UNIVERSITY OK CALIFORNIA 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 BERKELEY, CAL. 
 K. W. HILGARD, DiRECTOR. BULLETIN No. 110. 
 
 THE STUDY 
 
 OF 
 
 HUMAN FOODS ÄND PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 BY NI. E. JAKKA, PH.B. 
 
 FEBRUARY, 1896. 
 
 •SACRAMENTO: 
 A, j. JOHNSTON, : : : : : : Superintendent state printing. 
 
 1896. 
 

 Lib. 
 
 \ 1^1 u.\ 
 
 ^3 
 
 r • ■ 
 
 i 
 
THE STUDY OF HUMAN FOODS AND 
 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 By M. B. Jaffa. 
 
 [This bulletin may be considered as the sequel and natural complement of Mr. Jaffa's 
 bulletin on "The Cattle Foods of California," No. 100, published in 1893. This latter 
 excited a great deal of interest and is still frequently called for by dairymen and others, 
 showing that it supplied needed Information. It would seem that a similar discussion 
 of hnman foods is at least as much called for at a time when not only hygienic questions 
 bat also that of economy are forcing themselves upon public notice. The present paper 
 was originally written aiid delivered as a lecture to the University Science A.ssociation, 
 exciting a good deal of discussion and interest at the time ; with so many subsequent 
 applications for the tables that the small edition prepared will soon be exhausted. While 
 not laying claim to originality save in the arrangement of tables convenient for reference 
 and use in the selection of dietaries, together with some data supplied by recent work 
 done at this Station in the analyses of fruits and nuts, it is thought that this compact 
 and easily intelligible presentation of the subject of human dietaries will commend 
 itself to public attention, and may help to rectif^ some of the incorrect practices and 
 views now so largely prevalent in respect to the principles upon which human nutrition 
 should be based under the varied conditions of modern life. — E. W. IT.] 
 
 The study of human foods has only recently begun to receive the 
 attention that the importance of the subject demands. Up to fifty years 
 ago little was known either of the composition of the human body or of the 
 materials used as food. Since that time thorough scientific investigation 
 has been inaugurated and the progress has been rapid. As is usually the 
 case in all matters of scientific research, Germany took the lead, and the 
 writings of Liebig, first published in 1842, may be considered as pioneer 
 work. Some idea of the amount of chemical work done in Europe 
 alone may be gained by noting that the first edition of Dietrich and 
 Konig's compilation of analyses of feeding stuffs, published in 1874, is 
 a thin volume of 100 pages, while the second edition, seventeen years 
 later, is in two volumes containing 1,400 pages. 
 
 We are indebted chiefly, for the results we have in this country, to 
 Professor Atwater, Director of the Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station and Special Agent of the United States Department of 
 Agriculture; and he deserves the greatest praise for his persistent and 
 patient efforts in inaugurating this kind of research in the United 
 States. 
 
 When his investigations were first undertaken, and for about tAvelve 
 years subsequently, most of the funds required were furnished by pri- 
 vate parties and sometimes by Professor Atwater himself. This is one 
 of the cases where the persistent efforts of private parties have proved 
 so conclusively to the Government the importance and necessity of the 
 work done, that it has feit in duty bound to financially help the cause. 
 Last year a considerable sum was appropriated to carry on the work 
 outlined by Professor Atwater, and he was appointed agent in charge, 
 It is to be sincerely hoped that our Station will soon be in a position to 
 help in the great movement which has secured such a firm footing in 
 some parts of the East. 
 
 298129 
 
But 110 one couhtry can work out these problems for the world; there- 
 are important differenccs in each country — in environment, in habits of 
 food consumption, and in the nature and composition of available fo<td- 
 stuffs — that need special investigation for eaeh. Thus far, in the United 
 States much more work has been done in the line of cattle foods than 
 in human foods. 
 
 Jnvestigations of cattle foods have been carried on for about thirtv 
 years, and the results are in practical use all over the country. There 
 is scarcely a dairyman worthy of the name who does not try to feed his 
 cattle in a rational, scientific, and economic manner. He is guided in 
 his efforts by the results of scientific investigations at the various Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Stations; in fact, all animal feeders are now loi)k- 
 ing to these stations for trustworthy guidance in this direction, and 
 thus much practical good has been accomplished in a few years. The 
 dairyman realizes that in order to get the greatest quantity of good 
 milk from his cows he must give them a sufficient amount of the 
 materials necessary for its production. He is not actuated by motives 
 of philanthropy, for he knows he can thus get the largest return for his 
 outlay, and that his animals will do enough better work to compensate 
 him for the trouble and expense. 
 
 Why can we not look upon the feeding of human beings in the same 
 practical way? How long will we continue to eat merely to satisfy our 
 hunger — eating anything that comes in our way, anything that pleases 
 our taste, without regard to special conditions or special needs? And 
 yet this is what the large majority of people do. How many men are 
 there in the ordinary walks of life who give even a passing thought to 
 the character of food they require — whether more nitrogenous or starchy, 
 or, indeed, even as to how much thCy need to keep them in a vigorous, 
 healthy condition. How many of us who are even in the midst of 
 chemical research, and who dwell in an intellectual atmosphere, give 
 any attention to the subject of eating, or make any attempt to regulate 
 our diet according to the scientific data at our command. The causes 
 of this neglect are twofold: First, our natural conservatism prompts us 
 to continue to eat what we always have eaten; and second, we are ignor- 
 ant both of the kinds and composition of the food needed and tlie 
 required relative quantity of each. 
 
 Sir Henry Thompson, a noted English pliysician, says: " I linve come 
 to the conclusion that more than one-half the disease whieh embitters 
 the middle and latter part of life, is due to avoidable errors in diet, 
 * * and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired 
 vigor, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man * * * in En- 
 gland and throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating 
 than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know 
 that evil to be." 
 
 But new as the food (^uestion is, we certainly have ahiady sufficient 
 reliable data witli whicli to make a beginning, and it is the object of 
 this paper to give a brief survey of the subject, and to point out to those 
 whose work does not l)ring them iiito toucli witli tliis line of tliouglif. a 
 few of the main })oiiits and simple rules of })ractical feeding. 
 
