which at the time of THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. 233 the separation of the Empires still remained to the chap. VIII. Eastern C^sar. These southern lands, Lombard and — . — Byzantine, chano-ed in time into the Norman dncliy of The " _ _ _ , , Xorman Apulia and kingdom of Sicily ; but that kingdom, held kingdom as it was as a fief of the see of Home, was never incor- »ot an Impenal porated with the Italian kinodom of the Emperors, nor ^""^ did its kings ever become the men of the Emperor. Particular Emperors in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- turies, in the sixteenth, and in the eighteenth, were also kings of one or both tlie Sicilian kingdoms ; but at no time before our own day were Sicily and southern Italy incorporated with a Kingdom of Italy. When we remember that it was to the southern part of the penin- sula that the name of Italy was first given, we see here a curiosity of nomenclature as remarkable as the sliift- ings of meaning in the names of Saxony and Burgundy. Naples and Sicily then, the Two Sicilies of later political nomenclature, lie outside our present subject. So does the commonwealth of Venice, except so far as Venice no Venice afterwards won a large subject territory on the itaiy. Italian mainland. Both these states have to do with Her Italian -j^ - 1 • 1 • 1 '11 dominions. Italy as a geographical expression, Ijut neither the Venetian commonwealth nor the Sicilian kino-dom is Italian within the meaning of the present section. They formed no part of the Carolingian dominion. They Venice and were parts of the Eastern Empire, not of the Western. parto"thr They remained attached to tlie New Eome after an Empire. Imperial throne had figain been set up in the Old. They gradually fell away from their allegiance to the Eastei'n Empire, ])ut they were never incorpo- rated with the Empire of tlie West. I shall deal with them liere only in their relations to the Imperial Kingdom of Italy, and treat of their special liistor}- 234 THE IMPEHIAL KINGDOMS. Cll.M'. VIll. The Housi- of Suvov. Its sjiecirtl history. The King- dom of Italy con- tinues the liOinbiird kinKdom. Austria and Neustria. .•Emiha. Tuscany. Roraa- the states which arose out of the break-up of the Eastern Empire. Again, on the north- western inarch of Italy a power gradually arose, partly Italian, but for a long time mainly Burgundian, which has in the end, by a strange fate, grown into a new Italian kingdom. This is the House of Savoy. The o-rowtli of the dominions of that house, the process bv which it «>raduallv lost territ(uy in Burgundy and Liained it in Ttahj, form another distinct subject. It will be dealt with here only in its relations to the king- dom of Italy. The Italian Kingdom of the Karlings, the kingdom which was reunited to Germany under Otto the Great, was, as lias been already said, a continuation of the old .Lombard kingdom. It consisted of that kingdom, eidarged by the Italian lands which feU off from the Eastern Empire in the eighth century ; that is by the E.mrchate and the adjoining PentapoHs, and the imme- diate territory of Rome itself. The Lombard kingdom. in its full extent, took in the lands north of the Po, where we find, as elsewhere, an Austria to the east and a Neustria to the west. The Londjard Neustria stretches south of the Po, and takes in the western part of JEmilia, including the cities of Piacenza, Parma, Eegoio, and Modena. The Lombard kino-dom also took in Tuscany, a name which, as it no longer reaches to the Tiber, answers pretty nearly to its modern use. The Tuscan name has lived on; the Exarchate and Pentapolis, as having been the chief seat of the later Imperial power in Italy, got the name of Romania. Ikomandiola, or Romaijna. This name also lives on ; but the Lombard Neustria and Austria soon vanished from the map. Their disappearance was perhaps lucky, CAROLINGIAN ITALY. 235 as one knows not what aro-uments mio-ht otherwise chap. . , VIII. have been buih on the presence of an Austria south of . — the Alps. The Lombard Neustria, with the western part of Austria, taking in the cities of Bergamo and Brescia, got the special name of Lomhardy. The rest Lombaiciy . .... proper. of the Lomljard Austria, after various shiftmgs of names taken from the principalities which rose and fell within it, came back in the end to its oldest name, Venetia. venetia. In the north-west corner Iporedia or Ivrea appears as ^i^i^k of -* ^ ^ Ivrea. a distinct march ; but the Venetian march at the other corner, known at this stage as the duchy of Frkdi, is of Duchy of more importance. It takes in the county of Trent, the special march of Frkdi, and the march of Istria. This Fiuctua- . . tion of is the corner in which the German and Italian frontier boundary at the has so often fluctuated. We have seen that, after the north-west comer. union of the Italian and German crowns, even Verona itself was sometimes counted as German ground. Under the German kings Italy came under the compari- "" ^ , son of same influences as the other two Imperial kiniil fiets. Palaio- logoi at Mout- ferrat, 130t;. Duchy of Milan. Venicf. The Vi;,- coTiti at Milau, iaiO-1447. Grant of the Duel I y by Kinj{ Wences- laus, laiiy. ,.f Kiulolf Dt'IIabslnii-- lo the Popes, a distinction was (haw 11 between Imperial and papal territory in Italy- While certain princes and connnonwealtlis still ac- kiu)\vleil-ed at least the nominal superiority of the iMiiperor, others were now held to stand in the same relation of vassalage to the Pope. We must now trace out the growth of the chief states which were formed by these several processes, iieuinning again in the north, it must be remembered that all this while the power of Savoy was advancing in those north-western lands where the influences which mainly ruled this period had less force than elsewhere. Moutferrat too kept its old character of a feudal prin- cipality, a state whose rulers had in various ways a sino-ular connexion with the East. As Marquesses oi Montferrat had claimed the crown of Jerusalem and had worn the crown of Thessalonica, so, as if to keep even the Ijalance between East and West, in return a branch of the Imperial house of Palaiologos came to reign at Montferrat. To the east of these more ancient principahties, two great powers of quite different kinds grew up in the old Neustria and Austria. These were the Duchy of Milan and the land power of Venice. Milan, like most other Italian cities, came under the in- fluence of party leaders, who grew first into tyrants and then into acknowledged sovereigns. These at Milan, after the shorter domination of the Delia Torre, were the more abiding house of the Yisconti. Their dominion, after various fluctuations and revolutions, was finally established when the coming of the Emperor Henry the Seventh strengthened the rule of the lords of the cities throughout Italy. At the end of the fourteenth century their informal lordship was changed by a royal DUCHY OF MILAX. 241 grant into an acknowledoed duchy of the Empire. The chap. dominion which they had gradually gained, and which was thus in a manner legalized, took in all the great cities of Lombardy, those especially which had formed the Lombard League against the Swabian Emperors. Pavia indeed, the ancient rival of Milan, kept a kind of county of separate being, and was formed into a distinct county. But the duchy granted by Wenceslaus to Gian-Ga- leazzo stretched far on both sides of the lake of Garda. Belluno at one end and Vercelli at the other formed Extent of the duchy. part of it. It took in the mountain lands which afterwards passed to the two Alpine Confederations ; it took in Parma, Ptacenza, and Eeggio south of the Po, and Verona and Vicenza in the old Austrian or Venetian land. Besides all this, Padua, Bologna, even Genoa and Pisa, passed at various times under the lordship of the Visconti. But this great power was not lasting. The Duchy of Milan, under various lords, native and foreign, lasted till the wars of the French Eevolution ; but, long before that time, it had been cut short on every side. The death of the first Duke was followed by a separation of the duchy Decrease . . on the of Milan and the county of Pavia between his sons, death of Gian- and the restored duchy never rose a<>'ain to its former Gaieazzo, ; *' ^ 1402. power. The eastern parts, Padua, Verona, Brescia, The east- Bergamo, were gradually added to the dominion of won by Venice. By the middle of the fifteenth century, that i4oc-ik7. republic had become the greatest power in northern Italy. In the duchy of Milan the house of Sforza House of succeeded that of Visconti ; but the opposing claims 1450-iW "^ Claims of of the Kings of France were one chief cause of the t^e Kings ° _ _ of France, long wars which laid Italy waste in the latter years 1^99-1525. of the fifteenth century and the early years of the VOL. I. K 242 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, sixteenth. The duchy was tossed to and fro between ^^^ the Eniperov, the French King, and its own dukes. Meanwhile the dominion which was thus struggled for was cut short at the two ends. It was dis- cosM.mto niembered to the north in favour of the two Alpine L.^.suor."' Leagues, as will be hereafter shown more in detail. South of the Po, the Popes obtained Parma and The Popes Fiacenza, which were afterwards granted as papal fiefs S»n!!!i and to form a duchy for the house of Farnese. Thus the isiT"""'' Duchy of Milan which became in the end a possession rannaand q\' Charlcs tlic Fifth, and afterwards of his Spanish Piacenza, ^^*^- and Austrian successors, was but a remnant of the great dominion of the first Duke. The duchy underwent still further dismemberments in later times. With Venice we have here to deal in her somewhat unnatural position as an Italian land power. This posi- Land tion she took on herself in the fifteenth century; in Venice tlic sixtceuth it led to the momentary overthrow and 1 wonderful recovery of her dominion in the war of the War of the Lcaguc of Cauibray. This land power of Venice stands TjOQ (TUP QJ Cambray, quitc distiuct froui the Venetian possessions east of the Hadriatic. With this last lier possession of the coast of the Istrian peninsula must be reckoned, rather istria. than with her Italian dominions. Between these lay Aquileia, Trieste, and the other lands in this quarter which gradually came under the power of Austria. The Extent of coutinuous Italian dominion of Venice, after her annexa- \ enetian dominion, tiou of the lauds of the patriarchate of Aquileia, took in Udine at one end and Bergamo at the other, besides Bavenna, Cre?na, aud for a while Ravenna, as outlying possessions. Thus the Byzantine city which lay anchored off the shore of the Western Empire could for a season call the ancient seat of the Exarchate its own. But even VENETIAX DOMINIONS IX ITALY. 243 the continuous land territory of Venice lav in two nor- chap. VIII. tions. Brescia and Beroamo were almost cut oil' from ,;; — -— ' ^ Two parts Verona and the other possessions to the east bv the ?!*''^. -' \ enetiau Lake of Garda, the bishopric of Trent to the nortli, .*'''"'*°''y- and the principality of Mantua to the south. The mention of this last state leads us back ao-ain to the commonwealths which, like Milan, chansred, first into tyrannies, and then into acknowledged principalities. It is impossible to mention all of them, and some of those which played for a while the most brilliant part in Italian history had no lasting effect on Italian geography. The rule of the house of Scala at Verona, the rule of the Rule of the house of Carrara at Padua, left no lastino- trace on the Verona, map. it was otherwise with the two states which bor- of the 1 T 1 -vT • • Carrara dered on the Venetian possessions to the south. The ** Padua, • 1318-1405; house of Gonzaga held sovereisrn power at Mantua^ ofti^e ^ o i 1 Gonzaga first as captains, then as marquesses, then as dukes, ■^^.,^''"*!i''' for nearly four hundred years. Of o-reater fame was '^^'"'" the power that grew up in the house of Este, the Luke's, Italian branch of the house of Welf. Their position HoLof is one specially instructive, as illustrating the various ^^^^' tenures by which dominion was held. The marques ss of Este, feudal lords of that small principality, be- came, after some of the usual fluctuations, permanent lords of the cities of Ferrara and Modena. About The lords 1 • 1 1 1 • • °^ Ferrara, the same time they lost their oriQ-mal holding of Este, ^^ •^ & c ' Jlodena, which passed to Padua, and with Padua to Venice. i'^«4-i288. Duchy of Thus the nominal marquess of Este and real lord of J^j^"""*' Ferrara was not uncommonly spoken of as Marquess ^l^lZ!'^ of Ferrara. In the fifteenth century these princes rose ^^'^' to ducal rank ; but by that time the new doctrine of the temporal dominion of the Popes had made great advances. Modena, no man doubted, was a city of the B 2 2U THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIU. Duchy of Modcna, 145S. Duchy of Fernini, 1471. Loss of Rovigo, 1484. Cities of Bomagna. Bologna, Perugia, Biuiiiii. The Duchy of Urbino, 1478-1681. Expansion of the papal doininiong. Kiupire ; but Ferrara was now held to be under the supremacy of the Pope. The Marquess Borso had thus to seek his elevation to ducal rank from two separate lords. He was created Duke of Modena and Eeggio- b}^ the Emperor, and afterwards Duke of Ferrara by the Pope. This difference of holding, as we shall presently see, led to the destruction of the power of the house of Este. In the times with which we are now concerned, their dt)minions lay in two masses. To the west lay the duchy of Modena and Eeggio ; apart from it to the east lay the duchy of Ferrara. Not long after its crea- tion, this last duchy was cut short by the surrender of the border-district of Rovigo to Yenice. Between the two great duchies of the house of Este lay Bologna, in the land which gradually changed from Romania in one sense into Romagna in another. Like most other Italian cities, the commonwealths of the Exarchate and the Pentapolis changed into tyrannies, and their petty princes were one by one overthrown by the advancing power of the Popes. Every city had its dynasty ; but it was only a few, like the houses of Bentevoglio at Bologna, of Baglioni at Perugia, and Mala- testa at Rimini, that rose to any historical importance. One only combined historical importance with acknow- ledged princely rank. The house oi Montefeltro,\ovdi^oi Urbino, became acknowledged dukes by papal grants. From them the duchy passed to the house of La Eovere, and it flourished under five princes of the two dynas- ties. Gradually, by successive annexations, the papal dominions, before the middle of the sixteenth century, stretched from the Po to Tarracina. Ferrara and Urbino still remained distinct states, but states which were confessedly held as fiefs of the Holy See. CITIES OF CENTRAL ITALY. 245 To the West, in Tuscanv, tlie phasnomena are some- chap. . . . VIII. what different. The characteristic of this part of Italy ;; — ii — : ^ >' Creation of was the grouping together of the smaller cities under ciuJ'^^^''^" the power of the larger. Nearly all the land came m the end under princely rule'; but both acknow- ledged princely rule and the tyrannies out of which it sprang came into importance in Tuscany later than anywhere else. Lucca had in the fourteenth century Lucca a short time of (greatness under her illustrious tyrant castruccio ^ _ ^ Castracani, 'Castruccio ; but, before and after his day, she plays, 1320-1338. as a commonwealth, only a secondary part in Italy. ^Still she remained a commonwealth, thouo'h latterly -an oligarchic one, through all changes down to the general crash of the French Kevolution. Pisa kept for Pisa. a while her maritime greatness, and her rivalry with the Lio'urian commonwealth of Genoa. Genoa, less Genoa. famous in the earliest times, proved a far more lasting power. She established her dominion over the coast •on both sides of her, and kept her island of Corsica Her rule in Corsica. down to modern times. Physical causes caused the fall of the maritime power of Pisa; Sardinia passed from her Sardinia ceded to to become a kingdom of the House of Aragon, and she Aragon, herself passed under the dominion of Florence. This last illustrious city, the greatest of Tuscan and even of Pisa sub. *■ . ject to Italian commonwealths, bemns to stand forth as the Florence, ' ^ ^ 1416. foremost of republican states about the time when her Greatness forerunner Milan came under the rule of tyrants. She Florence, extended her dominion over Volterra, Arezzo, and many smaller places, till she became mistress of all northern Tuscany. To the south the commonwealth of Siena siena. also formed a larae dominion. In Florence the rule of Rule of the '- :Mcdici. the Medici grew step by step into a hereditary tyranny ; Jf J^"}^27' but it was an intermittent tyranny, one which was sup- '2^{j THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. I llAl'. VIII. Alesrtiulfr, Uuk.- of F"loi>>nii', 1.-.30. I'osmo Sieim, l.->.-.7. £ll>i\, itr. Cobino Grand Duke of TusL-anv, 1507. Abeyance of the Icingdoiii of Italy, 153i>-i805. Italy a geo- jfraphical expression. i)orte(l only In' forei-iii force, and which was overturned whenever Florence had strength to act for herself. It was only after her last overthrow by the combined powers of Pope and CaBsar that she became, under Alexander, the first duke of the house of Medici, an acknowledged principalitv. Cosmo the First, the second duke, an- nexed Siena, and all the territory of that commonwealth, except the lands known as Stati de(jU Presidi, that is the isle of Elba and some points on the coast. These became parts of the kingdom of Naples ; that is, at that time, parts of the dominion of Spain. The state thus formed by Cosmo was one of the most considerable in Italy, taking in the whole of Tuscany except the territorv of Lucca and the lands which became Spanish. Its ruler presently exchanged by papal authority the title of Duke of Florence for that of Grand Duke of Tuscany. § 4. The Later Geography of Italy. Under Charles the Fifth it might have seemed that Ijoth the Eoman Empire and the kingdom of Italy had come to life again. A prince who wore both crowns was practically master of Italy. But though the power of the Emperor was restored, the power of the Empire was not. In truth we may look on all notion of a king- dom of Italy in the elder sense as having passed away with the coronation of Charles himself. The thing- had passed away long before ; after the pageant at liologna the name was not heard for more than two centuries and a half. Italy became truly a 'geogra- phical expression;' the land consisted of a number of princi})alities and a few commonwealths, all nominally independent, some more or less practically so, but the more part of which were under foreign influence, and DOMINION OF SPAIN AND AUSTRIA. 247 some of tliem were actually ruled by foreign princes. The chap. states of Italy were united, divided, handed over from ;:— -- — -' *' ' Changes one ruler to another, accordintj to the fluctuations of war ^™o."g '^^ ' ~ Italian and diplomacy, without any regard either to the will of ^***^^' the inhabitants or to the authority of any central power. A practically dominant power there was during the gTeater part of this period ; but it was not the power of even a nominal King of Italy. For a long time that dominant power was held by the House of Austria in its two branches. The supremacy of Charles in Italy passed, not to his Imperial brother, but to his Spanish son. Then followed the long dominion of the Spanish Dominion ^ ^ of Spain, branch of the Austrian house ; then came the less i '55-1701 ; thorough dominion of the German branch. This last was a dominion strictly of the House of Austria as such, of Austria, •^ ^ _ ^ ' 1713-1793. not of the Empire or of either of the Imperial "kingdoms. And now that the name of Italy means merely a certain surface on the map, we must take some notice, so far as they regard Italian history, at once of Savoy at one end and of the Sicilian kingdoms at the other. From this time both of them have a more direct bearing on Italian history. By the time of the coronation of Charles the Fifth, Massing of •I'll! 1 Italy into or at least within the oeueration which could remember larger "-" states. liis coronation, the greater part of Italy had been massed into a few states, which, as compared with the earlier state of tliinas, were of considerable size. A few smaller principalities and lordships still kept their place, of which one of the smallest, that of Monaco in the Monaco, extreme south-west, has lived on to our own time. So has the smaU commonwealth of San Marino, surrounded san 1 T-» 1 T 1 Marino. first by the dominions ot the Popes and now by tlie modern kingdom. But such states as these were mere 248 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, survivals. In the north-east, Venice kept her povt^er VIII. — ^ — on the mainland untouched, from the recovery of her Dominion of Venice Joniinions after the leao'ue of Cambray down to her final on the ~ '' li'iu'-iw *'^^^- -'b' ^^^^ treaty of Bologna she lost Ravenna ; she She loses lost too OtvaJito, Briiidisi, Trani, and other towns on that i.vi»>-' coast which she had irained durino^ the wars of Nai^les ; Italian ^ ^ , . ° . ^ ' posses- i^nt lier continuous dominion, both properly Venetian and sions, ir)30. ^ ' r 1 J Dii.iiy of Lombard, remained. The duchy of Milan to the west Miliin : Spanish, of iier was held in succession by the two branches of i:.40-l706; _ *' ^"^"i'i",'. the House of Austria, first the Spanish and then the 1 1 00-1 1 96. -•■ Adv^mceof (^pnnan. But the duchy, as an Austrian possession, Milan!'^ was Constantly cut short towards the west by the growing power of Savoy. For a while the Milanese and Savoyard states were conterminous only during a small part of their frontier. The marquisate of Mont- Montferrat^ as long as it remained a separate prin- cipality, lay between the southern parts of the two states. On the failure of the old line of marquesses, Montferrat was disputed between the Dukes of Savoy United to and Mantua. Adjudged to Mantua, and raised into Mantua . 1536, but a duchy bv Imijerial authority, it was still claimed, claimed by *' • ^ '^ ' ' 1613-1631. ^^^ partly conquered, by Savoy. At last, by one of the last exercises of Imperial authority in Italy, the Mantua duchy of Mautua itself was held to be forfeited to the forfeited to the Em-^ Empire ; that is, it became an Austrian possession. At pire, and i foiTedto''*' ^^^ ^^"^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Imperial authority confirmed Mont- r708-ni3. ^^^^at to Savoy. The Austrian dominions in Italy were thus extended to the south-east by the accession of the Mantuan territory ; but the whole western frontier of membei'" ^^^^ Milanese now lay open to Savoyard advance. The Miknti '"^^^^^^ treaties which confirmed Montferrat to Savoy and &,°' ^^ilan to Austria also dismembered Milan in favour of "^•'- Savoy. A corner of the duchy to the south-west. CHANGES AFTER CHARLES THE FIFTH. 249 Alessandria and the neio'libourino' districts, were now chap. given to Savoy ; the Peace of Vienna further cut off — •-; — Novara to the north and Tortona to the south. The Further cessions, next peace, that of Aix-la-Chapelle, gave up all west nss. of the Ticino, which river became a permanent frontier. Among the other states, the duchy of Parma and Parma and ^ ^ ^ Piacenza Piacenza was, on the extinction of the house of Farnese, given to ' the handed over to princes of the Spanish branch of the Bour- Spanish ^ ^ Bourbons, bons. Modena and Ferrara remained united, till Ferrara IJ''^"^.!^^- was annexed as an escheated fief to the dominions of to"Se''**''^ its spiritual overlord. But the house of Este still reigned \:^i^' over Modena with Pie'jgio and Mirandola, while its itis. dominions were extended to tlie sea by the addi- tion of Massa and other small possessions between Lucca and Genoa. The duchy in the end passed by 1771-1803. female succession to the House of Austria. Genoa and Lucca remained aristocratic commonwealths ; but Genoa lost its island possession of Corsica, which passed to Corsica France. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany remained in J'^fg^^*^' the house of Medici, till it was assimied to Duke Extinction ' ^ . of the Francis of Lorraine, afterwards the Emperor Francis Ji|^^"' the First, and after that it remained in the House of Francis of ' Lorraine Habsburg-Lorraine. The States of the Church, after the %'^^^^^ annexation of Ferrara, were in the next century further urbin7" enlarged by the annexation of the duchy of Urbino. byXe^ Thus, except on the frontier of Piedmont and igTl^' Milan, the whole time from Charles the Fifth to the 1530-1797. Compara- French Eevolution was, within the old kingdom of tiveiy little ^ geographi- Italy, much less remarkable for changes in the geo- t^a change. graphical frontiers of the several states than for the way in which they are passed to and fro from one master to another. This is yet more remai-kable, if we look to tlie southern part of the peninsula, and to the two great lidO THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIU. The Norman kingdom ..f Sicilv. Benevento. Charles of Anjou, 1265. Revolt of the island of Sicily, 1282. The two kingdoms. Union of Ai-agon, Sardinia, and con- tinental Si- cily under Alfonso, 1442. Aragonese kings of the ielaiid, 1296-1442. 1458-1701. Wars beginning with Charles the Eighth, 1494-1528. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies islaiuls which iu modern oeography we have learned to look on as attached to Italy. The Norman kingdom which, by steps which will be told elsewhere, grew up to the south of the Imperial Kingdom of Italy, has hardly ever chano-ed its Ijoundaries, except by the various separations and unions of the insular and the conti- nental kingdom. Even the outlying papal possession of Benevento went back after each war to its eccle- siastical master. But the shiftings, divisions, and re- unions of the Two Sicilies and of the island of Sardinia have been endless. The Sicilian kingdom of the Norman and Swabian kings, containing both the island and the provinces on the mainland, passed unchanged to Charles of Anjou. The revolt of the island split the kingdom into two, one insular, one continental, each of wliich called itself the Kingdom of Sicily, though the continental realm was more commonly known as the Kingdom of Naples. The wars of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries caused endless changes of dynasty ill the continental kingdom, but no changes of frontier. Under the famous Alfonso in the fifteenth centurv^ Aragon, Sardinia, and the conthiental Sicily, were three kingdoms under one sovereign, while the insular Sicily was ruled by another branch of the same house. Then continental Sicily passed to an illegitimate branch of the House of Aragon, while Sardinia and insular Sicily were held by the legitimate branch, which ruled in their Spanish kingdom. The French invasion under Charles the Eighth and the lono- wars that followed, the conquests, the restorations, the schemes of division, all ended in the union of both the Sicihan kingdoms, now known as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, along with Sardinia, as part of the gi'eat SICILY AND SAVOY. 251 Spanish monarchy. A momentary separation of the chap. insular kingdom, in order to give the husband of Mary ^~^^ of England royal rank while his father yet reigned, is Jggt^JgjJ; important only as the first formal use of the title of King of Na^yles. In the division of the Spanish mon- archy, Sardinia and Naples fell to the lot of the Aus- Sardinia •' ^ and Naples trian House, while Sicily was o-iven to the Duke of Austrian. ' ^ ^ Duke of Savoy, who thus gained substantial kingly rank. Pre- of^g^^ji'^/"" sently the kings of the two island kingdoms made an ^'^^^• exchange : Sardinia passed to Savoy, and the Emperor Exchange ^ ' ^ •; -^ of Sicily Charles the Sixth ruled, like Frederick the Second and ^P^.^ai- dima, 1718. Charles the Fifth, over both Sicilies. Lastly, the joint kinodom was handed over from an Austrian to a new The ^ ^ Spanish Spanish master, the first of the line of Neapolitan Bourbons, i ' ^ 173u-180f>. Bourbons. Thus, at the end of the last century, the isit-isoo. Two Sicilies formed a distinct and united ' kingdom, while Sardinia formed the outlying realm of the Duke of Savoy and Piince of Piedmont. His kingdom was of far less value than his principality or his duchy. But, as Sardinia o-ave their common sovereiijn his hiohest Use of *- c ... j^jjg name title, the Sardinian name often came in common speech Sardinia. to be extended to the continental dominions of its king. This period, a period of chanoe, but of comparatively Timeof thi- ^ ^ *" ^ Revolu- slight geographical change, was followed by a time tion, 1797- when, in Italy as in Germany, boundaries were changed, new names were invented or forgotten names revived, when old landmarks were rooted up, and thrones were set up and cast down, with a speed which baffles the chronicler. The first strictly geographical change which was wrought in Italy by the revolutionary wars was a characteristic one. A Cisjmdane Republic, the cispadane first of a number of momentary commonwealths bear- 1790. 252 THE IxMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, ing names dug up fi-oin the recesses of bygone times, — " — ' took in the duchy of Modena and the Papal Legations of Eomagna. Without exactly following the same boundaries, it answered roughly to the old Exarchate. Trnns- Tlieu the French victories over Austria caused the Kepubiic, Austrian duchies of Milan and Mantua to become a Transpadane Republic. Then Venice was wiped out at Troaty of Cauipo Fomilo, and her Lombard possessions were joined Fonnio, tooetlicr with the two newly made commonwealths, to 1797. ' ciwiipint- form a Cisalpine Republic. But the same treatv wrought Republic. f ^ {=> another change which was more distinctly geographical. Venice sur- Vcuice and the eastern part of her possessions on the reuilered . , ., . to Austria, mauiland, the old Venetia, the Lombard Austria, was now handed over to the modern state which bore the latter name. This change may be looked on as distinctly cutting short the boundaries of Italy. The duchy of Milan in Austrian hands had been an outlying part of the Austrian dominions ; but Venetia marches on the older territory of the Austrian house, and was tlms more completely severed from Italy. The whole north of the Hadriatic coast thus became Austrian in the modern sense. One Italian commonwealth — for Venice had long counted as Italian— was thus handed over to a foreign king. But elsewhere, at this stage of revolutionary progress, the fashion ran in favour of the creation of local commonwealths. The KiPubiic ^^^"^"^^^^^^ of Genoa became a Ligurian Republic; p«theno. "^^^^^^ became a Parthenopcean Republic ; Kome her- Repuwl ®^^^ exchanged for a moment the memories of kings, consuls, emperors, and pontiffs, to become the head of a S'ubifc ^^'^'^^'^'^^ Rejmblic. Piedmont was overwhelmed; the 1798-1801. greater part was incorporated with France. Some small parts were added to the neighbouring republics. CHANGES IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS. 253 and tlie kino- of Sardinia withdrew to his island kino-, chap. dom. Amid this crowd of new-fanofled states and new- :^rT'~~, ~ Fiedmout fancied names, ancient San Marino still lived on. i?'"^*^ ^^ ~ ' J! ranee, Thus far revolutionary Italy followed the example of i^^^-^^*^''' revolutionary France, and the new states were all at least nominal commonwealths. In the next stage, when France came under the rule of a single man, above all when that single ruler took on him the Im- perial title, the tide turned in favour of monarchy. In Eome and Naples it had already turned so in another wav. By help of the Tzar and the Sultan, the new re- Restoia- " , . . tion of the- publics vanished, and the old rulers, Pope and King, Pope and came back ao-ain. And now France herself beoan to o/.''?}?^^^* create kingdoms instead of commonwealths. Parma ^^'^'^^ was annexed to France, and its Duke was sent to rule in Tuscanv bv the title of King of Etruria. 'Presentlv Kingdom ♦^ *' . .of Etruria, Italy herself gave her name to a kingdom. The Cis- isoi-isos. alpine republic, further enlarged by Venice and the other territory ceded to Austria at Campo Forniio, Kingdom of Italy, enlarged also at one end by the Valtellina, the valley 1805-1814. of the upper Adda, and the former bishopric of Trent, and at the other end by the march of Ancona, became the Kingdom of Italy. Its King, the first since Buona- . ^ . parte king Charles the Fifth who had worn the Italian crown, of itaiy. was no other than the new ruler of France, the self- styled ' Emperor.' But, in Buonaparte's later distribu- tions of Italian territory, it was not his ItaUan king- dom, but his French ' empire,' whose frontiers were ex- Annexa- tended. The Liourian Eepublic was annexed ; so before Liguria, . . 1805 ; of lono- was the new kinsfdom of Etruria ; Lucca mean- Etmria, f . 1808. while was made into a grand duchy for the conqueror's Grand sister. Lastly, Rome itself, with what was left of the Lucca. Incorpora- papal dominions, was incorporated with the French tion of * ^ ' ^ Rome -J54 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP VIII. ;vnd 180>J. "Kingdoms -of Niiplcs and Sicily, 1806. 1809. Stiiti d^gli Fresidi. Benevento. Italy under French ■dominion. Part incor- porated with France. Extent of the king- dom of Italy. Kingdom of Naples. Revival of (lominion. The Avork alike of Ccesar and of Charles was wiped out from the Eternal City. The Empire of the Gauls, which Civilis had dreamed of more than seventeen centuries before, had come at last. The fate of the remainder of the peninsula had been already sealed before Eome became French. The king- dom of the Two Sicilies fell asunder. The Bourbon king kept his island, as the Savoyard king kept his. The continental kingdom passed, as a Kingdom of Naples, first to Joseph Buonaparte, and then to Joa- chim Murat. But the outlying Tuscan possessions of the Sicilian crown had already passed to France, and Benevento, the outlying papal possession in the heart of the kingdom, became a separate principality. Thus all Italy — unless we count the island kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily as parts of Italy — was brought under French dominion in one form or another. But of that dominion there were three varieties. The whole western part of the land, from Ivrea to Tarracina — unless it is worth while to except the new Lucchese duchy — was formally incorporated with France. The north-eastern side, from Bozen to Ascoli, formed a Kingdom of Italy, distinct from France, but held by the same sovereign. And this Kingdom of Italy was further increased to the north by part of those Italian lands which had become Swiss and German. Southern Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, remained in form an inde- pendent kingdom ; but it was held by princes who could not be looked on as anything but the humble vassals of their mighty kinsman. Never had Italy been brought more completely under foreign dominion. Still, in a part at least of the land, the name of Italv, and the shadow of a Kingdom of Italy, had been revived. FRENCH KINGDOM OF ITALY. 255 And, as names and shadows are not without influence chap. . . . VIII. in human affairs, the mere existence of an ItaHan state, called by the Italian name, did something. The j^g™®- the Italian name. Its effects. creation of a sham Italy was no unimportant step towards the creation of a real one. The settlement of Italy after the fall of Buonaparte settlement was far more strictly a return to the old state of things i^^^- than the contemporary settlement of Germany. Italy remained a geographical expression. Its states were, as before, independent of one another. They were practi- no tie be- ^ ^ . tween the cally dependent on a foreign power : but they were in Italian •^ ^ f? r J ^ states. no way bound together, even by the luxest federal tie. The main principle of settlement was that the princes The _ . princes re- who had lost their dominions should be restored, but stored, but not the that the commonwealths which had been overthrown common- wealths. should not be restored. Only harmless San Marino was allowed to live on. Venice, Lucca, and Genoa, remained possessions of princes. The sovereign of Hungary and Austria, now calling himself ' Empe- ror ' of his archduchy, carved out for himself an Italian kingdom which bore the name of the Kingdom of Kingdom Lomhardy and Venice. On the strength of this, the bardyand Austrian, like his French predecessor, took upon him to wear the Italian crown. The new kingdom consisted of the older Italian possessions of Austria, that is the duchies of Milan and Mantua, enlarged by the former its extent. possessions of Venice, which had become Austrian at Campo Formio. The old boundary between Germany and Italy was restored. Trent, Aquileia, Trieste, were again severed from Italy. They remained possessions of the same prince as Milan and Venice, but they formed no part of his Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. 25(5 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VUI. Cifuoa an- nexed to Piedniout. Monaco. Tuscany. Parma, Modena, liucca. Lucca an- nexed to Tuscany. The Papal states. The Two Sicilies. Oil anotlier frontier, where restoration would have had to be made to a commonwealth, the arrangements were less conservative, and the Valtellina remained [)art of the new kingdom. The Ticino formed, as before, the boundary towards Piedmont. The King of Sardina came again into possession of this last country, enlarged by the former dominions of Genoa. Tliis gave him the whole Ligurian seaboard, except where the little principality of Monaco still went on. Parma, Modena, and Tuscany again became separate duchies. Lucca remained a duchy alongside of them. The family arrangements by which these states were handed about to this and that widow do not concern geography ; all that need be marked is that, by virtue of one of these compacts, Lucca was in the end added to Tuscany. That grand-duchy was further increased by the addition of the former outlying possessions of the Sicilian crown, except the island of Elba, which for a moment became a new and narrower Empire for Buona- parte himself. On his second fall, the island was added to the Tuscan duchy. The Pope came back to all his old Italian possessions, outlying Benevento included. The Two Sicilies were again united by the restoration of the Kingdom of Naples to the Bourbon king. Thus was formed the Italy of 1815, an Italy which, save in the sweeping away of its commonwealths, and the consequent extension of Sardinian and Austrian terri- tory, differed geographically but little from the Italy of 1748. But in 1815 there were hopes which had had no being in 1748. Italy was divided on the map; but she had made up her mind to be one. The uuion The uiiiou of Italy was at last to come from one of re- nients of THE REUNION OF ITALY. 257 those corners which in earlier history we have looked chap. VIII. on as beino" hardly Italian at all. It was not Milan or •— ^ " ' _ _ of Italy Florence or Eome which was to o-row into the new coinesfrom c Piedmont. Italy. That function was reserved for a princely house whose beginnings had Ijeen Burgundian rather than Italian, whose chief territories had long lain on the Bur- gundian side of the Alps, but which had gradually put on an Italian character, and which had now become the one national Italian dvnastv. The Italian possessions of the Savoyard house, Piedmont, Genoa, and the island of Sardinia, now formed one of the chief Italian states, and the only one whose rule, if still despotic, was not foreign. Savoy, by ceasing to be Savoy, was to become Italy. The movements of 1848 in Italy, like those in Germany, movi led to no lasting changes on the map : but they do so far ms. affect geography that new states were actually founded, if only for a moment. Eome, Venice, Milan, were Momen- for a while republics, and the Two Sicilies were for a while separated. In the next year all came back as before. The next lasting change on the map was that which at last restored a real Kingdom of Italy. The joint campaign of France and Sardinia won Lorn- campaign hardy for the Sardinian kingdom. Lombardy was now defined as that part of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom which lay west of the Mincio, except that Mantua was left to Austria. A French scheme for an Italian confederation came to nothing. Tus- cany, Modena, Parma, and Eomagna voted their union of own annexation to Piedmont. The Two Sicilies were states/ won by Garibaldi, and the kingly title of Sardinia was merwd in that of the restored Kino-dom of Italv. This new Italian kingdom was, by the addition of the Sicilies, extended over lands which had never been VOL. I. s tarv common- wealths. 1850. 258 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS, ciiAr. VIll. Addition of tlifSii-ilii's. CosKion of Srtvoy and Nizza to France. R proven' of Venetia, 1866; of Rome, 1870. Part of the old kingdom not yet recovered. San Marino remains free. part of the elder Italian kingdom. But Yenetia was still cut ofl^ the Pope kept the lands on each side of Eonie, the so-called Patrimony and the Campagna. France, too, annexed the lands, strictly Burgundian rather than Italian, of Savoy and Nizza. The Italian kinc^dom was thus again called into being ; but it had not A'et come to perfection. Italy had ceased to be a (yeoiis»', 1218. riifiik-ui) of the dufhy. Siwoynrd U'rritory . Bishops, Cuiints, and Free Cities. The Free Lands. The Old League of High Germany. Conquests of Bern and Frei- burg from Savov, ir,3C.' The Bur- gundian cantons of Switzer- land. long kept up tlieir connexion with the Empire, though the Lesser Burgundy did not long reman i as a separate unit. When the House of Ziihringen came to an end,, the country began to split up into small principalities- and free cities which gradually grew into hide- pendent commonwealths. The counts of Savoy, of whom more presently, acquired a large territory on l)oth sides of the Lake of Geneva. Other considerable princes were the bishops of Basely Lwisanne, Geneva^ and Sitteu, the counts of Geneva, Kyhurg, Gruyeres^ and Neufchdtel. Basel, Solothurn, and Bern, were Ln- perial cities. The complicated relations between the Bishops and the city of Geneva hindered that city from havinfj- a strict rio-ht to that title. Li tJnterwalden and in WaUis, notwithstanding the possessions and claims of various spiritual and temporal lords, the most marked feature was the retention of the old rural independence. Of the cities in this region, Luzern, Bern, Freiburg, Solothurn, and Basel, all gradually became members of the Old League of High Germany, the groundwork of the modern Swiss Confederation. The Savoyard lands north of the lake were conquered by Bern and Frei- burg in the sixteenth century, a conquest which also secured the independence of Geneva. All these lands,, after going through the intermediate stage of allies or subjects of some or other of the confederate cantons, have in modern times become independent cantons themselves. This process of annexation and liberation will be traced more fuUv when we come to the historv of the Swiss Confederation. To the south of this group of states, and partly intermingled with them, lay another group, lying partly within the northern and partly within the southern THE SOUTHERN BURGUNDIAN LANDS. 263 Burgundian kingdom, which gi-adually grew into a great chap. power. These were the states which were united step by ^ — r-^- step under the Counts of Maurienne, afterwards Counts Growth of of Savoy. When their dominions were at their greatest ^"^^'y- extent, they held south of the Lake of Geneva, besides Burgun- . , dian pos- Maurienne and Savoy strictly so called, the districts sessions bf _ "^ •' _ ^ it3 counts. of Aosta, TaraMaise, the Genevois, ChaMais, and Fau- cigny, together with Vaud and Gex north of the lake. Thus grew up the power of Savoy, which has already been noticed in its purely Italian aspect, but which must receive fuller separate treatment in a section of its own. The remainder of the Burgundian Kingdom con- states be- sisted of a number of small states stretching from the Palatinate southern boundary of the Burgundian county to the »iedi- * terranean. Mediterranean. North of the Ehone lay the districts of Bresse and Buyey, which passed at various times to Biesse and the House of Savoy. Southwards on the Ehone lay a become •' "^ Savoyard. number of small states, among which the most important fi"f!.^'o44 in history are the archbishopric, the county, and the 57^2!i402. free city of Lyons, the county or Daupliiny of Vienne i^yons, and the city of Vienne, the county or principality of Jc*"^^' Orange, the city of Avignon, the county of Venaissin, the free city of Aries, the capital of the kingdom, the free city of Massalia or Marseilles, the county of Nizza or Nice, and the great county or marquisate of Provence. Provence, In this last power lay the first element of danger, espe- cially to the republican independence of the free cities. After being held by separate princes of its own, as well changes of dynasty. as by the Aragonese kings, it passed by marriage into the hands of a French prince, Charles of Anjou, the The . Aiigevius, conqueror of Sicily, and also the destroyer of the second i-i^o. freedom of Massalia. The possession of the greatest •J04 THE IMPEPJAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Frt'iich coimexion. Process of French au- noxnticn Avignon tirst seized, 1'226. Annexa- tion of Lj'ons, 1310. Purchase of the Dauphiny of Vienne, 1843. Tlie city of Vienne annexed, 1448. Valence, 1440. Provence, 1481. member of tlie liurgundiaii kingdom by a French ruler, tluni<»li it made no immediate change in the formal state of things, uave fresh strenoth to every tendency which tended to withdraw the Ihirgundian lands from their allegiance to the Empire and to bring them, first into connexion with France, and then into actual incorpora- tion with tlie French kingdom. Step by step, though by a process which was spread over many centuries, all the principalities and common- wealths of the Burgundian kingdom, save the lands which have become Swiss and the single valley which has become Italian, have come into the hands of France. The tendency shows itself early. Avignon was seized for a moment during the Albigensian wars ; but the permanent process of French annexation began when Phihp the Fair took advantage of the disputes between the archbishops and the citizens of Lyons to join that Imperial city to his dominions. The head of all the Gauls, the seat of the Primate of all the Gauls, thus passed into the hands of the new monarchy of Paris, the first-fruits of French aggrandizement at the cost of the Middle Kingdom. Later in the same century, the Dauphiny of Vienne was acquired by a bargain with its last independent prince. This land also passed, through the intermediate stage of an Imperial fief held by the heir-apparent of the French crown, into a mere province of France. But the acquisition of the Dauphiny did not carry with it that of the city of Vienne, which escaped for more than a century. Between the acquisition of the Dauphiny and the acquisition of the city, the county of Valence was annexed to the Dauphiny. Later in the same century followed the great annexation of Provence itself. The rule of French princes in that FRENCH ANNEXATIONS. 265 county for two centuries had doubtless paved the way chap. . ... VIII. for this annexation. And the acquisition of Provence — carried with it the acquisition of the cities of Aries and Marseilles, which the counts of Provence had deprived of their freedom. But Provence, though practically incorjDorated with the French kingdom, kept, down to the French Eevolution, somewhat more of separate being than the other lands which were annexed by France. At least within the county itself, the King of France still used the title of Count of Provence. By the a-nnexation of this county the whole of the land between the Phone and the sea had been swallowed up, save one state at the extreme south-east corner of the king- dom, and a group of small states which were now quite hemmed in by French territory. The first was the county of Nizza or Xice, which had passed away from Nizza passes to Provence to Savoy before the French annexation of savoy, '' . 1388. Provence. But by this time Savoy had become an Italian power, and Nizza was from henceforth looked on as Italian rather than Burgundian. Between Provence and the Dauphiny lay the city of Avignon, the county of Venaissin, and the principality of Orange. Avignon and Venaissin became papal possessions by purchase from Avignon and the sovereign of Provence, Queen Joan of Naples ; and, venaissin _ become though they were at last quite surrounded by French Prtp^i, territory, they remained papal possessions till they were ^'^^^l^^^ annexed in the course of the great Eevolution. These ^^'^i- outlying possessions of the Popes perhaps did somewhat towards preserving the independence of a more inter- esting fragment of the ancient kinQ:dom. This was the Princii)ality of Orange, which the neighbourhood Orange. of the Pope hindered from being altogether surrounded by French territory. This little state, whose name has 2ii(; THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. cHxr. become so much more ftmious than itself, passed - . - through several dynasties, and for a long time it was Its aiinexrt tion to France, 1714-1771. reuularly seized by France in the course of every war, But it was as regularly restored to independence at Frouce, txeij peace, and its final annexation did not happen till the eighteenth century. The acquisition of Orange, Avignon, and Venaissin, completed the process of French a<>i>randizement in the lands between the lihone ancl the Var. The stages of the same process as applied to the Savoyard lands will be best told in another section. Modern We liavc tlius traced the geographical history of states ^ , ^ _ which have tjie tlircc Imperial kino-doms themselves. We have now split ofiE ^ ^ from the fo tracc lu tlic like sort the orioin and growth of three kinr;- '-' ^ doms. certain of the modern powers of Europe which have oTown out of one or more of those kinodoms. Certain parts of the German, Italian, and Burgundian king- doms have split off from these kingdoms, so as to form new political units, distinct from any of them. Five states of no small importance in later European history have thus been formed. Most of them partake more Their ciui- or Icss of the character of middle states, interposed racter as middle between France and one or more of the Imperial states. ^ switzer- kingdoms. First, there is the Confederation of Switzer- land. land, which arose by certain German districts and cities forming so close an union among themselves that their common allegiance to the Empire gradually died out. The Confederation grew into its present form by the addition to these German districts of certain Italian and Burgundian districts. Secondly, there are, or SaToy. rather were, the dominions of the Dukes of Savoy, formed by the union of various Italian and Burgun- MIDDLE STAl'ES. 26? ecial "^ •' ' o position. ^ Compare the mention of Rudolf in the lettei- of Cnut, on hi.«. Roman Pilgiimage, in Florence of Worcester, 1031. He is there- ' Rodulphiis rex, qui maxime ipsarum clausurarum dominatur.' FIRST BURGUNDIAN POSSESSIONS. 279 on the Italian side of the Alps, had hitherto been ^^^^^j^- rather Burgundian than Italian.^ Its allegiance had ~ • fluctnated several times between the two kingdoms ; but, from the time that Savoy held lands in both, the question became of no practical importance. And, without entering into minute questions of tenure, it may be said that the early Savoyard possessions reached to the Lake of Geneva, and spread on both sides of the inland mouth of the Rhone. The power of the Savoyard princes in this region was largely due to their ecclesiastical po- sition as advocates of the abbey of Saint Maurice. Thus Geogiapiu- cal charac- their possessions had a most irregular outline, nearly sur- ter of the rounding the lands of Genevois and Fauciqny. A state "^ian teni- c • i/ t/ tones. of this shape, like Prussia in a later age and on a greater scale, was, as it were, predestined to make further advances. But for some centuries those advances were Their early Italian pos- made much more largely in Burgundy than in Italy, sessions. The original Italian possessions of the House bordered on their Burgundian counties of Maurienne and Aosta, taking in Susa and Turin. This small marchland gave its princes the sounding title of Marquesses in Italy. Mar- quesses ia The endless shiftings of territory in this quarter could itaiy. ' That Aosta was stiictly Burgundian appears from the * Divi- sio Imperii, 806' (Pertz, Leges, i. 141), where Italy is granted whole to Pippin, Burgundy is divided between Charles and Lewis ; but it is provided that botli Charles and Lewis shall have access to Italy, ' Karolus per valleiu Augustanam quae ad regnum ejus pertinet.' The Divisio Imperii of 839 is still plainer (Pertz, Leges, i. 373, Scrip- tores, i. 434). There the one .share takes in ' Regnum Italise partemque Burgundise, id est, vallem Augustanam,' and certain other districts. So Einhard (Vita Karoli, 15) excludes Aosta from Italy. ' Italia tota, quje ab Augusta Praetoria visque in Calabriam inferiorem, in qua Grjecorum et Beneventanorum constat esse confinia, pon-igitur.' As Calabria wjis not pait of Italy in this sense, so neither was Aosta. So, in Eadmer's history, Anselm, a native of Aosta, is more than once spoken of as a sti-anger in Italy. 280 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, be dealt with only at extreme len,f>tli, and they are VIII Fluctaa tions of dominion -^ matters of purely local oonceni. In truth, they are tionsof j^Q^ always fliictiiations of territory in any strict sense at all, hut rather fluctuations of rights between the feudal princes, the cities, and their bishops. In the Their posi- twelfth aud thirteenth centuries, tlie princes of Savov tion in the mi i i • • i • ^ twelfth and wcre Still hemmed m in their own corner of Italy by thirteenth _ "^ centuries, pnnces of cqual or greater power, at Montferrat, at Saluzzo, at Ivrea, and at Biandrate. And it must be remembered that their position as princes at once otiier Buroundian and Italian was not peculiar to them. The firinces at * - ■*• once ita- Daupliius of tlic Vieniiois and the Counts of Provence nan and -■■ diaif""" ^oi\\ held at different times territories on the Italian side of the Alps. The Italian dominions of the famih' remained for a long while quite secondary to its Bur- gundian possessions, and the latter may therefore be traced out first. Advance of Thc main object of Savoyard policy in this region Burgundy, was iiccessarily the acquisition of the lands of Faucianir Paucigny . . . and the and the Genevois. But the final incorporation of those Genevois. lands did not take place till they were still more com- pletely hemmed in by the Savoyard dominions through the extension of the Savoyard power to the north of the First Lake. This began early in the thirteenth century by iiorthof a royal grant of Moiidoii to Count Thomas of Savoy. the Lake. Grant of Romont was next won, and became the centre of the Moudon. 1207. Savoyard power north of the Lake. Soon after, through ^^'®,, the conquests of Peter of Savoy, who was known as the northern J- •' ' pTter^ Little Charlemagne and who plays a part in English as savo*°^ well as in Burgundian history, these possessions grew i26.i-i2G8. jj-^|.Q ^ large dominion, stretching along a great part of the shores of the Lake of NeufchA,tel and reachinef as 1239-1268. far north as Murten or Moral. But it was a straggling, LANDS NORTH OF THE LAKE. 1^81 and in some parts fragmentary, dominion, the continuity chap. of which was broken by the scattered possessions of the — ' Bishops of Lausanne and other ecclesiastical and tem- poral lords. This extension of dominion brought Peter into close connexion with the lands and cities which were afterwards to form the Old Leao-ue of Hioh Ger- many. Bern especially, the power to which his con- Hisieia- quests were afterwards to ])e transferred, looked to him Bem. as a protector. This new dominion north of the Lake was, after Peter's reimi held for a short time bv a sepai'ate branch of the Savoyard princes as Barons of Barons of Vaud ; but in the middle of the fourteenth century, Union of 1-1 • IT • c -x ^ •\ Vaud with their barony c^nie into the direct possession of the elder tiie eider -' ^ . branch. branch of the house. The lands of Faucigny and the 1349. Genevois were now altogether surrounded by the Savo}^- ard territory. Faucigny had passed to the Dauphins of Faucigny 1 XT • -I 1 • ^ c -x c^ \\e\A by the the Viennois, who were the constant rivals 01 the bavov- Dauphins . ' of the ard counts, down to the time of the practical transfer of viennois. their dauphiny to Prance. Soon after that annexation, Savoy obtained Fauc{(/ny, with Gex and some other savoy districts beyond the Ehone, in exchange for some small Faucigny Savoyard possessions within the Dauphin3\ The long i^js. struggle for the Genevois, the county of Geneva, was ended by its purchase in the beginning of the fifteenth century. This left the city of Geneva altogether sur- The rounded by Savoyard territory, a position which before 1401. long altogether changed the relations between the Savoyard counts and the city. Hitherto, in the endless struggles between the Genevese counts, bishops, and changed ..'' . o ^ ' relations to •Citizens, the oavovard counts, the enemies 01 the im- city of . . Geneva. mediate enemy, had often been looked on by the citizens as friends and protectors. Now that they had become immediate neighbours of the cit}^ they themselves began '2S2 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Amivdeus the Eighth, Count I Hike 1417; .\utipope 1410; died 1451. Greatest extent of the domi- nions of Siivoy in Burgundy. Annexa- tion of Nizza. 1388. Savoy brought into the neighbour- hood of France. New rela- tions to- wards Bern and the Confede- rates. Loss of the Burgun- diiin domi- nion of Savoy. l)efore loii<>" to be its most daii<>erous enemies. The acquisition of the Genevois took place in the reign of the famous Amadeus the Eighth, the first Duke of Savoy, who received that rank by grant of King Sieg- mund, and who was afterwards the Antipope Felix. In his reign the dominions of Savoy, as a power ruling on both sides of the Alps, reached their greatest ex- tent. But the Savoyard power was still pre-eminently Burgundian, and Chambery was its capital. The con- tinuous Burgundian dominion of the house now reached from the Alps to the Saone, surrounding the lake of Geneva and spreading on both sides of the lake of Neufchatel. Besides this continuous Burgundian domi- nion, the house of Savoy had already become possessed of Nizza, by which their dominions reached to the sea. This last territory however, though technically Burgun- dian, had geographically more to do with the Italian possessions of the house. But this great extension of territory brought Savoy on its western side into closer connexion with the most dangerous of neighbours. Her frontier for a certain distance joined the actual kingdom of France. The rest joined the Dauphiny, which was now practically French, and the county of Provence, which was ruled by French princes and which before the end of the century became a French possession. To the north again, the change in the relations between the house of Savoy and the city of Geneva led in course of time to equally changed rela- tions towards Bern and her Confederates. Through the working of these two causes, all that the house of Savoy now keeps of this great Burgundian ter- ritory is the single city and valley of Aosta. After the fifteenth century, the Burgundian history of that FIRST ITALIAN POSSESSIONS. 285 house consists of the steps — steps spread over more chap. than three hundred years — by which this great dominion — ■— ' was lost The real importance of the house of Savoy in Italy Giowtiiof 1 f» 11 '1 • "^ Savoy ill dates from much the same tmie as the great extension itaiy. of its power in Burgundy. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, partly through the growth of the cities, The largest partly through the enmity of the Emperor Henry cut short in , . , . the twelfth the Sixth, the dominions of the Savo3^ard princes as century. marquesses of Susa had been cut short, so as hardly to reach beyond their immediate Alpine valleys. In the beginning of the thirteenth century, when Count Thomas obtained his first royal grant north of the Grants to lake, he also obtained grants of Chieri and other Thomas. . 1207. places in the neighbourhood of Turin. These grants were merely nominal ; but they were none the less the beginning of the Italian advance of the house. In the same reign Saluzzo for the first time paid a First precarious homage to Savov. Later in the thirteenth Saiuzzo. century, Charles of Anjou, now Count of Provence Italian '^ ^ _ _ dominion and King of Sicily, made his way into Northern Italy of charies also, and thus brought the house of Savoy into a 1259. dangerous neighbourhood with French princes on its Italian as well as on its Burgundian side. Through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the Savoyard border went on extending itself. But the Italian pos- sessions of the house, like its possessions north of the lake, were separated from the main body of Savoyard territory to form a fief for one of the younger branches. This branch bore by marriage the empty title of Counts of Achaia and Morea — memories of Counts of Achaia in Frank dominion within the Eastern Empire — while, as J^jedinont. 284 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Ailvaiuo in the fourteenth centui'y. Reunion of Piedmont. 1418. Acquisi- tion of BieHa, ^rc. 1435. Relations with Mont- ferrat. Claims on Saluzzo ; its doubtful homage. Establish- ment of Savoy as a middle •state. Effects of the Italian ■wars. if to keep matters straight, a hrancli of the liouse of PaLaioloii-os i-eii:>"ned. at Montferrat. Duriiio- the four- teenth ceiituiy, among many strnggles witli the mar- quesses of Montferrat and Sakizzo, the Angevin counts of Provence, and the lords of Milan, the Savoyard power in Italy generally increased. Under Amadens the Eighth, the lands held by the princes of Achaia were united to the possessions of the head of the house. Before the end of the reign of Amadeus, the dominions of Savoy stretched as far as the Sesia, taking in Biella, Santhia, and Vercelli. Counting Nizza and Aosta as Italian, which they now practically were, the Italian dominions of the house reached from the Alps of Wallis to the sea. But they were nearly cut in two by the dominions of the Marquesses of Montferrat^ from whom however the Dukes of Savoy now claimed homage. Saluzzo, Ijiiig* between the old inheritance of Susa and the new possession of Nizza, also passed under Savoyard supremacy. But it lay open to a very dangerous French claim on the ground of a former homage done to the Viennese Dauphins. Amadeus, the first Duke of Savoy, took the title of Count of Piedmont, and afterwards that of Prince. His possessions were now fairly established as a middle state, Italian and Burgundian, in nearly equal proportions. In the course of the next century and a half the Savoyard state altogether changed its character in many ways. The changes which affected all Europe, especially the great Italian wars, could not fail greatly to affect the border state of Italy and Gaul. And there is no part of our story which gives us more instructive lessons with regard to the proper limits of our subject. During this time the Savoyard power was brought VIII. French in- fluence and occupation. ADVANCE IN ITALY. 285 under a iminber of influences, all of which deeply chap ' i- •■ \TTTT affected its history, but which did not all alike affect its geography. We have a period of French influence, a period of French occupation, and more than one formal chanoe of the frontier. Mere influence does not concern us at all. Occupation concerns us only when it takes the form of permanent conquest. An occupa- tion of nearly forty years conies very near to permanent conquest ; still when, as in this case, it comes to an end without having effected any formal annexation, it is hardly to be looked on as^ actually working a change on the map. France occupied Piedmont for nearly occupation as long a time as Bern occupied the lands south of the lake. Yet we look on the one occupation as simply part of the military history, while in the other we see a real, though only temporary, geographical change. But the result alike of influence, of occupation, and of increased actual chano-e of boundaries, all tended the same way. character *^ . -' of Savoy. They all tended to strengthen the Italian character of the house of Savoy, to cut short its Burgundian possessions, and, if not greatly to increase its Italian possessions, at least to put it in the way of greatly increasing them. During the second half of the fifteenth century, the power of the house of Savoy greatly declined, partly Decline of Savoy. through the growing influence of France, partly through the division, in the form of appanages, of the lands which had been so lately formed together into a compact state. Then came the Italian wars, in which Theitaiian the Savoyard dominions became the highway for the kings of France in their invasions of Italy. The strictly territorial clianges of this period chiefly concern the marquisate of Saluzzo on the Italian side and the wars. First loss •of luuils north or tlie lake. 1475. '2S6 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, noi'tliern frontier on the Buroundian side. The first YIII. , ^^ loss of territory on the northern frontier, the first sign that the Savoyard power in Burgundy was gradu- ally to fall back, was the loss of part of the lands north of the lake in the war between Charles of Bur- gundy and the Confederates. Granson on the lake of Xeufchutel, Murten or Morat on its own lake, Aigle at the south-east end of the great lake, Echallens lying detached in the heart of Vaud, all passed away from Savoy and became for ever Confederate ground. Sixty years later, the affairs of Geneva led to the great intervention of Bern, Freiburg and Loss of the Wallis, by which Savoy was for ever shorn of her lands on , ^ c ^ i -\ both sides possessions north of the lake. For a while indeed of the lake. 1536. she was cut off from the lake altogether; Chablais passed away as well as Vaud. Geneva, with her de- Reunion of tached scraps of territory, was now wholly surrounded the lauds . Houthof by her own allies. Thirty years later, Bern restored the lake. 1567. all her conquests south of the lake, together with Gex to the west, lea\ang Geneva again surrounded by the dominions of Savoy. Wallis too gave up part of her share, keeping only the narrow strip on the left bank of the Ehone. The loss and the recovery mark the ovond the Alps. Attempts ou Geneva, 1602, 16011. Later history of Savoy. Annexed to France. 1792-1796. Restored. 1814-1815. Savoy and Nizza an- nexed to" France. 1800. Ajosta spared. was thus shut out from a possession which cut the Savoyard states in twain ; but the price at which this advaiitaiic was gained amounted to a final surrender of tlie old possession of the Savoyard house beyond the Alps. The Ehoiie and not the Saoiie became the Ijoundary, while the surrender of Gex brought France to the shores of the Lake. Geneva, her city and her scattered scraps of territory, had now, besides Bern, two other neighbours in France and Savoy. The two at- tempts of C'haiies Emmanuel to seize upon the city were fruitless. Savoy now became distinctly an Italian power, keeping indeed the lands Ijetween the Alps and the Lake, the proper Duchy of Savoy, but having her main l)Ossessions and her main interests in Italy. We may here therefore finish the history of the Transalpine pos- sessions of the Savoyard House. The Duchy of Savoy remained in the hands of its own Dukes till their conti- nental dominion was swept away in the storm of the French Eevolution. It was restored after the first fall of Buonaparte, but with a narrowed frontier, which left its capital Chambery to France. This was set right by the treaties of the next year. Lastly, as all the Avorld knows. Savoy itself, including the guaranteed neutral lands on the Lake, passed, along with Nizza, to France. Savoy itself was so far favoured as to be allowed to keep its ancient name, and to form the de- partments of Savoy and Higli Savoy, instead of being condemned, as in the former temporary annexation, to bear the names of Leman and Mont Blanc. The Bur- gundian counts who have grown into Italian kings have thus lost the laud luider whose name their house grew famous. Aosta alone remains as the last relic of the times when the Savoyard Dukes, the greatest lords ITALIAN HISTORY OF SAVOY. 289 of the Middle Kingdom, still kept their place as the chap. VIII. truest representatives of the Middle Kingdom itself. We now turn to the purelv Italian history of the Italian his- " , tory of the house, a history which has been already sketched in House of dealing with the geography of Italy. Savoy now takes its part hi every European struggle, and, though its position led to constant foreign occupation, some addition of territory was commonly gained at every peace. Thus, before the reiuii of Charles Emmanuel was over, Pied- mont was ao-ain overrun by French troops. Though the French *" ' , occupation. Savoyard possessions in Italy were presently increased 1629. by a part of the Duchy of Afoufferrat, this was a poor Annexa- compensation for the French occupation of Pinerolo and of Mont- other parts in the heart of Piedmont, which lasted till lesi. ^ ... French nearly the end of the century. The gradual acquisition ^^^^jp^^J^^J; of territory at the expense of the Milanese duchy, the leso-iego. acquisition and exchange of the two island kingdoms, the Later ■'• . . . *" Itahan last annexation by France, the acquisition of the Genoese advance seaboard, the growth of the Kingdom of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy, have been already told. Our present business has been with Savoy as a middle power, a character which practically passed from it with the loss of Vaud and Bresse, and all traces of which are now sunk in the higher but less interesting character of one of the great powers of Europe. From Savoy in its character of a middle power, as one of the representatives of ancient Burgundy, we naturally pass to another middle power which prolonged the existence of the Burgundian name, and on part of which, though not on a part lying within its Burgundian possessions, some trace of the ancient functions of the Middle Kingdom is still laid by the needs of modern European policy. VOL. I. U 290 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. vni. Position of the Valoia Dukes of Burgundy. Their twofold vassalage. Its effects. Schemes for a Bur- gundian kingdom. § 8. The Duchy of Bun/imdy and the Low Countries. Among all the powers which we have marked as having for their special characteristic that of being- middle states, the one which came most nearly to an actual revival of the middle states of earlier days was the Duch}^ of Burgundy under the Valois Dukes. A great power was formed whose princes held no part of their dominions in wholly independent sovereignty. In practical power they were the peers of their Imperial and royal neighbours ; but their formal character throughout every rood of their possessions was that of vassals of one or other of those neighbours. Such a twofold vassalage naturally suggested, even more strongly than vassalage to a single lord could have done, the thought of eman- cipation from all vassalage, and of the gathering to- gether of endless separate fiefs into a single kingdom. The gradual acquisitions of earlier princes, especially those of Philip the Good, naturally led up to the design, avowed by his son Charles the Bold, of exchanging the title of Duke for that of KiuQ-. The memories of the older Burgundian and Lotharingian kingdoms had no doubt a share in shaping the schemes of a prince who possessed so large a share of the provinces which had formed those kingdoms. The schemes of Charles, one can hardly doubt, looked to the formation of a realm like that of the first Lothar, a realm stretching from the Ocean to the Mediterranean. His actual possessions, at their greatest extent, formed a power to which Bur- gundy gave its name, but which was historically at least as much Lotharingian as Burgundian. And though this actual dominion was only momentary, no power HISTORICAL POSITION OF THE BURGUNDIAN DUKES. 2^)1 ever arose which fills a wider and more oecume- chap. VIII, nical place in history than the line of the Valois Dukes. Historical Their power connects the earliest settlement of the "npoitance ■•■ of the Bur- European states with the latest. It spans a thousand §,"',^!^^*" years, and connects the division of Verdun with the last treaty that guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium. i«7o. The growth of their power was directly inlluenced by memories of the early Carolingian partitions ; and, even in its fall, it has itself influenced the geography and politics of Europe ever since. As a Burguiidian power, it was as ephemeral as all other Burgundian powers have ever been. As a Lotharingian power, it abides still in its effects. The union of the greater part of the Low History of Countries under a single prince, and that a prince who countries. was on the whole foreign to the Empire, strengthened that tendency to split off from the Empire which was already at work in some of those lands. Later events caused them to split off in two bodies instead of one. This last tendency became so strong that a modern attempt to unite them broke down, and their place in the modern polity of Europe is that of two distinct khigdoms. The existence of those two kingdoms is the final result of the Final result of growth of the Buroundian power in the fifteenth cen- tiieBur- tury. And by leading to the separation of the northern uiinioM. Netherlands from the Empire, it has led to one result which could never have been reckoned on, the pre- servation of one branch of the Low-Dutch tongue as its effect ^ on lau- the acknowledged literary speech of an independent guage. nation. Its political results were the creation, in the shape of the northern Xetherlands, of a power which xiie once held a great place m the aiiairs of Europe and oi lands and ^ ^ , ^ Belgium. the world, and the slower growth, in the shape of the southern Netherlands, of a state in which modern u 2 202 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. European policy still acknowledoes the cliaracter of a VIII i r » <- . ~ • .-— middle kingdom. As the neutral confederation of SwitztM'land represents the middle kingdom of Bur- Liundv. so the neutral kingdom of Belgium represents the middle kingdom of Lotharingia. Dup,,i The Duchy of Burgundy which gave its name to ffiof of'the the Burgundian power of the fifteenth century was that Kingdoiu. one among the many lands bearing the Burgundian name which lay wholly outside the Burgundian kino- dom of the Emperors. This Burgundy, the only one which has kept the name to our own time, the duchy of which Dijon is the capital, never was a fief of the Eastern Kingdom ; it never was a fief of the Empire after the final separation. It always acknowledged the Two lines suj)remacy of the kings of Laon and Paris. By these 1032. "^ last the duchy was twice granted in fief to iDrinces of TheValois. , . , *' . t i i i 1363. their own house, once m the eleventh century and once in the fourteenth. This last grant was the be<>'innino- of the Dukes of the house of Valois, with the growth Union ot of whose power we have now to deal. Philip the Flanders . . • i i n • and Hardy, the first Duke of this line, obtained, by his Burgundy. 13C0. marriaee with Margaret of Elanders, the counties of ■&^ Flanders, Artois, R/ietel, Aiuxerre, and Nevers, all fiefs The of the crown of France, together with the Coimty county of ^ _ Burgundy. Palatine of Burgundy as a fief of the Empire. The peculiar position of the Dukes of Burgundy of this line was at once established by this marriage. Duke Philip held of two lords, and his dominions lay in two Two distinct masses. The two Burgundies, duchy and county, territory, aiid tlic couuty of Ncvcrs, lay geographically together ; Flanders and Artois lay together at a great distance ; the small possession of Ehetel lay agam between the two. Any princes who held such a territory as COUNTY OF HOLLAND. 293 this could hardly fail to devote their main policy chap. . . . . " VIII. to the work of bringing about the geographical union — — • of their scattered possessions. Nor was this all. The possession of the two Burgundies made their common sovereign a vassal at once of France and of the Empire. The possession of Flanders, Artois, and Ehetel further brought him into connexion with those borderlands of position the Empire and of the French kingdom where the Nether- authority of either overlord was weakest, and which had long been tending to form themselves into a separate political system distinct alike from the Empire and from the Kingdom. The results of this complicated position, as worked out, whether by the prudence of Philip the Oood or by the darino- of Charles the Bold, form the history of the Dukes of Burgundy of the House of Valois. The lands which we are accustomed to group imperial ^ and French together under the name of the Netherlands or Loir fiefs in tiie ^ ^ Xetlier- Countries lay mostly within the bounds of the Empire ; ■"'"fi«- but the county of Flanders had always been a fief ot" France. Part however of the dominions of its counts;, the north-eastern corner of their dominions, the lands Fief of the Counts of of Alost and Waas. were held of the Empire. These Flanders ^ withni the lands, too'ether with the neio'hbourino- islands of Zea- Empire. ' '^ . Zealand. land, formed a ground of endless disputes between the Counts of Flanders and their northern neighbours the Counts of Holland. This last county o-radually diseii- county of •^ ^ _ "^ Holland. tangles itself from the general mass of the Frisian lands which lie along the whole coast from the mouth of the Scheld to the mouth of the Weser. And those great in- inroads of the sea. roads of the sea in the thirteenth century which gave the i-^i!», 1282. Zuyder-Zee its present extent helped to give the count}' a natural boundary, and to part it off from the Frisian lands to the north-east. Towards the end of the thir- 204 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, vni. Disputes with the fret' Frisians. Iiidepen- dence ol West FrieslaiKl. 1417-1447. County of East Fries- hiiid. 1454. Tht' Bishops of Utrecht. Duehy of Brabant. County of Hennegau or Hainault united witli Holland. 1299. Mark of Namnr. Common character of these states. toonth oeutiuy Friesland west of the Zuyder-Zee had l)e('ome pai-t of the dominions of the Counts. The land ininiediately east of the gulf established its freedom, while East Friesland passed to a line of counts, under ^vhom its fortunes parted off from those of the Nether- lands. Part of its later history has been already given in the character of a more purely German state. Both the counts and the free Frisians had also dangerous- neighbours in the Bishops of Utrecht, the great ecclesias- tical princes of this region, who held a large temporal sovereignty lying apart from their city on the eastern side of the gulf. These disputes went on, as also disputes with the Dukes of Geldern, without any final settlement, almost to the time when all these lands began to be united under the Burgundian power. But before this time, the Counts of Holland had become closely connected with lands much further to the south. Among a number of states in this region, the most l)Owerful was the Duchy of Brahant, which represented tl\e Duchy of the Lower Lotharingia, and whose princes- held the mark of Aiitwer]^ and the cities of Brussels, Lowen or Louvain, and Mechlin. To the south of themr lay the county of Hennegau or Hainault. At the end of the thirteenth century, this county was joined by marriage with that of Holland. Holland and Hainault Avere thus detached possessions of a common prince, with Brabant lying between them. South of Brabant lay the small mark or county of Namur, which, without being united to Flanders, was held by a branch of the- princes of that house. All these states, though their princes held of two- separate overlords, had much in common, and were well fitted to be worked together into a single political STATES OF THE NETHERLANDS. 295 system. Thev had miicli in common in the physical chap. character of the country, and in the unusual number ^ — — *' Import - of ffreat and flourishino- cities which these countries an9eoftiie ~ ~ cities. contained. None of these cities reached the full position of free cities of the Empire ; but their wealth, and the degree of practical independence which they pos- sessed, form a main feature in the history of the Low Countries. In point of language, the northern part of these states spoke various dialects of Low-Dutch, from Flemish to Frisian ; in the southern lands of Hainault, Artois, and Namur, the language, though not French, was not Teutonic, but an independent Eomance speech, the W^alloon. To the west of these states lay soutu- w6stGrn another group of small principalities connected with the group of , states. former greater group in many ways, but not so closely as those which we have just gone through. The great ec- clesiastical principality of Liittich or Lieqe. Iving in two Bishopric ^ . . J ■> ^. G of Liittich. detached parts, divided the lands of which we have been speaking from the counties, afterwards duchies, of Duchies of . Luxem- Lilzelburq or Luxemhurq and of Limhurii. Of these the burg and '^' •^' Limburg. more distant Limburg passed in the fourteenth century to the Dukes of Brabant. Luxemburo- is famous as having given a series of princes to the kingdom of Bohemia and to the Empire, and in their hands it rose to the rank of a duchy. Lastly, to the north of Liittich, "^"^^'"'l' forming a connecting link between this group of states {^53^^- and the more purely Frisian powers, lay the duchy of Geldern, of whose quarters the most northern part Geideru. stretched to the Zuyder-Zee. These eastern states, though not so closely connected with one another as those to the west, were easily led into the same poli- tical system. Without drawing any hard and fast line, we may say that all the states of this reirion formed, if not 29G THE IMPEIMAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Middle position of all these states. French influence. Walloon hinguage. Union of the Nether- lands under the Dukes of Burgundy. yet a middle state, yet a middle system, apart alike from France and from the Empire, though in \'arious ways connected with both. Mainly Imperial, niainl}' Teutonic, they were not wholly so. Besides the homage lawfully due to France from Flanders and Artois, French in- fluence in various ways, in politics, in manners, and in language, had made great inroads in the southern Netherlands. Brabant and Hainault had practically quite as much to do with France as with the Empire. And this French influence was of course helped by the fact that a considerable region in the south was, though not of French, yet not of Teutonic speech. Alto- gether, with much to unite them to the great j)owers on either side, with much to keep them apart from either of them, with much more to unite them to one another, the states of the Netherlands might almost seem to be designed by nature to be united as a separate power under a single head. Such a head was supplied by the princes who were at once Dukes of Burgundy and Counts of Flanders, by whom, in the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, nearly the whole of the Netherlands was united into a single power which was to be presently broken into two by the results of religious divisions. Reign of Philip the Good. 1419-14G7. Namur. 1421-1429. Leaving then for the present the growth and fall of the Burgundian power in the lands more to the souths we will go on to trace the steps by which the provinces of the Low Countries were united under the Valois Dukes and their Austrian descendants. The great increase of territory in this region was made during the long reign of Philip the Good. His first acquisition was the county of Na7nur, a small and outlying district, ACQUISITIONS OF rillLIP THE GOOD. 29' but one wliicli, as small and outlying, would still more chap. VIII. stroniily suiii>'est the roundino' off of the scattered ter- ritoiy. A series of marriages and disputes next enabled 1429-1433. Philip to make a much more important extension of his dominions. Brabant and Limburg had passed i^or,. to a younger branch of the Burgimdian house. John, Duke of Brabant, the cousin of Philip, by a i4i.s. marriage with Jacqueline, Countess of Holland and Hai- nault, united those states for a moment. The disputes and confusions which followed on her marriaoes and divorces led to the annexation of her territories by the Duke of Burgundy, a process which was finally con- cluded by the formal cession of her dominions by Jac- queline. Meanwhile Philip had succeeded to Brabant Brabant and and Limburo', and the union of Flanders, Brabant, Hai- r.iiubmg. ^' ' ' . . 14r,o. nault, Zealand, and Holland, too-ether made a dominion „ ,, , ' ' ' G Holland which took in all the greatest Xetheiiand states, and Halnauit formed a compact mass of territory. On this presently ^^^^' followed a great acquisition of territory which was more strictly French than the fiefs which Philip already held of the French crown in Flanders and Artois. The Treaty of Arras, by which Philip, hitherto the ally of England agahist France, made peace with his western overlord, gave him, under the form of mortgage, the lands on the Somme. These lands, Ponthieu. Ver- fi'^; towns ' ' on tlie mandois, Amiens, and Boulogne, had once been largely Teutonic, but they were by this time thoroughly French. Their acquisition advanced the Burgundian frontier to a dangerous neighbourhood to Paris on this side as well as on the side of the Burgundian duchy. It had the further efiect of keeping the small continental possessions which England still held at Calais and Guines apart from the French territory. During the Soninie. 14:!5-1483. 298 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAl'. Vlll. Recovered bv Fi-rtiicp. France re- signs the liomage of Flanders and Artois. 1526. Luxem- burg. 1443. Geldeni and Zutphen. 1472. Final an- nexation. 1.-43. Bishopric of Liittich never an- nexed. reigns of Philip and Charles the Bold, the continental neighbour of England was not France but Burgundy. But this great southern dominion was not lasting. The towns on the Somme, redeemed and again re- covered, passed on the fall of Charles the Bold once more into French hands. So did Artois itself, and, though Artois was won back, Amiens and the rest were not. Yet, if the towns on the Somme had stayed under the rule of the successive masters of the Low Countries, it might by this time have seemed as natural for Amiens to be Belgian as it now seems natural for Cambray and Valenciennes to be French. The Treaty of Madrid drew a definite boundary. France gave up the ancient claim to homage from Flanders and Artois, and Charles the Fifth, in his Bur- gundian, or rather in his Flemish, character, finally gave up all claim to the lands on the Somme. The south-western frontier was thus fixed ; but meanwhile the new state had advanced in other direc- tions. Philip's last great acquisition was the duchy of Luxemburij. He now possessed the greater part of the Netherlands ; but his dominions were still intersected by the bishoprics of Utrecht and Liittich and the duchy of Geldern. The duchy of Geldern and county of Zut- phen were added by Charles the Bold. But they formed a precarious possession, lost and won more than once, down to their final annexation under Charles the Fifth. Of the two great ecclesiastical principalities by which the Burgundian possessions in the Netherlands were cut asunder, the bishopric of Liittich, though its history is much mixed up with that of the Burgundian Dukes, and though it came largely under their influence, was never formally annexed. But the temporal princi- DOMINIONS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH. 291) pality of the Bishop of Utrecht was secularized under chap. . . . . . VIII. Charles the Fifth. Friesland, the Friesland immediately •^ Annexa- east of the Zuyder-Zee, had already been reincorporated ^'P" o^ the with the dominions of the prince who represented the igg^^'^^^^^*^' ancient counts of Holland. The whole Netherlands were fj??**'*^"^- thus brouo'ht too-ether under the rule of Charles the Fifth. Dominions c) ^ of Charles They were united with the far distant county of Bur- ^^^ ^'^t^- gundy, and with it they formed the Buroundian circle in the new diyision of the Empire. The bishopric of Liittich, which intersected the whole southern part of the country, remained in the circle of Westfalia. Seyen- The teen proyinces, each keeping much of separate being, provinces. were united imder a single prince, and, after the treaty of Madrid, they were free from any pretensions on the part of foreign powers. The Netherlands formed one of the most compact and important parts of the scattered dominions of the Emperor who was also lord of Burgundy, Castile, and Sicily. But the final Their union of these lands under the direct dominion of an from the Empire. Emperor at once led to their practical separation from the Empire. They passed, with all the remaining pos- sessions and claims of the Burgundian house, to Philip Theposses^ of Spain, and they were reckoned among the crowd of Phiiip of distant dependencies which had come under the rule of issr,. the crowns of Castile and Aragon. In Spanish hands they acted less as a middle state than as a power which helped to hem in France on both sides. Had the great reyolt of the Netherlands ended in the final liberation of the whole seventeen provinces, the middle state would haye been formed in its full strength. As it was, the The War work of the War of Independence was imperfect. The pendence. northern provmces won their freedom m the form oi a federal commonwealth. The southern provinces re- oOO THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAr. VIII. The Seven United Provinces. 1578. ■Gelder- land. Fonnal indepen- dence of the Empire. 1648. ', includincr the detached fortresses of Philijypeville and Marienhurg, and Thionville famous in pidiippe- far earlier days. During the endless wars of Lewis the enbmg,''" Fourteenth's reign, the boundary fluctuated with each treaty. Acquisitions were made by France at the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, some of which were surrendered, and lees. 302 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. cHAr. VIII. 1077. Boundary ti\ed by tlie Pence of Utrecht. 1718. The Span- ish Nether- lands pass to Austria. Annexed by France. 1792. Kingdom of Holland. 1806-1810. Holland Annexed by France. JSlO-lWia. otliers made, by the Peace of Nimwegen. At last the boundary was fiiiall)^ fixed Ijv the Peace of Utrecht in the last days of Lewis. Part of Flanders and Hainault were finally confirmed to France, which thus kept Lille^ Camhvay, and Valenciennes. The provinces which had hitherto been Spanish now passed to the only surviving branch of the House of Austria, that which reigned in the archduchy and supplied the hereditarj^ candidates for the Empire. The first wars of the French Eevolution added the Austrian Netherlands to France, and with them the bishopric of Liittich which still so oddly divided them. A later stage of the days of confusion changed the Seven United Provinces, enlarged by the addition of East Friesland, into a Kingdom of Holland, one of the states which the new conqueror carved out for the benefit of his kinsfolk. Presently the new kingdom was incorporated with the new ' Empire,' along with the German lands to the north-east of it. The Corsican had at last carried out the schemes of the kings of the house of Valois, and the whole Burgundian heritage formed for a moment part of France. Kingdom of the Nether- lands. 1814. At the general settlement of Europe, after the long wars with France, the restoration of the Low Countries as a middle state was a main object. This was brought about by the union of the whole Netherlands into a single kingdom bearing that name. The southern boundary did not differ greatly from that fixed by the Peace of Utrecht. As in the case of the Savoyard frontier, The bound- Frauce kept a little more by the arrangements of 1814 than she finally kept by those of 1815. To the east, East-Friesland passed to Hannover, leaving the boundary KINGDOMS OF THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM. 803 of the new kingdom not very different from that of chap. . "^ . . . VIII. the two earlier powers which it represented, gaining - — . — - only a small territory on the banks of the Maes. But the bishopric of Luttich was incorporated with the lands incorpora- which it had once parted asunder, and so ceased alto- Lutticu. gether to be German ground. The new king, as we have already seen, entered the German Confederation in his character of Grand Duke of Luxemburg, the duchy being Grand somewhat shortened to the east in favour of Prussia. Luxem. Lastly, after fifteen years of union, the new kingdom again split asunder. It was now divided into the kingdom of the Netherlands, answering to the old United Provinces, and the kingdom of Belgium, answering to the old Spanish or Kingdom Austrian Xetherlands. But part of Limburg remained to isso-issi.' . Lnxem- the northern kmsfdom, and its sovereign also kept part of burg * . ; ^ ^ ^ divided. Luxemburg, as a distinct state, forming part of the Ger- man Confederation ; but this personal union with Holland came to an end on the death of William III., Luxembursf passing to the Duke of Nassau. The western part of the isgo. duchy formed part of the kingdom of Belgium. Later events, as has been already recorded, have severed the last tie between Germany and the Netherlands ; they ise?. have wiped out the last survival of the days when the Counts of Holland and of Luxemburg were alike princes of the German kinofdom. "&' The above may pass as a sketch of the fluctuations Effects ot along the borderland in their European aspect. It is diau^mie. needless to go through every small shifting of frontier, or to recount in detail the history of small border prin- cipalities like Saint Pol and Bouillon. The main his- torical aspect of these countries is their tendency, in all ages, to form somewhat of a middle system between 304 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. cHAi". two izreater powers on either side of them. The gua- VIII. ranteed neutrality of Belgium and the guaranteed neu- trality of Switzerland are alike survivals or revivals — it is hard to say which they should be called — of the instinctive feeling which, in the ninth century, called the Lotharingian kingdom into being. The modern form of this thousand-year-old idea was made possible through the growth of the power of the Rurgundian Dukes of the house of Valois. Schemes of The real historical work of those dukes was thus Srsoid. done in those parts of their dominions from which they did not take their name, but which took their name from them. The history of their other dominions may be told in a few words ; indeed a great part of it has been told already. The schemes of Charles the Bold for uniting his scattered dominions by the conquest of the duchy of Lorraine, for extending the power thus formed to the seaboard of the royal Bur- o-uiidy, for forming in short a middle kingdom stretch- ino- from the Ocean to the Mediterranean, acting as a barrier alike between France and Germany and between France and Italy, remained mere schemes. They are important only as showing how deeply the idea or the memory of a middle state was still fixed in men's minds. The conquests of Charles in Lorraine, his purchases in Elsass, were momentary possessions which hardly , touch geography. But the fall of Charles, by causing the break-up of the southern dominion of his house, helped to give greater importance to its northern dominion. While the Netherlands grew together, the Burgundies split asunder. After the fall of Charles the fate of the two Burgundies was much the same as the fate of Flanders and Artois. Both were for a while ORIGIN OF THE AUSTRIAN POWER. 