 This paper is, then, presented to the public with tlie liope that it may 
 help to popularize the long-neglected but important subject of scientific 
 feeding. All unnecessary details hav(> been omittcd in order to nuike 
 the sul)ject as clear as possible to tliose to whom it niay be nt^w; and 
 
— 5 — 
 
 the tables have been arranged so that they may be most easily used by 
 any who are unaccustomed to such work. 
 
 Before proceeding with the study of dietaries it may not be out of 
 place to give a brief resume of the first principles, the A B C's, as it 
 were, of the subject, i. e., the objects of feeding — the chemical com- 
 position of the various parts of the body; and also the classes of food- 
 stuffs, with the offices the different ones perform in the body. 
 
 OBJECTS OF FOOD. 
 
 We all know that the young body, animal or human, requires food to 
 supply the material necessary for its growth. But beyond this, and 
 continuing during and past the growing stage, there is a current 
 wearing-out and breaking-down of all the various tissues of the body. 
 This loss must be supplied in order to keep the animal in a normal, 
 healthy condition. Not only must the worn-out tissue be replaced, but 
 the material, used as fuel in producing the energy necessary for carrying 
 on all voluntary and involuntary functions, must also be supplied. A 
 man who is doing hard physical work is using up a great deal of fatty 
 tissue, as well as muscle; but a man who is doing nothing (making no 
 voluntary exertion), also experiences a loss of tissue through the con- 
 stant production of the heat necessary for the maintenance of the 
 normal body temperature, and also for the Performance of all the 
 involuntary functions of the. body. Hence we might summarize the 
 objects of feeding as follows: 
 
 1. To build up and maintain the body in its normal condition. 
 
 2. To serve as a fuel-supply to be consumed in the body, producing 
 heat to keep it warm, or the energy (muscular or otherwise) necessary 
 for the Performance of work. 
 
 3. To be stored for future use. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 
 
 In Order to see how these objects may best be carried out, we must 
 understand the composition of these tissues that need rebuilding, and 
 also the composition of the various foodstuffs at our command. Viewing 
 them side by side for the purpose of better comparison, we see, from a 
 general analysis, that each is composed of the same four main ingredi- 
 ents — water, mineral matters, nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous material. 
 
 Water. — Water constitutes about two thirds of the weight of the body, 
 and enters into the composition of all its tissues and fluids. As it does 
 not form nearly that large a proportion of our ordinary cooked foods, 
 we can readily understand the necessity of its use as a separate part of 
 our diet. 
 
 Mineral Matters. — The mineral matter comprises about 5 per cent of 
 the body, and has important functions to perform, such as entering into 
 the formation of the bones and teeth, regulating the density and taking 
 part in the functions of the blood and such other fluids of the body, as 
 the bile, Juices of the stomach, etc. In estimating food-values, the 
 mineral or inorganic ingredients are generally omitted, not on account 
 of any lack of importance of that portion of our food, but for the reason 
 
— 6 — 
 
 that nearly all foods, no matter of what description, contain a sufficient 
 amount of these sub^tances, which comprise, mainly, lime, potash, and 
 phosphoric acid, with varying quantities of sodium, iron, magnesia, sul- 
 phuric acid, hj'drochloric acid, silica, etc. 
 
 Nitrogenotis, or Proteids. — The nitrogenous matters of the body, of which 
 the major part are called proteids, the only ones that contain nitrogen, 
 are found mostly in the niuscle, gelatinous part of the bones and tendons, 
 brain, nerves, and internal organs; in short, all the working machinery 
 of the body is composed principally of this important material. Simi- 
 larly, in the foods, almost the entire nitrogenous part is called protein, 
 signifying, by its Greek derivation, to take tirst place, ^\'e receive the 
 protein from the white of egg, the myosin of lean meat, casein of milk, 
 gluten of wheat, gelatinous parts of bones, tendons, etc. 
 
 The necessity of this constituent in the daily diet depends not only 
 upon its important relation to such tissues as muscle, blood, nerves, 
 tendons, etc., but also upon the fact that as far as we know no albu- 
 minoid or protein matter is formed in the body, except by the trans- 
 formation of similar substances presented to it from external sources. It 
 cannot be obtained by the conversion of any other material. 
 
 The protein can be changed into fats, and thus may serve as fuel for 
 the body, hutfats cannot replace protein. 
 
 Non-nitrogenous, or Carbohydrates arid Fats. — The non-nitrogeneous 
 portions of the solid constituents of the body are principally fat — the 
 material which is consumed in the production of heat and energy. The 
 source of this substance in foodstuffs is comprised in all those portions 
 which are free from nitrogen. They are divided into two main classes — 
 the carbohydrates and fats — and are identical with those found in the 
 body, with the exception of starch and sugar, which aro not found as 
 such in any large amount in the healthy body. 
 
 The carbohydrates comprise starch, sugars, gums, and woody fiber; 
 the latter, in the statement of analyses of foods, is reported separately, 
 while the remainder of the aliove are, in order to conform to the general 
 usage, chissed together under tlie head of " nitrogen-free extract." The 
 gums play only a secondary part as regards the nutritive value of the 
 food. The carl)ohydratcs are mostly changed into fats and then used as 
 fuel; althougli it must be remembered that, for the purpose of heat, fat 
 is worth 2.25 times as much as carl)ohydrates, that is, 1 pound of fat is 
 equivalent, when used as fuel, to 2.25 pounds of starch, sugar, etc. ^\'llen 
 there is a deficiency of these Clements in tlic UhmI, tlic fat of tlic body is 
 drawn upon. 
 
 The fat, as might be supposed, varies morc tlian any otlu-r substance 
 of the body, its accumulation being reguhited l)y diet, niuscular 
 exercise, etc. Sh'c]), as well as inactivity, favors the storagc of fat, Mliich 
 in the average body constitutcs 20 \)vv ccnt of the total weight. 
 
 If the food-supply is cut off, the surplus fat storcd U}> in the Itody is 
 drawn upon to keep the macliinery going, and if this continues a oor- 
 r(S]»onding amount of ])rotein is eonvert(>d into fat and used as such. 
 Tlius we See tliat Ity having a ])roper })roi)orlion of fat in our food we 
 protect not only the fat of the liody, but indirectly, and iiiost iiuiioitant, 
 the protein of tlic muscle and blood. We receive our fat from such 
 foods as the butter of milk, fat of nu-aj, oil of seeds and fruits such as 
 
— 7 — 
 
 the olive, wax of plants, etc. The fats of herbaceous vegetables have 
 less value than those of seeds and fruits. 
 
 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. 
 
 Upon the basis of the preceding we can proceed intelligently with 
 the next step, which is to consider the digestibility of the different 
 foods. If the total amoimt of each food introduced into the body was 
 digestible, the whole subject of feeding would be very much simplified. 
 But, 011 the contrary, in all foods there is a certain portion of each 
 nutrient, whether it be protein, fat, or carbohydrate, which is notdigested 
 or assimilated. A large niimber of experiments have been made in 
 this direction, most of them in Germany. 
 
 In Order to ascertain how much of the food is not digested, the food 
 is weighed and analyzed before consumption, and the weight and com- 
 position of the excrement is also determined. 
 
 The difference between the two analyses is taken as the quantity 
 digested or assimilated. The results so obtained are termed digestioyi 
 co-eßcients, and are only approximate, but in the present state of such 
 researches, they are the best data available. Besides these direct experi- 
 ments on the body, others have been made in the laboratory with success, 
 in which the gastric juice derived from animals has been employed. This 
 cannot be so easily done in the case of man, as the normal gastric juice 
 from human subjects is not ordinarily obtainable. 
 
 An animal can be fed on one kind of food for a given time and suffer 
 no inconveniences in any way whatever, and, in all probability, would 
 relish it. Quite the contrary would be the case with man. The most 
 palatable food would, if fed alone, become exceedingly distasteful to 
 him and tend to disarrange bis digestive functions if fed for five or six 
 days in succession; and thus, at the time when data on the digestibility 
 and amount necessary of the food should be obtained, the System of the 
 man might be in such a condition that the data would be unreliable. 
 Again, for each food-material the digestion coefficient may vary con- 
 siderably with different persons; still the more nitrogenous or easily solu- 
 ble is the food, the higher, as a rule, is the digestion coefficient. Nearly all 
 of the protein of ordinary meat, fish, and milk is readily digested; that 
 of potatoes, whole wheat, and rye flour, one fourth or even one third 
 may not be absorbed by the body. About 95 per cent of the fats from 
 butter, milk, oils, and such foods is digestible. The vegetable fats vary 
 from about 50 to 75 per cent; that is, the digestion coefficient would be 
 from 50 to 75. Sugar is supposed to be completely assimilated, and 
 starch nearly so if not used in excess; these two comprise the main 
 parts of the carbohydrates. The fruits and vegetables contain the 
 bulk of the woody fiber. 
 
 The animal foods have in general the advantage of the vegetable, in 
 that they contain more protein, and that their protein is more digestible. 
 Professor Atwater states that the quantity of food digested appears to l)e 
 less affected by flavors, flavoring materials, and food adjuncts, and to 
 differ less with different persons than is commonly supposed. 
 
 Nutritive Ratio. — The different foods vary very much in their com- 
 position; some, such as peas and beans and the meats, contain large 
 amounts of protein or muscle-forming ingredients, and very little of the 
 
— 8 — 
 
 non-nitrogcnous materials; others, as the potato, rice, and some friiits, 
 have chiefly starchy matter associated with small quantities of albu- 
 minoids; and again, as in the case of the vegetahles in general, we have 
 small amounts of both carbohydrates and nitrogenous materials. 
 
 The Proportion between the two important elements of our food is 
 termed the nutritive ratio; or, in other words, it is the ratio of the 
 digestible protein to the sum of the digestible portions of the remaining 
 ingredients of the food. In estimating this remainder, the figiire denot- 
 ing the amount of fat is multiplied by 2.25, because it has been ascer- 
 tained by experiment, as before stated, that about 2.25 times as much 
 heat is developed by the combustion of a pound of fat as is by the same 
 quantity of carbohydrates. This product is added to the weight of the 
 carbohydrates and the sum divided by the figure for the protein, the 
 quotient being the nutritive ratio. 
 
 To illustrate, let us take wheat flour, the analysis of which is as fol- 
 lows: Water, 12.50 per Cent; protein, 8.00 per Cent; fat, 1.10 per cent: and 
 carbohydrates, 77.90 per cent. The fat percentage, 1.10, multiplied ])y 
 2.25, amounts to 2.48; this added to the figure for the carbohydrates, 
 77.90, makes 80.38, which divided by 8, the per cent of protein, gives 
 10.05. Hence, the nutritive ratio is 1:10; in other words, there is in 
 wheat flour one part of protein or nitrogenous matter to 10 parts of non- 
 nitrogenous or starchy material. The ratio is " wide," and termed a car- 
 bonaceous one when the amount of protein to the remaining ingredients 
 is small, as seen above. A "narrow" or nitrogenous ratio is one where 
 the reverse is the case; that is, the amount of protein is large compared 
 to that of the carbohydrates: as 1 of protein to about 4 or 5 of sugar or 
 starchy matters. 
 
 DIETARIES. 
 
 When speaking of cattle foods, the amount which is daily necessary 
 to keep an animal in a healthy, satisfied condition is a ration. In dis- 
 cussing human foods, the quantity required for daily consumption is 
 termed a dietary, although both terms are in use. A well-balanced diet 
 is one in wliieh the protein, or flesh-formers, and carbohydrates, or fat- 
 producers, exist in ihv proper proportion. Usually we use foods or diets 
 unbalanced, in that they contaiu too much (■arbt)hydrates. In other 
 words, we eat too much starch and fatty foods and an insufficient 
 amount of nitrogenous or flesh-forming ingredients. 
 