305 seized by France ; but the county, like Artois, was after- chap. wards recovered for a season. The duchy of Burgundy • • — was lost for ever ; the county, along with the out- lying county of Charolois, remained to those who by female succession represented the Burgundian Dukes, that is to Charles the Fifth and his Spanish son. The annexation of the Burgundian county, and with it of the city of Besan^on, by Lewis the Fourteenth has been recorded in an earlier section. § 9. The Power of Austria. We now come to one among these German states which have parted off from the kingdom of Germany whose course has been widely different from the rest, and whose modern European importance stands on a widely different level. As the Lotharingian and Frisian lands parted off on the north-west of the kingdom, as a large part of the Swabian lands parted off to the south-west of the kingdom, so the Eastern Mark, the mark of Austria, parted off no less, but with widely different consequences. The name of origin of the name Austria, Oesterreich — Ostrich as our forefathers wrote Oester- reich, it — is, naturally enough, a common name for the Austria. eastern part of any kingdom. The Frankish kingdom other lands of the Merwings had its Austria ; the Italian kingdom so called, of the Lombards had its Austria also. In both of these cases Austria, the positive name of the eastern land, is balanced by Neustria, that is Not-Austria, the negative name of the western land. In short the division comes so naturally that we are half inclined to wonder that the name was never given in our own island either to Essex or to East-Anglia. But, while the other Austrias have passed away, the Oesterreich, the Austria, the VOL. I. X 306 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Special position of the Austrian power. Union with Hungary. The so- called ' Empire ' of Austria. Eastern mark, of the German kingdom, its defence against the Magyar invader, has lived on to our own times. It has not only lived on, but it has become one of the chief European powers. Its small beginnings, as compared with the other bearers of the name, are shown by the fact that it never had a Neustria to balance it ; but out of these small beginnings it has grown to a height which has caused all other bearers ofthenameto be forgotten. And it has grown by a process to which it would be hard to find a parallel. The Austrian duchy supplied Germany with so many Kings, and Eome with so many Emperors, that something of Imperial charac- ter came to cleave to the duchy itself. Its Dukes, in resigning, first, the crown of Germany, and then all connexion with Germany, have carried with them into their new position the titles and bearings of the German C^sars. The power which began as a mark against the Magyar came to have a common sovereign with the Magyar kingdom ; and the Austrian duchy and Magyar kingdom, each drawing with it a crowd of smaller states of endless nationalities, have figured together in the face of modern Europe as the Austrian Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. It is not easy, in drawing a map, to find a place for the ' Empire ' of Austria. The Archduchy is there, and its sovereign has not dropped his archiducal title. A crowd of kingdoms, duchies, counties, and lordships, all acknow- ledging the sovereignty of the same prince, are there also. But it is not easy to find the geographical place of an ' Empire ' of Austria, as distinct from the Archduchy. It is not easy to understand on what principle an ' Empire ' of Austria can be understood as taking in all the states which happen to own the Huno-arian King SPECIAL CHARACTER OF THE AUSTRIAN POWER. 307 and Austrian Archduke as their sovereign. Nor is it chap. VIII. made any easier, when, as would seem to be the present official use of the name, the ' Empire of Austria ' is taken to mean all the kingdoms, duchies, &c., held by the Archduke of Austria in some other character than that of King of Hungary.^ The matter is made more difficult still when we remember that the title of 'Hereditary Emperor of Austria ' was first taken while its bearer was still King of Germany and Eoman Emperor-elect. But, putting questions like these aside, the gradual union of a great number of states, German union of and non-German, under the common rule of the archi- states under the ducal house of Austria, by whatever name we call the Austrian House. power so formed, is a great fact both of history and of geography. A number of states, originally independent of one another, differing in origin and language and everything that makes states differ from one another, some of them members of the former Empire, some not, have, as a matter of fact, come together to form a power which fills a large space in modern history and on the modern map. But it is a power which is altogether lacking in national unity. It is a power which is notcoex- Lack of . , . , , . , , . „ national tensive with any nation, but which takes m parts oi many unity. nations. It cannot even be said that there is a dominant nation surrounded by subject nations. The Magyar German, Magyar, nation in its unitv, and a fragment of the German and other " '^•' races. nation, stand side by side on equal terms, while Italians, Eoumans, and Slaves of almost every branch of the Slavonic race, are grouped around those two. There is no federal tie ; it is a stretch of language to apply No strictly . *^ ^ '• ^ -^ federal tic. the federal name to the present relation between the ^ For the lands thus negatively, and only negatively, defined, I once sugge.sted, after the analogy of Neustria, the name of Nunyary. X 2 SOS . THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, two cliief powers of Hungary and Austria. Nor VIII can any strictly federal tie be said to unite Croatia, Slavonia, and Transsilvania, Bohemia, Dalniatia, Trent, and Galicia, either with one another or with the Aus- trian archduchy. And yet these other members of the general body are not mere subject provinces, like the dominions of Old Eome. The same prince is sovereign of a crowd of separate states, two of which stand out prominently as centres among the rest. There is neither national unity, nor federation, nor mere subjection of one land or nation to another. All this has come by the gradual union by various means of many crowns Anomalous uDoii the saiTie brow. The result is an anomalous power nature '^ •*■ Austrian wliicli lias uotliiug elsc exactly like it, past or present. power. Powers of the same kind have existed before. The dominion of the Angevins in Brittany and Gaul, the dominion of the Burgundian Dukes which we have just been describing, have much in common with the power of the House of Austria. But these powers lasted only for two or three reigns. The great anomaly of the Austrian dominion is that it has been enabled to main- tain itself, in one shape or another, for some centuries. But the very anomaly makes the growth of such a power a more curious study. The The beginnino's of the Austrian state are to be Eastern . Mark. found iu the small Mark on the Danube, lying between Bohemia, Moravia, and the Duchy of Karnthen or Car- inthia. It appears in its first form as an appendage to Bavaria.^ This mark Frederick Barbarossa raised into a duchy, under its first duke Henry the Second, and it was enlarged to the westward at the expense of ^ See Waitz, Deutsche Yerfassungsgeschichte, vii. 75. EARLY HISTORY OF AUSTRIA. 309 Bavaria by the addition of the lands above the Enns. chap. . . . . VIII. Thus was formed the orioinal Duchy of Austria, the ;rT~T' ^ .7 ./ ' Duchy of duchy of the Dukes of the house of Babenberg. It had f^gg*"*' not loncf risen to ducal rank before it beo'an to extend itself at the expense of states which had hitherto been of greater moment than itself. Itself primarily a mark against the Magyar, Austria had to the south of it the lands where the German Kino-doni marched at once upon the Magyar, the Slave, and the Kingdom of Italy. Here lay the great Duchy of Carinthia, Duchy of a land where the population was mainly Slavonic, 976. thouo"h the Slaves on this frontier had been brouo-ht into much earlier and more thorough subjection to the German Kin2S than the Slaves on the north- eastern frontier. At the time of the foundation of the duchy of Austria, the Carinthian duchy had begun to split in pieces, and its northern part, hitherto the Upper Carinthian Mark, grew into the Duchy of Stey- Duchy of ermarh or Styria. Twelve years later, Leopold the nso;' Fifth of Austria inherited the duchy of Styria, a duchy Austria, greater than his own, by the will of its duke Ottokar. Carinthia itself went on as a separate duchy ; but it now took in only a narrow territoiy in the south- western part of the old duchy, and that broken up by outlying possessions of the archbishops of Salzburg and other ecclesiastical lords. To the south, in the partially Slavonic land within the older Italian border, in the extreme north-eastern corner of what had been the Lombard Austria, a considerable power grew up in the hands of the counts of Gorz or Gorizia. The The county possessions of these counts stretched, though not con- tinuouslv, from Tyrol to Istria, and their influence was further enlarged by their position as advocates of the 330 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. ^ 1 Ecclesias- tical posi- tion of its Counts. Momentary union of Austria and Bolieniia. Bohemia a kingdom, 1158. Ottokar of Bohemia annexes Austria and Styria, 1252-1262. Carinthia, 1269. Great power of Ottokar, bishoprics of Trent and Brixen and of the more famous patriarchate of Aquileia. These are the hmds, the marchhinds of Germany towards its eastern and south- eastern neighbours, which came by gradual annexations to form the German possessions of the Austrian power. But the further growth of that power did not begin till the duchy itself had passed away to the hands of a wholly new line of princes. The first change was one which brought about for a moment from one side an union which was afterwards to be brought about in a more lasting shape from the other side. This was the annexation of Austria by the kingdom of Bohemia. That duchy had been raised to the rank of a kingdom, though of course without ceasing to be a fief of the Empire, a few years after the mark of Austria had become a duchy. The death of the last duke of Austria of the Babenberg line led to a disputed succession and a series of wars, in which the princes of Bavaria, Bohemia, and Hungary, all had their share. In the end, between marriage, conquest, and royal grant, Ottokar kinsf of Bohemia obtained the duchies of Austria and Styria, and a few years later he further added Carinthia by the bequest of its Duke. Thus a new power was formed, by which several German states came into the power of a Slavonic king. The power of that king for a moment reached the Baltic as well as the Hadriatic ; for Ottokar carried his arms into Prussia, and Ijecame the founder of Konigsherg. But this great power was but momentary. Bohemia and Austria were again separated, and Austria, with its indefinite mission of extension over so many lands, including Bohemia itself, passed to a house sprung from a distant part of Germany. THE HABSBURG DUKES. 311 We have now come to the European beginnings of chap. the second House of Austria, the house whose name ^7 — '"7" ' House of seems to have become inseparably connected with the ^absburg. name of Austria, though the spot from which that house drew its name has long ceased to be an Austrian pos- session. This is the house of the Counts of Habsburg. They took this name from their castle on the lower course of the Aar, in the north-west corner of the Aargau, in that southern Swabian land where the Old League of High Germany was presently to arise, and so greatly to extend itself at the cost of the power of Habsburo-. By an union of the lands of Habsburg- Union of ^ -J ^ ^ Habsburg, with those of the Counts of Kyburg and Lenzburg, a Kyburg, considerable, though straggling, dominion was formed, i^^uzburg. It stretched in and out among the mountains and lakes, taking in Luzern, and formino- a dangerous neighbour to the free city of Zurich. Besides these lands, the same house also held U'p'per Elsass with the title of Land- Their grave, a dominion separated from the other Swabian in Eisass. lands of the house by the territory of the free city of Basel. The lord of this great Swabian dominion, the famous Eudolf, being chosen to the German crown, Rudolf and having broken the power of Ottokar, bestowed the His vic- tories over duchies of Austria and Styria on his son Albert, after- ottokar, '' 1276-1278. wards King. Carinthia at first formed part of the same ^ibert of ^ ^ Habsburg grant ; but it was presently granted to Meinhard Count ^^^^^^ of Gorz and Tyrol. Gorz passed to another branch of 1282^'''"^' the house of its own Counts. Three powers were thus SukJ'of^ formed in these regions, the duchies of Austria and and'count Styria, the duchy of Carinthia with the county of i28c^'°' Tyrol, and the county of Gorz. Thus under Albert the possessions of the house of scattered territories Habsburg were large, but widely scattered. The two of the 312 THE IxMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. house of Habsbnig. Falling off of the Swabian lands. Connexion of Austria with the Empire. Divisions of the Austrian dominions. newly acquired eastern duchies not only gave its princes their highest titles, but they formed a compact ter- ritory, well suited for extension northward and south- ward. But among the outlying Swabian territories, though some parts remained to the Austrian house down to the end of the German Kingdom, the tendency was to diminish and gradually to ^^ai^t off altogether from Germany. In the lands south of the Ehine this happened through union with the Confederates ; in the Alsatian lands it happened at a later stage through French annexation. It is to be hoped that it is no longer needful to explain that the hereditary lands of the House of Habs- burg or Austria had no inherent connexion with the German Kingdom and Eoman Empire of which they were fiefs, beyond the fact that they were among its fiefs. They were further connected with it only by the accident that, from Rudolf onwards, many princes of that house were chosen Kings, and that, from the middle of the fifteenth century, onwards, all the Kings were chosen from that house and from the house into which it merged by female succession. It is to be hoped that there is no longer any need to explain that every Em- peror was not Duke of Austria, and that every Duke of Austria was not Emperor. But it may be needful to explain that every Duke of Austria was not master of the whole dominions of the House of Austria. The di- visions, the reunions, the joint reigns, which are common to the House of Austria with other German princely houses, become at once more important and more puz- zling in the case of a house which gradually came to stand above all the others in European rank. The caution is specially needful in the case of the Swabian ACQUISITIONS AND DIVISIONS. 313 lands, as the history of the Confederates is liable to be chap. . . . vin. greatly misunderstood, if every Duke of Austria who — — appears in it is taken for the sole sovereign of the Austrian dominions. It is needless here to go through all these shiftings between princes of the same house. Through all changes the unity of the house and its pos- sessions was maintained, even while they were parted out or held in common by different members of the house. But it is important to bear in mind that some of the Dukes of Austria who figure in the history of Switzerland were rather Landoraves of Elsass or Counts of Tyrol than Dukes of Austria in any practical sense-. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ma}" be defined as a time durino- wliich the Austrian house on the whole steadily advanced in the eastern part of its dominions and steadily fell back in the western. But in the course of the fourteenth century an acquisition Acquisi- was made which, without makino- them absolutely con- carmthia . . and Tyrol, tinuous, brought them into something more like geo- i^ss. graphical connexion with one another. This was the acquisition of the Duchy of Carinthia and County of Tyrol, the latter of which lands lay conveniently be- tween the eastern and western dominions of the house. Extent of the Austria! territory. These now stretched continuously from the Bohemian Austrian frontier to Istria, and they threw out, in the form of Tyrol and the Swabian lands, a scattered, but nearlv continuous, territory stretching to the borders of Lor- raine and the county of Burgundy. The Austrian possessions now touched the eastern gulf of the Hadri- atic and came into the neighbourhood of the Dal- matian Archipelago. Somewhat later they reached the main Hadriatic itself, when the citv of Trieste. 314 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, hitherto disputed between the coniinonweahJi of Venice VIII. ^ . c^me^ and the patriarchs of Aquileia, commended itself to StV^ the Austrian Duke Leopold as its lord. This is the ^*®^' same Leopold who four years later fell at Sempach. By this time the Swabian possessions of the house had been increased north of the Ehine, while south of the Ehine the Austrian dominion was steadily giving way. The Confederates and their several cantons advanced in every way, by purchase and conquest, till, after the Loss of loss of Thuro'au, the House of Austria kept nothiup- Thurgau, o ^ jr o 1460. south of the Ehine except the towns known as the Waldstddte. By this time the division of the estates of the house had taken a more lasting shape. One branch reigned in Austria, another in Carinthia and Styria, a third in Tyrol and the other western lands. At this time begins the unbroken series of Austrian elections to the German and Albert the Imperial crowns. The first of this line was Albert the Second, ^ king, 1437- Second, Duke of Austria. Then Frederick the Third, 1440. ' ' SiTThird, ^^^^ ^^"^^ Emperor of the House, united the Austrian and Em|'eior° ' Carinthiau duchies, and raised Austria to the unique rank Archduke of ^u Arcliducliy. Meanwhile, Siegmund Count of Tyrol 1453"^ "*' beld the western lands, and appears as Duke of Austria Count of ' in Confederate and Burgundian history. He there 1429-1496.' figures as the prince who lost Thurgau to the Confede- rates and who mort^'ao-ed his Alsatian lands to Charles Maxi- the Bold. In Maximilian the whole possessions of the milian, '- King of the House of Austria were united. But by this time the Komans, '> ArcMuke ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ purcly German lands which had hitherto cSt of formed the possessions of the Austrian house had begun l^f: to be mixed up with the succession to lands and king- ei!rct,T508. doms beyond the Empire, and with lands which, though of^mlon"^ technically within the Empire, had a distinct being of ACQUISITION OF FOREIGN KINGDOMS. 315 their own. In the course of the fifteenth century the chap. House of Austria, hitherto simply one of the chief ^^^^J^^^^ German princely houses, put on two special characters. E^pj^^g*''*^ It became, as we have already seen, the house which exclusively supplied kina^'s and Emperors to Germany succes- ^ '~' , . sion of and the Empire. And it became, by virtue of its here- Austrian ■'■ _ ^ Kings and ditary possessions rather than of its Imperial position, Emperors. one of the chief European powers. For a while the greatest of European powers, it has remained a great European power down to our own time. The special feature in the history of the House of Austria from the fifteenth century onwards is its con- nexion — a connexion more than once broken, but still constantly recurring till in the end it becomes fully permanent — with the kino-dom of Bohemia within the Union with '■ _ _ Bohemia Empire and with the kingdom of Hungary beyond its ^^ bounds. These kingdoms, whose elective character only gradually passed away, stand distinguished from the earlier and more strictly German possessions of the house, which are distinctively known as the Hereditary States. The possession of these kingdoms has given the Austrian power its special character, that of a power formed by the union under one prince of several wholly distinct nations or parts of nations which have no tie beyond that union. The Austrian princes, originally purely German, equally in their Swabian and in their Austrian possessions, had already, by the extension ol their power to the south, obtained some Slavonic and some Italian-speaking subjects. Still, as a power, they were purely German. But in the period which begins in the fifteenth and goes on into the nineteenth century, we shall see them gradually gathering together, some- various ac- times gaining, sometimes losing — gaining and losing by of Austria. 316 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, every process, warlike and peaceful, by which territory > — ' can be gained or lost — a crowd of kingdoms, duchies, and counties, scattered over all parts of Europe from Flanders to Transsilvania. But it is the acquisition of the two crowns of Bohemia and Hunoarv which, above all others, gave the House of Austria its special position as a middle power, a power belonging at once to the system of Western and to the system of Eastern Europe. Among the endless shiftings of the states which have been massed together under the rule of the house of Habsburg, that house has more than once been at the same moment the neio'hbour of the Gaul and the neioh- bour of the Turk ; and it has sometimes found Gaul and Turk arrayed together against it. Add to all this that, though the connexion between the house of Austria and the Empire was a purely personal one, renewed in each generation by a special election, still the fact that so many kings of Hungary and archdukes of Austria were chosen Emperors one after another, caused the house itself, after the Empire was abolished, to look in the eyes of many like a continuation of the power which had come to an end. The peculiar position of the Austrian house could hardly have been obtained by a mere union of Hungary, Austria, and the other states, under princes none of whom were raised to Imperial rank. Nor could it have been oljtained by a series of mere dukes of Austria, even though they had been chosen Emperors from generation to generation. It was through the accidental union under one sovereign of a crowd of states which had no natural connexion with each other, and through the further accident that the Empire itself seemed to become a possession of the House, that the House of Habsburg, and its representative the UNION AVITH HUNGARY. 317 House of Lorraine, have won their unique position chap. among European powers. ' — " The first hints, so to speak, of a coming union between the Hungarian and Bohemian kingdoms and the Austrian duchy began, as we have seen, in the days of Ottokar. A Bohemian king had then held the Austrian duchy, while a Hungarian king had for a moment occu- pied part of Styria. So at a much later time, in the latter half of the fifteenth century, the Austrian duchy bowed for a moment to the victorious Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus. But the later form which the union was to take was not that of the Bohemian or the Hunga- Relations rian reigning over Austria, but that of the Austrian garyand '^ XT 1 IT 1 • Bohemia. reignmg over Hungar}'' and Bohemia. The duchy was not to be added to either of the kingdoms ; but both kingdoms were in course of time to be added to the duchy. The growth of both Hungary and Bohemia as kingdoms will be spoken of elsewhere. We have now to deal only with their relations to the Austrian House. For a moment, early in the fourteenth century, an Rudolf, sou Austrian prince, son of the first Austrian King of Ger- King of " many, was actually acknowledged as King of Bohemia, isoc. But this connexion was only momentary. The first beginnings of anything like a more permanent con- nexion begin a hundred and thirty years later. The second Austrian King of Germany wore both the Albert the Hungarian and the Bohemian crowns by virtue of his King of • • Hungary marriage with the daucchter of Sieirmund, Emperor andBohe- p ^ . mia, 1438. and King. The steps towards the union of the various crowns are now beginning. Siegmund was the third siegmund. King of Bohemia who had worn the crown of Germanv, Hungary, '^ " 1386 ; the second who had worn the crown of the Empire. King of the ■"■ Romans, Under his son-in-law, Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria, i^^^; 318 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, were for a moment united with the German crown ; — -^-^ in the next reicjn, as we have seen, begins the lasting King of *- ^ Bohemia, comiexion between Austria and the Empire. But the Emperor, Hungarian and Bohemian kinodoms parted again. One wiadisiaus Austrian King, the son of Albert, reigned at least nomi- oSeof"' nally over both kingdoms, as well as over the special 1440-1457 ; Austrian duchy. But the final union did not come for Hungary jiuotlier ciglity years, a period diversified by what now Bohemia, sccms a sur^ival of a past state of thino's, the momentary 1458-14.57. ^ . "" T. 1 • • dominion of Hungary over Austria. By this time the Turk was threatening and conquering on the Hungarian and Austrian borders. At Mohacz Lewis, king of Hunsarv and Bohemia, fell before the invaders. His Terdiuand, Bohcmian kingdom passed to Ferdinand of Austria, and ofTusIria, from that day to this, unless we except the momentary of Hungary clioicc of tlic Wiutcr Kiuo', tlic Palatiiic Frederick, the and Bohe- ^ . mia, 1.527; Boliemiau crown has always stayed in the House of King of the '' *' Eomans, Austrla. Aud for many generations it has been worn ST556 t>y the actual sovereign of the Austrian archduchy. Permanent union of Bohemia. & The acquisition of the crown of Hungary was of greater importance. It put the Austrian house into a wholly new position ; it gave it its later character of a middle state between Eastern and Western Europe. Effects of The duchy had begun as a mark against the Turanian with ""^ " and heathen invaders of earlier times. Those Turanian Hungarv. i i j and heathen invaders had now long settled down into a Christian kingdom; they had taken their place among the foremost champions of Christendom against the Turanian and Mahometan invaders who had seized the throne of the Eastern Cassars. With the crown of Hungary, the main duty of the Hungarian Mission crown, the defence of Christendom against the Ottoman, against the r> i i • - Turk. passed to the Archdukes and Emperors ol the Austrian ITALIAN POSSESSIONS. • 319 house. But for a lono- time Hunoary was a most chap. . . . . VIII. imperfect and precarious possession of its Austrian ,^;^- — -" Kings. For more than a century and a half after the -V^stnan & J kings m election of Ferdinand, his rule and that of his successors Hungary. was disputed and partial. They had from the very 1526-1699. bemnnino- to strive as^ainst rival kinas while the greater part of the kingdom and of the lands attached to the crown was either held by the Turk himself or by princes who acknowledged the Turk as their superior lord. These strictly Hungarian affairs, as well as the changes on the frontier towards the Turk, will be spoken of elsewhere. It was not till the eighteenth century that tjie Austrian Kings were in full posses- Peaceof sion of the whole Hungarian kingdom and all its w'itz, 1718. dependencies. Meanwhile the Austrian power had been making Acquisition advances in other quarters. At the end of the fifteenth 1500. century the Austrian possessions at the north-east of the Hadriatic were greatly enlarged by the addition of the county of Gorz or Gorizia, and the fallen city of Aquileia. The wars of the League of Cambray made New no permanent addition to Austrian dominion in this towards ... . . Italy- quarter ; but the master of Trieste, Gorizia, and Aquileia, whose territory cut off Venice from her Istrian posses- sions, was now an Italian sovereign, though his Italian dominions were, as Verona and other Italian lands had been in earlier days, now counted as part of Germany. The prince of the German Austria now counted part of the elder Lombard Austria among his many lordships. Under Charles the Fifth the Italian dominion of the Dominions . of Charles House 01 Austria grew, as we have seen, to a vast the Fifth, extent. But after him that doniiiiiou passed away alike from the Empire and the German branch of the house, 320 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP. VIII. Austrian rule in Italy. Burgun- dian pos- sessions. Maximi- lian and Philip. The Austrian Nether- lands. Loss of Elsass. to become part of the heritage of the Austrian Kings of Spain. It was not, as we have already seen, till the be- ginning of the eighteenth century that either an Empe- ror or a reigning archduke again obtained any territory within what were now the acknowledged bounds of Italy. The fluctuations of Austrian rule in Italy, from the acquisition of the Duchy of Milan down to our own day, have been already told in the Itahan section. Lombardy and western Venetia are now again Italian ; but an Austrian sovereign still keeps the north-east corner of the great gulf. He still keeps Gorizia and Aquileia. Trieste and all Istria, to say nothing of the dangerous way which his frontier still stretches on Italian ground in the land of Trent and Eoveredo. These last-named possessions still abide as traces of the Austrian advance in these regions, and its fluctua- tions there have been among the most important facts of modern history. Another series of Austrian acquisi- tions in the West of Europe have altogether passed away. The great Burgundian inheritance passed to the House of Austria. But it was only for a short time, in the persons of Maximilian and his son Philip, * that it was in any way united to the actual Austrian Archduchy. After Charles the Fifth the Burgundian possessions passed, Hke those in Italy, to tlie Spanish branch of the House, and, just as in Italy, it was not till the eighteenth century that actual Emperors or archdukes again reigned over a part of the Netherlands. Before this time the Alsatian dominion of the house had passed away to France, and the remnant of its Swabian posses- sions passed away, as we have seen, in the days of general confusion. The changes of Austrian territory in Germany during that period have been already spoken of The POLISH POSSESSIONS. 321 Austrian acquisitions in Eastern Europe will come more 9^ap- fully elsewhere ; but a word must be oiven to tliem here. • Looking at the House of Austria simply as a power, with- out reference to the German or non-German character of its dominions, the loss of Silesia may be looked on as Loss of -If T-» 1 1 Silesia, counterbalanced by the territory oamed Irom roland at 1740. " '- . . Final parti- the first and third partitions. The first partition a;ave tion of ■^ _ Poland, the Austrian house a territor}' of which the greater part 1772. was originally Eussian rather than Polish, and in which the old Eussian names of Ilalicz and Vladimir were strangely softened into ^Kinqdom of Galicia and Lodo- Gaiidaand ^ _ ' ' Lodomeria. meria. The third partition added Cracow and a con- Third ^ partition, siderable amount of strictly Polish territory. These last 1795. .New- •^ Galicia. passed away, first to the Duchy of Warsaw, and then to the restored Kino-dom of Poland. But Galicia has been kept, and it has been increased hi our day by the seizure Annexa- of the republic of Cracow. These lands lie to the north cracow, *- 1846. of the Hungarian kingdom. Parted from them by the whole extent of that kingdom, and adjoining that king- dom at its south-west corner, lie the coast lands of Austria on the Hadriatic. By the Peace of Campo Formio, Austria took Dalmatia strictly so called, and Daimatia, . . 1797. the other Venetian possessions as far south as Budua. Recovered, These lands, lost in the wars with France, were won again at the Peace, with the addition of Raqusa and its Ragusa, ^ . 1814. territory. This account of the gains and losses of a power which has gained and lost in so many quarters is necessarily somewhat piecemeal. It may be well then to end this section with a picture of the Austrian power as it stood at several pohits of the history of the last century and a half, leaving the fluctuating frontier VOL. I. Y 322 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, towards the Turk to be dealt witli in our survey of tlie • ■— more strictly Eastern lands. Reign of We will begin at a date when we come across a Theiesa, sovcreioii wliosc positiou is often strangely misunder- 1740-1780. " •'' ^ ^ ^^ • m^ r\ -1 stood, the Empress-Queen Maria Theresa— Queen m her own right of Hungary and Bohemia, Empress by the election of her husband to the Imperial Crown. The Prao-matic Sanction of her father Charles the Sixth Her made her heiress of his hereditary states, of his two hereditarj' ... , . . dominions, kiugdoiiis, aiid of his Burgundian and Italian dominions. That is, it made her heiress, within the Empire, of the kingdom of Bohemia with its dependencies of Moravia and Silesia — of the Archduchy of Austria with the duchies, counties, and lordships of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, Gorizia, and Trieste — of Constanz and a few other outlying Swabian points — as also of Milan, Mantua, and the Austrian Netherlands, lands which it needs some stretch, whether of memory or of legal fiction, to look on as being then in any sense lands of the Empire. Beyond the Empire, in its widest sense, it gave her the Kingdom of Hungary with its dependent lands of Croatia, Slavonia, and Transsilvania or Sieben- biirgen. These dominions, lessened by the loss of Silesia, increased by the addition of Galicia, she handed on to their later Kings and Archdukes. Her marriage transferring her dominions, indirectly transferred the Em- pire itself, to a new family, the House of Lorraine. The husband of Maria Theresa, Francis, who had exchanged his duchy of Lorraine for that of Tuscany, was in truth the first Lotharingian Emperor. After him came three Emperors of his house, under the third of whom the succession of Augustus and Charles came to an end. We may take another view of the Austrian territory EXTENT OF AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 323 at the moment when the French power in Germany was chap. ^ -^ VIII. at its height. The Roman Empire and the German king 1 in 1811 dom had now come to an end ; l3ut their hist sovereio-n do^minTons still, with whatever meaning, called himself Emperor of his archduchy, though without dropping his proper title of Archduke. From this time the word Austria has New use of J 1 1 1 1 . • , the name gradually come, by a common but inaccurate usage, Austria. to take in all the possessions of the House of Austria, an usag^e which dissfuises the real nature of the Austrian power, and suggests the notion that 'Austria ' is a nation in the same sense as German}^ and Italy, and not simply the accumulation in the hands of a sinoie man of terri- tories which have no natural connexion. Still, as all the possessions of the House of Austria were now geogra- phically continuous, it became more natural to speak of them by a single name than it had been when the domi- nions of that house in Italy and the Netherlands lay apart from the o-reat mass of Austrian territory. And at this moment, when the Empire had come to an end and when the German Confederation had not yet been formed, there was no distinction between German and non- German lands. The ' Empire ' of Francis the Second or First, as it stood at the time of Buonaparte's greatest power, had, as compared with the hereditary dominions of Maria Theresa, gone through these changes. Tyrol and the Swabian lands had passed to other German princes ; Salzburg had been won and lost again. In Italy the Venetian possessions had been won and lost, and they, together with the older Italian possessions of Austria, had passed to the French kingdom of Italy. France in her own name had encroached on the Aus- trian dominions at two ends, on the Ocean and on the Hadriatic. She had absorbed the Austrian Netherlands Y 2 324 THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP VIII. Austria at the peace. 1814-5. Eagusa and Cattaro. at one corner, the newly won Austrian territory in Dalmatia and Istria at another. These last hrst formed parts of the French kingdom of Italy ; afterwards, tooether with parts of Carinthia and Carniola and of the Hungarian kingdom of Croatia, they were fully united with the French Empire under the name of the lllyrian Provinces. lUyrian they were in the widest and most purely geographical sense of that name. But this use of the lllyrian name was confusing and mis- leading, as tending to put out of sight that the true representatives of the old lllyrian race dwell to the south, not only of Carinthia and Carniola, but of Dalmatia itself. The loss of the Austrian possessions in this quarter brought back the new Austrian 'Empire' to the condition of the original Austrian duchy. It became a wholly inland dominion, without an inch of seacoast anywhere. We have already seen how Austria won back her lost Italian and Dalmatian territory, and so much of her lost German territory as was geographically con- tinuous. Eeleased from her inland prison, provided again with a o-reat seaboard on both sides of the Hadriatic, she now refused to Eaousa the restoration of her freedom, and filched from Montenegro her hard- won haven of Cattaro. The recovered lands formed, in the new nomenclature of the Austrian possessions, the kingdoms of Lombardy and Venice, of lUyria, and of Dalmatia. The last was an ancient title of the Hungarian crown. The Kingdom of Illyria was a continuation of the affected nomenclature which had been bestowed on the lands which formed it under their French occupation. We have already traced the driving out of the Austrian power from Lombardy and Venetia, AUSTEIA AND HUNGARY. 325 its momentary joint possession in Sleswick, Holstein, and ^y^f- Lauenburg. The only other actual change of frontier c^^^ ' has been the annexation of the inland commonwealth of Cracow, to match the annexation of the sea-faring commonwealth of Eao-iisa. The movement of 1S48 separated Huno-ary for a moment from the Austrian Separation ^ !=> J of Hun- power. Won back, partly by Eussian help, partly by g^^y. i848. the arms of her own Slayonic subjects, the Magyar king- of Hun- dom remained crushed till Austria was shut out alike from Germany and from Italy. Then arose the present system, the so-called dualism, the theory of which is that the ' Austro-Hungarian Monarch}^ ' consists of Austro- . Hungarian two states under a common soyereion. \iy an odd Monarchy, ^ - 1867. turning about of meanings, Austria, once really the Oesterreich, the Eastern land, of Germany, has become in truth the Western land, the Neustria, of the new arrangement. With the Hungarian kingdom are grouped the j)i*incipality of Transsilyania and the king- doms of Slavonia and Croatia. The Austrian state is made up of Austria itself — the archduchy with the addition of Salzburg — the duchy of Styria, the county of Tyrol, the kingdoms of Bohemia, Galicia and Lodo- meria, Illyria, and Dalmatia with Ragusa and Cattaro. These last lands are not continuous. Thus two states Modem Austria. are formed. In one the dominant German duchy has Slavonic lands on each side of it, and an Italian fringe on its coast. In the other state, the rulina^ Maofyar Modem ^ "- Hungary. holds also among the subjects of his crown the Slave, the Rouman, and the outlyino* Saxon of Sieben- ])Urgen. Add to this that the latest arrangements of all have added to the Austrian dominions, under the diplomatic phrase of ' administration,' the Slavonic lands of Herzegoviiui and Bosnia, while the kingdom 326 THE I31PERIAL KINGDOMS. CHAP, of Dalinatia is increased by the harbour of Spizza. :^^^ — ' A power like this, which rests on no national basis, is BoSa simply the estate of a particular family, patched together ism '^"'^*' during a space of six hundred years by this and that grant, this and that marriage, this and that treaty, is surely an anachronism on the face of modern Europe. Germany and Italy are nations as well as powers. Austria, changed from the Austria of Germany into the Neustria of Hungary, is simply a name without a meaning. We have thus gone through the geographical changes of the three Imperial kingdoms, and of the states and powers which were formed by parts of those kingdoms falling away, and in some cases uniting them- selves with lands beyond the Empire. They have all to some extent kept a common history down to our own time. We have now to turn to another land which parted off from the Empire in like manner, but which parted off so early as to become a wholly separate and rival land, with an altogether independent history of its own. 32' CHAPTEE IX. THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. The process by which a great power grew up to the chap west of the Western Empire has something in common — > — with the process by which the powers spoken of in Origin and i- '' >- ^ growth of the later sections of the last Chapter split off from the ^'■anee. Western Empire. As in the case of Switzerland and the United Provinces, so in the case of France, a land which had formed part of the dominions of Charles the Great became independent of his successors. As in the compari- case of Austria to the east, so in the case of France to Austria. the west, a duchy of the old Empire grew into a power distinct from the Empire, and tried to attach to itself the old Imperial titles and traditions. But there is more than one point of difference between the Difierent -"■ nature of two cases. As a matter of geography, the power of the JJ^^^f ^^"^ Austrian house has for some centuries largely rested teni^'^^"''^ on the possession of dominions beyond the boundaries *°'''^^- of the Carolingian Empire, while it has been only for a moment, and that chiefly by the annexation of territory from Austria itself, that France has ever held any European possessions beyond the CaroHngian frontier.^ But the true difference lies in the date and Difference . in the pro- circumstances of the separation. The Swabian, Lothar- cess of separation. ingian, Frisian, and Austrian lands which gradually ^ Namely in the lUyrian Province,s and in the Ionian Islands. See above, p. 324. 328 THE KINGI)0]\r OF FRANCE. CHAP. IX. The other powers spht off after the Empire has become German. The Empire divided into four kingdoms, of which three are again united, while one remains distinct. Karohngia receives the name of France. France a nation as well as a power. split oir from the Empire to form distinct states split off after the Empire had been finally annexed to the crown of Germany, indeed after Germany and the Empire had come to mean nearly the same tliinoj. But France can hardl}'' be said to have split off from the German kingdom or from the Empire itself. The first prince of the Western Francia who bore the kingly title was indeed the man of the Kino- of the East-Franks.^ But no lasting relation, such as afterwards bound the princes of the Empire to its head, sprang out of his homage. Again from 887 to 963 the Imperial dignity was not finally attached to any one kingdom. It fluctuated between Germany and Italy ; it might have passed to Burgundy ; it might have passed to Karolingia, as it had once already done in the person of Charles the Bald. The truer way of putting the matter is to say that in 887 the Empire split up into four kingdoms, of which three came together again, and formed the Empire in a new shape. The fourth kingdom remained separate ; it can hardly be said to have split off from the Empire, but its separation hindered the full recon- struction of the Empire. It has had a distinct history, a history which made it the special rival of the Empire. This was Karolingia, the kingdom of the West-Franks, to which, through the results of the change of dynasty in 987, the name of France gra- dually came to be applied. But there is 3^et another distinction of greater practical importance. France was so early detached from the rest of the elder Frankish dominions that it was able to form from the first a nation as well as a power. Its separation happened at the time when the ' See above, p. 139. ORIGIN OF FEAXCE. 329 European nations were forming. The other powers chap. did not spUt ofi' till long after those nations were ■- — • — -^ formed, and they did not in any strict sense form •nations. But France is a nation in the fullest sense. Its history is therefore different from the history of Austria, of Burgundy, of Switzerland, or even of Italy. As a state which had become wholly distinct from the Empire, which was commonly the rival and enemy of the Empire, which largely grew at the expense of the Empire, above all, as a state which won for itself a most distinct national being, France fully deserves a chapter, and not a mere section. Still that chapter is in some sort an appendage to that which deals with the Imperial kingdoms of the West. It naturally follows on our survey of those kingdoms, before we go on further to deal with the European powers which arose out of the dismemberment of the Empire of the East. We left Karolingia or the Western Kingdom at Extent of •1 i'~i-r\i 1 • 1 *'^^® royal that ponit where the modern I rench state took its real domain at the aeces- beffinnin^- under the kinii's of the house of Pans, sion of the c> <- I- ^ ^ ^ Parisian Their duchy of France had since its foundation been ^louse. cut short bv the ofreat orrant of Normandv, and bv the practical independence which had been won by the counts of Anjou, Maine, and Chartres. By their election to the kino'dom, the Dukes of the French added to their duchy the small territory which up to that time had still been in the immediate possession of the West- Frankish Kings at Laon. And, with the crown and the immediate territory of those kings, the French kings at Paris also inherited their claim to superiority over all the states which had arisen within the bounds of the Western Kin^-dom. But the name France, as it was Definition 330 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAr. used in the times with which we are deahiiii', means IX. *' of the " only the inmiediate territory of the King. The use of "'jBv^nce ^^^^ name spreads with every increase of that territory, Two forms whether that increase was made by the incorporation of growth ; . 'Y»exation of a fief or by the annexation of territory wholly foreign the French ^q ^\^q kinqxlom. And this constantly widenino- applica- crown and ~ .f o i r aitSher ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^® name is as strictly accurate in the case of khigdora^*^ France as it is hiaccurate in the case of Austria. Every land permanently annexed by the sovereigns of France has sooner or later really become French ; but the lands annexed by the sovereigns of Austria show no tendency to become Austrian. But the two processes of incor- porating fiefs of the French crown and of annexing lands with which the French crown had nothing to do must be carefully distinguished. Both went on side by side for some centuries ; but the incorporation of the vassal states naturally began before the annexation of altogether foreign territory. Various Amoug the fiefs which were gradually annexed gradations, a distiuctiou must be drawn between the great princes who were reallv national chiefs owino- an external homaoe to the French crown, and the lesser counts whose dominions had been cut off from the ori- ginal duchy of France. And a distinction must be again drawn between these last and the immediate tenants of the Crown within its own domains, vassals The great of the Dukc as wcU as of the King. To the first class VfliSR fills belong the Dukes and Counts of Burgundy, Aquitaine, Toulouse, and Flanders ; to the second the Counts of Special Anjou, CJiartres, and Charnpagne. Historically, Nor- character 711 of Nor- mandy belonjj-s to the second class, as the oriQ-mal mandy. *" "-- grant to Rolf was undoubtedly cut off from the French duchy. But the whole circumstances of the Norman THE GREAT FIEFS. 331 duchy made it a truly national state, owing to the chap. French crown the merest external homage. Britanny, ^-r^^ — - ~ «7 ' Bntanny. yet more distinct in every way, was held to owe its immediate homap-e to the Duke of the Normans. The The ^ Twelve so-called Twelve Peers of France seem to have been Peers, devised by Philip Augustus out of the romances of Charlemagne ; but the selection shows who were looked on as the greatest vassals of the crown in his day. The six lay peers were the Dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, and Aquitaine, the Counts of Flanders, Toulouse, and Champagne. This last was the only one of the six who cham- could not be looked upon as a national sovereign. His dominions were French in a sense in which Normandy or Aquitaine could not be called French. The six ecclesiastical peers offer a marked contrast to the Different ecclesiastical electors of the Empire. The German 0^1!^" bishops became princes, holding directly of the Empire. theEast-^ But the bishops within the dominions of the great westem vassals of the French crown were the subjects of their immediate sovereigns. The Archbishop of Eouen or the Archbishop of Bourdeaux stood in no relation to the King of the French. The ecclesiastical peerage of France consisted only of certain bishops who were immediate vassals of the Khig in his character of King, among whom was only one prelate of the first rank, the Archbishop and Duke of llheims. The others were the Bishops and Dukes of Lamjres and Laon, and the Bishops and Counts of Beauvais, Noyon, and Chdlons. As the bishops within the dominions of the great feuda- tories had no claim to rank as peers of the kingdom, neither had those prelates who were actually within the King's immediate territory, vassals therefore of the Duke of the French as well as of the King. Thus the 332 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. IX. Bishop of Paris and his metropoHtaii the Archbishop of Sens had no place among the twelve peers. Chief vas- sals within the royal domain. States on the Chan- nel and on the Ocean ; on the Mediterra- nean coast. Neigh- bours of the ro)-al domain. Chartres and Blois. 112.5-1152. ^ 1. Incorporation of the Vassal States. At the accession of the Parisian dynasty, the royal domain took in the greater part of the later Isle of France, the territory to which the old name specially clung, the greater part of the later government of Orleans, besides some outlying fiefs holding immediately of the King. Within this territory the counties of Clermont, Dreux, Moulins, Valois, and the Gatinois, are of the greatest historical importance. Two of the great rivers of Gaul, the Seine and the Loire, flowed through the royal dominions ; but the King was wholly cut off from the sea by the great feudatories who commanded the lower course of the rivers. The coast of the Chan- nel was held by the princes of Britanny, Normandy, and Flanders, and the smaller county of Pontliieu, which lay between Normandy and Flanders and fluc- tuated in its homao-e between the two. The ocean coast was held by the rulers of Britanny, of Poitou and Aquitaine united under a single sovereign, and of Gascony to the south of them. That part of the Mediterranean coast which nominally belonged to the Western Kino-dom was held by the counts of Toulouse ^iwdi Barcelona. Of these great feudatories, the princes of Flanders, Burgundy, Normandy, and Cham- pagne, were all immediate neighbours of the King. To the west of the royal domain lay several states of the second rank which played a great part in the history of France and Normandy. These were the coun- ties of Chartres and Blois, which were for a while united with Cha7npagne. Beyond these, besides some EAELY ADVANCES OF FRANCE. 333 smaller counties, were Anjou and Touraine, and Maine, chap. IX. Anjou and Touraine united. 1044. Maine. the borderland of Normandy and Anjou. Thus sur- rounded by their own vassals, the early Kings of the house of Paris had far less dealings with powers beyond their own kingdom than their Karolingian pre- decessors. They were thus able to make themselves the great power of Gaul before they stood forth on a wider field as one of the great powers of Europe, As regards their extent of territory, the Kings of Theking- .. PIT 1 Aoxn small- the French at the beo-mnnig oi the eleventh century er than the *" . old duch}-. had altogether fallen away from the commanding position which had been held by the Dukes of the French in the middle of the tenth. But this seeming- loss of power was fully outweighed by the fact that they were now Kings and not merely Dukes, lords and no longer vassals. As feudal principles grew, Advantage opportunities were constantly found for annexino- the Singly ^^ . position. lands of the vassal to the lands of his lord. Towards the end of the eleventh century the royal domain had First advances o£ already begun to increase by the acquisition of the the Kings. Gatinois and of the viscounty of Bourges, a small part Gatinois. only of the later province of Berry, but an addition viscouuty which made France and Aquitaine more clearly neigh- noo. ° "" hours than before. Towards the end of the twelfth century began a more important advance to the north- east. The first aaorandizement of France at the ex- pense of Flanders was the beginning of an important chain of events in European history. In the early years of Philip Augustus the counties of Ainiejis and Amiens Vertnandois were united to the crown, as was the l'!'"^^°'*'- J. J.OO. countv of Valois two years later. So for a while was Vaiois. •' ^ 1185. the more important land of Artois. Later in the reiii'n Aitois. ^ , , *- 1180-1187, of the same prince came an annexation on a far 334 THE KINGDOM OF FEANCE. CHAP. IX. Growth of the House of Anjou. Union of Aquitaine and Gas- cony, 1052. Conquests of William of Nor- mandy. Pontliieu. 1056. Domfront. 1049. Maine. 1063. Union of Maine and Anjou. 1110. Dominions of Henry the Second. greater scale, wliicli did not happen till the first years of the thirteenth century, but wliich was the result of causes which had been going on ever since the eleventh. In the course of the twelfth century a power grew up within the bounds of the Western Kingdom which in extent of territory threw the dominions of the French King into insignificance. The two great powers of northern and southern Gaul, Normandy and Aquitaine, each carrying with it a crowd of smaller states, were united in the hands of a single prince, and that a prince who was also the king of a powerful foreign kingdom. The Aquitanian duchy contained, besides the county of Poitou, a number of fiefs, of which the most important were those of Perujueux, Limoges, the dauphiny of Ammrgne, and the county of Marche which gave kings to Jerusalem and Cj^prus. To these, in the eleventh century, the duchy of Gascony, with its subordinate fiefs, was added, and the dominions of the lord of Poitiers stretched to the Pyrenees. Mean- while Duke William of Normandy, before his conquest of England, had increased his continental dominions, by acquiring the superiority of Ponthieu and the imme- diate dominion, first of the small district of Domfront and then of the whole of Maine. Maine was presently lost by his successor, and passed in the end to the house of Anjou. But the union of several lines in descent in the same person united England, Normandy, Anjou, and Maine in the person of Henry the Second. For a moment it seemed as if, instead of the northern and southern powers being united in oppo- sition to the crown, one of them was to be itself incorporated with the crown. The marriage of Lewis THE ANGEVIN POWER. 335 the Seventli with Eleanor of Aquitaine united his chap. IX. kinodom and her duchy. A kino- of Paris for the ^ ^ ^ ^ "^ * Momen- first time reigned on the Garonne* and at the foot taiy union '- of France of the Pyrenees. But the divorce of Lewis and f'^.'^Mui- •J taine. Eleanor and her immediate re-marriao-e with the Duke ^^^'^' ^ Their of Normandy and Count of Anjou again severed the separation. southern duchy from the kingdom, and united the Union of „ - - Aquitaine, great powers oi northern and southern Gaul. Then Normandy, . and Anjou. their common lord won a crown beyond the sea and became the first Angevin kino- of Enoiand. Another 1152-1154. marriage brought Britanny, long the nominal fief of fieg?'^''^' Normandy, under the practical dominion of its Duke. The House of Anjou thus suddenly rose to a dominion on Gaulish soil equal to that of the French king and his other vassals put together, a dominion which held the mouths of the three great rivers, and which was further strengthened by the possession of the English kinodom. But a favourable moment soon came which enabled the King to add to his own dominions the greater part of the estates of his dangerous vassal. On the death of Eichard, first of England and fourth of Normandy, Normandy and England passed to his brother John, while in the other continental dominions of the Angevin princes the claims of his nephew Arthur, claims of the heir of Britanny, were asserted. The success of Britanny. Arthur would have given the geography of Gaul alto- possible gather a new shape. The Angevin possessions on the his success, continent, instead of being held by a king' of England, would have been held by a Duke of Britanny, the prince of a state which, though not geographically cut off like Eno'land, was even more foreio-n to France. On the fall of Arthur, Philip, by the help of a juris- prudence devised for the purpose, was able to declare ooo THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. IX. Annexa- tion of Normand}-, Anjou, &c. 1-202-1205. 1258. Character and effects of the an- nexation. Territories kept by the English kings. The Norman Islands. Aquitaine. Sudden greatness of France, all the fiefs wliicli John held of the Freiieh crown to be forfeited to that crown, a sentence which did not apply to the fiefs of his mother Eleanor. In the space of two years Philip was able to carry that sentence into effect everywhere on the mainland. Continental Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, were joined to the dominions of the French crown, and by a later treaty they were formally surrendered by John's son Henry. Poiton went with them, and all these lands may from this time be looked on as forming- part of France. Thus far the process of annexation was little more than the restoration of an earlier state of things. For all these lands, except Poitou, had formed part of the old French duchy. The Kings of England still kept the duchy of Aquitaine ^ with Gascony. They kept also the insular Normandy, the Norman islands which have ever since remained distinct states attached to the English crown. Aquitaine was now no longer part of the continental dominions of a prince who was equally at home on both sides of the Channel. It changed into a remote dependency of the insular kingdom, a dependency whose great cities clave to the English connexion, while its geographical position and the feelings of its feudal nobility tended to draw it towards France. The result of this great and sudden acquisition of territory was to make the King of the French incom- parably greater on Gaulish ground than any of his own vassals. France had now a large seaboard on the Channel and a small seaboard on the Ocean. And now another chain of events incorporated a large terri- 1 Aquitaine, the inheritance of Eleanor, did not come under the forfeiture of the fiefs actually held by John. THE AKAGONESE POWER. 337 tory with which the crown had hitherto stood in no chap. TX practical relation, and which gave the kingdom a third — \- — seaboard on the Mediterranean, While north-western and south-western Gaul were Fiefs of ... . Aragon in united ni the hands of an nisular kino- the kino- of Southern . Graul. a peninsular kingdom became only less powerful in south-eastern Gaul. Hitherto the greatest princes in this region had been the counts of Toulouse, who, counts of Toulouse. besides their fiefs of the French crown, had also posses- sions in the Burgundian kingdom beyond the Ehone. But during the latter part of the eleventh century and the l^eoinnino- of the twelfth, the Counts of Barcelona, and the kings of Arao-on who succeeded them, ac- CO " quired by various means a number of Tolosan fiefs, both French and Imperial. Carcassonne, AIM, and Nimes were all under the lordship of the Aragonese crown. The Albigensian war seemed at first likelv The aili- *"• _ ' gensian to lead to the establishment of the house of Mont- war. 1207-1229. fort as the chief power of southern Gaul. But the simon of 1 T 1 • • PI PI Montfort struggle ended m a vast increase oi the j^ower oi the at Tou- louse. French crown, at the expense alike of the house of Toulouse and of the house of Aragon. The dominions of the Count of Toulouse were divided. A number of settlement of Meaux. fiefs, Beziers, Narbonne, Nvmes, Albi, and some other Annexa- districts, were at once annexed to the crown. The Narbonne, 1229; capital itself and its county passed to the crown fifty of tou- years later. By a settlement with Aragon, the domains 1270!' of the French kino- were increased, while the French kingdom itself was nominally cut short. Two of the Eoussiiion Aragonese fiefs, the counties of RoussiUon and Barce- lona re- . . leased from lona, were relieved from even nominal homage. The iiomage. ' ° _ 1258. name of Toulouse, except as the name of the city VOL. I. z 338 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP, itself, now passed away, and the new acquisitions of IX. France came in the end to be known by the name of the tongue which was common to them with Aquitaine Province of and Imperial Burgund5^ Under the name of Langue- ^0°' doc they became one of the greatest and most valual)le provinces of the French kingdom. The great growth of the crown during the reign of Saint Lewis was thus in the south ; but he also ex- Pui-ciiase tended his borders nearer home. He won back part ofBloisand chaitres. gf tlie old Frcuch duchy when he purchased the Escheat of superiority of Blois and Chartres, to which Perche was 1257. afterwards added by escheat. Further off, he added Annexa- tion of Macon to the crown, a possession which afterwards Macon, ^ 1239. passed away to the House of Burgundy. Southern Tlius, durin^ the reis^ns of Philip Aug-ustus and his advance of ' O & ^ r O the Crown, graudsou, the royal possessions had been enlarged b}^ the annexations of two of the chief vassal states, two of the lay peerages, annexations which gave the French King a seaboard on two seas and which brought him into immediate connexion with the affairs of the Span- ish peninsula. Later in the thirteenth century, the marriage of Philip the Fair with the heiress of Cliam- pagne not only extinguished another peerage, but made the French kings for a while actually Spanish sovereigns, and made France an immediate neighbour Marriage of tlic German kingdom. The county of Champagne the Fair, had for two venerations been united with the kino^dom 1284, with ^ , ° the heiress of Navarrc. These dominions were held by three of Cham- '' N^a^rrT^ klugs of Fraucc in right of their wives. Then Navarre, Separation thous^li it passcd to a Freucli prince, was wholly of Navarre. & i r ' J 1328. separated from France, while Champagne was incor- porated with the kingdom. This last annexation gave EFFECTS OF THE WARS WITH ENGLAND. 339 France a considerable frontier towards Germany, and chap. IX especially brought the kino-doni into the immediate — .-^ — - , ' Union of neiorhbourhood of the Lotharinoian bishoprics. These cham- *" . . . pagne, acquisitions, of Xormandy and the states connected i^^^; in- ■^ -^ corpora- witli it, of Toulouse and the rest of Languedoc, and tion, laei. now of Champagne, were the chief cases of incor- poration of vassal states with the royal domain up to the middle of the fourteenth century. The mere grants and recoveries of appanages hardly concern geography. Appanages. We now turn to two m-eat struooies which, in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Kings of France had to wage with two of their chief vassals who were also powerful foreign princes. In both cases, events which seemed likely to bring about the utter humiliation of France did in the end brino- to it a large increase of territory. The former of these struggles was the great war The Hun- between England and France, called by French writers war with ^ _ . . England. the Hundred Years' War. This war mio-ht be called either a war fur the annexation of France to England or a war for the annexation of Aquitaine to France. By the peace between Henry the Third and Saint Designs of . . , . theFrencl Lewis, Aquitaine became a land held by the king kings on ■"■ ^ o Aquitaine of England as a vassal of the French crown. From that time it was one main object of the French kings to change their feudal superiority over this great duchy into an actual possession. This object had once been obtained for a moment by the marriage of Momen- Eleanor and Lew^is the Seventh. It was ao-ain obtained pation by "^ Philip th. for a moment by the neofotiations between Edward the Fair. ^ '^ 1294. First and PhiUp the Fair. The Hundred Years' War 1337. began through the attempts of Philip of Yalois on the z 2 340 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. ClIA]'. IX. 1339. Peace of Bretiguv. 18C0. Renewal of the war. 1370-1374. Losses of the English. Conquests of Henry the Fifth. Treaty of Troyes. 1420. 1431. Conquest of Aqui- taine. 1451-1453. Aquitaniaii doiniuions of Ethvard tlie Third. Then the King of England found it politic to assume the title of Kiiia" of France. But the real nature of the con- troversy was shown by the first great settlement. At the Peace of Bretigny Edward gave up all claim to the crown of France, in exchange for the independent sovereignty of his old fiefs and of some of his recent conquests. Aquitaine and Gascony^ including Poitou but not including Anvergne, together with the districts on the Channel, Calais with Guhies and the county of Ponthieu, were made over to the King of England with- out the reservation of any homage or superiority of any kind. These lands became a territory as foreign to the French kino-dom as the territory of her German CI? f and Spanish neighbours. But in a few years the treaty was broken on the French side, and the actual posses- sions of England beyond the sea were cut down to Calais and Gruines, with some small parts of Aquitaine adjoining the cities of Bordeaux and Bayonne. Then the tide turned when the war was carried on with renewed vigour by Henry the Fifth. The Treaty of Troyes formally united the crowns of England and France. Aquitaine and Normandy were won back ; Paris saw the crowning of an English king, and only the central part of the country obeyed the heir of the Parisian kingdom, no longer king of Paris but only of Bourges. But the final result of the war was the driving out of the English from all Aquitaine and France, except the single district of Calais. The geographical aspect of the change is that Aquitaine, which had been wholly cut off from the kingdom by the Peace of Bretigny, was finally incorporated with the kingdom. The French conquest of Aquitaine, the THE BURGUNDIAN POWER. 341 result of the Hundred Years' War, was in form the chap. IX conquest of a land which had ceased to stand in any ^ — '-.^ — relation to the French crown. Practically the result Final •of the war was the incorporation with the French crown Aquitame with of its greatest fief, balanced by the loss of a small Fiance. territory the value of which was certainly out of all proportion to its geographical extent. In its historical aspect the annexation of Aquitaine was something yet more. The first foreshadowing of the modern French kingdom was made by the addition of Aquitaine to i!^eustria, of southern to northern Gaul.^ Xow, after so many strivings, the two were united for ever. Aquitaine was merored in France. The orant to Charles the Bald took effect after six hundred years. France, in the Begiiming sense which the word bears in modern use, may date modem its complete existence from the addition of Bourdeaux of France. to the dominions of Charles the Seventh. Thus, in the course of somewhat less than four hundred ^'^ears, the conquest of England by a vassal of France, followed by the union of a crowd of other French fiefs in the hands of a common sovereion of England and Normandy, had led to the union with France of all the continental possessions of the prince who thus reigned on both sides of the sea. Meanwhile, on the Growth of ^ . . the Dukes eastern side of the kino-dom, the holder of another o-reat of Bur- French fief swelled into an European power, the special rival of his French overlord. The dukes of Burgundy rose to the same kind of position which had in the twelfth century been held by the dukes of Normandy and counts of Anjou. Their duchy, granted to a Escheat of branch of the royal house in the earliest days of the of Bur- gundy. ' See above, p. 130. 342 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. Parisian kingdom, escheated to the crown in the four — '-^ — teenth century, and was again granted out to a soil Grant to n ,t • • i • a • n Philip 01 the reignnig knig. A series of marriages, pur- 1364. *^ ^' chases, conquests, transactions of every kind, gathered the Ya^oif t(-)gether, in the hands of the Burgundian dukes, a Dukes. crowd of fiefs both of France and of the Empire.^ The duchy of Burgundy with the county of Charolois, and the counties of Flanders and Artois, were joined under a common ruler with endless Imperial fiefs in the Low Counti-ies and with the Imperial County Advance of Burqundy . More than this, under Philip the Good to the •■■ somme. aiid Charlcs the Bold, the Burgundian frontier was more than once advanced to the Somme, and Amiens was separated from the crown. The fall of Charles the Bold laid his dominions open to French annexa- uonratthe ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^'^^^ Burguudiau and on the Flemish Charles^ frouticr. In the first moments of his success, Lewis m9^°^^" tlie Eleventh possessed himself of a large part of the Momen- Imperial as well as the French fiefs of the fallen Duke. D til Y £tll " ArtoSr/ ^^t in the end Flanders and Artois remained French ^fBu^"'' fiefs held by the House of Burgundy, which also kept T^ea[ of ^^^® county of Burguudy and the isolated county of HsT' Charolois. But France not only finally recovered the towns on the Somme, but incorporated the -Burefun- Incorpora- _ -'■ ^ tionofthe tlian duchy, one of the o-reatest fiefs of the crown. duchy of '' ~ Burgundy. Xhls was thc addition of a territory which the kings of French Fraucc had never before ruled, and it marks an im- advance to the east, portaut stagc in the advance of the French power towards the Imperial lands on its eastern border. By the marriage of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of Austria, the remains of the Buro-undian dominions passed to the House of Austria, and thereby in the ' tSee above, p. 292. ANNEXATION OF BRITANNY. 341 end to Spain. Tlie result was that a French king had chap. for a moment an Emperor for his vassal in his character — ^^ — - of Comit of Flanders and Artois. But bv the treaty of Flanders , _ " and Artois Madrid Flanders and Artois were relieved from all homage relieved from to France, exactly as Aquitaine had been bv the Peace iiomage. ' *' ^ * 152.5, of Bretigny, and Eoussillon in the days of Saint Lewis. Flanders and Artois now became lands wholly foreign to France, and, as foreign lands, large parts of them were afterwards conquered by France, just as Aquitaine and Eoussillon were. But the history of their acquisition belongs to the story of the advance of France at the expense of the Empire. Thus, by the end of the reign of Lewis the Eleventh, all the fiefs of the French crown which could make any claim to the character of separate sovereignties had, with a single exception, been added to the domi- nions of the. crown. The one which had escaped was ah the that one which, more than any other, represented a annexed except. nationality altoo-ether distinct from that of France. Britanny. o Britanny still remained distinct under its own Dukes. The marriages of* its Duchess Anne with two succes- 1491-1^99: sive French kino-s, Charles the Eis^hth and Lewis the rated ^ ,' ° 1532. Twelfth, added Britanny to France, and so completed the work. The whole of the Western Kingdom, except those parts which had become foreign ground — that is to say, insular Normandy and Calais, Barce- lona, Flanders, and Artois — was now united under the kings of Paris. Their duchy of France had sj)read its power and its name over the whole kingdom of Karo- lingia. We have now to see how it also spread itself over lands which had never formed part of that kingdom. 344 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. § 2. Foreign Annexations of France. vZ^'^iT" When the Western Kingdom finally parted off from Ti^id^h^ the body of the Empire, its only immediate neighbours Imperial Were the Imperial kingdoms to the east, and the Spanish spanisii kingdoms to the south. The union of Normandy and boms! England in some sort made England and France imme- °° '" diate neighbours. And the long retention of Aquitaine by England, the English possession of Calais for more than two hundred years and of the insular Normandy down to our own day, have all tended to keep them Small ac- SO. But the acquisltious of France from England, and of France froui Spain, in its character as Spain, have been com- from Eng- land and paratively small. Indeed the separation of the Spanish March and the insular Normandy may be thought to turn the balance the other way. From England France has won Aquitaine and Calais, territories which had once been under the homao-e of the French King-. English So in the sixteenth centurv Bouloqne was lost to conquest of ^ i/ ?°"H"-r^,; Eno-land and won back a^ain ; so in the seventeenth century Dunkirk, which had become an English posses- 166.3. sion, was made over to France. Since the final loss of Aquitaine, the wars between England and France have made most important changes in the English and French possessions in distant parts of the world, but they have had no effect on the geography of England, and very little on that of France. Nearl}" the same may be said of the geographical Boundary relatioiis betwccu France and Spain. The lono- wars of the , . Pyrenees, bctweeu tliosc couiitrics liavc added to France a large part of the outlying dominions of Spain ; but they have not greatly affected the boundaries of the two countries themselves. The only important exception DEALINGS WITH ENGLAND AND SPAIN. 345 is the county of Roussillon, the land which Aragon chap. IX. kept on the north side of the mountain ran _ of the It was territory won at the cost of the Empire and of County of '' ^ Burgundy. the House of Austria. But the lands between the Elione, the Alps, and the sea, had not, at the time \vhen France first began to threaten them, wholly lost their middle character. They kept it at least negatively. They were lands which were neither German, French, Middle nor Italian. The events of the fourteenth and fifteenth of the Bur- gundian centuries ruled that this intermediate res^ion should I'l-ntis. become French. And none of the acquisitions of France They become ever helped more towards the real growth of her power. French. It was while the later stages of this process were going on that the French kings added to their domi- nions the Aquitanian lands on one side and the Bur- gundian duchy on the other. The acquisition of Aquitaine has, besides its other characters, a third aspect which closely connects it with the annexations between the Elione and the Alps. The strife between Effect of /-NT French an- Northern and Southern Gaul, between the tono-ue nexations *- on the of oil and the tono-ue of oc, now came to an end. Languc Had the chief power in Gaul settled somewhere in Burgundy or Aquitaine, the tongue of oil might now pass for a patois of the tongue of oc. Had French dominion in Italy begun as soon and lasted as per- manently as French dominion in Burgundy and Aquitaine, the tongue of si, as well as the tongue of oc, might now pass for a patois of the tongue of oi/. But now it was settled that French, not Provencal, was to be the ruling speech of Gaul. Those lands of the Southern speech which escaped were almost wholly ])ortions of the dominions of other powers. There was no longer any separate state wholly of that 348 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP, speech, except the little principality of Orange. The — '-r^ — - work which the French kings had now ended amounted to little short of the extinction of an European nation. Extinction A tonguc, oncc of at least equal dignity with the tongue venvai of Parls and Tours, has sunk from the rank of a nation. national language to the rank of a provincial dialect. The next great conquests of France were made on Italian Italian soil, but they are conquests which do not greatly of France, couccm gcogTapliy. There is a marked difference between the relations of France towards Italy and her relations towards Burgundy. Down to the revolutionary wars, the Italian relations of France have comparatively little to do with geography. France has constantly interfered in Italian affairs ; she has at various times held large Italian territories, and brought all Italy under French influence. But France has never permanently kept any large amount of Italian territory. The French possession of Naples and Milan was only temporary. And, if it had been lasting, the possession of these iso- Not strictly latcd tcrritorlcs by the French kinsf could hardly have extensions -,■,-,-, . *" of France, bccu lookcd ou as au extcusion of the actual French frontier. Those lands could never have been incor- porated with France in the same way in which other French conquests had been. Their retention would in truth have given the later history of France quite a different character, a character more like that which actually belonged to Spain. The long occupation of Savoyard territory on both sides of the Alps ^ would, if it had lasted, have been a real extension of the French kingdom. But down to our own day, while the lands won by France from the Burgundian kingdom form a See above, pp. 284, 28.5. ACQUISITIONS FROM ITALY AND GERMANY. 349 large proportion of the whole French territory, the chap. lasting acquisitions of France from Italy hardly go •— — — -- bevond the island of Corsica and the insignificant district of Mentone. The great annexations of France at the expense of Annexa- ^ tions at the the German kingdom and the lands more closely con- expense of '^ •' Germany. nected with it begin in the middle of the sixteenth century. The first great advance was the practical annexation of the three Lotharingian bishoprics, though Amiexa- their separation from the Empire was not formally Metz, . Tonl, and acknowleda'ed till the Peace of Westfalia. This kind verdun. 1552. of conquest can hardly fail to lead to other con- quests. France now held certain patches of territory Effect of which lay detached from one another and from the conquests. main body of the kingdom. Yet the rounding off of the frontier was not the next step taken in this direction. The cause was most likely the close con- nexion which for some while existed between the ruling houses of France and Lorraine, Before the next French advance on German ground, the frontier had been extended in other directions. Almost at the same time as the acquisition of the Three Bishoprics, Calais was won back from England — the Eecoveiy short English possession of Boulogne had already come 155s ; to an end. The first year of the sixteenth century iogne,i55o. saw the surrender of Saluzzo, in exchange for Bresse, surrender Buqey, and Gex. Thirty years later came the renewed and annex- ■^ _ _ " _ _ ation of occupation of Italian territory at Pinerolo and other Brease, ^ Bugey, and points in Piedmont, which lasted till nearly the end of ^^^ cupation the seventeenth century. ofPine- rolo. The next great advance was the work of the Thirty ^''^° ^*'^'^- Years' War and of the war with Spain which went on 350 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP, rx. The Bishoprics surren- dered by the Empire. French ac- qnisitidns in Elsass. 1648. Breisach. France Teaches the Rhine. Annexa- tion of Bar. 1659. Bar restored. 1661. Ibr eleven years longer. Now came the legal cession of the Bishoprics and the further acquisition of the Alsatian dominions and rights of the House of Austria. The irregularities of the frontier, and the temptation to round off its angles, were increased tenfold. France received another and larger isolated territory lying to the east both of her earlier conquests and of the in- dependent lands which surrounded them. A part of her dominion, itself sprinkled with isolated towns and districts which did not belong to her dominion, stretched out without any connexion into the middle of the Empire. The duchy of Lorraine, dotted over by the French lands of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, lay between the old French land of Champagne and the new French land oi Elsass ov Alsace. And while France was allowed, by the possession of Breisach, to establish herself at one point on the right bank of the Ehine, her new territory on the left bank was broken up by the continued in- dependence of Strassbiirg and the other Alsatian towns and districts which were still left to the Empire. Such a frontier could hardly be lasting ; now that France had reached and even crossed the Ehine, the annexation of the outlying Imperial lands to the west of that river was sure to follow. But, even after this further advance into the heart of Germany, the gap was not filled up at the next stage of annexation. At the Peace of the Pyrenees, France obtained the scattered lands of the duchv of Bar, which made the greater part of the Three Bishoprics continuous with her older possessions. But Bar was presently restored, and, though Lorraine was constantly occupied by French ai'mies, it was not in- corporated with France for another century. Up to ACQUISITIONS IN THE NETHERLANDS. . 851 this last change the Three Bishoprics still remained chap. IX isolated French possessions surrounded by lands of — '-r^ — - the Empire. But France advanced at the expense of the outlying possessions of Spain, lands only nominally Imperial, as well as of the Spanish lands on her own southern frontier. At the Peace of the Pyrenees Ann^^*- tion of Roassillun finally became French. No Spanish king- RoussiUon. r f:> 1659, dom any longer stretched north of the great natural barrier of the peninsula. The same Treaty gave France her first acquisitions in Flanders and Artois Annexa- since they had become wholly foreign ground, as well Nether- as her first acquisitions from Hainault, Liege, and leso. Luxemhurtj, laixls which had never owed her homage. Here again the frontier was of the same kind as the frontier towards Germany. Isolated points like Plti- isolated . - ' -I • points held lippeville and Marienburg were held by France within by each Spanish or Imperial territory, and isolated points like Aire and St. Omer were still held by Spain in what had now become French territory. The furthest Further -nil 1 • 1 1 annexa- French advance that was recognized by any treaty tions. 1668. was made by the earlier Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, when, amongst other places, Douay, Tournay, Lille, Oudenarde, and Courtray became French. By the changes at Peace of Nimwes-en the French frontier asrain fell back of Nim- wegen. in eastern Flanders, and Courtray and Oudenarde were icts restored to Spain. But in the districts more to the south France again advanced, gaining the outlying Spanish towns in Artois, Cambray and its district, and Valen- ciennes in Hainault. The Peace of Eyswick left the i697. frontier as it had been fixed by the Peace of Nimwegen. Finally, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Barrier Treaty Treaty of ." . •Ill n Utrecht left France in possession of a considerable part oi and Barrier ^ ^ . Treaty. Flanders, and of much land which liad 1)een Imperial. 171:3-1715. 352 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. The Netherlands, formerly Spanish and now Austrian, — -^^— kept a frontier protected by the barrier towns of Fumes, Ypres, Menin, Tour?iai, Mons, Charleroi, Nainur. The French frontier on the other side had its series of The barrier towns stretching from St. Omer to Charlemont Barrier *" Tow-ns. on the Maes. The arrangements then made have, with very slight changes, lasted ever since, except durino- the French annexation of the whole Nether- lands during the revolutionary wars. The reio-n of Lewis the Fourteenth was also a time of at least equal advance on the part of France on her more strictly German frontier. The time was now come for serious attempts to consolidate the scattered possessions of France between Champagne and the Tranche- Eliinc. Franche~Comte, as the county of Burgundy was conquered, now uiorc couimouly called, with the city of Besanqon, Conquered was twicc scizcd by Lewis, and the second seizure 1074." was confirmed by the Peace of Nimwegen. By that Freiburg, peacc also France kept Freiburg-im-Breisgau on the right bank of the Ehine. A number of small places in Elsass were annexed after the Peace of Nim- seizure wesi'en by the process known as Reunion. At last in of Strass- O ^ ■»■ _ . , . . burg. 1681 Strasshurg itself was seized in time of peace, and its possession was finally secured to France by the Peace of Eyswick. But Freiburg and Breisach Restora- wcrc restored, and Lorraine, held by France, though tion of . , -, . Freiburg not formallv ceded, was oiven back to its own and Brei- . sach. Duke. The arrangements of Eyswick were again Peace of confirmed by the Peace of Eastadt. In the same Rastadt. "^ I'^i*. year the principality of Orange was annexed to Annexa- Francc, Icaviug the Papal possessions of Avignon and Venaissin surrounded by French territory, the last relic of the Burofundian realm between the Ehone tion of Orange 1714. rRENCII CONQUESTS REALLY INCORPORATED. 353 and the A.lps. France bad thus obtained a good chap. IX. physical boundary towards Spain and Italy, and a ^ ^ -^ "■ ^ • ' Effects of boundary clearly marked on the map towards the tiiereigu 'J •■' i oi Lewis now Austrian Xetherlands. Her eastern frontier was l^^"" y,""'' teeuth. still broken in upon by the duchy of Lorraine, by the districts in Elsass which had still escaped, by the county of Montheliard, and by the detached ter- ritories of the commonwealth of Geneva. But France could now in a certain part of her territory call the Eliine her frontier. It was an easy inference that the Eliine oui>-ht to be her frontier throuo-h its whole course. The next 'reign, that of Lewis the Fifteenth, in a manner completed the work of Henry the Second and Lewis the Fourteenth. The gap which had so long yawned between Champagne and Elsass was now filled up. France obtained a reversionary right to the duchy of Lorraine, which was incorporated Arrange- , ments as to thirty-one years later. The lands of Metz, Toul, and Lorraine. J J _ '^ ' i7a5. Verdun, were no longer isolated. Elsass, which, by the its incor- acquisition of Franche-Comte, had ceased to be insular, 1766. now ceased to be even peninsular. Leaving out of sight a few spots of Imperial soil which were now wholly surrounded by France, the French territory now stretched as a solid and unbroken mass from the Ocean to the Eliine. And it must be remembered that Thorough all the lands which the monarchy of Paris had i>ra- tionof . French dually brought under its power were in the strictest conquests. sense incorporated with the kingdom. There were no dependencies, no separate kingdoms or duchies. The geographical continuity of the French territory Effect of 1 1 1 -n 11 • 1 geographi- enabied I^ ranee really to incorporate her conquests caicon- . . tinuity. m a way in which Spain and Austria never could, contrast VOL. L A A o54 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. IX. with Spain and Aus- tria. Purchase of Corsica. 1768. Its effects. Birth of Buona- parte. i769. And the process was further helped by the fact that each annexation by itself was small compared with the general bulk of the French monarchy. Except in the case of the fragment of Navarre which was held by its Bourbori king, France never annexed a kingdom or made any permanent addition to the royal style of her kings. The same reign saw another acquisition alto- o'ether unlike the rest in the form of the Italian island of Corsica. In itself the incorporation of this island with the French kin'eneration later, and French do- 1540. minion in America was confirmed by the foundation of 1603. Quebec. The peninsula of Acadie or Nova Scotia was Acadia ceded to from this time a subiect of dispute between France and England. ■' ^ 1713. Great Britain, till it was finally surrendered by France at the Peace of Utrecht. France now held or claimed, under the names of New France, or of Canada and Canada and Louisiana, a tast inland region stretching from the Louisiana. mouth of the Saint Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi, while the eastern coast was colonized by other powers. At the end of the seventeenth century coioniza- tlie first colonization began at the mouth of the mouth of the Missis- Mississippi ; and the city of Xew Orleans was founded sippi. ^^ "^ 1699. eighteen years later. France and England thus be- Pounda- ,..,., . . . n • tion of came distnictly rival powers in America as well as 111 New , Orleans. Europe. The English settlers were pressing westward 1717. from the coast to the Ocean. The French strove to of^Enghsh fix the Alleghany range as the eastern boundary of settie-^"'^ English advance. In every European war between gj^^^^' the two powers the American colonies played an colonies in important part. Canada was wrested from France ; and ^,^1^'"'^'^ by the Treaty of Paris all the French possessions north fo^juJtof of the present United States were finally surrendered to i^'^^^'^' Enoland, except a few small islands kept for fishing- i"^^^- purposes. The Mississippi was now made the bound- sissippi boun lary ary of Louisiana, leaving nothing to France on its left bank except the city of New Orleans. These cessions ruled for ever that men of English blood, whether A A 2 356 TlIK KINGDOM OF FEANCE. CHAP. IX. The West India islands. St. Do- mingo. 1697. French Guiana. 1624. Cayenne. 1635. The French in India. 1GG4. Bourbon 1657. Factory at Surat. 1668. Pondi- cherry. 1672. Cha^nder- nagore. 1670. Isle of France. 1720. remaining subjects of the inother-country or forming independent states, should be the dominant power in the Nortli American continent. Amono- the West India islands, France in the seven- teentli century colonized several of the Antilles, some of which were afterwards lost to Enoland. Later in the century she acquired part of the great island called variously Hispaniola, Saint Domingo, and liayti. On the coast of South America lay the French settlements in Guiana, with Cayenne as their capital. This colony grew into more importance after the war of Canada. Nearly the same course of things took place in the eastern world as in the western. In India neither Enirlish nor French colonized in anv strict sense. But commercial settlements grew into dominion, or what seemed likely to become dominion : and in India, as in America, the temporary greatness of France came 1)efore the more lastino- oreatness of Ene-land. The French East India Company began later than the English; but its steps towards dominion were for a long time faster. Before this the French had occupied the Isle of Bourhon, an important point on the road to India. The first French factory on the mainland was at Surat. During the later years of the century various attempts at settlement were made ; but no important or lasting acquisition was made, except that of Pondicherry. This has ever since remained a French possession, often lost in the course of warfare, but always restored at the next peace. A little later France obtained Chandernagore in Bengal. In the next century the island of Mauritius, abandoned by the Dutch, became a French colony under the name of the Isle of France. Under La- bourdonnais and Dupleix France gained for a moment AIvNEXATIONS UNDER THE FIRST REPUBLIC. ooT a real Indian dominion. -Madras was taken, and a lame chap. . ^ IX. territory was obtained on the eastern coast of India in ;rr^ — T Taking of the Carnatic and the Circars. Bnt all hope of French l^lf'^""- supremacy in India came to an end in the later years Restored. of the Seyen Years' "\^ ar. France was confined to a Effects of the Peace few iDoints which haye not seriously threatened the of Paris. ^ _ • 1763. eastern dominion of Enoland. ^ 4. Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary M'ars. Thus the French monarchy grew from the original Parisian duchy into a kingdom which spread north, south, east, and west, taking in, with yery small exceptions, all the fieis of the West-Frankish kini>"S, to«'ether with much which had belono-ed to the other kinodoms of the Em- pire. With the great French Eeyolution began a series Acquisi- 01 acquisitions ol territory on the part oi J^ ranee whicli Eevoiu- tionary are altogether unparalleled. First of all, there were wars. those small annexations of territory surrounded, or nearbr ciasses"of IT-,,. , . annexa- so by k rench territory, whose annexation was necessar\- tions. if French territory was to be continuous. Such were Ayignon, Yenaissin, the county o{ Montbdiard, the few Avignon. ]:)oints in Elsass whicli had. escaped the reunions, with the Confederate city of Jfiihlhausen. Avignon and Ye- Miihi- ^ . . . *" hausen. naissin, and the suryiying Alsatian fragments, were an- nexed to France before the time of warfare and conquest had beoiin. Miihlhausen, as Confederate oTound, was respected, as long as Confederate ground was respected. Montbeliard had been annexed already. And with i^'*"- these we might be inclined to place the annexations of Geneva Geneva and of the Bishopric of Basel, lands which lay Bisciu.f- hardlyless temptingly when the work of annexation had isoi. o58 THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAP. IX. Second zone ; tnvditions of Gaul and the Rhine frontier. Buona- parte's feeling towards Switzer- land. Piedmont, &c. Distinction between conquests under tlie Republic and under the ' Empire.' E.Kample of Corsica. once beRiin. And beyond these roundiims off of the home estate Lay a zone of territory which inii>ht easily be looked upon as being French soil wrongfully lost. When the Western Francia had made such great strides towards the dimensions of the Gaul of Cassar, the in- ference was easily made that it ought to take in all tlia^ the Gaul of Caesar had taken in. The conquest and incor- poration of the Austrian Netherlands, of all Germany on the left bank of the Rhine, of Sayoy and Nizza, thus became a matter of course. That the Gaul of Cassar was not fully completed by the full incorporation of Switzerland, seems to have been owing to a per- sonal tenderness for the Confederation on the part of Napoleon Buonaparte, who never incorporated with his dominions au}^ part of the territory of the Thirteen Cantons. Otherwise, France under the Consulate might pass for a revival of the Transalpine Gaul of Eoman geography. And there were other lands beyond the borders of Transalpine Gaul, which had formed part of Gaul in the earlier sense of the name, and whose annexation, when annexation had once begun, was hardly more wonderful than that of the lands within the Rhine and the Alps. The incorporation of Piedmont and Genoa was not wonderful after the incorporation of Savoy. In short, the annexations of republican France are at least intelligible. They have a meaning; we can follow their purpose and object. They stand distinct from the wild schemes of universal conquest which mark the period of the ' Empire.' Still the example of such schemes was given during the days of the old monarchy. There was nothing to suggest a French annexation of Corsica, any more than a French annexation of Cerigo. Both were works of CONQUESTS OF BUONAPARTE. 359 exactly the same kind, works quite different from incor- chai' porating isolated scraps of Elsass or of the old Burgundy, '^ — - from roundino- ofl' the frontier by Montbeliard, or eyen ^^ Buona- ~ *' ' parte s from advancing to the left bank of the Ehine. The conquests, shiftings of the map which took place during the ten years of the first French Empire, the divisions and the unions, the different relations of the conquered states, seem like several centuries of the onward march of the old Eoman commonwealth crowded into a single day. In both cases we mark the distinction between Depeudent lands which are merely dependent and lands which are porated lands. fully incorporated. And in both cases the dependent relation is commonly a step towards full incorporation. All past history and tradition, all national feelings, all distinctions of race and language, were despised in building up the vast fabric of French dominion. Such a power was sure to break in pieces, even without any foreign attack, before its parts could possibly have been fused together. As it was, Buonaparte never professed to incorporate either Spain or the whole of Italy and Germany with his Empire. He was satis- fied with leaving large parts, either in the formally dependent relation, in the hands of puppet princes, or even in the hands of powers which he deemed too much weakened for further resistance. A large Buona- part of Germany was incorporated with France ; another treatment large part was under French protection or dependence ; many ; but a large part still remained in the hands of the native princes of Austria and Prussia. Much of Italy was incorporated, and the rest was held, partly by ofitaiy. the conqueror himself under another title, partly by Division ^ ^ ^ » i J ./ of Europe a prince of his own house. This last was the case with between ■*• France ana Spain. Till the final breach with Eussia, the idea of Russia. 'I t^ 1811 GO THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CHAr. Buonaparte's dominion seems to have been that of a IX. - — ' — • twotbUl division of Europe between Russia and himself, a kind of revival on a vaster scale of the Eastern and Western Empires. The western potentate was careful to keep everywhere a dominant influence within his own world ; but whether the territory should be incorporated, made dependent, or granted out to his kinsfolk and favourites, depended in each case on the conqueror's will. Europe iu A glauce at the map of Europe, as it stood at the beginning of 1811, will show how nearly this scheme was carried out. The kernel of the French Empire was France as it stood at the beoinniner of the Ee- volution, together with those conquests of the Republic which gave it the Rhine frontier from Basel to Nim- wegen. Beyond these limits, the former United Pro- vinces, with the whole oceanic coast of Germany as far as the Elbe, and the cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck, were incorporated with France. France now stretched to the Baltic, and, as Holstein was now incorporated with Denmark, France and Denmark had a common frontier. The Confederation of the Rhine was a protected state, and the Kingdom of Prussia and the self-styled ' Empire ' of Austria could practically hardly claim a higher place. Of the former Austrian possessions, those parts which had passed to Bavaria and to the kingdom of Italy formally stood in the dependent relation ; the so-called Illyrian provinces were actually incorporated with France. So were the Ionian islands yet further on. Thus the new France, while at one end it marched upon the Dane, at the other end marched upon the Turk. In Italy, the whole west- ern side of the ancient kingdom, with Rome itself, was incorporated with France. North-eastern Italy formed LATEE ANNEXATIONS AND LOSSES. 