 The dietary Standards at our command have been worked out liy \'oit 
 in Cierniany, Playfair in England, Atwater in the Uniteil States, and 
 others. The daily average for the (lifiVi-cnt ingredients is altout one 
 quarter pound of protein, a third of a jtomul of fat, and a little over a 
 pound of carbohydrates, making a nutritive ratio of 1:5.8, with a fuel 
 value of about ;'>,5()() cal(U'ies. 
 
 Fiiel ]'alue.- By having the analyses of tlie dilTerent foods at our dis- 
 posal, we would be able to calculate a considerable nuinl)er of dietaries; 
 l)Ut a somewhat simi)ler method is to use what is ternieil the fuel 
 value of foods. Tliis, as the namc im])1ies, is the lieating power of the 
 food. If we l»urn a ])ie('e of fat it will giMierate a certnin amount of 
 lieat, so will a lump of sugar or starcli, or any other food-niaterial. 
 If this heat wore applied to water, it wouhl warm it to a greater or less 
 extent, <h']»cii(ling U])on Ihc niiiounl ol" heat sd free by the coiuhustion 
 
of the material in question. The unif of measurement of this heat is 
 termed a calorie. A calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise one 
 kilogram of water 1*^ centigrade, or one pound of water 4° Fahr. The 
 Units of heat, or niimber of calories, contained in a given weight of the 
 different food ingredients, have been very accurately ascertained by means 
 of the calorimeter. 
 
 It would take up too miich space to describe in detail the calorimeters 
 which have been used in the analyses of foods. In general, the calor- 
 imeter consists of a vessel, bomb shaped according to the latest design, 
 about 10 cm. by 13 cm.; this bomb is immersed in a vessel containing 
 two liters of water, which vessel is surrounded by an empty cylinder, 
 enveloped in its turn by another empty vessel. As a protection to these, 
 there is still another cylinder containing water; the outside of this 
 cylinder is lined with a thick layer of feit. Hence, there is a layer of 
 feit, one of water, and two of air between the calorimetric apparatus 
 proper and the external air. The material to be burned is placed in a 
 platinum capsule in the "bomb," and ignited in presence of compressed 
 oxygen by means of an electric spark. A very finely graduated ther- 
 mometer is connected with the vessel containing the two liters of water, 
 and the heat imparted to the water and indicated by the thermometer, 
 measures the fuel value of the food-material burned. 
 
 It has been found that, taking the ordinary foods as they are at our 
 
 command — 
 
 One pound of protein yields 1,860 calories. 
 
 One pound of carbohydrates yields 1,860 calories. 
 
 One pound of fat yields 4,220 calories. 
 
 That is, the fuel value of fat is about 2.25 times that of either the 
 starchy or the nitrogenous substances, as was stated when discussing 
 the nutritive ratio. 
 
 Now, if a pound of fat is consumed by an animal it becomes a heat- 
 producer; in other words, a slow combustion takes place, and the result 
 is identical, as far as heat units are concerned, with that obtained by 
 the calorimeter. This has been proved by means of respiration calor- 
 imeters, devised by some German investigators in this work, notably 
 Drs. Rubner, Rosenthal, and Pettenkofer, of Munich, and they have 
 obtained the same figures for the heat units in the nutrients of the food 
 as those just given, viz.: 1,860 calories for protein and carbohydrates, 
 and 4,220 calories for fat. Several different forms of respiration calor- 
 imeters have been tried with varying success. The best forms are those 
 designed by Rubner and Rosenthal. 
 
 Rubner's respiration calorimeter consists of a metal box with double 
 walls. In the interior are arrangements for keeping an animal, as in 
 the ordinary respiration apparatus. Provision is made for conducting 
 a current of air through this Chamber and for measuring its amount 
 and determining its composition. 
 
 In Rubner's apparatus the air in the double walls is allowed to expand 
 and contract; and these changes, as shown by a manometer (pressure 
 gauge), are the measure of the heat radiated from the body. In this 
 case it is the increase or decrease of volume under constant pressure. 
 In Rosenthal's apparatus, it is the Variation of pressure from a constant 
 volume. 
 
— 10 — 
 
 Dietary Standards. — Rubner, and others, also found that the fats and 
 carbohydrates could replace each other in any dietary in the proportions 
 of 1 of fat to 2.25 of the starchy material, without altering the food 
 value of the diet or ration. This being the case, we readily see why, if 
 we know the protein or nitrogenous Contents of the dietary and the fuel 
 value in calories, we greatly simplify the calculation, and at the same 
 time the detailed composition of the dietary. 
 
 We must, however, know the amount of protein or albuminoids that 
 is required, as the fuel value of a dietary affords no indication of the 
 Contents of this valuable and necessary element of our food. But, know- 
 ing this and the fuel value, we can choose from a number of foods 
 dietaries which will be at the same time both nutritious and to our 
 taste. In Table I are given some of the dietary Standards worked out 
 by Voit, Playfair, and Atwater. It must not be supposed that they are 
 absolute, quite the contrary, but they are the results of researches up to 
 the present time, and, as stated by Professor Atwater, more investiga- 
 tions in this all-important question are urgently called for. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 Dietary Standards. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Carbohydrates. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Fuel 
 Value 
 (Calo- 
 ries). 
 
 Nutri- 
 tive 
 Ratio. 
 
 1. Children, 1-2 years (average) 
 
 2. Children, 2-6 years (average) 
 
 3. Children, 6-15 years (average) ... 
 
 4. Adult in füll health — Playfair... 
 
 5. Active lahorers — Play fair 
 
 6. Man at moderate work — Voit 
 
 7. !Man at hard work^Voit 
 
 8. Man with little physical exercise 
 
 — Atwater 
 
 9. Man with light muscular work— 
 
 Atwater 
 
 10. Man with moderate work — At- 
 
 water 
 
 11. Man with active work — Atwater. 
 IMan with hard work — Atwater.. 
 
 Subsistence diet— Playfair. 
 