361 a separate kingdom held by the ruler of France. Xaples, chap. like Spain, was a dependent kingdom. In northern ^- — — Kurope, Denmark and Sweden, like Prussia and Austria, could practically claim no higher place. And the new duchy of Warsaw and the new republic of Danzig carried French iniluence beyond the ancient borders of Germany. Such was the extent of the French dominion when Anange- • • t T • ments of the power of Buonaparte was at its highest. At his fall 1814-1815. all the great and distant conquests were given up. But class o7an- -. . , . , r- 1 nexations those annexations which were necessary lor the com- retained bv pletion of France as she then stood were respected, the rest restoi'ed. The new Germanic body took back Koln, Trier, and Mainz, Worms and Speyer, but not Montbeliard or any part of Elsass. The new Swiss body received the Bishopric of Basel, Neufchatel, Geneva, and Wallis. Savoy and Nizza went back to their own prince. But Boundary of Savov. here a different frontier was drawn after the first and the second fall of Buonaparte. The earlier arrangement left Chambery to France. The Pope again received Eome and his Italian dominions, but not his outlying Burgundian possession, the city of Avignon and county of Venaissin. The frontier of the new kino-dom of the Netherlands, though traced at slightly different points bv the two arrangements, differed in either case Ijut little from the frontier of the Barrier Treaty. In short the France of the restored Bourbons was the France of the elder Bourbons, enlarged by those small isolated scraps of foreign soil which were needed to make it continuous. The geographical results of the rule of the second Buonaparte consist of the completion of the work which began under Philip tlie Fair, balanced by the utter un- doing of the work of Eichelieu, the partial undoing of the work of Henry the Second and Lewis the Four- 362 THE KI^TtDOM of FRANCE. CHAP. IX. Annexa- tion of Savoy and Niz^iia. 1S60. Loss of Elsass anil Lorraine. 1871. teeiitli. Savoy, Kizza, and 2fenfone were added ; but Germany recovered nearly all Elsass and a part of Lorraine. The Rhine now neither crosses nor waters a sinale rood of French o-round. As it was in the first beginnings of Northern European history, so it is now ; Germany lies on both sides of the German river. Indepen- dence of Havti, I80I. Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763; recovered, 1800; sold to United States, 1803. Mauritius kept by England. Pondi- clierry lost and re- stored. French conquest of Algeria, 1830; of Constan- tine, 1837. Tunis. 1881. The time of the greatest power of France in Europe was by no means equally favourable to her advance in other parts of the world. The greatest West India colony of France, Saint Domingo, now known as llayti, became an independent negro state whose chiefs imi- tated home example hy taking the title of Emperor. About the same time the last remnant of French dominion on the North American continent was vo- luntarily given up. Louisiana, ceded to Spain by the Peace of Paris and recovered under the Consulate, was sold to the United States. All the smaller French West India islands were conquered by England ; l3ut all were restored at the peace, except Tobago and Saint Lucia. The isles of Bourbon and Mauritius were also taken by England, and Bourbon alone was restored at the Peace. In India Pondicherry was twice taken and twice restored. But since France was thus wholly beaten back from her great schemes of dominion in distant parts of the world, she has led tlie way in a kind of con- quest and colonization which has no exact parallel in modern times. On the northern coast of Africa she first annexed Algeria fifty years back, and she has, as one of the latest facts in historical geography, obtained an influence in Tunis which it is hard to distino'uish from annexation. These French conquests in Africa are something different alike from political conquests in ALGERIA. 363 Europe and from isolated conquests in distant parts chap. of the world. It is conquest, not actually in Europe, " — but in a land on the shores of the great European sea, in a land which formed part of the Empire of Con- stantine, Justinian, and Heraclius. It is the winning character back from Islam of a land which once was part of conquests. Latin-speaking Christendom, a conquest which, except in the necessary points of difference between continental and insular conquests, may be best paralleled with the Norman Conquest of Sicily. Sicily, as an island, could be wholly recovered for Europe and Christendom ; but the African settlements of France can never be more than a mere fringe of Europe and its civilization on the edge of the barbaric continent. It is strictly the first colony of the kind. Portugal, Spain, England, had occu- pied this or that point on the northern coast of Africa ; France was the first European power to spread her dominion over a lono- rauQe of the southern Mediterra- nean shore, a land which in some soi-t answers alike to India and to Australia, but which lies within two days' sail of her own coast. We have thus finished our survey of the states which were formed out of the break-up of the later Western Empire. Our examination of the rest of Western Europe will come at a later stage, as neither the Spanish, the Scandinavian, nor the British kingdoms rose out of the l)reak-up of the Empire of Charles the Great. In our next Chapter we must trace the historical geography of the states which arose out of the gradual dismemberment of the dominion of the Eastern liome, a survey which will lead us to the most stirring events and to the latest geographical changes of our own day. 364 CPIAPTEK X. THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. The geographical, like the political, history of the — ^■' — ' Eastern Empire is wholly unlike that of the Western. Contrast ^ _ _ bet^veen The Wcstcm Empire, in the strictest sense, fell asunder. the East- ^ ' ' ern and Souie of Its parts fcll awav formally, others practically. vv esterii •■■ -' ./ ' i u Empires, ^j^^ ^-^ ^1^^^^ j^^j^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ Snapped at the first touch of The . . , Western a yio'orous iuyadcr. But that invader was an European Empire fell ^ _ _ -•- to pieces, power wliosc territories had once formed part of the Empire itself. From the invasions of nations beyond the European pale the Western Emj)ire, as such, suf- fered but little. The Western Empire again, long- before its fall, had become, so far as it was a power at all, a national power, the Roman Empire of the Position German nation. Its fall was the half voluntary part- Western iug asuudcr of a nation as well as of an Empire. The Emperors; "l.^ Western Emperors again had, as Emperors, practically ceased to be territorial princes. No lands of any ac- count directly obeyed the Emperor, as such, as their inunediate sovereign. When the Empire fell, the Emperor withdrew to his hereditary states, taking the Imperial title with him. In the Eastern Empire all is different. It did to some extent fall asunder from within, but its overthrow was mainly owing to its being of the broken in pieces from without. But, throughout its history, the Emperor remained the immediate sovereign CONTRAST BETWEEN THE TWO EMPIRES. 365 of all that still clave to the Empire, and, when the chap. xi.. Empire fell, the Emperor fell with it. The overthrow ^;^^^;;;;7" of the Empire was mainly owinif to foreign invasion fTI^^PY*^ i ..' rr ~ tell mainly in the strictest sense. It was weakened and dismem- forei^f,^' bered by the Christian powers of Enrope, and at last swallowed up by the barbarians of Asia. At the same Tendencies 1 1 • • r 1 TTT ^° separa- tnne the tendency to oreak ui pieces after the Western tion. fashion did exist and mtist always be borne in mind. But it existed only in particulai* parts and under special conditions. It is found mainly in possessions of the Empire which had become isolated, in lands which had been lost and won again, and in lands which came under the influence of Western ideas. The importance of these tendencies is shown by the fact that three powers which had been cut off in various ways from the body of the Empire, Bulgaria, Venice, and Sicily, became three of its most danoerous enemies. But the actual destruction of the Empire came from those bar- barian attacks from which the West suffered but little. Speaking generally then, the Western Empire fell asunder from within ; the Eastern Empire was broken in pieces from without. Of the many causes of this dif- ference, perhaps only one concerns geography. At closer con- tlie time of the separation of the Empires, the Western the East . ni 1 r 1 T • • with Empire was really only another name for the dominions Roman political of the King of the Franks, whether within or without traditions. the elder Empire. The Eastern Empire, on the other hand, kept the politi{;al tradition of the elder Empire unbroken. Xo common geographical or national name Disuse of took in the three Imperial kingdoms of the West and nameTn'^" their inhabitants, lint all the inhabitants of the Eastern its reten- i • 1 1 11 tion in the Empire, down to the end, knew themselves l)y no East. national name but that of Bomans, and the land gradu- 300 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, allv received the geographical name of Romania. But ^— — ' the Western Empire was not called Romania, nor were its people called Romans. The only Romania in the West, the Italian land so called, took its name from its long adhesion to the Eastern Empire. Import- In the East again differences of race are far more thiclionsof important than they ever were in the West. In the East. "^ West nations have been formed by a certain com- mino'lino' of elements ; in the East the elements remain apart. All the nations of the south-eastern peninsula, whether older than the Eoman conquest or settlers of later times, are there still as distinct nations. The First among them come three nations whose settle- nations, ment in the peninsula is older than the Eoman con- quest. One of these has kept its name and its lan- guage. One has kept its language, but has taken up its name afresh only in modern times. The third has for ao-es lost both its name and itslanouage. The most un- Albanians, (changed people in the peninsula must be the Albanians, called by themselves S/dpetar, the representatives of the Greeks. old Illyrians. Next come the Greeks, who have alwa3's kept their language, but whose name of Hellenes went out of ordinary use till its revival in modern times. Lastly viachs. there are the Vlachs, representing those inhabitants of Thrace, Moesia, and other parts of the peninsula, who, like the Western nations, exchanged their own speech for Latin. They must mainly represent the Thracian race in Use of the its widcst scusc. Botli Grecks and Vlachs kept on the name. Romau name in different forms, and the Vlachs, the Roumans of our own day, keep it still. Of the invading races, the Goths passed through the Empire without Slavonic making any lasting settlements in it. The last Aryan settlers. . ^^ , . . , settlers, setting aside mere colonists m later times, were RACES WITHIN THE EMPIRE. 367 the Slares. Then came the Turanian settlers, Finnish, chap. Turkish, or any other. Of these the first wave, the Bid- , , , Turanian garians, were presently assimilated by the Slaves, and settlers, the Bulgarian power must be looked at historically as Slavonic. Then come Avars, Chazars, Magyars, Patz- Turanian inaks, Cumans, all settlino- on or near the borders bou'^rs. of the Empire. Of these the Masfyars alone o-rew into The ^ "^ . '~ . Magyars. a lasting European state, and alone established a lasting- power over lands which had formed part of the Empire. All these invaders came by the way of the lands north of the Euxine. Lastly, there are the non- Aryan invaders who came by way of Asia Minor or of the Mediterranean sea. The Semitic Saracens, after their first conquests The in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, made no lasting encroach- ments. They occupied for a while several of the great islands ; but on the mainland of the Empire, European and Asiatic, they were mere plunderers. In their wake The •11 • r« n 1 rn 1 • Seljuk and came the most terrible enemies of all, the Turks, tirst ottoman Turks. the Seljuk, then the Ottoman. Ethnologically they must be grouped with the nations which came in by the north of the Euxine. Historically, as Ma- hometans, comino" in by the southern road, they rank with the Saracens, and they did the work which the Saracens tried to do. Most of these invading races have r)assed away from history ; three still remain in three different stages. The Bulgarian is lost among the Aryan people who have taken his name. The Magyar abides, com- . parison keeping his non- Aryan language, but adopted into the of bui- European commonwealth by his acceptance of Chris- Magyars tianity. The Ottoman Turk still abides on European ottomans, soil, unchanged because Mahometan, still an alien alike to the creed and to the tongues of Europe. ^mE^npn-e Among all these nations one holds a special place GTeeiT'' 368 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAi'. X. Loss of the Oriental provinces, of the Latin pro- vinces. Dying out of Roman ideas. Appear- ance of Albanians and Vlachs. The Latin Conquest, 1204. in the liislor}' of the Eastern Empire. The loss of the Oriental and Latin provinces of the Empire brought into ])ractiral working, though not into any formal notice, the fact that, as the Western Empire was fast becomino- German, so the Eastern Empire was fast hecomino- Greek. To a state which had l)oth a Eoman and a Greek side the loss of provinces which were neither Roman nor Greek was not a loss but a source of strength. And if the loss of the Latin provinces was not a source of strength, it at least did much to l)ring the Greek element in the Empire into predomi- nance. Meanwhile, within the lands which were left to the Empire, first the Latin language, and then Eoman ideas and traditions generally, gradually died out. Before the end of the eleventh century, the Empire was far more Greek than anything else. Before the end of the twelfth century, it had become nearly co- extensive with the modern Greek nation, as defined by the combined use of the Greek language and profession of the Orthodox faith. The name Roman, in its Greek form, was coming to mean Greek. And, about the same time, the other primitive nations of the penin- sula, hitherto merged in the common mass of Roman subjects, began to show themselves more distinctly alongside of the Greeks. We now first hear of Al- hanians and Vlachs by those names, and the impor- tance of the nations which have thus come again to lioiit increases as we go on. Then the Greek remnant of the Empire was broken in pieces by the great Latin invasion, and, instead of a single power, Roman or Greek, we see a crowd of separate states, Greek and Frank. The reunion of some of these frao-ments formed the revived Empire of the Palaiologoi. But at STATES FORMED OUT OF THE EMPIRE. 369 no moment since the twelfth century has the wliole chap. Greek nation been united under a single power, native — - or foreiaii. And from the Ottoman conquest of Trebi- levhed '^ _ Byzantine zond to the l)eginning of the Greek War of Indepen- Empire. dence, the whole of the Greek nation was under foreign 1461-1821. masters.^ We have now first to trace out the steps by which the Empire was broken in pieces, and then to trace out severally the geographical history of the states which rose out of its framients. And with these last we may class certain powers which do not strictly come under that definition, "but which come within the same geogra- phical range and which absorl^ed parts of the Imperial territory. Beo^innino; in the West, the territory which the Empire at the final separation still held west of the Hadriatic, was gradually lost through the attacks, first of the Saracens, then of the Normans. These lands grew into the kingdom of Sicily^ which has its proper siciiy. place here as an offshoot from the Eastern Empire. At the other end ^f the Italian peninsula, Venice gradually Venice. detached itself from the Empire, to become foremost in its partition : here then comes the place of Venice as a maritime power. Then come the powers which arose Slavonic on the north and north-west of the Empire, powers chiefly Slavonic, reckoning as Slavonic the great Bui- Bulgaria. o-arian kinodom. Here too will come the kingdom of Hungary, which, as a non-Aryan power in the heart of Hungary. Europe, has much both of likeness and of contrast with Bulgaria. The kingdom of Hungary itself lay beyond the bounds of the Empire, but a large part of its ^ Unless we except the inomentary existence of tlie first Sept- insular Republic, to be spoken of below. VOL. I. B B 370 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, dependent territory had been Imperial soil. Here also — • — - we must speak of the states which arose out of the Albanians, ucw developemeut of the Albanian and Eouman Eoumans. races, and of the states, Greek and Frank, which arose just before and at the time of the Latin Conquest. Asiatic Tlicu there are the powers, both Christian and Maho- metan, which arose within the Imperial dominions in Asia. Here we have to speak alike of the states founded bv the Crusaders and of the orowth of the Ottoman Turks. Lastly, we come to the work of our own days, to the new European states which have been formed by the deliverance of old Imperial lands from Ottoman bondaoe. ^¥e will therefore first trace the geographical 800-1204. changes in the frontier of the Empire itself down to the Latin Conquest. The Latin Empire of Rofnania, 1204-1453. the Greek Empire of Nikaia, the revived Greek Em- pire of Constantinople, will follow, as continuing, at least geographically, the true Eastern Eoman Empire. Then will come the powers which have fallen oft" from the Empire or grown up within the Empire, .from Sicily to free Bulgaria. But it must be remembered that it is not always easy to mark, either clironologically or on the map, when this or that territory was finally lost to the Empire. This is true both on the Slavonic border Distinction aud also in southern Italy. On the former above all between ... conquest it is oftcii hard to distiiiouish between conquest at the and settle- ^ '^ ^ . . mont. cost of tlic Euipirc and settlement within the Empire. In either case the frontier within which the Emperors exercised direct authority was always falling back and advancing again. Beyond this there was a zone which could not be said to be under the Emperor's direct rule, but in which his overlordship was more or less REVIVALS OF IMPERIAL POWER. 371 fully acknowledged, according to tlie relative strength chap. of the Empire and of its real or nominal vassals. " — — ' <^ 1. Changes in the Frontier of the Empire. In tracino- the fluctuations of the frontier of the Eastern Empire from the beginning of the ninth cen- tury, we are struck bv the wonderful i30wer of revival Power of •J ^ " ^ revival and reconquest which is shown throuoiiout the whole '^^*^? history. Except the lands which were won by the first Saracens, hardly a province was finally lost till it had been once or twice won back. No one could have dreamed that the Empire of the seventh century, cut short b}^ the Slavonic settlements to a mere fringe on its European coasts, could ever have [^become the Empire of the eleventh century, holding a solid mass of territory from Tainaros to the Danube. But before this great revival, the borders of the Empire had both advanced and fallen back in the further West. At the time of the separation of the Empires, the New Eome still held Sardinia, Sicily, and a small part of Sardinia, southern Italy. The heel and the toe of the boot still i°^"*®''" formed the themes of Lombardy^ and Calabria, in the B}'zantine sense of those names.- Naples, Gaeta, and Amalji, were outlying Italian cities of the Empire ; so was Venice, which can hardly be called an Italian ^ The longer foi-in Aoyyt/?ap8ta clave to this theme, while the Greeks learned to apply the contracted form Aa/x7rap8ot to the Lombards of Noithern Italy. * [There were two steps in the curious translation of the name : (1) Calabria, Bruttii, and Apulia were united to constitute an official province called ' Calabria ' ; (2) Calabria and Apulia were lost to the Lombards, and the official name adhered to Bruttii, the only part of the province which remained to the Empire, This happened in the second half f)f the seventh century. See Schipa, in tlie Archivio atorico per Ip provinze vapoletane, 1895, pp. 23 sqq. and Bury's ed. of (jibl)on's JJecli/ie and Fall, v. 24, editor's note.] Ji 1! 2 THE KASTKKN EMPIHK. CHAP. X. Loss of the islands. Advance on the continent. Loss of Sardinia. Loss of Sicily, 8'27-965. Loss of Agri- gentum, 827; of Palermo, 831; Messina, 842; Malta, 869; Syracuse, 878. Tauro- menion, 902-963. Rametta, 965. Partial recovery and final loss of Sicily. 1038-1042. city. Ill the course of the uiiitli century the power of the Empire was cut short in tlie islands, but advanced on the maiiihuul. The history of Sardinia is utterly obscure ; but it seems to have passed away from tlie .Empire by the beginning of the ninth century. Sicily was now conquered bit by bit ])y the Saracens of Africa during a struggle of one hundred and forty years. Agri- gentiuu, opposite to the African coast, fell first ; Palermo, once the seat of Phoenician rule, became four years later the new Semitic capital. Messina on the strait soon followed ; but the eastern side of the island, its most thoroughly Greek side, held out much longer. Before the conquest of this region, Malta, the natural appendage to Sicily, passed into Saracen hands. Syracuse, the Christian capital, did not fall till fifty years after the first invasion, and in the north-western corner of the island a remnant still held out for nearly ninety years. Tauromenion or Taorniina, on its height, had to be twice taken in the course of the tenth century, and the single fort of Rametta, the last stronghold of the Eastern Empire in the island, held out longer still. By this time Eastern Christendom was fast advancing on Islam in Asia : but the greatest of Mediterranean islands passed from Christendom to Islam, from Europe to Africa, and a Greek- speaking people was cut off from the Empire which was fast becoming Greek. But the complete and uninterrupted Mussulman dominion in Sicily was short. The Imperial claims Avere never forgotten, and in the eleventh century they were again enforced. By the arms of George Maniakes, Messina and Syracuse, with a part of the island which at the least took in tlie whole of its eastern side, was, if only for a few years, restored to the Imperial rule. FLUCTUATIONS IN ITALY AND SICILY. 373 While Sicily was thus lost bit by bit, the power of chap. the Emi)ire was advanciiio- in the neio'hbourino' main- 7; — — ; A i^ c o Advance 01 land of Italy. Bari was won Ijack for Christendom from theEmpue m Ital}'. the Saracen by the combined powers of both Empires ; Taking of ^ r ' B,^j^.i^ 871. but the lasting possession of the prize fell to the C^sar of the East. At the end of the ninth century, the Eastern Empire claimed either the direct possession or the superiority of all southern Italy from Gaeta down- wards. The extent of the Imperial dominion was Fluctua- tions always fluctuatino- ; there was perhaps no moment when of the •^ *^ •"■ ^ Imperial the power of the Emperors was really extended over power in this whole region ; but there was perhaps no spot with- in it which did* not at some time or other admit at least the Imperial oyerlordship. The eastern coast, with the heel and the toe in a wider sense than before, became a real and steady possession, while the allegiance of Bene- ventum, Capua, and Salerno was always yery precarious. But Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, however nominal their Naples, ^ _ *^ _ _ Gaeta, and allefiiance might be, never formally cast it aside. Amaifi. Thus, at the besfinnino' of the ninth century, tlie Eastern Emperors held all Sicily, with some patches of territory on the neio-hbourino- mainland. At the begin- ning of the eleventh century, the island had been wholly lost, while the dominion on the mainland had been greatly enlarged. In the course of the eleventh cen- tury a new power, the Xormans of Apulia, conquered the The Nor- . _ _ _ mans in Italian possessions of the Empire, won Sicily from the itaiyand Mussulman, and even made conquests from the Empire east of the Hadriatic. Thus arose the Sicilian king- dom, the growth of which will best be traced when we come to the powers which arose out of the breaking-up of the Empire. o 74 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. The oreat islands of the Eastern Mediterranean also ^- — — flnctnated iK'tween Byzantine and Saracen dominion. Loss of Crete was won by a band of Mussuhiian adventurers from '^ ^' " ' Spain nearly at the time when the conquest of Sicily Its re- bes'an. It was won back in the £>reat revival of the Im- covery, 963. ~ ' Cyprus perial power one hundred and fortv years later. Cyprus lost, 708 ; . . ^ recovered was lost sooucr : but it wciit tliroumi manv nuctua- lost again, tions and divisions, a recovery and a second loss, before c. 881-88H ; . recovered ifg ^xi^l rccovcry at the same time as the recovery of again, 905. Loss and Crete and the complete loss of Sicily. Looking at the gam among the great Empire snnply as a power, there can be no doubt tliat islands. ^ ^ "^ ^ the loss of Sicily Avas altogether overbalanced by the re- covery of Crete and Cyprus. Geographically Sicily was an outlying Greek island ; Crete and Cyprus lay close to the body of the Empire, essential parts of a Greek state. But Crete and Cyprus, as lands which had been lost and won l^ack, Ave re among the lands Mdiere the tendency to fall away from within showed itself ear- Separation Uest. Crctc ucver actually separated from the Empire. of Cyprus, 1182-1185. Cyprus fell away under a rebel Emperor, to be presently Conquered conqucrcd by Eichard, Count of Poitou and King of of Poitou" Enoiand, and to pass away from the Empire for ever. 1191 *" Fiuctua- We may thus sum up the fluctuations in the posTes'^ioi'r possession of the great islands. At the beginning of i'siludf,'''** the ninth century, the Eastern Empire still took in 801 Sardinia, Sicily, and Crete ; Cyprus was in the hands 901. of the Saracens. At the beginning of the tenth century, the Empire held nothing in any of the four 1001. except the north-eastern corner of Sicily. At the begin- ing of the eleventh, Crete and Cyprus had l^eeii won 1101. back ; Sicily was wholly lost. At the beginning of the twelfth, Crete and Cyprus were still Imperial posses- sions ; a great part of Sicily had been Avon and lost FLUCTUATIONS IN CRETE AND CYPRUS. 375 again. At the beginning of tiie thirteenth, Cyprus, chap. like Sicily, had passed to a Western master ; Crete was :^^^ — ' still held by the Empire, but only by a very feeble tie. Thus the o-reat islands stood at the fall of the old Eoman Empire of the East ; of the revived Empire of the Palaiologoi none of them ever formed a part. In the islands the enemies with whom the Empire Relations had to strive were, first the Saracens, and then the Latins Empire to- wards the or Franks, the nations of Western Europe. On the Slavonic ' ••• powers. mainland the part of the Saracen was taken by the Slave. During the four hundred years between the division of the Empires and the Frank conquest of the East, the geographical history of the Eastern Empire has mainly to deal with the shiftings of its frontier towards the Slavonic powers. These fall into three Three Slavonic main groups. First, in the north-western corner of the groups. Empire, are the Croatian and Servian settlements, whose servia and Croatia. history is closely connected with that of the kingdom of Hungary and the commonwealth of Venice. Secondly, there are the Slaves of Thrace, Macedonia, and Macedonia and Greece. Greece. Their presence in Greece at least has of late been disputed. It has been held that the alleged Slavonic settlements in Greece were in truth Albanian ; but I see no "round to doubt the truth of the received view. Thirdly, between these southern Slavonic settle- ments and those in Servia and Croatia, comes the great Bulgaria. Bulgarian kingdom. The two last ranges gradually merge into one ; the first remains distinct throughout. Servia, Croatia, and Dalmatia, will be best treated of in another section, remembering tliat, amidst all fluctuations, the claims of the Empire over them were never denied or forgotten, and were from time to time 376 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP X. enforced. It was towards the Bulo-ariaii kiiiodom that the -' greatest fluctuations of the Imperial frontier took place. The Bulgarian kiujrdoni. dettle- ment south of the Danube, 079. Black Bulgaria. Use of the Bulgarian name. The Em- pire and the Mace- donian Slaves. The orioinal Finnish Bul^'arians were the vano-uard of Turanian invasion in the lands with which we have to do. Earlier, it would seem, in their coming than the Avars, they were slower to settle down into actual occupation of European territory. But when they did settle, it was not on the outskirts of the Empire, but in one of its acknowledged provinces. Late in the seventh century, the first Bulgarian kingdom was esta- blished between Danube and Hasmus. It must be re- membered that another migration in quite another direction founded another Bulgarian power on the Volga and the Kama. This settlement. Great or Black Bid(/aria,^ remained Turanian and became Mahometan ; Bulgaria on the Danube became Christian and Slavonic. The modern Bulo-arians bear the Bulgarian name only in the way in which the romanized Celts of Gaul bear the name of their Frankish masters from Ger- many, in the way in which the Slaves of Kief and Moscow bear the name of their Eussian masters from Scandinavia. In all three cases, the power formed by the union of conquerors and conquered has taken the name of the conquerors and has kept the speech of the conquered. But though the Bulgarian power became essentially Slavonic, it took quite another character from the less fully oro'anized Slavonic settlements to the west and south of it. Towards the Slaves of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, it cannot be said that the Empire ^ [For the name Black (not White, a.s in the former editions) Bulgaria, see Constantine Porphyrogenneto.s, De Administrando Imperio, c. 12, and c. 42 (p. 180, ed. Bonn).] SLAVONIC SETTLEMENTS. 377 had any definite frontier. Settled within the Empire, chap. they were its tributaries or its enemies, according ^ — — ' to the strength of the Empire at any particular moment. Up to the coming of the Bulgarians, we might, from different points of view, place the Imperial border either at the Danube or at no great distance from the ^Ega^an. But from the Bulgarian conquest The onwards, there was on the Bulfrarian side a real fron- and the *" . Bulgarian tier, a frontier which often shifted, l3ut which was often kingdom. fixed by treaty, a frontier which, wherever it was fixed, marked off lands which were, for the time, wholly lost to the Empire. With the first Bulgarian settlement, the Loss of the . . *" Danubian Imperial frontier definitely withdrew for three hundred frontier. years from the lower Danube to the line of Hasmus or Balkan. As the Buloarian power pushed to the south Bulgarians and west, the two fields of warfare, aoainst the Bulirarians Uamus. to the north and against the half-independent Slaves to the west, gradually merged into one. But as long as the Isaurian Emperors reigned, the two fields were kept dis- tinct. They kept the Balkan range against the Bulgarians, whose kino-dom, stretchino- to the north-west over lands Extent of which are now Servian, had not. at the end of the eighth the eighth century. century, passed the mountain barrier of the Empire. Meanwhile, as a wholly distinct work, the Im- Recovery penal power was restored over the Slaves of Thrace, Slavonic . . , settle- Macedonia, and Greece. In the middle of the eiohth i^^ents "^ in Mace- century the inland parts of Greece were chiefly occupied ^^"'^ ^^^^ reece. by Slavonic immigrants, while the coast and the cities remained Greek. Before the end of the century, the 775-784. Slaves of Macedonia were reduced to tribute, and early in the ninth, those of Greece wholly failed to recover 807. their independence. The land was gradually settled Recovery " of G'l'GGCG afresh l)y Greek colonists, and by the middle of the from the Slaves. 378 • THE EASTERN EMPTKE. CHAP, tenth, only two Slavonic tribes, Melimjs and Ezerites ^j^^;;:^^^ [Melinci and Jezerci), remained, distinct, tliongh tri- Taygetos. ]j^tc^iy_^ qi^ tJie range of Taygetos or Pentedaktylos. From this time to the Frankish conquest, Greece, as a whole, was held by the Empire. But, as a recovered land, it was one of those parts of the Empire in which a tendency to se])arate began to show itself. And in the course of these changes, the name Hellenes^ as a national name, quite died out. The names Hellas and Hellen might sometimes be brought in as a rhetorical flourish, as bygone names often are in all languages ; but Hellen had long ceased to be the received name of a people, or Hellas to be the received name of any land beyond a small province. In ordinary use the name Hellenes of Hellm had lono- meant paqan, and it was confined to Maina. ^ • i the people of Mama, who remanied pagans till near the end of the ninth century. The Greeks, as a people, now knew no name but that of Romans. The local, perhaps contemptuous, uame of the inhabitants of Hellas was Helladikoi} Thus, at the division of the Empires, Thrace, Mace- donia, and Greece had been more or less thoroughly re- covered by the Eastern Empire, while the lands between H^emus and Danube were wholly lost. The Imperial dominion from the Hadriatic to the Euxine formed, Romania, together witli the Asiatic provinces, Romania, the land Daimatia, of the Eouiaus of the East. The Emperors also kept Servia, and . . , . -, -, Croatia. tlic cuics ou the Dalmatian coast, and the precarious allegiance of the Servian and Croatian principalities. ' [There is no reason to suppose that there was anything con- temptuous in the name Helladikoi. It was the official designation of the people of the theme of Hellas. See Bury, English Historical Eevieto, vii. 80.] THE BULGAKIAX KINC4D0M. 379 These lands were bound to the Empire by a common chap. dread of the encroaching Bulgarian. The ninth cen- ^T^;;;^^;^ tury and the early years of the tenth was a great Bulgarian*" time of Buloarian advance. The Buls^arians seem to '"''^'^T' ~ ° Attempt on have failed in establishino- anv lastino- dominion to the |l^„''"°'''*' north-west in Pannonia ; ^ at the expense of the Empire they were more successful. At the end of the eighth century Sardica — afterwards called Triaditza and Sofia Advance against the — and Anchialos were border cities of the Empire. Empire. The conquest of Sardica early in the ninth marks a stage of Bulgarian advance. At the end of the century, after the conversion of the nation to Christianity, comes the great asra of the first Bulgarian kingdom, the king- dom of Peristhlava. The Tzar Simeon established the Conquests of Simeon, Bulgarian supremacy over Servia, and carried his con- 923-934. quests deep into the lands of the Empire. In Macedonia and Epeiros the Empire kept only the sea-coast, ^Egaean and Hadriatic ; Sardica, Philippopolis,- Ochrida, were all cities of the Bulgarian realm. Hadrianople, a frontier city of the P^mpire, passed more than once into Bul- garian hands. Nowhere in Europe, save in old Hellas, did the Imperial dominion stretch from sea to sea. So stood matters in the middle of the tenth cen- Revival of the Impe- tury. Then came that greatest of all revivals of the liai power. Imperial power which won back Crete and Cyprus, and which was no less successful on the mainland of Europe ^ A tenipoiary Bulgarian occupation seems clear from Einhard, AnnaLs, 827, 828. But on the supposed existence of a Bulgarian duchy in the present Hungary see Roesler, Romdnische Studien, 201. [But the Bulgaiian realm at this time doubtless extended north of the Danube, including at least the present Walachia.] ^ [The 81avs called and still call Philippopolis Plovdiv, which comes from Pulpudeva, the old native name of the place before the foundation of the Greek town. See Kaluzniacki and Jii'ecek in the Archiv slav. Philologie, xvi. 594 sqq.] 880 THE EASTERN ExMl>IRE. CHAP. X. Conquest of Bul- <;aria. The Rus- sians and Bulgiv- riaus. i)(VS-<)71. The second Bulgarian kiuEfdom. Second conquest of Bul- garia, 1018. Croatia. and Asia. lJulgaria was coiiquered aiul lost and con- quered again. But t\ui iirst time it was conquered, not from the Bulgarian but from the Russian. The Russians, long dangerous to Constantinople by sea, now suddenly appear as a land power. Their prince Svia- toslaf overthrew the first Buloarian kinodom, and Philippopolis became for n moment a liussian outpost. But John Tzimiskes restored the power of the Empire over the whole Bulgarian dominions. The Danube was once more the frontier of the Eastern Eome. It remained so for more than two hundred years during the lower part of its course. But in the inland regions the Imperial power fell back almost at once, to advance again further than ever. A large part of the conquered land soon revolted, and a second Bulgarian kingdom, Macedonian rather than Moesian, arose. The kingdom of Ochrida, the kingdom of Samuel, left to the Empire the eastern part of the old liulgaria be- tween Danube and Hc^mus, together with all Thrace and the Macedonian coast. But it took in all the inland region of Macedonia ; it stretched down into Thessaly and Epeiros ; and, while it nowhere touched the Euxine or the JEgasan, it had a small seaboard on the Hadriatic. Now came the great struggle l^etween Eomania and Bulgaria which fills the last years of the tenth century and the opening years of the eleventh. At last all Bulgaria, and with it for a while Servia, was restored to the Empire. Croatia continued in vassalage, and its princes were presently raised to royal rank by Imperial authority. Thus the Eastern Empire again took in the whole south-eastern peninsula. Of its outlying European pos- sessions, southern Italy was still untouched. At what FLUCTUATIONS IN ASIA. 08I moment Venice ceased to be a dependency of the Empire, chap. it would be hard to sav. Venetian dukes still received Venice. the Imperial investiture, and Venetian ships often joined the Imperial fleet. This state of things seems never to have been formally abolished, but rather to have dropped out of sight as Venice and Constantinople became practically hostile. In the other outlying city north of the Euxine the ninth and tenth centuries change places. Through all changes the Empire had kept its maritime jDrovince in the Tauric Chersonesos. There the allied city of Cherson, more formally annexed to the Empire in cherson the ninth century, was taken by the Eussian Vladimir 829-842 i 1 • 11*^ " n ' taken by ui the mtervai between the two great Bulgarian wars. viadimir, In Asia the Imperial frontier had changed l)ut little since the first Saracen conquests. The solid ijeninsula The . -^ ^ Empire of Asia Minor was often plundered by the Mussulmans, "' ^^''^• but it was never conquered. Xow, in Asia as in Europe, came a time of advance. For eighty years, with some fluctuations, the Empire grew on its eastern side. The Bagdad caliphate was now broken up, and the smaller e'mirates were more easily overcome. The wars of Nikephoros Phokas and John Tzimiskes restored Kilikia Asiatic conquests and Syria to the list of Eoman provinces, Tarsos^ Antioch. °\ ^''^^'' , •-' 1 T T ■) phoros and and Edessa to the list of Christian cities. Basil the i'^l'^Xna Second extended the Imperial power over the Iberian of Basil the Second, and Abasgian lands east of the Euxine, and began a 991-1022. c • ^ 1 • 1 • 1 p f> Beginning series 01 transactions by which, m tiie space 01 forty of the -. , -ITT iT-»' T annexation years, all Armenia was added to the Empire on the of Armenia, very eve of the downfall of the Imperial power in Asia. Ani, of Kars, 1064. For the great extension of the l^mpire laid it open New . . enemies. to new enemies in both continents. In 7isia it became the neighbour of tlie Seljuk Turks, in pAirope of the Turks. 382 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Magyars. Revolt of Servia, 1040. Loss of Belgrade, 10(34. Advance of the Turks. Loss of Ani, 1064. Lesser Armenia, 1080, 1071. 1074. The Sul- tans of Boujii. 1081. Loss of Antiocli, 1081. Normans in Corfu and Magyars or Hung'arian.s, who bear the name of Turks ill the Byzantme Avriters of the tenth century. Huii- i^arv had now settled down into a Christian kinodom. A Servian revolt presently placed a new independent state between Hungarv and Eomania, but Belo-rade remained an Imperial possession till it passed under Magyar rule twenty-four years later. By this time the Empire had begun to be cut short in a far more terrible way in Asia. The Seljuk Turks now reached the new Eoinan frontier. Plunder grew into conquest, and the first Turkish conquest, that of Ani, happened in the same year as the last Imperial acquisition of Kars. The Emperors tried to strengthen this dangerous frontier by the erection of vassal principalities. The very name of Armenia now changes its place. The new or Lesser Armenia arose in' the Kilikian mountains, and was ruled by princes of the old xlrmenian dynasty, whose allegiance to the Empire gradually died out. But before this time the Turkish power was fully esta- blished in the peninsula of Asia Minor. The plun- derers had become conquerors. The battle of Manzikert led to formal cessions and further advances. Through- out Asia Minor the Empire at most kept the coast ; the mass of the inland country became Turkish. But the Eoman name did not pass away ; the invaders took the name of Sultans of Boum. Their capital was at Nikaia, a threatening position indeed for Constanti- nople. But distant positions like Trebizond and Antioch were still held as dependencies. Antioch was before long betrayed to the Turks. By this time the Empire was attacked by a new enemy in its European peninsula. The Norman con- querors of Apulia and Sicily crossed the Hadriatic, and THE KOMNENIAN REIGNS. 383 occupied various poiuts, both insular and continen- chap. tal, especially Dyrrhacltion or Durazzo and the island ^^^^'^^. — ' of Korkyra, now called by a new Greek name, Ko- losi-ioss. rypho or Corfu. At every point of its frontier the Empire had, towards the end of the eleventh century, altogether fallen back from the splendid position which it held at its beginning. The geographical aspect of oeogra- . , • f 1 • 1 1 pliical as- the iiimpire was now the exact opposite oi wliat it had pect of the been in the eii>htli and ninth centuries. Then its main strength seemed to lie in Asia. Its European dominion had been cut down to the coasts and islands ; but its Asiatic peninsula was firmly held, touched only by passing ravages. Xow the Asiatic dominion was cut down to the coasts and islands, while the great Euro- pean peninsula was, in the greater part of its extent, still firmly held. Xever before had the main power of the Empire been so thoroughly European. No wonder that in Western eyes the Empire of Eomania began to look like a kinodom of Greece. The states founded by the crusaders will l^e dealt with elsewhere. The crusades concern us here only Eecovery as helpiiiiy towards the next revival of the Imperial territory, . . 1097. power under the house of Komnenos. Alexios himself won back Xikaia and the other great cities of western Asia Minor. Some of these, as Laodikeia^ were re- ceived rather as free cities of the Empire than as mere subjects. The conquering reigns of John and Manuel Reigws of again extended the Empire in both continents. The Manuel. Turk still ruled in the inland regions of Asia, but his capital was driven back from Nikaia to Ikonion. The m)i. superiority of the Empire was restored over Antioch and 1137. Kilikian Armenia at the one end, over Servia at the 384 THE EASTEUX E.M1'[I{E. CHAP. X. 1148. 11G3-11G8. Falling of distant posses- sions. Dalmatia, 1181. Latin kingdom of Cyprus, 1192. The third Bulgarian kingdom, 1187. Other Slavonic revolts. Other. Hungary itself had to yield Zeujjmin, Sirmium, and all Dalmatia. For a inomeut the Empire again took ill the whole eastern coast of the Hadriatic and its islands ; even on its western shore Ancona became something like a dependency of the Eastern Caesar. The conquests of Manuel Avere clearly too great for the real strength of the Empire. Some lands fell away at once. Dalmatia was left to be struggled for between ^^enice and Hungary. And the tendency to fall away within the Empire l^ecame strengthened by increased intercourse with the feudal ideas of the West. Cyprus. Trebizond, old Greece itself, came into the hands of rulers who were rather feudal vassals than Roman gover- nors. We have seen how Cyprus fell away. Its Poitevin conqueror presently gave it to Guy of Lusignan. Thus, before the Latin conquest of Constantinople, a province had been torn from the Eastern Empire to become a Latin kingdom. The Greek-speaking lands were now beginning largely to pass under Latin rule. In Sicily the Frank might pass for a deliverer ; in Corfu and Cyprus he was a mere foreign invader. Meanwhile the Empire was again cut short to the north by a new Bulgarian revolt, which established a third Bulgarian kingdom, but a kingdom which seems to have been as much Vlacli or Eouman as strictly Bulgarian. The new kingdom took in the old Bulgarian land between Danube and H^mus, and it presently spread both to the west and to the south. The Bulgarian revolt was followed bv other movements among the Thracian and Macedonian Slaves, which did not lead to the foundation of any new states, but which had their share in the general break-up of the Imperial power. The work of Basil and Manuel was now un- THE LATIN CONQUEST. 385 done ; but its uiidoiuo- had the effect of makiiio- the chap. Empire more nearly a Greek state than ever. It did ; — '-—^ ■^ " increased not wholly coincide with the Greek-speaking lands : ^.'amcter the Empire had subjects who were not Greeks, and Emphe. there were Greeks wlio were not subjects of the Em- pire. But the Greek speech and the new Greek nationality were dominant within the lands which were still left to the Empire. The Eoman name was now merely a name : Eoman and Greek meant tlie same thing. Whatever was not Greek in European Eomania was mainly Albanian and Ylach. The dominion of the Empire in the peninsula was mainly confined to the primitive races of the peninsula. The great element The of later times, the Slavonic settlers, had almost wholly states. separated themselves from the Empire, establishing their independence, but not their unity. They formed a group of independent powers which had simply fallen away from the Empire ; it was by the powers of the West that the Empire itself was to be broken in pieces. The taking of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade Latm con- was the work of an alUance between the now indepen- Constanti- nople, 1204. dent commonwealth of Venice and a body of West- ern crusaders who, along with the states which they founded, may be indifferently called Latins or Franks. Act of A regular act of partition was drawn out, by which the Empire was to be divided into three parts. One was to be assigned to a Latin Emperor of Romania., another to the pilgrims as his feudatories, a third to the com- monwealth of Venice. But the partition was never carried out. A large part of the Empire was never con- quered ; another large part was not assigned by the act of partition. In fact the scheme of partition is hardly VOL. I. (; c 386 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Latin Empire of Romania. a geograpliical feet at all. The real partition to which the Latin conquest led was one of quite another kind, a partition of the Empire among a crowd of powers, Greek, Frank, and Venetian, more than one of which had some claim to represent the Empire itself. These were the Latin Empire of Romania, and the Greek Emj^ire which maintained itself at Nikaia, and which, after nearly sixty years of banishment, won back the Imperial city. In the crusading scheme the Latin Emperor was to be the feudal superior of the lesser princes who were to establish themselves within the Empire. For his own Imperial domain he was to Its extent, liave the whole of the Imperial possessions in Asia, with a Thracian dominion stretching as far north as Agatho- polis. Hadrianople, with a narrow strip of territory stretching down to the Propontis, was to be Venetian. The actual result was very different. The Latin Em- perors never got any footing in Asia beyond parts of the themes bordering on the Propontis, reaching from Adramyttion to the mouth of the Sangarios. In Europe they held the eastern part of Thrace, with a fluctuating border towards Bulgaria on the north, and to the new Latin and Greek states which arose to the west. Their dominion also took in Lemnos, Lesbos, Chios, and some others of the ^-ain a Greek and an Imperial citv, and its recoverv ^.gain by the Greeks split the Latin Empire asunder. This blow came from the west. It was the Xicene The Epeirot Empire which did in the end win back the Imperial despotat. city ; but, for some years after the Latin conquest, things looked as if the restoration of the Greek power in Europe was designed for Epeiros. The first despot Michael paid a nominal homage to all the neighbouring powers, Greek and Frank, in turn ; but in truth he was the lord of an independent and growing state. His power began in the Epeirot land west of Pindos. For a 1208-1210. ^ It must ha lem ember ed that Sco-TrorT;? \\'a,s and its a common Byzantine title, with no worse meaning than dominus or any of the words which translate it. c c 2 388 THE EASTERN EMPIIIE. CHAP. X. 1215. 1'222. 1225. Separation of Epeiros and Thes- salonia. 1237. The Em- pire of Trebizond. 1204-1461. Extent of the Komne- nian dominion. moment his power stretched into Peloponnesos, where he held Corinth, Nauplia, and Argos. Durazzo and Corfu were won from Venice. The Epeirot power advanced also to the east. Thessalonike was taken ; its ruler took the Imperial title ; Hadrianople followed, and the new Empire stretched across the peninsula from sea to sea, and took in Thessaly to the south. But the Thessalonian Empire was hardly more long- lived than the Thessalonian kingdom. It was first dis- membered among the princes of the ruling house. The original Epeirot despotat, along with Corfu, parted away from the new Macedonian power, to survive it by many years. But by this time the championship of the Greek speech and faith against the Latin lords of Constanti- nople had passed to the foremost of the Greek powers which had grown up in Asia, to the Empire of Nikaia. These Greek powers were two, which arose at the same time, but by different processes and with different destinies. The Empire of Nikaia was the truer con- tinuation of the old East-Eoman power ; the Empire of Trapezous or Trehizond was fated to be the last inde- pendent fragment of Eoman dominion and Greek culture. The Trapezuntine Empire was not in strict- ness one of the states which arose out of the Latin partition. One of the parts of the Empire which showed most disposition to fall away was independently seized by a rival Emperor, at the very moment of the Latin conquest. Alexios Komnenos occupied Trebizond, an occupation largely wrought by Iberian help, as if the Empire, already dismembered b}' the Christians of the West, was to be further dismembered by the Christians of the further East. The dominions of Alexios, enlarged by his brother David to the west, at first took in the EMPIRE OF NIKAIA. 389 whole south coast of the Euxine from the San^'arios chap. X. eastward, broken by the city of Amisos, which con- ' — : trived to make itself virtually independent, and by the neighbouring Turkish settlement at Samsoun. But this dominion was only momentary. The eastern part alone survived to form the later Empire of Trebizond ; the western part, the government of David, soon passed to the rising power of Xikaia. The founder of that power was Theodore Laskaris, Empheof J^ ' Nikaia, in whom the succession of the Eastern Empire was held 1206-1261. to be continued. Ten years after the taking of Con- 1214. stantinople, a treaty fixed his border towards the small Latin dominion in Asia. vSix years after the Latins 1220. kept only the lands north of the gulf of Nikomedeia ; sixteen years later they held only the Asiatic coast of 1240. the Bosporos. Seven years later Chios, Lemnos, Samos, 1247. Kos, and other islands were won back by the o-rowino- TheNicene ' ... Empire in Greek state. But, lono- before this, the Nicene Empire Emope. ^ 1235. had become an European power. The Thracian Chersonesos was first won, the work beginning at Kalli- polis. Presently the Thessalonian Emperor sank to the 1242. rank of a despot under him of Nikaia ; four years later 1246. Thessalonike was incorporated with the Xicene domi- nions. A series of Bulgarian campaigns carried the 12^5-1256. Imperial frontier, first to the Hebros — already the Sla- vonic Maritza — and then to the foot of H^emus. A 1254-1259., series of Epeirot campaigns won a Hadriatic seaboard, and made Durazzo for a while again a city of the Empire. The Nicene power in these regions was con- 1259. firmed by the victory of Pelagonia, won over the combined forces of Epeiros, Achaia, and Sicily. The next year Selymbria was won froui the Latins, and the 1260. Frank Empire was cut down to so much territorv as 390 THE EASTERN EMPJKE. CHAP, could be guarded from the walls of Constantinople. At ^Z^:^^ last the recovery of Constantinople changed the Empire stantinc- ^f Nikaia into the revived Byzantine Empire of the pe, ^b.. Pj^Jj^IqIoooI. That Empire still lasted a hundred and ninety years, and we must carefully distinguish between its European and its Asiatic history. The Asiatic border fell back almost as soon as the seat of rule was restored to Europe. In Europe the revived Empire kept the tilt Empire character of an advancing power till just before the m Europe, eutraucc of the Ottoman into Europe, in some parts till just before the fall of Constantinople. Many events helped to weaken the real power of the Empire, which did not affect its geography. Such were the earlier Turkish inroads and the destroying visit of the Catalans. 1302. The land in which advance was most steady was Peloponnesos, where, at the time of the recovery of PekT^on^-^'^ Constantinople, the Empire did not hold a foot of ground. nesos. Misithra, Monembasia, and Maina, were the fruits of 1262. the day of Pelagonia. For a while the Imperial frontier was stationary, but from the beginning of the fourteenth century it steadily advanced. It advanced perhaps all the more after Peloponnesos became an Imperial depen- dency, or an appanage for princes of the Imperial house, rather than an immediate possession of the Empire. 1404. Early in the fifteenth century the greater part of the peninsula, including Corinth, was again in Greek hands. 1430. At last, twenty-three years only before the Turkish conquest of Constantinople, all Peloponnesos, except the points held by Venice, was under the superiority of the Empire. Advance in In morc northcm parts the advance of the Empire, Macedonia -"■ _ _ E"*liros though chequered by more reverses, went on steadily till LOSSES AND GAINS. 391 the growth of the Servian power in the middle of the chap. X. fourteenth century. The frontier varied towards Servia, Bulgaria, Epeiros, and the Angevin power which estalj- isos. lished itself on the Hadriatic coast. Even under Andro- nikos the Second the Imperial dominion was extended over the greater part of Thessaly or Great Vlachia. Later still, all Epeiros, Joannina and Arta — once Ambrakia 1318-1339. — were won. At the moment of the great Servian ad- vance, the Empire held the uninterrupted seaboard from the Euxine to the Pagasaian gulf, as well as its Hadriatic seaboard from the Ambrakian gulf northward. But the Erank principalities still cut off the main body of the Empire from its possessions in Peloponnesos. In Asia there is another tale to tell. There the Losses of frontier of the Empire steadily went back after the in Asia. recovery of Constantinople. A few points gained from or lost to European powers go for little. Smyrna passed 1260 for a while to Genoa. The Knights of Saint John won The Rhodes, Kos, and other islands, but they did not become samt Joim, a power on the mainland of Asia till the Empire had almost withdrawn from that continent. The Imperial power steadily crumbled away before the advance of f^'^^^urL^^ the Turk, first the Seljuk and then the Ottoman. The small Turkish powers into which the Sultanate of Eoum had now split up began to encroach on the Greek dominion in Asia as soon as its centre was transferred to Europe. By the end of the thirteenth century, the Imperial possessions in Asia had again shrunk up to a narrow strip on the Propontis, from the ^Egeean to the Euxine. Losses followed more speedily when the Turkish power passed from the Seljuk to the Ottoman. Brusa, Nikaia, i326-i838. Nikomedeia, were all lost within twelve years. By the middle of the fourteenth century, the Emperors 392 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, kej)! iiotliiug ill Asia, save a strip of land just opposite ' ' — ' Constantinople, and the outlying cities of Philadelphia and Phokaia, tlieir allies rather than their subjects. The Ottoman was now all but ready to pass into ^'''' . Europe, and the way was made easier for him l)y the Empire x ' ./ ^ towards''^ rise and fall of an European power which again cut luKiria"^ short the Empire in its western provinces. While the 1331. Imperial frontier was advancing in Epeiros and Thessaly, it fell back towards Servia, and advanced towards Loss of Bulgaria only to fall back again. Philippopolis, so often poiis, 1344. lost and won, now passed away for ever. And now came the great momentary advance of Servia under of's'tepheu Stephen Duslian, which wrested from the Empire a us mil. ij^j.jj.g pjjj.j^ Qf j^g Xhracian, Macedonian, Albanian, and Extent . of the Greek possessions. At the middle of the fourteenth Empire, century, the Empire, all but banished from Asia, kejDt no unbroken European dominion out of Thrace. Its other possessions were isolated. It kept Thessalonike and Chalkidike, with a small strip of Macedonia as far as Berrhoia and Vodena. It kept a small Thessalian ter- ritory about Lamia or Zeitouni. There was the Pelo- ponnesian province, fast growing into importance ; there 1355. was Lesbos^ and a few other islands. On Stephen's death his dominion broke in pieces, but the Empire did not win back its lost lands. For the Ottoman was alreadv in Europe, ready, in the space of the next hundred years, to swallow up all that was left. As in the recovery of Eomania by the Greeks of Mkaia, so in the final conquest of Eomania by the Turks of Brusa, Constantinople itself was — with the exception of the Peloponnesian appanage — the last 1356. point of the Empire to fall. The Turk, like the Greek, made his way in by Kallipolis ; like the Greek, he END OF THE EMPIRE. 393 hemmed in the Imperial city for years before it fell into chap. his hands. In seven years from his first landinoc, ; — - — "^ ~' Loss of Hadrianople had become the European capital of the fjg^J^J'i^' Turk ; the Empire was his tril^utary, keeping, besides his outlying possessions, only the land just round the city. The romantic expedition of Aniadeo of Savoy isee. gave back to the Empire its Euxine coast as far as Mesembria. Before the end of the century Philadelphia Loss of ... Phila- was lost in Asia, and the ImiDerial dominion in Europe deiphia, 1374-1391. hardly reached beyond the city itself and the Pelo- ponnesian province. Thessalonike and the Thessalian province were both lost for a while. Bajazet was on the point of doing the work of Mahomet, when the Effect of Empire was saved for another ha If- century by the invasion, invasion of Timur and the consequent break-up of the Ottoman power. During the Ottoman civil wars, the outlying points of the Empire were restored and seized as^ain more than once. At last the boundaries of the Empire were fixed by treaty between Sultan Mahomet 1424. and the Emperor Manuel, much as they had stood sixt}^ years before. The coast of the Propontis to Selymbria, the coast of the Euxine to Mesembria, Thessalonike and Chalkidike, the Peloponnesian province, the smaller Thessalian province, the overlordship of Lesbos, Ainos, and Thasos, was all that was left. Further losses soon followed. Thessalonike passed from the Empire within 1426. two years. At last, as all the world knows, the Imperial 1453. city itself fell, and the name of the Eastern Eoman Empire was blotted out of European geography. Con- stantinople l)ecame Stambul} Six years later came the i46o. ^ [Stamhvxl or Istambol is derived from my]v ttoXi (.9<» passing into sta in Turkish). See Hesseling, Revae dts etudes grecques, iii. 189 sqq. The colloquial name for Constantinople in the Middle Ages was regularly -ij 7roAt9.] 394 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. conquest of Peloponnesos, and the whole of European Greece passed into the hands of foreign masters. states growing out of the Empire. The Slavonic states. Hungary. Rouman states. The Greek states. Latin states with the Empire. Kingdom of Sicily. Havino- thus sketched the changes in the extent of the Eastern Eoman Empire during a period of six hundred and fifty years, we have now to trace the geography of the states which, within that time, grew up within its borders or upon its frontiers. These fall naturally into four groups. First come the national states which were formed ])y throwing off the dominion of the Empire. These are mainly the Slavonic powers to the north, Bulgaria, Servia, Croatia, and the later states which arose out of their divisions and combina- tions. And with these, different as was their origin, we must, for our purposes, place both the Hungarian kingdom which annexed so many of the Slavonic lands, and the Rouman states, so closely connected with Hungarian history, which arose by migrations out of the Empire or out of lands which had been part of the Empire. Another group consists of the Greek states which split off from the Empire ]3efore or at the Latin conquest, and which were not recovered by the Greek Emperors of Nikaia and Constantinople. Both these classes of states strictly belong to Eastern Christendom. The Catholic Magyar ruling over Orthodox Slaves forms a link between the East and the West ; so do those Slaves who themselves belong to the Latin Church. Another link is supplied by a third group of states, namely those parts of the Empire which, either at or before the Latin conquest, came under Latin rule. This class is not confined to the Frank powers in Eomania or to the Eastern settlements of Venice and Genoa. From our point of view it takes in the Norman STATES FORMED OUT OF THE EMPIRE. 395 kingdom of Sicily and the crusading kingdom of chap. Jerusalem with its fiefs. In all these cases, territory .tt-^ — -, ' - Kingdom of which had formed part of the Eastern Empire came Jerusalem. under Latin rule. And in all these cases, Latin masters bore rule over alien subjects, Greek, Slave, Syrian, or any other. None of the Latin powers were national states, like the Slavonic or even like the Greek powers. But the foreign masters of these lands were at least European and Christian. The last class consists of powers which lie beyond the range of European and Christian civilization. These are the Turkish dynasties Turkish " dynasties. which arose within the borders of the Empire, Of these onlv the last and oreatest, the dynasty of Othman. The ^ " -^ ottomans. became geographically European, and swallowed up nearly all the lands which had belonged to the Empire in Europe, together with much which lay beyond its bounds. Here we have, not only the absence of national beino- but the rule of the Asiatic over the European, of the Mussulman over the Christian. Lastly, we come to the partial redressing of this wrong by the re-establishment of independent Greek and Slavonic The New states. States in our own century. These seem to make four natural groups, and it is needful to bear in mind their nature and relations to each other. But it will be more convenient to speak of the several states thus formed in an order approaching more nearly to the order of their separation from the Empire. And first comes a power which parted off so early, and which became so thoroughly a part of Western Europe, that it needs an effort to grasp the fact that its right place is among the powers which had their beginning in separation from the Imperial throne of Constantinople. 396 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. The Nonuau power ill Italy and Sicily. Posses- sions of the Empire in Italy. Advance of the Normans. § 2. 71ie Kinijdom of Sicily. This is tiie power which, in the course of the eleventh century, was formed by the Norman adven- turers in southern Italy and in Sicily. It was not wholly formed at the expense of the Eastern Empire. But all its insular, and the greater part of its continental, territory was either won from the Eastern Empire and its vassals, or else had once formed part of that Empire. Its kings also more than once established their power, for a longer or shorter time, in the Imperial lands east of the Hadriatic. With the Western Empire and the Kingdom of Italy the Sicilian kino-dom had in its beefinnini'S nothino- to do, thouo-h it was afterwards somewhat enlarged at their expense. When the Norman conquests in Italy began, early in the eleventh century, the Eastern Empire still kept the coast of both seas from the further side of the peninsula * of Gargano to the head of the gulf of Policastro. The Imperial duchies of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, lying to the north of this point, were cut off by the duchies of Befievento, Capua, and Salerno, over which the Empire had at the most a very pre- carious superiority. Within a hundred years, all these lands, together with the island of Sicily, were brought under Norman rule. Thus grew up a new European power, sometimes forming one kingdom, sometimes two, sometimes held alone, sometimes together with other kingdoms. This power supplanted alike the Eastern Empire, the Saracen powers of Sicily, and the Lombard princes of southern Italy. It started from two points, two distinct Norman settlements, of which KINGDOM OF SICILY. 397 the later outshone the eadier. The earUest Norman chap. X. territorial settlement was the county of Aversa, held in ^^f^ vassalage of the Imperial duchy of JSTaples. Forty years fo^aY^^' later its counts became possessed of the principality of Piind- . . -, ^ "^ . pality of Capua, of which they received a papal confirmation capua, . . . . . 10(52-1068. which implied a denial of all dependence on either Empire. The more lasting duchy of Apulia began later under the adventurers of the house of Hauteville. Their first stage is marked by the foundation of the county of county of x4.pulia, with Melji as its capital, under 1042. William of-the-Iron-arm. This took in the peninsula of Gargano and the lands immediately to the south of it. The next sta^'e" is when Leo the Ninth invested Count investiture *- by Pope Humfrey, or rather the Normans as a body, with all that ^''°> lo^s. they could conquer in Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, The first of several takings of Tarentum, and the as- sumption of the ducal title by Eobert Wiscard, marks Robert ^ "^ Wiscard another stasj'e. Less than twenty years later the Eastern Duke.ioso. '- "^ •' Comple- Empire kept nothing but the duchy of Naples ; Benevento 5J°ui°aV^'*' had passed to the Popes. The rest of the lands both of J^^^J^^' the Empire and of the Lombard princes were now Yerj unec[ually divided between two Norman lords, the Duke of Apulia and the Prince of Capua. The Byzantine power west of the Hadriatic being thus overthrown, Eobert Wiscard for the first time pushed the Norman arms into the Eastern peninsula itself. For the last Robert • 1 m c 1 Wiscard in few years of his life he held the islands of Corfu and Epeiros, _ " _ 1081-1085. Kepliallenia, with Durazzo and the coast to the south, and his power even stretched inland as far as Kastoria and Trikkala. His dominion was renewed for a moment by his son Behemund, and in the middle of the next 1147-1150. century Corfu was again for a short time held by King Roger of Sicily, 398 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Norman Conquest of Sicily, lOGlMOyi. Taking of Messina, 1061; of Palermo, 107'2 ; of Syra- . cuse, 108C; of Note, 10 '.11 ; of Malta, 1091. Palermo capital of Sicily. Roger the Second, 1105-1154. King, 1130. Capua, 1132-1136. Naples, 1138. The Abruzzi, 1140. For by that time the island of Sicily was a kingdom of Western Christend(^m. The second time of Mussul- man rule over the whole island was short. In the space of thirty years Count Eoger won the great island alike from Islam and from Eastern Christendom. Greek Messina was first won ; after a while Saracen Palermo followed ; Syracuse was won much later ; the last Saracen post in the island to hold out was Noto in the south-eastern corner. Malta, the natural appendage of Sicily, was soon added. The first Norman capital was Messina. Duke EoLert, as overlord of his brother Count Eoger, kept Palermo and the surrounding dis- trict in his own hands. It was not till the next cen- tury that the Count of Sicily won full possession of the city. Palermo then became again, as it had been under the Saracens, the head of Sicily. The ruler of Sicily also became a potentate on the Italian mainland. First the half, then the whole, of Calabria formed part of his dominions. The third Great Count, the first King, of Sicily, Eoger the Second, gradually won the whole possessions of his family on the mainland. To these he presently added the Norman principality of Capua, first as a dependent territory, then as fully incorporated with his dominions. He next won the last possession in the West which was still held by the Eastern Empire, the city of Naples. He then pressed beyond the bounds both of the Eastern Empire and of the early Norman conquests by the an- nexation of the Abruzzi. This was the only part of the Norman possessions in Italy which had Ijelonged to the Kingdom of Italy held by the Western Emperors. At this point the Western Terminus must be held to have o-one back. Eocfer next, as we have seen. SICILIAN CONQUESTS FROM THE EMPIRE. 399 extended his power for a moment east of the Hadriatic. chap. Meanwhile he was more successful ao-ainst the common ^^ — • — ' enemies of Eastern and Western Christendom. As Sicily had twice been conquered from Africa, Africa now began to l)e conquered from Sicily. Eoger held conquests a considerable dominion on the African coast, includino" 1135-1137. Meliadia, Bona, and other points, which were lost under his son William. iieo. Thus was founded a kingdom which has, perhaps, oftener than any other European state, been divided and united and handed over from one dynasty of strangers to another. In the twelfth, in the sixteenth, in the eighteentli century, Sicily, the Two Sicilies, one of the Sicilies, found a king in the Western Emperor, but neither the whole nor either of its parts was ever incorporated with the Empire. And the boundaries, strictly so called, of the kingdom have hardly changed at all. For the only immediate neighbour of the Sicilian King was his ecclesiastical overlord. The question was whether the kino- of the mainland should he also king of the island. But the successive dynasties which reic^ned Ijoth over the whole kiiio;dom and over its divided parts were for a long time eager to carry out the policy of their first founder, by conquests east of Eph-ot conquests the Hadriatic. Before the Latin takino- of Constanti- of wiiiiam ^ the Good, nople, William the Good began again to establish an n^s. Epeirot and insular dominion by the conquest of Durazzo, Coifu, Kephallenia, and Zakynthos. But these outlvin<>- dominions were granted in fief to the Sicilian Admiral Margarito,^ who, himself bearing the J/5;ff°''' ^ On this veiy singular, but very obscure, little state see our fi^*°' own Benedict (ii. 199) and Roger of Howden (iii. 161, 269), and the Ghibeline Annals of Placentia, Pertz, xix. 468. See also Hopf, Geschichte Griechenlands, vi. 161. 400 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. 1338. Epeirot dominion of Manfred, 1258. Of Charles of Anjou, 1266-69. 1272-1270. 1282. History of Durazzo, 1822. Duchy of Durazzo, 1333-1800. 1378. 1373-1380. Strange title of K'tiu) of the Epeirots^ founded a dynasty which, with the title of Count Palatine, held Kephallenia, Zakynthos, and Ithake into tlie fourteenth century. Thus these lands, Vike Cyprus and Trebizond, were cut off from the Empire just before its fall, and the revolu- tions of Sicily cut them off equally from the Sicilian kingdom. A more lasting power in these regions began under Manfred, who received, as his Greek wife's dowry, Corfu, Durazzo, and a strip of the Albanian coast, with the title of Lord of Romania. This dominion passed to his conqueror Charles of Anjou, who further established a feudal superiority over the Epeirot despotat. But the plans of Charles were cut short by the revolution of the Vespers. The Two Sicilies — to forestall the name — were now divided. Both kingdoms had to do with the lands east of the Hadriatic, but it was only the continental kingdom which kept any actual dominion there. Durazzo was lost and won more than once ; .but it came back to the Angevin house, to become a separate Angevin duchy, till it fell before the growth of the Albanian powers. Another branch held Lepanto — once Naupahtos — which lasted longer. Corfu and Butrinto became immediate possessions of the Neapolitan crown till they found more lasting masters at Venice. This Eastern dominion of the An<>eviii lords of Naples, besides the influence of both Sicilian crowns in southern Greece, of which we shall have presently to speak, tends to keep up the connexion of the Sicilian kingdoms with the Empire out of which they sprang. But it can hardly be called a geographical enlargement of the kingdoms themselves. Still less can that name be given to the short occupation of Acre by Charles of KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM. 401 Anjou in his character of one of the many Kings of ci^^p. Jerusalem. The Sicihan kino-doms themselves cannot 2^' ' be said to have gained or lost territory till Charles the by*^charies Fifth granted Malta to the Knights of Saint John, till ^jj^^^^ Philip the Second added tlie Stati degli Presidi to the H^^^f Two Sicilies. The great revolution of all has taken I'^a^'*^' place in our own day. The name of Sicily has for the first time been wiped from the European map. The island of Hieron and Eoger has sunk to form seven provinces of a prince who has not deigned to take the crown or the title of that illustrious realm. ^ 3. The Crusading States. The Sicilian kino-dom has much in common with the Compai-i- ^ ^ ^ son be- states formed by the crusaders in Asia and Eastern t^^een •^ Sicily and Europe. Both grew out of lands won by Western con- [J^^ sutes^' querors, partly from the Eastern Empire itself, partly from Mussulman holders of lands which had belonged to the Eastern Empire. But the order of the two pro- cesses is different. The Sicilian Normans began by con- quering lands of the Empire, and then went on to win the island which the Saracens had torn from the Empire. The successive (^rusades first founded Christian states in the lands which the Mussulmans had won from the Empire, and then partitioned the Empire itself. The first crusaders undertook to hold their conquest as fiefs of the Eastern Empire. This condition was only very partially carried out ; but the mere theory marks a stage in the relations between the Eastern Empire and the Latin powers of Palestine whicli has nothing answer- ing to it in the case of Sicily. First among these powers came the Kingdom of VOL. I. D D 402 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP X. Kingdom of Jeru- salem and Frank principali- ties in Syria. Cyprus. Armenia. The Cru- saders cut ofE the Mus- sulmans from the sea. Extent of the King- dom of Jerusalem. Tripolis. Antioch. 610. 968. Jerusalem and the other Frank princi})alities which arose out of the first crusade. The kingdom of Cyprus^ which in some sort continued the kingdom of Jeru- salem, forms a Hnk between the true crusading states and those which arose out of the partition of the Em- pire in the fourth crusade. And closely connected with this was the kino-dom of Kilikian Armenia whose foundation we have already mentioned,^ This last was an Eastern state which became to some extent latinized. But Cyprus, the Syrian states, and the Latin powers which arose out of the partition of the Empire, all agree in being colonies of Western Europe in Eastern lands, states where the Latin settlers appear as a domi- nant race over the natives, of whatever blood or creed. The great geographical result of the first crusade was to cut off the Mussulman powers from the seas of Asia and Eastern Europe. In the first years of the twelfth century the Christian powers, Byzantine, Armenian, and Latin, held the whole coast of Asia Minor and Syria. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, at its greatest extent, stretched along the coast from Berytos to Gaza. To the east it reached some way beyond Jordan and the Dead Sea, with a strip of territory reaching southward to the eastern gulf of the Eed Sea. To the north lay two Latin states which, in the days of Komnenian revival, acknowledged the superiority of the Eastern Emperor. These were the county of Tripolis, reaching northwards to the Syrian Alexan- dretta, and the more famous principality of Antioch. That great city, lost to Christendom in the first days of Saracen conquest, won back to the Empire in the Macedonian revival, lost to the Turk, won back by the ^ See above, p. 382. CYPRUS AND ARMENIA. 40 r> Frank, remained a Christian principality long after the chap. fall of Jerusalem, and did not pass again under ,~— — - — • ^ *^ 1081. Mussulman rule till late in the thirteenth century, ioqs. North-east of Antioch lay the furthest of the Latin ^^^^' possessions, the inland county of Edessa. This was the Edessa. first to be lost ; it fell under the power of the Turkish 1128-1173. Attabeo's of Syria. They cut short the kingdom of Loss of the Jerusalem, taking away the territory east of Jordan, beyoud . . *" . , . Jordan. On their rum arose a mightier power of Saladin, lord alike of Egypt and Syria. He took Jerusalem, and the Jerusalem kin£^dom which still bore that name was cut down to Saiadin, ^ 1187. the lands just round Tyre. The crusades which followed won back Acre and various points, and at last the diplomacy of Frederick the Second won back from the Egyptian Sultan Tyre, Sidon, and the Holy City Jerusalem itself, A strip of coast running inland at two points, byFre- so as to take in Tiberias and Nazareth at one end, second, 1228. Jerusalem and Bethlehem at the other, formed the Eastern realm of the lord of Eome and Sicily. Lost 1239-1243. and won again by the Christians, Jerusalem was finally of Jerusa- . . ' lem,.1241. won for Islam by the invasion of the Chorasmians from the shores of the Caspian. But for nearly fifty years longer the points on the coast were lost and won, as the Mussulman powers or fresh crusaders from Europe had the upper hand. With the fall of Acre. Fail of . . . , . Acre, 12'.)1. the Latin dominion on the Syrian mainland came to an end. The land won ])y the Western Christians from the Mussulman went back to the disciples of the Pro- phet. The land won by the Western Christian from the Eastern, and tlie land where the Eastern Christian still maintained his independence, held out longer. These were the kuigdoms of Cyprus and Armenia. The frontier of Cyprus liardl}^ admitted of geographical Cyprus. D D 2 404 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Famagosta Genoese. Connexion between Cyprus and Jerusalem. Armenia acknow- ledges the Western Emperor, 1190. 1342. Connexion between Armenia and Cyprus, 1.393. End of Armenia and Cyprus, 1489. rliaii»jfe, unless it was when, for a part of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the city and haven of Famagosta passed to Genoa. The kings of Cyprus however claimed the crown of Jerusalem, and sometimes, before the whole Syrian coast was lost, they really held this or that piece of territory on the mainland. Meanwhile the Armenian kino'dom in some sort entered the Western world, when its kinof, after receivino" one confirmation from the Eastern Emperor, thought it wise to receive another from the Western Emperor also. The kingdom, though sadly cut short by its Mussulman neiahbours, lived on under native princes till the middle of the fourteenth century. Then the fragments of the kingdom passed, first to a branch of the Cypriot royal family, and then to the reigning king of Cyprus. But the first joint reign was the last. The remnant of independent Armenia was swallowed up by the Mameluke lords of Syria, while Cyprus lingered on till Saint Mark and his common- wealth became the heirs of its last king. The kingdom of Cyprus forms a link between the Latin states in Syria and those which arose in Eomania after the crusading capture of Constantinople. And these Prankprin- last again fall into two classes. There are the Frank cipalities in . .'^ ^ . . . -> rn principalities on the mainland of Greece, and there are the lands, chiefly insular, which fell to the lot of the maritime commonwealths of the West and of their citizens. Amono- these the first ijlace belono-s to the o^reat commonwealth which had now cast off all traces of allegiance to the Empire. Genoa, which had no share in the original partition of the Empire, obtained several points of Imperial territory, both for the com- monwealth itself and for particular Genoese citizens. Greece. Posses- sions of the maritime common wealths. Genoa. POSITION OF VENICE. 405 But the part played by Genoa in the East is small chap. beside the great and abiding dominion of ^^enice. Xo ^fce! result of the partition was greater than the field which it gave to Venetian growth. The position of the compari- son be- two commonwealths is different. Genoa was a mere tween the two. stranger in the East ; ^'enice was in a manner at home. Once an outlying j)ossession of the Empire, her really great historical position is due to her share in its over- throw. ^ 4. The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa. We have already seen the origin of the Venetian state, and its position as an outlying member of the Eastern Empire which gradually became an indepen- dent power without any formal act of separation. The beginning of Venetian rule over the Slavonic coasts of the Hadriatic dates from the time when Venice was still undoubtedly a city of the Empire. Her first conquests 997. at the end of the tenth century, conquests which gave her chiefs the style of Dukes of Venice and Dalmatia, involved no casting aside of the Imperial superiority.^ But the Eastern dominion of Venice had now bes'un, and the full developement of that dominion was incon- sistent with the supremacy, or indeed with the existence, connexion of the Empire. In a strictly o-eoi?raphical view, her Dalmatian ^ _ . . and Greek Istrian and Dalmatian dominion cannot be separated ^o™""5 ■■• of V em from her Albanian and purely Greek dominion. Venice could not become a great European power till she passed from the Slavonic lands whose connexion with the Empire was nominal or precarious into the Albanian ^ See the Venetian Chronicle in Pertz, viii. 29, 32. After the Venetian conquest the Duke's name is placed after that of the Emperor in religious ceremonies. ion enicc. i06 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, and Greek lands which were amono* its immediate X. ^ . . Eff^cToT" possessions. Her greatness dates from that partition of tion^on^' ^^^® Empire which was the surest proof that she had Venice. wholly cast aside her Byzantine allegiance. From this point of view the history of Venice may be compared Compaii- and contrasted with tlie liistory of Sicily. In each tween casc, a part of the dominions of the Eastern Eome Venice antl Sicily. grew mto a separate power ; that power passed, so to speak, from Eastern Europe to Western, and, in its new Western character, it appeared as a conqueror in the Eastern lands. But, as Venice and Sicily parted from the Empire in different ways, so their later relations to the Empire were widely different. The Sicilian state began in actual conquests made by foreign invaders at the expense of the Empire. Venice was a dependency of the Empire which gradually drifted into indepen- dence. Thus Sicily became more thoroughly Western than Venice. The attempts of the kings, both of the whole Sicilian kingdom and of its divided parts, to establish an Eastern dominion were attacks from with- venice out, and wcrc not really lasting. But Venice, whose inherits , . the posi- ]3rinces were lords of one fourth and one eighth of the tion of the "^ Empire. Empire of Eomania,^ took up in some sort the position of the Empire itself. If she destroyed one bulwark against the Mussulman, she set up another and a more lasting one. The true scene of Venetian power was the East, and in the East her true sphere of enterprise was primarily the Hadriatic, and next to that, the coasts ai.d islands of the ^o-a3an She remained both a Dalmatian and a ' It is well to see this familiar title in Greek. The Duke {8ovi Bcvertas) was SetrTrortKw d^tw/Aart Ttyity^^et?, €)^£lv T€ i^ o\ov Trpos to oXov o TO Twv ^pdyKwv iKTrjaaTo yeVos to TeTapTov Koi to9 TeTapTov to ■^fiLcrv. George Akropolites, 15. ed. Bonn. OUTLYING POSSESSIONS OF VENICE. 407 Greek power down to the moment of lier overtlirow, chap. and, at the moment of her overthrow, it was not eii>"htv t'; T- ' years since she had ceased to be a Peloponnesian and ^l.^mLtiai!* an ^gsean power. The Greek dominion of Venice ^'"^ ^''®''^'' was an enlargement of her Dahnatian dominion. The fourth crusade was the turning-j^oint in her history. It is sio-nificant that Zara was taken — not for the first Taking of ^ _ Zara, 1202. or the last time — on the way to the taking of Constan- tinople. Already mistress, or striving to be mistress, Hadriatic ^ dominion of the northern part of the eastern coast of the Hadriatic, of Venice. the partition of the Empire opened to Venice the hope of becoming mistress of the southern part. Mistress of the whole coast she never was at any one moment ; one point was gained and another lost. But extension in those lands was steadily aimed at for more than seven hundred years, and the greater part of the eastern Hadriatic coast has been, at one time or another, under Venetian rule. This mission of Venice was fully recognized in the scheme of partition of the Eastern Empire. She was to be mistress of the Hadriatic and Ionian seas. To her Territory 1 1 • 1 1 /Y> assigned to were assiojned, not only the islands on the west coast of Venice by .^ -^ . the Act of the Empire, but the whole western coast itself, from tlie Partition. north of Albania to the southern point of Peloponnesos. She was to have some points in the ^Egaaan, among them Oreos and Karystos at the two ends ofEuboia. But she was also to have a large continental dominion. She was to have her quarter of the capital, with a Thracian and an Asiatic dominion, including, according to some ver- sions, the strange allotment of Lazia at the east of the Euxine.^ The actual possessions of Venice in the East ' If this is what is really meant by Laza or Lacta in the Act of Partition. JMuratori, xii. 357. 408 THE EASTERN EMriRE. CHAP. X. 1 ' Her actual posses- sions. Her dominion primarily Hadriatic. Posses- sions not assigned by the partition, Crete. 1206-1669. 1645-1669. Acquisi- tion of Cyprus, 1189. Loss of Cyprus, 1571. Occupation of Thessa- lonike, 1426-1430. have a very diflerent look. Much of the territory which was assigned to the repubhc never became hers, while she obtained large possessions which were not assigned to her. But the main point, the dominion of the Hadriatic, was never forgotten, though some both of her earliest and of her latest conquests lay beyond its necessary range. Among those possessions of Venice which were not assigned to her in the act of partition was her greatest and most lasting possession of all, the island of Crete. This she won almost at the first moment of the conquest, and she kejDt it for more than four centuries and a half, till the war of Candia handed over all Crete, save two fortresses, to the Ottoman. Before this loss. Saint Mark had won and lost another great island which lay alto- gether beyond the scheme of the Latin conquerors of Constantinople. Late in the fifteenth century the republic succeeded the Latin kings in the possession of Cyprus. But this was held for less than a century. Cyprus, hke Crete and Sicily, was a special scene of struggle between European and barbarian powers. But it shared the fate, not of Sicily but of Crete, and became the solid prize of the Ottoman, when Christendom won the barren laurels of Lepanto. Another possession which lay out of the usual course of Venetian dominion was the short occupation of Tltessalonike. Bought of a Greek despot, it was after four years taken by the Turk. Had Thessalonike been kept, it might have passed as a late compensation to the republic for the early loss of Hadrianople and her other Thracian territory. The short Venetian possession of Thessalonike, the DALMATIAN POSSESSIONS. 4 09 longer possession of Cyprus, stand apart in time and chap. place from that more nearly continuous Venetian — — dominion in the Hadriatic and the ^gean, of which Crete may be fairly looked on as the most distant point. The early stages of that dominion cannot be kept apart from the story of the Slavonic lands on the Hadriatic. The states of Servia and Croatia were from the beo'in- ning the inland neighbours of the Dalmatian coast cities. The river Tzettina may pass as the boundary between the Servian and Croatian states. Paqania on the Servian ^ districts on Narenta, Zachloumia between the Narenta and Eagusa, tiie coast. Terbounia, represented by the modern Trebinje, the coast district of the Canali, DioUea, taking in the modern Montenegro with the coast as far as the Drin — Skodra or Scutari on its lake, the harbours of Spizza, Antivari, and Dulcigjio, were all originally Servian. The Dalmatian coast cities, Dekatera or Cattaro, The Dal- matian Raousion or Eagusa, Tragourion or Tixiii, Diadora, ^^'^'^s. Jadera, or Zara, formed a Eoman fringe on what had become a Slavonic body. It was not even a continuous fringe, as the Slaves came down to the sea at more than one point. Pagania above all, the land of the heathen Pagania. Narentines, cut Eoman Dalmatia into two marked parts. It even took in most of the o-reat islands, Curzola — The IsUmcls. once Black Korkyra — Meleda, Lesina — once Pharos — and others. At the separation of the two Empires the Croatian power was strongest in those lands. The wars of Charles the Great left the coast cities to the Croatia under Eastern Empire, while inland Dalmatia and Croatia SJg^o^eat passed under Frankish rule. Presently Croatia won its ""''~"^°- independence of the Western Empire, while the (^oast 825-830. cities were practically lost by the Eastern. Tender Basil settlement ■•■ J J under the Macedonian the Imperial authority was admitted, in ^*^'' ^-''^ 410- THE EASTERN EMPIIIE. CHAP. X. ^~— Tl — Macedo- nian, 868-«78. First Venetian conquest, 995-997. The cities under Croatia, 1052. Dalmatian Kingdom, 1062. Magyar Kingdom of Croatia, 1091; of Dalmatia, 1102. Croatia and Dalmatia restored to the Em- l^ire, 1171. Dalmatia passes to Hungary. Sti-uggle for the dominion of Dalma- tia. lull lie at least, both by the cities and 1)y the Croatian prince. More than a century later came the first Venetian conquest, which destroyed the pagan power on the Narenta and was looked on at Venice as a deliverance of the cities from Croatian rule. The pagan power on the jSTarenta was destro3^ed, and the Duke of Venice took the title of Duke of Dalmatia. But all this involved no formal separation from the Empire.^ Such a separation may be held to have taken place in the middle of the next century, when the cities again passed under Croatian rule, and when the taking of the title of King of Dalmatia by the Croatian Kresimir may pass for an assertion of complete inde- pendence. But the kingdoms, first of Croatia, then of Dalmatia, were presently swallowed up ]:)y the growing power of the Magyar. Then comes a time in which this city and that passes to and fro between Venice and Hungary. Under Manuel Komnenos the whole of Croatia and Dalmatia was fully restored to tlie Empire ; but ten years later the cities again passed to Hungary. This was their final separation from the Empire, and by this time Venice had thrown off all Byzantine alle- giance. From this time the history of Croatia forms part of the history of the Hungarian kingdom. The history of Dalmatia becomes part of the long struggle of Venice for Hadriatic dominion. For five hundred years the cities and islands of the whole Hadriatic coast were lost and won over and over again in the strifes of the powers ^ But we see how slight was the real hold of the Empire on these distant dependencies, when we find that, on the submission of Croatia and Dalmatia to Basil the Macedonian, the tribute of the cities was assigned to the Croatian prince. HISTORY OF COEFU. 411 of the inainland. These were in Dahiiatia the Huno-a- chap. rian and Bosnian Kings ; more to the south they were ^ — • — the endless powers which rose and fell in Albania and northern Greece. In after times the Ottoman took the place of all. And many of the cities were able, amid the disputes of their stronger neighbours, to make themselves independent commonwealths for a longer or shorter time. iia' C? O tT* Cj O t^ islands. But, during the hundred and eighty years between the two occupations, the main fields of Vene- tian action lay more to the north and more to the south. The Greek acquisitions of the Republic at this time were in Peloponnesos and the JEgsssm islands. On the mainland she won, at the very beginning of Latin settlement in the East, the south-western penin- sula of Peloponnesos, with the towns of Methone and Modon and i^ovone — otlierwisc Jlodon and Goron — which she held Coron, 1206. £qj. j^garly three hundred years. Among the ^gasan islands Venice began very early to win an influence History of \Yi the oTeatcst of their number, that of Euboia, often Euboia. & ' ' disguised under the specially barbarous name of Negropont} The history of that island, the endless shiftings between its Latin lords and the neighbouring- powers of all kinds, is the most perplexed part of the perplexed Greek history of the time. Venice, mixed up ^ Negroj)onte — a wild corruption of Euripos — is strictly the name of one of the Latin baronies in Euboia, and has been care- lessly transferred to the whole island, as Crete used often to be called Candia. \_JVegro-ponte was a ' popular etymology ' from ston Egripon, suggested by the bridge at Ohalcis.] GREEK POSSESSIONS OF VENICE. 413 in its affairs tlirougliout, obtained in the end complete chap. possession, but not till after the second occupation of c^ipietT Corfu. The island was kept till the Turkish conquest of Euboil" eighty years later. Several other islands were held by ^^^^^.-^-^^ the Eepublic at different times. Of these Tenos and £3','*°^ Mykonos were not finally lost till Venice was in the Lols'ofthe eighteenth century confined to the western seas, ^\&nd^. Between the first and the second occupation of Corfu, the Venetian power in Dalmatia had risen and fallen a^ain. By the peace of Zara, Lewis the Great of Peace of , Zara, 1358. Hungary shut out Venice altogether from the Dalma- tian coasts, and, as Dalmatian Kino- he required the Daimatia . . . . . Hunga- Venetian Duke to give up his Dalmatian title. Later ''*^- in the centurv Venice ao'ain o-ained sTOund, and her New ^ ^ . advance of Dalmatian, Albanian, and Greek possessions began to Venice. draw near together, and to form one whole, though 1378-1455. never a continuous whole. In the space of about eighty years, amid many fluctuations towards Hungary, Bosnia, and Genoa — a new claimant called into rivalry by the war of Chioogia — Venice ao-ain became mistress Recovery of the greater part of Dalmatia. Some districts how- "^atia. ever formed part of the duchy of Saint Sava, and Hun- gary kept part of the inland territory with the fortress of Clissa. The point where the Hadriatic coast turns nearly due south may be taken as the boundary of the lasting and nearly continuous dominion of the Eepublic ; but for the present the Venetian power went on spread- Advance in • r\ ^ 1 • Albania mff far south 01 that ponit. On the second occupation and ... , . Greece, of Corfu followed the acquisition of Dtirazzo, Alessio, 1^92. and of the Albanian Skodra or Scutari. Butrinto and i^oi. the ever memorable Parya put themselves under Vene- 1407. tian protection, and Lepanto was ceded by a Prince of Achaia. Li Peloponncsos the Messenian towns were isss. 414 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, still held, and to them were now added Argos and its X. port of NaupUa, known in Italian as Napoli di Romania. 1408-1413. Patras was held for a few years, Monembasia was won. 1419. 1423. ^^^^ the isle of Aigina, which might almost pass for part of Peloponnesos. On the other side of Greece, the possession of Corfu led to the acquisition of the other so- ^•le called Ionian Islands. The prince of Kephallenia, of Zak- Western ^ j ^ ui9^^' ynthos or Zante, and of Leukadia or Santa Maura., found it to his interest, for fear of the advancing Ottoman, to put his dominions under the oveiiordship of Saint Mark. Venice the Tliis luarks an epoch in the history of Venice and champion . , . „ ^-^, . , against the of Eui'ope. Tlic championsliip or Christendom ao-amst Turk. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ the Turk now passes from the New Eome to the hardly less Byzantine city in the Lagoons. The short occupa- tion of Thessalonike mav pass for the beoinnino' of the struggle. Later in the fifteenth century, Venice and the Turk were meeting at every point. In Pelopon- Loss of nesos, Argos was first lost to the Turk ; at the same Ai'gos, 1463. moment he appeared far to the north, and gradually occupied the Bosnian and Hungarian districts of Dal- 1505-1699. matia. Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies the inland districts and the smaller towns were lost over and over again, but the Eepublic always kept the chief coast cities, Zara, Sebenico, and Spalato. Losses of Meanwhile, to the south of Dalmatia, the Venetian power Venice. went back everywhere, except in the western islands. 1474-1478. On the mainland Croja, the city of Scanderbeg, was held for a while. But both Croja and Skodra were won by Mahomet the Conqueror, and the treaty which ended this war left to the Eepuljlic nothing on the coast of 1479. Albania and Xorthern Greece, save Darazzo, Antivari, and Butrinto. The treaty which followed the next war VENICE AND THE OTTOMANS. 41.^ took awa}' Durazzo, Butrinto, and Lepanto. A series chap. of revolutions in the islands of which the Eepublic iT^'""" already held the overlordship placed them under her The ^ ^ _ Western immediate dominion, to be struo-o-led for against the Jf^^"^^- „ '-'-' *- 1481—1483. Turk. By the next peace Zahynthos was kept, on pay- 1435. ment of a tribute to the Sultan ; Kephallenia passed to the Turk, to be won back seventeen years later, and 1502. then to be permanently kept. Leukadia was at the same 1502-1504. time won for a moment and lost again. In Peloponnesos Loss of the Pelopon- Modon and Koron were lost along' with Durazzo and nesian ■^^ fortresses, Lepanto, and the great naval war with Suleiman cost the 1-502. Eepublic her last Peloponnesian possessions, Nauplia and ijio. Monembasia, together with all her ^Egsean islands, except Tenos and Mykonos. The victory of Lepanto leaves its mark in geography only by the loss of the Greek island of Cyprus and the Albanian city of Antivari. The strictly Greek dominion of Venice was now for a hundred and forty years confined to the islands, and, after the loss of Cyprus and Crete, almost wholly to the western islands. But after the loss of Crete came a revival of the Venetian power, like one of the old revivals of the Empire. The great campaigns of Francesco Morosini, Venetian confirmed by the peace of Carlowitz, freed all Pelo- Peiopon- ponnesos from the Turk, and added it to the dominion leso-ieoo. of Saint Mark. The same treaty confirmed Venice in the possession of the greater part of Dalmatia. The next war cost her the whole of Peloponnesos, her two Cretan for- Loss of tresses, and her two remaining jEga3an islands. She n^'sos,^ now withdrew wholly to the western side of Greece, where she had again won Leukadia and Butrinto, and had enlarged her dominion by the acquisition of Prevesa. During tlie last century the Venetian posses- 1715-1718. 4116 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. • Extent of Venetian dominion in Greece in the last centui-y. Venetian territory in Dalmatia. Ragusan frontier. sions ill Greece consisted of the seven so-called Ionian islands, with the continental posts of Butrinto, Prevesa, and Parga. The Dalmatian territory of the Eepnblic during the same time consisted of a coiisideral)le inland district in the north-east, and of the whole coast down to Budua^ except where the territory of independent Eagusa broke the continuity of her rule. Eagusa was so jealous of the mightier commonwealth that she pre- ferred the Turk as a neighbour. At two points of the coast, at Kleh at the bottom of the gulf formed by the long peninsula of Sabbioncello, and again at Sutorma on the Bocche, the Ottoman territory came down to the sea, so as to isolate the dominion of Eagusa from the Venetian possessions on either side. Meleda and the smaller islands near Eagusa were part of the Eagusan territory ; the others, great and small, Curzola, once Black Korkyra, Lesina, once Pharos, and the rest, were Venetian. Such were the relations of the two Hadriatic commonwealths down to the days when, first Venice and then Eagusa, passed away. Posses- Meanwhile, besides the direct possessions of the Venetian Venetian commonwealth, there were other lands within families. if. n • • ^ the former dominions of the Eastern Empire which were held by Venetian lords, as vassals either of the Eepublic or of the Empire of Eomania. It would be endless to trace out the revolutions of every ^gasan island ; but one among the few which claim our notice became the seat of a dynasty which proved, next to the Venetian commonwealth itself, the most long-liyed Latin power The Duchy ill tlic Grcck woiid. This is the duchy variously or ^\ fixoQ known as that of JVa.vos, of the Dodekannesos, and GREEK POSSESSIONS OF GENOA. 417 of the Archipela^/o, the barbarous name given to the chap. j3Ega3an or White Sea} Founded in the early years y^ — > of Latin settlement by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, the 1207. island duchy lived on as a Latin state, commonly as a vassal or tributary state of some greater power, till the last half of the sixteenth century. Shorn of many of isee. its islands by its Ottoman overlord, granted afresh to Annexed a Jewish duke, it passed thirteen years later under Turk, 1579. the immediate dominion of the Sultan. Most of the Kyklades were either parts of this duchy or fiefs held of it by other Venetian families. All came into the hands 1017. of the Turk ; but some of the very smallest remained merely tributary, and not fully annexed, into the seventeenth century. The year which saw the Naxian duchy pass from settle- ments of Latin to Hebrew hands saw the fall of the most remark- cienoa and of Genoese able of the Genoese settlements in the Greek lands, citizens. These settlements, like those of Venice, formed two classes, those which were possessions of the Genoese commonwealth itself and those which came into the hands of Genoese citizens. Genoa had no share in the fourth crusade ; she had therefore no share in the division of the Empire, though, after the restoration of Byzantine rule, her colony of Galata made her almost i304. a sharer in the capital of the Empire. But the seat of direct Genoese dominion in the East was not tliejEga3an Posses- sions of but the Euxine. On the southern coast of that sea the Genoa, on thfEuxine, republic held Amastris and Amisos, and in the Tauric ii*5i- Cliersonesos was her great colony of Kaffa. The Euxine dominion of Genoa came to an end during the 1475. ^ "Aairprj OdXaa-cru., as distinguished from the Euxine, the fiavpr) Odkaaa-a. VOL. I. E E 418 THE EASTEIIN EMrillE. CHAP. X. Lesbos. 1354-1462. The Zaccaria at Chios. 1304-134(!. The Maona. 1346-15(U). 1566. latter half of the fifteenth century; but it outlived the Empires both of Constantinople and of Trebizond. The ^Eo'ojan dominion of the citizens of Genoa was longer lived than the Euxine dominion of Genoa her- self. The family of Gattilusio received Lesbos as an Imperial fief in the fourteenth century, and kept it till after the fall of Constantinople. But the most remark- able Genoese settlement in the ^Eo-jean was that of Chios. First held by princes of the Genoese house of Zaccaria, the island, with some of its neighbours, passed into the hands of a Genoese commercial company, or Maona., a body somewhat like our own East India Company. Samos, Kos, and Pkokaia on the mainland, came at different times under their power, and Chios did not fall under the Ottoman yoke till the same year as the duchy of Naxos. Eevolu- tioiis of Rhodes. 1233. 1246. 1249. One more insular dominion remains, chiefl}^ famous as the possession, not indeed of a commonwealth, but of an order. In a few years of the thirteenth century the island of Rhodes passed through all possible revolu- tions. In the first moment of the Latin conquest, it became an independent Greek principality, like Epeiros and Trebizond. Then it admitted the overlordship of the Mcene Emperors. Seized by Genoa, it was pre- sently won back to the Empire, till seventy years later it was again seized by the Knights of Saint John. From Rhodes as a centre, the order established its Knights!'"" dominion over Kos and some other islands, and on some 1315 points of the Asiatic coast, especially their famous fortress of Ilalikarnassos . They ])eat back Mahomet the 1480 Conqueror, but they yielded to Suleiman the Lawgiver 1522. forty years later. Driven from Ehodes, the order re- Estabhsh- THE DUCHY OF ATHENS. 419 ceived Malta from Charles the Fifth as a fief of his chap. X. Sicilian kino-dom. We are thus broiio-ht back to the -— ^. • — - ~ '-' Their re- island which had been lost to the Eastern Empire for ™oj^^i t^ seven hundred years. The knio'hts in their new home ^■''■'°- 1500. beat back their former conqueror Suleiman, and kept their island till the tiuies of confusion. Held hv Revoin- France, held by England, held, nominally at least, by m^^L? its own Sicihan overlord, this fragment of the Empire of Leo and of the kiniixlom of Roofer finally passed at the isit. peace under the acknowledged rule of England. § 0. The^ Principalities of tJie Greek Mainland. The Greek possessions of Venice, of Genoa, and of the Kniolits of Saint John, consisted mainly of islands and detached points of coast. The Venetian conquest of Peloponnesos was the only exception on a great scale. In this they are distinguished from the several powers, Greek and Frank, which arose on the Greek mainland. We have already heard, and we shall hear again, of the Greek despotat of Epeiros, which for a moment grew into an Empire of Thessalonike. Among the Latin powers two rose to European importance. These are the darky of Atliens in central Greece — in Hellas, Ducbyof '^ ^ ^ Athens. accordina" to the Byzantine nomenclature — and the principality of Achaia or Morea in Peloponnesos. This Pimci- last name^ has come to be a modern name of the Adiaia. ^ [The origin of the name ^forea {rj Mopia or o Mope'as) vvas for a long time a perplexing riddle, and several impo.ssible derivations were proposed. Hatzidakis has shown {Bi/zantiuische Zeitschri/t, ii. 28.3 §qq.) that it meant mulberry-land. It originally designated Elis, where mulberries were cultivated for the silk industry, and afterwards received a wider signification, though it may be (jnestioned whether (as is suggested in the text) it was used of the Principality, before it cams to be used of the Peloponnesos.] E E 2 420 TlIK EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Use of the name Morea, Lordship of Athens. 1204-1205. The Ducliv. 12CU." The Cata- lan con- quest, loll. The Sici- lian Dukes. Dukes of the house of Acciauoli. 1390. peninsula itself. l"5iit the name of Morea seems strictly to belong to the domain lands of the prin- cipality, and never to go beyond the bounds of the principality, which at no time took in the whole of Pelopoimesos. Both these powers were founded in the first days of the Lathi conquest, and the Turk did not finally annex the territories of either till after the fall of Constan- tinople. But while the Athenian duchy lived on to become itself the prize of Mahomet the Ccmqueror, the lands of the Achaian principality had already gone back into Greek hands. The lordship of Athens, founded by Otho de la Eoche, was first a fief of the kingdom of Thessalonike, then of the Empire of Romania. But it was bv the OTant of Saint Lewis of France that the title of Great Lord ^ was exchanged for that of Duhe. The duchy fell into the hands of the Catalan Great Company, who in central Greece grew from mere ravagers into territorial occupiers. They had already occuj^ied the Thessalian land of Neopatra, and they transferred the nominal title of Duke of Atliens and Neopatra to princes of the Sicilian branch of the House of Aragon. Thus the two claimants of the Sicilian crown were brought face to face on old Greek ground. The duchy next passed to the Florentine house of Acciauoli, which already held Corinth, Megara, Sikyon, and the greater part of Argolis. But their Peloponnesian dominion passed to the Byzantine lords of the peninsula, and Xeopatra fell into the hands of the Turk. The Athenian duchy itself, taking in Attica and Boiotia, lived on, the vassal in turn of the Angevin king at Xaples, of the 1 Grand Sire, Megashjr, = /Ae'yas Ku'pios. See Nikephoros Gre- goras, vii. 5, vol. i. p. 239. THE PRINCIPALITY OF ACHAIA. 421 Greek despot of Pelopoiinesos, and of the Ottoman chap. Sultan. Annexed at last to the Ottoman domhiions, • — ^^ — Athens remained in bondag-e till our own day, save conquest. •^ 1450-14G0. only two momentary occupations by Venice, one soon .^ifter the first conquest, the other in the great war of i466. Morosini. les?. The smaller principalities of Salona (the ancient saiwia and Amphissa) and Bodonitza play their part in the ^°'^°"'*^^''- history of the Athenian duchy ; but we turn to the -chief Latin power of Peloponnesos, the principality TiiePnuei- of Acliaia. The shiftings of its dj^nasties and feudal -"^chaia, relations are endless ; its geographical history is simpler. The peninsula was, at the time of the Latin conquest, already beginning to fall away from the Empire. King- Boniface of Thessalonike had to win the land from its 1205. 'Greek lord Leon Sgouros. The princes of the house of Ghamplitte and Villehardouin were his vassals. They had to struggle with the Venetian settlement in Messenia, and with the Greek despot of Epeiros, who, -oddly enough, held Corinth, Argos, and Nauplia. These last towns were won by the Latins, and became 1210-1212. an Achaian fief in the hands of Otho of Athens. Before the end of half a century, the conquest of the itsgi-eatest whole peninsula, save the Venetian possessions, was 1218. •completed Ijy the taking of Monembasia. Things looked as if, now that the Latin power was waning at Constantinople, a stronger Latin power had arisen in Peloponnesos. A crowd of Greek lands, Zakynthos, Naxos, Euboia, Athens, even Epeiros and Thessalonike, acknowledged at one time or another the supremacy -of Achaia. But Latin Acliaia, like Latin Con- stantinople, had to yield to revived Greek energy. 422 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Recovery o{ lands in IV'lopon- nt'sos by tlieEmpire. 1'2(;'2. Angevin overlord- slii)i. 1278. Disiiiem- bevment of the princi- pality, 1337. 1356. 1358. Byzantine advance. 1343-1348. 1381. 1387. 1442. Patras. 1430. Conquests of Constan- tine Palaio- logos. 1458-1460. Successive Turkish conquests of Pelopon- nC-sos. The Empire won back the three Laceda3iiioiiian fortresses,^ and presently made Kalahryta in northern Arkadia a Greek ontpost. Here the Greek advance stopped for a while. Before the end of the century the Frank principality lost its independence. It passed into vassalage to the Angevin crown, and was held, sometimes by the Xeapolitan kings themselves, sometimes by princes of their house — some of them nominal Emperors of Ro- mania — sometimes by princes of Savoy, who carried the Achaian name into Northern Italy.^ In the course of the fourteenth century the principality crumbled away. Patras became an ecclesiastical principality under the overlordship of the Pope of the Old Eome. Argos and its port became a separate lordship. Both of these passed for a longer or a shorter time under the power of Venice. Corinth and the north-east corner of the peninsula passed to the Acciauoli. Meantime the Byzantine province grew. For some while, under despots of the house of Kantakouzenos, it might almost pass for an indepen- dent Greek state. Notwithstandino- the inroads of the Navarrese, the second Spanish invaders of Greece, and the first appearance of the Ottoman, the Greek power advanced, till it took in all Peloponnesos save the Venetian towns and included Patras. The last Constantine even appeared as a conqueror at Athens and in central Greece. Then came more Ottoman inroads, dismemberment, Albanian colonization, final annexation by the Turk. But the last conqueror has been twice driven to conquer Peloponnesos afresh. The first revolt under Venetian support was crushed a ^ See above, p. 390. ^ See above, p. 283. THE DESPOT AT OF EPEIROS. 423 few years after the first conquest. Then the Turk chap. gradually gathered in the Venetian ports, and the — -■- — ' 1 1 • f, ^ r • ^ 1463-1540. whole peninsula was his, save so far a,s Jlaina kept on ^^^^ a kind of wild independence almost down to the last loss. Venetian conquest. The complete and unbroken pos- session of all Peloponnesos by the Ottoman has never filled up the whole of an\' one centuiT. We have seen how the despotat of Epeiros parted Despotatof away from the momentary Empire of Thessalonike. The despots, like their neighbours, often found it con- venient to acknowledge the oveiiordship of some other power, Venice,' Nikaia, Sicily, or Acliaia. The boun- daries of their dominions were greatly cut short by the advance of the restored Empire and by the cessions to Manfred of Sicily. A state was left which took in old Dismem- Epeiros, Akarnania, and Aitolia, save the points on the oTthe" coast which were held by other powers. Arta, the old '?^° Ambrakia, was, as in the days of Pyrrhos, its head. 1271-1318. Another branch reigned in Great Vlachia or Thessaly, 1309. with its capital at Neopatra, a capital presently lost to the Catalan invaders. Next the greater part of Thessaly, isis. and then Epeiros itself, were recovered by the Empire, laso. and then all gradually passed under the Servian power. Servian On the break-up of that })0wer came a time of utter 1331-1^55. confusion and endless shiftings, which has however one marked feature. The Albanian race now comes fully Advance to the front. Albanian settlers press into all the Albanians. southern lands, and Albanian principalities stand forth on a level with those held by Greek and Latin lords. The chief Albanian power which arose within the Kings of Albania of bounds of the despotat was the house of Tkopia in the house ^ f , of Thopia, northern Epeiros. They called themselves Kinqs oj 135S-1302. 4:>4 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. €HAP. X. 1366. Sei vian dynasty in Epeiros. 1359. 1368. Kinsdom of Thes- saly. Turkish conquest. 1303. 1396. Buondel- monti in Northern Epeiros. The house of Tocco. 1357. 1362. 1394. 1405-1418. Albania ; they won Durazzo Iroiu the Anoevins, and their power lasted till that duchy passed to Venice. To the south of them, in southern Epeiros, Akarnania, and Ait(Mia, reigned a Servian dynasty, a fragment of the great Servian Empire of which we shall presently have to speak ; its prince Stephen Urosh, who bore an imperial style, added Thessal}^ to his dominions. His western dominion passed from him. A Servian despot ruled at Joannina, and an Albanian despot at Arta. But Thessalv went on as a kingdom, a kingdom which was the first Hellenic land to pass under the power of the Turk. It took in the greater part of the land anciently so called, all except Neopatra which was attached to Athens, Pteleon which was held by Venice, and Zeitouni which remained to the Empire. Xeopatra and Saloiia followed, and the Ottoman power stretched to the Corinthian gulf, and parted asunder the still independent states of Western Greece from Attica and Peloponnesos. In Epeiros the Servian and Albanian despots had both to yield to Italian princes. Northern Epeiros passed to the Florentine house of Buondelmonte. To the south arose a d3aiasty of greater interest, the Bene- ventan house of Tocco, the last independent princes in Western Greece, They first, as connts palatine, held Kephallenia and Zakynthos as a fief of the Latin Em- pire. Then they won Leukadia with the ducal title. Thev next began a continental dominion, first for a moment in Peloponnesos, then more lastingly in the lands near their island duchy. Duke Charles of Leukadia gradually won all Epeiros save the Venetian posts ; and he, his wife, and his heirs bore the titles of Despot of Eomania, King of Epeiros, and even Empress of the ALBANIA AND TREBIZOND. 425 Eomans.^ This dynasty, though not long-li\-ed on the chap. X. Its effects. mainland, is of real and abiding importance in the history of the Greek nation. The advance of the Albanians was checked ; their settlements were thrust further north and further south, while the Beneventan dominions became and remained purely Greek. Soon after the death of Duke Charles, the Turk won Joan- Venetian and nina and the greater part of Epeiros ; but his son kept Turkish , occupation. Ai'ta and its neighbourhood for nineteen jeRvs as a ^^''^^■ vassal of Venice. Then the dominions of Duke Charles ^9. became the Turkish province of Karlili. The house of Tocco kept its island possessions for thirty years longer. 1449-1479. Then they too passed to the Turk, to be recovered for a i48i-i483. moment by their own Duke, and then to be struggled for between Turk and Venetian. Meanwhile the strictly Albanian lands, from the Northern Akrokeraunian point northwards, were subdued by the Turk, were freed, and subdued again. Early in the 1414. fifteenth century the Turk won all Albania, except the Turkish conquest. Venetian posts. Seventeen years later came a revolt i^^i- and a successful defence of the countrv, whose later Rev .'olt 1448. stages are ennobled by the name of George Kastriota of Croja, the famous Scanderbeg. His death gave his Death of land back to the Ottoman, while Croja itself was for a beg. while held by Venice. The whole Greek and Albanian mainland was now divided between Turk and Venetian. !im- Lastly, we must not forget that Greek state which TheEr outlived all the rest. Far away, on the furthest bounds TreWzond. of the elder Empire, the Empire of Trehizond had the ' ' Basilissa Romajorum '='Pw/jiatwv (ian-ikuro-a. ' Romoei' is not uncommonly used for the'Pojyuaiot of the East, as distingnished from the ' Romaworum Imperator ' of the West. i2Q THE EASTERN EMPIRE. • CHAP, honour of beiii"' the last remaiiiiii<>- framiient of the "V ^ O O " • — Eastern Eoman power. The rule of the Grand Kom- nenos sur\'ived the fall of Constantinople ; it survived the conquest of Athens and Peloponnesos. Origin of \Ye have seen the origin and early history of this Emp'i-t- power. After its western dominions passed to the Nicene Emperors and Sinope to the Turk, the Trape- zuntine Empire was confined to the eastern part of the south coast of the Euxine, stretching over part of Iberia, and keeping the Imperial possessions in the Tauric Chersonesos. Sometimes independent, some- times tributary to Turks or Mongols, the power of Trebizond lived on for nearly eighty years as a distinct Agreement aud rWiil Eouiau Empire. Then, when Constantinople between ■*■ ■•• constanti- ^^^s agaiu lu Grcck hands, John Komnenos of Trebizond nox)le aud ~ ' Trei.izond, ^^^ couteut to ackuowledo'e Michael Palaiologos as Emperor of the Eomans, and to content himself with the style of ' Emperor of all the East, of Iberia, and of Perateia.' This last name means the province beyond the sea, in the Tauric Chersonesos or Crim. We thus see that the style of ' Emperor of the East,' which it is sometimes convenient to give to him of Constantinople, strictly belongs to him of Trebizond. The new Empire of the East suffered many fluctuations of territory, chiefly at the hands of the neighbouring Turkomans. Chalyhia, the land of iron, was lost ; the coast-line was split asunder ; the Empire bowed to Timour. But the capital and a large part of the coast bore up to the last, Turkish and did not pass under the Ottoman yoke till eight TrebiMnd, years after the fall of Constantinople. The outlying dependency of Perateia or Gotliia was not conquered otPerateia, till elcvcn vcars later still. As the Tauric Chersonesos 1472. had sheltered the last Greek commonwealth, it sheltered also the last Greek principality. EARLY HISTORY OF SERVIA. 42 T § 6. The Slavonic States. x. The Cxreek and Frank states of which we have just been speaking arose, for the most part they directly arose, out of the Latin partition of the Empire. On the Effects of cii • t re (^ ^ • • *'^'® parti- olavomc powers the enect of that partition was only tiouofthe . . Empire indirect. Servia and Buloaria had bei>un their second o" t''^ *- '- Slavonic career of independence before the partition. The ^^**^''- partition touched them only so far as the splitting up of the Empire into a number of small states took away all fear of their being again brought under its obedience. In Croatia and Dalmatia all trace of the Imperial power passed away. * The Magyar held the inland parts ; the question was whether the Magyar or the Venetian should hold the coast. The chief independent Slavonic powers were those Serviaaud of Servia and Buhjaria. Of these, Servia represents the unmixed Slave, as unmixed, that is, as any nation ever is ; Bulgaria represents the Slave brought under some measure of Turanian influence and mixture. The history of the purer race is the longer and the more brilliant. The Servian people made a longer resistance to the Turk than the Bulgarian people ; they were the first to throw off his yoke ; one part of them never sub- mitted to his yoke at all. The oldest Servia, as we Extent of have seen, stretched far beyond the bounds of the pre- sent principality, and had a considerable Hadriatic sea- board, though interrupted by the Eoman cities. Among the Zupaiis or princes of the many Servian tribes, the chief were the northern Grand-Zupans of Desnica on the Drina, and the southern Grand-Zupans of Dloklea or Rascia, so called from their capital Rassa, the modern Novi-Bazar. This last principality was the 428 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Relations to the Empire. 1018. 1010. Conquest hy Manuel Konmrno?. 1148. Helations towards Hungary. Loss of Bosnia. 1-286. 13-26. bervian advance eastward and south- ward. germ t)!" the historical kingdom of Servia. But till the fall of the old Empire, the Imperial claims over Servia were always asserted and were often enforced. Indeed common enmity to the Bulgarian, the momentary con- queror of Servia,^ formed a tie between Servia and the Empire down to the complete incorporation of Servia by Basil the Second, The successful revolt of Servia made room for more than one claimant of Servian dominion and kingship ; but the Imperial claims re- mained, to be enforced again in their fulness by Manuel Komnenos. At last the Latin conquest relieved Servia from all danger on the part of Constantinople ; it now stood forth as an independent power under the kings of the house of Nemanja. They had to struggle against more dangerous enemies to the north in the Kings of Huni>ary. Even before the last Imperial conquest, the Magyars had cut away the western part of Servia, the land beyond the Drina, known as Bosnia or Rama. Under the last name it gave the Hungarian princes one of their royal titles. This land was more than once won back by Servia ; but its tendency was to separation and to growth at the cost of Servia. In the first half of the fourteenth century, Bosnia was enlarged b}^ the Servian lands bordering on the Dalmatian coast, the lands of ZacJdoumia and Terboimia, which were never perma- nentl}^ won back. So the lands on the Save, between the Drina and the Morava, taking in the modern capital of Belgrade, passed, in the endless shiftings of the frontier, at one time to Bulgaria and at another to Hunoarv. Servia, thus cut short to the north and west, was driven to advance southward and eastward, ^ See above, p. 379. THE SERVIAN EMPIRE. 429-' at the expense of Bulgaria and of the powers which chap. had taken the place of the Empire on the lower Ha- — — driatic coast. From the latter part of the thirteenth century onwards, Servia grew to be the greatest power in the south-eastern peninsula. Shorn of her old Ha- driatic seaboard, she s'ained a new and long-er one, Hersea- ' ^ & ' board. stretching from the mouths of Cattaro to Durazzo. i"^^^. Durazzo itself twice fell into Servian hands ; but at 1319-1322. the time of the highest power of Servia that city remained an Angevin outpost on the Servian main- land. That highest power was reached in the reign Reign of of Stephen Dushan, who spread his dominions far Dushan, indeed at the ' cost of Greeks and Franks, at the cost of his old Slavonic neighbours and of the rising powers of Albania. In the new Servian capital of Skopia, Skoiqji, or Skopje, the Tzar Stephen took an Imperial crown as Ihnperor of the Serbs and Greeks. The new Empire 13^6. stretched uninterruptedly from the Danube to the r^jg Corinthian gulf. At one end Bosnia was won back ; |mph-e. at the other end the Servian rule was spread over Aitolia and Thessaly, over Macedonia and Thrace as far as Christopolis. It only remained to give a head to this o-reat bodv, and to make New Eome the seat' of the Servian power. But the Servian tzardom broke in pieces at the Break-up ^ of the death of the oreat Servian Tzar ; and before he died, Servian ~ power, the Ottoman was already in Europe. In fact the his- ^^^^• torical result of the great advance of Servia was to split up the whole of the Greek and Slavonic lands, and to leave no power* of either race able to keep out the barbarian. The titles of Stephen's Empire lived on for a generation in the Greek part of his dominions,^ ' See above, p. 424. 430 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Idter of Sorift. Ccmqaests and d^- Tezances of Servia. 1S75. 1389. 1442. 1444. 1459. where the younger Stephen, lord of Epeu-os and Thessalv. still called hhnself Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks. In Macedonia and Thrace several small principaUties sprang up. and a power arose at Skodra of which we shall have to speak again. To the north Bosnia fell away, and carried Zachloumia with it. Servia itself comes out of the chaos as a separate king- dom, a kuiofdom whollv cut off from the sea, but stretching southward as far as Prisrend, and again holdincr the lands between the Drina and the Morava. The Turk first took Xi-sh. and brought the kingdom under tribute. The overthrow at Kossovo made Servia wholly dependent. With the fall of Bajazet it again became free for a generation. Then the Turk won the whole land except Belgrade. Then the campaign of Huniades restored Servia as a free kingdom ; the event of Varna acrain broucfht her under tribute. At last Mahomet the Conqueror incorporated all Servia, except Belgrade, with his dominions. •d.0- :: 3:.£nia.. Its -rig: 1-576. «xtent of Bosnia. 1382. The history of Bosnia, as a really separate power, holding its own place in Europe, begins with the break-up of the momentary Servian Empire. The Ban Stephen Tvartko became the first king of the last Bosnian dynasty, under the nominal superiority of the Huno-arian crown. Thus, at the verv moment of the coming of the Turk, a kingdom of Latin creed and associations became the first power among the south- eastern Slaves. For a while it seemed as if Bosnia was sroinsr to take the place which had been held bv Servia. The Bosnian kincrdom at its frreatest extent took in all the present Bosnia and Herzegovina, with, it would seem, all Dahnatia except Zara, and the north-west THE KI>'GDOM OF BOSNIA. 431 corner of Servia stretchiucr bevoiid the Driiia. But the chap. Bosnian power was broken at Kossoto as well as that ~ — — ' of Servia. In the time of confusion which followed, Jayce in the north-west corner became a power con- Loss of nected with both Hungarv and Bosnia, while the Turk 1391. ' estabhshed himself in the extreme south. The Turk was driven out for a while, but the kincfdom was dis- membered to form a new Latin power. The Lord of the old Zachloumia, a Bosnian vassal, transferred his homacfe to the Austrian Kincr of the Eomans. and became sovereign Duke of Saint Sava, perhaps rather Duchy of of Primorie. Thus arose the state of Herzeijovina. that or Herze- govina. IS the Diichy, commemorating in its half-German name i^^- the relation of its prince to the Western Empire. But neither kingdom nor duchy was long-hved. "Within 1449. ten years after the separation of Herzegovina the Turk held western Bosnia. Fourteen vears later he subdued Turkish conquest of the whole kingdom. The next vear the duchv became Bosnia, tributarv. and twentv vears after the conquest of ofHerze- * * goviua, Bosnia it was incorporated with the now Turkish i^^- province of Bosnia. But in the lonof struo-crle between Venice and the Turk various parts of its territory, especially the coast, came under the power of the Eepublic. Meanwhile one small Slavonic land, one survi\*incr frasrment of the sreat Servian dominion, maintained its independence through all changes. Li the break-up of the Servian Empire, a small state, with Skodra for its capital, formed itself in the district of Zeta, reaching northwards as far as Cattaro. For a moment its Dominion princes of the house of Balsa spread their power over house of all northern Albania : but the new state was cut short swra 432 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Loss of Skodra, 1394. Beginning of Monte- negro, 1456. Establish- ment of Tzetinje, 1488. The Vhidikas, 1499. Lay princes, 18ol. 1813. 1858. Oil all sides by Bosnia, Venice, and the Turk, and Skodra itself was sold to Venice. In the middle of the fifteenth century, the state took a more definite shape, though with a smaller territory, under a new dynasty, that of Tzernojevich. This independent rem- nant answered to the modern Tzernagora or Montenegro, with a o-reater extent to the east and with a small sea- board taking in Antivari. Its capital Zahljak was more than once lost and won from the Turk ; at the end of the century it was found hopeless to defend the lower districts, and prince and people withdrew to the natural fortress of the Black Mountain with its newly founded capital of Tzetinje. The last prince of the dynasty resigned his power to the metropolitan bishop, and Montenegro remained an independent state under its Vladikas or hereditary prelates, till their dominion was in our own time again exchanged for that of temporal princes. During all this time the territory of Monte- negro was simply so much of the mountain region as could maintain its practical independence against the ceaseless attacks of the Turk. The Christian state had no acknowledged frontier ; it was often harried and sometimes for a moment occupied, but it never became either a province or a lasting dependency of the invader. Yet, while her existence was thus pre- carious, Montenegro, as the ally of England and Eussia, bore her part in the great European struggle ; she won for herself a haven and a capital at Cattaro, and received the free commendation of the men of the neighbouring Bocche. Her allies stood by while Cattaro and the Bocche were filched by the Austrian ; and, more than forty years later, when a definite frontier was first traced. Western diplomacy so traced it as to give the Turk an MONTENEGRO. 433 inlet on both sides to the unconquered Christian hmd. chap. In the latest times the Montenegrin arms set free a large " — — part of the kindred land of Plerzeo'ovina, and won back negrin '- conquests, a considerable part of the lost territor}^ to the east, 1876-1877. 1S78 including part of the old seaboard as far as Didcigno. Then Western diplomacy drew another frontier, which forbade any large incorporation of the kindred Slavonic districts, while a small extension was allowed in that part of the lost ancient territory which had become Albanian. Of three havens won by Montenegro in the war, Didcigno was given back to the Turk. Austria was allowed to filch Spizza, as she had before filched spizza. Eagusa and Cattaro. The third haven, that of Antivari, was left to those who had won it under insulting restric- tions. Yet more lately the wrong has been partly re- dressed by English energy. In exchange for some small Albanian territory given back to the Turk, Montenegro has been again put into possession of her hard-won prize of Dulcigno. Duicigno, A '^ 1878, 1881. The continued independence of Montenegro enables the Servian branch of the Slavonic race to say that their nation has never been wholly enslaved. The case has been different with Bulgaria. We have seen The third the origin of the third Bulgarian, or rather Vlacho- kingdom. Bidyarian, kingdom which won its independence of the Empire in the last years of the twelfth century. From that time to the Turkish conquest, one or more Bul- garian states always existed. And throughout the thirteenth century the Bulgarian kingdom, though its boundaries were ever shifting', was one of the chief powers of the south-eastern peninsula. Tlie oldest Bulgaria between Danube and Hsemus VOL. 1. F F 434 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Bulgarian advance. 1197-1207. Dominion of John Asan. 1218-1241. Decline of Bulgaria. 1246-1257. Shiftings of the frontier. Philipxw- polis finally Bulgarian. 1344-1366. was the first to throw off the Byzantine dominion, and the last to come under the power of the Turk. The new Bulgarian power grew fast, and for a while called back the days of Simeon and Samuel. Under Joannice the frontier stretched far to the north-west, over lands which gradually passed to Servia, taking in Skupi, Nish, and even Beli^rade. Under the Tzar John Asan the new Bulgaria, the kingdom of Tirnovo, reached its greatest extent. John claimed to rule over the Greek, the Servian, and the Albanian lands, from Hadrianople to Durazzo.^ And certainly the greater part of Thrace, Philippopolis and the whole land of Rhodope or Achridos, Hadrianople itself, Macedonia too stretching away to Samuel's Ochrida and to Albanon or Elbassan, were all under his rule. If his realm did not touch the Hadriatio or the ^gsean, it came very near to both ; but Thessalonike at least always remained to its Frank and Greek lords. But this great power, like so many other powers of its kind, did not survive its founder. The revived Greek states, the Nicene Empire and the Epeirot despotat, cut the Bulgarian realm short. The disputes of an older and of a later time went on.'^ There was undisputed Bulgaria north of Hsemus, an ever-shifting frontier south of it. The inland Philip- popolis, and the coast towns of Anchialos and Mesem- bria, passed backwards and forwards between Greek and Bulgarian. The last state of things, immediately before the common overthrow, gave Philippopolis to Bulgaria and the coast towns to the Empire. ^ See Jirecek, Geschichte der Bulgaren, p. 351. '^ The history of George Akropolites gives a narrative of these wars which is worth studying, if only for its close bearing on very recent events. PRINCIPALITY OF DOBRUTCHA. 435 All attempt at extension to the north by an attack chap. X. on the Hungarian Banat of Severin, the western part of modern Wallachia, led only to a Hungarian invasion, wars with to a temporary loss of Widdin, and the assumption of a 1260." Bulgarian title by the Magyar king. Presently a new Turanian dynasty, this time of Guman descent, reigned cumau in Bulgaria, and soon after, the kino-dom passed for the Mgana!" *- . . '' . 1280. moment under a mightier oyerlord in the person of NoQ'ai Khan. In the fourteenth century the kingdom Break-up broke up. The despot Dohrodittus — his name has khigdom. 1357. many spellings — formed a separate dominion on the Prind- seaboard, stretching from the Danube to the Imperial Dubrutcha. frontier, cutting off the King of Tirnoyo from the sea. Part of his land })reseryes his memory in its modern name Dohrutcha. Presently we hear of three Bulgarias, the central state at Tirnoyo, the sea-land of Dobroditius, and a north-western state at Widdin. By this time the Ottoman inroads had begun ; Philippopolis was lost, and Bulgarian princes were blind enough to employ i3t52. Turkish help in a second attack on Seyerin, which led lycs-iseg. only to a second temporary loss of Widdin. The Turk now pressed on ; Sofia was taken ; the whole land 1882. became a Turkish dependency. After Kossoyo the issa. land was wholly conquered, saye only that the northern conquest part of the land of Dobroditius passed to Wallachia. 1393. Bulgaria passed away from the list of European states Ijoth sooner and more utterly than Servia. Seryia still had its alternations of freedom and Ijondage for sixty years. In after times large parts of it passed for a while to a rule which, if foreign, was at least European. In later days Seryia was the first of the sul)ject nations to win its freedom. But the bondage of Buli^aria was iieyer disturbed from the days of Bajazet to our own time. F 1' 2 436 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. , ^j , (^ 7. Tlie Kingdom of Hungary. The oriiiiii of the Hunoariau kingdom, and the reasons for dealing with it along with the states which arose out of the break-up of the Eastern Empire, have chrtiueter already been spoken of.^ The Finnish conquerors of Hun-arian tlic Slavc, admitted within the pale of Western Chris- kingdom, . - tendom, foundino- a new Huno-ary on the Danube and the Theiss while they left behind them an older Hun- gary on the Kama, have points of contact at once with Asia and with both Eastern and Western Europe. Its position But, as closelv connected in its history with the nations m soatli- eastern of the soutli-eastem peninsula, as a sharer in the bond- age and in the deliverance of Servia, Greece, and Bul- garia, the fitting place of the Hungarian kingdom in our geographical survey is one where it may be looked at strictly as part of the south-eastern world. It has been already noticed '■^ that the main geo- Effectsof graphical work of the Magyar was to cut off that *"''^^ south-eastern world, the world where the Greek and invasion. the Slave, struggling for its supremacy, were both swallowed up by the Ottoman, from the Slavonic region between the Carpathians and the Baltic. At the mo- ment of the Magyar inroad, the foundation of the Great Great-Moravian kingdom, the kingdom of Sviatopluk, 884-89'i!' made it more likely than it has ever been since that the Slaves of the two regions might be united into a single power. That kingdom, stretching to Sirmium, marched on the north-western dependencies of the Eastern Empire, while on the north it took in the Chro- batian land which was afterwards Little Poland. Such a power might have been dangerous to both Empires at ^ See above, p. 155. ^ See above, p. 156. THE MAGYAE SETTLEMENT. 43 once ; but the invaders whom the two Emperors called chap. Cf- X. in proved far more dangerous than Great Moravia could ever have Ijeen. The Magyars, Ogres, or Hun- garians, the Turks of the Imperial geographer,^ were called in by his father Leo to check the Bulgarians, as they were called in by Arnulf in the West to check the new power of Moravia. They passed, from the north rather than from the east, into the land which was disputed l)etween Moravian and Bulgarian. The Moravian power was overthrown, and the Magyars, ooc. stepping mto its place, became constant invaders oi between "^ . . -, Hungary both Em])ires and their dependent lands. But to the -uKiGer- ' _ many. west, the victories of the Saxon kings put a check to their inroads, and, save some shiftings on the Austrian march, the frontier of Germany and Hungaiy has been sinuularlv abidino\ While the MasTar settlement placed a barrier be- The two Y\ . ^ ^ . Chrobatias tween the two chief reiiions of the Slavonic race as a separated . , _ by the whole, it specially placed a barrier between the two di\d- Magyars, sions of the Croatian or Chrohatian people, those on the Vistula and those on the Drave and Save. The northern • Chrobatia still reached south of the Carpathians, and it was not until the eleventh century that the Magyar 1025. kingdom, by the acquisition of its southern part, gained a natural frontier which, with some shiftino-s, served to part it off from the Slavonic powers to the north of it. To the south-east an uncultivated and wooded tract • separated the Magyar territory from the lands between ^ On the origin of the name, see Roe.slei', Romdnische Shulien, 159, 218, 260. There is something strange in Constantine [and Leo VI. in his Tactics] calling the Finnish Magyars 'VovpiMi, in -opposition to the really 1'uvkish Patzinaks. His TovpKut and -ain. But the Hun""arian frontier was ever shifting towards the former lands of the Empire, Venetian, Servian, and Bulgarian. One part of the old Croatian kingdom, the land between Save and Drave, was cut off to form, first an appanage, then an annexed THE ROUMANS. 439 kingdom, by the special name of Slavonia, a name chap. shared by it with lands on the Baltic, perhaps on the ^~4^^ ^g«^an. «lvonia. But, from the first days of its conversion, the Hun- ^^^'^" garian realm began to advance in other directions, in lands which had formed no part of the Empire since the days of Aurelian. Before their Chrobatian conquest, Trans- silvaiiia or the Mao-vars passed the boundary which divided them sieben- from the Patzinaks, and won the land, which from its 1004. position took the name of Transsilvania} Colonists were invited to settle in the thinly inhabited land. One chief settlement was of the Low-Dutch speech from Saxony and Flanders. Another element was formed Various COloillGS by the Turanian Szeklers, whose Latin form of Siculi mio-ht easily mislead. Another mioration brouoht back the name and speech of the Old Eome to the first land from which she had withdrawn her power. The unbroken life of the Eoman name and speech Origin of the in the lands north of the Danube, tliouoh it has been Roumans. o exaggerated, is not merely a legend. But there can be no reasonable doubt that the present principality of Eoumania and the Eouman lands beyond its borders largely derived their present population and language from a settlement of the Eouman people further south. ^ South of the Danube, the Eouman or Vlach population, scattered among Greeks, Slaves, and Albanians, at many points from Pindos northwards, has kept its distinct ^ Also called Siebeiibilrgen, a corruption of the name of tlie fortress of Cibht, wliich has many spellings. [Transsilvania is the Latin equivalent of the Hungarian name J'Jrdeli/.] 2 Roesler's book, Jtonidnische S'tudien, has shown this clearly. [But Roesler went too far. The greater part of the Roman popula- tion were certainly south of the Danube up to the twelfth century, but the evidence points to the conclusion that some Latin speaking people existed in the Carpathians.] ■4-40 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, nationalit}', but it has never formed a political whole. ,rr ■" — ' But their niii>-ration bevond the Danube reinforced the m^In-ation. scautv Eoumau remnant which seems to have survived in the Dacian mountains since the days of Aurelian, and enabled the Eoumans in course of time to found two distinct principalities, and to form a chief element in the popuhition of a third. There is no sign of a considerable Eouman population north of the Danube before the thirteenth century. The events of that centur}' opened a way for a reversal of the ordinary course of migration, for the settlement of lands beyond the Empire by former subjects of the Empire. Eonman Wc liavc sccu that tlic third Bulgarian kingdom, that the tiiird which arosc at the end of the twelfth century, was in Bulgarian kingdom, its origin as much Eouman as Bulgarian. By this time cumans in tlic rulc of tlic Patziuaks beyond the lower Danube had o'iven wav to that of the kindi-ed Cumans. Then the Mongolian stomi of Mougolian invasion, which crushed Hungary itself for a moment, crushed the Cuman power for ever. But the remnant of the Cuman nation lived on within the Magyar realm, and gave its king yet another Eouman title, that of Kiu;/ (if Cumania. The former Cuman' settlement it, ' i i i -n in the land now lay open to new settlers, and the Eouman part Cuman . land. of the inhabitants of the new Bulgaria began to cross the Danube into that land and the neio-hbouring districts. In the course of the thirteenth century they occupied the present Wallachia, and already formed an element in the mixed population of Transsilvania. A Eouman state thus beo-an to be formed, which took the name bv which the Eoumans were known to their neioli- bours. The new Vlachia, Wallachia, stretched on both Little sides of the Aluta. To the west of that river, Little Wallachia formed, as the banat of Severin, mi integral LEWIS THE GREAT. 441 part of the Hungarian kingdom. Great WaUachia to chap the east formed a separate principality, dependent on ^:^^ — ' Hungary or independent, according to its strength from ^aiiachia. time to time.^ And, towards the end of the fourteenth century, the land south of the Danube, called Bohrutcha, Dobrutcha. passed from Bulgaria to Wallachia. Another Eounian migration, passing from the land of Marmaros north ■of Transsilvania, founded the principality of Moldavia Moldavia. c. 1341. between the Carpathians and the Dniester. This too stood to the Huno-arian crown in the same shiftino- relation as Great WaUachia, and sometimes transferred its vassalage to Lithuania and Poland. The greatest extension of the Hungarian dominion Lewis the Grreat, was in the fourteenth century, under the Angevin 1B42-1382. Kino- Lewis the Great. Before his time the Maiivar frontier had advanced and fallen back. Hungary, First posses of Hal 1185-1220 ; ... . . , . . possession having a Jxussian population withm its borders, had for of Haiicz a while enlarged its Eussian dominion by the annexation of the Eed Eussian land of Ifalicz or Galicia. It had also, for a shorter time, occupied the Bulgarian of widdm, "~ 1260-12G4. town of Widdin. Lewis renewed both these conquests, conquests ^nd made others. Haiicz was not only won again, Haiicrand but was enlarged by the neighbouring principality 1342; of Vladimir. The great day of Hungary was contem- ises-iscs. porary with the great day of Servia, but it was a longer day, and Hungary profited greatly b}' the fall of Servia. While Lewis annexed Dalmatia, he also at 1356. various times established his supremacy over Bosnia and the Eouman principalities. That Lewis was king ' [Distinguish from this Clreat anrl this Little WalLicliia, the Great Wallachia in Thessaly, fiist mentioned hy Anna Comnena, and the Little Wallachia in Aetolia and Acarnania, There were also the Black "Wallachians (Mavro-vlaclioi oi- Morlachs) of Dalmatia and Herzegovina.] 442 THE EASTERN EIMPIRE. CHAP, of Poland by a personal union did not affect Hun- ' ^ — ' garian geography. But the separation of the crowns Red at his death led presently to the restoration of the Russia restored to Eed Russiau proviuces to Poland. Somewhat later, Poland, ^ 1390. under Sigismund, a territory within the Hungarian Pledging of boi'der, part of the county of Zips or Czejnisz, was pledged to Poland, and continued to be held by that power. First Turkish invasion. 1391. Battle of Nikopolis. 1396. Campaign of Huniades. 1443. Battle of Varna. 1444. Disputes for Dal- matia. Hungary under Mattliias Corvinus. 14.>8-14<)0. 1477. 1485 1467. 1463. Meanwhile the Ottoman was on his march to over- throw Hungary as well as its neighbours, though the position of the Magyar kingdom made it the last to be devoured and the first to be delivered. The Turkish inroads as yet barely grazed the strictly Hungarian frontier. The first Turkish invasion of Hungary, the first Turkish exaction of tribute from Wallachia, came in the same year in which Sigismund established his supremacy over Bosnia. The defeat of Nikopolis con- firmed the Turkish supremacy in Wallachia, a supre- macy which was again won for Hungary in the great campaign of Huniades, and was again lost at Yarna. Meanwhile the full possession of Dalmatia did not out- live the reign of Lewis. Henceforth Hungary is merely one competitor among others in the ceaseless shiftings of the Dalmatian frontier. Later in the fifteenth century came another day of Hungarian greatness under the son of Huniades, Matthias Corvinus. Its most distinguishing feature was the extension of the Magyar power to the west, over Bohemia and its dependencies, and even over the Austrian archduchy. In the south-eastern lands Wal- lachia and Moldavia again became Hungarian depen- dencies. Jayce was won back from the Turk, now lord TUEKISH CONQUEST OF HUNGARY. 443 of Bosnia, and, Belorade beino- now Huniiarian, the chap. frontier towards the Ottoman was fixed till the time " — — - of his oreat advance northwards. The first stage of Ottoman conquest in Hungary, Loss of as distinouished from mere ravao-e, was the takino- of isai. Belgrade. With the battle of Mohacz, five years later, Battle of f TT 1 m • Mohacz. the separate history oi Hungary ends. That victory, 1526. followed by the disputes for the Hungarian crown between an Austrian archduke and a Transsilvanian palatine, enabled Suleiman to make himself master of Turkish occupation the greater part of the kingdom, especially of the part »* the which was most thoroughly Maoyar. From the middle p?'"* °^ , o J CJ Hungary. of the sixteenth century till the latter years of the i^'^'^-iesT. seventeenth, the Austrian Kings of Hungary kept only a fragment of Croatia, including Zagrab or Agram, and a strip of north-western Hungary, including Pressburg. The whole central part of the kingdom passed under the immediate dominion of the Turk, and a Pasha ruled at Buda. Besides this great incorporation of Hungarian soil, the Turk held three vassal principalities within the dominions of Lewis the Great. One was Trans- Tributary .... PI principah- silvama, increased by a large part 01 north-eastern ties: "^ , . Trans- Hungary ; the second was Wallachia ; the third was sihania, ° : , . . Wallachia, Moldavia, which beo-an to be tributary late in the Moldavia. fifteenth century. The Eouman lands became more and more closely dependent on the Turk, who took on him to name their princes. Indeed, one might for a while add the Austrian kingdom of Hungary itself as a fourth vassal state, for it paid tribute to the Turk even as late as the first years of the seventeenth century, icoc. For the superiority of the Eouman principalities an TheRou- -■■ "^ ^ ■*• man lands endless struo-fyle went on between Poland and the disputed ^~ between Turk. At last the same Slavonic power stepped in J^||!'rp,f;,""^ 444 THE EASTEllN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Battle of Vienna. 1C83. Recovery of Hun- gary from the Turk. Peace of Carlowitz. 1699. Incorpora- tion of Traiis- silvania. 1713. Peace of Passaro- witz. 1718. Losses by the Peace of Bel- grade. 1739. to deliver Hungary and Austria also. With the over- throw of the Turk before Vienna beo-an the reaction of Christendom against Islam which has gone on to our own day. The wars which follow answer to the wars of independence in Servia and Greece in so far as the Turk was driven out of a Christian land. They differ in tliis, that the Turk was driven out of Greec3 and Servia to the profit of Greece and Servia themselves, while he was driven out of Hungary to the profit of the Austrian king. The first stage of the work, the war which was ended by the Peace of Carlowitz, won l^ack nearly all Croatia and Slavonia, and all Hungary proper, except the land of Temeswar between Danube. Theiss, and Maros. Transsilvania became a dependency of the Hungarian kingdom, with which it was presently in- corporated. Wallachia and Moldavia remained under Turkish supremacy. The next war, ended by the Peace of Passarowitz, fully restored the Hungarian kingdom as part of Christendom. The Turk kept only a small part of Croatia. All Slavonia and the banat of Temeswar were won back ; the frontier was even carried south of the Save, so as to take in a small strip of Bosnia and a great part of Servia, as also the Lesser Wallachia, the old banat of Severin. Thus, while the first stage delivered Buda, the second delivered Belgrade. But the next war, ended by the Peace of Belgrade, largely undid the work. The frontier fell back to the point at which it stayed till our own day. From the mouth of the Unna to Orsova, the Save and the Danube became the frontier, Belgrade, and all the land south of those rivers, passed again to the Turk, and Little Wallachia became again part of a Turkish LATER HISTORY OF HUXGAEY. 445 dependency. At a later stage of the century Belgrade chap. was ai>aiu delivered and aoain lost, ;; — — - "- ^ Final loss The later acquisitions of the House of Austria were "l^^^' made in the character of Hungarian kino's, but thev ^^^-^'^^i- ~ ' - Acquisi- did not lead to any enlargement of the Hungarian po"^,,|°™ kingdom. Thus the claim to the Austrian acquisi- tions made at the first and third partitions of Poland, rested solely on the two Hungarian occupations of Eed liussia. Under the softened forms of Galicia Gaiicia and Ludomena, the Eed Eussian lands of Halicz meria. and Madimh\ together with part of Poland itself, became a new kingdom of the House of Habsburo- as the greater part of the territory thus won still re- mains. Between the two partitions the new kinoxlom Acquisi- . : . tion of was increased bv the addition of Biihwina, the north- Bukovina. '_ 1776-1786. western corner of Moldavia, which was claimed as an ancient part of the Transsilvanian principality. It was again only in its Hungarian character that the House of Habsburg could make any claim to Dalmatia. Certainly Daimatia. no Austrian duke had ever reigned over Dalmatia, Eed Eussia, or the Eouman principalities. Yet in the present dual arrangement of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy the so-called triple kingdom of Croatia, Dal- matia, and Slavonia, is divided between the rule of Pest and the rule of Vienna. Galicia also counts to the Austrian, and not to the Hungarian, division of the monarchy. All this is perhaps in harmony with the generally anomalous character of the power of which they form part. The port of Spizza has been added spizza. to the Dalmatian kingdom. It is hard to say in which of liis many characters the Hungarian King and Austrian Archduke holds the lands of Bosnia and Heizego- Herzejovlna, of wliicli the Treaty of Berlin confers on i878'. 446 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. him, not the sovereignty, but the administration. They might have been claimed b}^ the Hungarian king in his ancient character of Kino- of Eama. But the formal aspect of the transaction would seem rather to be that he has, like his predecessors in the sixteenth century, become the man of the Turk. Later liis- tory of Kouniania. After the restoration of the Lesser Wallachia to the Turk and the addition of Bukovina to Galicia, the geographical history of the Rouman principalities parts off wholly from that of Hungary, and will be more fittingly treated in another section. The Otto- man Turks, Their special character «,s Maho- xnetans. Preserva- tion of the subject nations § 8. The Ottoman Power. Last among the powers which among them sup- planted the Eastern Empire, comes the greatest and most terrible of all, that which overthrew the Empire itself and most of the states which arose out of its ruins, and which stands distinguished from all the rest by its abiding possession of the Imperial city. This is the power of the Ottoman Turks. They stand distin- guished from all the other invaders of the European mainland of the Empire by being Mahometan invaders. The examples of Bulgaria and Hungary show that Turanian invaders, as such, are not incapable of being received into European fellowship. This could not be in the case of a Mahometan power, bound by its religion to keep its Christian subjects in the condition of bondmen. The Ottomans could not, like the l^ulgarians, be lost in the greater mass of those whom they conquered. But this very necessity helped in some measure to preserve the national being of the subject nations. Greeks, Servians, Bulgarians, have under Ottoman rule remained THE OTTOMANS. 447 Greeks, Servians, and Bulgarians, ready to begin their chap. national career afresh whenever the time for indepen- ~ ' dence should come. The dominion of the Turk in Eastern Europe answers, as a Mahometan dominion, to the dominion of the Saracen in Western Europe. But Compari- son with in evervthnii?, save the mere reckoninof of years, it has the . . , ... Saracen been far more abidini^. The Mahometan dominion in po^^?"" j^ *- Spain. southern Spain did indeed last two hundred years longer than Mahometan dominion has yet lasted in any part of Eastern Europe. But the Saracen power in the West beoan to fall back as soon as it was esta- blished, and its last two hundred years were a mere survival. The Ottomans underwent no considerable loss of territory till more than four centuries and a half after their first appearance in Asia, till more than three centuries after their passage into Europe. Con- stantinople has been Ottoman sixty years longer than Toledo was Saracen. The Ottoman, possessor of the Eastern Eome, does Extent of the m a rough wa}'' represent the Eastern Eoman in the ottoman , ,^ . . dominion extent of his dominion. The dominions and depen- compared -•• with the dencies of the Sultans at the height of their power took Eastern O It Einpin-. in, in Eastern Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, nearly all that had formed part of the Empire of Justinian, with a large territory, both in Europe and Asia, which Justinian had not held. Justinian held nothing' north of the Danube ; Suleiman held, as sovereign or as overlord, a vast dominion from Buda to Azof. On the other hand, no part of the dominions of Justinian in Western Europe, save one Italian city for one moment, ever came under Ottoman rule. The Eastern Empire in the year 800 was smaller than even the present reduced dominion of the Turk. Tlie Eastern Empire, 448 THE EASTERN ExMPIRE. CHAP. X. Effects of the Mon- golian advance. Origin of the Otto- mans. Break-up and re- union of the Otto- man power. Its per- manence at its height in the ele^•ellth centuiy, held in Europe a doniinion far smaller than the dominion of the Turk in the sixteenth century, far larger than his dominion now. But in the essential feature of Byzantine geo- graphy, the possession of Constantinople and of the lands on each side of the Bosporos and Hellespont, the Ottoman Sultan took the place of the Eastern Emperor, and as yet he keeps it. The history of the Eastern Empire, and that of the Ottomans in connexion with it, was largely affected by the movements of the Mongols in the further East. Mongolian pressure weakened the Seljuk Turks, and so allowed the growth of the Nicene Empire. Mongolian invasions also led indirectly to the growth of the Ottoman power, and at a later time they gave it its greatest check. The Ottomans grew out of a Turkish band who served the Seljuk Sultan against the Mongols. As his vassals, they began to be a power in Asia and to harry the coasts of Europe. They passed into Europe, and won a great European dominion far more quickh' than they had won their Asiatic dominion. This is the special characteristic of the Ottoman power. Asiatic in everything else, it is geographically European ; most of its Asiatic and all its African dominion was won from an European centre. Already a power in Europe, but not yet in possession of the Imperial city, the new Ottoman power was for a moment utterly broken in pieces by the second flood of Mongol invasion. That the shattered dominion came tosfether asfain is an event without a parallel in Eastern history. The restored Ottoman power then won Constantinople, and from Constantinople, as representing the fallen Empire, it won back the lost dominion of the Empire, The perma- ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE OTTOMANS. 449 nence of the Ottoman power, when Constantinople was chap. once won, is in no way wonderful. Even the unreclaimed ~ — — ' Asiatic, when he was once seated on the throne of the New Eome, inherited his share of Eome's eternity. The first settlements of the Ottoman Turks were First made on the banks of the Sangarios, a i)osition which ments of -,..", . the otto- gave them from the begninmo- a threatening aspect to- mans. wards Europe. By the end of the thirteenth century 1299. they were firmly established in that region. In the first half of the fourteenth they became the leading power in Western Asia. Brusa, their Asiatic capital, won in conquest the last days of the Emir Othman, has a manifest eye 1326-1330; towards Europe. Nikaia and Nikomedeia followed, of Nikaia and the Ottoman stepped geooTaijliically into the same mfdeia, •iXtt-i- 1-1 1330-1888. position towards the revived Greek Empire which the Nicene princes had held towards the Latin Empire. In the last days of the Emir Othman came their passage Entry into T-, T f * 1 • 1 • Europe. into Europe, and a lew more years saw Amurath in Ins 1354. European capital of Hadrianople, completely hemming conquest ^ -. f, -, oi Hadria- Constantinople in. The second half of the fourteenth nopie. century was a time of the most speedy Ottoman advance, ottoman and the amount of real advance is by no means repre- sented by the change on the map. We have seen in the case of Servia, of Greece, and of Hungary, that the course of Turkish invasion commonly went through three stages. There was first the time of mere plunder. Then came the tributary stage, and lastly, the day of complete bondage. Under Bajazet, the first Ottoman Bajazet prince who bore the title of Sultan, the immediate ■^^i^"^',^ Ottoman dominion in Europe stretched from the ^Egajaii to the Danube. It took in all Bulgaria, all Macedonia, Thessaly, and Thrace, save only Chalkidike and tlie VOL. I. G G 450 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Battle of Angora. 1402. Break-up of the Ottoman power. Reunited under Mahomet. 1413. Conquest of Thessa- lonike. 1430. Mahomet the Con- queror. 14.51-1481. Conquest of Constan- tinople. 1453. district just round Constantinople. Servia and Wal- lachia were dependent states, as indeed was tire Empire itself. Central and southern Greece, Bosnia, Hungary, even Styria, were lands open to plunder. This g-reat dominion was l)roken in pieces by the victory of Timour at Angora. It seemed that the })ower of the Ottoman had passed away like the power of the Servian, The dominion of Bajazet was divided among his sons and the princes of the dispossessed Turkish dynasties. The Christian states had a breathing- time, and the sons of Bajazet were glad to give back to the Empire some important parts of its lost territories. The Ottoman power came together again under Ma- homet the First ; but for nearly half a century its advance was slower than in the half-century l)efore. The conquests of Mahomet and of Amurath the Second lay mainly in the Greek and Albanian lands. The Turk now reached the Hadriatic, and the conquest of Thessa- lonike o-ave him a firmer hold on the -^Egsean. Towards Servia and Hungary he lost and he won again ; he hardly conquered. It was the thirty years of Mahomet the Conqueror which finally gave the Ottoman dominion its European position. From his first and greatest con- quest of the New Eome, he gathered in what remained, Greek, Frank, and Slave. The conquest of the Greek mainland, of Albania and Bosnia, the final conquest of Servia, made him master of the whole south-eastern peninsula, save only the points held hj Venice and the unconquered height of the Black Mountain. He began to gather in the Western islands, and he struck the first great blow to the Venetian power by the conquest of Euboia. Around the Euxine he won the Empire of Trebizond and the points held by Genoa. The great CONQUESTS OF MAHOMET AND SULEIMAN. 451 mass of the islands and the few Venetian points on the chap. coast still escaped. Otherwise Mahomet the Conqueror — -" held the whole European dominions of Basil the Second, his . , , . dominion, with a o-reater dominion in Asia than that of Manuel Komnenos. From the Danube to the Tanais and beyond it, he held a vast overlordship, over lands which had obeyed no Emperor since Aurelian, over lands which had never obeyed any Emperor at all. At last the Mussulman lord of Constantinople seemed about to win back the Italian dominion of its Christian lords. In his last days, throuoh the takino- of Otranto, Mahomet Taking of -^ ' ^ , . '^ Oti-anto, ruled west of the Hadriatic. i^so. It mii>ht have been deemed that the little cloud which now liohted on Otranto would o-row as fast as the little cloud which a hundred and thirty years before had lighted on Kallipolis. But Bajazet the Second made no conquests save the points which were won from Venice. Selim the First, the greatest conqueror conquest , of Syria of his line ao-ainst fellow Mahometans, had no leisure, and Egypt. _ ^ _ ' 1516-17. while winning Syria and Egypt, to make any advance on Christian oTound. But under Suleiman the Lawgiver, conquests . • T 1 x> ofSulei- not onlv the overlordship but the immediate rule of man. ^ 1520-1.5G6. Constantinople under its Turkish Sultans was spread over wide European lands which had never obeyed its Christian Emperors. Then too its Mussulman lords won back at least the nominal overlordship of that African His African seaboard which the first Mussulmans had rent away overlord- ship. from the allegiance of Constantinople. The greatest conquest of Suleiman was made in Hungary ; but he also made the .^Ega^an an Ottoman sea. The early years of his reign saw the driving of the Knights from llhodes, and the winning of their fortress of Halikarnassos, the last European possession on Asiatic ground. His last G G 2 452 THE EASTEKN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Algiers. 1519. Tunis con- quered by Cliarles the Fifth. 1531. 1535. 1574. Decline of the Ottoman power. Greatest extent of the Otto- man power. Conquest of Crete, 1641-16C9 ; of Podolia, 1G72-1676. The Otto man fron- tier falls back. Ottoman loss of Hungary. Ifi8.3-1699. (lays saw the annexation of the Naxian duchy ; at an intermediate stage Venice lost her Peloponnesian strongholds. In Africa the Turk received the com- mendation of Algiers and of Tunis. But Tunis, won for Christendom by the Imperial King of the Two Sicilies, was lost and won again, till it was finally won for Islam by the second Selim. Tripolis, granted to the Knights, also passed to Suleiman. Under Selim Cyprus was added ; the fight of Lepanto could neither save nor recover it ; but the advance of the Turk was stopped. The conquests of the seventeenth century were small compared with those of earlier days, and, before that century was out, the Ottoman Terminus had begun to go back. Yet it was in the last half of the seventeenth century that the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent. Crete was now won ; a few years later Kamienetz and all Podolia were ceded to the Turk by Poland. This was not absolutely his last European acquisition, but it was his last acquisition of a great province. The Ottoman dominion now covered a wider space on the map than it had done at any earlier moment. Suleiman in all his i>iory had not reio'iied over Cyprus, Crete, and Podolia. The tide now turned for ever. From that time the Ottoman has, like his Byzantine predecessor, had his periods of revival and recovery, but on the whole his frontier has steadily ijfone back. The first great blow to the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire was dealt in the war which was ended by the Peace of Carlowitz. We have seen how Hungary and Pelopomi^sos were won back for Christen- dom ; so was Podolia. We have seen too how at the next DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN TOWER. 453 Stage the Turk gained at one end and lost at the other, chap. winning back Peloponnesos, winning Mykonos and "" ' '"' Tenos, but losino- on the Save and the Danube. The next stao'e shows the Ottoman frontier again in advance ; in our own day we have seen it again fall back. And the change which has given Bosnia and Herzegovina to the master of Dalmatia, Eagusa, and Cattaro, has, besides throwing back the frontier of the Turk, re- dressed a very old geographical wrong. Ever since J^^i^°^°Jud the first Slavonic settlements, the inland region of niyricmn. northern lUyricum has been more or less thoroughly cut off from the coast cities which form its natural outlets. Whatever may be the fate of those lands, the body is again joined to the mouth, and the mouth to the body, and we can hardly fancy them again severed. The same arrano-ements which transferred the ' administration ' of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the King of Hungary and Dalmatia, have transferred another part ists."^' of the Ottoman dominion to a more distant European power on terms which are still less easy to understand. The Greek island of Cyprus has passed to English rule ; but it is after a fashion which may imply that the con- quest of Eichard of Poitou is held — not, it is to be hoped, by the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, but possibly by the Empress of India — as a tributary of the Ottoman Sultan. Durino- the former half of the eighteenth century oAL'^"^ . Turk the shiftings of the Ottoman territory to the north were towards all on the side of Austria or Huncfary, whichever the 454 THE EASTEKN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. Loss and recovery of Azof. IGOC-lTll. Treaty of Kaiiuirdji. 1774. Indepen- dence of Crini. Russian annexation of Crim. 1783. Of Jedisan. 1791. Of Bess- arabia. 1812. Shiftings of the Moldavian frontier. Treaty of Hadria- nople. 1829. Treaty of Paris, 185C; of Berlin, 1878. northern neiolibour of the Turk is to be called. But the Turk saw a new enemy appear towards the end of the seventeenth century, one who was, before the end of the eiahteenth, to stand forth as his chief enemy. Under Peter the Great Azof was won ])v Eussia and lost again. Sixty years later great geographical changes took place in the same region. By the Treaty of Kainardji, the dependent khanate of Crim — the old Tauric Chersonesos and the neiohbourino- lands — was released from the superiority of the Sultan. This was a natural step towards its annexation by Eussia, which thus again made her wav to the Euxine. The Bugr was now the frontier ; presently, by the Eussian annexation of Oczakow and the land of Jedisan, it fell back to the Dniester. By the Treaty of Bucharest the frontier alike of the dominion and of the overlordship of the Turk fell back to the Pruth and the lower Danube. Eussia thus gained Bessarabia and the eastern part of Moldavia. By the Treaty of Hadrianople she further won the islands at the mouth of the Danube. The Treaty of Paris restored to Moldavia a small part of the lands ceded at Bucharest, so as to keep the Eussian frontier away from the Danube. This last cession, with the exception of the islands, was recovered by Eussia at the Treaty of Berlin. But changes of frontier in those regions no longer affect the dominion of the Turk. ^ 9. The Liberated States. Lands liberated from the Ottoman. The losses which the Ottoman power has undergone at the hands of its independent neiglil)ours, Eussia, MonteneoTO, and Austria or Hungary, must be dis- THE IONIAN ISLANDS. 455 tino'uislied from the liberation of certain lands from chap. X. Turkish rule to form new or revived European' states. ^ — We have seen that the kingdom of Hungary and its dependent lands might fairly come under this head, and we have seen in what the circumstances of their liberation differ from the liberation of Greece or Servia or Bulgaria. But it is important to bear in mind that the Turk had to be driven from Hungary, no less than from Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria. If the Turk has ruled at Belgrade, at Athens, and at Tirnovo, he has ruled at Buda no less. All stand in the same opposi- tion to Tzetinje, where he has never ruled. ^ As the Servian people was the only one among the south-eastern nations of which any part maintained its abiding independence, so the enslaved part of the Servian people was the first among the subject nations to throw off the yoke. But the first attempt to form anything like a free state in south-eastern Europe was made amono- a branch of the Greek nation, in the so- called Ionian Islands. But the form which the attempt rj,^^^ j^^^j.^^ took was no lessenino- of the Turkish dominion, but its ^^^^^^^- increase. By the peace of Campoformio, the islands, ceded to with the few Venetian points on the mainland, were to 1797!'^^' pass to France. By the treaty of the next year between septinsu- Eussia and the Turk, the points on the mainland were hc under to be handed over to the Turk, while the islands were oveiioid- to form a commonwealth, tributary to the Turk, 1793. but under the protection of Eussia. Thus, besides an ^ It is quite accurate to say that the Turk has never ruled at Tzetinje. It is perfectly true that the Turk has more than once harried Montenegro and Tzetinje itself ; the Tui-k has professed to consider the land as included in a pashalik ; but Montenegro has never been a regularly and avowedly tributary state, like Servia, Roumania, and Bulgaria. 456 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, advance of the Turk's iniiiiediate dominion on the X. — 1 — ' mainland, his overlordship was to be extended over the tian out- islands, including Corfu, the one island which had posts given , . to the never come under his power, ihe other pomts on the mainland passed, not so much to the Sultan as to his Sunender rebcllious vassal Ali of Joannina ; but Parga kept its 1819. '^ freedom till live years after the general peace. Then the Turk made his last encroachment on Christendom, All Alba- and held for a moment the whole of the Greek and co'utinen- Albanian mainland. The islands meanwhile, tossed to under the aiid fro during- the war between France and Enoiand, Turk. " . . . were at the peace again made into a nominal common- The Ionian wcaltli, but uiidcr a foriii of British protection which it under ^ is iiot casy to distinguish from British sovereignty. Still protection, a nominally free Greek state was ao-ain set up, and the possibility of Greek freedom on a larger scale was practically acknowledged. The Greek It was oiily for a vcry short time that the Turk W^ii' of indepeu- held complctc possession of all Albania and continental dence. 1821. Greece. Two years after the betrayal of Parga began Extent of tlic Grcck War of Independence. The geographical nation. dispositiou of tlic Grcck nation has changed very little since the Latin conquest of Constantinople ; it has changed very little since the later days of old Hellas. At all these stages some other people has held the solid mainland of south-eastern Europe and of western Asia, while the Greek has been the prevailing race on the coasts, the islands, the peninsular lands, of both conti- nents, from Durazzo to Trebizond. Within this range General tlic Grccks rcvoltcd at every point where they were revolt. strong enough to revolt at all. But it was only in the Extent f^ . . . '' of the old Hellenic mainland, and in Crete and others of the liberated territoiy. ^gjeaii islaiids, that the Greeks were able to hold their THESSALY, EPEIROS, AND SERVIA. 457 ground. Of these lands some parts were allowed by chap. Western diplomacy to keep their freedom. A Kinqdoni ^-^' — ' , 7 . -n 1 • 1829-1833. of Greece was formed, taking m Peloponnesos, Euboia, Kingdom the Kyklades, and a small part of central Greece, south of a line drawn from the gulf of Arta to the gulf of Volo. But the Turk was allowed to hold, not only the more distant Greek lands and islands, but Epeiros, Thessaly, and Crete. The kingdom was afterwards Ionian enlarged by the addition of the Ionian islands, whose added to ^ -^ ' Greece. nominal Septinsular Eepublic was merged in the king- i^^i. dom. By the Treaty of Berlin, parts of Thessaly and Treaty of ' Berlin. Epeiros were ordered to be set free and to be added to i878. the kingdom. ' Two years later the new frontier was seoond ^ T r> 1 r^ T £• Treaty of aa'ani traced, so as to enforce the ireedom oi a o-reat Berlin. ! . . . . " , 1880. part of Epeiros, including Joannina. Later still, the promises of Europe have been partly carried out. Thessaly, as a whole, is set free ; so is a very small part Liberation of Epeiros. Arta and Larissa are restored to Chris- only, issi. tendom ; Joannina, a city as truly Greek as Athens, and Parga and Prevesa, points so lately torn away from Christendom, are left in Ijondage. Crete, which had twice arisen, was thrust back at Berlin into bon- dage ; but it has since won practical independence, though it remains still, like Bulgaria, under the nominal suzerainty of the ruler of Turkey. Between the first and the second establishment of First revolt and de- the Ionian commonwealth, Servia had been delivered liveiance of Servia. and had been conquered again. The first revolt made 1805-1812. Servia a tributary principality. It was then won back Second by the Turk and again delivered. Its freedom, modi- deiiver- '' ance. fied by the payment of tribute and by the presence of 1H17-1829. Turkish garrisons in certain towns, Avas decreed by i82fi-i829. 458 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP. X. With- drawal of Turkish garrisons. 1867. Servia in- dependent with an enlarged territory. 1878. Servian territory left to the Turk. the peace of Akerman, and was carried out by the treaty of Iladrianople. Fifty years after the second estabhshnient of the principahty, its practical freedom was made good by the withdrawal of the Turkish oarrisons. The last chano-es have made Servia, under a native dynasty, an independent state, released from all tribute or vassalao^e. The same chans^es have oiven Servia a slight increase of territory. But the boundary is so drawn as to leave part of the old Servian land to the Turk, and carefully to keep the frontiers of the Servian and Montenegrin principalities apart. That is to say, the Servian nation is split into four parts — Monte- negro, free Servia, Turkish Servia, and those Servian lands which are, some under the ' administration,' some under the acknowledged rule, of the King of Hungary and Dalmatia. The Rouman princi- palities. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia. 1861. Indepen- dence of Roumania. 1878. Change of its frontier. While Servia and Greece were under the immediate rule of the Turk, the Eouman lands of Wallachia and Moldavia always kept a certain measure of separate being. The Turk named and deposed their princes, but they never came under his direct rule. After the Treaty of Paris, the two principalities, being again allowed to choose for themselves, took the first step towards union by choosing the same prince. Then followed their complete union as the Principality of Roumania, paying tribute to the Turk, but otherwise free. The last chano-es have made Eoumania, as well as Servia, an independent state. Its frontier towards Eussia, enlarged at Paris, was cut short at Berlin. But this last treaty restored to it the land of Dohrutcha south of the Danube, thus giving the new state a certain Euxine seaboard. More lately still the emancipated TRIPLE PARTITION OF BULGARIA. 459 principality has taken the rank of a kingxloni. Thus the c^\p. Eoumans, the Eomance-speaking people of Eastern ^J^^ Europe, still a scattered remnant in their older seats, mank! have, in their great colony on the Danube, won for themselves a place among the nations of Europe. Lastly, while Servia and Eoumania have been wholly freed from the yoke, a part of Buhjaria has been raised to that position of practical independence which they formerly held. The Eussian Treaty of San The Stefano decreed a tributary principality of Bulsfaria, of san ' J r 1 J Q » Stefano. whose boundaries came most nearly to those of the i878. third Bulo-arian kingdom at its greatest extent. But it was to have, what no Buloarian state had had before, a considerable ^gasan seaboard. This would have had the effect of splitting the immediate dominion of the Turk in two. It would also have had the real fault of adding to Bulgaria some districts which ought rather to be added to free Greece. By the Treaty of Berlin the Treaty of " Berlin. Turk was to keep the whole north coast of the JSgasan, Divisiou of . . . . Bulgaria. while the Bulgarian nation was split into three parts, in three different political conditions. The oldest and latest Bulgarian land, the land between Danube and Balkan, forms, with the exception of the corner Free. ceded to Eoumania, the tributary Principality of Bulgaria. The land immediately south of the Danube, the southern Bulgaria of history — northern Eoumelia, according to the compass — receives the diplomatic name of Eastern Roumelia., a name which would more Half-free. naturally take in Constantinople. Its political condi- tion is described as ' administrative autonomy,' a half- way house, it would seem, between bondage and freedom. Meanwhile in the old Macedonian land, the Enslaved, 460 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. CHAP, land for which Basil and Samuel strove so stoutly, the question between Greek and Bulgarian is held to be solved by handing over Greek and Bulgarian alike to the uncovenanted mercies of the Turk. General ^^^ ^^^^J ^^^^ ^ur survcy of the south-eastern lands urvey. j^^ taking a general view ofxheir geographical position at some of the most important points in their history. At the end of the eighth century we see the Eastern Empire still stretching from Tauros to Sardinia ; but everywhere, save in its solid Asiatic peninsula, it has shrunk up into a dominion of coasts and islands. It still holds Sicily, Sardinia, and Crete, the heel and the toe of Italy, the outlying duchies of Campania, the out- lying duchy at the head of the Hadriatic. In its great European peninsula it holds the whole of the J3ga3an coast, a great part of the coasts of the Euxine and the Hadriatic. But the lord of the sea rules nowhere far from the sea ; the inland regions are held, partly by the great Bulgarian power, partly by smaller Slavonic tribes fluctuating between independence and formal submission. At the end of the next century the general character of the East-Eoman dominion remains the same, but many points of detail have changed. Sardinia and Crete are lost ; a corner is all that is left in Sicily ; but the Imperial power is acknowledged along the whole eastern Hadriatic coast; the heel and the toe have orrown into the dominion of all southern Italy ; all Greece has been won back to the Empire. But the Empire has now new neighbours. The Turanian Magyar is seated on the Daimbe, and other kindred nations are pressing in his wake. Russians, Slaves, that is, under Scandinavian leadership, threaten 900. GENERAL SURVEY. 461 the Empire by sea. The last year of the tenth century chap. shows Sicily wholly lost, but Crete and Cyprus won back ; — '-^ — • Kilikia and northern Syria are won again : Bulararia is won and lost again ; Russian establishment on the Danube is put off for eight hundred years ; the great struggle is going on to decide whether the Slave or the Eastern Eoman is to rule in the south-eastern peninsula. At one moment in the eleventh century we see the dominion of the New Eome at its full height. Europe c. 1040. south of the Danube and its great tributaries, Asia to Caucasus and almost to the Caspian, form a compact body of dominion, stretching from the Venetian isles to the old Phoenician cities. The Italian and insular dominion is untouched ; it is enlarged for a moment by Sicilian conquest. Another glance, half-a-century c. 1090. later, shows the time when the Empire was most fright- fully cut short by old enemies and new. The Servian wins back his own land ; the Saracen wins back Sicily. The Norman in Italy cuts down the Imperial dominion to the nominal superiority of Naples, the last of Greek cities in the West, as Kyme was the first. For a moment he even plants himself east of Hadria, and rends away Corfu and Durazzo from the Eastern world, as Eome rent them away thirteen centuries before. The Turk swallows up the inland provinces of Asia ; he plants his throne at Nikaia, and leaves to the Empire no Asiatic dominion l)eyond a strip of Euxine and jEga3an coast. Towards the end of the twelfth century, c. iiso. the Empire is restored to its full extent in Europe ; Servia and Dalmatia are won back, Hungary itself looks like a vassal. In Asia the inland realm of the Turk is hemmed in by the strong Imperial grasp of the whole coast-line, Euxine, .^goean, and Mediterranean. c. 1200. 4:C)'2 THE EASTERN EMPIRE CHAP- At the next moment comes the beofinnino- of the final overthrow ; before the century is out, the distant possessions of the Empire liave either fallen away of themselves, or have been rent away by other powers. Bulo'aria, Cyprus, Trebizond, Corfu, even Epeiros and Hellas, have parted away, or are in the act of parting away. Venice, its long nominal homage cast aside, 1204. joins with faithless crusaders to split the Empire in pieces. The Flemish Emperor reigns at Constantinople ; the Lombard King reigns at Thessalonike ; Acliaia, Athens, Naxos, give their names to more abiding dynasties ; Venice plants herself firmly in Crete and Peloponnesos. Still the Empire is not dead. The Frank, victorious in Europe, hardly wins a footing in Asia. JN^ikaia and Trebizond keep on the Imperial suc- cession, and a third Greek power, for a moment Imperial also, holds it in Western Greece and the islands. 1250. Fifty years later, the Empire of Xikaia has become an European power ; it has already outlived the Latin dominion at Thessalonike ; it has checked the revived power of Bulgaria ; it has cut short the Latm Empire to the immediate neighbourhood of the Imperial city. To the north Servia is streno'thenino- herself; Bosnia is coming into being ; the Dalmatian cities are tossed to and fro amono- their neiglibours. Another oiance at the 1300. end of the thirteenth century shows us the revived East- Eoman Empire in its old Imperial seat, still in Europe an advancing and conquering power, ruling on the three seas of its own peninsula, established once more in Peloponnesos, a compact and seemingly powerful state, as compared with the Epeirot, Achaian, and Athenian principalities, or with the scattered possessions of Venice in the Greek lands. But the power which seems so GENERAL SURVEY. 463 firmly established in Europe lias all but passed away in chap. Asia. There the Turk has taken the place of the Greek, and the Greek the place of the Frank, as they stood a hundred years earlier. And behind the immediate Turkish enemies stands that younger and mightier Turkish power which is to swallow up all its neigh- bours, Mussulman and Christian. In the central years of the fourteenth century we see the Empire hemmed c. 1354. in between two enemies, European and Asiatic, which haye risen to unexpected power at the same time. Part of Thrace, Chalkidike, part of Thessaly, a few scattered points in Asia, are left to the Empire ; in Peloponnesos alone is it an adyancing power ; every- where else its frontiers haye fallen back. The Servian Tzar rules from the Danube to the Gulf of Corinth. The Ottoman Emir has left but a few frao-ments to the Empire in Asia, and has already fixed his grasp on Europe. Before the century is ended, neither Constan- 1400. tinople, nor Servia, nor any other Christian power, is dominant in the south-eastern peninsula. The Ottoman rules in their stead. The Empire is cut short to a corner of Thrace, with Thessalonike, Chalkidike, and the Peloponnesian province which now forms its greatest possession. Instead of the great power of Servia, we see a crowd of small principalities, Greek, Slavonic, and Albanian, falling for tlie most part under either Ottoman or Venetian supremacy. The Servian name is still borne by one of them ; but its prince is a Turkish vassal ; the true representative of Servian in- dependence has already begun to show itself among the mountains which look down on the mouths of Cattaro and the lake of Skodra. Bulgaria has fallen lower still ; the Turk's immediate power reaches to the 464 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. cm\p. Danube, l^osuia at one end, the Frank principalities at the other end, the Venetian islands in either sea, still hold out ; but the Tui-k has begun, if not to rule over them, at least to harry them. Within the memory of men who could remember when the Empire of Servia was not yet, who could remember when the eagles of Constantinople still went forth to victory, the Ottoman had become the true master of the South-Eastern lands ; whatever has as yet escaped his grasp remained simply as remnants ready for the gleaning. 1500. We will take our next glance in the later years of the fifteenth centur}^, a few years after the death of the great conqueror. The momentary break-up of the power of the Ottoman has been followed by the greatest of his conquests. All now is over. The New Eome is the seat of barbarian power. Trebizond, Peloponnesos, Athens, Euboia, the remnant of independent Epeiros, Servia, Bosnia, Albania, all are gathered in. The islands are still mostly untouched ; but the whole mainland is conquered, save where Venice still holds her outposts, and where the warrior prelates of the Black Mountain, the one independent Christian power from the Save to Tainaros, have entered on their career of undying glory. With these small exceptions, the whole dominion of the Macedonian Emperors has passed into Ottoman hands, together with a vast tributary dominion beyond the Danube, much of which had never 1600. bowed to either Eome. At the end of another century, we see all Hungary, save a tributary remnant, a subject land of the Turk. We see Venice shorn of Cyprus and all her Peloponnesian possessions. The Dukes have Sfone from Xaxos and the Knights from Ehodes, and the Mussulman lord of so many Christian lands has GENERAL SURVEY. 465 spread his power over his fellow Mussulmans in Syria, chap, Egypt, and Africa. Another century passes, and the "- — — ' tide is turned. The Turk can still conquer ; he has won Crete for lono- and Podolia for a moment. But the crescent has passed away for ever from Buda and from the Western isles ; it has passed away for a moment from Corinth and all Peloponnesos. At the end of another century we see the Turk's immediate isoo. possession bounded by the Save and the Danube, and his overlordship bounded by the Dniester. His old rivals Poland and Venice are no more ; but the power of Austria hems in his Slavonic provinces ; France struggles for the islands off his western shore ; Eussia watches him from the peninsula so long held by the free Goth and the free Greek. Seventy-eight years ists. more, and his shadow of overlordship ends at the Danube, his shadow of immediate dominion ends at the Balkan. Free Greece, free Servia, free Pioumania — Thessaly set free, while Joannina is denied the boon issi. twice promised — Montenegro again reaching to her own sea — Bulgaria parted into three, but longing for reunion — Bosnia, Herzegovina, Cyprus, held in a mysterious way by neighbouring or distant European powers — all join to form, not so much a picture as a dissolving view. We see in them a transitional state of things, which, at each of its stages, diplomacy fondly believes to be an eternal settlement of an eternal ques- ,tion, but of which reason and history can say only that we know not what a day may bring forth. VOL. I. II II CHAPTEE XI. THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Lands beyond j the two Empires. Quasi- Imperial position of certain)! powers. The British islands. Scandi- navia. Empire of Cnut. Our survey of the two Empires and of the powers which sprang out of them has still left out of sight a large part of Europe, including some lands which formed part of the elder Empire. It is only indirectly that we have spoken of the extreme north, the extreme east, or the extreme west, of Europe. In all these regions powers have risen and fallen which might pass for shadows of the two Empires of Rome. Thus in the north-west lie two great islands with a following of smaller ones, of which the elder Empire never held more than part of the greater island and those among the smaller ones which could not be separated from it. Britain passed for a world of its own, and the princes who rose to a quasi-lm-pevml position within that world took, by a kind of analogy, the titles of Empire.^ In the extreme north are a larger and smaller peninsula, with their attendant islands, which lay wholly beyond the elder Empire, and of which the later Western Empire took in only a very small part for a short time. The momentary union of these two insular and penin- sular systems, of Britain and Scandinavia, formed more truly a third Empire of the North, fully the fellow of those of the East and West.^ In the south-west of ' See above, p. 161. LANDS BEYOND THE EMPIRES. 467 Europe again lies another peninsula, which was fully chap. incorporated with the elder Empire, parts of which — ^-^r^^ — ' at two opposite ends — belonged to the Empire of Justinian and to the Empire of Charles, but whose history, as a whole, stands apart from that of either the Eastern or the Western Roman power. And in Spain also, as being, like Britain, in some sort a world of its own, the leading power asserted an Imperial rank. As Wessex had its Emperors, so had Castile. Castuian •"■ _ Emperors. Britain, Scandinavia, and Spain, thus form three History of marked geographical wholes, three great divisions of beyond the Empires. that part of Europe which lay outside the bounds of either Empire at the time of the separation. But the geographical position of the three regions has led to marked differences in their history. Insular Britahi is whoUy oceanic. Peninsular Spain and Scandinavia Geographi- cal com- have each an oceanic side ; but each has also a side parison of Scandi- towards one of the o-reat inland seas of Europe — Spain naviaand •-^ -^ -^ Spam. towards the Mediterranean, Scandinavia towards the northern Mediterranean, the Baltic. But the Baltic side of Scandinavia has been of far greater relative importance than the Mediterranean side of Spain. Of the three chief Spanish kingdoms Aragon alone has a Position of 1 . 