 Average of 7 dietaries of profes- 
 sional men, Eurojie 
 
 Average of 5 dietaries of profes- 
 sional men, United States. 
 
 12, 
 LS. 
 14, 
 
 15, 
 
 .06 
 .13 
 .16 
 .26 
 .34 
 .26 
 .32 
 
 .20 
 
 .22 
 
 .28 
 .33 
 .39 
 .13 
 
 .25 
 
 .27 
 
 1.00 
 2.00 
 2.61 
 4.16 
 5.44 
 4.16 
 5.12 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.52 
 
 4.48 
 5.28 
 6.24 
 2.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.32 
 
 .08 
 .09 
 .10 
 .11 
 .16 
 .12 
 .22 
 
 .20 
 
 .22 
 
 .28 
 .33 
 .55 
 .03 
 
 .22 
 
 .34 
 
 1.31 
 1.41 
 1.52 
 1.71 
 2.56 
 1.92 
 3.52 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.52 
 
 4.48, 
 
 5.28 
 
 8.80 
 
 .50 
 
 3.52 
 
 5.44 
 
 .16 
 
 .44 
 
 .71 
 
 L17 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.10 
 
 .99 
 
 .66 
 
 .77 
 
 .99 
 LIO 
 1.43 
 
 .75 
 
 .63 
 1.08 
 
 2.61 
 7.05 
 11.46 
 18.72 
 20.00 
 17.60 
 15.84 
 
 10.56 
 
 12.32 2,800 
 
 15.84 
 17.60 
 18.88 
 12.02 
 
 10.08 
 
 17.28 
 
 765 
 1,420 
 2,040 
 3,140 
 3,630 
 3,055 
 3,370 
 
 2,450 
 
 3,520 
 4,060 
 5,700 
 1.760 
 
 2,670 
 
 3,925 
 
 5.6 
 5.0 
 5.2 
 5.5 
 4.7 
 5.3 
 4.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.7 
 
 5.8 
 5,6 
 6.9 
 6.3 
 
 4.7 
 
 6.6 
 
 An inspection of the table shows, first, that, naturally, the more 
 physical work a man does the larger amounts of food he rei][uires; and 
 secondly, that the American workman consumes more food than eithor tlie 
 English or (lerman laborer. Tliis is best seen by comparing dietaries 
 Nos. 5, 7, and 12. Similarly, from the limited data a( liand it is noted 
 by examining Nos. 14 aiid 15 tliat the professional men of iMiropr do 
 not eat as mucli as their American brethren. 
 
 On comparing the fuel value of the several dietaries in tliis table we 
 find tliat a child of from 1 to 2 years of age requircs the miiiimum of 
 705 calories. W'licii it is from 2 to (5 years old, the food must have 
 nearly twice tlie fuel value, or 1,-120 calories; tli<Mic(> up to 15 years food 
 
— li- 
 ef 2,040 calories is demanded, while for an adiüt in füll health the fuel 
 value must be increased to 3,520 calories. 
 
 A man at hard work naturally requires the maximum amount of food, 
 whicli, on an average, must represent a fuel value of 5,700 calories. 
 
 Nos. 14 and 15 are not really dietary Standards, but, as stated, are the 
 average of the respective number of dietaries mentioned, and are in- 
 serted in the table for comparison only. In the case of children, Nos. 
 
 1, 2, and 3, it will be seen that the protein or nitrogenous part and the 
 carbohydrates of the food increase very rapidly with the age, while the 
 fat does not vary materially between the ages of 2 and 15. Very 
 few people realize "how much protein is needed by the very young child, 
 and great errors in diet are made even by those who give the most care- 
 ful thought to the proper training and feeding of the young. When 
 the diet of an Infant of' 10 to 12 months old is changed from one of 
 strictly milk, the child is generally given for the next four to ten 
 months a diet composed mostly of starch (mush, potato, bread, rice, 
 sago, etc.), with of course some milk ; whereas, it not only needs nitroge- 
 nous matter, but is better prepared to digest it. It may be said right 
 here, as no further reference will be made to the subject, that soup does 
 not furnish the needed protein, but that some egg and meat or the juice 
 of rare beef with plenty of milk, combined with the cereals used, would 
 more nearly approach the Standard. 
 
 The subsistence dietary, No. 13, amounts to very little more than No. 
 
 2, that of a child between 2 and 6 years old ; the protein or nitroge- 
 nous matter being identical in both cases. 
 
 The figures just given in the table represent the amounts of the 
 nutrients actually contained in the different dietaries, but do not give 
 any indication of the total bulk of the food eaten. 
 
 In cattle feeding there has to be a certain bulk of dry matter so Üiat 
 the animal may feel satisfied and the digestive processes go on in a 
 normal manner. With man also, for the same reasons, a certain bulk 
 is necessary. Bread, potatoes, vegetables, and similar foods take the 
 place of the coarse fodders in the cattle foods. 
 
 The question of rations for cattle is a much simpler one in many 
 respects than for man, for in the latter case there are many circum- 
 stances which militate against the getting of reliable data on the subject. 
 
 Dr. Rubner states that a diet of bread and water is more endurable 
 than one of fish, eggs, meat, or any other single article of diet. In an 
 experiment with a Bavarian, a diet of bread and water was fed for three 
 days. About 2.5 pouiids of bread were consumed per day. 
 
 In another experiment with a medical student in Munich, beefsteak, 
 exceedingly well cooked, was used as the diet, but the quantity eaten 
 was less than two pounds daily. The meat, although so well served, 
 became very distasteful even on the second day. 
 
 Division and Composition of Foods. — The human foods are divided 
 into two main classes — the animal and vegetable. The animal contains 
 chiefly, with reference to nutrients, albuminoids with more or less of 
 fat, and are generally designated as nitrogenous foods, while the greater 
 part of the nutriment in vegetable foods is carbohydrates or starchy 
 materials. The exceptions to this are the peas and beans, whose com- 
 position includes about 25 per cent of albuminoids, and hence they 
 should be classed as nitrogenous foods. 
 
— 12 
 
 It must not be forgotten that while in all foods there is a certain por- 
 tion which is not digestible, there is, in addition to this, in the food- 
 materials as they are found in the market, notably in the animal foods, 
 considerable refuse or waste material, which varies froni about 5 per 
 Cent in some of the meats to as high as 50 per cent, and consists of 
 bones, skin, etc. 
 
 In the vegetable foods this refuse does not amount to so much, and in 
 the cereal part of our diet, practically nothing. In potatoes and cab- 
 bage there is about 15 per cent of refuse; in squash, 50 per cent; in 
 turnips, 25 per cent; in apples and grapes, about 25 per cent. Table II 
 shows the proportion of waste material in some of our ordinary foods 
 as we buy them. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF DiFFEEENT FOOD-MaTEKIALS. 
 
 (Atwater) 
 
 Refuse. 
 
 (Bones, 
 
 SheU, 
 
 Skin, 
 
 etc.) 
 
 Edible Portion. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Nutrients. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Garbo- I Mineral 
 hydratesi Malters. 
 
 151 
 
 o c s 
 
 a: 3 .— ' 
 
 , r'a 
 
 Beef— Rib 
 
 Sirloin 
 
 Yeal — Shoulder 
 
 Mutton— Leg 
 
 Loin 
 
 Pork— Fresh, Shoulder 
 
 Ham 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Turkey .. 
 
 Eng (in Shell)... 
 
 Fish— Codfish 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Halibut 
 
 Mackerei 
 
 Flounder 
 
 Oj'sters (in shell) 
 
 Lobsters 
 
 21.0 
 19.5 
 17.9 
 18.1 
 15.8 
 14.6 
 11.4 
 38.2 
 32.4 
 13.7 
 29.9 
 35.3 
 17.7 
 44.8 
 66.8 
 82.3 
 62.1 
 
 38.0 
 48.3 
 56.7 
 50.6 
 41.5 
 43.0 
 36.8 
 44.6 
 44.7 
 63.1 
 58.5 
 40.6 
 61.9 
 40.4 
 27.2 
 15.4 
 31.0 
 
 40.8 
 32.2 
 25.4 
 31.3 
 42.7 
 42.4 
 51.8 
 17.2 
 22.9 
 23.2 
 11.6 
 24.1 
 20.4 
 15.0 
 6.0 
 2.3 
 6.9 
 
 12.2 
 15.0 
 16.6 
 15.2 
 12.6 
 13.6 
 14.8 
 15.1 
 16.1 
 12.1 
 10.6 
 14.3 
 15.1 
 10.0 
 5.2 
 LI 
 5.5 
 
 27.9 
 
 16.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 15.6 
 
 29.5 
 
 28.0 
 
 34.6 
 
 12 
 
 5.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 .2 
 
 8.8 
 
 4.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 .3 
 
 .2 
 
 '.7 
 
 .6 
 .1 
 
 .7 
 
 1,405 
 
 .8 
 
 970 
 
 .9 
 
 640 
 
 .7 
 
 935 
 
 .6 
 
 1,480 
 
 .8 
 
 1,435 
 
 2.4 
 
 1,735 
 
 .9 
 
 330 
 
 .9 
 
 550 
 
 .9 
 
 655 
 
 .8 
 
 205 
 
 1.0 
 
 6;« 
 
 .9 
 
 465 
 
 .7 
 
 365 
 
 .5 
 
 110 
 
 .4 
 
 40 
 
 .6 
 
 135 
 
 The abovc table shows groat variations in tlie refuse of the different 
 foods represented. In beef the waste is about 20 per cent, very little 
 morc than one lialf that of turkey, and not far from five eighths the 
 amount givcn for chicken. This is important in more ways than one, 
 because while the pricc of chicken is oftcn higher than that oi beef, there 
 is more nourishment in the beef, owing to its larger contents of fat, and 
 also, as just stated, because the waste or refuse in beef is only about one 
 half that of chicken. Thesame can ho said of turkey. Mutton eontains 
 less Avaste material than l)eef, and ])()rk sliows a lower pert'entage in this 
 respect than mutton. 
 
 Of the meats mentioned in the tal)le, the protiMU contents do not show 
 as wide differences as do the fats; the ränge for the ])r()tein beiug from 
 12 to 1(), while that of the fat varies all the way from 20.5 per cent in 
 mutton (loin) to 1.2 in chicken. Hcncc, we see that chicken would l)e 
 ex('ell('nt for jtersons wishing a nitrogenous aniinal-food associated with 
 the minimum fat. 
 
— 13 — 
 
 Among the fishes the least waste material is found in the halibiit, with 
 17.70 per cent, and the greatest in the flounder/which contains 66.8 per 
 Cent; yet the same price woukl probably have to be paid for each. The 
 average protein content in the fishes is somewhat lower than the cor- 
 responding average for the meats. The amount of fat found in fish is 
 small, salmon, with 8.8, having the maximum, and flounder, with .3 per 
 Cent, the minimum. The shell fish all have high percentages of waste 
 material. 
 
 Table II is very interesting and quite important in its way, both as 
 regards food value and food economy. It is not, however, in a convenient 
 form for the calculation of dietaries; a difficulty overcome by Tables III 
 and IV, which, respectively, show the amounts in ounces of nutrients 
 per pound, and parts of an ounce per ounce, of the different foods repre- 
 sented. In the tables the data given for the friiits and nuts have been 
 estimatecl from analyses made by Mr. George E. Colby of this Station, 
 that for California flour and bread from analyses of my own, while the 
 figures for the remaining foods were calculated from data published by 
 Professor Atwater. 
 
 Having these tables before us, the making up of dietaries is a very simple 
 matter. It should be said that in these tables the figures for Nos. 1 to 
 15, inclusive, include the waste; while for the remainder the edible por- 
 tion only is represented. 
 
— 14 — 
 
 TABLE III. 
 Showing Amoünts, in Oüncbs, of Nütriexts IX OxK PouND or DiFFEREST Foods. 
 