1 1 f> /~< •! Aragon in Mediterranean history ; the seaward course oi Castile the Medi- r\r- 1 1 ci T • terranean. and Portugal was oceanic. Of the three Scandinavian kingdoms Norway alone is wholly oceanic. Denmark is more Baltic than oceanic ; the whole historic life of Position of - . ,P,, -^ ,. Sweden in Sweden lies on the Baltic coasts, ihe Mediterranean the Baltic. position of Aragon enabled her to win whole kingdoms as her dependencies. But they were not geographically continuous, and they never could be incorporated. Sweden, on the other hand, was able to establisii a con- tinuous dominion on both sides of the great northern H U 1! 468 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Growth and decline of Sweden. Eastern and western aspects of Scandi- navia. The Baltic lands gene rally. The Northern Slavonic lands. gulfs, and to make at least a nearer approach to the incorporation of her conquests than Aragon could ever make. The history of Sweden mainly consists in the growth and the loss of her dominion in the Baltic lands out of her own peninsula. It is only in quite modern times that the union of the crowns, though not of the kingdoms, of Sweden and Norway has created a power wholly peninsular and equally Baltic and oceanic. This eastern aspect of Scandinavian history needs the more to be insisted on, because there is another side of it with which we are naturally more likely to be struck. Scandinavian inroads and conquests — inroads and conquests, that is, from Denmark and Norway — make up a large part of the early history of Gaul and Britain. When this phase of their history ends, the Scandinavian kingdoms are apt to pass out of our sights till we are perhaps surprised at the great part which they suddenly play in Europe in the seventeenth century. But both Denmark and Sweden had mean- while been running their course in the lands north, east, and south of the Baltic. And it is this Baltic side of their history which is of primary importance in our general European view. It follows then that, for the purposes of our present survey, while the British islands and the Spanish pen- insula will each claim a distinct treatment, we cannot separate the Scandinavian peninsulas from the general mass of the Baltic lands. We must look at Scandi navia in close geographical connexion with the region which stretches from the centre to the extreme east of Europe, a region which, while by no means wholly Sla- vonic, is best marked as containing the seats of the northern branch of the Slavonic race. This region has a GENERAL VIEW OF THE BALTIC LANDS. 469 constant connexion with both German and Scandinavian chap. XI. history. It takes in those wide lands, once Slavonic, ;; — ^ '' ' German- which have at various times been more or less j^f*^ . blavonic thoroughly incorporated with Germany, but which did ^■^"^^• not become German without vigorous efforts to make large parts of them Scandinavian. In another part of our survey we have watched them join on to the Teutonic bod}^ ; we must now watch them drop off from the Slavonic body. And with them we must take Noithera Slaves another oiimiDse at those amono- the Northern Slaves who unciei- ^ i- o Hungary passed under the power of the Magyar, and of that com- °^ Austria. posite dominion which claims the Magyar crown among many others. These Xorth-Slavonic lands which have passed to non-Slavonic rulers form a region stretclnng from Holstein to the Austrian kino-dom of Galicia and Lodomeria and to the Slovak and Euthenian dis- tricts of Hungary. But above all, this Xorth-Slavonic region takes in those two branches of the Slavonic race which have in turn lorded it over one another, neither of which passed permanently under the lordship of either Empire, but one of which owed its unity and national life to settlers from the Scandinavian North. ' That is to say, it is the land of the Pole and the Eussian, cimrac- the land of the two l^ranches of the Slavonic race which Poland and T? t1 GO] O passed severally under the spiritual dominion of the elder and the younger Eome without passing under the The "..' . ., 4 1 'I'l primitive temporal domnuon ol either. And within the same nations. region we have to deal with the remnant that is left of those ancient nations, Aryan and non- Aryan, which so Aryan long refused* all obedience to either Church as well as to PrussiaAs , . o,nA Litliu- either Empire. The region at which we now look takes anians. in the land of those elder brethren of the European family whose speech has changed less than any other 470 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Non-Aryan Fins. Central position of the North- Slavonic lands. Barbarian neighbours of Russia and Scan- dinavia. European tongue from the Aryan speech once common to all. Alongside of the Orthodox Eussian, of the Catholic Pole, of the Swede first Catholic and then Lutheran, we have to look on the long abiding heathendom of the' Lithuanian and the Prussian.^ And at their side we have to look on older races still, on the prse-Aryan nations on either side of the Bothnian and Finnish gulfs. The history of the eastern coast of the Baltic is the history of the struggle for the rule or the destruction of these ancient nations at the hands of their Teutonic and Slavonic neighbours. The whole North-Slavonic region, north-eastern rather than central with regard to Europe in general, has still a central character of its own. It is con- nected with the history of northern, of western, and of south-eastern Europe. The falling away of so many Slavonic lands to Germany is of itself no small part of German history. But besides this, the strictly Polish and Eussian area marches at once on the Western Empire, on the lands which fringe the Eastern Empire, on the Scandinavian North, and on the bar- barian lands to the north-east. This last feature is a characteristic both of the North-Slavonic region and of the Scandinavian peninsula. Norway, Sweden, Eussia, are the only European powers whose land has always marched on the land of barbarian neighbours, and which have therefore been able to conquer and colonize in barbarian lands simply by extending their own frontiers. This was done by Norway and Sweden as far as their ^ A common name for these closely allied nations is sometimes needed. Lettie is the most convenient; Lett, with the adjective Lettish, is the special name of one of "the obscurer members of the family. THE NORTH-SLAVONIC LANDS. 471 geographical position allowed them ; but it has been done chap. on a far greater scale by Eussia. While other European — ^-^— ' ^ -^ ^ Eussiau nations have conquered and colonized by sea, Eussia, conquest -•• J ^ 7 and colo- the one European state of later times which has marched I'f'lf^^ upon Asia, has found a boundless field for conquest and colonization by land. She has had her India, her Canada, and her Australia, her Mexico, her Brazil, her Java, and her Algeria, geographically continuous with her European territory. This fact is the key to much in the later history of Eussia, With regard to the two Empires, the lands round Relation of the Baltic show us several relations. In Scandinavia, lands to the two Norway stands' alone in never having had anything to Empires. do with the Eoman power in any of its forms. Sweden aiways^in- itself has always been equally independent ; but in later delations times Swedish kings have held fiefs within the Western aLi rSr" Empire. The position of Denmark has naturally caused Emphe. ^^ it to have much more to do with its Eoman or German neiohbour. In earlier times some Danish kinos became vassals of the Empire for the Danish crown ; others made conquests within the lands of the Empire. In later times Danish kinos have held fiefs within the German kingdom and have been members of the more modern Confederation. The western parts of the Slavonic region became formally part of the Western Empire. The Em- But this was after the Empire had put on the character pire and ^ ^ theWest- of a German state ; these lands were not drawn to it from Slavonic lands. its strictly Imperial side. Poland sometimes passed in poiandana early days for a fief of tlie German kingdom ; in later days Empire. it was divided between the two chief powers which Eeiations of Russia arose out of that kinodom. Eussia, on the other hand, to the ^ . Eastern the pupil of the Eastern Empire, has never been the chmch subject or the vassal of either Empire. When Eussia Empu-e. 472 THE liALTlC LANDS. CHAP, had an external overlord, he was an Asiatic barbarian. The peculiar relation between Eussia and Constantinople, spiritual submission combined with temporal indepen- impeiiai deuce, has led to the appearance in Eussia of Imperial Russia. ideas and titles with a somewhat different meanino- from that with which they were taken in Spain and in Britain. The Eussian prince claims the Imperial style and bearings, not so much as holding an Imperial position in a world of his own, as because the most powerful prince of the Eastern Church in some sort inherits the position of the Eastern Emperor in the general world of Europe. ^ 1. The Scandinavian Lands after the Separation of the E7npires. At the end of the eii^hth century the Scandinavian and Slavonic inhabitants of the Baltic lands as yet hardly touched one another. The most northern . Scandinavians and the most northern Slaves were still far apart ; if the two races anywhere marched on one another, it must have been at the extreme south-western TheBai- comcr of tlic Baltic coast. The greater part of that mainly coast, all its northern and eastern parts, was still held held by the . . ^ earlier by tlic carlicr nations, Aryan and non- Aryan. But, Formation witliiii tlic two Scandiiiaviaii iDcninsulas, the three scandi- Scandinavian nations were fast forming. A number kingdoms, of kiiidrcd tribes were settling down into the king- doms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden,^ which, sometimes separate, sometimes united, have existed ever since. Of these three, Denmark, the only one which had a frontier towards the Empire, was naturally the first to ' See above, p. 131. THE THREE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. 473 play a part in general European history. In the course chap. XI. Formation of the tenth century, under the half-mythical Gorm and his successors Harold and Sven, the Danish kino-dom ^ ^\ itself, as distinguished from other lands held in after '""g'^°'"- times by its kings, reached nearly its full historical extent in the two peninsulas and the islands between them. Halland and Skdne or Scania, it must always be Denmark remembered, are from the beginning at least as Danish northern ';;;'. '"' , peninsula. as Zealand and Jutland. The Eider remamed the frontier Frontier towards the Empire, save during part of the tenth and Eider, eleventh centuries, when the Danish frontier withdrew to the Dannewerk, and the land between the two boundaries formed the Danish Marcli of the Empire. The Danish Under Cnut the old frontier was restored. March. 9S4-1027. The name of Northmen,^ which the Franks used in a, laxer waj^ for the Scandinavian nations generally, was confined to the people of Norway. These were formed Formation of the into a sinoie kinadom under Harold Harfao-ra late in kingdom ° ^ . ^ of Norway. the ninth century. The Norwegian realm of that day stretched far beyond the bounds of the later Norway, having an indefinite extension over tributary Finnish tribes as far as the White Sea. The central part of the eastern side of the northern peninsula, between Denmark to the south and the Finnish nations to the north, was held by two Scandinavian settlements which o-rew into the Swedish kino-dom. These were ' See Einhard, Annals A. 815, wheie we read, 'trans ^gidoram fluvium in terram Nordmannorum . . . perveniunt.' So Vita Karoli 12: * Dani ac Sueones quos Nortmannos vocamus,' and 1 4, * Nortmanni qui Dani vocantur.' But Adam of Bremen (ii. ?<) speaks of 'mare novissimum, qi;od Nortmannos a Danis dirimit.' But the name includes the Swedes : as in i. 63 he says, ' Sueones et Gothi, vel, si ita melius dicuntur, Nortmanni,' and i. 16, ' Dani etceteri qui trans Daniam sunt populi ab historicis Francorum omnes Nordmanni vocantur.' 474 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. The Swedes and Gauts, The Swedish kingdom. Fluctua- tions towards Norway and Den- mark. 1111. Growth to the north. Western expedi- tions of the Danes and North- men. Conquests. those of the Swedes strictly so called, and of the Gedtas or Gauts. This last name has naturally been confounded with that of the Goths, and has given the title of King of the Goths to the princes of Sweden. Gothland, east and west, lay on each side of Lake Wettern. Swithiod or Svealarid, Sweden proper, lay on both sides of the great arm of the sea whose entrance is guarded by the modern capital. The union of Svealand and Gothland made up the kingdom of Sweden. Its early boundaries towards both Denmark and Norway were fluctuating. Wermeland, immediately to the north of Lake Wenern, and Jamteland farther to the north, were long a debateable land. At the begin- ning of the twelfth century Wermeland passed finally to Sweden, and Jamteland for several ages to Norway. Bleking again, at the south-east corner of the peninsula, was a debateable land between Sweden and Denmark which passed to Denmark. For a land thus bounded the natural course of extension by land lay to the north, along the west coast of the gulf of Bothnia. Li the course of the eleventh century at the latest, Sweden began to spread itself in that direction over Helsing- land. Sweden had thus a better opportunity than Denmark and Norway for extension of her own borders by land. Meanwhile Denmark and Norway, looking to the west, had their great time of Oceanic conquest and coloniza- tion in the ninth and tenth centuries.^ These two pro- cesses must be distinguished. Some lands, like the Northumbrian and East- Anglian kingdoms in Britain and the duchy of Normandy in Gaul, received Scandinavian princes and a Scandinavian element in their population, 1 See above, pp. 131, 158-9. SCANDINAVIAN SETTLEMENTS. 475 without the geographical area of Scandinavia being chap. extended. But that area may be looked on as being — ' extended by colonies like those of Orkney, Shetland, Colonies. Faroe, the islands off the western coast of Scotland, Man, Iceland, Greenland. Some of these lands were actually discovered and settled for the first time by the Northmen. The settlements in the extreme north of Britain, in Caithness and Sutherland, and those on the coast of Ireland, Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, may settie- also pass as outposts of Scandinavia on Celtic ground. Ireland. Of these outlying Scandinavian lands, some of the islands, especially Iceland, have remained Scandinavian ; the settlements on the mainland of Britain and Ireland, and on the islands nearest to them, have been merged in the British kingdoms or have become dependencies of the British crown. Ao-ainst this vast rano-e of Oceanic settlement there Expedi- ^ ^ tion to the is as yet little to set in the form of Baltic conquest on east. the part of Norway and Denmark. Norway indeed hardly could become a Baltic power. But there was a Danish occupation of Samland in Prussia in the tenth Danes in Samland. century, which caused that land to be reckoned among 950. the kingdoms which made up the Northern Empire of Cnut.^ There is also the famous settlement of the Jonisburq Wikin^'s at the mouth of the Oder. But the Jomsburg. , . 935-10-13. great eastern extension of Danish power came later. Nor did the lasting Swedish occupation of the lands east of the gulf of Bothnia begin till the twelfth century. But there is no doubt that, long before this, there were Swedish inroads and occasional Swedish conquests in other parts of the Baltic lands. Thus Curland is said Swedish conquest of to have been won for a while by Sweden, and to have curiand. ^ See Adam of Bremen, iv. 16. 476 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Scandi- navians in Russia. been again won back by its own Lettic people.^ The ninth century indeed saw a wonderful extension of Scandinavian dominion far to the east and far to the south. But it was neither ordinary conquest nor ordi- nary settlement. No new Scandinavian people was planted, as in Orkney and Iceland. Nor were Scandi- navian outposts planted, as in Ireland. But Scandinavian princes, who in three generations lost all trace of their Scandinavian origin, created, under the name of Russia, the greatest of Slavonic powers. The vast results of their establishment have been results on the history and geography of the Slaves ; on Scandinavian geography it had no direct effect at all. Still it forms a connecting link between the Scandinavian lands west and north of the Baltic and the Slavonic region to the east and south of that sea. Slaves between Elbe and Dnieper. Their lack of sea- board. § 2. Tlie Lands East and Soitth of the Baltic at the Separation of the Empires. At the beginning of the ninth century the inland region stretching from the Elbe to a line a little beyond the Dnieper was continuously held by various Slavonic nations. Their land marched on the German kingdom at one end, and on various Finnish and Turkish nations at the other. But their seaboard was comparatively small. Wholly cut off from the Euxine, from the northern Ocean, and from the great gulfs of the Baltic, their only coast was that which reaches from the modern haven of Kiel to the mouth of the Vistula. And this Slavonic coast was gradually brought under German influence and dominion, and has been in the end fully incorporated with the German state. It follows then ' See Adam of Bremen, iv. 16. THE GREAT SLAVONIC GROUPS. 477 that, in tracing the history of the chief Slavonic powers chap. in this region, of Bohemia, Poland, and Eussia, we are • — ' dealing with powers which are almost wholly inland. At the time of the separation of the Empires, there was no one great Slavonic power in these parts. One such, with Bohemia for its centre, had shown itself for a moment in the seventh century. This was the Bohemian kingdom of Samo, which, if its founder was reallv ofsamo. - 523. of Frankish birth, forms an exact parallel to Bulgaria and Eussia, also Slavonic powers created by foreign princes.^ The next considerable power which arose nearly on the same ground was the Great-Moravian Great- kingdom of Sviatopluk, which passed away before the 884. advance of the Magyars. Before its fall the Eussian power had already begun to form itself far to the north-east. Looking at the map just before the be- Four Slavonic gmnnig of the momentary Moravian and the lastnig groups. Eussian power, the North-Slavonic nations fall into four main historical groups. There are, first, the tribes to Korth- the north-west, whose lands, answering roughly to the group" modern Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony, have been thoroughly germanized. Secondly, thomushiy there are the tribes to the south-west in Bohe^nia, fz*eT^"' Moravia, and Lusatia, which were brought under south- German dominion or supremacy, but from which group Slavonic nationality has not in the same sort passed German , , . , supre- away. Stlesia, connected in diiferent wa\'S with both macy. these groups, forms the link between them and the third group. This is formed by the central tribes of the whole ^ The origin of Hamo and the chief seat of his dominion, ■whether Bohemia or Carinthia, is discussed by Professor Fasching of Maiburg (Austria) in the Zioeiter JaJiresbericht der kk. Staats- Oherrealschule in Marburg, 1872. 478 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Central group ; Polish. Eastern group ; IBussian. region, lying between the Magyar to the south and the Prussian to the north, whose union made up the original Polish kingdom. Lastly, to the east lie the tribes which joined to form the original Eussian state. Looking at these groups in our own time, we may say that from the first of them all signs of Slavonic nationality have passed away. The second and third, speaking roughly, keep nationality without political independence. The fourth group has grown into the one great modern power whose ruling nationality is Slavonic. With regard to the first group, we have now to trace from the Slavonic side the same changes of frontier which we have already slightly glanced at from the German side. In the land between the Elbe and the Oder, taking the upper course of those rivers as repre- sented by their tributaries the Saale and the Bober, we find that division of the Slaves which their own historian marks off as Polahic} These again fall under three groups. First, to the south, in the modern Saxony, are the Sorabi, the northern Serbs, cut off for ever from their southern brethren by the Magyar inroad. To the north of them lie the Leuticii, Weleti, Weletabi, or Wiltsi, and other tribes stretching to the Baltic in modern Mecklenburg and western Pomerania. In the north-west corner, in Mecklenburg and eastern obotrites: Holstciu, wcrc the Obotrites, Wagri, and other tribes. tion to the Through the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries the lEmpire. ° relation between these lands and the Western Empire was not unlike the relation of the southern Slaves to the Eastern Empire during the same ages. Only ' See Schafarik, Slawische Alterthmner, ii. 503. "Polabic group. Sorabi. Leuticii. THE POL ABIC SLAVES. 479 the Western Emperors never had such a rival on chap. XI. their immediate border as the Bulgaria of Simeon ^ — '- — ' or Samuel. The Slavonic tribes on the north-eastern Fiuctua- border of the Western Empire were tributary or in- tribute and indepen- dependent, accordmof as the Empire was strono- or dence. . 921-968. weak. Tributary under Charles the Great, tributary again under the great Saxon kings, they had an inter- mediate period of independence. The German do- minion, which fell back in the latter part of the tenth century, was again asserted by the Saxon dukes and margraves in the eleventh and twelfth. Long before Final the end of the twelfth century the work was done. The German dominion, and with it the Christian re- ligion, had been forced on the Slaves between Elbe and Oder. The Serbs between Elbe and Saale seem to have conquest been the earliest and the most thoroughly conquered, sorabi. They never won back their full independence after the victories of the first Saxon kings. The Serbs between Elbe and Bober, sometimes tributary to the Empire, were also sometimes independent, sometimes under the superiority of kindred powers like Poland or Bohemia. The lands included in the mark of Meissen were Meissen. thoroughly germanized by the twelfth century. But in the lands included in the mark of Lausitz or Lusatia the Lusatia. Slavonic speech and nationality still keep a firm hold. The Leutician land to the north was lost and won The , • -n •! 1 r^ r, 1 Leuticians. over and over agam. Braniboi\ tlie ijerman Branaen- hurg, was often taken and retaken during a space of two 927-1157. hundred years. Late in the tenth century the whole 983. land won back its freedom. Li the eleventh it came 1030-1101. under the Polish power. At last, the reign of Albert the Bear finally added to Germany the land which 1184-11.-.7. 480 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP, XL Kingdom of Scla- viuia. Prze- niyslaf. 1161. House of Mecklen- burg. Eiigen under Denmark. 1168-1325. 1214-1223. was to contain the latest German capital, and made Brandenburg a German mark. In the land lying on that narrow part of the Baltic which bore the special name of the Slavonic Gulj\ the alternations of revolt and submission, from the ninth century to the twelfth, were endless. Here we can trace out native dynasties, one of which has lasted to our own day. The mark of the Billungs^ alternates with the kingdom of Sdavinia, and the king- dom of Sclavinia alternates between heathen and Christian princes. At last, in the twelfth century, the last heathen Kino- of the Wends became the first Christian Duke, the founder of the house of Mecklen- burg. Part of this region, Western Pomerania and the island of Rugen, became, both in this and in later times, a special borderland of Germany and Scandinavia. Eiigen and the neighbouring coast became a Danish possession in the twelfth century, and so remained into the fourteenth. The kingdom of Sclavinia itself became Danish for a short season. A Scandinavian power appeared again in the same region in the seventeenth century. With these exceptions, the history of these lands from the twelfth century onward, is that of members of the German kingdom. Kingdom of Bo- hemia. It was otherwise with the second group, with the Slaves who dwelled within the fence of the Giant Moun- tains, and with their neighbours to the north-east, on the upper course of the Oder as well as on the Wag and the northern Morava. Here a Slavonic kingdom has lived on to this day, though it early passed under Ger- man supremacy, and though it has been for ages ruled ^ See above, p. 198. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. 481 by German kings. Bohemia, the land of the Czechs, chap tributary to Charles the Great, part of the kingdom of — -^ — ' Sviatopluk, became definitely a German fief through 928. the wars of the Saxon kinos. But this did not hinder Bohemia from becoming, later in the century, an ad- vancing and conquering power, the seat of a short-lived dominion, like those of Samo and Sviatopluk. To the Moravians and east of the Czechs of Bohemia lie the Moravians and Slovaks. Slovaks, that branch of the Slavonic race which formed the centre of the kingdom of Sviatopluk, and which bore the main brunt of the Magyar invasion. A large part of the Slaves of this region fell permanently under Magyar Magyar . ^ ^ _ conquest of rule : so did Moravia itself for a season. Since then Moravia. ' _ _ 906-955. Bohemia and Moravia have usually had a common Advance of destiny. Later in the century the Czechish dominion 973-999. " reached to the Oder, and took in the jSTorthern Chiv- hatia on the upper Vistula. This dominion passed away with the areat o-rowth of the Polish power. Bohemia Bohemia . and itself for a moment, Moravia for a somewhat lono-er Moravia "^ under time, became Polish dependencies, and the Magyar won ^i'^.^^f'- a further land between the Wag and the Olzava. Later events led to another growth of Bohemia, in more 1003-1029. forms than one, but always as a member of the Eoman Empire and the German kingdom. While our second group thus passed under German dominion without ceasing to be Slavonic, among the third group a great Slavonic power arose whose The Polish adhesion to the Western Church made it part of the general Western world, but which was never brought under the lasting supremacy of the Western Empire. Large parts of the old Polish lands have passed itsreia- under German rule ; some parts have been largely Germany. VOL. 1. II 482 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Rivalry of Poland and Russia. The Leclis or Poles. Wliite Chrobatia. Polish tribes. Beginning of the Polish kingdom at Gnesen, 931-992. Conversion of Poland. germanized. But Poland, as a whole, has never been either germanized or brought under lasting German rule. Holding the most central position of any European state, Poland has had to struggle against enemies from every quarter, against the Swede from the Baltic and the Turk from the Danube. But the distinguishing feature of its history has l^een its abiding rivalry with the Slavonic land to the east of it. The common history of Poland and Eussia is a history of conquest and partition, wrought by whichever power was at the time the stronger. Our first glimmerings of light in these parts show us a number of kindred tribes holding the land between Oder and Vistula, with the coast between the mouths of those rivers. East of the Vistula they are cut off from the sea by the Prussians ; but in the inland region they stretch somewhat to the east of that river. To the west the Oder and Bober may be taken as their boundary. But the upper course of these rivers is the home of another kindred people, the northern branch of the Chrobatians or Croats, whose land of TVhite Chrobatia stretched on both sides of the Carpa- thians. These Slaves of the central and lower Oder and Vistula would seem to be best distinguished as Lechs ; Poland is the name of the land rather than of the people. Mazovia, Cujavia, Silesia — the German Schlesien — with the sea land, Pornore, Pommern, or Pomerania, mark different districts held by kindred tribes. In the tenth century a considerable power arose for the first time in these regions, having its centre between the Warta and the Vistula, at Gniezno or Gnesen, the abiding metropolitan city of Poland. The extent of the new power under the first Christian THE LECHS OR POLES. 483 prince Mieczislaf answered nearly to the later Great chap. XI. Poland, Mazovia, and Silesia. But the Polish duke ^— ^ — ' Tributary l^ecame a vassal of the EmiDire for his lands west of t°*^? J- Jiiinpire. Warta, and suffered some dismemberments to the ad- ^*^'^" 973. vantage of Bohemia. Under his son Boleslaf, Poland conquests rose to the same kind of momentarv greatness to which ooe-iossf Moravia and Bohemia had already risen. The do- minions of Boleslaf took in, for lono-er or shorter times, Bohemia, Moravia, Lusatia, Silesia, Pomerania, Prussia, part of Piussia, and part of that middle Slavonic land which became the mark of Brandenburo- the dis- tricts of Barnim and Gastrin. Of this o-reat dominion some parts fell away durino- the life of Boleslaf, and other parts at his death. But he none the less esta- Effects of blished Poland as a power, and some of his conquests were abiding, Western Pomerania, Silesia, Barnim and Custrin, were kept for a longer or shorter time ; and Chrobatia north of the Carpathians— the southern part chrcbatia becomes fell to the Magvar at his death — remained, under the Lutie ^^ Poland. name of Little Poland., as long as Poland lasted at all. It supplied the land with its second capital, Cracow. From this time Poland ranked sometimes as a kino-dom, sometimes as a duchy. ^ Constant divisions among mem- internal *' . '' divisions. bers of the ruling house, occasional admissions of the outward supremacy of the Empire, did not destroy its national unity and independence. A Polish state always ThePoiisii lived on. And from the end of the thirteenth century, survives, it took its place as an important European kingdom, holding a distinctive position as the one Slavonic power ^ The Pole.s claim Boleslaf the First n.s the fir.st king. But Lambert (1067), who .strongly insists on the tributary condition of Poland, makes Boleslaf the Second the first king. In any case the i-oyal dignity was forfeited after the death of Bt)leslaf the Second. I I 2 484 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP, at once attached to the Western Church and indepen- XI. . — ' dent of the Western Empire. To the east of the Lechs and Chrobatians hiy that great gronp of Slavonic tribes whose distinctive histori- Reiations cal character is that they stood in the same relation to of Russia to the Eastern Christendom in which Poland stood to Western. Eastern Church. Disciples of the Eastern Church, they were never vassals Teutonic of thc EastcHi Empire. The Western Slaves were among brou2;ht uudcr Christian and under Teutonic influences eastern and *" i • i • t i i • western l)y tJie samc proccss, a process which niiplied submis- sion, or attempted submission, to the Western Empire or to some of its princes. The Eastern Slaves were also brought under both Christian and Teutonic influences, but in wholly different shapes. The Teutonic influence came first. It did not take the form of submission to any existing Teutonic power ; it was the creation of Russia a new Slavonic power under Teutonic rulers. Chris- created by the Scan- tlaultv did uot come till those Teutonic influences had dniavian *' settlement. ^[q^\ away, cxccpt ill tlicir results, and, coming from the Eastern centre of Christendom, it had the effect of keeping its disciples aloof from both the Christian and the Teutonic influences of the West. A group of Sla- vonic tribes, without losing their Slavonic character, grew up to national unity, and took a national name The name from Scandinavian settlers and rulers, the Warangians or Russians of the Swedish peninsula.^ ' There can be no doubt that the Kussian name strictly belongs to the Scandinavian rulers, and not to the Slavonic people. See Schafarik, i. 65 ; Historical Essays, iii. 386. The case is parallel to that of the Bulgarians and the Franks. Whether the name Bus is a real Scandinavian name or only a name applied to the Swedes by the Fins, in either case it was as the name of a Scandinavian people that it was first heard in the Slavonic lands. ORIGIN OF RUSSIA 485 The Russian power began by the Scandinavian chap. * XL leaders obtainino- in the latter half of the ninth century, , . ^ •^' Origin of the domniion of the most northern members of the Kussia. 862. Slavonic race, the Slaves of Nox^gorod on the Ilmen. First Thence they pushed their dominion southwards. East Novgorod. and north-east of the Lechs and Chrobatians lay a Russian "^ advance. crowd of Slavonic tribes stretching beyond the Dnieper Extent of t^ 1 1 f* fill qt ii'|*v» as far as the upper course of the Oka. Cut off from Slavonic IT the Baltic by the Fins and Letts, they were cut off from the Euxine by various Turanian races in turn, first Magyars, then Patzinaks. To the south-east, from the Dnieper to the Caspian, lay the Chazar dominion, to which the Slaves east of Dnieper were tributary. To the north-east lay a crowd of Finnish tribes, among which is only one Finnish power of historic name, the kingdom of Great or Black Bulgaria on the Volga. Within this region, in the space of fifty years, the Union of various Slavonic tribes ioined in different des^rees of slaves. •^ , ^ . 862-912. unity to form the new power, called Russian from its Scandinavian leaders. The tribes who were tributary Advance against to the Chazars were set free, and the Russian power chazars and Fins. was spread over a certain Finnish area on the Upper Volga and its tributaries, nearly as far north as Lake Bielo. The centres of the new power were, first Nov- Second T^' ' 1 T-v • centre at gorod, and then KieJ on the Dnieper. Kief. How early the Scandinavian rulers of the new The rulers Slavonic power became themselves practically Slavonic become . Slavonic. is shown by the name of the prmce Sviatoslaf, of 957-972. whom we have already heard in the Danubian Bulgaria. Already had Russian enterprise taken the direction which Russian it took in far later days. It was needful for the deve- lopement of the new Russian nation that it should have free access to the Euxine. From this they were cut off Euxine. 486 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Conquests on the Caspian. Vladimir takes Cherson. 989. Isolation of Russia. Russian lands west of Dnieper, Russian princi- palities. 1054. Supremacy of Kief ; of the Northern Vladimir, 1169. by a strange fate for nine hundred years. But from the very beginning more than one attempt was made on Constantinople, though the Tzargrad, the Imperial city, could be reached only by sailing down the Dnieper through an enemy's country. Sviatoslaf also appears as a conqueror in the lands by the Caucasus and the Caspian, and Vladimir, the first Christian prince, won his way to baptism by an attack on the Imperial city of Cherson. The oldest Eussia was thus, like the oldest Poland,, emphatically an inland state ; but Eussia was far more isolated than Poland. Its ecclesiastical position kept it from sharing the history of the Western Slaves. Its geographical position kept it from sharing the history of the Servians and Bulo-arians. And it must not be forgotten that the oldest Eussia was formed mainly of lands which afterwards passed under the rule of Poland and Lithuania. Little Russia, Black Russia, White Russia, Red Russia, all came under foreign rule. The Dnieper, from which Eussia was afterwards cut off, was the great central river of the elder Eussia ; of the Don and the Volga she held only the upper course. The northern frontier barely passed the great lakes of Ladoga and Onega, and the Gulf of Finland itself It seems not to have reached what was to be the Gulf of Eiga, but some of the Eussian princes held a certain supremacy over the Finnish and Lettish tribes of that region. In the course of the eleventh century, the Eussian state, like that of Poland, was divided among princes of the reigning family, acknowledging the superiority of the great prince of Kief. In the next century the chief power passed from Kief to the northern Vladimir on the Kliasma. Thus the former Finnish land of Siisdai XI. Susdal Russian. DIVISION OF EUSSIA. 487 on the upper tributaries of the Volga became the cradle chap of the second Eussian power. Novgorod the Great meanwhile, under elective princes, claimed, like its Cominou- neighbour Pskof (Pleskaii), to rank among common- ^^^^*^'^** wealths. Its dominion was spread far over the Finnish ^"'^ ^^^°^- tribes to the north and east ; the White sea, and, far more precious, the Finnish gulf, had now a Eussian seaboard. It was out of Vladimir and Novgorod that the Eussia of the future was to grow. Meanwhile a Theprinci- crowd of principalities, Polotsk, Smolensk, the Severian ^* ^ ^^^" Novgorod, Tchernigof, and others, grew up on the Duna and Dnieper. Far to the east arose the commonwealth common- of Viatka, and on the frontiers of Poland and Huno-arv vktka. ! . . . ... 1174. lay the principality oi Halicz or Galicia, which afterwards Haiicz or grew for a while into a powerful kingdom. use. Meanwhile in the lands on the Euxine the old The enemies, Patzinaks and Chazars, gave way to the ni4. Cumans^ known in Eussian history as Polovtzi and Parthi. They spread themselves from the Ural river to the borders of Servia and Danubian Bulgaria, cutting off Eussia from the Caspian. In the next century 1223. Eussians and Cumans — momentary allies — fell before the advance of the Mongols, commonly known in Mongol invasion. European history as Tartars. Known only as ravagers in the lands more to the west, over Eussia they become overlords for two hundred and fiftv years. All that 1238-40, Russia escaped absorption by the Lithuanian became tributary' ma-^e ^ to the Mono-ol. Still the relation was only a tributarv to the o J ^ Mongols. one ; Eussia was never incorporated in the Mongol dominion, as Servia and Bulgaria were incorporated in 1240. the Ottoman dominion. But Kief was overthrown ; Kief. Vladimir became dependent ; Novgorod remained the .^".fg." sented by ' See above, pp. 367, 440. Novgorod. 488 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP, true representative of free Eussia in the Baltic XL ^ lands. But besides the Slaves of Poland and Eussia, our The earlier survev takes in also the ancient races by which both races on *^ "^ the:Baitic. Poland and Eussia were so largely cut off from the Baltic. Down to the middle of the twelfth century, notwithstanding occasional Polish or Scandinavian occujDations, those graces still kept their hold of the wliole Baltic north-eastwards from the mouth of the Fins in Vistula Tlic non-Aryan Fins, besides their seats to and' the north, still keiDt the coast of Esthland and Livland, Esthland. in Latin shape Esthonia and Livonia, from the Finnish gulf to the Duna and slightly beyond, taking in a small TheLettic Strip of tlic oppositc pcuiusula. The inland part of the later Livland was held by the Letts, the most northern branch of the ancient Aryan settlers in this curiand. rcgiou. Of tliis family were the tribes of Curland in their own peninsula, of Samigola or Semigallia, the Samogitia. Samaites of Samogitia to the south, the proper Lithu- Lithuania. aiiiaus soutli of tlicm, the Jatwages, Jatvingi — in many spellings — forming a Lithuanian wedge between the Slavonic lands of Mazovia and Black Eussia. The Lithuanians, strictly so called, reached the coast just north of the Niemen ; from the mouth of the Niemen to the mouth of the Vistula the coast was held by the Prussia. Prussians. Of these nations, Aryan and non-Aryan, the Lithuanians alone founded a national dominion in historic times. The history of the rest is simply the history of their bondage, sometimes of their uprooting. Survey in Taking a sjeneral survey of the lands round the the twelfth . century. Baltic about the middle of the twelfth century, we see THE ELDER RACES. 489 the three Scandinavian kingdoms, the first fully formed chap. states in these regions, all living and vigorous powers, - — ^ — - but with fluctuating boundaries. Their western colonies are still Scandinavian. East and south of the Baltic they have not got beyond isolated and temporary enterprises. The Slavonic nations on the middle Elbe have fallen under German dominion ; to the south, Bohemia and its dependencies keep their Slavonic nationality under German supremacy. Poland, often divided and no longer conquering, still keeps its frontier, and its position as the one independent Slavonic power belonging to the Western Church. Eussia, the great Eastern Slavonic power, has risen to unity and greatness under Scandinavian masters, and has again broken up into states connected only by a feeble tie. The submission of Eussia to barbarian invaders comes later than our immediate survey ; but the weakening of the Eussian power both by division and by sub- mission is an essential element in the state of things which now begins. This is the spread in different Teutonic ^ ■*■ ^ ^ advance, ways of Teutonic dominion, German and Scandinavian, German •over the southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic, scandi largely at the expense of the Slaves, still more largely at the expense of the primitive nations, Aryan and non- Aryan. § 3. The German Dominion on the Baltic. In the first half of the twelfth century, no Teutonic power, German or Scandinavian, had any lasting hold on any part of the eastern coast of the Baltic or its gulfs, nor had any such power made any great advances on the southern coast. Early in the fourteenth century 11 avian 490 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. Time of Teutonic conquest. German influence stronger than Scandi- navian Extent of German dominion. German influence abiding. Beginning of Swedish conquest in Finland. 1155. German conquest in Livland. the wliole of these coasts had been brought into different degrees of submission to several Teutonic powers^ German and Scandinavian. Of the two influences the- German has been the more abiding. Scandinavian do- minion has now wholly passed away from these coasts, and it is only in the lands north of the Finnish gulf that it can be said to have ever been really lasting.. But German influence has destroyed, assimilated, or brought to submission, the whole of the earlier inhabi- tants, from Wagria to Esthland. In our own day the- whole coast, from the isle of Eiigen to the head of the- Gulf of Bothnia, is in the possession of two powers, one German, one Slavonic. But German influence abides, beyond the bounds of German rule. Not only have Pomerania and Prussia become German in every- sense, l:)ut Curland, Livland, and Esthland, under the- dominion of Eussia, are still sj)oken of as German, provinces. This great change was brought about by a singular- union of mercantile, missionary, and military enterprise.. The beginning came from Scandinavia, when the Swedish King Saint Eric undertook the conquest and) conversion of the proper Finland, east of the Gulf of Bothnia. Here, in the space of about a century, a great province was added to the Swedish kingdom, a/ province whose eastern boundary greatly shifted, but the greater part of which remained Swedish down tO' the present century. To the south of the Gulf of Fin- land the changes of possession have been endless. The settled dominion of Sweden in those lands comes later ;. Danish occupation, though longer, was only temporary. Soon after the beginning of Swedish conquest in Fin- land began the work of German mercantile enterprise,. SCANDINAVIAN AND GER3IAN ADVANCE. 491 followed fifty years later by German conquest and chap. conversion, in Li viand and the neiohbourino- lands. Founda- This hindered the growth of any native power on those t'?*^ of coasts. Even Lithuania in the days of its greatness was ^^^^• cut off from the sea. Wliatever tendencies towards Lithuania and Russia. Eussian supremacy had arisen in those parts were hindered from o-rowino- into Eussian dominion. The Kniorhts of the Sword in Livland were followed bv the The . ^ . . . MiUtary Teutonic Knights in Prussia, and the two orders became Oi^ers. one. Further west, the latter part of the twelfth and the beoinnino- of the tliirteenth century saw a great, Danish ° ^ . . *', & ' advance. but mostly short-Uved, extension of Danish power over both German and Slavonic lands. Wliile the coasts are T}ie Scan- dinavian thus chanoino- hands, the relations of the Scandinavian kingdoms, kingdoms to one another are ever shifting. Poland is Polish "^ , . . 1 1 Ml n 8«'iiis and ever losnig territory to the west, and, still more alter losses. the beoinnino- of its connexion with Lithuania, ever gaining it to the east. And, alongside of princes and The sovereign orders, this time is marked by the appearance of the first germs of the great German commercial league, which, without becoming a strictly territorial power, exercised the greatest influence on the disposal of power among all its neighbours. In Scandinavia itself the chief strictly geographical chano-e was a temporarv transfer to Sweden in the Scania ^ X - _ ^ Swedish. fourteenth century of the Danish lands within the 1332-1300. northern peninsula. At the end of that century came the union of Calmar, the principle of which was that union of . . 1 T 1 Calmar. the three kingdoms, remaining separate states, should 1397. be joined under a common sovereign. But this union was never firmly established, and the arrangements of the three crowns were shifting throughout the fifteenth 492 THE BALTIC LANU3. CHAP, century ; a lasting state of things came only with the ,^^ — ?■ — ' final breach of the union in the sixteenth century. Debark' ^^*^^^"^ ^^^^^ time, Sweden, under the house of Yasa, t^ymrited. ^^^'^^^^ ^^^ power ; Denmark and Xorway, under the 1O-20. house of Oldenburor form another. Loss of With regard to the more distant relations of the oceanic . . . colonies, three kmgdoms, this period is marked by the gradual withdrawal of Scandinavian power from the oceanic Iceland lauds. The union of Iceland and Greenland with Bor- land united way was the union of one Scandinavian land with to Norway. 1261-1262. another. But Greenland, the most distant Scandinavian land, vanishes from history about the time of the Calmar union. The Scandina\'ian settlements in and about the British Islands all passed away. The Ost- ii-eiand. j^-^g^ Qf Ireland were lost in the mass of the Teutonic The settlers who passed from Eno-land into Ireland, The Western ■*■ "- Man' Western Isles were sold to Scotland ; Man passed under ^-^^- Scottish and Enolish supremacy. Orkney and Shetland Orkney '^ . ' pledged, were pledged to the Scottish crown : and, thousfh never 1468. re ' 5 c^ formally ceded, they have become incorporated with the British kins^dom. Swedish East of the Gulf of Bothnia Swedish rule advanced. Finland. Attempts at conquest both in Eiissia and in Esthland failed, but Finland and Carelia were fuUy subdued, and 1248-1293. the Swedish power reached to Lake Ladoga. Denmark Esthland luadc a more lasting, but still short-lived, settlement in 1238-1346. Esthland. The sfrowth of Denmark at the other end of the Baltic lands beo-an earlier and was checked Short-lived soouer. But at the becfinnins^ of the thirteenth century greatness o o j of Den. things lookcd as if Denmark was about to become the mark. ~ chief power on all the Baltic coasts. South of the boundary stream of the Eider the Hoistein. laiids which make up the modern Holstein formed three MOMENTARY GREATNESS OF DENMARK. 493 settlements, two Teutonic and one Slavonic. To the west chap. lay the free Frisian land of Ditmarschen. In the middle Dit- were the lands of the Saxons beyond the Elbe — the marschen. Holtscetan — with Stormarn immediately on the Elbe. Hoistein. On the Baltic side lay the Slavonic land of JJ'agria, wagria. which at the beginning of the twelfth century formed j^art of the kingdom of Sclavinia, a kingdom stretching from the haven of Kiel to the islands at the mouth of the Oder. In these lands began the eastern advance of Danish Denmark in the latter half of the twelfth century. All sdavink° bclaviina was won, with at least a supremacy over the Pomeranian land as far as the Eiddow. Thus far the Danish conquests, won mainly over Slaves, continue the chain of occasional Scandinavian occupation on those coasts, from the tenth century to the nineteenth. In another point of view, the Christian advance, the over- throw of the chief centre of Slavonic heathendom in Eiigen, carries on the work of the Saxon Dukes. But in the first vears of the next century becran a Danish Danish . advance u> occupation of German ground. Holstem, and Liibeck cei-many. itself, were won ; a claim was set up to the free land of Ditmarschen ; and all these conquests were confirmed by an Imperial grant. ^ The Danish kings took the 1214. title of Kings of the Slaves, afterwards of the Vandals or Wends. But this dominion was soon broken up by the captivity of the Danish king Waldemar. The Fail of Eider became ao'ain the boundarv. Of her Slavonic power, dominion Denmark kept only an outlyiiiu" fragment, 1 This dociiment, granted at ]\retz in 1214, will be found in Breholles' Ilistoria Diplomatica Friderici Secundi, i. 347. It reads like a complete surrender of all Imperial rights in both the German and the Slavonic conquests of Waldemar. But it may be that it seems to have that meaning only because the retreating of Terminus was deemed inconceivable. 1223-l'22r 494 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Denmark ikeeps Riigen, till ceded 1438. Duchy of ;South- ■Jutland. 1232. United with Holstein. 1825. Duchy of Sleswick. Fluctua- tions of Sleswick ^and Holstein. 1424. 1448. 1460. Duchy of Holstein. 1474. the isle of Riigen and the neio'hbourino- coast. This remained Danish for a hundred years longer, nominally for a hundred years lono-er still. The next changes tended to draw the lands imme- diately on each side of the Eider into close connexion with one another. The southern part of the Danish peninsula, from the Eider to the Aa, became a distinct fief of the Danish crown, held by a Danish f)rince under the name of the duchy of South- Jutland — -Jutia or Sunder- Jutia. In the next century this duchy and the county of Holstein are found in the hands of the same prince, and it is held that his grant of the Danish duchy con- tained a promise that it should never be united with the Danish crown. Henceforth South- Jutland beo^ins to be spoken of as the duchy of Sleswick. But of the lands held too-ether, Sleswick remained a fief of Den- mark, while Holstein remained a fief of the Empire. The duchy was several times united to the crown and ao-ain oranted out. At one moment of union the Roman King Sigismund expressly confirmed the union, and acknowledo-ed Sleswick as a Danish land. At the next grant of the duchy, its perpetual separation from the crown is alleged to have been again confirmed by Christian the First. Yet Christian himself, already king of the three kingdoms, was afterwards elected Duke of Sleswick and Count of Holstein. The election was accompanied by a declaration that the two princi- palities, though the one was held of the Empire and the other of the Danish crown, should never be sepa- rated. In the same reign an Imperial grant raised the counties of Holstein and Stormarn with the land of Dit- marschen to the rank of a duchy. But the dominions of its duke were not a continuous territory stretching DUCHIES OF SLESWICK AND HOLSTEIN. 495 from sea to sea. To the west, Ditmarschen — notwith- chap. XI. standino- a renewed Imperial grant — remained free ; to - — ^--^ — - ^ r b Freedom the east, some districts of the old Waoria formed the >» ^it- *- inarschen. bishojiric of Liiheck. But now for the first time the Bishopric , of Liibeck. same prince reigned m the threefold character of King Denmark, of Denmark, Duke of the Danish fief of Sleswick, and ^^1"^^"^ ' Duke of the Imperial fief of Holstein. Endless shiftings, under divisions, and reunions of various parts of the two duchies followed. In the partitions between the royal ^"/^^^.^i and ducal lines of the house of Oldenburg, the several \1^q portions of the Kings of Denmark and of the Dukes of Gottorp paid no regard to the boundary of the Eider, but each was made up of detached parts of both duchies. Meanwhile the freedom of Ditmarschen came to an end, conquest ' ofDit- and the old Frisian land became part of the royal share marschen. ■*■ '' li)59. of the duchy of Holstein. And, as we began our story Acquisi- of Danish advance with the settlement in Esthland, we Dago and have to end it for the present with the acquisition of the islands of Dago and Oesel off the same coasts. After the loss of Riigen, Denmark had little to do Effect of ^ . c ^ • n ^'^® Danish with the Slavonic lands, except so far as the possession of advance . . . on the Holstein carried with it the possession of the old Slavonic Slavonic •*■ hinds. land of Wagria. StiU the advance of Denmark at the end of the twelfth century had a lasting" effect on the Slavonic lands by altogether shaking the Polish dominion on the Baltic. But it shook it to the advantage, not of Scandinavia, but of Germany. Between the twelfth century and the fourteenth Poland lost all its western dominions. Pomore, Pommern, Pomerania, the sea- Pomerania falls away board of the Lechish Slaves, is strictly the land between from ' -^ Poland. the mouth of the Vistula and the mouth of the Oder ; but the name had already spread further to the west. 496 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Duchy of Slavia. 1208-1305. Loss of western territoiy by Poland. 1220-1260. Silesia. 1289-1327. After the fall of the Danish power on this coast, Pomerania west of the Eiddow altogether fell away from Poland. As the duchy of Slavia, it became, like Mecklenburg, a land of the Empire, though ruled by Slavonic princes. But the eastern part of Pome- rania, Cassubia and the mark of Gdansk or Da?izii/, remained under Polish superiority till the beginnino- of the fourteenth century. Then the greater part fell away, partly for ever, to the Pomeranian duchy of Wolgast, partly, for a season only, to the Teutonic Knights. To the south Barnim and Custrin passed, after some shiftings, to the mark of Brandenburg. Further to the south, Silesia, divided among princes of the house of Piast, gradually fell under Bohemian supremacy. Thus the whole western part of the Polish kingdom passed into the hands of princes of the Empire, and was included within the bounds of the German realm. Boliemia under Ottocar. 1269-1278. His German dominion. The fate of Silesia brings us again to the history of the inland Slavonic land of the Czechs. Bohemia went on, as duchy and kingdom,^ ruled by native princes as vassals of the Empire. Moravia was a fief of Bohemia. In the end Bohemia passed to German kings, but not till it had become again the centre of a dominion which recalls the fleeting powers of Samo and Sviatopluk. Ottocar the Second united the long- severed branches of the Slavonic race by annexing* the German lands which lay Ijetween them. Lord of Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Car- ^ VratLslaf, who reigned from 1061 to 1092, is called the first king of Bohemia, but his royal dignity was only personal. The suc- cession of kings begins only with Ottocar the First, who reigned from 1197 to 1230. THE BOHEMIAN KINGDOM. 497 niola, the Czech king reigned on the npper Oder and chap. the middle Danube as far as the Hadriatic. The same ~ ' — ' lands were in after times to be ao-ain united, but from the opposite side. The successors of Ottocar reio-ned only over Luxem- Bohemia and Moravia. Earlv in the next century the kings of Bohemia. Bohemian crown passed to the house of Luxemburg, isos. Under them Bohemia became a powerful state, but a state becoming more and more German, less and less Slavonic. The gradual extension of Bohemian superiority over siiesia, Silesia led to its formal incorporation. In the same century Lusatia. Hio-h and Low, was won from Bran- Lusatia. •^ . ' c ' ^ 1320-1370. denburg. The mark of Brandenburg itself became for Brandeu- a while a Bohemian possession, before it passed to the 1373-1417. burggraves of Xllrnberg. The Bohemian possession of the Upper Palatinate lies out of our Slavonic range. 1353. Among the revolutions of the fifteenth century, we find the Bohemian crown at one time held conjointly with that of Hungary, at another time held by a Polish prince. Later in the century the victories of Matthias Conquests of Matthias Corvinus took away Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, from corvinus. 1178-149U the Bohemian crown. But it was the fourfold dominion of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, which finally Bohemia ' ' ' _ " and passed to the House of Austria, to be shorn of its Austria, northern and eastern lands to the profit, first of Saxony, 1635?^^^^" and then of Brandenburg or Prussia. 1740. Thus far the Teutonic advance, both on the actual Baltic coast and on the inland Slavonic region, had been made to the profit, partly of the Scandinavian kingdoms, partly of the princes of the Empire. But there were two other forms of Teutonic influence and *3termnM corpora- dominion, which fell to the share, not of princes, but of ^''''^'•■ VUJ>. I. K K 498 THE BALTIC LANDS. <^^/^^' corporate bodies, mercantile and military or religious. The Hanseatic Lea^'ue was a power indeed in these The o 1 Hansa. rcgions, biit it hardly has a place on the map. Even fmmdftion before the second foundation of Lilbeck by Henry the of Lubeck. i^[q^^ German mercantile settlements had begun at Novgorod, in Gotland, and in London. Gradually, in the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Leaorue into which the union of the merchant Extent of towus of Germany grew spread itself over the League. Baltic, tlic Wcstfaliau, and the Netherlandish lands. A specially close tie bound together the five Wend- ish towns, Lilbeck^ Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, and Nature of Gveifswald. But tlic uuiou of a town with the the union. Hansa did not necessarily affect its political posi- tion. It might, at least in the later stages of the League, be a free city of the Empire, a town subject to some prince of the Empire, or a town subject to a prince beyond its bounds. Not only the Pome- ranian and Prussian cities under the rule of the Knights, but Eevel in Esthland under Danish rule, formed part The Hansa of tlic Lcasfue. Tlic Lcaoue wao-ed wars, made peace, not a * . '"'... territorial overtlircw and set up kin^s, as suited its interests ; but power. -"■ '-' territorial dominion, strictly so called, was not its object. Still in some cases privileges grew into some- thing like dominion ; in others military occupation might pass for temporary dominion. Thus in the isle The Hansa of Gotland the Hansa had an ascendency which was and overthrown by the conquest of the island by the Danish Scania. 1361. king Waldemar, a conquest avenged by a temporary 1368-1385. Hanseatic occupation of Scania. Li fact the nature of the League, the relations of the cities to one another, geographical as well as political, hindered the Hansa from ever becoming a territorial power like Switzerland THE H.VNSA AND THE KNIGHTS. 499 and the United Provinces. In the history of the BaUic ^1-P- '' XI. lands it takes for some ages a position at least eqnal ~ '~~^ to that of any kingdom. Bnt it is only casually and oc- casionally that its triumphs can be marked on the map. The other great German corporation was not com- mercial, but militar}^ and religious. The conquests of TheSwoi-a- •^ o A bearers the Order of Christ and of the Order of Saint Mary— ^""^ *'^«. •^ Teutonic better known as the Sword-brothers and the Teutonic *-''^'^®^- Order — were essentially territorial. These orders be- came masters of a great part of the Baltic coast, and wherever they spread their dominion, Christianity and German national life were, by whatever means, esta- blished. As both the chiefs of the Order aud the "^^^^^^^ . connexion Livonian prelates ranked as princes of the Empire, the Em';*!^® conquests of the Knights were in some sort an extension of the bounds of the Empire. Yet we can hardly look on Livonia and Prussia as coming geographically within the Empire in the same sense as Pomerania and Silesia.^ But whether strictly an extension of the Effects of their rule. Western Empire or not, the conquests of the Knights were an extension of the Western Church, the Western world, and the German nation, as against both heathen- dom and Eastern Christianity, as against all the other Baltic nationalities, non-Aryan and Aryan. The first settlement began in Livland. In the TheSword- beginnino- of the thirteenth century, the Kni"hts of the in Livinnd. ^ ^ . 1201. Order of Christ were called in as temporal helpers by ^ i J Founda- Bishop Albert of Riga, and they gradually won the ^^n^of dominioiT of the lands on the gulf called from his city, ^'-^"i- For a while they had a partner in the Danish crown. The which held part of Estldand. But the rest of EsthLand, Estwand. ' [Livonia may be described as a transmiiriue colony of the Empire.] K K 2 500 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Extent of their dominion. Dago and Oesel. Esthland. 134C. The Teutonic Order in Prussia. 1226. Union of the Orders. 1237. Purchase of Pomereha. 1311. Conquest of Samo- gitia. 1384. Occupation of Gotland. 1398-1408. The New Mark pledged to the Order. 1402. Their coast line. Losses of the Prussian Knights, Samogitia restored to Lithuania. 1410. Livlaiul ill the narrower sense, Curland, Semigola, the special Lettish hind, and the Eussian territory on the Duna, made up this Livonian dominion, which was afterwards enlarged by the isles of Dago and Oesel and by the Danish portion of Esthland. Riga and Bevel became great commercial cities, and Eiga became an ecclesiastical metropolis under a prince-archbishop. The natives were reduced to bondage, and the Eussian powers of Novgorod and Polotsk were effectually kejDt away from the gulf. The dominion of the KniCThts of Saint Marv, the Teutonic Order, in Prussia and in a small part of Lithuania, began a little later than that of the Sword- brothers in Li viand. Livited by a Polish prince, Con- rad of Mazovia, they received from him their first Polish possession, the palatinate of Culm. Eleven years later the Prussian and Livonian orders were united. Their dominion grew. Their acquisition of Pomerelia, the eastern part of the old Pomore, immediately west of the lower Vistula, cut off Poland from the sea. Later in the century, Lithuania was equally cut off by the cession of Samogitia. The isle of Gotland was held for a while ; the A^eiv Mark of Brandenbiirg was pledged by King Sigismund. The whole coast from Narva on the Finnish gulf to the point where the Pomeranian coast trends south-west formed the unbroken seaboard of the Order. Of the two seats of the Order the northern one proved the stronger and more lasting. Livland re- mained untouched longf after Poland had won back her lost ground from the Prussian Knights. The battle of Tannenbero" won back Samooitia for Lithuania, and again parted the Livonian and Prussian lands of the GROWTH OF THE TEUTONIC ORDEE. 501 Order. By the peace of Thorn its Prussian dominion chap. was altoQ-ether cut short. Culm and Pomerelia, with ^^^^'t^ o ' Peace of the cities of Danzig and Thorn, went back to Poland. '1^^^^' And a hiro-e part of Prussia itself, the bishopric of cessions of ^ \ ^ , . ^ _ the Order Ermeland, a district running deep into the land still to Poland, left to the knio;hts, was added to Poland. The rest of vassaiage ^ ' _ of the Prussia was left to the Order as a Polish fief. o^^«^- The thirteenth century was the special time when Teutonic dominion spread itself over the Baltic lands. It was also the time when heathendom gave way to Advance of Chris- Christianity at nearly every point of those lands where tianity. it still held out. But, while the old creeds and the old races were giving way, a single one among them stood . forth for a while as an independent and conquering- Lithuania •^ . ^ . ^ the last state, the last heathen power in Europe. While all heathen •*■ ■'• power. their kinsfolk and neighbours were passing under the yoke, the Lithuanians, strictly so called, showed them- selves the mightiest of conquerors in all lands from the Baltic to the Euxine. From their own land on Advance of _^. . . , Lithuania. the Niemen they began, under their prince Mendog, c. 1220. to advance at the expense of the Eussian lands to the south. Mendog embraced Christianity, and was Mendog king. crowned King of Lithuania, a realm which now 1252. stretched from the Duiia beyond the Priepetz. But heathendom again won the upper hand, and the next century saw the great advance of the Lithuanian power, the momentary rule of old Aryan heathendom alike over Christendom and over Islam. Under two conquests conquering princes, Gedvmin and Olgierd, further con- luissia. ^ ^ ^ ' ^ O ' ^ 1315-1340. quests were made from the surrounding Eussian lands. 1345-1377. The Lithuanian dominion was extended at the expense 1315-1360. of Xovgorod and Smolensk ; the Lithuanian frontier 502 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Vollij'nia and Podolia. Perekop. 1363. Consolida- tion of Poland. 1295-1320. Conquests of Casimir the Great. 1333-1370. Red Russia. 1340. Annexed to Hun- gary. 1377. Union of Poland and Lithuania. 1386. Volhynia and Podolia added to Poland. Recovery of Red Russia. 1392. stretclied far beyond both the Duiia and the Dnieper ; Kief was a Lithuanian possession. The kingdom of Galicia lost Volhynia and Podolia, which became a land disputed between Lithuania and Poland. These last conquests carried the Lithuanian frontier to the Dniester, and opened a wholly new set of relations among the powers on the Euxine. By the conquest of the Tartar dominion of Perekojy, Lithuania, cut ofi from the Baltic, reached to the Euxine. Meanwhile Poland, from a collection of duchies under a nominal head, had ao-ain Q-rown into a consoli- dated and powerful kingdom. The western frontier had been cut short by various German powers, and the Teu- tonic Order shut off the kingdom from the sea. Mazovia and Cujavia remained separate duchies ; but Great and Little Poland remained firmly united, and were ready to enlaro-e their borders to the eastward. Casimir the Great added Podlachia, the land of the Jatvingi, and in the break-up of the Galician kingdom, he incorporated Red Russia as being a former possession of Poland. But, as it had also been a former possession of Hungary,^ Lewis the Great, the common sovereign of Huno'ary and Poland, annexed it to his southern kingdom. The two powers which had thus grown up were now to be gradually fused into one. Jagiello, the heathen prince of Lithuania, became, by conversion and marriage, a Christian Kino- of Poland. He enlaro-ed the kingdom at the expense of the duchy, by incor- porating Podolia and Volhynia with Poland, making Poland as well as Lithuania the possessor of a large extent of Eussian soil. The older Eussian territory of Poland, Eed Eussia, was won Ijack from Hungar}^ ; Moldavia ' See above^ p. 442. UNION OF POLAND AND LITHUANIA. 503 beo-aii to transfer its fleetino- alleoiance from Hunoary to chap. Poland ; within Hungary itself part of the county oi Zips ^[^[^^~^ was j^ledged to the Polish crown. The Polish duchies Pledge of Zips. now began to fall back to the kingdom. Cujavia came in 1^12. early in the fifteenth century, and parts of Mazovia in its oilhT^^ course. Of the relation of the kino-dom to the Teutonic duchies. order we have already spoken. Lithuania meanwhile, as 1463-1476. part of Western Christendom, remained, under its sepa- rate grand-dukes of the now royal house, the rival both of Islam and of Eastern Christendom. Under Wit old Conquests , ofWitold. the advance on Eussian ground was greater than ever. 1392-1430. Smolensk and all Severia became Lithuanian ; Kief lay in the heart of the grand duchy ; Moscow did not seem far from . its borders. Lithuania was presently cut Loss of short further to the south by the loss of its Euxine 1474. dominion. At the beginning of the sixteenth century closer -r> 1 1 • •*" "^ • • • union of Poland and Lithuania were united as distinct states Poland and Lithuania. under a common sovereign. But by that time a new i^oi- state of thinos had begun in the lands on the Duna and the Dnieper. While the military orders had thus established themselves on the Baltic coast, and had already largely given way to the combined Polish and Lithuanian power behind them, a new Russia was growing up Revival of behind them all. Cut off from all dealings with Western Europe, save with its imniediate western neighbours, cut off from its own ecclesiastical centre by the advance of Mussulman dominion, the new power of Moscow was schoolino- itself to take in course of Power of *" Moscow. time a greater place than had ever been held by the elder power of Kief. The Mongol conquest had placed the Eussian principalities in much the same position 504 THE BALTIC LANJ3S. CHAP. XI. The Russian princes dependent on the Golden Horde. Homage of Novgorod. 1252-1263. Moscow the new centre. c. 1328, Name of Muscovy. Other Russian states. Decline of the Mongol power. as tliat tlirougli whicli most of the south-eastern lands passed l)efore they were finally swallowed up by the Ottoman. The princes of Kussia were de- pendent on the Tartar dominion of Kij/tchak, which stretched from the Dniester north-eastwards over boundless barbarian lands as far as the lower course of the Jenisei. Its capital, the centre of the Golden Horde., was at Sarai on the lower course of the Volga. Even Novgorod, under its great prince Alexander Nevsk}^ did homage to the Khan. But this dependent relation did not, like the Lithuanian conquests to the west, affect the geographical frontiers of Eussia. The liussian centre at the time of the Mongol conquest was the northern Vladimir. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, Moskva, on the river of that name, grew into importance, and early in the next century it became the centre of Eussian life. From Moskva or Moscow comes the old name of Muscovy, a name whicli historically describes the growth of the second Eussian power. Muscovy was to Eussia what France in the older sense was to the whole land which came to bear that name. Moscow was to Eussia all, and more than all, that Paris was to France. It was to Moscow as the centre that the separate Eussian princi- palities fell in ; it was from Moscow as the centre that the lost Eussian lands were won back. Besides Novgo- rod, there still were the separate states of Viatka, Pskof, Tver, and liiazan. Disunion and dependence lasted till late in the fifteenth century. But the Tartar power had already begun to grow weaker before the end of the fourteenth, and the invasion of Timour, while making Eussia for a moment more completely subject, led to the dissolution of the dominion of the older Khans. GROWTH OF MUSCOVY. 505 111 the course of the fifteenth century the fjreat chap. •^ ^ XI. ]30wer of the Golden Horde broke up into a number „ — :■ — ^ ■"■ Break-up of smaller klianats. The khanat of Cinm — the old ^, *^'^ , Mongol Tauric Chersonesos — stretched from its peninsula in- p°'^^''- Khanat of wards along the greater part of the course of the Don. C"™; The khanat of Kazan on the Volga supplanted the 1433 ; old kingdom of Black Bulgaria. Far to the east, on the lower course of the Obi, was the khanat of Siberia. The Golden Horde itself was represented by of Siberia the khanat of Astrakhan on the lower Volga, with its of Astra- khan. capital at the mouth of that river. Of these Grim and Kazan were immediate neishbours of the Muscovite state. The yoke was at last broken by Ivan the Great. Deliver- ance of Seven years later he placed a tributary prince on the Russia. throne of Kazan, and himself took the title of Prince 1437. of Bulgaria. By this time the khans of Grim had Crim dependent become dependents of the Ottoman Sultans, the beo-in- on the ^ . ottoman. ning of the lons; strife l^etween Eussia and the Turk in Europe. But before Muscovy thus became an independent Advance •^ -^ of Moscow power, it had taken the greatest of steps towards grow- >» Russia. inff into Eussia. Nov£?orod the Great, the only Eussian Annexa- ^ ^ ^ _ _ tion of rival of Moscow, first lost its northern territory, and Novgorod. ' _ . . 1471-8; then itself became part of the Muscovite dominion. The of viatka, . 1489 • commonwealth of Viatica.^ the principality of Tver.^ and of Tver, some small appanages of the house of Moscow followed. The annexation of what remained, as Pskof and Riazan, Reign of Basil was only a question of time, and it came in the next ivano- •^ i- ' ^ vitch, reign. Of the three works which were needful for the 1505-1533. A full growth of the new Eussia, two were accomplished, tion of Pskof The Eussian state was one, and it was independent. i5io;'and Riazan, And the third work, that of winning back the lost 1521. Eussian lands, had already beiiiin. united and 606 THE BALTIC LANDS. indepen- dent. CHAP. Thus, at the end of the fifteenth century, five powers held the Bahic coast. Sweden held the west coast from the Danish frontier northward, with both sides Survey at the end of the o-ulf of Botliuia and both sides of the o-ulf of of the ° o fifteenth Finland. Denmark held the extreme western coast century. . and the isle of Gotland. Poland and Lithuania had a small seaboard indeed compared to their inland extent. Poland had only the Pomeranian and Prussian coast which she had just won from the Knights. Lithuania barely touched the sea between Prussia and Curland. To the west of the Polish coast lay the now germanized lands of Pomerania and Mecklenburo-. To the north- west lay the coast of the German military Order, under Polish vassalage in Prussia, independent in its northern possessions. Thus almost the whole Baltic coast was held by Teutonic powers ; the Slavonic powers still lie mainly inland. The Polish frontier towards the Empire has been cut down to the limit which it kept till the end. Pomerania, Silesia, a great part of the mark of Brandenburg, have fallen away from the Polish realm. On the other hand, that realm and its confederate Lithuania have grown wonderfully to the east at the cost of divided and dependent Eussia, and have begun to fall back again before Eussia one and independent. Bohemia, enlarged by Silesia and Lusatia, has entered so thoroughly into the German world as almost to pass out of our sio'ht. ^ 4. The Growth of Russia and Sweden. Changes Tlic work of the last four centuries on the Baltic last four coast has been to drive back the Scandinavian powers, centuries. after a vast momentary advance, wholly to the west of the Baltic — to give nearly the whole eastern coast to Eus- RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA. 507 sia — to' make the whole southern coast German. These chap. XI. changes involve the wiping out, first of the German '^ — '— ' military Order, and then of Poland and Lithuania. This Growth of Russia and last chanore mvolves the growth of Eussia, and the crea- creation of '=' . _ * - Prussia. tion of Prussia in the modern sense, a sense so strangely different from its earlier meanino-. These two, Eussia and Prussia, have been the powers by which Sweden and Denmark have been cut short, by which Poland and Lithuania have been swallowed up. In this last work they indeed had a third confederate. Still the share of the Austrian in the overthrow of Poland was in a manner incidental. But the existence of such a Polish and Lithuanian state as stood at the end of the fifteenth, or even of the seventeenth, century was inconsistent with the existence of either Eussia or Prussia as great European powers. The period with which we have now to deal takes in only the former 'Stage of this process. Eussia ad- vances ; Prussia in the modern sense comes into being. But Sweden is still the most advancing power of all ; Greatness . . , p , of Sweden. and, if Deimiark falls back, it is before the power of Sweden. The Hansa too and the Knights pass away ; Sweden is the ruling power of the Baltic. The sixteenth century saw the fall of both branches of the Teutonic Order. Out of the f:ill of one of them came the beeinnings of modern Prussia. The separation ^ ^ of the two branches of the Order were separated ; the Prussian ■*■ and Livo- Livonian lands had an independent Master. Before ;"":",, ■•• knights. long the Prussian Grand Master, Albert of Branden- ^^^^■ burg, chanofed from the head of a Catholic relicfious Beginning °' . ^ . ° of the order into a Lutheran temporal ])rince, holdinfT the Duchy of ^ ^ " Prussia. hereditary duchy of Prussia as a Polish fief. That 1^25. 508 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XL Geographi- cal position of Prussia Union of Prussia and Bran- denburg. 1611. Prussia indepen- dent of Poland. 1647. Fall of the Livonian Order. 15.58-1-561, Duchy of Cuvland. Moment- ary king- dom of Livonia. Denmark takes Dago and Oesel. Sweden takes Estliland. Livland goes to Poland and Russia. All Liv- land Polish. 1582. Greatest Baltic diicliy liad so strange a frontier towards the kingdom that it could not fail sooner or later either to be swal- lowed up by the kingdom which hemmed it in, or else to make its way out of its geographical bonds. When the Prussian duchy and the mark of Brandenburg came into the hands of one prince, when the dominions of that prince were enlarged by the union of Brandenburg and Pomerania, the second of these solutions became only a question of time. The first formal step towards it was the release of the duchy from all dependence on Poland. Prussia became a distinct state, a state now essentially German, but lying beyond the bounds of the Empire. As the rights of the Empire had been formally cut short when Prussia passed under Pohsh vassalage, they were also formally cut short by the dissolution of the northern branch of the Teutonic order. The rule of the Livonian Knio-hts survived the secularization of the Prussian duchy by forty years ; their dominion then fell asunder. As in the case of Prussia, part of their terri- tory, Curland and Semigola, was kept by the Livonian Master Godhard Kettler, as an hereditary duchy under Polish vassalage. The rest of the lands of the order were parted out among the chief powers of the Baltic. A Livonian kingdom under the Danish prince Magnus was but for a moment. Denmark in the end received the islands of Dago and Oesel, her last conquests east of the Baltic, Sweden advanced south of the Finnish gulf, taking the greater part of Estliland. JN'orthern Livland fell to Eussia, the southern part to Poland. Twenty years later all Livland became a Polish pos- session. This acquisition of Livland and of the superiority FALL OF THE TEUTONIC ORDER. 509 over Prussia and Cuiiaiid raised the united power of chap. Poland and Lithuania to its oreatest extent on the & extent of Baltic coast. Meanwhile the union of Lublin joined LithuaiSa'^ the kinodom and the ofrand duchy yet more closely Union of ^ J J " Lublin, too-ether. But, long before this time, the eastern fron- i^gq. tier of Lithuania had begun to fall back. The central Russian advance. advance of Eussia to the west had begun. A revived state, such as Eussia was at the end of the fifteenth century, must advance, unless it be artificiallv hindered ; and the new Eussian state was driven to advance if it its causes. was to exist at all. It had no seaboard, except on the ^liite Sea ; it did not hold the mouth of an}^ one of its great rivers, except the Xorthern Dvina, a stream tho- roughly cut off from European life. The dominions of Sweden, Lithuania, and the Knights cut Eussia off from the Baltic and from central Europe. To the south and east she was cut off from the Euxine and the Caspian, from the mouths of the Don and the Volga, by the powers which represented her old barbarian masters. Eussia was thus not only driven to advance, but driven to advance in various directions. She had to win back her lost lands ; she had, if she was really to become an European poAver, to win her way to the Baltic and to the Euxine. Her position made it almost equallv needful to win her way to the Caspian, and made it unavoidable that she should spread her power Advance ^-^,, ■, to the over the barbarian lands to the north-east. Ut these north-east. several fields of advance the path to the Euxine was the longest barred. First, at the end of the fifteenth order of ., , , Russian centurv, began the recovery ot the lost lands, a work advances. spread over the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Then, in the sixteenth, came the eastern extension at the cost of the now weakened Mongol 510 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. The Euxine reached last. 'Recovery of the lands con- quered by Lithuania. 1514. 1.563. Eecovery of Smo- lensk by Poland. 1.582. Polish conquest of Russia, 1606. Second re%"iTal of Russia, and second advance. Cessions to Poland. Lands re- covered by the Peace of Andra- szovo, 1667. Pvecovery of Kief. 1686. Superiority over the Ukraine Cossacks. enemy. Strictly Baltic exteiisiou was in the sixteenth century merely momentary ; it did not become lasting till the beo-inninir of the eio-hteenth. But Eussia had been established on the Caspian for more than two centuries, she had become a Baltic power for more than two generations, before she made her way to the oldest scene of her seafaring enterprise. The recovery of the lands which had been lost to Lithuania began before the end of the fifteenth century, lyan the Great won back>Ser^rm, with Tcheniigof and the Seyerian Novgorod and part of the territory of Smolensk. Under Basil Smolensk itself followed ; under Ivan the Terrible Polotsk again became Eussian. Then the tide turned for a season. Eussia first lost her newly- won territorv in Livland. The recovery of Smolensk by Poland was followed by the momentary Polish conquest of independent Eussia, and the occupa- tion of the throne of Moscow by a Polish prince. The Muscovite state came aoain to life ; but it was shorn of a large part of the national territory, which had to be won again by a second advance. Smolensk, Tchernigof, and the greater part of the Lithuanian conquests be- yond the Dnieper, were again surrendered to the united Polish and Lithuanian state. Li the middle of the cen- tury came the renewed Eussian advance. The Treaty of Andraszovo g-ave back to Eussia most of the lands which had been surrendered fifty years before. By the last advance in the seventeenth century Eussia won back a small territory west of the Dnieper, including her ancient capital of Kief At the same time Poland finally gave up to Eussia the superiority over the Cossacks of Ukraine, between the Bug and the Lower Dnieper. But, with this exception, Poland and Lithuania still ADVANCE OF EUSSIA AND SWEDEN. 511 kept all tlie Eiissiaii lands south of Duna and west chap. XI. Russian lands still of Dnieper, witli some districts beyond those rivers. Nor was Eussia the only power to which Poland had tTtVy to mve way on her south-eastern frontier. In this ^°^'^^- ^ -^ Podolia quarter the Ottoman for the last time won a new Josttothe -^ Turk. province from a Christian state b}^ the acquisition of Kamienetz and all Podolia} But Poland had during this period to give way at other points also. This was the time of the great growth of the Swedish power. The contrast between Growth of the growth of Sweden and the contem]3orary growth and Russia of Eussia is instructive. The revived power of Moscow was j)artly winning back its own lost lands, partly ad- vancing in directions which were needful for national ajrowth, almost for national beins^. The growth of Sweden in so many directions was almost wholly a growth beyond her own borders. Hence doubtless it Russian came that the advance of Eussia has been lasting, while lasting, the advance of Sweden was only for a season. Sweden aJv^uce has lost by far the greater part of her conquests ; she ^"^i'*'**'^- has kept only those parts of them which went to com- plete her position in her own peninsula. On the Swedish conquest of Esthland followed a series of shiftings of the frontiers of Sweden and Eussia which lasted into the nineteenth century. During the Advance under and reio'n of Gustavus Adolphus, and the period which we after . . . : . . CTUstavus miijht almost call the continuation of his reim after his A.ioiphus ° °_ 16H-lt;G0. death, Sweden advanced both in her own peninsula and east of the Baltic, while she also ofained a whollv new footincf on German "round, both on the Baltic and on the Ocean. A long period of alternate war and peace, ' See above, p. 452. 512 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Wars be- tween Swe- den and Russia. 157G-1G17. Peace of Stolbova. Sweden gains Ingerman- land. Wars be- tween Swe- den and Poland 1619-](jC0. Sweden's conquest of Livland, 1621-1625 ; of Dago and Oesel, 1645. Advance of Sweden against Denmark and Norway. Conquest of Gotland and Bornliolni. 1645. Of Jamte- land. Of Trond- hjemliin. 1658. Of Bohus- liin, and Scania, &c. Trondhjem restored to Norway. 1660. a time in which Novgorod the Great passed for a moment into Swedish hands, was ended, as far as Sweden and Eussia were concerned, l:)y the peace of Stolbova. The Swedish frontier thus fixed took in all Carelia and Imjennajiland, and wholly cut off Eussia from the Baltic and its gulfs. Such an advance could not fail to lead to further advance, though at the expense of another enemy. The long war between Sweden and Poland o'ave to Sweden Eiija and the o-reater part of Livland. Her conquests in this region were completed by winning the islands of Dago and Oesel from Denmark. This last acquisition, geographically connected with the Swedish conquests from Eussia and Poland, was politically part of an equally great advance which Sweden was making at the cost of the rival Scandinavian power, the united realms of Denmark and Norway. Along with the two eastern islands, Denmark lost the isle of Gotland for ever and that of Bornholm for a moment,^ and the Norwegian provinces east of the mountains, Jdmteland and Herjedalen. The treaty of Eoskild yet further enlarged Sweden at the expense of Norway. By the cession of Trondhjemldn the Norwegian king- dom was split asunder ; the ancient metropolis was lost, and Sweden reached to the Ocean. With Trondhjem Sweden also received Bohusldn, the southern province of Norway, and, more than all, the ancient possessions of Denmark in the northern peninsula, with her old metropolis of Lund. Here comes in the application of the rule. In annexing Trondhjem Sweden had overshot her mark ; it was restored within two years. It was ' Conquered by Sweden 1643, lestored to Denmark 1645> Ceded to Sweden 16.58, but recovered the same year. GREATEST EXTENT OF SWEDISH POWER. 513 Otherwise with Bohuslan, Scania, and her other con- chap. . XI. quests within what might seem to be her natural ~ ' — ' borders ; they have remained Swedish to this day. The Swedish acquisition of the eastern lands of Lands iieui ^ by Sweden Denmark was made more necessary bv the position "iGer- ^ 1 i many, which Sweden had now taken on the central mainland. -^T^'it!!!* The peace of Westfalia had confirmed her in the f^X"^'^ possession of Ribjen and Western Pomerania on the leTs.*^"' Baltic, and of the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden which made her a power on the Ocean. These lands were not strictly an addition to the Swedish reahn ; they were fiefs of the Empire held by the Swedish king. Here again comes in the geographical law. The Swedish possession of the German lands on the Ocean was short ; part of the German lands on the Baltic was kept into the nineteenth century. The peace of Eoskild, which cut short the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway in the northern peninsula, also marks an epoch in the controverted history of the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein. The Dani.sh king Denmark . . gives up gave up the sovereignty of the Gottorp districts of the the sove- duchies. Even if that cession implied the surrender of the°G6t- ^ torp lands. his own feudal superiority over the Gottorp districts of i^^s. Sleswick, he could not alienate any part of the Imperial rights over Holstein. This sovereignty, in whatever it Fluctua- tions in consisted, was lost and won several tunes between king the duchies. and Duke before the end of the century. Meanwhile levo-noo. the Danish crown became possessed of the outlying possassiou duchies of Oldenhurq and Delmenhorst, which in some burg. . . . 1678. sort balanced the Swedisli possession of Bremen and Verden. The wars and treaties which were ended by the VOL. I. L L 514 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP, peace of Oliva fixed the boundaries of the BaUic lands s^a'ei^ — ^^^' ^ season. They fixed the home extent of Sweden pScVoT t^own to the present century. They cut off Denmark, ^^'^"" save its one outpost of Bornliolni, from the BaUic itself, as distinguished from the narrow seas which lead to it. They fixed the extent of Poland down to the partitions. What they ftiiled to do for any length of time was to cut off Eussia from the Baltic, and to establish Sweden on the Ocean. But for the present we leave Sweden ruling over the whole western and the greater part of the eastern coast of the Northern Mediterranean, and holding smaller possessions both on its southern coast and on the Ocean. The rest of the eastern and southern coast of the Baltic is divided between the Polish fief of Curland, the dominions of the common ruler of Pomerania and Prussia, — now an independent prince in his eastern duchy, — and the small piece of recovered Polish territory placed invitingly between the two parts of his dominions. In her own peninsula Sweden has reached her natural frontier, and has given back what she won for a moment beyond it. While Sweden has this vast extent of coast with comparatively little extent inland, the vast inland region of Poland and Lithuania has hardly any seaboard, and the still vaster inland region of Eussia has none at all in Europe, except on the White Sea. Thus the most striking feature of this period is the advance of Sweden ; but we have seen that it was also a time of great advance on the part of Eussia. It was a time of yet greater advance on that side of her dominion where Eussia had no European rivals. In the case of Eussia, the only European power which could conquer and colonize by land in barbarian EASTERN ADVANCE OF RUSSIA. 515 regions,^ her earlier barbarian conquests were absolutely chap. necessary to her existence. Xo hard line can be drawn .r-p' ' 'J hiastern between her earliest and her latest conquests, between '^^^^l'^ °^ the first advance of Novgorod and the last conquests in Turkestan. But the advance which immediately followed the deliverance from the Tartar yoke marks a o-reat epoch. The smaller khanats into which the dominion of the Golden Horde had been l^roken up still kept Eussia from the Euxine and the Caspian. The two conquest - of Kazan khanats on the Volga, Kazan and Astrakhan, were andAstra- ° ' ' kha subdued bv Ivan the Terrible. The coast of the 1552-1554. Caspian was now reached. But the khans of Crim remained, unsubdued and dangerous enemies, still cuttinor ofT Russia from the Euxine. Yet, even in this supenonty ~ over the direction an advance was made when the Russian ]!?o» , Cossacks. supremacy was acknowledged by the Cossacks of the ^■'''^• Don. The conquest of the Siberian khanat, with its Beginning . of Siberian capital Tobolsk, next followed, and thence, m the course conquest. ^ 1581. of the next century, the boundless extent of northern 1592-170C. Asia was added to the Russian dominion. (^ 5. The Decline of Sweden and Poland. In the last section we traced (^ut the greatest advance of Sweden and a large advance of Russia, both made at the cost of Poland, that of Sweden also at the cost of Denmark. We saw also the beginnings of a power which we still called Brandenburg rather than Prussia. In the preseut section, describing the work of the eifjhteenth century, we have to trace the growth Growth of 1-1 T /^ • 1 1 1 Prussia. of this last power, which now delnutely takes the ' See above, p. 471. L r, 2 -316 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Decline of Sweden. Extinction of Poland. Kingdom of Prussia. 1701. Empire of Russia. 1721. Russia on the Baltic. Wars of Charles and Peter. 1700-1721. Founda- tion of Saint Peters- burg. 1703. Cession of Livland, &c., by Sweden. Further advance of Russia. 1741-1743. Sweden loses Bremen, Prussian name, and which we have to look at in its Prussian character. The period is marked by the decUne of Sweden and the utter wiping out of Pokmd and Lithuania, Eussia and Prussia in different degrees being chief actors in lioth cases. At the beginning of the period Prussia becomes a kingdom — a sign of advance, though not accompanied by any immediate increase of territory. A httle later the ruler of Eussia, already Imperial in his own tongue,^ more definitely takes the Imperial style as Emperor of all the Russias. This might pass as a challenge of the Eussian lands, Black, White, and Eed, which were still held by Poland. But more pressing than the recovery of these lands was the breaking down of the barrier by which Sweden kept Eussia away from the Baltic. To a very slight extent this was a recovery of old Eussian territory ; but the position now won by Eussia was wholly new. The war with Charles the Twelfth made Eussia a great Baltic power, and Peter the Great, early in the struggle, set up the great troph}^ of his victory in the founda- tion of his new capital of Saint Petersburg on ground won from Sweden. The peace of Nystad confirmed Eussia in the possession of Swedish Livland, Esth- land, Ingermanland, part of Carelia, and a small part of Finland itself. Another war, ended by the o Peace of Abo, gave Eussia another small extension in Finland. At the same time Sweden was cut short in her other ^ There is no doubt that the title of Czar, or i-ather Tzar, borne by the Kussian princes, as by those of Servia and Bulgaria in earlier times, is simply a contraction of Caesar. In the Treaty of Carlowitz Peter the Great appears as Tzar of endless countiies, but he is not called Imj)erator, though the Sultan is. WESTERN ADVANCE OF EUSSIA. 517 outlying possessions. Of her German fiefs, the duchies chap. Verden, of Bremen and Verden passed, first to Denmaxk, then to Hannover. But her Bahic possessions were only '""Irtoi partly lost, to the profit of Brandenburg. The frontier ^^^^'^'^'^i*- of Swedish Pomerania fell back to the north-west, losing- Stettin, but keeping Stralsund, Wolgast, and Eligen. Denmark meanwhile advanced in the debateable land on her southern frontier. The Danish occupation of Danish -i- conquest Bremen and Verden was only momentary ; l^ut the q^IH^. Gottorp share of Sleswick and Holstein was conquered, i7"3!i7i5 and the possession of all Sleswick was guaranteed to Denmark by Eno-land and France. But the Gottorp The share of Holstein, as an Imperial fief, was given back g^^!^" to its Duke. Lastly, when the house of Gottorp had ""estored. *" , . They pass mounted the throne of Eussia, the Gottorp portion of to Den- mark in Holstein was ceded to Denmark in exchange for exchange o for Olden- Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, which were at once given i^gfij^^g to another branch of the family. In the latter part of the eioiiteenth century the First i- c:> ^ partition three partitions of Poland brought about the all but °J.^^oi^"'^- complete recovery of the lands which the Lithuanian dukes had won from Piussia. The first partition J'^^^g'""' gave Eussia Polish Livland, and all the lands which Poland still kept beyond Dana and Dnieper. The greater part of White Eussia was thus won back. At the same time the house of HohenzoUern gained fj^^^g^'^" its ffreat territorial need, the oeoi>raphical union of Branden- ° 5 C n i burg and the kinofdom of Prussia with the lands of Brandenburg Prussia ~ '-^ geographi- and Pomerania, now increased by nearly all Silesia. ^^^^^ This union was made by Poland giving up West-Prussia — Danzig remaining an outlying city of Poland — and part of Great Poland and Cujavia known as the Netz 518 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Austrian share. Kingdom of Galicia and Lodo- meria. Russian territory held by Austria. Second partition. 1793. Russian share. Prussian share. Third partition. 