 Edible Portion. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Nutrients (Ounces). 
 
 Total. Protein. 
 
 2- o -< 
 
 Carbo- 1 Mineral ^Ss! 
 
 hydrates, Maliers., o5.= 
 
 1. Beef— Roast Rib. 6.08 
 
 2. Sirloin I 7.73 
 
 3. Mutton— Leg 8.10 
 
 4. Loin 6.64 
 
 5. Veal, Shoulder 9.07 
 
 6. Pork—P^esh, Shoulder 6.88 
 
 7. Ham 5.89 
 
 8. Chicken 7.14 
 
 9. Turkey i 7.15 
 
 10. Eggs (in Shell) 10.10 
 
 n. Fish— Codfish ; 9.28 
 
 12. Salmon 6.50 
 
 13. Halibut-- 9.90 
 
 14. MackereL. .| 0.46 
 
 15. Flounder 4.34 
 
 16. Oysters I 1.3.93 
 
 17. Grab 12.34 
 
 18. Sausage, Bologna.. 9.98 
 
 19. Cheese—P\ül Cream ' 4.84 
 
 20. Skim Milk 6.61 
 
 21. Milk 13.92 
 
 22. Butter ' 1.68 
 
 23. Wheat Flour (California). ..| 2.00 
 
 24. Graham Flour (California) .i 1.94 
 
 25. Oatnieal i 1.22 
 
 26. Cornineal j 2.40 
 
 27. Rice ' 1.98 
 
 28. Peas (dried) i 1.97 
 
 29. Beans (dried) i 2.02 
 
 30. Potatoes— "Irish" i 12.62 
 
 31. Sweet 11.38 
 
 32. Garrots 14.18 
 
 33. Onions 14.00 
 
 34. Green Peas 12.50 
 
 35. String Beans.. j 13.95 
 
 36. Green Gorn 13.01 
 
 37. Tomatoes 15.36 
 
 38. Cabbage ....! 14.48 
 
 39. Sugar .32 
 
 40. Bread (California) | 5.17 
 
 41. Apples (California) 13.31 
 
 42. Oranges (California).. 14.13 
 
 43. Prunes(all) (California) 12.83 
 
 44. Apricots (California) 13.61 
 
 45. Figs (California)... 12.66 
 
 46. Grapes (California) 12.82 
 
 47. Olives (California) 9.28 
 
 48. Walnut.s (Culil'ornia) .45 
 
 49. Aliiionds (California) i .85 
 
 50. Peanuts 1.20 
 
 1,405 
 
 970 
 
 935 
 
 1,480 
 
 640 
 
 1,4.35 
 
 1,735 
 
 330 
 
 550 
 
 655 
 
 205 
 
 635 
 
 465 
 
 365 
 
 110 
 
 230 
 
 415 
 
 1,015 
 
 2,070 
 
 1,165 
 
 325 
 
 3,615 
 
 1.627 
 
 1,650 
 
 1,850 
 
 1,645 
 
 1,630 
 
 1,565 
 
 1,615 
 
 375 
 
 530 
 
 200 
 
 225 
 
 405 
 
 235 
 
 345 
 
 80 
 
 155 
 
 1,820 
 
 1,280 
 
 315 
 
 219 
 
 371 
 
 280 
 
 390 
 
 372 
 
 1,404 
 
 3,230 
 
 3,060 
 
 2,619 
 
— 15 — 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Showing Amoünts, in Parts of an Ounce, of Nutribnts in One Oünce of 
 
 DiFFBRENT FOODS. 
 
 
 Edible Portion. 
 
 
 
 
 Nutrients (Ounces). 
 
 
 Fuel 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Value 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of One 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 Mineral 
 
 Ouiice 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 hydrates 
 
 Matters. 
 
 
 1 Beef— Roast Rib 
 
 .380 
 .480 
 .506 
 
 .408 
 .322 
 .313 
 
 .122 
 .150 
 .150 
 
 .279 
 .164 
 .156 
 
 
 .007 
 .008 
 .007 
 
 88 
 
 2 Sirloin 
 
 61 
 
 3. Mutton— Leg -. 
 
 58 
 
 4 Loin 
 
 .415 
 .567 
 
 .427 
 .254 
 
 .126 
 .166 
 
 .295 
 .079 
 
 
 
 .006 1 
 .009 
 
 93 
 
 5. Veal— Shoulder .- 1 
 
 16 
 
 6. Pork— Fresh, Shoulder , 
 
 .430 
 
 .424 
 
 .136 
 
 .280 
 
 
 .008 
 
 90 
 
 7. Harn 
 
 .368 
 
 .518 
 
 .148 
 
 .346 
 
 _ ._ 
 
 .024 
 
 108 
 
 8. Chicken 
 
 .446 
 
 .172 
 
 .151 
 
 .012 
 
 
 .009 
 
 21 
 
 9. Turkev 
 
 .447 
 
 .229 
 
 .161 
 
 .059 
 
 
 .009 
 
 34 
 
 10. Eggs (in Shell) — . 
 
 .738 
 
 .262 
 
 .149 
 
 .105 
 
 
 .008 
 
 45 
 
 11 Fish— Codfish 
 
 .585 
 .406 
 .614 
 .404 
 
 .116 
 .241 
 .204 
 .150 
 
 .106 
 .143 
 .151 
 .100 
 
 .002 
 .088 
 .044 
 .043 
 
 
 .048 
 .010 
 .009 
 .007 
 
 13 
 
 12 Salmon 
 
 40 
 
 13. Halibut 
 
 29 
 
 14. Mackerel 
 
 22 
 
 15. Flounder 
 
 .272 
 .871 
 .771 
 .624 
 
 .060 
 .129 
 .229 
 .376 
 
 .052 
 .060 
 .178 
 
 .188 
 
 .003 
 .012 
 .020 
 .158, 
 
 .om 
 
 "".Ö37" 
 