1795. Russian share. Austrian share. District} Tlie Austrian share, the new kiniixloni ot Galicia and Lodomeria, was a kind of commemoration of the conquests of Lewis the Great : '-^ but, while it did not take in all Red Russia^ it took in part of Podolia and of Little Poland south of the Vistula, making- Cracow a frontier city, Austria thus became possessed of a part of the old Eussian territory, most of which she has kept ever since. The Polish state was thus maimed on all sides ; but it still kept a considerable territorial extent. The second partition, the work of Eussia and Prussia only, could only be a preparation for the final death-blow. It cfave to Eussia the rest of Podolia and Ukraine^ and part of Volhynia and Podlasia. Little Russia and White Russia were thus wholly won back, and the Eussian frontier was advanced within the old Lithuanian duchy. Prussia took nearly all that was left of the oldest Polish state, the rest of Great Poland and Cujavia, and part of Mazovia, formino- the South Prussia of the new nomenclature. Gnesen, the oldest Polish capital, the metropolis of the Polish Church, now passed away from Poland. The remnant that was left to Poland took in the greater part of Little I^oland, part of Mazovia, the greater part of the old Lithuania with the fragment still left of its Eussian territory, Samogitia and the fief of Curland. The final division was delayed only- two years. This time all three partners joined. Eussia took all LitJmania east of the Niemen, with its capital Vilna, also Curland and Samogitia to the north, and the old Eussian remnant to the south. Austria took Cracow, with nearly all the rest of Little 1 See above, p. 212. 2 gee above, pp. 321, 441. THE PARTITIONS OF POLAND. 519 Poland, as also part of JJazovia, by the name of New chap. Galicia. Prussia took Danziq and Thorn, as also a :^r — ' •-' ' Prussian small piece of Little Poland to improve the frontiers of ^^*'■^• South Prussia and Silesia, perhaps without thinking that this last process was an advance of the Eoman Terminus. The capital Warsaw, with the remnant of Mazovia and the strip of Lithuania west of the Niemen, also fell to Prussia. The names of Poland and Lithuania now passed away from the map. It is important to remember that the three partitions No original Polish gave no part of the original Polish realm to Eussia. territory . *"" . . , gained by Eussia took back the Eussian territory which had been Russia, in the long before won by Lithuania, and added the greater partitions. part of Lithuania itself, with the lands immediately to the north. The ancient kiiio-dom of Poland was divided The oia , '^ Poland between Prussia and Austria, and the oldest Poland of divided between all fell to the lot of Prussia. Great Poland, Silesia, Prussia ' and Pomerania, the Polish lands which had passed to the ^"^tria. Poland mark of Brandenburi>-, once united under Polish rule, passes to *" _ Prussia, were again united under the power to which they had gradually fallen away. Austria or Hungary meanwhile took the rest of the northern Chrobatia, seven hundred chrobatia . . . i^ ■. (, 11*'*^ Austria. years after the acquisition oi the lormer part, and also the Eussian land which had been twice before added to the Magyar kingdom. Meanwhile Eussia made advances in other quarters Advance ^ to the of nearly equal extent. As the remnant of the Saracen Euxine. at Granada cut off the Castilian from his southern coast on the Mediterranean, for more than two hundred years, so did the remnant of the Tartar in Crim cut off the Eussian for as lono- a time from his southern coast on the Euxine. Peter the Great first made his way, if not 520 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Occupation of Azof. l(it)G-1711. Indepen- dence of Crini. 1774. Annexa- tion of C'rim. 1783. Conquest of Jedisan. 1791. Russian conquests from Persia. 1727-1734. Superior- ity over Georgia. 1783. Superiority over the Kirghis. 1773. to the Euxiue, at least to its inland gulf, by the taking of Azof. But the new conquest was only temporary. After seventy years more the work was done. First came the nominal independence of the Crimean klianat, then its incorporation with Russia. The work at which Megarian and Genoese colonists had laboured was now done ; the northern coast of the Euxiiie was won for Europe.^ The road through which so many Turanian invaders had pressed into the Aryan continent was blocked for ever. The next advance, the limit of Russian advance made strictly at the expense of the barbarian as distinouished from his Christian vassals, carried the Russian frontier from the Bug to the Dniester. The chief Asiatic acquisition of Russia in the eighteenth centuiy took a strange form. It was con- quest beyond the sea, though only beyond the in- land Caspian. Turk and Russian joined to dismember Persia, and for some years Russia held the south coast of that great lake, the lands of DagJiestan, Ghilan, and Mazanderan. Later in the century the ancient Christian kingdom of Georgia j)assed under Russian superiority, the earnest of much Russian conquest on both sides of Caucasus. And nearly at the same time as the first steps towards the acquisition of Crim, the Russian dominion was spread over the Kirghis hordes west of the river Ural, winning a coast on the eastern Caspian, the sea of Aral, and the Baltash lake. Thus, by the end of the eighteenth century, the ^ It is however to be regretted that, in bringing back the old names into these regions, they have been so often applied to wrong places. Thus the new Sehastopol answers to the old Cherson, while the new Cherson is elsewhere. The new Odessa has nothing to do with the old Odessos, and so in other cases. RESULTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENiURY. 521 Swedish power has fallen back. Its territory east of chap. the Baltic is less than it was at the beoinnins- of the Survey at sixteenth century. Denmark, on the other hand, has Jlhr^ grown by an advance in the debateable southern cSS""' duchies. All Sleswick is added to the Danish crown ; all Holstein is held by the Danish king. Poland has vanished. The anomalous power on the middle Danube, the power for which it is so hard to find a name which is not misleading, the power whose princes, it must be remembered, still wore the crown of the Empire, has thrust itself into the very heart of the old Polish land. But the power which has gained most by the extinction of Poland has been the new kinodom of Prussia. If part of her annexations lasted only a few years, she made her Baltic coast continuous for ever. But Prussia and Austria alike, b}^ joining to wipe out the central state of the whole region, have given them- selves a mighty neighbour. Eussia has wholly cast aside her character as a mere inland power, inter- mediate between Europe and Asia. She has won her way, after so many ages, to her old position and much more. She has a Baltic and an Euxine seaboard. Her recovery of her old lands on the Duna and the Dnieper, her conquest of new lands on the Niemen, have brought her into the heart of Europe. And she has opened the path which was also to lead her into the heart of Asia, -and to establish her in the intermediate mountain land between the Euxine and the Caspian. § 6. The Modern Geography of the Baltic Lands. The territorial arrangements of Northern and The *" French Eastern Europe were not affected by the French revolu- levoUition- arv wa THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP. XI. Holstein incorpo- rated with Denmark, and Swe- dish Pome- rania with Sweden. 1806. Russian conquest of Finhind, 1809. Grand Duchy of Finland. Uaion of Sweden and Noi'waj'. 1814-1815. Swedish Pomerania passes to Denmark. Exchanged with Prussia for Lauen- burg. Hehgoland passes to England. tioiiary wars till after the fall of the Western Empire. At that moment the frontier of Germany and Denmark was still what it had been under Charles the Great ; ' Eidora Eomani terminus Imperii.' Only now the Danish king ruled to the south of the boundary stream in the character of a prince of the Empire. The fall of the Empire put an end to this relation, and the duchy of Holstein was incorporated with the Danish realm. In the like sort, the Swedish kingdom was extended to the central mainland of Europe, by the incorporation of the Pomeranian dominions of the Swedish king. Before long, the last war between Sweden and Eussia was ended by the peace of Frideriks- hamn, when Sweden gave up all her territory east of the gulf as far as the river Tornea, together with the o isles of Aland. These lands passed to the Eussian Emperor as a separate and privileged dominion, the Grand Duchy of Finland. Thus Sweden withdrew to her own side of the Baltic, while Eussia at last became mistress of the whole eastern coast from the Prussian border northward. The general peace left this arrangement untouched, but decreed the separation of Norway from Denmark and its union with Sweden. This was carried out so far as to effect the union of Sweden and Norway as independent kingdoms under a single king. Denmark got in compensation, as diplo- macy calls it, a scrap of its old Slavonic realm, Eiigen and Swedish Pomerania. These detached lands were presently exchanged with Prussia for a land adjoining Holstein, the duchy of Lauenburg, the representative of ancient Saxony.^ Denmark kept Iceland, but the Frisian island of Heligoland off the coast of Sleswick ^ See above, p. 208. CHANGES IN SCANDINAVIA. 523 passed to England. Thus the common king of Sweden chap. and Xorwav reio-ns over the whole of the northern ~ — — peninsula and over nothing out of it. No such great chanoe had affected the Scandinavian kino-doms since the union of Calmar. Meanwhile the king of Denmark, remaining the Hoistein independent sovereign of Denmark, Iceland, and Sles- burg join ^ ^ ^ \ \ theGer- wick, entered the German Confederation for his duchies nmn con- • federation. of Hoistein and Lauenburg. Disputes and wars made Disputes no creoffraphical chano-e till the war which followed the m the ^ p ^ » _ Ducliies accession of the present kmg. The changes which Transfer then followed have been told elsewhere.^ They amount andHd-''' to the transfer to Prussia of Lauenburg, Hoistein, and Lauen- Sleswick, with a slight change of frontier and a redistri- Prussia. . . . 1864-1806. l)ution of the smaller islands. A conditional engage- ment for the restoration of northern Sleswick to Den- mark was not fulfilled, and has been formally annulled. Heligoland, the island which naturally belongs to Sles- Heligoland wick, has also passed from England to Germany, in cfennlny, „ „ ., ^ 1890. exchange lor Zanzibar. In the lands which had been Poland and Lithuania, Losses of Prussia. the immediate result of the French wars was the isoo. creation of a new Polish state ; their final result was a great extension of the dominion of Eussia. Prussia had to surrender its whole Polish territory, save West- Prussia.^' A small Lithuanian territory, the district Biaiystok added to of Bialystok, was given to Eussia ; Danzig became a Russia. separate commonwealth. The rest of the Prussian commSn- 1 f 1 share of Poland formed the new Duchy of Warsaw. Duchy of This state was really no bad representative of the oldest Poland of all. Silesia was gone; l)ut the new 1 See above, p. 228. 2 gee also p. 223. ^'524 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP, ducliy took in Great Poland and Cnjavia, with parts of E^arc^ Little Poland, Mazovia, and Lithuania. It took in the Austrltif oldest capital at Gnesen and the newest at Warsaw. 1810 " ' Tlie new state was presently enlarged by the addition of the territory added to Austria by the last partition. Cracow, with the greater part of Little Poland, was Ui?Duch ^c^^^^ joined to Great Poland. Speaking roughly, the duchy took in nearly the whole of the old Polish king- dom, without Silesia, but with some small Lithuanian and Eussian territory added. Arrange- Jt, -was the Polaud tlius fomied, a state which ail- ments of 181.5. swered much more nearly to the Poland of the four- teenth than to the Poland of the eighteenth century, which, by the arrangements of the Vienna Congress, first received a Eussian sovereio-n. Prussia now a(?ain rounded off her West- Prussian province by the recovery Danzig of Daiizig and Thorn, and she rounded off her southern restored'^to frouticr by the recovery of Posen and Gnesen, which had been part of her South- Prussian province. The Grand Duchy of Posen became again part of the Cracow a Prussiaii State. Cracoiv became a republic, to be common- ■"■ wealth. annexed by Austria thirty years later. The remainder Annexed •^ ./ ./ 1846"''*'^''" ^^ ^^^® Duchy of Warsaw, under the style of the Kingdom Kijiqclom of Polaud, became a separate kingdom, but of Poland i/ ./ j. o united to with the Eussian Emperor as its kinsf. Later events Russia. •■■ ^ 1831-1863. i^ave destroyed, first its constitution, then its separate being ; and now all ancient Poland, except the part of Russia Great Poland kei^t by Prussia and the part of Little takes old . . . Polish Poland kept by Austria, is mero-ed in the Eussian terntory j. ./ o J°^*^^«^ fi"^"* Empire. Thus the Eussian acquisition of strictly Polish, as distino-uished from old-Eussian and Litliua- nian territory, dates, not from the j^artitions, but from the Cono-ress of Vienna. It was to the behoof of THE NEW KINGDOM OF POLAND. 525- Prussia and Austria, not of Eussia, that the old king- chap. ' *= XI. dom of the Piasts was broken in pieces. ' The chano-es of the nineteenth century with reo'ard Fiuctua- '- "■ '- tioii of the to the lands on the European coasts of the Euxine Russian J- frontier have been told elsewhere.^ Thev amount, as far as ^'^'^'■^^■ •J ' Moldavia. the geographical boundaries of Eussia are concerned, i^^^-ihts. to her advance to the Pruth and the Danube, her partial withdrawal, her second partial advance. Advance -•■ •■■ in the Meanwhile the Eussian advance in the nineteenth Caucasus. century on the Asiatic shores of the Euxine and in the lands on and beyond the Caspian has been far greater than her advance during the eighteenth. It is in the nineteenth century that Eussia has taken up her commanding position between the Euxine and the Caspian seas, a position which in some sort amounts to an enlargement of Europe at the expense of Asia. The old frontier on the Caspian, which had hardly changed since the conquest of Astrakhan, reached to the Terek. The annexation of Crim made the Kuban the boundary on the side of the Euxine. The incorporation of the ^n°o^°'"*'^ Georgian kingdom gave Eussia an outlying territory fsoo.^*' south of the Caucasus on the upper course of tlie Kur. Next came the acquisition of the Caspian coast from Advance the mouth of the Terek to the mouth of the Kur, the Caspian. land of Daijliestan and Shirwan, including part of the territory which had been held for a few years in the eighteenth century. The Persian and Turkish wars Advance ii» gave Eussia the Armenian land of Erivan as far as the and ^ . T . Circassia. Araxes., Mimjrelia, and Immeretia, and the nominal wio- cession of the Euxine coast between them and the older frontier. But it was thirty years before the mountain remon of Circassia was fullv subdued. The 1859. ' See above, pp. 453-4. 526 THE BALTIC LANDS. XI 1878. CHAP, last changes have extended the Trans-Caucasian frontier of Eussia to the south by the addition of Batoum and Kars. Advance in I^ the lauds cast of the Caspian the new province 1853-1868.' of Turkestan gradually grew up in the lands on the Jaxartes, reaching southward to Samarkand, Kliokand Khiva, to the south-east followed, while Khiva and Bokhara^ 1872. ' ' ^7^^'"*' ^^^^ lands on the Oxus, have passed under Eussian suzerainty. Samarcand and Fenjanali have become part of Eussian dominion in the fullest sense. The Tur- coman tribes immediately east of the Caspian have also been annexed. The Caspian has thus nearly ])ecome a Eussian lake. Hardly anything remains to Persia except the extreme southern coast which was once for a moment Eu'ssian. Advance in Far ao'aiu to the east, Eussia has added a lare^e Eastern . *- Asia. territory on the Chinese border on the river Amoor, Kwang- and now the territory adjoining the Korea on the west 1898.' is a province administered by Eussia, under the Chinese Extent and uauic Kwang-Tuiig, held under lease from China. All of the these conquests form the greatest continuous extent of dominion, territory l)y land which the world has ever seen, unless durinor the transient dominion of the old Mons^ols. No other European power in any age has, or could have had, such a continuous dominion, because no other European power ever had the unknown l^arbarian world lying in the same way at its side. Nowhere again has any European power held a dominion so physically un- broken as that which stretches from the gulf of Eiga to the gulf of Okhotsk. The greater part of the Asiatic dominion of Eussia belongs to that part of Asia which has least likeness to Europe. It is only on the Frozen Ocean that we find a kind of mockery of inland seas, ASIATIC ADVANCE OF RUSSIA. 527 islands, and peninsulas. Massive unbroken extent by chap. land is its leadino- character. And as this character ' — ^^-^ extends to a large part of European Piussia also, Russia is the only European land where there can be any doubt where Europe ends. The barbarian dominion of other European states, a dominion beyond the sea, has been a dominion of choice. The barbarian dominion of Eussia in lands adjoining her European territory is a dominion forced on her by geographical necessity. The annexa- tion of Kamtschatka became a question of time when the first successors of Ruric made their earliest advance towards the Finnish north. Alongside of this continuous dominion in Europe Russian and Asia, the Russian occupation of territory in a third continent, an occupation made by sea after the manner of other European powers, has not been lasting. The Russian territory in the north-west corner of America, the only part of the world where Russia and England marched on one another, has been sold to the United States. To return to Europe, the events of the nineteenth Final century have, in the lands with which we are dealing, carried on the work of the eighteenth by the further acrofrandizement of Russia and Prussia. The Scandi- navian powers have withdrawn into the two Scandi- navian peninsulas and the adjoining islands, and in the southern peninsula the power of Denmark has been cut short to the gain of Prussia. The Prussian power meanwhile, formed in the eighteenth century by the union of the detached lands of Prussia and Branden- burg, has in the nineteenth grown into the Imperial power of Germany, and has, even as a local king- 528 THE BALTIC LANDS. CHAP, dom, become, by the acquisition of Swedish Pomeraiiia,. ""~^ Holsteiii, and Sleswick, the dominant power on the southern Bahic. The acquisition of the duchies too, not only of Sleswick and Holstein, but of Bremen and Verden also, as parts of the annexed kingdom of Hannover, have given her a part of the former oceanic position both of Denmark and Sweden. Eussia has acc[uired the same position on the gulfs of the Baltic which Prussia has on the south coast of the Baltic itself. The acquisition of the new Poland has brought her frontier into the very midst of Europe ; it has made her a neighbour, not merely of Prussia as such, but of Germany. The third sharer in the partition has drawn back from her northern advance, but she has increased her scrap of Eussia, her scrap of Little Poland, her scrap of Mol- davia,^ by the suppression of a free city. The southern advance of Eussia on European ground has been during this century an advance not so much of territory as of influence. The frontier of 1878 is the restored frontier of 1812. It is in the lands out of Europe that Eussia has in the meanwhile advanced by strides which look startling on the map, but which in truth spring- naturally from the geographical position of the one modern European power which cannot help being Asiatic as well. ' See above, p. 446. CHAPTEE XII. THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. The great peninsula of the West has much in common chap. with the great peninsula of the North. Save Sweden — ^-.— - "^ r> TT-r -nt Analogy and Norway, no part of vv estern Europe had so little between • . ^ Spain and to do with the later Empire as Spain. And in no land scandi- _ navia. that formed part of the earlier Empire, save our slight own island, is the later history so completely cut off with the . Empire. from the earlier history. The modern kingdoms of Break Spain have still less claim to represent the West-Gothic earner'^ kingdom than the modern kingdom of France had to hLtolj. represent the Frankish kingdom. The history of Spain, as an element in the European system, begins with the Saracen invasion. For a hundred years before that Modem "^ Spanish time all trace of dependence on the elder Empire had {"story -'■ , ••• begins passed away. With the later Western Empire Spain gi^^^l'g^ had nothing to do after the days of Charles the Great '^o'^q'^^st. and his immediate successors. Their claims over a small part of the country passed away from the Empire to the kino-s of Karolinma. With the Eastern Empire and the states which grew ^'^^^Ifl out of it Spain has the closest connexion in the way of |Puth.^'''^ analogy. Each was a Christian land conquered by the Europe. Mussulman. Each has been wholly or partially won back from him. But the deliverance of south-western SnTthe Europe was mainly, the work of its own people, and its conquest VOL. I. MM 530 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII. and de- liverance iu eacli. The Spanish nation formed by the war with the Mussul- mans. Analogy between Spain and Russia. deliverance was nearly ended when the bondage of sonth-eastern Europe was only beginning. Again, in south-eastern Europe the nations were fully formed before the Mussulman conquest, and they have lived through it. In Spain the Mussulman conquest cut short the West-Gothic power just as it was growing into a new Eomance nation ; the actual Eomance nation of Spain was formed by the work of withstanding the invaders. The closest analogy of all is between Spain and Eussia. Each was delivered by its own people. In each case, lono- after the main deliverance had been wrought, long after the liberated nation had begun again to take its place in Europe, the ransomed land was still cut off, by a fragment of its old enemies, from the coasts of its own southern sea. Extent of the West- Gothic and the Saracen dominions. Two centres of deliver- ance. The Saracen dominion in the West, as established by the first conquerors, answered very nearly to the West-Gothic kingdom, as it then stood ; but it did not exactly answer to Spain, either in the geographical or in the later Eoman sense. ^ When the Saracen came, the Empire, not the Goth, still held the Balearic Isles, and the fortresses of Tangier and Ceuta on the Maureta- nian side of the strait. On the other hand, the Goth did not hold quite the whole of the peninsula, while his dominion took in the Gaulish land of Sejytimania. Strictly speaking, the Saracen conquest was a conquest, not of Spain geographically, but of the West-Gothic dominions in and out of Spain, and of the outlying Imperial possessions in their neighbourhood. It was from the lands which hindered both the West-Gothic and the Saracen dominion from exactly answering to 1 See above, p. 154, BEGINNINGS OF DELIVERANCE. 531 geographical Spain that deUverance came, and it came in chap. two forms. From the land to the north-west, which had ,;r~^~" ' The inde- held out against both Goth and Saracen, came that form faS"' of deliverance which was strictly native. At the other The end, the Frank first won back for Christendom the dominion. 752-759. Saracen province m Gaul, and then carried his arms into the neighbouring corner of Spain. Thus we get 778. two centres of deliverance, two groups of states which did the work. There are the north-western lands, whose history is purely Spanish, which simply withstood the Saracen, and the north-eastern lands, which were first won from the Saracen by the Frank, and which sraduallv freed themselves from their deliverer. The former class are represented in later Repre- . -, sented se- Si^anish history by the kins^doms of Castile and Portuo-al, veraiiyby ^ J J o f^ ' Castile and the latter bv the kino-dom of Araoron. Navarre lies Portugal, ^ *-' and by between the two, and shares in the history of both. Amgon. The former start geographically from the mountain - region washed by the Ocean. The latter start geo- graphically from the mountains which divide Gaul and Spain, and which stretch eastward to the Mediterra- nean. The geographical position of the regions fore- shadows their later history. It was Aragon, looking Later r- ^ "^ 1 • "r< history of to the East, which first played a great part m liuropean Aragon. affairs, and which carried Spanish influence and do- minion into Gaul, Sicily, Italy, and Greece. It was Portuo-al and Castile, lookiiiir to the West, which ofCastiie ^ ' ^ and established an Iberian dominion beyond the bounds of PortugaL Europe. And of these it was Castile which was fated to play the same part which was played by Wessex in England, to become the leading power of the peninsula and for a moment to incorporate the whole peninsula under the rule of her kings. The lasting union of M M 2 532 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES, CHAP. Xll. The more strictly native centre foremost in the work of deliver- ance. Relations of Castile and Aragon towards Navarre. Castile and Aragon, the momentary union of Castile, Portugal, and Aragon was to form that great Spanish monarchy which became the terror of Europe. The more lastinsr of these annexations has led to a chansce in ordinary geographical language. The fact that a Queen of Castile in the fifteenth century married a King of Araoon and not a Kinof of Portusal has led us to speak of the peninsular kingdoms as ' Spain and Portu- gal.' ^ For some ages ' Spain and Aragon ' would have been a more natural division. But the very difference in the fields of action of Castile and Araoon hindered any such strong opposition. Between Castile and Por- tugal, on the other hand, a marked rivalry arose in the field which was common to both. Of these two centres, one purely Spanish, the other brought for a long time under a greater or less degree of foreign influence, the more strictly native region was foremost in the work of national deliverance. How far western Spain stood in advance of eastern Spain is shown by the speaking fact that Toledo, so much further to the south, was won by Castile a generation before Zaragoza was won by Aragon. But both Castile and Aragon, as powers, grew out of the break-up of a momentary dominion in the land which lay between them, and whose later his- tory is much less illustrious than theirs. In the second quarter of the eleventh century the kingdom of Pampehma or Navarre had, by the energy of a single man, the Sviatopluk or Stephen Dushan of his little realm, risen to the first place among the Christian powers of Spain. Castile and Aragon do not appear with kingly rank till both had passed under the ^ See above, p. 154. NAVARRE AND THE SPANISH M.ARCH. 533 momentary rule of a neighbour whicli in after times ^xn^" seemed so small beside either of them. And the ' ' ' name of Castile, whether as county, kingdom, or empire, marks a comparatively late stage of Christian advance. We must here go back for a moment to the early davs of the lonor crusade of eiaht hundred years. ^ 1. The Foundation of the Spanish Kingdoms. We have seen how the union of the small indepen- Founding ^ . of the dent lands of the north, Asturia and Cantabria, grew Wngdom . °^ Leon. into the first Christian kingdom of reviving Spain. "This was the kingdom which bore the name, first of 753. Oviedo and then of Leo?i. Gallicia, on the one side, oie. representing in some sort the old Suevian kingdom, Bardidia or the oldest Castile, the land of Buro-os, on the other side, were lands of this kingdom which were -early inclined to fall away. The growth of the Christian christian -' _ _ '^ ^ _ advance. powers on this side was favoured by internal events among the Mussulmans, by famines and revolts which left a desert border between the hostile powers. The The Ommiad emirate, afterwards caliphate, was established emirate. 755. almost at the moment of the Saracen loss of Septimania. Then came the Spanish March of Charles the Great, The span- '- ^ ^ _ ish March. which brought part of northern Spain once more within 778-801. the bounds of the new Western Empire, as the conquests of Justinian had brought back part of southern Spain within the bounds of the undivided Empire. This march, at its greatest extent, took in Pampeluna at one •end and Barcelona at the other, with the intermediate its extent, lands of Aragon, Ripaatrcia, and Sohrarhe. But the Frankish dominion soon passed away from Aragon, and still sooner from Pampeluna. The eastern part of 534 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII. Its division. Navarre under Sancho the Great. 1000-1035. Break-up of the kingdom of Navarre (1035), and of the Ommiad caliphate (1028). SmaU Mussul- man states. Invasion of the Almora- vides. 1086-1110. the march, which still acknowledged the superiority of the Kings of Karolingia, split up into a number of practically independent counties, which made hardly any advance against the common enemy. Meanwhile the land of Pampeluna became, at the beginning of the eleventh century, an independent and powerful kingdom. The Navarre of Sancho the Great stretched some way beyond the Ebro ; to the west it took in the ocean lands of Biscay and Guipuzcoa, witli the original Castile ; to the east it took in Aragon, Ripacurcia, and Sobrarhe. The two Christian kingdoms of Navarre and Leon took in all north-eastern Spain. The Douro was reached and crossed ; the Tagus itself was not far from the Christian boundary ; but the states which owned the superiority of the power which we may now call France were still far from the lower Ebro. At the death of Sancho the Great his momentary dominion broke up. Seven years earlier the dominion of the Ommiad caliphs had broken up also. These two events, so near together, form the turning-point in the history of the peninsula. Instead of the one Ommiad caliphate, there arose a crowd of separate Mussulman kingdoms, at Cordova, Seville, Lisbon, Zaragoza, Toledo, Valencia, and elsewhere. Weaker each one by itself than their Christian neighbours, they had to call for helj) to their Mussulman brethren in Africa. This led to what was really a new African conquest of Mussul- man Spain. The new deliverers or conquerors spread their dominion over all the Mussulman powers, save onlv Zaraeroza. This settlement, with other later ones of the same kind, gives a specially African look to the later history of Mahometan Spain, and it has doubtless helped to give the Spanish Mussulmans the common THE NEW KINGDOMS. 535 name of Moors. But their language and culture chap. remained Arabic, and the revolution caused by the ^JIT^f^ African settlers among the ruins of the Western ZTors. caliphate was far from being so great as the revolution caused by the Turkish settlers among the ruins of the Eastern caliphate. Out of the break-up of the dominion of Sancho New 1 • 1 p TVT kingdoms, came the separate knigdom of JNavarre, and the new castiie, kingdoms of Castile. Aragon, and Sobrarhe. Of these ^•"'i ^ . Sobrarbe. the two last were presently united, thus beginning i"^^- the advance of Aragon. Thus we come to four of Ara°on°^ the five historic kingdoms of Spain — Navarre, Castile, sobrarbe. Aragon, and Leon, whose unions and divisions are endless. The first kinsf Ferdinand of Castile united shiftings *"_ of Castile Castile and Leon : Castile, Leon, and Gallicia were ^"^^ i^eon. ' ^ 1037. again for a moment separated under his son. Aragon 1065-1073. and Navarre were united for nearly sixty years. Pre- ^o'^'^-^i''^- sently Spain has an Emperor in Alfonso of Castile, Emperor Leon, and Gallicia. But Empire and kingdom were '^^'^^■ split asunder. Leon and Castile became separate king- h^t. doms under the sons of Alfonso, and they remained separate for more than sixty years. Their final union ^/"fj^t"/^''" created the great Christian power of Spain. i-23o^''°"' Navarre meanwhile, cut short by the advance of Decline of ' *' M avarre. Castile, shorn of its lands on the Ocean and beyond the Ebro, lost all hope of any commanding position in the peninsula. It passed to a succession of French 1234. kinsrs, and for a lono- time it had.no share in the geo- graphical history of Spain. But the power of Aragon Growth of grew, partly by conquests from the Mussulmans, partly by union with the French fiefs to the east. The first Union witu *' Barcelona. union between the crown of Aragon and the county usi- of Barcelona led to the great growth of the power of 536 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII. 1218. Settlement with France. 1258. County of Portugal. 1094. Kingdom, 1139. Beginning of the great Christian advance. Aragon on both sides of the Pyrenees and even beyond the Ehone.^ This power was broken by the overthrow of King Pedro at Muret, But by the final arrange- ment whicli freed Barcelona, Roussillon, and Cerdagne, from all homage to France, all trace of foreign superiority passed away from Christian Spain. The independent kingdom of Aragon stretched on both sides of the Pyrenees, a faint reminder of the days of the West-Gothic kings. On the other side of the peninsula the lands between Douro and Minho began to form a separate state, a state which was to hold no mean place in the history of Europe, which was first to extend her borders at the cost of the common enemy and then to become the j)ioneer of European enterprise in distant lands. The county of Portugal was held by princes of the royal house of France, as a fief of the crown of Castile and Leon. The county became a kingdom, and its growth cut off Leon, as distinguished from Castile, from any advance against the Mussulmans. Navarre was already cut off from such advance. But the three kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal were all ready for the work. A restored Western Christendom was growing up to balance the falling away in the East. The first great advance of the Christians in Spain began about the time of the Seljuk conquests from the Eastern Empire. The work of deliverance was not ended till the Ottoman had been for forty years established in the New Eome. The Christian powers however were disunited, wliile the Mussulmans had again gained, though at a ^ See above, p. 337. THE CHRISTIAN ADVANCE. 537 heavy price, the advaiitaj^e of union. Alfonso the chap. . XII Sixth, commanding the powers of Castile and Leon, r— pressed far to the south, and won the old Gothic capital of Toledo. But his further advance was checked of^Tokdo. by the African invaders at the battle of Zalacca. The Battle of Almoravide power was too strong for any present hope \q^^.^^' •of conquests on the part of Castile ; but the one inde- ^/Vj^^'^® pendent Mussulman state at Zaragoza lay open to the ^i|j™g''*' Christians of the north-east. Zarao-oza itself was taken Advance of "^ Aragon, by the king of Aragon, and Tarragona by the Count conquest of Barcelona. Both these powers advanced, and the Zaragoza. 1118 conquest of Tortosa made the Ebro the Christian ofTana boundary. As the power of the Almoravides weak- ^°"'*- , . . Of Tortosa. ened, Castile and Portugal again advanced on their H'ts. side. The latter kingdom made the great acquisition Portugal. ■of its future capital Lisbon, and a generation later, it of°L?rbon. reached the southern coast by the conquest of Silvas in ^,' " '' ••• Of Silvas. Algarve. Castile meanwhile pressed to the Guadiana ^^^^• /^ 7 T T-> 7 • Advance of and beyond, countmo- Calatrava and Badaioz amono- castiie. its cities. The line of strugo-le had advanced in about a centuiy from the land between Douro and Tagus to the land between Guadiana and Guadalquivir. This second great Christian advance in the twelfth century was again checked in the same way in which the advance in the eleventh century had been. A new settlement of African conquerors, the Almohades, invasion won back a large territory from both Castile and ^^™o- Portucral. The battle of Alarcos broke for a while ^"^• ^ . . Battle of the power of Castile, and the Almohade dominion Aiarcos. ^ ' 1196. stretched beyond the lower Tagus. To the east, the lands south of Ebro remained an independent Mussul- man state. But, as the Almohades were of doubtful decline ' of the Mahometan orthodoxy, their hold on Spain was weaker ^hno- 538 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. xn. Battle of Navas de Tolosa. 1211. Conquest of the Balearic Isles. 1228-12;JG. Of Va- lencia. 1237-1305. Of Murcia. 1243-1253. Advance of Portugal. 1217-12.50. Kingdom of Algarve. Conquest of Castile under Saint Ferdinand. Conquest of Cordova. 123(5. Of Jaen. 1246. Of Seville. 1248. Of Nibla. 1257. Of Tarifa. 1285. Kingdom of Granada. 1238. Recon- quered from Castile. 1298. Recovery by Castile. 1316. 1430. Gibraltar lost and won. 1309. than that of any other Mahometan conquerors. Their power broke up, and the battle of Navas de Tolosa ruled that Spain should be a Christian land. All three kingdoms advanced, and within forty years the Mussul- man power in the peninsula was cut down to a mere survival. Arao'on won the Balearic Isles and formed her kingdom of Valencia. But as Castile, by the incor- poration of Murcia, reached to the Mediterranean, any further advance in the peninsula was forbidden to Aracjon. On the eastern side Portusfal won back her lost lands, reached her southern coast, kept all the land west of the lower Guadiana and some points to the east of it. To the kingdom of Portugal was added the kingdom of Algarve. But the central power of Castile pressed on faster still. Under Saint Ferdinand began the recovery of the great cities along the Guadalquivir. Cordova, the city of the caliphs, was won ; Jaen followed ; then more famous Seville ; and Cadiz, eldest of Western cities, passed again, as when she first entered the Eoman world, from Semitic into Aryan hands. The conquest of Nihla and Tarifa at last made the completion of the work only a question of time. No one in the middle of the twelfth century could have dreamed that a Mussulman power would live on in Spain till the last years of the fifteenth. This was the kino-dom of Granada, which besran, amid the conquests of Saint Ferdinand, as a vassal state of Castile. Yet, sixty years later, it was able to win back a con- siderable territory from its overlord. Part of the land now gained was soon lost again ; but part, with the city of Huascar, was kept by the Mussulmans far into the fifteenth century. Meanwhile, on the strait between THE FIVE KINGDOMS. 53 1> the Ocean and the Mediterranean, Gibraltar was won chap. by Castile, lost, and won again. XII. 1333. 1344. Thus, in the latter part of the thirteenth century. Geographi- cal position the peninsula of Spain was very unequally divided pf the four .' T. v' kingdoms. between one Mussulman and four Christian states. Aragon on the one side, Portugal on the other, were kingdoms with a coast line out of all proportion to their extent inwards. Arao-on had become a trianole, Portugal a long parallelogram, cut oft' on each side from the great trapezium formed by the whole pen- insula. Between these two lay the central power of Castile, with Christian Navarre still separate at one corner and Mussulman Granada still separate at another. Of these five kinodoms, Xavarre and Arasfon alone marched to any considerable extent on any state beyond the peninsula. Castile barely touched the Aquitanian dominions of England, while Navarre and Aragon, both stretching north of the Pyrenees, had together a considerable frontier towards Aquitaine and France. Navarre and Aragon again marched on one another, while Portugal and Granada marched only on Castile, the common neighbour of all. The destiny of all was written on the map. Navarre at one end, Granada at the other, were to be swallowed up by the great central power. Aragon, after gaining a high European posi- tion, was to be united with Castile under a single sovereign. Portugal alone was to become distinctly a rival of Castile, but wholly in lands beyond the bounds of Europe. Of the five Spanish powers Castile so far outtopped T^^^^^^ the rest that its sovereign was often spoken of in other ^p^i"-' lands as Kimj of Spain. But Spain contained more 540 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII The lesser kingdoms. 1262. 1349. kini>-doms than it contained kings. Castile, Arao^on, and Portugal were all formed by a succession of unions and conquests, each of which commonly gave their kings a new title. The central power was still the power of Castile and Leon, not of Castile only. Leon was made up of the kingdoms of Leon and Gallicia. Castile took in Castile proper or Old Castile, with the principality of the Asturias, and the free lands of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava. To the south it took in the kino-doms — each markinof a stasre of advance — of Toledo or New Castile, of Cordova, Jaen, Seville, and Murcia. The sovereign of Portugal held his two kingdoms of Portugal and Algarve. The sovereign of Aragon, besides his enlarged kingdom of Aragon and his counties of Catalonia, Roussillon, and Cerdagne, held his kingdom of Valencia on the mainland, while the Balearic Isles formed the kingdom of Majorca. This last, first granted as a vassal kingdom to a branch of the royal house, was afterwards incorporated with the Aragonese state. Little geo- graphical change after the thirteenth century. § 2. Growth and Partition of the Great Spanish Monarchy. After the thirteenth century the strictly geographi- cal changes within the Spanish peninsula were but few. The boundaries of the kino-doms champed but little towards one another, and not much towards France, their only neighbour from the fifteenth century on- wards. But the five kingdoms were gradually grouped under two kings, for a while under one only. The external geography, so to speak, forms a longer story. We have to trace out the acquisition of territory within CONQUEST OF GEANADA. 541 Europe, first by Aragon and then by Castile, and the chap. acquisition of territory out of Europe, first bv Portuo-al ;r-"-^-— ' ^ '' r ' ^ t Territories and then by Castile. The permanent union of the beyond the '' J^ peninsula. dominions of Castile and Aragon, the temporary union of the dominions of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, formed that great Spanish Monarchy which in the sixteenth The great Spanish century was the wonder and terror of Europe, which Monarchy. lost important possessions in the sixteenth and in the seventeenth century, and which was finally partitioned in the beginning of the eighteenth. Within the peninsula we have seen Castile, in the uio-uso^ first half of the fifteenth century, win back the lands which had been lost to Granada at the end of the fourteenth. The last decade of the fifteenth saw the ending of the struggle. Men fondly deemed that the recovery of Granada balanced the loss of Constanti- Conquest. . of nople. But the last Moorish prince still kept for a Granada. moment a small tributary dominion in the Alpuj arras, End of . Mussul- and it was the purchase of this last remnant which man rule in Spain. finally put an end to the long rule of the Mussulman in Spain. The conquest of Granada was the joint work of a queen of Castile and a king of Aragon. But the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel did not at once unite i^*^^- their crowns. That union may be dated from the beo'in- castiieand A ning of Ferdinand's second reign in Castile. Meanwhile isog. Roussillon and Cerdagne had been, after thirty years' recovery of French occupation, won back by Aragon. Then came i4{;2-i49".' the conquest of Navarre south of the Pyrenees, which of^Nl"®*"^ left only the small part on the Gaulish side to pass to igjg^" the French kiniis of the house of Bourbon. Portuo^al was now the only separate kingdom in the peninsula, 542 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII. Anuesa- tion and separation of Por- tugal. l.".81-1640. Final loss of Eoussillou. 1659. Gibraltar lost to England, n04-1713. Oliven^a. 1801. Minorca. and the tendency to look on the peninsula as made up of Spain and Portugal was of course strengthened. But later in the century Portugal itself was for sixty years united with Castile and Araoon. Portugfal won back its independence ; and the Spanish dominion was further cut short by the final loss of Roussillon. The Pyrenees were now the boundary of France and Spain, except so far as the line may be held to be broken by the French right of patronage over Andorra} Since the Peace of the Pyrenees, the peninsula itself has seen hardly any strictly geographical change. Gibraltar has been for nearly two hundred years occupied by England. The fortress of Olivenca has been yielded by Portugal to Spain. And during the eighteenth century Minorca passed to and fro between Spain and England more times than it is easy to remember.^ Advance of Aragon beyond the peninsula. Union of Aragon and Sicily. 1282-1285. Second union of Aragon and Sicily. 1409. Union of Aragon and conti- nental The acquisition of territory beyond the peninsula naturally began with Aragon. The acquisition of the Balearic isles may pass as the enlargement of a penin- sular kingdom ; but before that happened, Aragon had won and lost what was practicall}^ a great dominion north of the Pyrenees. But this dominion was con- tinuous with its Spanish territory. The real beginning of Aragonese dominion beyond the sea was when the war of the Vespers for a moment united the crowns of Aragon and the insular Sicily. Then the island crown was held by independent Aragonese princes, and lastly was ao^ain united to the Arao-onese crown. The con- tinental Sicily had, during the reign of Alfonso the ' See above, p. 345. 2 Conquered by England 1708. Ceded 1713. Recovered 1756. Ceded to England 1763. Recovered 1782. Conquered by England 1798. Recovered 1802. THE GREAT SPANISH MONARCHY. 543 Sicily. 1442-1458. Continen- Mao'iianimous, a common kino- vritli Aragon and the chap. island. Then the continental kino-dom was — save durino- the momentary French occupations — held by Aragonese princes till the final union of the crowns of Aragon under"^^ and the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile a war of more than a prin^er^* hundred years gave to Aragon the island of Sardinia un"on of as a new kingdom. Thus, at the final union of Castile andlhe and Arao-on, Arasi-on brought with it the outlyinw 1503. ... . . War of crowns of the Two Sicilies and of Sardinia. The insular Sardinia. . Till 111 (> 1309-1428. bicilian kingdom was slightly lessened by the grant of 1530. Malta and Gozo to the Knio-hts of Saint John. The continental kingdom was increased by the addition of a 1557. small Tuscan territory. The outlying possessions of Aragon were thus strictly Difference acquisitions made by the Kiiws of Arao-on on behalf of tueout- ■■• ^00 lying po3- the crown of Aragon. But the extension of Castilian sessions of o Aragon dominion over distant parts of Europe was due only to ^^c^stiie the fact that the crown of Castile passed to an Austrian The Bur- gundianin- prince who had inherited the greater part of the do- heritance. minions of the Dukes of Burgundy. But thereby the Netherlands and the counties of Burgundy and Cha- rolois became appendages to Castile, and went to swell the great Spanish Monarchy. The duchy of Milan ^5^'°^^/°^ too, in whatever character the Emperor Charles held i°^^- it, became a Spanish dependency when it passed to his 1555. son Philip. The European possessions of the Spanish Monarchy Extent thus took in, at the time of their greatest extent, the Spanish ' ^ Monarchy. whole peninsula, the Netherlands and the other Burgun- dian lands of the Austrian house, Eoussillon, the Sicihes, Sardinia, and Milan. But this whole dominion was never held at once, unless for form's sake we count the United Loss of the ' United Netherlands as Spanish territory till the Twelve Years' ^^^^^^- 544 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII. 1578-1609. Lands lost to France. 1659-1677. Partition of the Spanish Monarchy. 1713. Recovery of Sicily. 1718, 1735. Spanish kings of the Two Sicilies. 1735-1860. Duchy of Parma. 1731-1860. Truce. Holland and its fellows had become practically independent before Portugal was won. But it was not till after the loss of Portugal that Spain suffered her great losses on the side of France, when the conquests of Lewis the Fourteenth cost her Eoussillon, Cerdagne, Charolois, the County of Burgundy, Artois, and other parts of the Netherlands. The remainder of the Nether- lands, with Milan and the three outlying Aragonese kingdoms, were kept till the partitions in the beginning of the eighteenth century. The final result of so much fighting and treaty-making was to take away all the outlying possessions of both Aragon and Castile, and to confine the Spanish kingdom to the peninsula and the Balearic isles, less Portugal and Gibraltar for ever, and less Minorca for a season. Since then Spain has never won back any part of the lost possessions of Castile ; but she has more than once won back the lost posses- sions of Aragon, insular Sicily twice, continental Sicily once. And if the Sicilies were not kept as part of the Spanish dominions, they passed to a branch of the Spanish royal house, as the duchies of Parma and Piacenza passed to another. § 3. The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal. The distinction between Spain and Portugal is most strikingly marked in the dominion of the two powers Character bcvoud tlic bouuds of Europc. Portugal led the way of the Portuguese amonsf EuroDeau states to conquest and colonization dominion o jt out of Europe. She had a geographical and historical call so to do. Her dominion out of Europe was not indeed a matter of necessity like that of Eussia, but it stood on a different sfround from that of Eno^land, out of Europe POETUGUESE COLONIZATION. 545 France, or Holland. It was not actually continuous chap. with her own European territory, but it began near to "^ — — ' it, and it was a natural consequence and extension of her European advance. The Asiatic and American dominion of Portugal grew out of her African dominion, and her African dominion was the continuation of her growth in her own peninsula. "Wlien the Moor was driven out of Spain, it was natural to follow him across the narrow seas into a land which lay so near to Sj^ain, and which in earlier geography had passed as a Spanish land. But as far as Portugal Castile was concerned, the Moor was not driven out till formed in the late in the fifteenth century ; as far as Portuo'al was- twrteenth '•' century. concerned, he was driven out in the thirteenth. Por- tugal had then reached her full extent in the peninsula, and she could no longer advance against the misbelievers by land. One is tempted to wonder that her advance beyond sea did not beo^in sooner. It came in the fif- Her '' '- African teenth century, when fifty years of conquest o'ave to ^^^^^V'f^^ •' ' ., ^ 1 CD 1415-1471. Portugal her kino-dom of Algarve beyond the Sea, an African dominion older than the Castilian conquest of The Granada. The king of Porturjal and the xilgarves thus Aigarves. held the southern pillar of Plercules, while Castile held the northern. The "■reater part of this African kino-- Loss of ~ ^ ~ African dom was lost after the f^ill of Sebastian. Ceuta remained ^°™""°"' a Spanish possession after the dominion of Portui^al, so Ceuta i ^ . Spanish. that Spain now holds the southern pillar and England the northern. Tanqier too once passed from Portugal Tangier . . ' English, to England as a marriage gift, and was presently for- icc2-i68a. saken as useless. But before the kingdom of Algarve beyond the sea Advance had passed away, its establishment had led to the dis- and the islands. covery of the whole coast of the African continent, and VOL. I. N N 546 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. XII ^ > — ~*^ Madeira, 1419. Azores and Cape Verde Islands. 1448-1451. Cape of Good Hope, 14',)7. Dominion of Arabia and India. Modern extent of Portuguese dominion abroad. Discovery of Brazil, 1500. 1531. 1624-1654. 1807. Kingdom of Portugal and Brazil, 1813. to the cfrowth of a vast Portuo-uese dominion in various parts of the world. Madeira was the first insular pos- session, followed by the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. Gradually, under the care of Don Henry, the Portuguese power spread along the north-west coast of Africa. The work went on : Vasco de Gama made his great discovery of the Cape of Good Hope ; the road to India was opened ; dominion on the coasts of Arabia and India, and even in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, was added to dominion on the coast of Africa. This dominion perished through the annexation of Portugal by SjDain. Since the restoration of Portuguese indepen- dence, only fragments of this great African and Indian dominion have been kept. But Portugal still holds the Atlantic islands, various points and coasts in Africa, and a small territory in India and the Eastern islands. But Portuguese enterprise led also to a more last- ing work, to the creation of a new European nation beyond the Ocean, the single European monarchy which has taken root in the New World. Brazil was discovered by Portuguese sailors at the end of the fifteenth century ; it was settled as a Portuguese pos- session early in the sixteenth. During the union of Portugal with Spain the Dutch won for a while a large part of the country, but the whole was won back by independent Portugal. The peculiar position of Portugal, ever threatened by a more powerful neigh- bour, gave her great Transatlantic dominion a special importance It was looked to as a possible place for shelter, which it actuall}^ became during the French invasion of Portuoal. The Portuijuese dominions took the style of ' the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarve.' Nine years later these kingdoms were SPANISH DOMINION IN AMERICA. 547 separated, and Brazil became an independent state, '^f^- But it remains a monarchy with the title of Empire, " — ^^ — ' ^nd it is still rided by the direct representative of the Portuguese royal house, while Portuo^al itself has passed Empire . . ° '- of Brazil, away from the native line by the accidents of female ^^^^ succession. In the sixteenth century Brazil held a wholly exceptional position. It was the only settlement of Portugal, it was the only considerable settlement of an}" European power, in a region which Spain claimed as her exclusive dominion. By Papal authority Spain Division of the Indies was to have all the newly found lands that lav to the between , '' Spain and west, and Portugal all that lay to the east, of a line I'ortugai on the map, drawn at 370 leagues west of the Cape Yerde Islands. Spain thus held the whole South American continent, with the exception of Brazil, to- gether with that ]:)art of the Xorth American conti- nent which is most closely connected with the southern. While the non- European dominion of Portugal was primarily African and Indian, the non-European do- minion of Spain was primarily American. It did not in the same way spring out of the European history of the country ; it was rather sugo-ested by rivalry of Portugal. In Africa the Spanish dominion hardl}' went beyond the possession of Oran and the more lasting pos- J^^'fy^^^^og session of C^iito. The conquest of Ttmis by Charles the 1732-1791. . ^. . . . . ^ . . Tunis, Fifth ^ was made rather in his Sicilian than in his Castilian i-'H. character. Within the range of Portuguese dominion the settlements of Spain were exceptional. But they insular took in the Canaries off the Atlantic coast of Africa, of Spain and the Philippine Islands in the extreme eastern Archi- • See above, p. 451. N >; -1 548 THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES. CHAP. -XII. 1898. Spanibli dominion ill America, Hispaniola, 149'2. 1519. 1532. Revolu- tions of the Spanish colonies. Mexico. Two Mexican Empires, 182-2-1823. 1866-1867. Cessions to the United States. Spanish West India pelago. The Canaries Spain still keeps ; the Philip- pines have passed to the United States of America. Meanwhile the great Spanish dominion in the New World, in both Americas and in the adjoining islands of the West Indies, had risen and fallen. It began with the first conquest of Colnmbus, TlisjMniola or Saint Domingo. Thus the dominion of Castile beyond the Ocean began at the very moment when she reached the full extent of her own Mediterranean coast. Then followed the great continental dominion in Mexico, Peru., and the other lands on or south of the isthmus which joins the two western continents. But into the body of the North American continent, the land which was to be disputed between France and England, Spain never spread. New Mexico., California, Florida, barely stretched alono- its western and southern coasts. The whole of this continental dominion passed away in a series of revolutions within our own century. While Portugal and England have really founded new European nations beyond the Ocean, the result of Spanish rule in America has been to create a number of states of ever shifting extent and constitution, keep- ing the SjDanish language, but some of which are as much native American as Spanish. Of these Mexico is the one which has had most to do with the general history of Europe and Europeaji America. It has twice taken the name of Empire, once under a native, once under a foreign, adventurer. And vast provinces, once under its nominal rule, have passed' to the United States. The loss of Texas, New Mexico, and f//?/:»6r California, has cut down the present Mexico nearly to t]ie extent of the first Spanish conquests. Of the Spanish West India islands, some, like SPANISH DOMINION IN AMERICA. 549 Jamaica and Trinidad, have passed to other European ^^^' powers. The oldest possession of all, the Spanish part ."7"^ of Hispaniola, has become a state distinct from that Jamaica, . . . . 1655. of Hayti in the same island. The largest possession of saint all, Caha, has likewise gained its independence, and in isoT"""' consequence of the same war which won for Cuba her cuba, liberty, Puerto Rico passed from Spain to the United States. In short, the dominion of Spain out of Europe ^g'^^o, has followed its European dominion out of Spain. The eighteenth century destroyed the one ; the nineteenth century has cut down the other to mere frao-ments. 1/ <-J CHAPTEE XIII. THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. The British islands. Late Ro- man con- quest and early loss of Britain. Indepen- dence of Britain in the later Empire. Britain another world and another Empire. We have now gone, first through that great mass of European lands which formed part either of the Eastern or of the Western Empire, and then through those more distant, and mainly peninsular, lands which so largely escaped the Imperial dominion. We end by leaving the mainland of Europe, by leaving the world of either Empire, for that great island, or rather group of islands, which for ac^es was looked on as formino- a world of its own. In Western Europe Britain was the last land to be won, and the first to be lost, in the days of the elder Empire. And, after all, Britain itself was only partly won, while the conquest of Ireland was never tried at all. After the English Conquest, Britain had less to do with the revived Western Empire than any Western land except Xorway. The momentary deal- ino's of Charles the Great with the Northumbrians and Scots, the doubtful and precarious homage done by Eichard the First to Henry the Sixth, are the only ex- ceptions, even in form, to the complete independence of the continental Empire which was maintained by every part of the British islands. The doctrine was that Britain, the other world, formed an Empire of its own. That Empire, being an island, was secured against the* constant fluctuations of its external boun- dary to which continental states lie open. For several SLIGHT CHANGES IN ENGLISH GEOGRAPHY. 551 centuries the l30undaries, both of the Cekic and Teutonic 9^ap. occupants of Britain and of the Teutonic kinodoms ~~ ' ' •- Changes anions^ themselves, were always chansfinsr. But these S''^"^ ^ ' J o & Britain. changes hardly affect European history, which is con- cerned only with the broad general results — with the establishment of the Teutonic settlers in the island — with the union of those settlers in one kinodom under o the West-Saxon house — with the extension of the im- perial power of the West-Saxon kings over the whole island of Britain. And, from the eleventh century change in onwards, there has been singularly little change of divisbnTof boundaries within the island. The boundaries of "^^"^ " England towards Scotland and Wales changed much less than might have been looked for during ages of such endless warfare. Even the lesser divisions within the English kingdom have been singularly lasting. The land, as a whole, has not been mapped out afresh since the tenth century. While a map of France or Germany in the eleventh century, or even in the eigh- teenth, is useless for immediate practical objects, a map of England in the days of Domesday practically diflers not at all from a map of England now. The only changes of any moment, and they are neither many nor great, are in the shires on the Welsh and Scottish borders. Thus the historical geography of the isle of Britain conies to little more than a record of these border changes, down to the incorporation of England, Scot- land, and Wales into a single kingdom. In the other great island of Ireland there is little to do except to trace how the boundary of English conquest advanced and fell Ijack, a matter after all of no great European concern. The history of the smaller outlying islands, 552 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. xni. from Scandinavian Shetland to the insular Normandy, ' " has really more to do with the general geography of Europe than of either Britain or Ireland. The dominion of the English kinos on the continent is of the highest European moment, but, from its geographical Sfi?'' side, it is Gaul and not Britain which it affects. The beyond sea ^'^^^^y gi'^at gcograpliical pliasnomeuon of English history is that which it shares with Spain and Portugal, and in which it surpasses both. This is the vast extent of outlying English dominion and settlement, partly in Europe, but far more largely in the distant lands of Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. But it is not merely that England has become a great power in all quarters of the world : England has been, like Portugal, but on a na°fons. far greater scale, a planter of nations. One group of her settlements has grown into one of the great powers of the world, into a third Enoiand bevond the Ocean, as far surpassing our insular England in geographical extent as our insular England surpasses the first Eng- land of all in the marchland of Germany and Den- mark. The mere barbaric dominion of England con- cerns our present survey but little ; but the historical geography of Europe is deeply concerned in the extension of England and of Europe in lands beyond the Western and the Southern Ocean. In tracing out the little that we have to say of the geography of Britain itself, it will be well to begin with that northern part of the island where changes have been both more numerous and more important than they ha've been in England. HISTORICAL POSITION OF SCOTLA.ND. 553 CHAr. § 1. The Kingdom of Scotland. - — . — In Northern Britain, as in some other parts of ^osSi of Europe, we see a land which has taken its name from ^'^°*^^"'^- a people to which it does not owe its historic impor- tance. Scotland has won for itself a position in Britain and in Europe altogether out of proportion to its size and population. But it has not done this by virtue of its strictly Scottish element. The Irish settlers who Greatness of Scotland first brouo-ht the Scottish name into Britain could due to its '^ _ English never have made Scotland what it really became, element. What founded the o-reatness of the Scottish kino-dom was the fact that part of England gradually took the name of Scotland and its inhabitants took the name of Scots. The case is as when the Duke of Savoy and ■Genoa and Prince of Piedmont took his hio-hest title from that Sardinian kino-dom which was the least valuable part of his dominions. It is as when the ruler of a mighty German realm calls himself king of the small duchy of Prussia and its extinct people. The g)^°jjg,j truth is that, for more than five hundred years, there '^'"^•^.^"}^ ' '/ ' m Britam were two English kingdoms in Britain, each of which had a troublesome Celtic background which formed its chief difiicultv. One Enijflish kini? reimied at Win- Chester or London, and had his difficulties in Wales and afterwards in Ireland. Another Enolish kinjr reigned at Dunfermline or Stirling, and had his diffi- culties in the true Scotland. But the southern kingdom, ruled by kings of native English or of foreign descent, Ijut never by kings of British or Irish descent,^ always ' The Tudor kings were doubtless of British descent ; but they did not reign by virtue of that descent, and they did not come in till ages after the English kingdom was completely formed. 554 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. Extension of the Scot- tish name. Analogy of Switzer- land. Threefold elements in the later Scotland. True posi- tion of the King of Scots. Enmity of the true Scots. kept the English name, while the northern kingdom, ruled by kings of Scottish descent, adopted the Scottish name. The English subjects of the King of Scots gradually took the Scottish name to themselves. As the present Swiss nation is made up of parts of the German, Burgundian, and Italian nations which have detached themselves from their several main bodies, so the present Scottish nation is made up of parts of the English, Irish, and British nations which have de- tached themselves from their several main bodies. But in both cases it is the Teutonic element which forms the life and strength of the nation, the kernel to which the other elements have attached themselves. We cannot read the mediaeval history of Britain aright, unless we remember that the King of Scots was in truth the English king of Teutonic Lothian and teu- tonized Fife. The people from whom he took his title were at most his unwilling subjects ; they were often his open enemies, the allies of his southern rival. Lothian, The moderii kingdom of Scotland was made up of Clyde, and Eiiglisli Lothiau, Britlsli Strathclyde, and Irish Scotland. Scotland. , i o • i The oldest Scotland is Ireland, whence the Scottish name, long since forgotten in Ireland itself, came into Britain and there spread itself These three elements stand out plainly. But the Scottish or Irish element The Picts. swallowed up another, that of the Picts, of whom there can be no doubt that they were Celts, like the Scots and Britons, but about whom it may be doubted whether their kindred was nearer to the Scots or to the Britons. For our purpose the question is of little moment. The Picts, as far as geography is concerned, either vanished or became Scots. FORMATION OF THE SCOTTISH KINGDOM. 555 Early in the ninth century the land north of the ^;§ff • firths of Clyde and Forth was still mainly Pictish. ^ ''~~^ '' Positiou of The second Scotland (the first Scotland in Britain) had tiieficts ^ ' and Scots not spread far beyond the original Irish settlement in centu'""^'' the south-west. The union of Picts and Scots under a Union of Picts and Scottish dynasty created the lari^er Scotland, the true ^f?*^- ^ *' ~ ' 843. Celtic Scotland, taking in all the land north of the The Celtic n -, ^ . . . Scotland. nrths, except where Scandmayian settlers occupied the extreme north. South of the firths, Eno-lish Bernicia^ Bemicia. sometimes a separate kingdom, sometimes part of Xorth- humberland, stretched to the firth of Forth, with Edin- burgh as a border fortress. To the west of Bernicia, south and east of the firth of Clyde, lay the British strath- •' "^ Clyde or kingdom of Ciiinberland or Strathclyde, with Alcluyd or f^^^^'^''''' Dumbarton as its border fortress. To the south-west again lay the outlying Pictish land of Galloway, which Gaiioway. long kept up a separate being. Parts of Bernicia, parts of Strathclyde, were one day to join with the true Scotland to make up the later Scottish kingdom. As yet the true Scotland was a foreign and hostile land alike to Bernicia and to Strathclyde. In the next century we see the Scottish power cut settle- ments of short to the north and west, but adyancino- towards the ti^e Noith- "-^ men. south and east. The Northmen haye settled in the northern and western islands, in those parts of the mainland to which they gaye the names of Caithness Caithness. and Sutherland, and eyen in the first Scottish land in the west, Scotland itself has also admitted the external Scotland 111 acknow- supremacy of the English oyerlord. On the other hand, ledges the the Scots haye pressed within the English border, supremacy, and haye occupied Edinburgh, the border fortress of Taking ot -n T -I -r • 1 1-1 Edinburgh, England. Later m the same century or early in tne c. usi next, the Kings of Scots receiyed Northern Bernicia, Lothian,"" 906 or 1018. ■556 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. •Grant of Curaber- laiid, 945. Different tenures of the do- minion of the King of Scots. The dis- tinctions forgotten in later contro- ESects of the grant of Lothian. Fate of southern Cumber- land. Carlisle and its dis- trict added to England by William Rufus, 1092. Cumber- land and Northum- berland granted to David, 1136 tlie land of Lothian^ as an English earldom. On the other side, Stratliclyde or Cumberland — its southern boundary is very uncertain — had become in a manner united to Emiiand and Scotland at once. An Eiiirlish conquest, it was granted in iief to the King of Scots, and was commonly held as an appanage by Scottish princes.^ Thus the King of Scots held three dominions on three different tenures. Scotland was a kinofdom under a merely external English supremacy ; Cumber- land was a territorial fief of England ; Lothian was an earldom within the English kiiiodom. In after times these distinctions were forgotten, and the question now was whether the dominions of the King of Scots, as a whole, were or were not a fief of England. When the question took this shape, the English king claimed more than his ancient rights over Scotland, less than his ancient rio-hts over Lothian, The acquisition of Lothian made the Scottish kingdom English. Lothian remained English ; Cum- berland and the eastern side of Scotland itself, the Lowlands north of the firth of Forth, became practi- cally English also. The Scottish kings became English princes, whose strength lay in the English part of their dominions. But late in the eleventh century it would seem that the southern part of Cumberland had become a separate principality ruled by a refugee Northumbrian prince under Scottish supremacy. This territory, the city of Carlisle and its immediate dis- trict, the old diocese of Carlisle, was added to England by William Eufus. On the other hand, in the troubles of Stephen's reign, the king of Scots received two English earldoms, Cumberland — in a somewhat wider ' See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 580. EELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 557 sense — and Nortliumberland in the modern sense, the ^^-^^ land from the Tweed to the Tyne. Had these earldoms " ' been kept by the Scottish kings, they would doubt- less have become Scottish lands in the same sense in which Lothian did ; that is, they would have l:)ecome parts of the northern English kingdom. But Northuni- ^'^Ent!^*^ berland and Cumljerland were won back by Henry the ^^^^[ Second ; and the boundary has since remained as it was rpj^^ ^^^j^. then fixed, save that the town of Berwick fluctuated ^^^^t, according to the accidents of war between one kingdom to Berwick. and the other. But though the boundaries of the kingdoms were Relations \ '• oi 1 T • 1 1 between fixed, their relations were not. Scotland in the modern England and Scot- sense — that is, Scotland in the older sense, Lothian, lanci- and Strathclyde — was for a moment held strictly as a fief of England. It was then for another moment 1292. incorporated with England. It was then acknowledged 1296. as an independent kingdom. It again fell under 1327. vassalage for a moment, and again won its independ- isss.. ence. Then, at the beginning of the seventeenth leos.. century, England and Scotland, as distinct, independent, and equal kingdoms, passed under a common king. They were separated again for a moment when Scotland io49„ acknowledged a king whom England rejected. For another moment Scotland was incorporated with an 1652. English commonwealth. Ao-ain Scotland and England became independent kingdoms under a common king, leco. till the two kingdoms were, by common consent, joined 1707. in the one kingdom of Great Britain. o Meanwhile the Scottish kings had, like those of l^^^^^^^l England somewhat earlier, to struggle against Scandi- g"^^"^^*""' navian invaders. The settlements of the Northmen ^^^'^^"e^ 1014-10G4. 558 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. The Sudereys, and Man. Caithness submits, 1203. Oalloway incorpo- rated, 1235. Sudereys and Man submit, 1263-1266. History of Man. 1764-1826. Orkney, 1469. advanced, and for- some years in the eleventh century they took in Moray at one end and Galloway at the other. But it was onl}^ in the extreme north and in the northern islands that the land really became Scandi- navian. In the Sudereys or Hebrides — the southern islands as distinguished from Orkney and Shetland — and in Man, the Celtic speech has survived. Caithness was brought under Scottish supremacy early in the thirteenth century. Galloway was incorporated. Later ag^ain, after the battle of Lari^s, the Suderevs and Man passed under Scottish supremacy. But the authority of the Scottish crown in the islands was for a long time very precarious. Man, the most central of the British isles, lying at a nearly equal distance from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, remained a separate kingdom, sometimes under Scottish, sometimes under English, superiority. Granted to English subjects, the king- dom sank to a lordship. The lordship was united to the crown of Great Britain, and Man, like the Norman islands, remains a distinct possession, forming no part of the United Kingdom. The earldom of Orknev meanwhile remained a Norwegian dependeiK^y till it was pledged to the Scottish crown. Since then it has silently become part, first of the kingdom of Scotland, and then of the kingdom of Great Britain. § 2. The Kingdom of England. Harold's Tlic chauo'es of boundary between Enoland and conquests "^ *". from Wales l^eoin, as far as we are concerned with them, Wales, ^ ' 1063. ^j|-|^ ^lie great Welsh campaign of Harold. All the mentofthe bordcr slilrcs, Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, border . i i i i i shires. Gloucestershire, seem now to have been enlarged ; the WALES. 559 Eiioiisli border stretched to the Conwy in the north, chap. J 1 -r . inl- and to the Usk in the south. But part of this territory ^—^ seems to have been recovered hj the Welsh princes, while part passed into the great march district of England The and Wales, ruled by the Lords Marchers. The gradual conquest of South Wales began under the Conqueror conquest iind went on under his sons ; but it was more larg-elv Tr.t]^^\.^ ' ~ " 1070-1121. the work of private adventurers than of the kings themselves. The lands of Morganwg, Breheiniog, DyfecL and Ceredigion, answering nearly to the modern South Wales, were graduallv subdued. In some dis- Fieinisb '-' - settlement tricts, especially in the southern part of the present j''^®"?-. ^ '', ^ ^ brokesnire, Pembrokeshire, the Britons were actually driven out, "^^• and the land was settled by Flemish colonists, the latest •of the Teutonic settlements in Britain. Elsewhere Nor- character man lords, with a Xorman, Enoiish, and Flemish follow- quest of mg, held the towns and the more level country, while waies. the Welsh kept on a half independence in the moun- Prhices of tains. Meanwhile in North Wales native princes — North Wales. Princes of Aberjfraw and Lords of Snoicdon — still ruled, as vassals of the English king, till the war of Edward the First. In the first stage the vassal prince cessions to was compelled again to cede to his o^•erlol•d the 1277. territory east of the Conwy. Six years later followed of^Sortif the complete conquest. But complete incorporation 1282^^' with England did not at once foUow. Wales, North The Prin- . . cipality of and South, remained a separate dominion, giving the Waies. princely title to the eldest son of the English king. Some shires were formed ; some new towns were founded ; the border districts remained under the anomalous jurisdiction of the Marchers. The full in- fuii ineor- . . poration. corporation of the principality and its marches dates 1535. from Henry the Eighth. Thirteen new counties were 560 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. The Domesday shires. Two classes of shires. Ancient kingdoms and princi- palities. Mercian shires mapped out in the tenth century. Cumber- land and Westmore- land. formed, and some districts were added or restored to the border shires of Enoiaiid. One of the new coun- ties, Monmouthshire, was, under Charles the Second, added to an English circuit, and it has since been reckoned as an Enghsh county. Settino- aside these new creations, all the existino- shires of Enoiand were in beino; at the time of the Norman Conquest, save those of Lancaster^ Cumber- land, Westmoreland, and Rutland. The boundaries were not always exactly the same as at present ; but the differences are commonly sli«-lit and of mere local in- terest. The shires, as they stood at the Conquest, were of two classes. Some were old kingdoms or principali- ties, which still kept their names and boundaries as shires. Such were the kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, and Essex, and the East-Anglian, West-Saxon, and North- umbrian shires. Most of these keep old local or tribal names ; a few only are called from a town. In Mercia on the other hand, the shires seem to have been mapped out afresh when the land was won back from the Danes. They are called after towns, and the town which gives the name commonly lies central to the district, and re- mains the chief town of the shire, except when it has been outstripped by some other in modern times. ^ Both classes of shires survived the Conquest, and both have gone on till now with very slight changes. On the Welsh border, all the shires, for reasons already given, stretch further west in Domesday than they do now. On the Scottish border Cumberland and Westmoreland were made out of the Cumbrian con- quest of William Eufus, enlarged by districts which ^ See Korman Conquest, vol. i. p. 48; and Macmillan's Maga- zine, April, 1880. IRELAND. 561 ill Domesday appear as part of Yorkshire. Lancashire ^™^- was made up of lands taken from Yorkshire and ""^ ' 1 ' 1 -i~>' • Lajica- Cheshire, the Eibble formino- the okler boundary of shire. those shires. The okler diyisions are marked by the boundaries of the dioceses of York, Carlisle, and Lich- field or Chester, as they stood down to the changes under Henry the Eio-hth. In central Eni^land the only change is the formation of the small shire of Rutland Rutland. out of the Domesday district of Eutland (which, oddly enough, appears as an appendage to Nottinghamshire), enlarged by a small part of what was then Northamp- tonshire. ^ 3. L'eland. The second great island of the British group, Ireland, J^^^^'^J^ the original Scotia, has had less to do with the general Scotland. history of the world than any other part of Western Europe. Its ancient diyisions haye liyed on from the earliest times. The names of its fiye o-reat proyinces, The five *- ^ provinces Ulster, Meath, Leinster, Munster, and Connaught, are all in familiar use, though Meath has sunk from its old rank alongside of the other four. The Celtic inhabi- tants of the island remained independent of foreign powers till the days of Scandinayian settlement. Just like the English kingdoms in Britain, the great diyisions of Ireland were sometimes independent, sometimes united under the supremacy of a head king. Gradually Settlement the Northmen, called in Ireland Ostmen, formed settle- ostmen. ments on the coast, and held some of the chief ports, as Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, two of which names bear witness to Teutonic occupation.^ The great Irish victory insiijic- 1 [It may be noticed that the terminations of the names of the lojo.'"^ ' three provinces, Munster, Leinster, and Ulster, are Scandinavian additions to the native names, Mumu, Laigin, and Ulaid.] VOL. I. 562 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. , •' Increasing coniiexiou with England. Tlie English conquest, 1169-1652. 1171. Fluctua- tions of the Pale. Kingdom and Lord- ship of Ireland. 1542. Relations of Ireland to Eng- land. 1652. 1689. 1782-1800. 1801. at Cloutarf weakened, but did not destroy, the Scandi- navian power. And, from the latter half of the tenth century onward, the eastern coast of Ireland shows a growing connexion with England. Whether any actual English supremacy ever existed is extremely doubtful ; but both commercial and ecclesiastical ties be- came closer during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. This connexion led to the actual English conquest of Ireland, begun under Henry the Second, but really finished only by Cromwell. All Ireland admitted for a moment the supremacy of Henry ; but, till the sixteenth century, the actual English dominion, called the Pale^ with Dublin for its centre, was always fluctuating, and for a while it fell back rather than advanced. In the early days of the conquest Ireland is spoken of as a kingdom ; but the title soon went out of use. The original plan seems to have been that Ireland, like Wales afterwards, should form an appanage for a son of the English King. It became instead, so far as it was an English possession at all, a simple dependency of England, from which the King took the title of Lord of Ireland. Henry the Eighth took the title of King of Ireland ; but the kingdom remained a mere depen- dency, attached to the crown, first of England and then of Great Britain. This state of tliinos was diversified by a short time of complete incorporation under the Commonwealth, and a short time of independence under James the Second. But for the last eighteen years of the eighteenth centuiy, Ireland was formally acknowledged as an independent kingdom, connected with Great Britain only by the tie of a common king. Since that time it has formed an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS OF ENGLAND. 563 CHAP. XIII. § 4. Oatlying European Possessions of England. Ireland, the sister island of Britain, has thus been united with Britain into a single kingdom. Man, lying between the two. remains a distinct dependency. This last is also still the position of that part of the The Norman Xorman duchy which clave to its own dukes, which islands. 1805. never became French, but always remained Norman. It might be a question what was the exact position of Guernsey., Jersey, Alderney, Sarh, and their smaller neighbours, when the Enolish kino-s took the titles of the French kingdom and actually held the Xorman duchy. Practically the islands have, during all changes, re- mained attached to the English crown ; but they have never been incorporated with the kingdom. Other more distant European lands have been, some still are, other r> 1 t • • 7~> 7 • European in the same position. Such were Aauitaine, Fonthieu, dependen- cies, Aqui- and Calais, as fixed by the Peace of Bretigny. Since taine, &c. the loss of Aquitaine, England has had no considerable continental dominion in Europe, but she has from time to time held several islands and detached points. Such Outposts and are Calais, Bouloyne, Dunkirk, Gibraltar, Minorca, islands. Malta, ITeliyoland, all of which have been spoken of in their natural geographical places. To tliese we may add Tangier, which has more in common with the possession of Gibraltar and Minorca than with the English settlements in the further parts of Africa. Of these points, Gibraltar, and Malta, are still held by En<'laud. The virtual English possession of the Greek •J ^ '- _ _ posses- Ionian Islands made Enuland for a while a sharer in nions, the fracrments of the Eastern Poman Empire. And \^^^f^' o '■ 1014— loo4. later still she has again i)ut on the same character by cypms, :i 564 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP, the occupation, on whatever terms, of another Greek XIII and Imperial land, the island of Cyprus. § 5. The American Colonies of England. Colonies of England, like France and Holland, became a colo- nizing power by choice. Extension over barbarian lands was not a necessity, as in the case of Eussia, nor did it spring naturally out of earlier circumstances, as in the case of Portugal. But the colonizing enterprise of England has done a greater work than the colo- nizing enterprise of any other European power. The greatest colony of England — for in a worthier use of language the word colony would imply independence rather than dependence^ — is that great Confederation which is to us what Syracuse was to Corinth, what Miletos was to Athens, what Gades and Carthage were The United to tlic citics of the oldcr Canaan. The United States of America, a vaster England beyond the Ocean, an European power, on a level with the greatest Euro- pean powers, planted beyond the bounds of Europe, form the great work of English and European enterprise in non-European lands. First The settlements which grew into the United States settle- were not the first English possessions in North America, North but they were the first which really deserved to be America, . /> t 1497. called colonies. The first discoveries of all led only to the establishment of the Newfoundland fisheries. Attempts Ealeigh's attempts at real colonization ninety years of Raleigh, "" . . 1585-1587. later only pointed the way to something more lasting. The In the seventeenth century began the planting of the Thirteen o onies. ^ rpj^^ Latin colonia certainly does not imply independence ; but the word colon]/, in our use of it, rather answers to the Greek ixTTOiKia, which does. ENGLISH COLONIES IN AMERICA. 565 thirteen settlements which won their independence. Of these the eailiest and the latest, the most southern and the most northern, began through English coloniza- tion in the strictest sense. First came Virginia. Then followed the Puritan colonization much further to the north which founded the New England states. The shiftings among these settlements, from Plymouth to Maine, the unions, the divisions, the colonies of colonies — the Epidamnos and the Sinope of the New World — the various and varying relations between the differei'tt settlements, read like a piece of old Greek or of Swiss history.^ By >the end of the seventeenth century they had arranged themselves into four separate colonies. These were Massachusetts, formed by the union of Mas- sachusetts and Plymouth, with its northern dependency -of Maine, which became a separate State long after the Eevolution ; New Hampshire, annexed by Massachusetts and after a while separated from it ; Connecticut, formed by the union of Connecticut and Newhaven ; Rhode Island, formed l)y the union of Rhode Island and Providence. These New England States form a distinct geographical group, with a marked political and religious character of their own. Meanwhile, at some distance to the south, around Virginia as their centre, grew up another CHAP. XIII. Virginia, 1607. The New England States, 1620-1G38. 1629-1692. 1820. The Southern Colonies. It may be well to give the dates in order : — Plymouth Massachvisetts . New Hampshire Connecticut Newhaven Providence Rhode Island . Maine New Hampshire annexed | by Massachusetts . J 1620 Rhode Island and Provi- 1628 dence united 1629 Connecticut and New- 1635 haven united 1 638 New Hampshire separated "1^ 1644 from Massachusetts 1634 Maine purchased 1 1638 Massachusetts 1 Plymouth and M;issa chusetts united 1 } 1644 1664 1671 1677 1691 566 THE EEITISII ISLA^'DS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. Marylaaid. 1G34. Carolina, 1650-lGOS. Divided, 1720. Inter- mediate space occu- pied by the United Provinces and Sweden. New Nether- lands, 1614. New Sweden, 1658. Union of New Sweden with New Nether- lands, 165.5. English conquest of New Nether- lands, 1664. New Yovk 1674. The Jerseys. 1665. 1702. group of colonies, with a history and character in many ways unhke those of New England. To the north of Virginia arose the proprietary colony of Maryland ; to the south arose Carolina^ afterwards divided into Nortk and South. South Carolina for a long while marked the end of English settlement to the south, as Maine did to the north. But between these two groups of English colonies in the strictest sense lay a region in which English settlement took the form of conquest from another European power. Earlier than any English settlement except Virginia, the great colony of the United Provinces had arisen on Loner Island and the neio-hbourino- main- land. It bore the name of New Netherlands, with its capital of New Amsterdam. To the south, on the shores of Delaware Bay, the other great power of the seven- teenth century founded the colony of New Sweden. Three European nations, closely allied in race, speech, and creed, were thus for a while established side by side on the eastern coasts of America. But the three settlements were fated to merge together, and that by force of arms. A local war added New Sweden to New Netherlands ; a war between England and the United Provinces gave New Netherlands to England. New Amsterdam became New York., and gave its name to the colony which was to become the greatest State of the Union. Ten years later, in the next war between the two colonizing powers, the new English possession was lost and won ao'ain. Meanwhile the gap which was still left began to be filled up l)y other English settlements. East and West Jersey began as two distinct colonies, which were after- wards united into one. The great colony of Pennsyl- THE UNITED STATES. 567 vania next arose, from which the small one of Delaware chap. was parted off twenty years later. Pennsylvania was " — — ' . . , Pennsyl- tnus the last of the onsrinal settlements of the seven- ^'^nia, 1682. teenth century, which in the space of nearly eighty Delaware, years had been formed fast after one another. Fifty years after the work of the benevolent Penn came the work of the no less benevolent Oglethorpe ; Georgia^ Georgia, to the south of all, now filled up the tale of the famous Thirteen, the fitting number, it would seem, for a Federal power, whether in the Old World or in the Xew. By the Peace of Paris the Thirteen Colonies were indepen- acknowledged as independent States. The great work theUnHed of English settlement on foreign soil was brought to \im. ' perfection. The new and free English land beyond the Ocean took in the whole temperate region of the North American coast, all between the peninsula of Acadia to the north and the other peninsula of Florida to the south. Both of these last lands were English possessions at the time of the War of Independence, but neither of them had any share in the work. Acadia, under the name of Nova Scotia, had been ceded by France in the interval f^oTia., between the settlement of Pennsylvania and the settle- ' ' ' ment of Georoia. Next came the conquest of Canada, conquest *- ^ , ot Canada, in which the men of the colonies played their part. 1759-176;!. Hitherto the English colonies had been shut in to the west by the French claim to the line of the Alleghany '^H^^^^ mountains. The Treaty of Paris took away this bug- ^^^^^^^^._ bear, and left the whole land as far as the Mississippi open to the enterprise of the English colonists. Thus, when the Thirteen States started on their independent career, the whole land between the great lakes, the Ocean, and the Mississippi, was open to them. Florida Florida 568 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. iigaiu Spanish, 1781-182]. Extension to the West. Louisiana, 1803. Florida, 1821. A new English nation. Lack of a name. Use of the word America. indeed, first as an Englisli, then again as a Spanish pos- session, cut them off from the Gulf of Mexico. The cit}^ of New Orleans remained, first a Spanish, then a French, outpost east of the Mississippi, and the posses- sions still held by England kept them from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence, But within these limits, such of the old States as were allowed by their geogra- phical position might extend themselves to the west, and new States might be formed. Both processes went on, and two of the barriers formed by European powers were removed. The purchase of Louisiana from France, the acquisition of Florida from Spain, gave the States the seaboard of the Gulf of Mexico, and allowed their extension to the Pacific. The details of that extension, partly by natural growth, partly at the expense of the Spanish element in North America, it is hardly needful to Q'O throuofh here. But, out of the Ens^lish settlements on the North- American coast, a new English nation has arisen, none the less English, in a true view of history, because it no longer owes allegiance to the crown of Great Britain. But the power thus formed, exactly like earlier confederations in Europe, lacks a name. The United States of America is hardly a geographical or a national name, any more than the names of the Con- federates and the United Provinces. In the two European cases common usage gave the name of a single member of the Union to the whole, and in the case of Switzerland the popular name at last became the formal name. In the American case, on the other hand, popular usage speaks of the Confederation by the name of the whole continent of which its territory forms ]3art. For several purposes, the words America and American are always understood as shutting out Canada and Mexico, to say BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. -569 nothing of the southern American continent. For some ^^j^?- other purposes, those names still take in the whole " ' ^ American continent, north and south. But it is easier to see the awkwardness of the usual nomenclature than to suggest any improvement on it. While one set of events in the eiofhteenth centurv Second T7 1' 1 created an independent Enoiish nation on North nation in . . ., North American sou, another set of events in the same cen- America. tury, earlier in date but later in their results, has led to the formation in its immediate neiohbourhood of another English nation which still keeps its allegiance to the English crown. A confederation of states, prac- Dependent . ^" . . , . coufede- tically nidependent in their internal affairs, but remain- i^cy. ing subjects of a distant sovereign, is a novelty in political science. Such is the Confederation of Britisli British North America. But this dependent Confederation did America, not arise out of colonization in the same sense as the independent Confederation to the south of it. The central land which gives it its character is the con- quered land of Canada. Along with Canada came the possession of the smaller districts which received the names of New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Island^ Brunswick districts which were at first joined to Nova Scotia, but **^" which afterwards became distinct colonies. Now they The *' Dominion, are joined with the Dominion of Canada, which, like i^^'^- the United States, grows by the incorporation of new states and territories. The addition of British Columbia British Columbia, has carried the Confederation to the Pacific ; that of i^"''^- Ruperts- Rupertsland carries it indefinitely northward towards ^*"'^- the pole. This second English-speaking power in North America stretches, like the elder one, from Ocean to Ocean. Newfoundland alone, a possession {^nJ^''""" 1713'. 570 THE BRITTSH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. 9J^'^P- secured to England after many debates at the same XIII time as Nova Scotia, remains distinct. The West Of tlic Britisli possessions in the West Indies a few Baibadoes, onlv, amons; them Barhadoes. the earhest of all, were colonies in the same sense as Virginia and Massa- chusetts. The greater number, Jamaica at their head,^ were won by conquest from other European powers. No new Enoiish nation, like the American and the Canadian, has grown up in them. Still less is there any need to dwell on the Bahamas, the Falkland Islands, or the South-American possession of Britisli Guiana. Jamaica, 1655. Smaller settle- ments. Colonies in the southern hemi- sphere. Australia. ^ 6. Other Colonies and Possessions of Engla7id. The story of the North- American colonies may be both compared and contrasted with the story of two great groups of colonies in the southern hemisphere. In Australia and the other great southern islands, a body of English colonies have arisen, the germs at least of yet another English nation, but which have not as yet reached independence, though the Australian colonies including Tasmania have formed a federal state within the British Empire. In South Africa, another group of possessions and colonies, beginning, like Canada, in conquest from another European power, may likewise feel their way towards confederation. The beo-inninor of Eniiiish settlement in the sTeatest of islands began in the years which immediately fol- lowed the establishment of American independence.. New South First canic New South Wales, on the eastern coast, Wales, 1^^'^- designed originally as a penal settlement. It outgrew this stage, and another penal settlement was founded. South Africa. AUSTRALIA AND AFRICA. 571 in Western Australia. Then colonization spread into the chap xin. intermediate region of Southern Australia (which how- ever stretches ri^ht through the island to its northern Australia, ° 1829. coast) into the district called Victoria, south-west of the South original settlement, and lastly, into Queensland to the isTe."^*'*' north-east. Since the middle of the nineteenth century S37?"''' all these colonies have e'radually established consti- Q«eens- ° "^ land, 1859. tutions which give them full internal independence. Colonies' South of the great island lies one smaller, but still vast, isso. that of Van Biemeris Land, now Tasmania, which was SoT*^''*' settled earlier than any Australian settlement except ^*^^^- Xew South Wales. And to the east lie the two sfreat colonies, . ' ^ . . 1S52. islands of New Zealand, where six English colonies united, founded at different times have been united into one. While the Australian settlements were colonies in South the strictest sense, the English possessions in South Africa began, like New York, in a settlement first planted by the United Provinces. The Cajpe Colony, conquest , of the after some shiftines during the French revolutionary Cape, ^ ^ ^ ^ '' 1806. wars, was conquered by England, and its possession by England was confirmed at the general peace. Migration isis. northward, both of the English and Dutch inhabitants, has j)roduced new settlements, as the Eastern Colony and Eastern Natal. British dominion gradually pushed north-east- fyoo-iaso ward from Cape Colony to join Natal, a process which was completed by the annexation of Pondoland. All Pondoiand> this territory was incorporated in Cape Colony, to which were also added on the west Wallish Bay and a number of islets off the coast of the barren territory which Germany has made into a South-west African German Protectorate. On the other side Natal has been en- toy'^t^, larged by the acquisition of Zululand and Tongaland. (1897.) Meanwhile independent Dutch states had arisen, as the ■572 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. CHAP. XIII. ■*— — 1 "^ Orange Itiver ; State, 1847-1856. ' Transvaal, 18(51-1877. South African Republic, 1884-1900. Orange River ■Colony and Transvaal Colony, 1900. British Bechuana- land, 1894. Rhodesia, 1899. Orange River Rejnihlic, annexed by England, then set free, then dismembered and the Transvaal annexed after sixteen years of independence, and then estabhshed under British suzerainty as the South African Republic. Sixteen years later the free Dutch state known as the Orajige Free State, the remnant of the Orange Eiver Eepublic, was annexed under the name of the Orange River Colony, and the semi-dependent South African Eepublic (which had meanwhile extended its l)order on the side of Zululand by annexing a region known as the New Eepublic) was reduced to the condition of a colony under its old name of the Transvaal. The annexation of British Bechuanaland to the north of Cape Colony, and the establishment of a protectorate beyond it, were followed by the acquisition (by the British South Africa Company) of the large territory known as Rhodesia to the north of the Transvaal. Thus all the African continent south of the Zambesi is British, with the exceptions of the German Protectorate in the west and the Portuguese colony of Delagoa in the east. Europe ex- In all thcsc cascs of real colonization, of real "tended by •coioniza- extcusion of the English or any other European nation, it is hardly a figure to say that the bounds of Europe have been enlarged. All that makes Europe Europe, all that parts off Europe from Africa and Asia, has been carried into America and Australia and Africa itself. The growth of this new Europe, no less than the changes of the old, is an essential part of Barbarian Europcau gcograpliy. It is otherwise with territories, great or small, which have been occupied by England and other European powers merely for military or INDIA. 57 o. commercial purposes. Forts, factories, or empires, on chap. XIII. barbarian soil, where no new European nation is likely -■■ ' ' - ever to grow up, are not cases of true colonization ; they are no extension of the bounds of Europe. The English climax of this kind of barbarian dominion is found in in India. those vast Indian possessions in which England has sup- planted Portugal, France, and the heirs of Timour. Of that dominion the scientific frontier has yet to be traced ; yet it has come to give an Imperial title to the Empire of sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, while those two isve.' European islands, as perhaps befits their inferiority in physical size, remain content with the lowlier style of the United Kingdotii. Whether the loftier pretensions of Asia do, or do not, imply any vassalage on the part of Europe, it is certain that the Asiatic Empire of the sovereign of the British kingdom is no extension of England, no extension of Europe, no creation of a new English or European nation. The Empire of India stands outside the European world, outside the political system which has gathered round the Old and the Xew Eome. But a place amongst the foremost members of that system belongs to the great European nation on American soil, where the tongue of England is kept, and the constitution of old Achaia is born again, in a confederation stretching from the Western to the Eastern Ocean. We have thus traced the geograi)hy, and in tracing summarj-. the geography we have in a slighter way traced the history, of the various states and powers of Europe, and of the lands beyond the Ocean which have been planted from Europe. We have throughout kept steadily before our eyes the centre, afterwards the 574 THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES. ^xiil' ^^^^ centres, of European life. We have seen how the older states of Europe gradually lose themselves in the dominion of Rome, how the younger states gradually spring out of the dominion of Rome. We have followed, as our central subjects, the fates of those powers in the East and West which continued the Roman name and Roman traditions. We have traced out the states which were directly formed by splitting off from those powers, and the states which arose beyond the range of Roman power, but not beyond the range of Roman influence. We have seen the Western Empire first pass to a German prince, then gradually shrink into a German kingdom, to be finally dissolved into a German confederation. We have watched the states which split off" at various dates from its bod}^ the power of France on one side, the power of Austria on another, the powers of Italy on a third, the free states of Switzerland at one end, the free states of the Nether- lands at the other. We have beheld the long tragedy of the Eastern Rome ; we have told the tale of the states which split off from it and arose around it. We have seen its territorial position pass to a barbarian invader, and something like its position in men's minds pass to the mightiest of its spiritual disciples. And we have seen, painted on the map of our own age, the beginning of the great work which is giving back the lands of the Eastern Rome to their own people. We have then traced the shiftings of the powers which lay wholly or partly beyond the bounds of either Empire, the "reat Slavonic mainland, the Scandinavian and the Iberian peninsulas, ending with that which is geographi- cally the most isolated land of all, the other world of Britain. W^ have seen too how Europe may be said to SUMMARY. 575 liave spread herself beyond her o-eoo-raphical limits in the chap. i J ^ o f XIII. foundation of new European states beyond the Ocean. "^ — • — ' We have contrasted the different positions and destinies of the colonizing European powers — where, as in the days of Old Eome, a continuous territory has been extended over neio;hbourino- barbarian lands — where growth beyond the sea was the natural outcome of growth at home — where European powers have colo- nized and conquered simply of their own free will. In thus tracing the historical geography of Europe, we have made the round of the world. But we have never lost sight of Europe ; we have never lost sight of Home. Wherever we have gone, we have carried Europe with us ; wherever we have gone, we have never got beyond the power of the two influences which, mingling into one, have made Europe all that it has been. The whole of European history is embodied in the formula which couples together the ' rule of Christ and Gassar ; ' and that joint rule still goes on, in the shape of moral influence, wherever the tongues and the culture of Europe win new realms for themselves in the continents of the western or in the islands of the southern Ocean. INDEX AAC Aachen, crowning- place of the Cer- man kings. 189. annexed to France, 220. Aargau, 27). Abasgia, 381. Aberffkaw, princes o(, 559. Abo, bishopric of, 185. peace of, 514. Abrtjzzi. the, annexed to Sicily, 398. Abyssinian Church, 168. Acadia ; see Nova Scotia. AcciAUOLi, Dukes of Athens, 420. AcHAiA, League of, 40. dependent on Rome, 41. province of, 78. principality of, 419, 420. Angevin overlordship of, 420. its dismemberment, ib. Savoyard counts of, 283, 422. ACHAiANS, use of the name in the Ho- meric catalogue, 20. Acre, lost and won in the Crusades, 400, 402. fall of, 402. ..Egjean Sea, Greek colonies on its coasts, 21, 22, 32. theme of, 150 iELFRED, his treaty with Guthruni, 159. Emilia, province of, 79. ^QUIANS, 46. their wars with Rome, 50. Africa, Greek colonies in, 35. Roman province of, 59. New, province of, ib. diocese of, 78, 79. Vandal kingdom, 90. recovered to the Empire, 104. Saracen conquest of, 111. Norman conquests in, 398. Portuguese conquests in, 545, 546. French conquests in, 362. South, English possessions in, .'>70- 572. Agram (Zagrab), 443; VOL. I. ALE Agri Decxjmates, 84. Agricola, his conquest of Britain, 69. Agrigentum (Akragas), 48. conquered by the Saracens, 372. Aigina, held by Venice, 413. AiOLiAN colonies in Asia, 32. Aire, 351. AiTOLiA, geographical position of, 21. League of, 40. its alhance with and dependence on Rome, 40, 41. AiTOLiANS, their place in the Homeric catalogue, 27. Aix (Aquae Sextiae), Roman colony, 57. ecclesiastical province of, 173. Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, 249, 351. Ajaccio, birthplace of Buonaparte, 354. Akarnania, 21, 30. league of, 40. Akarnanians, not in the Homeric cata- logue, 26 {note). Akerman, Peace of, 456. Akragas ; see Agrigentum. Arte, Argolic, 29. Alans, origin of, 89. their settlements in Spain, 90. Alarcos, battle of, 5.37. Alaric, king of the West-Goths, 89. Alava, 539. Albania, Asiatic, 100. Albania, kings of, 423. Turkish conquest of, 424. revolt of, under Scanderbeg, ib. Albanians, their origin, 24. their settlements in Greece, 115, 306, 368. Albanon (Elbassan), 433. Albigensian War, 337. Albi, ecclesiastical province of, 173. under Aragon, 337. annexed to France, ib. Alderney (Auriijny), 563. Alemanni, 85. 91. conquered by tlie Franks, 117. 1' P nr 378 INDEX ALE Ai.EMANNiA, (hichy of, 140. Alessandria, 237. ceded to Savoy, 249. Alessio, taken by Venice, 412. Alexander the Great, his conquests, 37. Alexander Severus, wars of, 101. Alexandria, greatness of, 38, 61, 77. Patriarchate of, 167, 168. Alexios Komnenos, his conquests in Asia Minor, 383. Alexios Komnenos, founds the Empire of Trebizond, 388. Alfonso VI. of Castile, Emperor, 535. his conquests, ib. Algarve, 537, 539. Algarve-beyond-the-Sea, kingdom of, 545. Algeria, character of the French con- quest of, 362. Algiers, 454. Almohades, invade Spain, 537. dechne of, ih. Almoravides, invade Spain, 534. Alps, the, 43. Alsace ; sen Elsass. Amadeus VI., Count of Savoy, his Eastern expedition, 393. Amadeus VIII , first Duke of Savov, 282. his title of Prince of Piedmont, 284. Amalfi, 371. Amastris, held by Genoa, 417. Ambrakia, Corinthian colony, 31. capital of Pyrrhos, 37 ; see Arta. America, Spanish dominion in, 548. use of the word, 56S. America, North, French settlements in, 354. EngUsh and French rivalry in, 355. Russian settlements in, 527. first English settlements in, 564. formation of the thirteen colonies in, 564-567. colonies of the United Provinces and Sweden in, 565. confederation of British North America, 569 ; see also United States. Amiens, county of, added to France, 333. to Burgundy, 342. Amisos, held by Genoa, 417. Amurath I., Sultan, takes Hadrianople, 449. Anatoi.ikon, theme of, 151. Anchialos, 379. Ancona (Ankon), 47. march of, 238. occupied by Manuel Komnenos, 384. Andalusia', origin of the name, 91. AQU Andorra, French protectorate of, 345, 542. Andraszovo, Peace of, 510. Angles, their settlements in Britain, 97. Angora, battle of, 4.50. Anhalt, principality of, 226. Ani, annexed to the Eastern Empire, 3S2. taken by the Turks, ib. Anjou, county of, 142. united to Touraine, 333. to Maine and England, 335. annexed by Philip Augustus, 336. Anjou, House of, its growth, 335, 336. its overlordship in Peloponnesos, 422. Ankon ; see Ancona. Anne of Britanny, effects of her mar- riages, 343. Antilles, French colonies in, 356. Antioch, greatness of, 61, 77. taken by Chosroes, 109. patriarchate of, 168, 169. restored to the Eastern Empire, 3S1. taken by the Turks, 382. recovered by the Empire, 383. its later captures, 401. Antiochos the Great, his war with Rome, 38, 41, 64. Antivari, Servian, 403. Venetian, 413. part of Montenegro, 431. recovered by Montenegro, 432. AosTA, bishopric of, 172. part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 278. its relations to Savoy, 288. Apennines, the, 44. Apollonia, its alliance with Rome, 40. Appenzell, joins the Confederates, 272. Apulia, Norman conquest of, 397. AQUiE SextIjE ; see Aix. Aquileia, foundation of, 55. destroyed by Attila. 94. Patriarchate of, 170, 171, 237, 310. fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195. under Austria, 255, 318. Aquitaine, south-western division of Transalpine Gaul, 58. its inhabitants, ib. Prankish conquest of, 118, 120. kingdom of, 128. united with Neustria, 135, 341. duchy of, 142. extent of, 334. united with Gascony, ib. its union with and separation from France, ib. INDEX 579 AQTJ Aquitaine, uiiitecl with England and Normandy, 335. kept by England, 336. French designs on, 339. released from homage, 310. its final union with France, 340, 563. Arabia, attempted Roman conquest of, 68. Portuguese conquests in, 546. Arabia Petr^a, Roman conquest of, 70. Aragon, county of, 154, 155. its position in the Mediterranean, 467. its later history, 531. its relations towards Navarre, 532. formation of the kingdom, 535. Sobrarbe joined to, ib. united with Barcelona, ib. advances beyond the Pyrenees and Rhone, 336, 534.. conquers the Balearic isles and Valencia, 538. extent of, in the thirteenth century, 539, 540. united with Castile, 540. its second advance beyond the pen- insula, 540. united with Sicily, ib. its conquests in Sardinia, 543. its outlying possessions compared with those of Castile, ib. Arcadius, Emperor of the East, 81. Archipelago, duchy of, 417. Argos, its place in the Homeric cata- logue, 27. its early greatness, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40. held by Venice, 412, 421. taken by the Turks, 414. won from Epeiros by the Latins, 419. Ariminum ; see Rimini. Arkadia, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 30. Arles, later Roman capital of Gaul, 92. Saracen conquest of, 1 12. kingdom of, 145. ecclesiastical province of, 173. crowning-place of the kings of Burgundy, 189. annexed to France, 265. Armagh, ecclesiastical province of, 183. Armenia, conquered by Trajan, 99. given up by Hadrian, ib. division of, 100. conquered by Basil II., 381. Russian advance in, 525. Armenia, Lesser, 382, 402. AUS Armenia, Lesser, acknowledges the Western Emperor, 403. its connexion with Cv^irus, ib. end of the kingdom, ib. Ar^hnius, his victory over Varus, 67. Armorica ; sec Britanny. ARNXiLr, king of the East Franks and Emperor, 139. Arras, Treaty of, 297, 342. ceded to France, 301. Arta (Ambrakia), won by the Eastern Empire, 391, 423. Arthur of Britanny, possible effects of the success of his claims, 335. Abtois, added to France, 333. to the Duchy of Burgundy, 342. its momentary annexation by Lewis XL, ib. relieved from homage, 343. within the Burgundian circle, 218. French acquisitions in, 301, 351. Aryan nations of Europe, order of their settlements, 13-15. Asia, its geographical character, 6. Macedonian kingdoms in, 37, 38. Roman province of, 64. Asia [Minor, historically connected with Europe, 6. Greek colonies in, 22, 34. kingdoms in, 38. Roman conquest of, 64. Saracen ravages in, 117, 381. Turkish conquests of, 382, 391. AsPLEDoN, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 27. Astrakhan, khanat of, 505. conquered by Russia, 515. AsTUETA, united to Cantabria, 154, 533. gi'ows into the kingdom of Leon, ib. ASTURiAS, principaUty of, 540. Athamania, kingdom of, 37. Athaclf, king of the West-Goths, 89. Athens, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. nominally independent of Rome, 41. lordship and duchy of, 419-420. Ottoman and Venetian conquests of, 419. Atropatene, 100. Attabegs, their wars with the Cru- saders, 402. Attica, 21, 27. Attila, effects of his inroads, 95. Auch, ecclesiastical province of, 173. Augsburg, bishopric of, 216. free city, 220. annexetl by Bavaria, 221. Aurelian, Emperor, gives up Dacia, 71. Australia, English settlement in, 570. V V 2 580 INDEX • AUS Austria, Lombanl, 234. Austria, origin and use of the name, 121, 192, 307, 323. beginning of, 140. mark of, 196-202, 203, 307, 308. its position as a maichland, 267. duchy of, 309. aimexed by Bohemia, 310. under the Habsburgs, 311. archduchy of, 314. its connexion with the Western Em- pire, 312. circle of, 217. its acquisitions and divisions, 313, 315, 316. its union with Bohemia and Hungary, 314, 317, 318. its foreign jjossessions, 319, 320, 321. its rivalry with Prussia, 204. Venice surrendered to, 252, 255. so-called Empire of, 221, 267, 307. changes of, during the revolutionary wars, 221-224. its position compared with that of Prussia, 225. loses and recovers Hungary, 325. modern extent of, 322-326. cedes its rights in Sleswick and Hol- stein, 228. Bosnia and Herzegovina adminis- tered by, 445. AusTRO-HuNGARY, dual system in, 325. AuTUN, 94. AuvERGNE, counts of, 334. Avars, a Turanian people, 17, 367. allied with the Lombards against the Gepidse, 107, 1 1 3. kingdom of, 113. overthrown by Charles the Great, 122, 127. AvERSA, county of, 397. Avignon, archbishopric of, 174. taken by France, 264. sold to the Pope, 265. annexed to France, 265, 357. Azof, won and lost by Russia, 453, 520. Azores, conquered by Portugal, 546. Babylonia, 100. Bauajoz, 537. Baden, mark, electorate, and duchy of, 216, 220, 226. Bahamas, the, 568. Bajazet the Thunderbolt, Sultan, de- feated by Timour, 393, 450. his conquest of Bulgaria, 435. extent of his dominion, 451. Balearic Isles, conquered by Ara- gon, 537. BEB Balsa, house of, its dominion in Alba- nia, 431. Baltic Sea, Scandinavian and German influence on, compared, 490. Baltic lands, general vicM' of, 468-472. Bamberg, bishopric of, 176, 215, 226. Bangor, bishopric of, 182. Bar, duchy of, united to Lorraine, 193. annexed by France, 350. restored to Lorraine, ib. Barbadoes, 570. Barcelona, county of, 322, joined to Aragon, 535. released from homage to France 337, 535. Bardui.ia, the original Castile, 533 Bari, archbishopric of, 172. won from the Saracens, 372. B.A.RNiM, under Poland, 483. passes to Brandenburg, 498. Barrier Treaty, 351-352. Basel, joins the Confederates, 262, 272. Basel, bishopric of, annexed by France, 357. restored by France, 361. Basil II., Eastern Emperor, his con- quests, 153, 381. incorporates Serbia, 428. Basques, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 13. their independence, 90. Batoum. annexed to Russia, 526. Bavaria, duchy of, 140. conquered bv the Franks 117, 118, 120. modern use of the name, 191, 192 electorate of, 215. united M'ith the Palatinate, ib. kingdom of, 220. extent of, 226. Bayonne, diocese of, 179. Bechuanaland, British, 572. Belgium, kingdom of, 303. Belgrade, taken by the Magyars, 382. by the Turk, 442. Peace of, 444. Belisarius, ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa, 105. Benevento, Lombard duchy o*', 108 147, 254, 397. papal possession of, 250, 397. Berengar, king of Italy, submits to Otto the Great, 147. Berlin, its position, 230. Berlin, Treaty of, 433, 454, 457. Bern, joins the Confederates, 262, 270. its Savoyard conquests, 272, 273. annexes Lausanne, 273. restores lands north of the lake, i7. INDEX o81 BE Bernhard, duke of Saxony, 208. Bernici.a, kincjclora of, 97, 161, 555. Berwick, 557. BESAN90N, 94. ecclesiastical province of, 175. an Imperial city, 261. united to France, 261, 352. Bessarabia, annexed by Russia, 454. Beziers. annexed by France, 337. BlALYSTOK, 525. Bienne, 274. BiLLUNGS, their mark, 198, 480. Biscay, 539. BiTHYNiA, kingdom of, 38, 61. Roman conquest of, 64. Bleking, 472. Blois, united to Champagne, 332. purchased by Saint I^wis, 338. BoDONiTZA, principality of, 421. Bohemia, whether the seat of Samo's kingdom, 477 (7iote) kingdom of, 159, l\)d, 217. 481. annexes Austria, 310, 317. its union with Brandenburg, 209, 497. its permanent union with Austria, 318, 325, 497. sketch of its history, 480, 496, 497. BoHtrsLAN, ceded to Sweden, 511. BOIOTIA, 21. legendary Thessalian settlement of, 30. league of, 40. dissolved, 41. Bokhara, 526. BoLESLAF I., of Poland, his conquests, 483. whether the first king, 483 (note) BolognjV, archbishopric of, 171. Bona, 399. Boniface, king of Thessalonike, extent of his kingdom, 387, 421. BoRMio, won by Graubiinden, 273. BORNHOLM, 511 Bosnia, Hungarian conquest of, 428. won back by Stephen Dnshan, 429. origin of the kingdom, 4.30. its greatest extent, 431. Turkish conquest of, ib. administered by Austro-Htmgary, 325, 445. BospoROS, kingdom of, 39, 64. Bouillon, principality of, 303. BoTJKELLARioN, theme of, 151. Boulogne, lost and won by France, 297. 344, 349, 563. Bourbon, Tsle of, occupied by the French, 356. taken by England but restored, 362. BouRfiRATTx, ecclesiastical province of, 173. Bourges, ecclesiastical province of, 173. BUL Bourges, viscounty of, added to France, 333. Brabant, duchy of, 294. united to Burgundy, 297. Braga, 179. Brandenburg, mark of, 199, 209, 479. grows into modern Prussia, 202, 203, 210. New Mark of, pledged to the Teutonic knights, 500. its union with Bohenua, 209, 495. united to Prussia, 204, 209, 508, 517. Branibor, takings of, 479. Brazil, discovery of, 546. Empire of, ib. Breisach, annexed by France, 350. restored, 352. Bremen, archbishopric of, 176, 214. held and lost by Sweden, 513, 517. annexed to Hannover, 208. Bremen, city, one of the Hanse towns, 214, 220. its independence of the Bishop, 214. Brescia, 237. Breslau, bishopric of, 185. Bresse, annexed to Savoy, 263. ceded to France, 287, 349. Bretigny, Peace of. 340. Brindisi lost by Venice, 248. Britain, use of the name, 3, 4 early position of, 10. Celtic settlements in, 14. Roman conquest of, 69, 549. diocese of, 80. Roman troops withdra-mi from, G.*!. Teutonic settlements in, 15, 96. English kingdoms in, 129. Celtic states in, 130. Empire of, 464. its independence of the Wcstt-rn Empire, 548. two EngUsh kingdoms in, 551. Brit.anny, origin of the name, 93. duchy of, 142. its relations to Normandy, 330, 335. . incorporated with France, 343. Brixen, bishopric of, 217, 310. united to Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria. 224. Brunswick, duchy of, 208, 227. Brusa, Turkish conquest of, 389, 446. Bucharest, Treaty of, 452. BuGEY, annexed to Savoy, 263. to France, 287, 349. BuKOViNA annexed by Austria. 443. Bulgaria, first kingdom of, 376. extent of, in the eighth century, 377. under Simeon, 379. ext:mt of, north of Danube, ib. (iwte). 58:^ TNDEX BUL Btilgaria, conquered bv Sviatoslaf, 380. b}' John Tzimiskes, ib. second kingdom of, ib. extent of, under Samuel, ib. recovered by Basil II., 153, 380. third kingdom of, 384, 431. advance of, under John Asan, 432. its dechne, ib. Cuman d\Tiasty in, 433. break up of, ib. Turkish conquest of, ib. triple partition of, by the Treaty of Berlin, 457. BuLGARLi, Black, 376 (and note), 483. BxTLGARiAXS, a Turanian people, 17, 307. their settlements, 116, 156, 367. compared with the Magyars and Ottoman.s, 367. Buonaparte, Xapoleon, liis kingdom of Italy, 253, 254. his feeling towards Switzerland, 35S. character of his conquests, 359. his treatment of Germany and Italy, ib. his scheme for the division of Europe. 360. extent of France under, ib. Buonaparte, Louis Xapoleon, his an- nexations, 361, 362. BuoNDELiiONTE, house of, in Xorthern Epeiros, 424. Burgos, ecclesiastical province of, 179. BURGUNDIANS, 87. their settlement in Gaul, 94. Burgundy, Frankish conquest of, 118. use of the name, 94, 192. Burgundy, kingdom of, 137, 144. Trans- and Cis-jurane, 145. chiefly armexed by France, 146, 264. represented by Switzerland, 146, 259. its language, 259. importance of its acquisition by France, 345, 346. Burgundy, county of, 218. revolutions of, 260. • joined with the duchy, 342. momentary annexation of, by Lewis XI., ib.' an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 544. finallj' annexed by France, 261, 347, 352, 544. Burgundy, duchy of, 142, 144. escheat of, 339. union of Flanders with, 292. its growth, 342. annexed by Lewis XI., ib. Burgundy, Lesser, duchy of, 260, 261. Burgundy, circle of, 216, 218. CAP BuTRiNTO, under the Angevins, 400. commends itself to Venice, 413. ceded to the Turk, 414. won back by Venice, 415. Byzantium, annexed by Vespasian, 41, 63, 68. capital of the Eastern Empire, 33, 77. see Constantinople. CsSAR, Augustus, his conquests, 56, 66. his division of Italy, 74. CaesAR, Caius JuUus, his conquests in Gaul, 57, 58. forms the province of Xew Africa and restores Carthage, 59. Cadiz, joined to Castile, 538. .see Gades. Caithness, 555. Calabria and Apulia, region of, 74. Calabria, change of the name, 371. Calais, English conquest of, 340, 563. won back by France, 342, 347. Calatrav4, 537. California, Upper, ceded by Spain to the United States, 548. Caliphate, Eastern, extent of, 112. division of, 113, 122, 125. Caliphate, Western, beginning of, 113, 122, 125. broken up, 156. Calmar, Union of, 491 . Camera Y, bishopric of, 175. becomes an archbi.shopric, 177. League of, 242. annexed to France, 301, 351. Camerino, march of, 238. Campania, 79. Campo Forjuo, treaty of, 252, 321. Canada, colonized by France, 355. conquered by England, 355, 567. part of the confederation of British Xorth America, 569. Canali, district of, originally Servian, 408. Canaries, conquered by Spain, 547. Candia, war of, 407. use of the name, 413 (note). Cantabria, conquered by Augustus, 56. vmited with Asturia, 154, 533. Canterbury, archbishopric of, 181. Cape Breton, French settlement at, 355. Cape Colons, conquered by England, 570. Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 546. Cape Verde Islands, conquered by Portugal, 546. Caiua, archbisho2iric of, 172. duchy of, 396. IXDEX 583 CAP Capua, principality of, 397. annexed to Sicily bv King Roger, 398. Cabcasso>-xe, 337. Caeelia, conquered by Sweden, 492. part of, ceded to Russia, 516. Caeisthia (Kamthen), mark of, 114, 127, 140, 196. duchy of, 217, 309. whether the seat of Samo's kingdom, 477 {note). Carlisle, bishopric of, 183. added to England by WiUiam Rufus, 555. Caklowttz, Peace of, 414, 443, 452. Caexiola, (Krain), duchy of, 217. mark of, 196. Cabolix^, 566. its division, ib. Carthage, Phoenician colony, 35. greatness of, 79. its possessions in Sicily, 48. holds Sardinia and Corsica, 54. its power in Spain, 56. destroyed, 59. restored, ih. capital of the Vandal kingdom, 90. Carthagena (Xew Carthage), 56. Cashel, ecclesiastical proWnce of, 183. Casimir the Great, king of Poland, his conquests, 502. Casplin, Russian advance on, 525. Cassttbia, 496. Ca.stile, county of, 154. origin of the name, ib. kingdom of, 155, 531, 532, 539. its emperors, 467. later history of, 531. its relations towards Xavarre, 532. shiftings of, 537. its final imion with Leon, ib. advance of, ib. conquests of, under Saint Ferdinand, 538. conquers Granada, 538, 540. loses and recovers Gibraltar, 547. its union with Aragon, 540. its outhdng possessions compared with those of Aragon, 543. Catalans, conquests of, in Greece. 389, 420. Catalonia, county of, 540. Cattaro, won and lost by Monte- negro, 324, 432. Caucasus, Russian advance in, 525. Cayenne, 355. Celts, earliest Aryan settlers in western Europe, 13, 14. 5<). efiFects of their settlements, 14. Cerdagne, released from homage to France, 535. I CHA Cerdagne, recovered by Aragon, 539. loss of, 543. Cerigo, 358 Ceuta, imder the Empire, 530. under Spain, 545, 547. Ceylon, Dutch colony, 300. Chablais, 273. Chalpia, theme of, 150. Chalkidlke, 20. Greek colonies in, 33. 1 united to Macedonia, 37. I kept by the Empire, 392. Chalons, battle of, 95. Chamber Y, Savovard capital, 282, 288. I Champagne, county of, 142. j character of its vassalage, 331. 1 joined to France, 338. Chandernagore, a French settle- ment, 356. Chaicnel Islands, kept by the Eng- Ush kings. 336. 563. Charles the Great, his conquests, 121, 122. conquers Lombardy, 123. his title of Patrician, ib. conquers Saxony, 126. overthrows the Avars, 127. cro^vned Emperor, 124. extent of his Empire, 126, 127. his divisions of the Empire, 128. his death, ib. archbishoprics founded by, 176. Charles the Fat, Emperor, union of the Prankish kingdoms under, 137- Charles V., Emperor, dominions of, I 249, 298, 543. his conquest of Tunis, 451, 547. extension of Castihan dominion under, 543. Charles VI., Emperor, his Pragmatic Sanction, 322. Charles XII., of Sweden, his wars with Peter the Great, 516. Ch.\rles of Anjou, his kingdom of SicQy, 250. his Italian dominion, 283. his dominion in Epeiros, 400. occupies Acre, ib. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, his schemes for a Burgundiau kingdom, 290, 304. effects of his death, 342. Charles, Duke of Lenkadia, his conquests and title, 423. Charles the Good, Duke of Savov, 286. Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savov, 287. Charolois, under the Dukes of Bur- gundy, 341. 584 INDEX CHA Charolois, an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 543. conquered by Lewis XIV., ih. Chartres, county of, united to Cham- pagne, 332. purchased by Saint Lewis, 338. Chazars, their settlements, 17, 113, 367. Russian advance against, 485. Chersun (Chersonesos), city of, 36. ^ theme of, 152. annexed to the Eastern Empire, 380. taken by Vladimir, 153, 380, 486. not the site of modern Cherson, 516 (note). Chiavenna, 195, 273. Chichester, bishopric of, 182. Chios, early greatness of, 32. under the Zaccaria and the Maona, 418. under the Turks, ib. Chlodwig, King of the Franks, 92, 117. Chosroes II., his conquests, 109. Christian L, King of Denmark, unites Denmark, Sleswick, and Hol- stein, 494, 495. Chrobatia, Northern and Southern, 437. See also Croatia. Chrobatia, Northern, becomes Little Poland, 483. passes to Austria, 519. Chur, bishopric of, 216. Church, Eastern, its relations to Russia, 472. CiBiN gives its name to Siebenburgen, 439 (note). Circassia, Russian advance in, 525. CiSPADANE Republic, the, 251. Clermont, countj' of, 332. Cleve, 210. Clissa, 412. Clontarf, Irish victory at, 559. Cnut, his conquest of England, 162. his northern Empire, 162, 466. Colony, meaning and use of the word, 564. Columbia, British, 569. CoMO, 237. Compostella, ecclesiastical province of, 179. Confederation of the Rhine, 221, 222, 360. Connaught, 183, 56]. Connecticut, 565. Conrad of Mazovia, grants Culm to the Teutonic knights, 500. Constantine, French conquest of, 362. Constantine the Great, divisions of the Empire under, 74. ORE Constantine, his new capital, 33, 77. Constantine Porphyrogennetos, his description of the themes of the Empire, 149. Constantine Palaiologos, his con- quests in Peloponnesos, 422. Constantinople, foundation of, 33, 77. its moral influence, 116. Patriarchate of, 168. early Russian attempts on, 486. Latin conquest of, 385. won back under Michael Palaiolo- gos, 389. taken by the Turks, 393. CoNSTANZ, bishopric of, 216. passes to Austria, 274. Cordova, bishopric of, 178. conquered by Ferdinand, 538, 540. Cahphate of ; see Caliphate, Western. Corfu, Norman conquests of, 383, 397, 399. held by Margarito, 399. won from Venice by Epeiros, 388. granted to Manfred, 4(30. under Charles of Anjou, ib. under Venice, ib. summary of its history, 411. see also Korkyra. Corinth, in the Homeric catalogue, 27. a Dorian city, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40. under Macedonia, ib. won from Epeiros by the Latins, 42 1 . Cornwall, 130. CoRON (Korone), held by Venice, 412. lost by her, 414. Corsica, 44. early inhabitants of, 53. Roman conquest of, 54. province of, 79. held by Genoa, 238, 245. ceded to France, 249. effects of its incorporation wilh France, 354, 358. Cosmo de' Medici, Duke of Florence and Grand Duke of Tuscany, 246. CoTTBus, 211, 224. COUBTRAY, 351. Cracow, capital of Poland, 483. annexed by Austria, 518. joined to the duchy of Warsaw, 522. republic of, ib. second Austrian annexation of, 325, 522. Crema, 237. Cremona, 237. Crete, its geographical position, 22. in the Homeric catalogue, 28. INDEX 585 CRE Crete, keeps its independence, 37. conquered by Rome, 63. province of, 78. lost and recovered by the Eastern Empire, 152, 153, 374, 375. conquered by Venice, 407. by the Turks, 407, 452. re- enslaved by the Treaty of BerUn, 456. Crim, khanat of, 505. dependent on the Sultans, id. annexed to Russia, 454, .520. Croatia, Slavonic settlement in, 114. its relations to the Eastern and Western Empires, 380. 408, 409. its relations to Hungarj% 325, 409, 438. part of the lUyrian Provinces, 324. Croja, won and lost by Venice, 413. Crotona ; see KrotOn. Crusade, first, its geographical result, 401. Crusaders, take Constantinople, 385. their conqiiests compared with those of the Normans in Sicily, 401. Cuba, 549. CuJAViA, 482, 503. CuLji, granted to the Teutonic knights, 500. restored to Poland, 501. CuM^, 47, 48. CuMANiA, king of, an Hungarian title, 436. CtTMANS, settlements of, 367, 440, 187. dynasty of in Bulgaria, 435, 440. crushed by the Mongols, 440, 487. Cumberland (Strathclyde), Scandina- vian settlements in, 161. grant of, to Scotland, 162, 555. southern part united to England, 555, 556. formation of the shire, 560. CuRLAND, Swedish conquest of, 476. tribes of, 488. dominion of the Sword-brothers in, 500. duchy of, 508. CuRZOLA ; see Korkyra, Black. CusTRiN, under Poland, 4S3. passes to Brandenburg, 496. Cyprus, Greek colonies in, 22. Phoenician colonies in, 35. Roman conquest of, 63. theme of, 151. lost and won by the Eastern Empire, 374. conquered by Richard, ib. kingdom of, 403. its connexion with Jerusalem and with Armenia, ib. DEN Cy'prus, conquered by Venice, 406. by the Turks, 406, 452. under EngUsh rule, 453, 563-564. Czar ; see Tzar. Czechs, 481. CzEPusz ; see Zips. Dacla, wars of, with Rome, 70. made a province by Trajan, ib. given up bj' Aurelian, ib. its later history, 71. diocese of, 78. Daghestan, 520, 525. Dago, under the Sword -brothers, 500. under Denmark, 495, 508. under Sweden, 512. Dalmatia, Greek colonies in, 34. its wars with Rome, 62. Roman colonies in, ib. province of, 79. Slavonic settlement in, 115. kingdom of, 411, 413. its relations to the Eastern Empire, 378, 409. history of the coast cities, 409. Venetian conquest in, 410. joined to Croatia, ib. recovered by Manuel, 384, 410. fluctuates between Hungary and Venice, 409, 411-416. annexed by Lewis the Great, 412, 441. taken, lost, and recovered by Austria, 321, 324, 445. Danaoi, 26. Danes, the, 127, 130. their settlements, 131, 475. their invasions of England, 160. Danish Mark, 196, 473. Danube, Roman conquests on. 68, 70. boundary of the Empire, 71. Gothic settlement on, 88-89. crossed by the Goths, 89. Danzig, mark of, 496. lost and recovered by Poland, 496, 501. commonwealth of, 223, 523. restored to Prussia, 524. Dardanians, 28. Dauphiny ; see Viennois. Deira, kingdom of, 98, 159. Dekatera, 408. see C.'VTTAKn. Delaware, 567. Delmenhorst, 513, 517. Denmark, extent of, 131. its relations to the Western Empire, 127, 196, 471. formation of the kingdom, 473. conquests and colonies of, 474-475. 586 INDEX DES Denmark, united with Ensjland under Cnut, 163. bishoprics of, 184. conquers Sclavinia, 493. advance of, in Germany, ib. titles of its kings, ib. keeps Riigen, 494. effect of its advance on tlie Slavonic lands, 495. its settlement in Esthland, 492. united with Sweden and Norway, 491. with Norway only, 492. its wars with Sweden, 512. gives up the sovereignty of the Gottorp lands, 513. gets Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, *. recovers the Gottorp lands, 517. gives up Oldenburg and Delmen- horst, ib. incorporation of Holstein with, 522. Desnica, Zupania of, 428. SffTTTOTTjs, a Byzantine title, 387 (note). Dijon, capital of the duchy of Bur- gundy, 142, 144. Diocletian, Emperor, division of the Empire under, 75. his conquests, 101. DiOKLEA, Zupania of, the germ of the Servian kingdom, 428. DiTMARSH, 493. joined to Holstein, 494. freedom of, 495. Danish conquest of, ib. DoBEODiTius, his dominion, 435. DoBRUTCHA, origin of the name, 435. joined to Wallachia, 435, 440. restored to Roumania, 458. DoDEKANNESOS ; See Naxos. Dole, capital of Franche-Comte, 261. DoMFRONT, acquired by WiUiam of Normandy, 334. Dorchester, bishoprics of, 182. Dorian settlement in Peloponnesos, 29. in Asia, 32. Dofay, becomes French, 351. Dreux, county of, 332. Drusus, his campaigns in Germany, 67. Dublin, ecclesiastical province of, 183. Scandinavian settlement at, 561. Dulcigno, originally Servian, 408. won and lost by Montenegro, 433. Dunkirk, held by England, 301, 563. bought back by France, 301, 344. DuRAZZO (Epidamnos), taken by the Normans, 382, 397. held by Margarito, 399. conquered bj' Venice, 411. EMP DuRAZZO (Epidamnos) won from Venice by Epeiros, 388. recovered by the Eastern Empire. 389. under Charles of Anjou, 400. won by Servia, 429. duchy of, 400. second Venetian conquest of, 413. won by the Albanians, 425. by the Turks, 414. Durham, bishopric of, 183. Dutch, use of the name, 302. Dyrrhachion, theme of, 152. see DuRAZZO. Eadmund, his conquest and grant of Cumberland to Scotland, 162. Eadward the Elder, extent of Eng- land under, 162. East, the, prefectiu-e of, 75, 77. dioceses of, 76. East-Angles, kingdom of, 130. diocese of, 182. East India Company, French, 356. Eastern Mark ; see Austria. Ecgberht, king of the West-Saxons, his supremacy, 130, 160. Edes.sa, restored to the Eastern Em- pire, 153, 381. taken by the Turks, 402. Edinburgh, bishopric of, 183. taken by the Scots, 555. Egypt under the Ptolemies, 38, 61. Roman conquest of, 66. diocese of, 76. conquered by Selim T., 451. Eider, boiuidary of Charles the Great's empire, 127, 196, 471. Eleanor of Aquitaine, effects of her marriages, 335, 339. Elba, annexed to the kingdom of Naples, 44, 246. 1']lis, district of, 29. city of, 30. joins the Achaian league, 40. Eijmham, bishopric of, 182. Elsass, 193. annexed by France, 1 94, 349. recovered by Germany, 229, 362. Ely, bishopric of, 182. Embrun, ecclesiastical province of, 173. Emmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savov, 286. Emperors, Eastern, position of, 364. Emperors, Western, position of, 364. Empire, Roman, greatest extent of, 9. conquests under, 66. its river boundaries, 71. division of, under Diocletian, 75. united uncler Constantine, ib. INDEX 587 EMP Empire, Roman, division of, 75, 81. reunited under Zeno, 95, 104. continuity of, 96, 103. loses its eastern provinces. 111. final division of, 124. its political tradition unbroken in the East, 365. Empire, Western, beginning of, 81. Teutonic invasions and settlements in, 82, 86-88. united with the Eastern Empire, 95, 104. contrasted with the Eastern, 98, 364. division of, 135, 137, 328. its relations to Germany, 124- 126, 128, 189, 190. restored by Otto the Great, 147. position of its emperors, 364. its relations to Scandinavia, 471. to the Northern Slaves, 478. Empire, Eastern, wars of, with Persia, 82. contrasted with the Western, 99, 364. extent of, in the eighth century, 116. its Greek character, 149, 368, 385. Empire, Eastern, its themes, 149-152, its dominion in Italy, 152, 373, 396. position of its emperors, 364. falls mainly through foreign in- vasion, 365, 369. its partial tendencies to separation, 365. keeps the poUtieal tradition of the Roman Empire, if>. distinction of races in, 366. its power ol revival, 371, 379. its loss and gain in the great islands, 374. its relations towards the Slavonic powers, 375, 376. Bulgarian settlement in, 376, 378. recovers Greece from the Slaves, 377. its conquests of Bulgaria, 379-380. its relations to Venice, 381. its fluctuations in Asia, ib. Turkish invasions in, ib. Norman invasions in, 382, 396. its geographical aspect in 1085, 383. under the Komncnoi, 36S, 383. losses and gains, 389-393. under the Palaiologoi, 390. effect of Timour's invasion, 393. its final fall, ib. states formed out of, 394-395. general survey of its history, 459-463. compared with the Ottoman do- minion, 447. Empire, Latin, 385. its end, 390. Empire of Nikaia, 389. EPE Empire of Trebizond, 36, 388, 426. Empire of Thessalonike, 387, 388. Empire, Serbian, 4ii4, 429. Empire of Britain, 162, 466, 550. Empire of Spain, 467, 535. Empire of Russia, 516. Empire, French, 358. Empire of Austria, 221, 267, 306. Empire of Hayti, 362. Empires of Mexico, 548. Empire of Brazil, 547. Empire, German, 229, 230. Empire of India, 573. England, use of the name, 2, 3. origin of the name, 98. formation of the kingdom, 160. West-Saxon supremacy in, 160, 161. Danish invasions, ib. advance of, 162. united with Scandinavia under Cnut, ib. Norman conquest of, 163. its ecclesiastical geograph)% 166. its wars with France, 33!), 340. its rivalry with France in America and India, 355. slight change in its internal divi- sions, 550. its relations with Scotland, 557. changes of its boundary towards Wales, 558-559. its relations with Ireland, 562. its settlements beyond sea, 552. its outlying European possessions, 563. its American colonies, 564-569. West Indian possessions, 570. other colonies and possessions of, 570-572. its dominion in India, 573. English, character of their settlement, 97. origin of the name, 98. Epeiros, its ethnical relations to Greece, 24. use of the name, 26. kingdom of Pj^rhos, 37. league of, 40, 41. Roman province of, 78. Norman conquests in, 397, 399. granted in fief to Margarito, 399. despctat of, 387. its conquest of and separation from Thessalonike. 388. under Manfred and Charles of Anjou, 400. its first dismemberment, 423. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 391. under Servian, Albanian, and Italian rule, 422, 424. 588 INDEX EPE Epeiros, Venetian and Turkish occnpa- tion of, 423. Ephesos, its early greatness, 32 Epidamnos, 34. its alliance with Rome, 40. see DuRAZzo. Epidauros (Dalmatian), Greek colony, 34. destroyed, 115. Eric, Saint, king of Sweden, his con- quests in Finland, 490. Erivan, 525. Ermeland, bishopric of, added to Poland, 501. Essex, kingdom of, 160, 560. EsTE, house of, 237, 243, 249. Esthland (Esthonia), Fins in, 488. Danish settlement in, 499. dominion of the Swordbearers in, ih. under Sweden, 508. under Russia, 516. Etruria, kingdom of, 253. Etruscans, their doubtful origin and language, 45. confederation of their cities, ib. EuBOiA, 22. its position in the Homeric cata- logue, 27. under Macedonian influence, 37, 40. conquered by Venice, 411. by the Turks, ib. Euphrates, Asiatic boundary of the Roman Empire, 71, 100, 101. EuROPA, Roman province of, 77. Europe, its geographical character, 5, 6,8, its three great peninsulas, 6. its colonizing powers, 10. Aryan settlements in, 12-15. non- Aryan races in, 12, 13, 16, 17. beginning of the modern history of, 85. Buonaparte's scheme for the divi- .sion of, 359. extended by colonization, 572. Euxine, Greek colonies on, 35. EvoRA, 179. Exeter, diocese of, 182. Ezerites, 378. Falkland Islands, 570. Famagosta, under Genoa, 403. Faroe Islands, 475. Faucigny, annexed to Savoy, 280. held by the Dauphins of Viennois, 281. Ferdinand, Saint, king of Castile, his conquests, 538. Ferganah, 526. FERiro, march of, 238. era Ferrara, duchy of, 243, 244, 249. Finland, Swedish conquests in, 490, 492. Russian conquests in, 516, 522. Fins, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 470. in Livland and Esthland, 488. Flaminia, province of, 79. Flanders, county of, 141, 142. united to Burgundy, 292, 341. within the Burgundian circle, 218. released from homage to France, 218, 298, 342. French acquisitions in, 350. Flemings, their settlements in Pem- brokeshire, 558. Florence, archbishopric of, 171. its greatness, 238. Pisa submits to, 245. rule of the Medici in, ib. Florida, held by England and Spain, 567. acquired by the States, 558. France, effect of its geographical posi- tion, 9. origin and use of the name, 4, 5, 91, 121, 327-3.30. beginning of, 135, 136. its ecclesiastical divisions, 166. its annexations, 222, 252, 264, 265, 341-352. compared with Austria, 327. a nation in the fullest sense, 329. great fiefs of, 330. twelve peers of, ib. its incorporation of vassal states, 332-343. effects of the wars with England, 339-341. beginning of the modern kingdom, 341. thorough incorporation of its con- quests, 353. its colonial dominions, 355-357. its rivalry with England in America and India, 355, 356. its barrier towns against the Nether- lands, 352. effects of the Peace of 1763 on, 357. its annexations under the Republic and Empire, 357, 358. extent of under Buonaparte, 360. restorations made by, after his fall, 361. later annexations and losses, 362. character of its African conquests, ib. its war with Prussia, 229. France, duchy of, 142. united with the kingdom of the West- Franks, 143. INDEX 589 FEA Franche - CoMTt: ; see BuRGtlNDY, county of. Francia, meanings of the name, 91, 121, 128. extent of, 134. Francia, Eastern, 92, 121, 205. Francia, Western, 92. Francis I., Emperor, exchange.'? Lor- raine for Tuscany, 322. Francis II., Emperor, his title of ' Emperor of Austria,' 223. Franconia, origin of the name, 92, 121. extent of the circle, 214. see Francia, Eastern. Frankfurt, election and coronation of the German kings at, 189. a free city, 220, 227. grand duchy of, 222. annexed by Prussia. 228. Franks, the, 86. their settlements, 87, 88, 91. extent of their kingdom under Chlodwig, 92. their conquest of the Alemanni, 117. of Thuringia and Bavaria, ib. of Aquitaine and Burgundy, 118. their position, 119. the, their German and Gaulish de- pendencies, 120. division of their kingdom, ib. kingdom of, united under the Karl- ings, 121. their relations with the Empire, 123. their conquest of Lombardy, ib. Franks, East, their kingdom grows into Germany, 138. Franks, West, kingdom of, its extent, 141. its union vdih the duchy of France, 143. grows into modern France, ib. Frederick II., Emperor, recovers Jeru- salem, 402. Frederick William I., the Great Elector of Brandenburg, 210. Frederick I., King of Prussia, 210. Freiburg, joins the Confederates, 2(52, 272. Freiburg-im-Breisgau, conquered by France, 352. restored, ib. French language, becomes the domi- nant speech of Gaul, 347. Friderikshamn, Peace of, 522. Friesland, East, annexed by Prussia, 212. annexed by France, 222. part of the kingdom of Hannover, 223. Friesland, West, county of, 293. annexed to Burgundy, 298. GEL Frisians, 91. Friuli, duchy of, 235. Fulda, 214. FuKNES, baiTier town, 352. Gades, Phoenician colony, 35, 56. admitted to the Roman franchise, 56. see Cadiz. Gaeta, 371. Galata, colony of Genoa, 417. Galicia (Hahcz), kingdom of, 487. twice annexed to Hungary, 441, 502. recovered by Poland, 500. Austrian possession of, 320, 325, 445, 516. Galicia, New, 519. • Gallicia, 533. Galloway, incorporated with Scotland, 558. Gargano, peninsula of, 396. Gascony, Duchy of, 142. its union with Aquitaine, 334. ceded by the Peace of Bretigny,. 340. Gatinois, county of, 332, 333. Gattilusio, family of, receives Lesbos in fief, 418. Gaul, use of the name, 3, 4. its geographical position, 7. non- Aryan people in, 13. Greek colonies in, 35. prefecture of, 75, 79. its gradual separation from the Em- pire, 88. Teutonic invasions of, 89. West-Gothic kingdom in, 90, 91. position of the Franks in, 91, 119. extent of Frankish kingdom in, 93. Burgundian settlement in, ib. Hunnish invasion of, 94. ecclesiastical divisions of, 172-174. Gaul, Cisalpine, 46. Roman conquest of, 54. Gaul, Transalpine, first Roman province in, 57. its boundaries, ib. its divisions and inhabitants, 58. Romanization of, ib. nomenclature of its northern and southern part, ib. Gauls, their settlements, 14, 46, 47. Gauthiod, 131, 474. Gauts, Geatas, of Sweden, name con- founded with Goths, 474. Gauverfassung, 202. Gdansk ; see Danzig. Gedymin, king of Lithuania, 501. Geldern, Gelderland, duchy of, 295. 590 INDEX GEL Celdern, Gelderland, annexed to Burgundy, 298. division of, 299. United Province of, 300. Geneva, annexed by Savoy, 281. allied to Bern and Freiburg, 273. annexed by France, 276. restored by France, 361. joins the Swiss Confederation, 276. Genoa, archbishopric of, 171. holds Smyrna, 391. holds Corsica, 238, 245. cedes Corsica to France, 249. annexed to Piedmont, 256. compared with Venice, 404. her settlements, 417. George Akropolites, 434 (note). George Kastriota ; .lee Scander- BEG. Georgia, kingdom of, 520, 525. Georgia, stat« of, 567. Gepid.5:, their kingdom, 107. conquered by the Lombards, ib. Germans, early confederacies of, 84. serve within the Empire, 86. Germany, effect of its geographical character, 9. Roman campaigns in, 67. Frankish dominion in, 119. its relations to the Western Empire, 126, 188-190. beginning of the kingdom, 136, 138. its extent, 139, 192-195. ecclesiastical divisions of, 175-177. its losses, 190, 203. its changes in geography and nomen- clature, 191, 201. its eastern extension, 200. the great duchies, 202. circles of, 203, 206. later history of, 204. late beginnings of French annexa- tion from, 346, 348. Buonaparte's treatment of, 359. state of in 1811,221, 222. the Confederation, 218, 223-226. last geographical changes in, 229. its war with France, ib. Empire of, 219, 229, 230. its influence on the Baltic, 490. Gex, under Savoy, 273, 281. annexed by France, 287, 349. Ghilan, 520. Gibraltar, lost and won by Castile, 539. occupied by England, 542, 563. Glarus, joins the Swiss Confederation, 270. Glasgow, ecclesiastical province of, 183. GRE Gnezna (Gniezno, Gnesen), eccle- siastical province of, 184. beginning of the Polish kingdom at, 482. passes to Prussia, 518, 524. GoRZ (Gorizia), county of, 217, 309. annexed by Austria, 319. GoTHiA ; see Perateia or Sepi'I- MANTA. Gothland, 474. Goths, their settlements in the Western Empire, 87, 89. defeated by Claudius, 88. driven on by the Huns, ib their conquests in Spain, 90, 108, 530. make no lasting settlement in the Eastern Empire, 366. Goths, East, their dominion in Italy, 95. Goths, West, extent of their domi- nions, 530. ' Goths, Tetraxite, their settlement, 98. Gotland, power of the Hansa in, 498. held by the military orders, 500. conquered by Sweden, 512. Gottorp lands, sovereignty of, resigned by Denmark, 513. annexed to Denmark, 517. Gozo, granted to the knights of Saint John, 543. Granada, ecclesiastical province of, 179. kingdom of, 538 final conquest of, 541. Graxjbunden, licague of, 272, 273. loses its subject districts, 275. Gravelines, taken by France, 301. Greece, one of the three great Euro- pean peninsulas, 6. its geographical character, 8, 11, 18. its history earher than that of Rome, 8, 42. use of the name, 19. its chief divisions, 19-21. insular and Asiatic, 19-23. its Homeric geography, 25, 26. its cities, 27. leagues in, 40. Roman conquests in, 41. Slavonic occupation of, 116, 377. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 377. war of independence, 456. kingdom of, formed, ib. Ionian Islands ceded to, 457. promised extension of, ib. Greeks, order of their coming into Europe, 13. their kindred with Italians and other nations. 23-25. INDEX 591 GRE Greeks, their rivalry with the PhotJ- nicians, 28. their colonies, 28, 32-35. their revival of the name Hellenes, 366. Greenland, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, 131. imited to Norway, 492. Oreifswald, 498. Guiana, British, French, Dutch, 300, 355, 570. Guinea, Dutch settlements in, 300. GiriNES, made over to England, 340. GmpuzcoA, 540. GuTHRUM, his treaty with Alfred, 101. Habsburg, House of, 270, 311, 312. scattered territories of, 311-312. its connexion with the Western Empire, 312, 316. Hadrian, surrenders > Trajan's con- quests, 99. Hadrianople, taken by the Bul- garians, 379. by Michael of Epeiros, 388. by the Turks, 393, 449. treaty of, 454, 457. Hadbiatic Sea, Greek colonies in, 34. Hainault (Hennegau), county of, 294. united with Holland, ib. French acquisitions in, 351. Hai.berstadt, 224. Halicz ; see Galicia. Halikabnassos, held by the knights of Saint John, 419. Turkish conquest of, 450. Halland, 473. Hamburg, archbishopric of, 176. one of the Hanse Towns, 214, 220. Hannover, Electorate, 208. its union Avith Great Britain, 204. kingdom of, 223. annexed by Prussia, 228. Hansa, the, 197, 491. extent and nature of its power, 498. Hanse Towns, the, 213, 214, 220. surviving ones annexed by France, 222. join the German Confederation, 227. Harold, his Welsh conquests, 558. Hayti ; see Saint Domingo. Hebrides, Scandinavian settlement in, 558. submit to Scotland, ib. Heligoland, passes to England, 522, 563. passes to Germany, 523. Helladikoi, use of the name, 378 Hellas, use of the name, 18. • continuous,' 21. HUN Hellas, theme of, 151. later use of the name, 151, 378. Hellenes, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, 26. later history of the name, 378. its modern revival, 366. Helsingland, 474. Helvetic Republic, 275. Hennegau ; see Hainault. of England, his dominions, of England, his conquests. Henry II. 334. Hen-ry v.. 340. crowned in Paris, ib. Henry IV., of France, unites France and Navarre, 345. Heraclius, Emperor, his Persian camj^aigns, 109. Slavonic settlements under, 114. Herakleia, commonwealth of, 37, 39 64. Hereford, bishopric of, 1 82. Hertjedaien, conquered by Sweden, 512. Herzegovina, origin of the name, 430. Turkish conquest of. ib. administered by Austro-Huugarj, 325, 430. Hessen-Cassel, electorate of, 220, 226. annexed by Prussia, 228. Hessen-Darmstadt, grand duchy of, 226. HiERON. king of Syracuse, his alliance with Rome, 52. HisPANioLA ; see Saint Domingo. HoHENZOLLERN, House of, 209. Holland, county of, 293. united to Hainault, 294. to Burgundy, 297. kingdom of, 302. annexetl by France, ib. see United Provinces. HoLSTEiN, 198, 492, 493. first Danish conquest of, 493. fluctuations of, 494. made a duchy, ib. under Christian I., 495. effect of the peace of Roskild on, 513. incorporated with Denmark, 522. joins the German Confederation, 225. 523. final cession of, to Prussia, 228, 523. Holtsaetan. 493. Homeric Catalogue, the, 26-29. Honorius, Emperor of the West, 81. HUASCAR, 53S. Hugh Capet. Duke of the French, cho.scn king, 143. Hundred Years' Peace between Rome and Persia, 100. 502 INUE.\ HUN HuNDKED Years' War, 339. HcNOAEiANS ; see Magyars. Hungary, kingdom of, 157, 369, 436. its relations to the Western Empe- rors, 196. extent of the kingdom, 325. whether a Bulgarian duchy existed in, 379 (note). its frontier towards Germany, 437. its relations with Croatia, 437, 438. acquires Transsilvania, 439. conquests of the Komnenoi from, 384. its struggles with Venice for Dal- matia, 410. Mongol invasion of, 440. its wars with Bulgaria, 434. its conquest of Bosnia, 428. extension of under Lewis the Great, 441. Turkish conquests in, 442. its kings tributary to the Turk, 443. recovered from the Turk, 444, 452. acquisitions of, by the Peace of Pas- sarowitz, 444. later losses and acquisitions of, 440, 445. separated from and recovered by Austria, 324. its dual relations to Austria, 445. HuNiADES, John, his campaign against the Turks, 430, 442. Huns, a Turanian people, 17. their invasions, 88, 94. Iapodes, 62. Iapy^gians, 46. Iberia, Asiatic, 100, 101, 381. Iberians, a non-Aryan people, 13, 55. Iceland, Norwegian and Danish settle- ments in, 131, 476. united to Norway, 492. kept by Denmark, 522. Ikonion, Turkish capital, 383. Illyria, Illyrtcum, Greek colonies in, 20. Roman conquests in, 40, 41, 62. use of the name, 62. prefecture of, 75, 77, 78. western diocese of, 79. kingdom of, 325. Illyrian Provinces, incorporated with France, 222, 324, 360. misleading use of the name, 324. recovered by Austria, ib. Illyrians, their kindred with the Greeks, 24. displaced by Slavonic invasions, 115. lilMERETIA, 525. India, French settlements in, 356. ITA India, Portuguese settlements in, 541. English dominion in, 573. Empire of, ih. Indies, division of, between Spain and Portugal, 547. Inqermanland, 512, 516. Ionian colonies in Asia, 32. Ionian Islands, 22. ceded to France, 360, 455. to the Turks, 455. under English protection, 456, 563. added to Greece, 457. Ireland, the original Scotia, 554, 560. provinces of, 183, 560. Scandinavian settlements in, 475, 560. its increasing connexion with Eng- land, 562. English conquest of, ib. kingdom and lordship of, ib. its shifting relations with England, ib. its union with Great Britain, ib. Isle of France, 332. Isle of France ; see Mauritius. IsTRiA, Roman conquest of, 55, 62. incorporated with Italy, 62. Slavonic settlements in, 115. March of, 147, 195, 235. fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195. possessions of Venice in, 242. under Austria, 258, 320. Italians, their origin, 13. their kindred with the Greeks, 24. two branches of, 45. Italy, one of the three great European peninsulas, 6, 7. its geographical position, 8, 44. use of the name, 43, 246. inhabitants of, 45, 46. Greek colonies in, 47. growth of Roman power in, 50. divisions of, under Augustus, 74. prefecture of, 75, 78. diocese of, 79. invaded by the Huns, 94. rule of Odoacer in, 95. rule of Theodoric in, ib. recovered to the Empire, 105. Lombard conquest of, 107. Imperial possessions in, 108, 123, 152, 371. rule of Charles the Great in, 123. Imperial kingdom of, 128, 134, 137, 146, 147, 234. its ecclesiastical divisions, 170, 171. changes on the Alpine frontier, 232. system of commonwealths in, 235, 238. four stages in its history, 236. INDEX 593 ITA Italy, growth of tyrannies in, 239. a 'geographical expression,' 246, 255. dominion of Spain and Austria in, 247. revolutionary changes in, 252-55. French kingdom of, 253-55, 348, 360. settlement of, in 1814, 255. restored kingdom of, 257. its extension, 258. part not yet recovered, ib. IthakI:, in the Homeric catalogue, 26. held in lief by Margarito, 400. Ivan the Great, of Russia, his con- quests, 505, 510. styles himself Prince of Bulgaria, 505. Ivan the Terrible, of Russia, his con- quests, 510, 515. IvREA, Mark of, 235, 236. Jadeea ; see Zara. Jaen, 538, 540. Jagerndokf, principality of, 210. Jagiello, union of Lithuania and Poland under, 502. Jamaica, 549, 570. J.'vmteland, 474. conquered by Sweden, 512. Jatwages, the, 488, 502. Java, Dutch settlement in, 300. Jayce, 431. JEDiSA>r, annexed by Russia, 454, 520. .Jerseys, East and West, 564. Jerusalem, patriarchate of, 168, 169. taken by Chosroes, 109. extent of the Latin kingdom, 402. taken by Saladin, 403. recovered and lost by the Crusa- ders, ib. crown of, claimed by the kings of Cyprus, 401. Jezerci ; see Ezerites. Joannina, restored to the Empire, 391. taken by the Turks, 425, 457. John Asan, extent of Bulgaria under, 434. John Komnenos, Emperor, his con- quests, 383. John Komnenos, Emperor of Trebi- zond, acknowledges the supremacy of Constantinople, 426. John Tzimiskes, Emperor, recovers Bulgaria, 380. his Asiatic conquests, 381. JoMSBURG Vikings, settlement of, 475. Jud^a, its relations with Rome, 65. Justinian, extent of the Roman power under, 104, 105, 106. Jutes, their settlement in Kent, 97. VOL. L KOR Jutland, South, duchy of, united wilh Holstein, 494. called Duchy of Sleswick, ib. Kaffa, colony of Genoa, 418. Kainardji, Treaty of, 454. Kalabryta, 422. Kallipolis (GaUipoli), 392. Kamenietz, ceded by Poland to the Turk, 452, 510. Kappadokia, kingdom of, 38. annexed by Rome, 67. theme of, 151. Karians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28. Karlili, why so called, 423. Karlings. Prankish dynasty of, 121. Karnthen ; see Carinthlv. i Karolingia, kingdom of, 137, 141, 143, 148, 328. Kaes, joined to the Eastern Empire, 379. annexed by Russia, 526. Kaeystos, 405. Kazan, khanat of, 505. conquered by Russia, 515. Kent, settlement of the Jutes in, 97. kingdom of, 160, 560. Kephallenla., in the Homeric cata- logue, 26. theme of, 151. Norman conquests in, 397. 399. held in fief by Margarito, 400. commended to Venice, 413. lost and won by Venice, 414. Khiva, 524. Khokand, 526. Kibyrraiotians, theme of, 150. Kief, Russian centre a.t, 485. supremacy of, 486. taken by the Mongols, 487. by the Lithuanians, 503. recovered by Russia, 510. Kilikia, 76. restored to the Empire, 153, 381. KiRGHis, Russian superiority over, • 520. Klek, Ottoman frontier extends to, 416. Kleonai, 27. Koln (Colonia Agrippina), 93. ecclesiastical province of, 175. its archbishops chancellors of Italy and electors, 175, 176. chief of the Hansa, 213. • anne.xed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 224, 361. Kolocza, ecclesiastical province of, 186. Koloneia, theme of, 150. Korkvra, 22, 26. QQ 594 INDEX KOR KoEKYRA, alliance of, with Rome, 40. see also Corfu. KoRKYRA, Black (Curzola), Greek colony, 34, 403. KoRONE ; sec Coron. Kos, Greek colony, 28. held by the knights of St. John, 392, 418 by the Maona, 418. Kossovo, battle of, 430. Krain ; see Carniola. Kresimir, king of Croatia and Dal- matia, 410. Kroton, early greatness of, 47. Ktesiphon, conquered by Trajan, 100. Kwang-Tung, 526. Kyme ; see Cum^. Kyrene, Greek colony, 35, 36. Roman conquest of, 63. Laigin ; see Leinster. Lakedaimonia, 151. Lakonike, 29. Lamia, 392. Ai|U7rap5oi', use of the form, 371 (note). Lancashire, formation of the shire, 561. Laxgue d'oc, extent of, 135. effects of French annexations on, 347. Langtjedoc, province of, 338. Laodikeia, 383. Laon, capital of the Karhngs, 143. Laps, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12. Latins, 46. their alliance with Rome, 50. Lauenburg, represents the elder Saxony, 208. held by the kings of Denmark, 225, 522. joins the German confederation. 225, 523. final cession of, to Prussia, 228, 523. Lausanne, annexed by Bern, 273. Laxjsitz ; see Lusatia. Lazia, allotment of, 407. Lechs ; see Poles. Leinster, 183, 560. Lemberg, ecclesiastical province of, 185, 186. Eemnos, becomes Greek, 32. Leo IX., Pope, grants Apulia as a fief to the Normans, 397. Leon, kingdom of, 154, 533. shiftings of, 534. its final union with Castile, ih. Leopol ; see Lemberg. LIT Lepanto (Naupaktos) under Anjou, 400. ceded to Venice, 413. to the Turk, 414. Lesbos, mention of, in the Iliad, 28. a fief of the Gattilusi, 418. Lesina ; see Pharos. Leukas, Leukadia (Santa Maura), 22, 26. date of its foundation, 31. commended fo Venice, 413. lost and won by her, 414, 415. Leuticii, the, 478, 479. Letts, 470 (note). settlements of, 488. Lewis I. (the Pious), Emperor, 128, 135. Lewis II. Emperor, 136. Lev.'is VII. of France, effects of his marriage and divorce, 334-335, 339. Lewis IX. (Saint) of France, growth of France under, 337-338. Lewis XII. of France, effects of his marriage, 343. Lewis XIV. of France, effects of his reign, 352. his conquests from Spain, 544. Lewis XV. of France, efi'ects of his reign, 353. Lewis the Great, of Hungary, his con- quests, 412, 441. annexes Red Russia, 502. LtBURNIA, 62. Libya, 76. Lichfield, bishopric of, 182,'56]. Liechtenstein, principality of, 229. Liege ; see Luttich. Liguria, Roman conquest of, 55. province of, 79. part of the kingdom of Italy, 147. LiGURiAN Republic, the, 252. LiGURiANS, non- Aryan people in Europe, 13, 45. Lille, annexed by France, 301, 351. LiMBURG, passes to the Dukes of Bra- bant, 295. duchy of, within the German con- federation, 228. Limoges, 3.34. Lincoln, diocese of, 182. LiNDiSFAEN, bishopric of, 182. Lisbon, patriarchate of, 170, 179. conquered by Portugal, 537. Lithuania, bishopric of, 185. effect of the German conquest of Livland on, 491. its conquest • from Russia, 501. 503. joined with Poland, 185, 502, 503. Lithuanians, settlements of, 15, 488. long remain heathen, 470, 501. INDEX 595 LIV LiVLAND, Livonia, Finnish population of, 488. , German conquests in, 490. dominion of the Sword-brothers in, 499. momentary kingdom of, 508. conquered by Poland, ib. by Sweden, 512. by Russia, 516. TjIVOnian Knights ; see Swokd- Beothers. Llandaff, bishopric of, 182. LoDi, 237. LoDOMERiA ; see Vladimir. AuYyiSapSia, use of the form, 371 {note). LoKRiANS, their position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. settle on the Corinthian Gulf, 30. LoKRis, league of, 40. Lombards, their settlement in Italy, 106, 107. take Ravenna, 108; 123. overthrown by Charles the Great, 123. Lombard V, kingdom of, 107, 234. under Charles the Great, 123. growth of her cities, 237. ceded to Sardinia, 257. Lombardy, theme of, 152, 371. Lombardy and Venice, kingdom of, 255, 324. London, bishopric of, 182. Lorraine, duchy of, 193. seized by Lewis XIV., 194. exchanged for Tuscany, 323. finally annexed to France, 194, 353. recovered by Germany, 362. Lorraine, House of, Emperors of, 323. LoTHAR I., Emperor, 135, 136. Lotharingia, kingdom of, 137, 140, 193. Lothian, granted to Scotland, 162, 556. effects of the grant, ib. LoTHRiNGEN ; See Lorraine. Louisiana, colonized by France, 355. ceded to Spain, 362. recovered and sold to the United States, 362, 568. LouvAiN (LowEx), 294. Low Countries ; see Netherlands. LiJBECK, founded bv Henry the Lion, 198, 496. its independence of the bishop, 214. one of the Hansa, 214, 220. 498. conquered by Denmark, 493. LiJBECK, bishopric of, 495. Lublin, Union of, 509. Lucanians, 46. Lucca, 238. under Castruccio, 245. MAH a commonwealth. Lucca, remains 249. archbishopric of, 171. grand duchy of, 253. annexed to Tuscany, 256. Lund, archbishopric of, 184. ceded to Sweden, 512. LrNEBURc, duchy of, 208. LuNEviLLE, peace of, 194. LuSATiA (Lausitz), Mark of, 199, 479. won by Bohemia, 497. LuTTiCH (Liege), bishopric of, 295, 298. annexed bv France, 302. added to Belgium, 227, 302. French acquisitions from, 351. Luxemburg (Luzelburg), duchy of, 295. annexed to Burgundy, 298. French acquisitions from, 351. within the German confederation. 225. division of, 229, 303. neutrality of, 229. Luxemburg, House of, kings of Bo- hemia, 497. LuzERN, joins the Confederates, 262, 270. Lydians, 33. Lykandos, theme of, 150. Lykia, league of, 39. preserves its independence, 64. annexed by Rome, 67. Lykians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28 Lyons, in the kingdom of Burgundy, 145, 263. archbishopric of, 167, 173. annexed by Philip the Fair, 264. Macedonia, 20, 21. its close connexion with Greece, 24. not in the Homeric catalogue, 28. growth of the kingdom, 36, 37. Roman conquest of, 41. diocese of, 7S. theme of, 151. recovered by the Empire, 389. Macedonian, use of the name, 11.5. Macon, annexed by Saint Lewis, 338. ^Iadeira, colonized by Portugal, 546. Madras, taken by the French, 357, Madrid, Treaty of, 298, 343. Magdeburg, archbishopric of, 176. recovered by Prussia, 224. Magyars, a Turanian people, 17. their settlements, 17, 157, 367, 437. effects of their invasion on the Slaves, 158, 436. called Turlcs, 382. origin of the name, 437 (note). Mahomet, union of Arabia under, 110. « U 2 59G INDEX MAH Mahomet I., Sultan, Ottoman power under, -450. Mahomet the Conqueeok, Sultan, his conquests, 413, 450. extent of liis dominions, -ioO. Maina, name of Hellenes confined to, 378. recovered by the Empire, 390, 420. independence of, 423. Maine, county of, 332. conquered by WiUiam of Normandy, 334. united with Anjou, ib. annexed to France, 336. Maine, State of, 565. Mainz, 93. ecclesiastical province of, 175. its archbishops chancellors of C4er- mauy and electors, 176. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 361. ilAiONiANS, in the Homeric catalogue,28. I\fAJORCA, kingdom of, 540. Malta, taken by the Saracens, 372. by the Normans, 398. granted to the kriights of Saint John, 401, 418, 543. revolutions of, 418. held by England, 418, 563. Man, Scandinavian settlement in, 475, 558. its later history, 492, 558. Manfred, king of Sicily, his dominion in Epeiros, 400. styled Lord of Romania, ib. Mantua, 243, 248, 257. Manuel Komnenos, his conquests, 383, 384 428. Manzikert, battle of, 382. Magna, the, its dominions, 418. Marche, county of, 334. Marcomanni, 85. Margarito, king of the Epeirots, 399. Maria Theresa, Empress-Queen, her hereditary dominions, 322. effects of her marriage, 323. Marienburg, 301, 351. Marseilles, acquired by France, 265. Mary of Burgundy, efiects of her marriage, 342. Maryland, 566. Massa, 249. Massachusetts, 565. Massalia, Ionian colony, 35, 36, 56. .see Marseilles. Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, his conquests, 442, 497. Maurienne, Counts of, 278. Mauritania, 67. Mauritius (Isle of France), a French cjlonv, 356. MIL Mauritius (Lsle of France), taken and held by England, 362. Maximili.'^.n L, his legislation, 203. effects of his marriage, 342. Mazanderan, 520. Mazovia, duchy of, 482. recovered by Poland, 503. Meath, 560. Meaux, settlement of, 337. Mechlin, archbishopric of, 177. Mecklenburg, duchy of, 198. Slavonic princes continue in, 198, 480. Mediation, act of, 276. Medici, the, rule of, in Florence, 245, 246. Mediterranean Sea, centre of the three old continents, 5, 6. Megalopolis, its foundation, 31. Megara, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40. Mehadia, 399. Meissen, Mark of, 199, 479. Meleda, 409. Melfi, 397. Melinci, Melings, 378. Mendog, king of Lithuania, liis con- quests, 501. Menin, 352. Mentone, annexed by France, 349, 362. Meecia, kingdom of, 129, 130, 160, 161. Mesembria, 393. Mesopotamia, conquest of, under Trajan, 99. under Diocletian, 100. Messana (Messina), receives Roman citizenship, 53. recovered and lost by the Eastern Empire, 270. taken by the Saracens, 372. by the Normans, 398. first Norman capital, ib. Messene, Dorian, 29. conquered by Sparta, 30. foundation of the city, 31. Metz, annexed by France, 193, 350. restored to Germany, 229. Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 548. two Empires of, ib. Mexico, New, ceded by Spain, 548. Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Em- peror, 426. Michael, despot of Epeiros, his con- quests, 387. MiECzisiAF. first Christian prince of Poland, 483. Milan, capital of kingdom of Italy, 147. archbishopric of, 171. Milan, duchy of, 240, 241, 248. temporary French possession of, 348. a Spanish dependency, 543. INDEX 597 5UL MiLETOS, its colonies, 32. Military Orders, 491, 499-501. MiNGRELIA, 525. Minorca, 543, 563. MisiTHRA, restored to the Empire, 390, 420. Mississippi, colonization at the mouth of, 355. made the boundary of Louisiana, ib. MiTHRiDATES, king of Pontes, his wars with Rome, 64. MoDENA, duchy of, 243, 244, 249. 256. annexed to Piedmont, 257. MoDON, held by Venice, 412. lost by her, 414. McESiA, Roman conquest of, 68. MoHACZ, battle of, 442. Moldavia, Rouman settlement, 441. tributary to the Turk, 443. fluctuations of its homage, 503. joined to Wallachia, 458. shiftings of the frontier, 454. Molossis, 37.. Moluccas, Dutch settlements in, 300. Monaco, principahty of, 247, 256. MoNEMBASiA, restored to the Empire, 390, 422. held by Venice, 412. lost by her, 413. Mongols, invade Europe, 440, 487. Russia tributary to, 487, 504. effects of their invasion on the Ottomans, 447, 448. dechne and break up of their nower, 504, 505. Monmouthshire, becomes an English county, 560. MoNOPOLi, lost by Venice, 248. Mons. 352. MoNTBELiARD, county of, 261 353. annexed by France, 357. Montenegro, origin and indepen- dence of, 431, 432. its Vladikas, 432. joins England and Russia against France, ib. its conquest and loss of Cattaro, 324, 432. later conquests and diplomatic con- cessions to, 433. Monxferrat, marquisate and duchy of, 236, 240, 248. homage claimed from, by Savoy, 284. partially annexed by Savoy, 248, 289. Montfort, Simon of, at Toulouse, 337. Moors, \ise of the name, 535. Mobaia, origin and use of the name, 120. Moravia, 199. history of, 481, nay MoBA\aA, Great, kingdom of, 157, 436, 477, 481. overthrown by the Magyars, 437, 481. MoROSiNi, Francesco, his conquests, 414. Moscow, patriarchate of, 170. centre of Russian power, 503, 504. advance of, 505. MouDON, granted to Savoy, 280. MouLiNS, county of, 332. Mt'LHAUSEN, in alliance with the Con- federates, 274. annexed by France, 357. MuMU ; see Munster. MUNSTER, 183, 561. Munster, 224. MuRCiA, conquered by Castile, 538, 540. Muret, battle of, 536. Muscovy, origin of the name, 504. Mykene, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. destruction of, 31. Mykonos, held by Venice, 411, 414. Mysians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28. Najiub, Mark of, 294. annexed to Burgundy, 296. a bari-ier town, 352. Naples, cleaves to the Eastern Empire, 371, 373. conquered by King Roger, 398. kingdom of, 250, 254. temporary French possession of, 348. title of king of, 251, 254. Parthenopa'an republic, 252. restored t<) the Bourbons, 256. Narbonne, Roman colony, 57. Saracen conquest of, 112. ecclesiastical province of, 173. annexed to France, 337. Xarses, \vins back Italy to the Empire, 105. Nassau, grand duchy of, 226. annexed by Prussia, 228. Natal, 570. Naufaktos ; see Lepanto. Nauplia, won from Epeiros by the Latins, 421. held by Venice, 412. lost by her, 413. Navarre, kingdom of, 154, 532. extent of, under Sancho the C4rtat, 534. break-up of, ib. its decline, 535. union with, and separation from France, 338, 535. conquered by Ferdinand, 541. northern part united to France, 344 598 INDEX NAV Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 538. Kaxos, duchy of, 41G. annexed by the Turk, 410, 450. Negroponte, use of the name, 411 (note). Neopatra, Epeirot dynasty of, 423. Catalan conquest of, 419. taken by the Turks, 420, 424. Netherlands, their separation from Germany, 203, 291, 299. Imperial and French fiefs in, 293. an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 543. French annexations in, 351. barrier towns against France, 352. see United Provinces. Netherlands, kingdom of, 302. divided, 303. Netz District, 517. Neufchatel, alhed with Bern, 274. passes to Prussia, 224, 274. granted to Berthier, 276. joined to the Swiss Confederation, 276, 361. separated from Prussia, 276. Neustria, Lombard, 234. Neusteia, kingdom of, 121, 134. united with Aquitaine, 135, 341. New Amsterdam, 300, 566. New Brunswick, 569. New England, settlements of, 565. form four colonies, ib. New France, settlement of, 355. New Hampshire, 565. New Netherlands, colony of, 300, 566. united to New Sweden, 566. conquered by England, 300, 566. New Orleans, 355, 568. New South Wales, 570. New Sweden, 566. united to New Netherlands, ib. New York, 300, 566. New Zealand, 570. Newfoundland, first settlements in, 564. remains distinct from Canada, 569. Newhaven, 565. NiBLA, taken by Castile, 538. NiDAROS ; see Teondhjem. Nik ATA, Turkish capital of Roum, 382. recovered bv Ale.^ios Koranenos, 383. Empire of, 388. its extent and arowth, 389. taken by the Turks, 391, 449. Nikephoros Phokas, Eastern Em- peror, his Asiatic conquests, 381. Nikomedeia, taken by the Turks, 391, 449, Ntkopolis, theme of, 152. battle of, 442. NUM Nimes, Saracen conquest of, 112. under Aragon, 337. annexed to France, ib. NiMWEOEN, Peace of, 301, 352. NiSH, taken by the Turks, 430. NisiBis, fortress of, 100. NizzA, annexed by Savoy, 265, 282. taken by Buonaparte, 358. restored to Savoy, 361. finally annexed by France, 258, 288, 361. NoGAi Khan, overlord of Bulgaria, 435. NoRicuM, conquest of, 68. in the diocese of Illyricum, 79. Normandy, duchy of, 142. character of its vassalage, 330. union of with Aquitaine, Anjou, and Britanny, 335. annexed by Philip Augustus, 336. Normans, their conquests in Italy and Sicily, 373, 396-398. in England, 163. in Epeiro«, 382, 397. their conquests in Sicily compared with those of the Crusaders, 401. Northamptonshire, 561. Northmen, use of the name, 473. their settlements, 474-475, 555, 557- 558, 561. Northumberland, kingdom of, 97, 129, 162. earldom of, granted to David, 557. recovered by England, ib. Norway, its extent and settlements, 131, 159, 475. united to England under Cnut, 1 63. its independence of the Empire, 471. formation of the kingdom, 472. Iceland and Greenland united to, 492. united with Sweden and Den- mark, ib. its wars with Sweden, 512. united with Sweden, 468, 522. NoTO, taken by Count Roger, 398. Nottinghamshire, 561. Nova Scotia, ceded to England, 355, 567. NovARA, 249. Novempopulana, 173. Novgorod, beginning of, 485. commonwealth at, 487. Russia represented by, 488. does homage to the Mongols, 504. annexed by Muscovy, 505. Novgorod, Severian, principalitv of, 487, 510. Novi-Bazar (Rassa), 427. NoYON, 331. Numantia, Roman conquest of, 56. INDEX 599 NUM Ntjmidia, province of, 59. NiJRNBERG, 209, 215, 220, 226. Nystad, Peace of, 516. Obotrites, 478. OcHRiDA, taken by the Bulgarians, 380. kingdom of, its extent, ih. OczAKOW, annexed by Russia, 454. Odessa, does not answer to Odessos, 520 (note). Odo, king of the West-Franks, does homage to Arnulf, 139, 328. Odoacer, his reign in Italy, 95. overthrown by Theodoric, ib. Oesel, won by Denmark, 495, 508. under the Sword-brothers, 500. under Sweden, 512. Ogres ; see Magyars. Oldenburg, united w ith Denmark, 513. becomes a separate duchy, 517. grand duchy of, 226. annexed by France, 222. Olgierd, king of Lithuania, .501. Oliva, Peace of, 514. Olivenca, ceded to Spain by Portugal, 542. Olynthos, 33. Opicans, Oscans, 46. OrsiKiON, theme of, 151. Optimaton, theme of, 151. Oran, conquered by Spain, 547. Orange, 263. annexed to France, 265, 352. Orange Free State, 572 Orange River Colony, 572. Orchomenos, its position in the Ho- meric catalogue, 27. its secondary position in historic times, 30. destroyed by the Theban.s, 31. Obeos, 405. Orkney, Scandinavian colony, 475. earldom of, 558. pledged to Scotland, 492. Osrhoene, 100. OsT.MEN, their settlements in Ireland, 159, 561. Otho de la Roche, founds the lord- ship of Athens, 417. Otranto, Turkish conquest of, 451. Otto the Great, Emperor, subdues Berengar, 147. crowned at Rome, 148. Ottocar II., king of Bohemia, his German dominion. 496. Ottoman Turks, their position in Europe, 17. compared with the Magyars and Bulgarians, 367. with the Saracens, 446. PAP Ottoman Turks, their special character as Mahometans, 446. their dominion compared with the Eastern Empire, 447. their origin, 448. effect on, of the Mongol invasion, ib. their first settlements, ib. invade Europe, 449. under Bajazet, ib. their conquests of Servia, 430. of Thessaly and Albania, 424, 425. of Bulgaria, 435. invade Hungary, 442. overthrown by Timour, 393, 449. reimited under Mahomet I., 450. under Mahomet the Conqueror, ib. take Constantinople, 393, 450. their conquests in Peloponnesos, 423. of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 431. under Selim and Suleiman, 451. their conquest of Hungary, ib. greatest extent of their dominion, 452. decline of their power, 452-454. their wars with Russia, 453-454. OuDENARDE, becomes French, 351. restored, ib. OviEDO, 533. Paderborn, 224. Padua, 237. Pagania, originally Servian, 408. its extent, ib. Paionia, 20. Paionians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28. Palaiologos, House of, 368. branch of, at Montferrat, 240. Palatinate of the Rhine, 215. united with Bavaria, ib. Pale, fiuctuatioiis of the, 562. Palermo (Panormos), a Phoenician colony, 48. taken by the Saracens, 372. taken by the Normans, 398. becomes the capital of Sicily, ib. Palestine, its relations to Rome, 65. Pampeluna, diocese of, 179. kingdom of ; see Navarre. Pannonia, Roman conquest of, 68. in the diocese of Illyricum, 79. Lombard kingdom in, 10(). Bulgarian attempt on, 379. Panormos ; sec Palermo. Papal Dominions, beginning and growth of, 239, 242, 244, 249. its overthrow and restoration, 252. 2.53, 3.59. annexed by France, 253, 256. 000 INDEX PAP Papal Dominions, annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 258. Paphlagonia, kingdom of, 38. theme of, 150. Paphlagonians, 28. Parga, commends itself to Venice, 414. surrendered to the Turks, 455, 457. Paris (Lutetla Parisiorum), 58. capital of the duchy of France, 142. capital and centre of the kingdom of France, 144, 167. becomes an archbishopric, 174. Paris, treaty of (1763), 355, 357, 362. treaty of (1856), 454. Parma, 237, 241. given to the Spanish Bourbons, 249. the duchy restored, 256. annexed to Piedmont, 257. Parthenop^.^n Republic, the, 252. Parthia, its rivalry with Rome, 65, 81. Partition, crusading act of, 385. Passarowitz, Peace of, 444. Patras, under the Pope, 422. held by Venice, 414, 422. Patriarchates, the, 168, 169. ' Patrician,' title of, 123. Patzinaks, 17, 113, 156, 158, 367 Pa via, old Lombard capital, 147, 237. county of, 241. ' Pax Romana,' 66. Pelasgians, use of the name, 24. in the Homeric catalogue, 28. Peloponnesos, its geographical posi- tion, 21. Homeric divisions of, 27. changes in, 29. united under the Achaian League, 40. Slavonic settlements in, 116, 378. theme of, 151. won back to the Eastern Empire, 153. Latin conquests in, 421. Venetian settlements in, 411, 412. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 422. becomes an Imperial dependencv, 390. conquered by the Turks, 390, 4'?3. Venetian losses in, 414. conquered by Venice, 415. recovered by the Turks, ib. Pembrokeshire, Flemish settlement in, 559. Pennsylvania, 566. Pentedaktylos ; see Tavgetos. Perateia, mcaniug of the name, 426. Turkish conquest of, 427. Prrche, united to France, 338. PIP Perekof, conquered by Lithuania, 502. added to Poland, ib. lost by Poland, 503. Pergamos, kingdom of, 38, 61. Perigueux, 334. Peristhlava, 379. Persia, wars of with Greece, 33. with Rome, 81, 101, 109. Saracen conquest of, 82, 111. revival of, 99, 100. Russian conquests in, 520. Peru, Spanish conquest of, 548. Perugia, 239. Peter the C4reat of Russia, his wars with Charles XII., 516. his advance to the Euxine, 519. Peter, count of Savoy, 278. Pharos (Ticsina), 34, 408. Philadelphia, taken by the Turks, 393. Philip, rise of Macedonia under, 37. Philip Augustus, King of France, his a.nnexations, 335, 336. Philip the Fair, King of France, effects of his marriage, 338. his momentary occupation of Aqui- taine, 339. Philip of Valois, King of France, his attempt on Aquitaine, 339. Philip the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, duchy of Burgundy granted to, 342. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, his acquisitions, 296-298, 342. Philippeville, held by France, 301, 351. Philippine Islands, conquered by Spain, 547. Philippopolis, first Bulgarian occupa tion of, 379. first Russian occupation of, ib. finally becomes Bulgarian, 393, 434. taken by the Turks, 435. Slavonic name of, 379 (note). Phqcnicians, their colonies, 28, 35,, 48. Phokaia, held by the Maona, 418. Phokis, 21. league of, 40. Phrygians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28. PlACENZA, 237, 241. given to the Spanish Bourbons, 249. PiCTS, 98, 554. united with the Soots, 555. Piedmont, joined to France, 252, 358. reunited with Sardinia, 250. union of Italy comes from, ib. Pietas Julii ; see Pola. PiNEROLO, occupied by France, 349. Pippin, king of the Franks, conquers Septimania, 121. INDEX 601 PIS Pisa, archbishopric of, 171. position of, 238. conquers Sardinia, ib. subject to Florence, 245. Plataia, destroyed by Thebes, 31. Plovdiv, 379 (note). PoDLACHiA, conquered by Poland, 502. PoDOLiA, lost by Galicia, 502. added to Poland, ib. ceded to the Turks, 452, 511. recovered by Poland, ib. PoiTOU, united with Aquitaine, 332, 334. annexed by Philip Augustus, 33(3. PoLA (Pietas Julia), Roman colony, 63. PoLABic branch of the Slaves, 478. Poland, kingdom of, 159, 200, 483. its ecclesiastical relations, 469. its relations to the Empire, i71, 481-482. wars of, with Russia, 482, 510. various tribes in, 482. its conversion, 483. its extent under Boleslaf, ib. internal divisions of, ib. consohdation of, 502. Pomerania falls away from, 496. conquests of, 502, 503. joined with lithuania, ib. Red Russia restored to, 441. Zips pledged to, ib. its acquisitions from the Teutonic knights, 501. acquires livland, 508. its relations with Wallachia and Moldavia, 443. its wars with Sweden, 512. cedes Podolia to the Turk, 452. partitions of, 212, 444, 517, 519. formation of the new kingdom, 524. united to Russia, ib. Poland, Little, 483. Poles (Lechs), their settlements, 482. POLICASTEO, Gulf of, 396. PoLizzA, independence of, 411, Polotsk, principahty of, 485, 500. POMEBANIA, Po.MORE, POilMERN, ItS extent, 199, 200. meaning of name, 482. its early relations to Poland, 482, 483. Danish conquests in, 493. falls away from Poland, 495, 496. its divisions, 200, 496. divided between Brandenburg and Sweden, 210, 213, 508. its western part incorporated with Sweden, 522. ceded to Den m. irk and then to Prus.sia, 225, 522. PoMEEELiA, purchased by the Teutonic knights, 500. PRU PojiEEELiA, restored to Poland, 501. PoNDiCHEKRY, a French settlement, 356. conquests and restorations of, 362. PONDOLAND, 571 PoNTHiEU, county of, 332. acquired by WiUiam of Normandv, 334. made over to England in 1360. 340, 563. PONTOS, kingdom of, 38. Roman conquest of, 64. diocese of the Eastern Prefecture, 7(>. Portugal, 155, 529, 532. coimty of, 536. formation of the kingdom, ib. its growth, 537. kingdom of Algarve added to, 538. extent of, in the thirteenth century, 538, 539, 545. its African conquests, 546. its colonies, 546, 547. divides the Indies with Spain, 547. annexed to and separated from Spain, 542. PosEX, grand duchy of, 224, 231, 524. POTIDAIA, 33. Prag, ecclesiastical province of, 176. Prefectures, of the Roman Empire, 75-79. Pressburg, Peace of, 220. Prevesa, held by Venice, 415. ceded to the Turk, 455. Priuorie : sec Herzegovina. Prince Edward's Island, 569. Peoven9al language, its fall, 348. Provence, origin of the name, 57. part of Theodoric's kingdom, 94, 96. ceded to the Franks, 105, 118. part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 145. Angevin counts of, 263. annexed to France, 264, 34t). Provinces, Roman, nature of, 51. Eastern and Western, 52. Prussia, use of the name, 192. 211, 230. long remain heathen, 470. dominion of the Teutonic Knights in, 500. beginning of the duchy, 607. its geogi'aphical position, 508. um'ted with Brandenburg, 204, 209, 508, 517. independent of Poland, 508. growth of, 202, 515. kingdom of, 516. its acquisition of Silesia, 211. of East Friesland, ib. its share in the partition of Poland, 212, 517-519. losses of, 222. 223, 523. 002 INDEX PRU Prussia, recovery and increase of its territory, 224. heati of North German confedera- tion, 228. annexes Sleswiek, Holstein. and Lauenbiirg, 523. war ^^•ith France, 229. Pru-ssia, Western, 212, 517. Prussia, South, 212, 518. Prussia, New East, 212. Przemyslaf, king of the Wends, founds the house of [Mecklenburg, 480. PSKOF, commonwealth of, 487. annexed by Muscovy, 505. Puerto Rico, 549. Punic Wars, the, 52. 56. Pyrenees, Peace of, .301, 350. Pyrrhos, 37. QuADi, 85. Quebec, 352. Queensland, 571. R^TIA, conquest of, 68. Ragusa, origin of, 115. ecclesiastical province of, 186. kept by the Empire, 409. keeps her independence, 410, 415. prefers the Turk to Venice, 415. annexed to Austria, 321, 325. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 564. Rama, Hungarian kingdom of, 428, 445. Rametta, taken by the Saracens, 372. Ramsbury, see of, 182. Rascia ; see Dioklea. Rassa (Novi Bazar), capital of Dioklea, 428. Rastadt, Peace of, 352. Ravenna, residence of the Western Emperors, 81. of the Gothic kings, 96. of the exarchs, 105. its ecclesiastical i:)osition, 171. taken by the Lombards, 108, 123. under Venice, 242. lost by Venice, 248. Red Russia ; see Galicia. Regensburg, 220. Revel, under the Sword-brothers, 500. bishopric of, 184. Hex Francorum, title of, 144. Rheims, position of the archbishop, 167. ecclesiastical province of, 175. Rhine, the boundary of the Roman Empire, 71. frontier of, 350, 353, 358. ROS Rhodes, in the Homeric catalogue, 28^ keeps its indepentlence, 37, 41. annexed by Vespasian, 41, 63. held by the knights of Saint John,. 391, 418. revolutions of, 417. knights driven out from, 451. Rhode Island, 565. Rhodesia, 572. RiAZAN, annexed by Muscovy, 505. Richard I., of England, takes Cyprus,. 374. grants it to Guy of Lusignan, 384. Richelieu, Cardinal, 361. Riga, ecclesiastical province of, 185. under the Sword-brothers, 500. under Sweden, 512. Rimini (Ariminum), 54, 244. RiPAcuRciA, 533, 534. Robert Wiscard, duke of Apulia,. 397. his conquests in Epeiros, ib. Rochester, bishopric of, 181. RoESLER, R., on the origin of the name Magyar, 437 {note). Roger I., count of Sicily, his conquests, 398. Roger II., king of Sicily, his conquests, 398. RoMAGNA (Romam'a), represents the old Exarchate, 147, 238. origin of the name, 234, 365-366. cities in, 244. annexed to Piedmont, 257. Roman, name kept on in the Eastern Empire, 63, 365, 366, 368. continued under the Turks, 382. Roman Empire ; see Empire, Romais . Romania, geographical name of the Eastern Empire, 366, 378. Latin Empire of, 385. Romania in Italy ; see Romagna. Romano, lordship of, 237. Rome, the centre of European history,. 9, 574. origin of, 49. becomes the head of Italy, 50. nature of her provinces, 51. her Macedonian wars and conquests, 41. her rivalry with Parthia, ib. wars of, with Persia, 81. patriarchate of, 168, 171. her later history, 239. becomes the Tiberine Republic,. 252. restored to the Pope, 253. incorporated with France, ib. restorexl to the Pope, 256, 361. recovered by Italy, 258. RoSKiLD, Treaty of, 51 3. INDEX 603 ROS RosKiLD, bishopric of, 184. Rostock, 498. rottweil, 274. Rouen, capital of Normandy, 142. ecclesiastical province of, 173. RouM, Sultan of, 382. RouMANS, origin of the name, 71, 366. their northern settlements, 439. ROUMANIA, 440. principahty of, 458. eilects of the Treaty of BerUn on, ib. RotTMELiA, Eastern, 459. RoussiLLON, released from homage to France, 337, 536. recovered by Aragon, 541 . finally annexed by France, 345, 351, 542. RoviGO, annexed by Venice, 244. Rt-GEN, held by Denmark, 480, 494. by Sweden, 511. RUPERTSLAND, 569. Russia, its origin, 158, 159, 484, 485. its relations towards the Turks, 453. geographical continuity of its con- quests, 469. origin of tiie name, 484 {note), 485. ecclesiastical relations of, 469, 472, 482. its relations to the Eastern Empire, 159, 472. its imperial style, 472. Scandinavian settlement in, 476. advance of, against Chazars and Fins, 485. its rulers become Slavonic, ib. attempts on Constantinople, 486. its isolation, ib. its first occupation of Bulgaria, 380. divided into principahties, 486, 487. becomes tributary to the Mongols, 487, 504. effect of the German conquest of Livland on, 491. revival of, 503 e/ seq. dehvered by Ivan the Great, .505. advance of, 509-510, 515-520, 524- 527. compared with Sweden, 511. wars with Sweden, 512. 516, 522. conquered by Poland, 510. lands recovered by, ib. assumes the title of Empire, 516. becomes a Baltic power, ib. its share in the partitions of Poland, 517-519. no original Polish territory gained at this time by, 519, 524. new kingdom of Poland united to, 524. SA5I Russia, extent and character of its dominion, 526. its ten-itory in America sold to the United States, 527. Russia, Red ; see Galicia. Russu, White, 517, 518. RUTHENIANS, 438. Rutland, formation of the shire, 561. Ryswick, Peace of, 352. Sabines, 46. Sachsen-Lauenburg ; see Lauen- ; BURG. I Saguntum, taken by Hannibal, 56. [ Saint Andrews, ecclesiastical pro- ' vince of, 183. Saint Asaph, bishopric of, 182. 1 Saint Davids, bishopric of, 182. Saint Domingo, Spanish settlements in, 546. French settlement in, 356. distinct from Hayti, 548. Saint Gallen, abbey of, 216. Saint John, knights of, conquer Rhodes, 391, 418. j their conquests, 418. Malta granted to, 401, 418. driven out of Rhodes, 451. Saint John of Maurienne, bishopric of, 173. Saint Lucia, kept by England, 362. Saint Omer, held by Spain, 351. Saint Petersburg, foundation of, 516. Saint Pol, principality of, 303. Saint Sava, duchy of ; see Herzego- vina. Saladin, takes Jerusalem. 401. Salamis, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. Salerno, principality of, 147, 152. duchy of, 396. Salisbury, diocese of, 182. Salona, Roman colony, 62. destroyed, 115. Salona, principahty of, 421. conquered by the Turks, 424. Saluzzo, disputed homage of, 283, 284, 287. annexed by France, 287. ceded to Savoy, 287, 349. Salzburg, archbishopric of, 176, 215. becomes a secular electorate, 220. annexed by Austria, 221, 323. by Bavaria, 222. recovered by Austria, 224, 323 325. Samaites, 488. Samarcand, 526. Samigola, 488. Samland, Danish occupation of, 475. (;()4 INDEX SAJI Samnites, 46. their wars with Rome, 51. conquered by Sulla, ib. Samo, kingdom of, 477. Sahiogitia, purchased by the Teutonic knights, 500. restored to Lithuania, ib. Samos, 32. theme of, 150. I held by the Maona, 418. I Sancho the Great, king of Navarre, extent of his dominion, 533. San Marino, independence of, 247, 255, 258. San Stefano, treaty of, 459. Santa Maura ; see Leukas. Sapor L, wars of, 101. Sapor II., wars of, 101. Saracens, their settlements in Europe, 16. rise of, 110. their conquest of Persia, Africa, and Spain, 111, 367. their province in Gaul, 112, 530-531. greatest extent of their power, 112, 530. conquest of Sicily, 372. compared with the Ottoman Turks, 446. end of their rule in Spain, 541. Sarai, capital of the Mongols, .504. Sardica ; see Sofia. Sardinia, 44. its early inhabitants, 53. Roman conquest of, ib. province of, 79. lost to the Eastern Empire, 369. occupied by Pisa, 238. conquered by Aragon, 245, 543. united to Savoy, 251. kingdom of, 257. Savona, march of, 236. Savoy, House of, 234. position and growth of, 277 et seq. originally Burgundian, 278. its relations to Geneva, 281. annexes Nizza, 282. its claims on Saluzzo, 283. Bernese conquests from, 272. Italian and French influence on, 284. its decUne, 285. its later history, 288-289. French annexations from, 346. French occupation of, 286, 348. Italian advance of, 248. its union with Sicily and Sardinia, 251. boundaries of, after the fall of Buonaparte, 361. annexed by France, 258, 362. Saxon Mark, the, 198. SEB Saxons, 85, 92. their settlement in Britain, 97-98. Saxony, conquered by Charles the Great, 122, 126. duchy of, 140, 207. use of the name, 191, 207. break-up of the duchy, 207. new duchy and electorate of, 208, 209. circle of, ib. kingdom of, 222, 226. dismemberment of, 224. Scanderbeg, revolt of Albania under, 423. Scandinavia, ecclesiastical provinces of, 184. its momentary union with Britain, 466. compared with Spain, 467. Eastern and Western aspects of, 468. its barbarian neighbours, 470. kingdoms of, 130, 472. its influence on the Baltic, compared with that of Germany, 490. Scania, originally Danish, 131, 184, 473. its momentary transfer to Sweden, 491. Hanseatic occupation of, 498. annexed to Sweden, 512. ScHAFFHAusEN, joins the confede- rates, 272. ScHLESiEN ; see Silesia. ScLAVTNiA, kingdom of, 480. Danish conquest of, 493. Scotland, origin of the name, 98, 554. dioceses of, 183. its greatness due to its English element, 553. historical position of, 553-554. analogy of Switzerland to, 554. formation of the kingdom, 554, .">55. settlements of the Northmen in, 555, 557. acknowledges the English supre- macy, 555. different tenures of the dominions of its kings, 556. graat of Lothian and Cumberland to, 162, 555, -556. its shifting relations towards Eng land, 557. its union ■«dth England, ib. Scots, their settlement in Britain, 98, 553. their union with the Picts, 555. Scutari; see Skodra. ScYTHiA, Roman province of, 77. Sebasteia, theme of, 150. Sebastopol, answers to old Cherson, 520 {note). INDEX 605 SEB Sebenico, under Venice, 414. Seleukeia, independence of, 39. annexed to the Empire by Trajan, 100. theme of, 150. Seleukids, extent and decline of their kingdom, 38. Selim I., Sultan, his conquests in Syiia and Egypt, 451. Seljuk Turks, their invasions, 367, 382. driven back hy the Komnenoi, 383. weakened by the Mongols, 447. Selsey, see of, 182. Selymbria, won back to the Empire, 389, 393. Semigallia, Semigola, part of the duchy of Curknd, 488, 518. dominion of the Sword-brotliers in, 500. iSemitic nations in Europe, 16. Sena Gallica (Sinigagha), Roman colony, 54. Sens, ecclesiastical province of, 173. divided, 174. Septimani.4. (Gothia), 91, 154, 530. Saracen conquest of, 112, 118. recovered by the Franlis, 113, 121. march of, 142. Servia, Slavonic character of, 114, 375, 427. conquered by Simeon, 379, 428. its relations to the Empire, 428. restored to the Empire, 380, 428. revolts from the Empire, 382, 428. recovered by Manuel, 383, 428. beginning of the house of Nemanja, 428. its possessions on the Hadriatic, 408. loses Bosnia, 428. advance of, under Stephen Dushan, 391-392, 423-425, 429. Empire of, 424, 429. break-up of the Empire, 430. later kingdom of, ib. conquests and deliverances of, ib. revolts and dt'livcrance of, 457. enlarged by the Berlin Treaty, ib. Servians, never wholly enslaved, 433. fourfold separation of the nation, 458. Severia, conquered by Lithuania, 503. recovered by Russia, 510. Sevebin, Banat of, attacked by Bul- garia, 434. Seven Weeks' War, the, 228. Seville, ecclesiastical province of, 179. recovered by Castile, 538, 540. Sforza, House of, 241. Sherborne, sec of, 182. Shetland, 475, 492. StL Shires, mentioned in Domesday, 560. two classes of, ib. Shirwan, 525. SiBERLi, khanat of, 505. Russian conquest of, 515. Sicily, early inhabitants of, 45, 48. Phoenician colonies in, 35. Greek colonies in, 22, 34, 53. the first Roman province, 52, 79. state of, under Rome, 53. theme of, 152. Saracen conquest of, 153, 372. recovered by George Maniakes, 372. Norman kingdom of, 250, 369, 373, 398-399. its conquests from the Eastern Em- pire, 399. never a fief of the Western Empire, 233. under Charles of Anjou, 250, 399. its revolt, ib. its imion ^vith Aragon, 250, 542. united with Savoy, 251. with Austria, ib. with Naples, 251, 544. its practical effaceraent, 400. compared with the crusading states, ib. compared with Venice, 404. Sicilies, The Two, kingdom of, 250, 251, 253, 400. union of, with Aragon, 542. part of the Spanish monarchy, 240, 544. divided. 254. reunited, 256. joined to Italy, 257. SicULi ; see Szeklers. SiDON, Phoenician colony, 35. SiEBENBiJRGEN, Origin of the name, 439 (7iole). see TRANSSILVANLi. SiEGMUND, count of Tyrol, 314. Siena, archbishopric of, 171. commonwealth of, 238, 245. annexed by Florence, 246. SiKANIANS, 48. Sikels, 48. SiKYON, in the Homeric catalogue, 27. a Dorian city, 29. Silesia, its early relations to Poland. 200, 482, 483. passes under Bohemian supremacy, 200, 49l>. joined to the Bohemian kingdom, 497. becomes a dominion of the House of Austria, ib. the greater part conquered by Prus- sia, 211. 321. Polish territory added to, 519. 606 INDEX SIL SiLVAS, conquered by Portugal, 537. Simeon, Tzar of Bulgaria, his con- quests, 379. SlND, 113. SiNOPE, 39, 64. 420. SiRMiUM, 81, 384. SiTTEN, see of, 173. Skipetars ; see Albanians. f?KODRA (Scutari), kingdom of, 62. Servian, 409. dominion of the Balsa at, 432. sold to Venice, 413, 432. taken by Mahomet the Conqueror, 413. Skopia, 429. Slaves, their settlement and migra- tions, 14, 113, 133, 367. compared \\'ith those of the Teutons, 16, 114. their two main divisions, 114, 158, parted asunder by the Magyars, 158, 436. their settlements within the Eastern Empire, 115. in Greece and Macedonia, 116, 375, 376. recovered to the Eastern Empire, 377. remain on Ta^'getos, 378. their relations to the Western Em- pire, 159, 197, 199, 201, 470, 471. general history of the Northern Slaves, 476-489. Slavia, duchy of, 496. Slavinia, name of, 115. Slavonia, 322, 325, 438. Slavonic Gulf, 480. Sleswick, duchy of, 213, 494. its relations with Denmark, 494. under Christian I., 495. effect of the Peace of Roskild on, 512. guaranteed to Denmark, 517. wars in, 228. transferred to Prussia, 228, 523. Slovaks, 438, 481. Smolensk, principality of, 487. conquered by Lithuania, 503. its shiftings between Russia and Poland, 510. Smyrna, 32. acquired by Genoa, 391. Snowdon, lords of. 559. SoBRARBE, formation of the kingdom, 534. united to Aragon, 535. Social War, the, 51. Sofia (Sardica). taken by the Bul- garians, 379. by the Turks, 435. SPE SoLOTHURN, joins the Confederates, 262, 272. SoRABi, 478, 479. Spain, use of the name, 3 {note). its geographical character, 7. non- Aryan people in, 12, 13. Celtic settlements in, 14, 56. Greek and Phoenician settlements in, 35, 56. its connexion with Gaul, 55. first Roman province in, ib. final conquest of, ib. diocese of, 79. settlements of Suevi and Vandals in, 90. West-Gothic kingdom in, 91. southern part won back to the Empire, 105. reconquered by West-Goths, 108, 530. Saracen conquest of. 111, 154, 530. separated from the Eastern Cali- phate, 113. conquests of Charles the Great in, 127, .531. foundation of its kingdoms, 154, 155, 553 et seg. its ecclesiastical divisions, 178. its geographical relations with France, 344. its quasi-imperial character, 467. compared with Scandinavia, 467, 529. with South-eastern Europe, 529. nation of, grew out of the war with the Mussulmans, 530. king of, use of the title, 539. African Mussulmans in, 534, 537. end of their rule in, 541. divides the Indies with Portugal, 547. extent of, under Charles V., 247, 298, 543. its conquests in Africa, 547. its insular possessions, ib. revolutions of its colonies, 548. its possessions in the West Indies, ib. Spalato, its origin, 115. ecclesiastical province of, 186. imder Venice, 414. Spanish March, the, conquered by Charles the Great, 122, 128, 533. remains part of Karolingia, 141, 155. division of, ib. Spanish Monarchy, the greatest ex- tent of, 543. partition of, ib. Sparta, her supremacy, 29. joins the Achaian league, 40. Speyer, bishopric of, 175. annexed to France, 220. INDEX 607 SPE Speyer, restored to Germany, 361. becomes Bavarian. 226. Spizza, originally Servian, 409. annexed to Austria, 326, 433, 445. Spoleto, Lombard duchv of, 108, 147. Stambul, origin of name, 393 (note), see Constantinople. Stati degli Presidenti, 246. Steiermark ; see Styria. Stephen Dushaj!T, extent of the Servian Empire under, 392, 423, 429. Stephen Tvartko, king of Bosnia, 430. Stephen Urosh, his conquest of Thessaly and title, 42^, 430. Stettin, 210. Stirling, 553. Stolbova, Peace of, 512. Stobmarn, 493, 494. Steabo, his description of Hellas, 18 (note). Stralsund, 498. Strassburg, bishopric of, 175. seized by Lewis XIV., 194, 352. restored to Germany, 229. Strathclyde, 130, 554, 555. acknowledges the English supre- macy, 162. granted to Scotland, 162, 556. Strigonium (Gran), ecclesiastical pro- vince of, 186. Strymon, theme of, 151. Styria (Steiermark), duchy of, 217, 309, 325. Sudereys ; see Hebrides. SuEVi, their settlements, 87, 90. Suleiman the Lawgiver, his conquests, 443, 451. his African overlordship, 451. Sumatra, Dutch settlement in, 300. SuRAT, French factory at, 356. SUSDAL, 486. Sussex, kingdom of, 160, 560. Sutherland, 555. SuTOKiNA, Ottoman frontier extends to, 416. RVEALAND, 131. SviATOPLUK, founds the great Moravian kingdom, 477, 481. SviATOSLAF, overruns Bulgaria, 380. his Asiatic conquests, 486. SwABiA, circle of, 216. ecclesiastical towns in, ib. Sweden, 131, 159, 474. its position in the Baltic, 467. its relation to the Empire, 471. its conquest of Curland, 475. of Finland, 490, 492. SYR Sweden, joined with Norway and Denmark, 491. separated, 492. growth of, compared with Russia, 511. advance of, under Gustaviis Adol- phus, ib. wars of, with Russia and Poland, 512. advance of, against Denmark aad Xorway, ib. its German territories, 213. greatest extent of, 51 3, 514. its settlements in America, 566. its decUne, 516. its later wars with Russia, 516, 522. losses of, ib. its union with Norway, 46S, 522. Swiss League, beginning and growth of, 262, 268-274. SwiTHIOD, 474. Switzerland, represents the Burguu- dian kingdom, 146, 259, 291. German origin of the Confedera tion, 262, 268, 269. popular errors about, 269. eight ancient cantons of, 270. effect of on the Austrian power, 217, 312. beginning of its Italian dominions, 271, 286. thirteen cantons of. 272, 274. its aUied and subject lands, 272, 273. extent and position of the League, 275. its Savoyard conquests, 272, 273. its relations with France, 346. abolition of the federal system in, ib. restored by the Act of Mediation, 276. Buonaparte's treatment of, 358. nineteen cantons of, 276. present confederation of twenty-two cantons, 276, 361. Sword-Brothers, their connexion with the Empire. 499. established in Li viand, ib. extent of their dominion, 500. joineti to the Teutonic Oriler, ib. separated from them, 500, 505. fall of the Order, 508. Sybaris, Greek colony, 47. Syracuse, Greek colonj% 48. Roman conquest of, 52. taken by the Saracens, 372. recovered and Ijst by the Eastern Empire, ib. by the Normans, 398. SyrA., kingdom of. oS, 61. 608 INDEX SYR Syria, Roman province of, 65. tSaraccn conquost of. 111. partially restored to the Empire, 381. conquered by Selim I., 451. SzEKLERS, settle in Transsilvania, 439. Taxoiee, 530, 545, 563. Takxenberg, battle of, 500. Taormixa (Tanromenion), taken by the Saracens, 372. Tarantaise, ecclesiastical province of, 173. Tarentum (Taras), early greatness of, 47. archbishopric of, 172. taken by the Normans, 397. Tarifa, taken by Castile, 53S. Tarragona, ecclesiastical province of, 178. joined to Barcelona, 537. Tarsos, restored to the Empire, 153, 381. Tartars ; see Mongols. Tasmania, 571. Tauros, Mount, G1. Tauromenion ; see Taormina. TaVgetos, Slave settlement on, 378. Tchernigof, principality of, 487. lost and recovered by Poland, 510. Temeswar, 444. Tenda, county of, 287. Tends, held by Venice, 411, 415. Terbounia (Trebinje), 403, 428. Terra Fiema, compared with fiirnpos 27 {note). Teutonic Knights, their connexion ■with the Western Empire, 499. effects of their rule, ib. extent of their dominion, 500. joined to the Sword-brothers, ib. their losses, 500, 501. their cessions to Poland, 501. their vassalage to Poland, ib. secularization of their dominion, 507. Teutons, their settlements, 15, 16, 82, 87, 96. their wars with Rome, 84. confederacies among, ib. Texas, 548. Thasos, 32. Thebes, head of the Boiotian League, 27, 30. destroyed by Alexander, 31. Themes of the Eastern Empire, 149- 152. Theodore Laskaeis, founds the Em- pire of Nikaia, 380. TOU Theodoric, King of the East-Goths, his reign in Italy, 95-96. Therme, 33 ; see Thessalonikk. Thesprotians, in the Homeric cata- logue, 26. invade Thcssaly, 30. 'J'hessalonikk, theme of, 151. kingdom of, 387. its effects on the Latin Empire, ih. its extent under Boniface, ib. taken by Michael of Epeiros, 388. Empire of, ib. separated from Epeiros, ib. incorporated with the Empire of Nikaia, 389. sold to Venice, 408, 41 3. taken by the Turks, 393, 408, 450. Thessaly, Thesprotian invasion of, 30. subservient to Macedonia, 37, 40. province of, 78. part of the kingdom of Thessalonike, 388. Great Vlachia, 423. added to Servia by Stephen tirosh. 424. Turkish conquest of, ib. restored to Greece, 457. Thionville, 301. Thirty Years' War, the, 203, 349. Thopia, House of, Albanian kings in Epeiros, 425. Thorn, Peace of, 501. recovered by Prussia, 524. Thrace, Greek colonies in, 20, 33. its geography, ib. conquered by Rome, 68. diocese of, 76. theme of, 151. Thracians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28. Thrakesion, theme of, 151. Thurgau, won from Austria by the Confederates, 271, 314. Thuringians, 92. conquered by the Franks, 117. Tiberine Republic, 252. Tigranes, king of Armenia, subdued by the Romans, 65. TiMOUR, overthrows Bajazet, 393, 449. Tingitana, province of, 79. TiRNOVO, kingdom of, 434. Tobago, 362. Tobolsk, 515. Tocco, House of, effects of their rule in Western Greece, 424-425. Toledo, archbishopric of, 178. conquered by Alfonso VI., 537, 540. Tongaland, 571. ToRTONA, 237, 249. Tortosa, Aragonese conquest ot, 537. TouL, annexed by France, 193, 349. INDEX 609 TOU Toulouse, Roman colony, 57. capital of the West-Gothic kingdom, 91. county of, 142, 332. ecclesiastical province of, 174. annexed to France, 337. TouRAiNE, united to Anjou, 333. annexed by Philip Augustus, 330. TovpKoi, 437 (note). TouRNAV, becomes French, 352. Tours, battle of, 113. bishopric of, 173. Traooukion ; see Trau. Trajan, Emperor, his conquests, 70, 99. forms the province of Dacia, ib. Transpadane Republic, 252. Transsilvania, 325. conquered by the Magyars, 439. Teutonic colonies in, ib. tributary to the Turk, 443. incorporated with Hungary, 444. Transvaal, annexatiftn of, 572. Trau, 407. Trebinje ; see Terbounia. Trebizond (Trapezous), city of, 36, 150. Empire of, 388, 425-426. acknowledges the Eastern Emperor, 426. conquered by the Turks, ib. Trent, county of, 235. bishopric of, 147, 195, 237. fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195. within the Austrian circle, 217. annexed by Bavaria, 221. ' recovered by Austria, 224, 255, 320. Triaditza ; see Sofli. Trier, taken by the Franks, 93. ecclesiastical province of, 1 75. chancellorship of Gaul held by its archbishops, 176. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 361. Trieste, commends itself to Austria, 232, 314. Trikkala, 397. Trinidad, 549. Tripolis (Asia), county of, 402. Tripolis (Africa), conquered by Sulei- man, 452. Teojans, 28. Trondhjem (Xidaros), ecclesiastical province of, 184. TrondhjemiJvn, ceded to Sweden, 512. restored to Norway, ib. Troyes, treaty of, 340. TuAM, ecclesiastical province of, 183. Tunis, conquests and losses of, by the Turk, 452. conquered by Charles V., 452, 547. Turanian nations in Europe, 17, 367. VOL. I. val Turkestan, Russian annexations in, 526. Turks, Magyars so called, 382, 437 {tiote). see also Ottomans and Seljuks. Tuscany, use of the name. 234. commonwealths of, 238. grand duchy of, 249, 256. exchanged for Lorraine, 322. annexed to Piedmont, 257. Tver, annexed by Muscovy, 505. Tyre, Phamician colony, 35. Tyrol, acquired bj' .\ustria, 313. within the circle of Austria, 21 7. taken by Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224, 325. Tzar, origin of the title, 516 [note). TzERNAGORA ; See Montenegro. Tzernoievich, dynasty of, 434. TzETiNJE, foundation of, 434. Ukraine Cossacks, 510. Ulaid ; see Ulster. Ulster, province of, 183, 561. United Provinces, the, 299. recognition of their independence, . 300. colonies of, 300, 566. United States of America, the greatest colony of England. 564. formation of, 565-567. acknowledgment of their indepen- dence, 567. their extension to the West, 568. their lack of a name, ib. cessions to by Spain, 548. Upsala, archbishopric of, 184. Urbino, duchy of, 244. annexed by the Popes, 249. Uri, obtains the Val Levantina, 271. Utica, Phd-nician colony, 35. Utrecht, its bishops, 294. annexed to Hurgundy, 298. archbishopric of, 177. Peace of. 301, 351, 355. Val Levantina, won by Uri, 27L Valence, annexed to the Dauphinv, 264. Valencia ecclesiastical province of, 178. conquered by .Aragon, 538, 541. Valenciennes, annexed by France, 351. Valentia, province of, 80. Valladolid, bishopric of, 178. V.^LOis, county of, 332. added to France, 333. Valtellina, won by GraubiJnden, 273. II li 610 INDEX VAL Valtellina, united to the French kingdom of Italy, 253. to the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 256. Vandals, 87. their settlements in Spain and in Africa, 90, 91. end of their kingdom. 105. Varna, battle of, 430, 442. Varus, defeated by Arminius, 07. Vasco de Gama, discovers Cape of Good Hope, 546. Vasto, 236. Vaud, conquered from Savov, 273. freed, 275. Veii, conquered by Rome, 50. Venaissin, annexed to France, 265, 357. Veneti, 46. Venetia, 47, 235. Roman conquests of, 55. province of, 79. Venice, her origin, 95. patriarchal see of, 170. her greatness, 241, 370. relations to the Eastern Empire, 233, 371, 381. compared with Genoa, 404. ■with Sicily, 405. her first conquests in Dalmatia and Croatia, 405, 409, 410. her share in the Latin conquest of Constantinople, 385. effect of the fourth Crusade on, 406, 407. inherits the position of the Eastern Empire, 407, 413. her dominion primarily Hadriatic, 407, 408. her possession of Crete, Cyprus, and Thessalonike, ib. her Greek and Albanian possessions, 411-413. loses and recovers Dalmatia, 412, 413. her losses, 414. her Itahan dominions, 241, 242, 248. losses of, bv the treatv of Bologna, 248. conquest and loss of the Pelopon- nesos, 414. annexed to Austria, 252. Italy, 253. restored to Austria, 255. momentary repubhc of, 257. united to Italy, 232, 258. acquires Skodra, 413, 432. Verden, bishopric of, 208, 213. held and lost by Sweden, 513, 517. division of, 130. bishopric of, annexed by France, 193, 349. WAT Vermandois, annexed to France, 333. Verona, fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 139, 195. history of, 237. subject to Venice, 241. to Austria, 252. restored to Italy, 232. Vespasian, his annexations, 41. Viatka, commonwealth of, 487 annexed by Muscovy, 505. Victoria (Austraha), 571. Vienna, Congress of, 524. battle of, 443. ViENNE, 94, 263. ecclesiastical province of, 173. annexed to France, 264. ViENNOis, Dauphiny of, 263. annexed to France, 264, 346. ViNDELiciA, conquest of, 68. ViscoNTi, House of, 240. Vlachia ; see Wallachia and Roc- mania. Vlachia, Great ; see Thessaly. Vlachs, use of the name, 368. see RouMANS. Vladimir, first Christian prince of Russia, takes Cherson, 381, 486. Vladimir, on the Kliasma, supremacy of, 486. Vladimir (Lodomeria) annexed by Lewis the Great, 441. under Austria, 325, 444, 518. Vodena, 392. VoLHYNiA, conquered by Lithuania, 502. recovered by Russia, 518. VOLSCIANS, 40. their wars with Rome, 50. Vratislaf, king of Bohemia, 496 {note). Wagri, Wagria, 478, 493. Waldemar, king of Denmark, con- quests and losses, 493. Waldstadte, 314. Wales, North, use of the name, 130. Wales, Harold's conquests from, 558. conquest of, 559. full incorporation of, 560. Wales, principahty of, 559. Wallachia, formation of, 440. shiftings of, 442-444. its union with Moldavia, 458. Wallis, League of, 272. its conquests from Savoy, 273. united with France, 274. becomes a Swiss Canton, 276, 361. ' Wandering of the Nations,' 83. Warsaw, duchy of, 223, 523. extent of, 524. Waterford, 561. INDEX 611 WEL Weleti, Weletabi, Wiltsi, 478. Wells, bishopric of, 182 Welsh, use of the name, 98. Wessex, kingdom of, 98, 129. its growth and supremacj% 130, 159. 160. Westfalia, duchy of, and circle, 207. kini^dom of, 222. Westfalia, Peace of, 215, 349, 513. West Indies, French colonies in. 356. British possessions in, 362, 570. Westjiokeland, formation of the shire, 560. Wexford, 561. WiDDiN, twice annexed by Hungary, 434, 435, 441. William the Conqueror, his continen- tal conquests, 334. England united by, 163. William III., king of Holland, 303. William of Hautevijle, found'^ the county of Apulia, 397. William the Good, king of Sicily, his Epeirot conquests, 399. Winchester, capital of Cnut's empire, . 161. bishopric of, 182. WiSMAR, 498. Witold, of Lithuania, his conquests, .501. Wolgast, 496. Worcester, bishopric of, 182. Worms, bishopric of, 175. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 361. Wt'RTTEMBERG, county of, 216. electorate and kingdom of, 220. its extent, 226. Wi'BZBURG, bishopric of, 226. its bishops dukes of East Francia, 206, 214. grand duchy of, 221, 222. ZUY York, archbishopric of, 182. diocese of, 561. capital of Monte- hoid Chios, 415, by Zabljak, ancient negro, 434. Zaccaria, princes of, 418. Zachlotjmia, 408, 428, 430, 431. Zagrab ; see Agram. Z.iHRiNGEN, dukes of, 261, 262. Zakyntuos (Zante), conquered WilUam the Good. 399. held in iief by Margarito, 40(i. commended to Venice, 414. subject to Achaia, 421. held by the house of Tocco, 424. tributary to the Sultan, 412. Zalacca, battle of, 535. Zante ; see Zakynthos. Zanzibar, 523. Zaea ( Jadera), Roman colony, 62. ecclesiastical province of. 186. held by Venice, 406, 414. Peace of, 412. Zaragoza, ecclesiastical province 178. conquered by Aragon, 537. Zealand, province of, 218. Zealand, Danish island, 473. Zeitouni, 392. 424. Zeno, reunion of the Empire under, 94. Zeta, 431. Zeugmin, recovered by Manuel Kom- nenos, 384. Zips, pledged to Poland, 441, 503. ZuG, joins the Confederates, 270. ZiJEiCH, minster of, 216. joins the Confederates, 270. Zutfhen, county of, armexed to gundy, 298. Zuyder-Zee, inroads of, 293. of, Bur- PRIKTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., SKW-STREET SQUARE LONDOK H (Tlassifieb Catalogue OF WORKS IN GENERAL LITERATURE PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.G. AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, and 32 HORNBY ROAD, BOMBAY CONTENTS. 4DMINT0N LIBRARY (THE)- - [OGRAPHY, PERSONAL ME- MOIRS, &c. filLDREN'S BOOKS LASSICAL LITERATURE, TRANS- LATIONS, ETC. . . - - 30KERY, DOMESTIC MANAGE- MENT, &c. SOLUTION, ANTHROPOLOGY, &c. [CTION, HUMOUR, &c.,- [NE ARTS (THE) AND MUSIC - UR, FEATHER AND FIN SERIES ISTORY, POLITICS, POLITY, POLITICAL MEMOIRS, &c. - ANGUAGE, HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF DGIC, RHETORIC, PSYCHOLOGY, &c. PAGE 12 9 32 22 36 21 25 36 15 20 MENTAL, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY MISCELLANEOUS AND CRITICAL WORKS POETRY AND THE DRAMA - POLITICAL ECONOMY AND ECO NOMICS POPULAR SCIENCE - RELIGION, THE SCIENCE OF SILVER LIBRARY (THE) SPORT AND PASTIME . PHILOSOPHICAL STONYHURST SERIES - TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE, THE COLONIES, &c. - - - - 17 WORKS OF REFERENCE. 17 38 23 20 30 21 33 12 19 II 31 INDEX Page bott (Evelyn) 3, 19, 22 -(J.H.M.) 3 -(T. K.) - - 17,18 - (E. A.) - - 17 land (A. H. D.) - 3 ton (Eliza) - 36 elborg (O.) - 32 schylus 22 jemarle (Earl oO - J3 cock (C. W.) 15 len (Grant) - 30 Igood (G.) - 3 verstone (Lord) - 15 igwin (M. C.) 36 inandale (N.) 21 istey (F.) 25 istophanes - 22 istotle - 17 nold (Sir Edwin) - 11. 23 -(Dr. T.) - - 3 >hbourne (Lord) - 3 .hby(H.) 36 hley(W.J.)- 3. 20 kinson (J. J.) 21 i-ebury (Lord) 21 ►re (Rev. J.) - 31 aeon 9.17 agehot (W.) - 9, 20,38 agwell (R.) - 3 ailey (H. C.) - 25 aillie (A. F.) - 3 ain (Alexander) 17 aker(I.H.) - 3H — (Sirs. W.) - II, 12 aldwin (C. S.) 17 OF AUTHO Page Balfour (A. J.) - 13, 21 Ball (John) - - 11 Banks (M.M.)- - 24 Baring-Gould (Rev. S.) - - -21.38 Barnett(S. A.andH.) 20 Baynes(T. S.)- - 38 Beaconsfield (Earl of) 25 Beaufort (Duke of) 12, 13, 14 Becker (W. A.) - 22 Beesly (A. H.) - - 9 Bell (Mrs. Hugh) - 23 Bent (J. Theodore) - 11 Besant (Sir Walter)- 3 Bickerdyke(J.) - 14. 15 Bird (G.) - - - 23 Blackburne(J. H.) - 15 Bland (Mrs. Hubert) 24 Blount (Sir E.) - 9 Boase(Rev. C. W.)- 6 Boedder (Rev. B.) - 19 Bonnell (H. H.) - 38 Booth (A. J.) - - 38 Bottome (P.) - - 25 1 Bowen (W. E.) - 9 Brassey (Lady) - 11 Bright (Rev. J. F.) - 3 Broadfoot (Major W.) 13 I Brooks (H. J.) - - 17 ' Brough (J ) - - 17 Brown (A. V.) - 32 Bruce (R. I.) - - 3 Buckland (J as.) - 32 Buckle (H. T.) - - 3 RS AND Bull (T.) - Burke (U. R.) - Burne-Jones (Sir E.) Burns (C. L.) - Burrows (Montagu) Campbell (Rev. Lewis) Casserly (G.) - Chesney (Sir G.) Childe-Pemberton (W. S.) - - - Chisholm (G. C ) - Cholmondeley-Pennell (H.) - - - Christie (R. C.) Churchill (Winston S Cicero . - - Clarke (Rev. R. F.) - Climenson (E. J.) - Clodd (Edward) Clutterbuck(W. J.)- Cochrane (A.) - Cockcrell (C. R.) - Colenso (R. J.) Conington (John) - Conybeare (Rev. W.J.) & Howson (Dean) Coolidge (W. A. B.) Corbett (Julian S.) - C()utts(W.) - Cox (Harding) Crake (Rev. A. D.) - Crawford (J. H.) - Creed (S.) Creighlon (Bishop) -4, Cross (A. L.) - EDITORS. Page Page 36 Crozier (J. B.) - - 9, 17 3 Cutts (Rev. E. L.) - 6 36 Dabney (J. P.) - - 23 36 Dale (L.) - - - 4 6 Dallinger (F. W.) - 5 21 Dauglish (M. G.) - 9 3 Davenport (A.) - 25 3 Davidson (A. M. C.) 22 (W. L.) - 17,20,21 9 Davies (J. F.) - - 22 31 Dent (C. T.) - - 14 De Salis (Mrs.) - 36 13 De Tocqueville (A.) - 4 38 I Devas (C. S.) - - 19, so )4,25 I Dewev (D. R.)- - 20 22 i Dickinson (W. H.) - 38 19 I Dougall (L.) - - 25 10 j Dowden (E.) - - 40 21, 30 • Doyle (Sir A. Conan) 25 12 1 Du Bois (W. E. B.)- 5 23 I Dunbar (Mary F.) - 25 11 , Dvson (E.) - - 26 36 I Eilis (J. H.) • - 15 23 (R. L.) - - 17 Erasmus - . - g 33 I Evans (Sir John) - 38 II I Falkiner (C. L.) 4 4 Farrar (Dean) - - 20, 26 22 l'ite(W.)- - - 17 13 Fitzmaurice (Lord E.) 4 32 Folkard (H. C.) - 15 25 Ford (H.) - - - 16 25 Fountain (!' - 11 6, 9 Fowler (Edith H.) - 26 5 . Francis (Francis) - 16 -i7i i3> 9 38 17 38 10 5 16 20 15 17 9 23 18 5 5 18 5 II 13 18 31 5 36 5 II 14 27 15 30 8 36 37 17 14 14 II 30 9 14 32 9 5 5 13 22 18 38 30 9 10 22 27 22 5 27 II 30 37 37 18 3 6 6 ) 38 23 6 li 18 6 23 18 Madden (D. H.) Magniisson (E.) Maher (Rev. M.) Mallet (B.) Malleson (Col. G.B.) Marbot (Baron de) - Marchment (A. W.) Marshman (J. C.) - Maryon (M.) - Mason (A. E. W.) - Maskelyne (J. N.) - Matthews (B.) Maunder (S.) - Max Muller (F.) 10, 18, 20, 21, 22, 27 May (Sir T. Erskine) Meade (L. T.) - Melville (G. J. Whyte) Merivale (Dean) Merriman 'H. S.) - Mill (John Stuart) Millais (J. G.) - Milner (G.) Monck(W. H. S.) Montague (F. C.) Moore (T.) (Rev. Edward) Moran (T. F.) - Morgan (C. Lloyd) Morris (W.) - 22,23,24, 27. 28, 37, 40 Mulhall (M. G.) - 20 Murray (Hilda) - 33 Myers (F. W. H.) - 19 Nansen (F.) - r 12 Page 31 INDEX OF AUTHORS AND KU IT ORS— continued. Page Francis (M. E.) - 26 Freeman (Edward A.) 6 Fremantle (T. F.) - 16 Frost (G.)- - - 38 Froude (James A.) 4,9,11,26 Fuller (F. W.) - - 5 Furneaux (W.) - 30 Gardiner (Samuel R.) 5 Gathorne-Hardy (Hon. A. E.) - - 15, 16 Geikie (Rev. Cunning- ham) ... Gibson (C. H.)- Gilkes (A. H.) - Gleig (Rev. G. R.) - Graham (A.) (P. A.) - -15 (G. F.) - - Granby (Marquess of) Grant (Sir A.) - Graves (R. P.) - (A. F.) - - Green (T. Hill) Greene'(E. B.)- Greville (C. C. F.) Grose (T. H.) - Gross (C.) Grove (Lady) - (Mrs. Lilly) Gurnhill (J.) - Gwilt (I.) - Haggard (H. Rider) 11,26, 27, 38 Halliwell-Phillipps(J.) 10 Hamilton (Col. H. B.) Hamlin (A. D. F.) - Harding (S. B.) Hard wick (A. A.) - Harmsworth (A. C.) Harte (Bret) - Harting(J. E.)- Hartwig (G.) - Hassall (A.) Haweis (H. R.) Head (Mrs.) - Heath (D. D.) - Heathcote (J. M.) - (C. G.) - - (N.) - - - Helmholtz (Hermann von) - Henderson (Lieut- Col. G. F. R.) - Henry (W.) Henty (G. A.) - Higgins (Mrs. N.) - Hill (Mabel) - (S. C.) - - Hillier (G. Lacy) - Hime(H. W.L.) - Hodgson (Shadworth) Hoenig (F.) Hoffmann (T ) - Hogan (J. F.) - Holmes (R. R.) Homer ... Hope (Anthony) Horace - - . Houston (D. F.) Howard (Lady Mabel) Howitt (W.) - Hudson (W. H.) - Huish (M. B.) - HuUahd.) Hume (David) • (M. A. S.) Hunt (Rev. W.) Hunter (Sir W.) - Hutchinson (Horace G. 13. 16, 27 Ingelow (Jean) Ingram (T. D.) James (W.) - - 18, 21 Umeson (Mrs. Anna) 37 Jefferies (Richard) - 38 Jejcyll (Gertrude) - 38 Page Jerome (Jerome K.) - 27 Johnson (J. & J. H.) 39 ones (H. Bence) - 31 loyce (P. W.) - 6, 27, 39 Justinian - - - Kant (I.) - Kaye (Sir I. W.) Keary (C. F.) - Kelly (E.)- Kielmansegge (F.) - Killick (Rev. A. H.) - la Kitchin (Dr. G. W.) 6 Knight (E. F.) - - 11, 14 Kostlin (J.) - - 10 Kristeller (P.) - - 37 Ladd (G. T.) - - 18 Lang (Andrew) 6 ,13, 14, 16, 21, 22, 23, 27, 32, 39 Lapsley (G. T.) - 5 Laurie (S. S.) - - 6 Lawrence (F. W.) - 20 Lear (H. L. Sidney) - 36 Lecky (W. E. H.) 6, 18, 23 Lees (J. A.) - - 12 Leighton (j. A.) - 21 Leslie (T. E. Cliffe) - 20 Lieven (Princess) - 6 Lillie (A.) - - - 16 Lindley (J.) - - 31 Locock (C. D.) - 16 Lodge (H. C.) - - 6 Loftie (Rev. W. J.) - 6 Longman (C. J.) - 12, 16 (F. W.) - - 16 (G. H.) - -13,15 (Mrs. C. J.) - 37 Lowell (A. L.) - - 6 Lucian - - - 22 Lutoslawski (W.) - 18 Lyall (Edna) - - 27,32 Lynch (G.) - - 6 (H. F. B.)- - 12 Lvtton (Earl of) - 24 Macaulay (Lord) 6,7, 10,24 Macdonald (Dr. G.) - 24 Macfarren (Sir G. A.) 37 Mackail (J. W.) - 10, 25 Mackenzie (C. G.) - 16 Mackinnon (J.) - 7 Macleod (H. D.) - 20 Macpherson (Rev.H.A.) 15 ~ ". jg 28 19 7 6 10 27 9 39 27 16 39 31 39 7 32 27 7 27 18, 20 16, 30 40 19 7 31 17 7 21 Page Nash (V.) - - - 7 Nesbit (E.) - - 24 Nettleship (R. L.) - 17 Newman (Cardinal) - 28 Nichols (F. M.) - 9 Oakesmith (J.) - - 22 Ogilvie (R.) - - 22 Oldfield (Hon. Mrs.) 9 Osbourne (L.) - - 28 Packard (A. S.) - 21 t-aget (Sir J.) - - 10 Park (W.) - - 16 Parker (B.) - - 40 Payne-Gallwey (Sir R.) 14,16 Pears (E.) - - 7 Pearse (H. H. S.) - 6 Peek (Hedley) - - 14 Pemberton (W. S. Childe-) - - 9 Penrose (H. H.) - 33 Phillipps-Wolley(C.) 12,28 Pierce (A. H.) - - 19 Pole (W.) - - . 17 Pollock (W. H.) - 13, 40 Poole (W.H. and Mrs.) 36 Poore (G. V.) - - 40 Portman (L.) - - 28 Powell (E.) - - 7 Powys (Mrs. P. L.) - 10 Praeger (S. Rosamond) 33 Pritchett (R. T.) - 14 Proctor (R. A.) 16, 30, 35 Raine (Rev. James) - 6 Ramal (W.) - - 24 Randolph (C. F.) - 7 Rankin (R.) - - 8, 25 Ransome (Cyril) - 3, 8 Reid(S.J.) . - 9 Rhoades (J.) - - 23 Rice (S. P.) - - 12 Rich (A.) - - - 23 Richmond (Ennis) - 19 Rickaby (Rev. John) 19 (Rev. Joseph) - 19 Rilev(J.W.) - - 24 Roberts (E. P.) - 33 Robertson (W. G.) - 37 Robinson (H. C.) - 21 Roget (Peter M.) - 20, 31 Romanes (G.J.) 10, 19,21,24 (Mrs. G. J.) - 10 Ronalds (A.) - - 17 Roosevelt (T.) - - 6 Ross (Martin) - - 28 Rossetti (Maria Fran- cesca) - - - 40 Rotheram (M. A.) - 36 Rowe (R. P. P.) - 14 Russell (Lady)- - 10 Sandars (T. C.) - 18 Sanders (E. K.) - 9 Savage-Armstrong(G.F.)25 Scott (F. J.) - - 8 Seebohm (F.) - - 8, 10 Selous (F. C.) - - 12, 17 Senior (W.) - - 13, 15 Seton-Karr (Sir H.)- 8 Sewell (Elizabeth M.) 28 Shadwell (A.) - - 40 Shakespeare - - 25 Shaw (W. A.) - - 8 Shearman (M.) - 12, 13 Sheehan (P. A.) - 28 Sheppard (E ) - - 8 Sinclair (A.) - - 14 Skrine (F. H.) - - 9 Smith (C. Fell) - 10 (R. Bosworth) - 8 (T. C.) - - 5 (W. P. Haskett) 12 Somerville (E.) - 28 Sophocles - - 23 Soulsby (Lucy H.) - 40 Southey (R.) - - 40 Spedding (J.) - - 9, 17 Spender (A. E.) - 12 Stanley (Bishop) Stebbing (W.) - Steel (A. G.) - Stephen (Leslie) Stephens (H. Morse) Sternberg (Count Adalbert) - Stevens (R. W.) Stevenson (R. L.) 25,28,33 Storr (F.) - - - 17 Stuart-Wortley(A.J.) 14,15 Stubbs (J. W.) - - (W.)- - - Suffolk &. Berkshire (Earlol) - Sullivan (Sir E.) Sully (James) - Sutherland (A. and G.) (Alex.) Suttner (B. von) Swinburne (A. J.) Symes (J. E.) - Tail (J.) - - - Tallentyre (S. G.) - Tappan (E. M.) Taylor (Col. Meadows) Theophrastus - Thomas (J. W.) Thomson (H. C.) Thornhill (W. J.) - Thornton (T. H.) - Thuillier (H. F.) Todd (A.) - Tout (T. F.) - Toynbee (A.) - Trevelyan (Sir G. O.) 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 (G. M.) - (R. C.) - TroUope (Anthony) Turner (ri. G.) TyndalKJ.) Tyrrell (R. Y.) - JJnwin (R.) Upton(F.K.and Bertha) Van Dyke (J. C.) - Vanderpoel (E. N.) - Virgil Wagner (R.) - Wakeman (H. O.) - Walford (L. B.) Wallas (Graham) - (Mrs. Graham)- _,_ Walpole (Sir Spencer) 8, 10 (Horace) - - 10 Walrond (Col. H.) - 12 Walsingham (Lord)- 14 Ward (Mrs. W.) - 29 Warner (P. F.) - 17 Warwick (Countess of) 40 Watson (A. E. T.) 12, 13, 14 Weathers (J.) - - 40 Webb (Mr. and Mrs. Sidney) - - 20 (Judge T.) - 40 . (T. E.) - - 19 Weber (A.) - - ig Weir (Capt. R.) - 14 Wellington (Duchess of) 37 Wemyss (M. C. E.)- 33 Weyman (Stanley) - 29 Whately(Archbishop) 17,19 Whitelaw (R.) - - 23 Whittall(SirJ. W.)- 40 Wilkins (G.) - - 23 (W. H.) - - 10 Willard (A. R.) - 37 Willich (C. M.) - 31 Wood (Rev. J. G.) - 31 Wood-Martin (W. G.) 22 Wotton (H.) - - 37 Wyatt (A. J.) - - 24 Wylie (J. H.) - - 8 Yeats (S. Levett) - 29 Yoxall (J. H.) - - 29 Zeller (E.) - - 19 28 13 12 8 8' 40 8 8 14 14 19 8 - 19. 40 29 19 20 7 10 33 8 23 19 8 23 10 40 8 7 20 7. 25 29 40 9, 12 22,23 40 33 37 37 23 25 8 29 10 32 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. History, Polities, Polity, Political Memoirs, &e. I Abbott. — A History of Greece. By Evelyn Abbott, M.A., LL.D. Part L — From the Earliest Times to the Ionian Revolt. Crown 8vo., io5. 6rf. Part n. — 500-445 B.C. Crown 8vo., los. 6rf. Part in. — From the Peace of 445 b.c. to the Fall of the Thirty at Athens in 403 Crown 8vo., los. 6(7. B.C. being Abbott. — Tommy Cornstalk Some Account of the Less Notable Features of the South African War from the Point of View of the Australian Ranks. By J. H. M. Abbott. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. Acland and Ransorne. — A Hand- book IN Outline of the Political His- tory of England TO 1896. Chronologically Arranged. By the Right Hon. A. H. Dyke Acland, and Cyril Ransome, M.A. Crown 8vo., 65. Allgood. — China War, i860 : Letters and Journals. By Major- General G. Allgood, C.B., formerly Lieut. G. Allgood, ist Division China Field Force. With Maps, Plans, and Illustra- tions. Demy 4to. 12s. 6rf. net. Annual Register (The). A Reviev^^ of Public Events at Home and Abroad, for the year 1902. 8vo., i8s. Volumes of the Annual Register for the years 1863-igoi can still be had. iSs.each. Arnold. — Introductory Lectures on Modern History. By Thomas Ar- nold, D.D., formerly Head Master of Rugby School. 8vo., js. td. Ashbourne. — Pitt: Some Chapters ox His Lipg and Times. By the Right Hon. Edward Gibson, Lord Ashbourne, Lord Chancellor of Ireland. With 11 Por- traits. 8vO., gilt top, 215. Ashley (W. J.). English Economic History and Theory. Crown 8vo., Part I., 55. Part II., 105. 6d. Surveys, Historic and Economic. Crown 8vo., 95. net. Bagwell. — Ireland under the I'UDOKS. By Richard Bagwell, LL.D. (3 vols.) Vols. I. and II. From the first invasion of the Northmen to the year 1578. 8vo,, 325. Vol. III. 1578-1603. 8vo., 185. Baillie. — I he Oriental Club, and Hanover Square. By Alexander F. Baillie. With 6 Photogravure Portraits and 8 Full-page Illustrations. Crown 410., 255. net. Besant. — The History of London. By Sir Walter Besant. With 74 Illus- trations. Crown 8vo., 15. grf. Or bound as a School Prize Book, gilt edges, 25. 6rf. Bright. — A History of England. By the Rev. J. Franck Bright, D. D. Period I. Medimval Monarchy: a.d. 449-1485. Crown 8vo., 45. 6rf. Period II. Personal Monarchy. 1485- 1688. Crown 8vo., 55. Period III. Constitutional Monarchy. 1689-1837. Crown 8vo., 75. 6d. Period IV. The Growth of Democracy, 1837-1880. Crown 8vo., 65. Bruce. — The Forward Policy and its Results; or, Thirty-five Years' Work amongst the Tribes on our North-Western Frontier of India. By Richard Isaac Bruce, CLE. With 28 Illustrations and a Map. 8vo., 155. net. Buckle. — History of Civilisation IN England. By Henry Thomas Buckle. Cabinet Edition. 3 vols. Crown 8vo., 245. ' Silver Library ' Edition. 3 vols. Crown 8vo., I05. 6rf. Burke. — A History of Spain, From the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic. By Ulick Ralph Burke, M.A. Edited by Martin A. S. Hume, With 6 Maps. 2 vols. Crown 8vo., 165. net. Caroline, Queen. — Caroline the Illustrious, Queen-Consort of George n. AND sometime Queen Regent: a Study of Her Life and Time. By W. H. WiLKiNS, M.A., F.S.A., Author of 'The Love of an Uncrowned Queen '. 2 vols., 8vo., 365, Casserly. — The Land of the Boxers; or, China under the Allies. By Captain Gordon Casseki.y. With 15 Illustrations and a Plan. 8vo., 101. bd. net. Chesney. — Indian Polity: a View of the System of Administration in India. By General Sir George Chesney, K.C.B. With .Map showing all the Administrative Divisions of British India. 8vo., 2IJ. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. History, Polities, Polity, Political Memoirs, ho..— continued. I Churchill (Winston Spencer, M.P.). The River War : an Historical Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan. I Edited by Colonel F. Rhodes, D.S.O. With Photogravure Portrait of Viscount Kitchener of Khartoum, and 22 Maps and Plans. 8vo., los. 6rf. net. The Story of the Malakand Field Force, 1897. With 6 Maps and Plans. Crown Svo., 3s. 6rf. London to Ladysmith via Pre- toria. Crown Svo., 6s. Ian Hamilton's March. With Portrait of Major-General Sir Ian Hamilton, and lo Maps and Plans. Crown Svo., 6s. Corbett (Julian S.). Drake and the Tudor Navy, with a History of the Rise of England as a Maritime Power. With Portraits, Illustrations and Maps. 2 vols. Crown Svo., 165. The Successors of Drake. With 4 Portraits {2 Photogravures) and 12 Maps and Plans. Svo., 21s. Creighton (M., D.D., Late Lord Bishop of London). A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack op Rome, 137S-1527. 6 vols. Cr. Svo., 5s. net each. Queen Elizabeth. With Portrait. Crown Svo., 55. net. Historical Essays and Reviews. Edited by Louise Creighton. Crown 8vo., 55. net. Dale. — The Principles of English It Constitutional History. By Lucy Dale, late Scholar of Somerville College, Oxford. Crown Svo. , 6s. De Tocqueville. — Democracy in America. By Alexis de Tocqueville. Translated by Henry Reeve, C.B., D.C.L. 2 vols. Crown Svo., i6s. Falkiner. — Studies in Irish His- tory AND Biography, Mainly of the Eighteenth Century. By C. Litton Falkiner. Svo., 12s. 6rf. net. Fitzmaurice. — Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick: an Historical Study. By Lord Edmund Fitzmaurice. With Map and 2 Portraits. Svo., 6s. net. Froude (James A.). The History of England, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 12 vols. Crown Svo., 3s. 6d. each. The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon. Crown Svo., 3s. 6rf. The Spanish Story of the Ar- mada, and other Essays. Cr. Svo., 3s. 6rf. The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century. 3 vols. Cr. Svo., IDS. 6d. English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century. Cabinet Edition. Crown Svo., 6s. Illustrated Edition. With 5 Photo- gravure Plates and 16 other Illustra- tions. Large Cr. Svo., gilt top, 6s. net. ' Silver Library ' Edition. Cr. Svo., 3s. 6rf. The Council of Trent. Crown Svo., 3s. 6d. Shor t Studies onGrea t Subjects. Cabinet Edition. 4 vols. 24s. ' Silver Library ' Edition. 4 vols. Crown Svo., 3s. td. each. Cmsar : a Sketch. Cr. Svo, 35. 6(1. Selections from the Writings of James Anthony Froude. Edited by P. S. Allen, M.A. Crown Svo., 3s. 6rf. Fuller. — Egypt and the Hinter- land. By Frederic W. Fuller. With Frontispiece and Map of Egypt and the Sudan. Crown Svo., 6s. net. Gardiner (Samuel Rawson, D.C.L., ll.d.). History of England, from the Ac- cession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War, 1603-1642. With 7 Maps. 10 vols. Crown Svo., 5s. net each. A History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649. With 54 Maps and Plans. 4 vols. Cr. Svo., 5s. net each. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. History, Polities, Polity, Political Memoirs, &e. — contimied. Gardiner (Samuel Rawson, D.C.L,, L L . D . ) — con tinu ed. A History of the Commonwealth AND THE Protectorate. 1649-1656. 4 vols. Crown 8vo., 5s. net each. The Student's History of Eng- land. With 378 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., gilt top, I2S. Also iti Three Volumes, price 4s. each. What Gunpowder Plot Was. With 8 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 5s. Cromwell's Place in History, Founded on Six Lectures delivered in the University of Oxford. 'Cr. 8vo., 3s. td. Oliver Cromwell. With Frontis- piece. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. German Empire (The) of To-day : Outlines of its Formation and Development. By 'Veritas'. Crown 8vo., 6s. net. Graham. — Roman Africa : an Out- line of the History of the Roman Occupa- tion of North Africa, based chiefly upon Inscriptions and Monumental Remains in that Country. By Alexander Graham, F.S.A., F.R.I. B. A. With 30 reproductions of Original Drawings by the Author, and 2 Maps. 8vo., i6j. net. Greville. — A [ournal of the Reigns OF King George IV., King William IV., AND Queen Victoria. By Charles C. F. Greville, formerly Clerk of the Council. 8 vols. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. each. Gross. — The Sources and Litera- ture OF English History, from the Earliest Times to about 1485. By Charles Gross, Ph.D. 8vo., i8s. net. Hamilton. — Historical Record op the i^th (King's) Hussars, from a.d. 1715 to A.D. 1900. By Colonel Henry Black- burne Hamilton, M.A., Christ Church, Oxford; late Commanding the Regiment. With 15 Coloured Plates, 35 Portraits, etc., in Photogravure, and 10 Maps and Plans. Crown 4to., gilt edges, 425. net. Hill. — Liberty Documents. With Contemporary Exposition and Critical Com- ments drawn from various Writers. Selected and Prepared by Mabel Hill. Edited with an Introduction byALBERT Bushnell Hart, Ph.D. Large Crown 8vo., 7s. 6on: A Family History. By Mrs. Napier Higgins. 2 Vols. 8vo., 21S. net. Hunter.— The Life of Sir William Wilson Hunter, K.C.S.L, M.A., LL.D. Author of ' A History of British India,' etc. By Francis Henry Skrine, F.S.S. With 6 Portraits (2 Photogravures) and 4 other Illustrations. 8vo., i6s. net. Jackson. — Stonewall Jackson and THE A muricanCivh. War. By Lieut. -Col. G. F. R. Henderson. With 2 Portraits and 33 Maps and Plans. 2 vols. Cr.8vo., i6«. net. Kielmansegge.— Z^M/fK of a Jour- ney JO England in tub Years 1761- 1762. By Count Frederick Kielman- SEGOE. With 4 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 5$. net. Luther. — Z//'-^ of Luther. By Julius Kostlin. With 62 Illustrations and 4 Facsimilies of MSS. Cr. 8vo., 3s. bd. lo MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORkS. Biography, Personal Memoirs, ho..— continued. Fragment. Macaulay. — The Life and Letters OF Lord Macaulay. By the Right Hon. Sir G. O. Trevelyan, Bart. Pupular Edition, i vol. Cr. 8vo., 2s.bd. Stiidetit's Edition i vol. Cr. 8vo., 65. Cabinet Edition. 2 vols. Post 8vo., 12s. ' Edinburgh' Edition. 2 vols. 8vo.,6i.each. Library Edition. 2 vols. 8vo., 36s. Marbot. — The Memoirs of the Bakon DE Marbot. 2 vols. Cr. Svo., 7s. Max Miiller(F.) The Life and Letters of the Right Hon. Friedrich Max Muller. Edited by his Wife. With Photogravure Portraits and other Illustrations. 2 vols., 8vo., 325. net. My Autobiography : a With 6 Portraits. 8vo., 12s. bd. AuLD Lang Syne. Second Series. 8vo., loj. 6rf. Chips from a German Workshop. Vol. IL Biographical Essays. Cr. 8vo.,55. Meade. — Genera l Sir Richard Meade and the Feudatory States of Central and Southern India. By Thomas Henry Thornton. With Portrait, Map and Illustrations. 8vo., los. 6d. net. Morris. — The Life of William Morris. By J. W. Mackail. With 2 Por- traits and 8 other Illustrations by E. H. New, etc. 2 vols. Large Crown 8vo., los. net. On the Banks of the Seine. By A. M. F., Author of 'Foreign Courts and Foreign Homes'. Crown 8vo., 65. Paget. — Memoirs and Letters of Sir James Paget. Edited by Stephen Paget, one of his sons. With Portrait. 8vo., 6s. net. Place. — The Life of Francis Place, 1771-1854. By GRAH.A.M Wallas, M.A. With 2 Portraits. 8vo., 12s. Powys. — Passages from theDi ARIES OF Mrs. Philip Lybbe Powys, of Hard- wick House, Oxon. 1756-1808. Edited by Emily J. Climenson. 8vo., gilt top, i6s. Ramakr/sh/ia : LLis Life and Savings. By the Right Hon. F. Max Muller. Crown 8vo., 5s. Rich. — Mary Rich, Countess of Warwick (1625-1678) : Her Family and Friends. By C. Fell Smith. With 7 Photogravure Portraits and g other Illustra- tions. 8vo., gilt top, i8s. net. Rochester, and other Literary Rakes of the Court of Charles II., with some Account of their Surroundings. By the Author of 'The Life of Sir Kenelm Digby,' The Life of a Prig,' etc. With 15 Portraits. 8vo., i6j. Romanes. — The Life and Letters of George John Romanes, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Written and Edited by his Wife. With Portrait and 2 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 5s. net. Russell. SlVALLOlVFIELD AND ITS Owners. By Constance Lady Russell, of Swallowfield Park. With 15 Photogravure Portraits and 36 other Illustrations. 4to., gilt edges, 425. net. Seebohm. — TheOxford Reformers — John Colet, Erasmus, and Thomas More : a History of their Fellow- Work. By Frederic Seebohm. 8vo., 14J. Shakespeare. — Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. By J. O. Halli- well-Phillipps. With Illustrations and Facsimiles. 2 vols. Royal 8vo., 21s. Tales of my Father. — By A. M. F. Crown 8vo., 65. Tallentyre. — The Women of the Salons, and other French Portraits. By S. G. Tallentyre. With 11 Photogravure Portraits. 8vo., io5. 6d. net. Victoria, Queen, 1819-1901. By Richard R. Holmes, M.V.O., F.S.A. With Photogravure Portrait. Crown 8vo., gilt top, 55. net. Walpole. — Some Unpublished Letters of Horace Walpole. Edited by Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B. With 2 Portraits. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d. net. Wellington. — Life of the Duke of Wellington. By the Rev. G. R. Gleig, M.A. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d. Wilkins (W. H.). Caroline theLllustrious, Queen- Consort OF George IL and sometime Queen-Regent: a Study of Her Life and Time. 2 vols. 8vo., 365. The Love of an Uncrowned Queen: Sophie Dorothea, Consort of George I., and her Correspondence with Philip Christopher, Count Konigsmarck. With Portraits and Illustrations. 8vo., I2S. 6(/. net. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. n Travel and Adventure, the Colonies, &e. Arnold. — Seas and Lands. By Sir Edwin Arnold. Crown 8vo. , 35. 6rf With 71 Illustrations. Baker (Sir S. W.). Eight Years in Ceylon. With 6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. td. The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon. With6Illusts. Cr. 8vo.,35. 6rf. Ball (John). The Alpine Guide. Reconstructed and Revised on behalf of the Alpine Club, by W. A. B. CooLiDGE. Vol. I., The Western Alps : the Alpine Region, South of the Rhone Valley, from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon Pass. With 9 New and Revised Maps. Crown Svo., 125. net. Hints and Notes, Practical and Scientific, for Travellers in the Alps ; being a Revision of the General Introduction to the ' Alpine Guide '. Crown 8vo., 3s. net. Bent. — The Ruined Cities of Ma- SHONALAND : being a Record of Excavation and Exploration in 1891. By J. Theodore Bent. With 117 Illustiations. Crown 8vo., 35. td. Brassey (The Late Lady). A Voyage in the ' Sunbeam' ; Our Home on the Ocean for Eleven Months. Cabinet Edition. With Map and 66 Illus- trations. Cr. 8vo., gilt edges, 75. 6d. ' Silver Library ' Edition. With 66 Illus- trations. Crown Svo.v 35. 6d. Popular Edition. With 60 Illustrations. 4to., 6d. sewed, is. cloth. School Edition. With 37 Illustrations. Fcp., 25. cloth, or 3s. white parchment. Sunshine and Storm in the East. Popular Edition. With 103 Illustrations. 4to., 6d. sewed, 15. cloth. In the Trades, the Tropics, and THE ' /Soaring Forties '. Cabinet Edition. With Map and 220 Illus- trations. Cr. 8vo., gilt edges, 7s. 6d. Cockerell. — Travels in Southern Europe a.vd the Levant, iXio-1817. By C. R. Cockerell, Architect, R.A. Edited by his Son, Samuel Pepvs Cockerell. With Portrait. 8vo., los. 6d. net. Fountain (Paul). The Great Deserts and Forests of North America. With a Preface by W. H. Hudson, Author of The Naturalist in La Plata,' etc. 8vo., gs. bd. net. The Great Mountains and Forests of South America. With Portrait and 7 Illustrations. 8vo., los. 6d. net, Froude (James A.). Oceana : or England and her Col- onies. With 9 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo.,3S. 6d. The English IN THE West Indies : or, the Bow of Ulysses. With 9 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo., 2s. boards, 2s. 6d. cloth. Grove. — Seventy-one Days' Camp- ing IN Morocco. By Lady Grove. With Photogravure Portrait and 32 Illustrations from Photographs. 8vo., "js. 6rf. net. Haggard. — A Winter Pilgrimage : Being an Account of Travels through Palestine, Italy and the Island of Cyprus, undertaken in the year 1900. By H. Rider Haggard. With 31 Illustrations from Photo- graphs. Cr. Svo., gilt top, 125. 6d. net. Hardwick. — An Irony Trader in North Kenia : the Record of an Expedi- tion to the Country North of Mount Kenia in East Equatorial Africa, with an account of the Nomads of Galla-Land. By A. Arkell-Hardwick, F.R.G.S. With 23 Illustrations from Photographs, and a Map. 8vo.. 125. bd. net. Heathcote.— ^'?r. Kilda. By Nor- man Heathcote. With 80 Illustrations from Sketches and Photographs of the People, Scenery and Birds by the Author. 8vo., los. bd. net. Howitt. — Visits to Remarkable Places. Old Halls, Battle-Fields, Scenes, illustrative of Striking Passages in English History and Poetry. By William Howitt. With 80 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 35. bd. Knight (E. F.). With the Royal Tour : a Narra- tive of the Recent Tour of the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York through Greater Britain. With 16 Illustrations and a Map. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. T/fE Cruise of the ' Alerte' : the Narrative of a Search for Treasure on the Desert Island of Trinidad. With 2 Maps and 23 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d. 12 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. Travel and Adventure, the Colonies, ko,.— continued. I Knight (E. F.) — continued. Where Three Empires Meet: a Narrative of Recent Travel in Kashmir, Western Tibet, Baltistan, Ladak, Gilgit, and the adjoining Countries. With a Map and 54 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 3s. 6d. The ^Falcon' on the Baltic: a Voyage from London to Copenhagen in a Three-Tonner. With 10 Full-page Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d. Lees. — Peaks and Fines : another Norway Book. By J. A. Lees. With 63 Illustrations and Photographs. Cr. 8vo., 65. Lees and Clutterbuck.— B.C. 1887 : A Ramble IN British Columbia. By J. A. Lees and W. J. Clutterbuck. With Map and 75 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d. Lynch. — Armenia : Travels and Studies. By H. F. B. Lynch. With 197 Illustrations (some in tints) reproduced from Photographs and Sketches by the Author, 16 Maps and Plans, a Bibliography, and a Map of Armenia and adjacent countries. 2 vols. Medium 8vo., gilt top, 42s. net. Nansen. — The First Crossing of Greenland. By Fridtjof Nansen. With 143 Illustrations and a Map. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Rice. — Occasional Essays on Na- tive South Indian Life. By Stanley P. Rice, Indian Civil Service. 8vo., los. 6rf. Smith- — Climbing in the British Isles. By W. P. Haskett Smith. With Illustrations and Numerous Plans, Part I. England. i6mo., 35. net. Part II. Wales and Ireland. i6mo., 3^- net. Spender. — Tivo Winters in Nor- way: being an Account of Two Holidays spent on Snow-shoes and in Sleigh Driving, and including an Expedition to the Lapps. By A. Edmund Spender. With 40 Illustra- tions from Photographs. 8vo., 105. bd. net. Stephen; — The Flay- Ground of Europe (The Alps). By Sir Leslie Stephen, K.C.B. With 4 Illustrations, Crown 8vo., ^s. 6d. Three in Norway. By Two of Them. With a Map and 59 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 25. boards, 2s. 6d. cloth. Tyndall.— (John). The Glaciers of the Alps. With 61 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d. net Hours of Exercise in the Alps. With 7 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 6i. 6d. net. Sport and Pastime. THE BADMINTON LIBRARY. Edited by HIS GRACE THE (EIGHTH) DUKE OF BEAUFORT, K.G., and A. E. T. WATSON. ARCHER Y. By C. J. Longman and Col. H. Walrond. With Contributions by Miss Legh, Viscount Dillon, etc. With 2 Maps, 23 Plates and 172 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 65. net; half- bound, with gilt top, gs. net. ATHLETICS. By Montague Shearman. With Chapters on Athletics at School by W. Beacher Thomas ; Ath- letic Sports in America by C. H. Sherrill ; a Contribution on Paper-chasing by W. Rye, and an Introduction by Sir Richard Web- ster (Lord Alverstone). With 12 Plates and 37 Illustrations in the Text. Cr. 8vo., cloth, 65. net ; half-bound, with gilt top,9s.net. BIG GAME SHOOTING. Clive Phillipps-Wolley. By Vol. I. AFRICA AND AMERICA. With Contributions by Sir Samuel W. Baker, W. C. Oswell, F. C. Selous, etc. With 20 Plates and 57 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 65. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, 9s. net. Vol. IL EUROPE, ASIA, AND THE ARCTIC REGIONS. With Contribu- tions by Lieut. -Colonel R. Heber Percy, Major Algernon C. Heber Percy, etc. With 17 Plates and 56 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, 9s. net. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 13 Sport and Pastime — continued. THE BADMINTON LIBRARY— coM^mw^rf. Edited by HIS GRACE THE (EIGHTH) DUKE OF BEAUFORT, K.G., and A. E. T. WATSON. BILLIARDS. By Major W. Broad- foot, R.E. With Contributions by A. H. Boyd, Sydenham Dixon, W. J. Ford, etc. With II Plates, 19 Illustrations in the Text, and numerous Diagrams. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6i. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. COURSING AND FALCONRY. By Harding Cox, Charles Richardson, and the Hon. Gerald 'Lascelles. With 20 Plates and 55 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. CRICKET. By A. G. Steel and the Hon. R. H. Lyttelton. With Con- tributions by Andrew Lang, W. G. Grace, F. Gale, etc. With 13 Plates and 52 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. CYCLING. By the Earl of Albe- marle and G. Lacy Hillier. With ig Plates and 44 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. DANCING. By Mrs. Lilly Grove. With Contributions by Miss Middleton, The Hon. Mrs. Armytage, etc. With Musical Examples, and 38 Full-page Plates and 93 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. DRIVING. By His Grace the (Eighth) Duke of Beaufort, K.G. With Contribu- tions by A. E. T. Watson the Earl of Onslow, etc. With 12 Plates and 54 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. FENCING, BOXING, AND WRESTLING. By Walter H. Pollock, F. C. Grove, C. Prevost, E. B. Mitchell, and Walter Armstrong. With 18 Plates and 24 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. FISHING. Pennell. By H. Cholmondeley- Vol. I. SALMON AND TROUT. With Contributions by H. R. Francis, Major John P. Traherne, etc. With g Plates and numerous Illustrations of Tackle, etc. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. Vol. II. PIKE AND OTHER COARSE FISH. With Contributions by the Marquis of Exeter, William Senior, G. Christopher Davis, etc. With 7 Plates and numerous Illustrations 01 Tackle, etc. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. FOOTBALL. History, by Mon- tague Shearman ; The Association Game, by W. J. Oakley and G. O. Smith ; The Rugby Union Game, by Frank Mitchell. With other Contributions by R. E. Macnaghten, M. C. Kemp, J. E. Vincent, Walter Camp and A. Suther- land. With ig Plates and 35 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. GOLF. By Horace G. Hutchinson. With Contributions by the Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., Sir Walter Simpson, Bart., Andrew Lang, etc. With 34 Plates and 56 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. HUNTING. By His Grace the (Eighth) Duke of Beaufort, K.G., and Mowbray Morris. With Contributions by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire, Rev. E. W. L. Davies, G. H. Longman, etc. With 5 Plates and 54 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half- bound, with gilt top, gs. net. MOTORS AND MOTOR-DRIV- ING. By Alfred C. Hakmsworth, the Marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat, the Hon. John Scott-Montagu, R. J. Me- CREDY, the Hon. C. S. Rolls, Sir David Salomons, Bart., etc. With 13 Plates and 136 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, gs. net; half-bound, 12s. neU A Cloth Box for use when Motoring, 2s. net. 14 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. Sport and Pastime — continued. THE BADMINTON lA^^hYCI— continued. Edited by HIS GRACE THE (EIGHTH) DUKE OF BEAUFORT, K.G., and A. E. T. WATSON. MOUNTAINEERING. By C. T. Dent. With Contributions by the Right Hon. J. Bryce, M.P., Sir Martin Conway, D. W. Freshfield, C. E. Matthews, etc. With 13 Plates and 91 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 65. net ; half- bound, with gilt top, gs. net. POETRY OF SPORT {THE).— Selected by Hedley Peek. With a Chapter on Classical Allusions to Sport by Andrew Lang, and a Special Preface to the BADMINTON LIBRARY by A. E. T. Watson. With 32 Plates and 74 Illustra- tions in the Text. Crown Svo., cloth, 65. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, 95. net. RACING AND STEEPLE-CHAS- ING. By the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire, W. G. Craven, the Hon. F. Lawley, Arthur Coventry, and A. E. T. Watson. With Frontispiece and 56 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. RIDING AND POLO. By Captain Robert Weir, J. Moray Brown, T. F. Dale, The Late Duke of Beaufort, The Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire, etc. With 18 Plates and 41 Illusts. in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. ROWING. By R. P. P. Rowe and C. M. Pitman. With Chapters on Steering by C. P. Serocold and F. C. Begg ; Met- ropolitan Rowing by S. Le Blanc Smith ; andonPUNTINGbyP.W. Squire. With 75 Illustrations. Crown Svo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. SHOOTING. Vol. I. FIELD AND COVERT. By Lord Walsingham and Sir Ralph Payne- Gallwey, Bart. With Contributions by the Hon. Gerald Lascelles and A. J. Stuart- WoRTLEY. With 11 Plates and g5 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. Vol. II. MOOR AND MARSH. By Lord Walsingham and Sir Ralph Pavne- Gallwey, Bart. With Contributions by Lord Lovat and Lord Charles Lennox Kerr. With 8 Plates and 57 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. SEA FISHING. By John Bicker- dyke, Sir H. W. GoRE-BooTH, Alfred C. Harmsworth, and W. Senior. With 22 Full-page Plates and 175 Illusts. in the Text. Crown Svo., cloth, 6s. net; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. SKATING, CURLING, TOBOG- GANING. By J. M. Heathcote, C. G. Tebbutt, T. Maxwell Witham, Rev. John Kerr, Ormond Hake, Henry A. Buck, etc. With 12 Plates and 272 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. SWIMMING. By Archibald Sin- clair andWiLLiAM Henry, Hon. Sees, of the Life-Saving Society. With 13 Plates and 112 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. TENNIS, LA WN TENNIS, RACKETS AND FIVES. By J. M. and C. G. Heathcote, E. O. Pleydell-Bou- VERiE,andA.C. Ainger. With Contributions by the Hon. A. Lyttelton, W. C. Mar- shall, Miss L. DoD, etc. With 14 Plates and 65 Illustrations in the Text. Crown Svo., cloth, 6s. net ; half-bound, with gilt top, gs. net. YACHTING. Vol. I. CRUISING, CONSTRUCTION OF YACHTS, YACHT RACING RULES, FITTING-OUT, etc. By Sir Edward Sullivan, Bart., The Earl of Pembroke, Lord IBrassey, K.C.B., C. E. Seth-Smith, C.B., G. L. Watson, R. T. Pritchett, E. F. Knight, etc. With 21 Plates and 93 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s. net ; half- bound, with gilt top, gs. net. Vol. II. YACHT CLUBS, YACHT- ING IN AMERICA AND THE COLONIES, YACHT RACING, etc. By R. T. Pritchett, The Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, K.P., The Earl of Onslow, James McFerran, etc. With 35 Plates and 160 Illustrations in the Text. Crown Svo., cloth, gs. net; halfr bound, with gilt top, gs. net. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 15 Sport and Pastime — continued. FUR, FEATHER, AND FIN SERIES. Edited by A. E. T. Watson. Crown 8vo., price 55. each Volume, cloth. The Volumes are also issued half-bound in Leather, with gilt top. Price 7s. 6d. net each. RED Z»^^i?.— Natural History, by THE PARTRIDGE. Natural His- tory, by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson ; Shooting, by A. J. Stuart-Wortley ; Cookery, by George Saintsbury. With II Illustrations and various Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 55. THE GRO USE. Natural History, by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson ; Shooting, by A. J. Stuart-Wortley; Cookery, by George Saintsbury. With 13 Illustrations and various Diagrams. ' Crown 8vo., 55. THE PHEASANT. Natural History, by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson ; Shooting, by A. J. Stuart-Wortley ; Cookery, by Alexander Innes Shand. With 10 Illus- trations and various Diagrams. Crown Svo., 5s. TBE HARE. Natural History, by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson ; Shooting, by the Hon. Gerald Lascelles ; Coursing, by Charles Richardson ; Hunting, by J. 8. Gibbons and G. H. Longman ; Cookery, by Col. Kenney Herbert. With 9 Illustrations. Crown Svo., 5i. the Rev. H. A. Macpherson ; Deer Stalk- ing, by Cameron of Lochiel ; Stag Hunting, by Viscount Ebrington ; Cookery, by Alexander Innes Shand. With 10 Illustrations. Crown Svo., 5s. THE SALMON. By the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy. With Chapters on the Law of Salmon Fishing by Claud Douglas Pennant; Cookery, by Alexander Innes Shand. With 8 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 55. THE TROUT. By the Marquess OF Granby. With Chapters on the Breed- ing of Trout by Col. H. Custance ; and Cookery, by Alexander Innes Shand. With 12 Illustrations. Crown Svo., 5s. THE RABBIT. By James Edmund Harting. Cookery' by Alexander Innes Shand. With lo Illustrations. Cr. Svo., 5s. PIKE AND PERCH. By William Senior (' Redspinner,' Editor of the ' Field '). With Chapters by John Bicker- dyke and W. H. Pope; Cookery, by Alexander Innes Shand. With 12 Il- lustrations. Crown 8vo., 5s. Alverstone and Alcock. — Surrey Cricket: its History and Associations. Edited by the Right Hon. Lord Alver- stone, L.C.J., President, and C.W. Alcock, Secretary, of the Surrey County Cricket Club. With 48 Illustrations. Svo., 165. net. Bickerdyke. — Days of Mr Life on Water, Fkesh and Salt; and other Papers. By John Bickerdyke. With Photo-etching Frontispiece and 8 Full-page Illustrations. Crown Svo., 35. bd. Blackburne. — Mr. Blackburnes Games at Chess. Selected, Annotated and Arranged by Himself. Edited, with a Biographical Sketch and a brief History of Blindfold Chess, by P. Anderson Graham. With Portrait of Mr. Blackburne. Svo., 7s. 6d. net. Dead Shot (The) : or. Sportsman's Complete (juide. Being a Treatise on the Use of the Gun, with Rudimentary and Finishing Lessons in the Art of Shooting Game of all kinds. Also Game-driving, Wildfowl and Pigeon-shooting, Dog-breaking, etc. By Marksman. With numerous Illustrations. Crown Svo., 105. 6rf. HUis. — Chess Sparks ; or. Short and Bright Games of Chess. Collected and Arranged by J. H. Ellis, M.A. Svo., 45. bd. Folkard. — The Wild-Fowler : A Treatise on Fowling, Ancient and Modern, descriptive also of Decoys and Flight-ponds, Wild-fowl Shooting, Gunning-punts, Shoot- ing-yachts, etc. Also Fowling in the P'ens and in Foreign Countries, Rock-fowling, etc., etc., by H. C. F'olkard. With 13 En- gravings on Steel, and several Woodcuts. Svo., I2S. 6d. Ford. — The Theory and Practice OF Archery. By Horace Ford. New Edition, thoroughly Revised and Re-written by W. Butt, M.A. With a Preface by C. J. Longman, M.A. Svo., 14s. Francis. — A Book on Angling : or. Treatise on the Art of Fishing in every Branch ; including full Illustrated List of Sal- mon Flies. By Francis Francis. With Por- trait and Coloured Plates. Crown Svo., 15J. Fremantle. — The Book of the Rifle. By the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, V.l)., Major, ist Bucks V.R.C. With 54 Plates and 107 Diagrams in the Text. Svo., I2S. (id. net. i6 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. ( Sport and Pastime — continued. Gathorne- Hardy. — Autumns in Aroylkshire with Rod and Gux. By the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy. With 8 Illustrations by Archibald Thorburn. 8vo., 65. net. Graham. — Country Pastimes for Boys. By P. Anderson Graham. With 252 Illustrations from Drawings and Photographs. Cr. 8vo., gilt edges, 3s. net. Hutchinson. — The Book of Golf AND Golfers. By Horace G. Hutchin- son. With Contributions by Miss Amy Pascoe, H. H. Hilton, J. H. Taylor, H. J. Whigham, and Messrs. Sutton & Sons. With 71 Portraits from Photographs. Large crown 8vo., gilt top, 75. 6d. net. Lang. — Angling Sketches. By Andrew Lang. With 20 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Lillie. — Croquet up to Date. Con- taining the Ideas and Teachings of the Leading Players and Champions. By Ar- thur Lillie. With Contributions by Lieut.-Col. the Hon. H. Needham, C. D. LococK, etc. With 19 Illustrations (15 Portraits), and numerous Diagrams. 8vo., los. 6d. net. being Locock. — Side and Screw Notes on the Theory and Practice of the Game of Billiards. By C. D. Locock. With Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. Longman. — Chess Openings. By Frederick W. Longman. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. ^d. Mackenzie. — Notes for Hunting Men. By Captain Cortlandt Gordon Mackenzie. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d. net. Madden. — The Diary of Master William Silence : a Study of Shakespeare and of Elizabethan Sport. By the Right Hon. D. H. Madden, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Dublin. 8vo., gilt top, i6s. Maskelyne. — Sharps and Flats : a Complete Revelation of the Secrets of Cheating at Games of Chance and Skill. By John Nevil Maskelyne, of the Egyptian Hall. With 62 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., ts. Millais (John Guille). The IViLD-FoivLER in Scotland. With a Frontispiece in Photogravure by Sir J. E. Millais, Bart., P.R.A., 8 Photo- gravure Plates, 2 Coloured Plates and 50 Illustrations from the Author's Drawings and from Photographs. Royal 4to., gilt top, 30S. net. Millais (John Guille) — coiitinned. The Natural History of Tin British Surface- Feeding Duckl With 6 Photogravures and 66 Plates ((i in Colours) from Drawings by the Autha, Archibald Thorburn, and from Photo- graphs. Royal 4to., cloth, gilt top, £6 es.nst. Modern Bridge.— By 'Slam'. With a Reprint of the Laws of Bridge, as adopted by the Portland and Turf Clubs. i8mo., gilt edges, 35. bd. net. Park. — The Game of Golf. By William Park, Jun., Champion Golfer, 1887-89. With 17 Plates and 26 Illustra- tions in the Text. Crown 8vo., 75. 6rf. Payne-Gallwey (Sir Ralph, Bart.). The Cross-Bow : Mediaeval and Modern ; Military and Sporting ; its Construction, History and Management, with a Treatise on the Balista and Cata- pult of the Ancients. With 220 Illustra- tions. Royal 4to., ;^3 3s. net. Letters to Young Shooters (First Series). On the Choice and use of a Gun. With 41 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 75. 6d. Letters TO Young SHOOTERs{^tconA Series). On the Production, Preservation, and Killing of Game. With Directions in Shooting Wood-Pigeons and Breaking- in Retrievers. With Portrait and 103 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 125. 6d. Letters to Young Shooters. (Third Series.) Comprising a Short Natural History of the Wildfowl that are Rare or Common to the British Islands, with complete directions in Shooting Wildfowl on the Coast and Inland. With 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., i8s. Pole. — The Theory of the Modern Scientific Game of Whist. By William Pole, F.R.S. Fcp. 8vo., gilt edges, 2s. net. Proctor. — ILoiv to Flay Whist: WITH the Laws and Etiquette op Whist. By Richard A. Proctor. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 35. net. Ronalds. — Ihe Fly-Fisher's Ento- mology. By Alfred Ronalds. With 20 coloured Plates. 8vo., 14s. Selous. — Sport and Travel, East and West. By Frederick Courteney Selous. With 18 Plates and 35 Illustra- tions in the Text. Medium 8vo., 125. M. net. Warner. — Cricket Across the Seas : being an Account of the Tour of Lord Hawke's Team in New Zealand and Australia. By P. F. Warner. With 32 Illustrations from Photographs. Crown 8vo., 5i. net. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 17 Mental, Moral, and Political Philosophy. LOGIC, RHETORIC, PSYCHOLOGY, ETHICS, &'C. Abbott. — The Elements of Logic. By T. K. Abbott, B.D. 121110., 3s. AristotiC. The Ethics: Greek Text, Illustrated with Essay and Notes. By Sir Alexan- der Grant, Bart. 2 vols. 8vo., 32s. An Introduction to Aristotle^s Ethics. Books L-IV. (BookX. c.vi.-ix. in an Appendix). With a continuous Analysis and Notes. By the Rev. E. Moore, D.D. Crown 8vo., 105. &d. Bacon (Francis). Complete Works. Edited by R. L. Ellis, James Spedding and D. D. Heath. 7 vols. 8vo., ^^3 135. M. Letters and Life, including all his occasional Works. Edited by James Spedding. 7 vols. 8vo., £^ 4s. The Ess a vs : with Annotations. By Richard Whately, D.D. 8vo., los. 6rf. The Essays: with Notes. By F. Storr and C. H. Gibson. Cr. 8vo., 3J. bd. The Essays: with Introduction, Notes, and Index. By E. A. Abbott, D.D. 2 Vols. Fcp. 8vo.,6s. The Text and Index only, without Introduction and Notes, in One Volume. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d. Bain (Alexander). Mental and Moral Science : a Compendium of Psychology and Ethics. Crown 8vo., los. 6d. Or separately. Part I. Psychology and History op Philosohhy. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6rf, Part 1 1 . Theor yofE thics and E thica l Systems. Crown 8vo., 45. 6d. Logic. Fart I. Dedc/civon. Cr. 8vo., 4s. Part II. Induction. Cr. 8vo., 6s. bd. The Senses and the Intellect. Svc, 15s. The Emotions and the Will 8vo., 155. Pr actio a l Ess a ys. C r. Svo. , 2i . Dissertations on Leading Philo- sophical Topics. 8vo., 75. 6rf, net. Baldwin, — A College Manual of Rhetoric. By Charles Sears Baldwin. A.m., Ph.D. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6^;. Brooks. — The Elements of Mind : being an Examination into the Nature of the First Division of the Elementary Sub- stances of Life. By H. Jamvn Brooks. 8vo., los. 6d. net. Brough. — The Study of Mental Science : Five Lectures on the Uses and Characteristics of Logic and Psychology. By J. Brough, LL.D. Crown 8vo, 2S. net. Crozier (John Beattie). CiviLisA TioN AND PROGRESS : being the Outlines of a New System of Political, Religious and Social Philosophy. Svo. ,145. History of Intellectual De^el- o/'ii/£A/^r;on theLinesofModernEvolution. Vol. I. 8vo., 14s. Vol.11. {In preparation.) Vol. III. 8vo., los. 6rf. Davidson. — The Logic of Defini- tion, Explained and Applied. By William L. Davidson, M.A. Crown 8vo., 6s. Fite. — Ax Introductory Study of En lies. By Warner Fite. Cr. 8vo., 6j. 6/£ Odyssey of Homer. Done into English Verse. By William Morris. Crown Svo., 55. net. Horace. — The Works of Horace, rendered into English Prose. With Life, Introduction and Notes. By William CouTTS, M.A. Crown Svo., 55. net. Lang. — Homer and the Epic. By Andrew Lang. Crown Svo., 95. net. Lucian. — Transla tions from Lucian. By Augusta M. Campbell Davidson, M.A. Edin. Crown Svo., 55. net. Ogilvie. — HoRAE Latinae : Studies in Synonyms and Syntax. By the late Robert Ogilvie, M. A., LL.D., H.M. Chief Inspector of Schools for Scotland. Edited by Alexander Souter, M.A. With a Memoir by Joseph Ogilvie, M.A., LL.D. Svo., 125. 6d. net. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 23 Classical Literature, Translations, ^Q,—conimued. Rich. — A Dictionary OF Roman AND Virgil — continued. Greek Antiquities. By A. Rich, B.A. With 2000 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., 6j. net. Sophocles. — Translated into English Verse. By Robert Whitelaw, M.A., Assistant Master in Rugby School. Cr. 8vo., 8j. td. Theophrastus. — The Characters OF Theofhrastus : a Translation, with Introduction. By Charles E. Bennett and William A. Hammond, Professors in Cornell University. Fcp. Svo., 2s. 6.-/. net. Tyrrell. — Dublin Translations into Greek and Latin Verse. Edited by R. Y. Tyrrell. Svo., 6s. Virgil. The Poems of Virgil. Translated into English Prose by John Conington. Crown 8vo., 6s. The yENEiD of Virgil. Translated into English Verse by John Conington. Crown 8vo., 6s. The /Eneids of Virgil. Done into English Verse. By William Morris. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. The ^Eneid of Virgil, freely trans- lated into English Blank Verse. By W. J. Thornhill. Crown 8vo., 6s. net. The yENEiD of Virgil. Translated into English Verse by James Rhoades. Books L-VL Crown 8vo., 5s. Books VII. -Xn. Crown 8vo., 5s. The Eclogues and Georgics 01 Virgil. Translated into English Prose by J. W. Mackail, Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. i6mo., 5s. Wilkins. — The Growth of the Homeric Poems. By G. Wilkins. 8vo.,65. Poetry and the Drama. Arnold. — The Ligh t of the Wore d : or. The Great Consummation. By Sir Edwin Arnold. With 14 Illustrations after Holman Hunt. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. Bell (Mrs. Hugh). Chamber Comedies : a Collection of Plays and Monologues for the Drawing " " " 5s. • Room. Crown Svo. net. Fairy Tale Plays, and How to Act Them. With 91 Diagrams and 52 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. net. Rumpelstiltzkin : a P'airy Play in Five Scenes (Characters, 7 Male ; i Fe- male). From ' Fairy Tale Plays and How to Act Them '. With Illustrations, Diagrams and Music. Cr. Svo., sewed, 6rf. Bird. — Ronald s Farewell, and other Verses. By George Bird, M.A., Vicar of Bradwell, Derbyshire. Fcp. Svo., 4s. 6/£ Autobiography of A Tkamp. By J. H. Crawford. With a Photogravure Frontispiece ' The Vagrants,' by Fred. Walker, and 8 other Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. Creed. — The Vicar of St. Luke's. By Sibyl Creed. Crown 8vo., 6s. Davenport. — By the Ramparts of Jezkeel: a Romance of Jehu, King of Israel. By Arnold Davenport. With Frontispiece by Lancelot Speed. Crown 8vo., 6s. Dougall. — Beggars All. By L. DouuALL. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. Doyle (Sir A. Conan). MiCAH Clarke: A Tale of Mon- mouth's Rebellion. With 10 Illustra- tions. Cr. 8vo., 35. bd. The Refugees: A Tale of the Huguenots. With 25 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 3s. bd. The Stark Munro Letters. Cr. 8vo., 3s. bd. The Captain of the I^olestar, and other Tales. Cr. 8vo., 3s. bd. 26 Messrs. Longmans & co.'s standard and general works. Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued. Dyson. — The Gold-Stealers : a Haggard (H. Rider) — continued. Story of Waddy. By Edward Dyson, Author of 'Rhymes from the Mines,' etc Crown 8vo., 6s. Farrar (F. W., late Dean of Can- terbury). Darkness and Dawn: or, Scenes in the Days of Nero. An Historic Tale. Cr. 8vo., gilt top, 6s. net. Gathering Clouds : a Tale of the Days of St. Chrysostom. Cr. 8vo., gilt top, 6s. net. Fowler (Edith H.). The Young Pretenders. A Story of Child Life. With 12 Illustrations by Sir Philip Burne-Jones, Bart. Crown Svo., 6s, The Professor's Children. With 24 Illustrations by Ethel Kate Burgess. Crown 8vo., 6s. Francis (M. E.). Fiander's Widow. Cr. 8vo., 6s. Yeoman Fleetwood. With Fron- tispiece. Crown 8vo., 3s. net. Pastorals of Dorset. With 8 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. The Manor Farm. With Frontis- piece by Claud C. du Pre Cooper. Crown 8vo., 6s. Froude. — The Two Chiefs of Dun- boy: an Irish Romance ofthe Last Century. By James A. Froude. Cr. 8vo., 3s. dd. Haggard (H. Rider). Allan Quatermain. With 31 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Allan's Wife. With 34 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Beatrice. With Frontispiece and Vignette. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Black Heart and White Heart, AND OTHER SiORiES. With 33 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Cleopatra. With 29 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. &d. Colonel Quaritch, V.C. With Frontispiece and Vignette. Cr. 8vo., 3s. (>d. Dawn. With 16 Illustrations. 8v.o., 3s. 6d. Cr. Dr. Therne. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d. Eric Brighteyes. With 51 Illus- trations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Heart of the World. With 15 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. td. Joan Haste. With 20 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Lysbeth. With 26 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. Maiwa's Revenge. Cr. 8vo., 15. ^d. Montezuma's Daughter. With 24 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. , 3s. td. Mr. Meeson's Will. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.. 3s. 6d. Nada the Lily. With 23 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6(/. Pearl-Maiden : a Tale of the Fall of Jerusalem. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. She. With 32 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6(f. Swallow : a Tale ofthe Great Trek. With 8 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. The People of the Mist. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. The Witch's Head. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 27 Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued. Haggard and Lang. — The World's Desire. By H. Rider Haggard and Andrew Lang. With 27 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Harte. — In the Carquinez Woods. By Bret Harte. Crown 8vo., 35. 6rf, Hope. — The Heart of Princess OsRA. By Anthony Hope. With 9 Illus- trations. Crown 8vo., 3s. td. Howard. — The Failure of Success. By Lady Mabel Howard. Crown Bvo., 6s. Hutchinson.- By Horace G. ^A Friend of Nelson. Hutchinson. Cr. Bvo., 6j. "^txovn^.— Sketches in Lavender : Blue and Green. By Jerome K. Jerome, Author of ' Three Men in a Boat,' etc. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. Joyce. — Old Celtic Romances. Twelve of the most beautiful of the Ancient Irish Romantic Tales. Translated from the Gaelic. By P. W. Joyce, LL.D. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. Lang (Andrew). A Monk of Fife ; a Story of the Days of Joan of Arc. With 13 Illustra- tions by Selwyn Image. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. The Disentanglers. With 7 Full-page Illustrations by H. J. Ford. Crown 8vo., 6s. Lyall (Edna). The Hinderers. Crown Bvo. , 25. 6^/. The a utobiographv of a Slander. Fcp. 8vo., IS. sewed. Presentation Edition. With 20 Illustra- tions by Lancelot Speed. Crown 8vo., 25. bd. net. DoREEN. The Story of a Singer. Crown 8vo., 6s. Wayfaring Men, Crown 8vo., 65. Hope the Hermit : a Romance of Porrowdale. Crown 8vo., 6s. Marchmont. — In the Name of a Woman: a Romance. By Arthur W. Marchmont. With 8 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. Mason and Lang. By A. E. W. Mason Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. —Parson Kel l y. and Andrew Lang. Max MUller. — Deutsche Liebe [German Love) : Fragments from the Papers of an Alien. Collected by F. Max MiJLLER. Translated from the German by G. A. M. Crown 8vo., gilt top, 5s. Melville (G. J. Whyte). The Gladiators. The Interpreter. Good for Nothing. The Queen's Maries. Crown 8vo., is. 6d. each Holmby House. Kate Coventry. Digby Grand. General Bounce. Merriman. — Flotsam: A Story of the Indian Mutiny. By Henry Seton Merriman. With Frontispiece and Vig- nette by H. G. Massey. Cr. 8vo., 3s. 6d. Morris (William). The Sundering Flood. Cr. 8vo., 75. 6rf. The Water of the Wondrous Isles. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6rf. The Well a t the World's End. 2 vols. 8vo., 28s. The Wood Beyond the World. Crown 8vo., 6s. net. The Story of the Glittering Plain, which has been also called The Land of the Living Men, or The Acre oi the Undying. Square post 8vo., 5s. net. The Roots of the Mountains^ wherem is told somewhat of the Lives of the Men of Burgdale, their Friends, their Neighbours, their Foemen, and their Fellows-in-Arms. Written in Prose and Verse, Square crown 8vo,, 8s, 28 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued. Morris (William) — continued. A Tale of the House of the WoLFiNGS, and all the Kindreds of the Mark. Written in Prose and Verse. Square crown 8vo., 65. A Dream of John Ball, and a King's Lesson. i6mo., 25. net. News from Nowhere; or, An Epoch of Rest. Being some Chapters from an Utopian Romance. Post 8vo., IS. td. The Story of Grettir the Strong. Translated from the Icelandic by Eirikr Magnusson and William Morris. Cr. 8vo., 5s. net. Three Northern Love Stories, and Other Tales. Translated from the Icelandic by Eirikr Magnusson and William Morris. Crown 8vo., 6s. net. *,* For Mr. William Morris's other Works, see pp. 24, 37 and 40. Newman (Cardinal). Loss AND Gain : The Story of a Convert. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Callista : A Tale of the Third Century. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. Phillipps-Wolley. — Snap: a Legend of the Lone Mountain. By C. Phillipps- Wolley. With 13 Illustrations. Crown Svo. , 3s. 6d. Portman. — Station Studies : being the Jottings of an African Official. By Lionel Portman. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. Sewell (Elizabeth M.). A Glimpse of the World, Laneton Parsonage. Margaret Percival. Katharine Ashton. The Earl's Daughter. The Experience of Life. Amy Herbert. Cleve Hall. Gertrude. Home Life. After Life. Ursula. Ivors. Sheehan. — Lune Delmege. B5' the Rev. P. A. Sheehan, P.P., Author of ' My New Curate '. Crown 8vo., 6s. Somerville (Martin). (E. CE.) and Ross Some Experiences of an Irish R.M. With 31 Illustrations by E. CE. Somerville. Crown 8vo., 6s. All on the Irish Shore: Irish Sketches. With 10 Illustrations by E. CE. Somerville. Crown 8vo., 6s. The Real Charlotte. 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Crown The Silver Fox. Cr. 8vo., 3*-. 6d. An Irish Cousin. Crown 8vo., 6s. Cr. 8vo., cloth plain, is. 6rf. each. Cloth extra, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. each. Stebbing. — Rachel IVulfstan, and other Stories. By W. Stebbing, author of ' Probable Tales '. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6rf. Stevenson (Robert Louis). The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Fcp. 8vo., is. sewed. IS. 6rf. cloth. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde; with other Fables. Crown 8vo., bound in buckram, with gilt top, 5s. net. ' Silver Library ' Edition. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. More New Arabian Nights — The Dynamiter. By Robert Louis Steven- son and Fanny van de Grift Steven- son. Crown 8vo., ^s. td. The Wrong Box. By Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 29 Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued. Suttner. — Lay Down Your Arms Walford (L. B.) — continued (Die Waffen Nieder) : The Autobiography of Martha von Tilling. By Bertha von Suttner. Translated by T. Holmes. Cr. 8vo., IS. 6d. Trollope (Anthony). T/fE Warden. Cr. 8vo., 15. 6d. Barchester Towers. Cr.8vo.,i5.6rf. Walford (L. B.). Stay-at-Homes. Crown 8vo., 65. Charlotte. Crown 8vo., 65. One of Ourselves. Cr. 8vo., 65. The Intruders. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6rf. Leddy Marget. Crown 8vo. , is. 6d. IvA KiLDARE : a Matrimonial Pro- blem. Crown 8vo., 2s. bd. Mr. Smith: a Part of his Life. Crown 8vo., 2s. bd. The Baby's Grandmother. Cr. 8vo., 2s. td. The Mischief of Monica. 8vo., 2s. 6rf. Cr. Cousins. Crown 8vo., 25. 6i. Troublesome Daughters. 8vo., 2.S. 6d. Cr. The One Good Guest. Cr. 8vo. 2S. td. ^Ploughed,' and other Stories. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6rf. The Ma tchmaker. Cr. 8vo., 25. M. Ward.— 6>^^ Poor Scruple. By Mrs. Wilfrid Ward. Crown 8vo., 65. Weyman (Stanley). The House of the Wolf. With Frontispiece and Vignette. Crown 8vo., 35. bd. A Gentleman of France. With Frontispiece and Vignette. Cr. 8vo., 6s. The Red Cockade. With Frontis- piece and Vignette. Crown 8vo., 6s. Shrewsbury. With 24 Illustra- tions by CiAUDE A. Shepperson. Cr. 8vo., 6s. Sophia. With Frontispiece. Crown 8vo., 6s, Pauline. Crown 8vo., 25. bd. Dick Nether by. Cr. 8vo., 2s. 6rf. The History of a Week. Cr. 8vo. 2s. bd. A Stiff-necked Generation. Cr. 8vo. 2s. 6rf. Nan, and other Stories. Cr. 8vo., 2S. 6rf. Yeats (S. Levett). The Chevalier DAuriac. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. The Traitor's Way. Cr. 8vo., 6.^. Yoxall.— The Rom many Stone, liy J. H. Yoxall, M.P. Crown 8vo., 6s. 30 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. Popular Science (Natural History, &e.). Furneaux (W.). The Outdoor World; or The Young Collector's Handbook. With i8 Plates (i6 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 6s. net. Butterflies and Moths (British). With 12 coloured Plates and 241 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 6s. net. Life in Ponds and Streams. With 8 coloured Plates and 331 Illustra- tions in the Text. Crown Bvo., gilt edges, 6s. net. Hartwig (George). The Sea and its Living Wonders. With 12 Plates and 303 Woodcuts. 8vo., gilt top, 7s. net. The Tropical World. With 8 Plates and 172 Woodcuts. 8vo., gilt top, js. net. The Polar World. With 3 Maps, 8 Plates and 85 Woodcuts. 8vo., gilt top, 7s. net. The Subterranean World. With 3 Maps and 80 Woodcuts. 8vo., gilt top, 7s. net. Helmholtz. — Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects. By Hermann von Helmholtz. With 68 Woodcuts. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo., 3s. 6(/. each. Hoffmann. — Alpine Flora : For Tourists and Amateur Botanists. With Text descriptive of the most widely dis- tributed and attractive Alpine Plants. By Julius Hoffmann. Translated by E. S. Barton (Mrs. A. Gepp). With 40 Plates containing 250 Coloured Figures from Water-Colour Sketches by Hermann Friese. 8vo., 7s. bd. net. Hudson (W. H.). Hampshire Days. With ii Plates and 36 Illustrations in the Text from Drawings by Bryan Hook, etc. Bvo., los. 6d. net. Birds and Man. 8vo., 6s. net. Large crown Nature in Doivnland. With 12 Plates and 14 Illustrations in the Text by A. D. McCoRMiCK. 8vo., ros. M. net. British Birds. With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by Frank E.-Beddard, F.R.S. With 16 Plates (8 of which are Coloured), and over 100 Illus- trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 6s. net. Millais. — The Natural History 01^ the British Surface Feeding-Ducks. By John Guille Millais, F.Z.S., etc. With 6 Photogravures and 66 Plates (41 in Colours) from Drawings by the Author, Archibald Thorburn, and from Photo- graphs. Royal 4to., £b 6s. Proctor (Richard A.). Light Science for Leisure Hours. Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Rough Wa ys made Smooth. Fami- liar Essays on Scientific Subjects. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Pleasant Ways in Science. 8vo., 3s. 6d. Crown Nature Studies. By R. A. Proc- tor, Grant Allen, A. Wilson, T. Cr. 8vo., 3s. td. Foster and E. Clodd. Leisure Readings. By R. A. Proc- tor, E. Clodd, A. Wilson, T. Foster and A. C. Ranvard. Cr. 8vo. , 3s. bd. *,* For Mr. Proctor'' s other books see pp. 16 and 35, and Messrs. Longmans &• Co.'s Cata- logue of Scientific Works, MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 31 Popular Science (Natural History, &c.) — continued. Stanley.—^ Familiar History of Wood (Rev. J. G.) — continued Birds. By E. Stanley, D.D., formerly Bishop of Norwich. With 160 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 3s. 6(f. Wood (Rev. J. G.). Homes without Hands: A Descrip- tion of the Habitations of Animals, classed according to their Principle of Construc- tion. With 140 Illustrations. 8vo., gilt top, 75. net. Insects at Home : A Popular Ac- count of British Insects, their Structure, Habits and Transformations. With 700 Illustrations. 8vo., gilt top, 75. net. Insects Abroad : A Popular Ac- count of F"oreign Insects, their Structure, Habits and Transformations. With 600 Illustrations. 8vo., 7s. net. Out of Original History. 3s. 6rf. Doors; a Selection of Articles on Practical Natural With II Illustrations. Cr. Svo., Petland Revisited. With Illustrations. Cr. Svo., 3^. 6(f. 33 Strange Dwellings: a Description of the Habitations of Animals, abridged from ' Homes without Hands'. With 60 Illustrations. Cr. Svo., 35. 6rf. Works of Reference. Gwilt. — An Encyclopedia of Ar- chitecture. By Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. With 1700 Engravings. Revised (1888), with Alterations and Considerable Addi- tions by Wyatt Papworth. 8vo., 215. net. Longmans' Gazetteer of the World. Edited by George G. Chis- HOLM, M.A., B.Sc. Imperial 8vo., iSs. net cloth ; 2X5. half-morocco. Maunder (Samuel). Biographical Treasury. With Supplement brought down to 1889. By Rev. James Wood. Fcp. Svo., 6s. The Treasury of Bible Know- ledge. By the Rev. J. Ayre, M.A. With 5 Maps, 15 Plates, and 300 Woodcuts. Fcp. Svo., 6s. Treasury of Knowledge and Lib- rary OF Reference. Fcp. 8vo., 6s. Maunder (Samuelj — continued. The Trea s ur y of Bo ta ny. E d i ted by J. LiNDLEY, F.R.S., and T. Moore, F.L.S. With 274 Woodcuts and 20 Steel Plates. 2 vols. Fcp. Svo., 12s. Roget. — Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. Classified and Ar- ranged so as to Facilitate the Expression of Ideas and assist in Literary Composition. By Peter Mark Roget, M.D., F.R.S. Recomposed throughout, enlarged and im- proved, partly from the Author's Notes, and with a full Index, by the Author's Son, John Lewis Roget. Crown Svo., gs. net. Willich. --/'(>/' i//--^ A' Tahlks for^ivinfi information for ascertaining the value of Lifehold, Leasehold, and Church Property, the Public Funds, etc. By Charles M. WiLLiCH. Edited by H. Bence Jones. Crown Svo., los. td. 32 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. Children's Books. Adelborg. — Clean Peter and the Children of Grubbylea. By Ottilia Adelborg. Translated from the Swedish by Mrs. Gkaham Wallas. With 23 Coloured Plates. Oblong 410., boards, 3s. bd. net. Alick's Adventures. — By G. R. With iS Illustrations by John Hassall. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6rf. Brown. — The Book of Saints and Friendly Beasts. By Abbie Farwell Brown. With 8 Illustrations by Fanny Y. Cory. Crown Svo., 4s. 6d. net. Buckland. — 7 wo LittleRunaways. Adapted from the French of Louis Des- NOYERS. By James Buckland. With no ! Illustrations by Cecil Aldin. Cr. Svo., 65. ' Crake (Rev. A. D.). Edwy the Fair ; or, The First Chronicle of ^scendune. Cr. Svo., silver top, 25. net. Alegar the Dane ; or, The Second Chronicle of ^Escendune. Cr. Svo., silver top, IS. net. The Rival Heirs and Last Chronicle of ^scendune Svo., silver top, 1%. net Cr. being the Third The House OP Walderne. A Tale of the Cloister and the Forest in the Days of the Barons' Wars. Crown Svo., silver top, IS. net. Brian Fitz-Count. A Story of Wallingford Castle and Dorchester Abbey. Cr. Svo., silver top, 25. net. Henty (G. A.). — ^Edited by. Yule Logs : A Story-Book for Boys. By Various Authors. With 61 Illus- trations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 3s. net. VuLE Tide Yarns: a Story-Book for Boys. By Various Authors. With 45 Illustrations. Cr. Svo., gilt edges, 3s. net. Lang (Andrew). — Edited by. The Blue Fairy Book. With 138 Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 65. ThE Red Fairy Book. With 100 Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Green Fairy Book. With 99 Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Grey Fairy Book. With 65 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 6s. The Yellow Fairy Book. With 104 Illustrations. Cr. Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Pink Fairy Book. With 67 Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Violet Fairy Book. With 8 Coloured Plates and 54 other Illustrations. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 6s. The Blue Poetry Book. With 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., gilt edges, 6s. The True Story Book. With 66 Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Red True Story Book. With 100 Illustrations. Cr. Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Animal Story Book. With 67 Illustrations. Cr. Svo., gilt edges, 6j. The Red Book of Animal Stories. With 65 Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Arabian Nights Entertain- ments. With 66 Illustrations. Cr. Svo., gilt edges, 6s. The Book of Romance. With 8 Coloured Plates and 44 other Illustrations. Crown Svo., gilt edges, 6s. Lyall. — The B urges Letters : a Record of Child Life in the Sixties. By Edna Lyall. With Coloured Frontispiece and S other Full-page Illustrations by Walter S. Stacey. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d. Churchill's (Winston S.) The Story of the Malakand Field Force, 1897. With 6 Maps and i'lans. 3V. 6d. Clodd's (E.) Story of Creation: a Plain Account of Kvolutioii. With 77 Illustrations. y.6d. Conybeare (Rev. W. J.) and Howson's (Very Rev. J. S.) Life and Epistles of St. Paul. With 46 Illustralions. y. Gd. Dougall's (L.) Beggars All : a Novel. 35. 6d. Doyle's (Sir A. Conan) MIcah Clarke. A lale of MoniiunUh'sKehellion. With 10 Illusts. y.bd. 34 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. The Silver Library — continued. Doyle's (Sir A. Conan) The Captain of the Polestar, and other Tales. 3J. bd. Doyie's (Sir A. Conan) The Refugees : A Tale of the Huguenots. With 25 Illustrations. 35 6d. Dressed Game and Poultry J5 la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., is. ()d. Dressed Vegetables a la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., IS td. Drinks ^ la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., \s.6d. 6d Fcp. 8vo., Fcp. 8vo. Part II., Fcp. EntrAes a IS. M. Floral Decorations. IS. 6rf. Gardening \ la Mode. Part I., Vegetables, is. Fruits, IS. bd. National Viands a la Mode. 8vo., IS. (yd. New-laid Eggs. Fcp. 8vo., 15. dd. Oysters a la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., IS. bd. Puddings and Pastry ^ la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., IS. td. Savouries a la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., \s.bd. Soups and Dressed Fish a la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6rf. Sweets and Supper Dishes "X la Mode. Fcp. 8vo., is. bd. Tempting Dishes for Small In- comes. Fcp. 8vo., IS. td. Wrinkles and Notions for E very Household. Crown 8vo. , is. M. Lear. — Maigre Cookery. By H. L. Sidney Lear. i6mo., 2s. Poole. — Cookery FOR the Diabetic. By W. H. and Mrs. Poole. With Preface by Dr. Pavy. Fcp. 8vo., 2S. 6d. Rotheram. — Household Cookery Recipes. By M. A. Rotheram, First Class Diplomee, National Training School of Cookery, London ; Instructress to the Bed- fordshire County Council. Crown 8vo., 2s. The Fine Arts and Music. Burne-Jones. — The Beginning of THE World : Twenty-five Pictures by Sir Edward Burne-Jones, Bart. Medium 4to., Boards, 7s. 6d. net. Burns and Colenso. — Living Ana- tomy. By Cecil L. Burns, R.B.A., and Robert J. Colenso, M.A., M.D. 40 Plates, iij by 8| ins., each Plate containing Two Figures — (n) A Natural Male or Female Figure ; [b) The same Figure Anatomatised. In a Portfolio, 7s. 6d. net. Hamlin. — A Text-Book of the History of Architecture. By A. D. F. Hamlin, A.M. With 229 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6rf. Haweis (Rev. H. R.). Music and Morals. With Portrait of the Author. Crown 8vo., 6s. net. My Musical Life. With Portrait of Richard Wagner and 3 Illustrations, Crown 8vo., 6s. net. MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 37 The Fine Arts and Music — continued. Huish, Head, and Longman. — Samplers and Tapestry Embroideries. By Marcus B. Huish, LL.B. ; also 'The Stitchery of the Same,' by Mrs. Head ; and ' Foreign Samplers,' by Mrs. C. J. Longman. With 30 Reproductions in Colour, and 40 Illustrations in Mono- chrome. 4to., £2 2s. net. Hullah. — The History of Modern Music. By John Hullah. 8vb., 8s. bd. Jameson (Mrs. Anna). Sacred and Legendary Art, con- taining Legends of the Angels and Arch- angels, the Evangelists, the Apostles, the Doctors of the Church, St. Mary Mag- dalene, the Patron Saints, the Martyrs, the Early Bishops, the Hermits, and the Warrior-Saints of Christendom, as repre- sented in the Fine Arts. With 19 Etchings and 187 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo., 20s. net. Legends of the Monastic Orders, as represented in the Fine Arts, com- prising the Benedictines and Augustines, and Orders derived from their Rules, the Mendicant Orders, the Jesuits, and the Order of the Visitation of St. Mary. With II Etchings and 88 Woodcuts. i vol. 8vo., los. net. Legends of the Madonna, or Blessed VirginMarv. Devotional with and without the Infant Jesus, Historical from the Annunciation to the Assumption, as represented in Sacred and Legendary Christian Art. With 27 Etchings and 165 Woodcuts. I vol. 8vo., 105. net. The History of Our Lord, as ex- emplified in Works of Art, with that of His Types, St. John the Baptist, and other persons of the Old and New Testa- ment. Commenced by the late Mrs. Jameson ; continued and completed by Ladv Eastlake. With 31 Etchings and 281 Woodcuts. 2 vols. Svo., 20s. net. Kristeller. — Andrea Mantegna. By Paul Kristeller. English Edition by S. Arthur Strong, M.A., Librarian to the House of Lords, and at Chatsworth. With 26 Photogravure Plates and 162 Illustrations in the Text. 4to., gilt top, £t, ioj. net. Macfarren. — Lectures on Har- mony. By Sir George A. Macfarren. 8vo., 1 2 J. Morris (William). Architecture, Industry and Wealth. Collected Papers. Crown 8vo., 6s. net. Morris (William) — continued. Hopes and Fears for Art. Five Lectures delivered in Birmingham, Lon- don, etc., in 1878-1881. Cr 8vo., 4s. 6d. An Address delivered at the Distribution of Prizes to Students OF THE Birmingham Municipal School of Art onzist February, 1894. 8vo., 2s. 6(7. net. (Printed in ' Golden ' Type.) Some Hints on Pattern-Design- ing : a Lecture delivered at the Working Men's College, London, on loth Decem- ber, 1881. 8vo., 25. 6d. net. (Printed in 'Golden' Type.) Arts and its Producers (1888) and the Arts and Crafts of To-day (i88g). 8vo., 25. 6d. net. (Printed in 'Golden' Type.) Arts and Crafts JSssays. By Members of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. With a Preface by William Morris. Crown 8vo., 25. 6d. net. *,* For Mr. William Morris's other Works, see pp. 24, 27, 28 and 40. Robertson. — Old English Songs and Dances. Decorated in Colour by W. Graham Robertson. Royal 4to., 425. net. Scott. — Portraitures of Julius C.ksar : a Monograph. By Frank Jesui' Scott. With 38 Plates and 49 Figures in the Text. Imperial 8vo., 21s. net. Vanderpoel. — Colour Problems : a Practical Manual for the Lay Student of Colour. By Emily Noyes Vanderpoel. With 1 17 Plates in Colour. Sq. 8vo., 215. net. Van Dyke. — A Text-Book on the History of Painting. By John C. Van Dyke. With iio Illustrations. Cr. Svo., 65. Welling^ton. — A Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of the Collec- tions of Pictures and Sculpture at Apsley House, London. By Evelyn, Duchess of Wellington. Illustrated by 52 Photo-Engravings, specially executed by Braun, Clement, & Co., of Paris. 2 vols., royal 4to., £(> 6s. net. Willard. — History of Modern Italian Art. By Ashton Rollins Willard. Part I. Sculpture. Part II. Painting. Part III. Architecture. With Photogra%ure Frontispiece and num crous full-page Illustrations. 8vo., 21J. net. Wotton. — The Elements of Archi- tecture. Collected by Henry Wotton, Kt., from the best Authors and Example Royal i6mo., boards, los. 6(/. net. 38 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. Miscellaneous and Critical Works. Auto da Fe and other Essays : some being Essays in Fiction. By the Author of ' Essays in Paradox ' and ' Ex- ploded Ideas'. Crown 8vo., 5s. BsLgehot—Z/TERAKv Stubies. By Walter Bagehot. With Portrait. 3 vols. Crown 8vo., 35. ()d. each. Baker. — Education and Life • Papers and Addresses. , By James H, Baker, M.A., LL.D. Crown 8vo., 45, 6rf. 'B2Lrvs\z-GiO\x\6..— Curious Myths of THE Middle Ages. By Rev. S. Baring- Gould. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d. Baynes. — Shakespeare Studies, and other Essays. By the late Thomas Spencer Baynes, LL.B., LL.D. With a Biographical Preface by Professor Lewis Campbell. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. Bonnell. — Charlotte BrontS, George Eliot, Jane Austen: Studies in their Works. By Henry H. Bonnell. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net. Booth. — The Discovery and De- cipherment OF THE Trilingual Cunei- form Inscriptions. By Arthur John Booth, M.A. With a Plan of Persepolis. 8vo. 14s. net. Charities Register, The Annual, AND Digest: being a Classified Register of Charities in or available in the Metropolis, 8vo., 5s. net. Christie. — Selected Ess a ys. By Richard Copley Christie, M.A., Oxon. Hon. LL.D., Vict. With 2 Portraits and 3 other Illustrations. 8vo., 12s. net. Dickinson. — King Arthur in Corn- wall. By W. Howship Dickinson, M.D. With 5 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6rf. Essays in Paradox. By the Author of ' Exploded Ideas ' and ' Times and Days '. Crown 8vo., 55, Evans. — -I'he Ancient Stone Im- plements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain. By Sir John Evans, K.C.B. With 537 Illustrations. 8vo., los. 6(/. net. Exploded Ideas,.4.vz) Other Essays. By the Author of ' Times and Days'. Cr. 8vo., 5s, Frost. — A Medley Book. By George Frost. Crown Svo., 35. 6d. net. Geikie. — The Vicar and his Friends. Reported by Cunningham Geikie, D.D., LL.D. Crown 8vo., 5s. net. Gilkes. — The New Revolution. By A. H. Gilkes, Master of Dulwich College.' Fcp, 8vo., is. net. Haggard (H. Rider). A Farmer's Year : being his Com- monplace Book for 1898. With 36 Illus- trations. Crown 8vo., ys. 6d. net. Rural England. With 23 Agri- cultural Maps and 56 Illustrations from Photographs. 2 vols., 8vo., 36s. net. Hoenig. — Inquiries concerning THE Tactics of the Future. By Fritz Hoenig. With i Sketch in the Text and 5 Maps. Translated by Captain H. M. Bower. 8vo., 15s. net. Hutchinson. — Dreams and their Meanings. By Horace G. Hutchinson. 8vo., gilt top, gs. 6(7. net. Jefferies (Richard). Field and Hedgerow: With Por- trait. Crown 8vo., 3s. bd. The Story of My Heart: my Autobiography. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6 \ 3 THE LIBRAItV OF « I c© ■^^ r> VINHOJIIva iO o \ o THE IIBRARV C ^M7 ^ > i / -J VlNUOjnVD iG OF CALIFORNIA o U 3? ii iO AHVUSII 3H1 » \ o OF CALIFORNIA /^f\\\ 3l^ / m 271 755 !? ^^ .y XilStiiAINn jH. \ THE UNiVtCSITY c c > at < a. a, / i. 2 < c 4 2 o UWl ilA UAttdARA >' \ '^ «iN«oiiiv:> io '^ / AltlidJAU^i • 2 Ji_ J •- vir o c m rW\ o OP Wt^ Oli I < ^ R