 .005 
 .020 
 .031 
 
 .030 
 
 7 
 
 16 Ovsters 
 
 14 
 
 17. Grab . 
 
 26 
 
 18. Sausage— Bologna.- 
 
 63 
 
 19. Milk 
 
 .870 
 
 .130 
 
 .036 
 
 t:o47 
 
 .007 
 
 20 
 
 20. Cheese— Füll Cream 
 
 .302 
 
 .698 
 
 .283 
 
 .355 
 
 ' .018 
 
 .042 
 
 129 
 
 21. Skim Milk 
 
 .413 
 
 .587 
 
 .384 
 
 .068 
 
 .089 
 
 .046 
 
 73 
 
 22. Butter 
 
 .105 
 .125 
 .121 
 .076 
 .150 
 
 .895 
 .875 
 .879 
 .924 
 .850 
 
 .010 
 .080 
 .085 
 .151 
 .092 
 
 .850 
 .011 
 .019 
 .071 
 .038 
 
 .005 
 .779 
 .758 
 .682 
 .706 
 
 .030 
 .005 
 .015 
 .020 
 .014 
 
 226 
 
 23 Wheat Flour . .... 
 
 102 
 
 24 r4raham Flour 
 
 103 
 
 25 Oatmeal -. 
 
 106 
 
 26. Cornmeal - 
 
 103 
 
 27. Rice 
 
 .124 
 
 .876 
 
 .074 
 
 .004 
 
 .794 
 
 .004 
 
 102 
 
 28. Peas (dried) 
 
 .123 
 
 .877 
 
 .267 
 
 .017 
 
 .564 
 
 .029 
 
 98 
 
 29. Beans (dried) 
 
 .126 
 
 .874 
 
 .231 
 
 .020 
 
 .592 
 
 .031 
 
 101 
 
 30. Potatoes-"Irish " 
 
 .789 
 
 .211 
 
 .021 
 
 .001 
 
 .179 
 
 .010 
 
 23 
 
 31. Sweet 
 
 .711 
 
 .886 
 
 .289 
 .114 
 
 .015 
 .011 
 
 .004 
 .004 
 
 .260 
 .089 
 
 .010 
 .010 
 
 33 
 
 32. Carrots 
 
 13 
 
 33. Onions 
 
 .875 
 
 .125 
 
 .014 
 
 .003 
 
 .102 
 
 .006 
 
 14 
 
 34. Green Peas 
 
 .781 
 
 .219 
 
 .040 
 
 .006 
 
 .016 
 
 .009 
 
 25 
 
 35. String Beans 
 
 .872 
 
 .128 
 
 .022 
 
 .004 
 
 .094 
 
 .008 
 
 15 
 
 36. Green Corn 
 
 .813 
 
 .187 
 
 .028 
 
 .011 
 
 ..i/.(Ä 
 
 .006 
 
 22 
 
 37. Tomatoes 
 
 .960 
 
 .040 
 
 .008 
 
 .004 
 
 .025 
 
 .003 
 
 5 
 
 38. Cabbage 
 
 .905 
 
 .095 
 
 .024 
 
 .004 
 
 .053 
 
 .014 
 
 10 
 
 39. Sugar 
 
 40. Bread 
 
 .020 
 
 .980 
 
 
 
 .978 
 
 .002 
 
 114 
 
 .323 
 .832 
 .880 
 .800 
 
 .677 
 
 .168 
 
 .120 
 
 ' .200 
 
 .064 
 .002 
 .008 
 
 .003 
 
 .017 
 .004 
 
 .587 
 .159 
 
 .009 
 .003 
 
 "".ÖÖ5" 
 
 80 
 
 41. Anüles . 
 
 20 
 
 42 Oransres 
 
 .112 
 
 .187 
 
 14 
 
 43. Prunes(all) 
 
 23 
 
 44. Apricots 
 
 45. Figs... 
 
 .850 
 
 .150 
 
 .010 
 
 .135 
 
 .005 
 
 18 
 
 .790 
 
 1 .210 
 
 .015 
 
 .1 
 
 89 
 
 .006 
 
 24 
 
 46. Grapes 
 
 .800 
 
 .200 
 
 .013 
 
 .1 
 
 82 
 
 .005 
 
 23 
 
 47. Olives 
 
 .580 
 
 .420 
 
 1 .011 
 
 .276 
 
 .116 
 
 .017 
 
 88 
 
 48 Walnuts .. 
 
 1 .025 
 .053 
 .080 
 
 .975 
 .947 
 .920 
 
 i .143 
 .176 
 .280 
 
 .659 
 .562 
 .400 
 
 .163 
 .191 
 .230 
 
 .010 
 .018 
 .020 
 
 202 
 
 49 Alnionds . . 
 
 191 
 
 50. Peanuts.. 
 
 164 
 
 
 
 To illustrate the method of forming a dietary, any of the Standards 
 mentioned in Table I could be used. An excellent one is No. 10 as 
 adopted. by Prof. Atwater, for a man at moderate work, deduced from 
 extensive comparisons of many dietaries. 
 
 The Standard is .28 pounds of protein, or flesh-forming ingredients, .28 
 
— IG 
 
 poiinds of fat, and .99 poiinds of carbohydrates or starchy material, 
 with a fuel value of 3,500 calories ; or expressed in oiinces, 4.48 oiinces of 
 protein, 4.48 ounces of fat, and 15.84 ounces of carbohydrates. 
 
 Suppose we have mutton, salmon, potatoes, butter, bread, and graham 
 flour to choose from. The first thing to do is to glance at the composi- 
 tion of these materials in the tables, and to make a rough estimate at 
 the amounts, in pounds or ounces, of each needed, bearing in mind the 
 usual proportions, approximately, of such things consumed in the ordi- 
 nary household. 
 
 A little practice will insure an estimate not very far from the correct 
 amount. The next step is to calculate the proportion of the different 
 ingredients in the quantities estimated and compare them with the 
 Standard adopted, and to make such corrections in the original estimate 
 as the comparison shows to be necessary. 
 
 To return to our proposed dietary, we will suppose that we can eat 8 
 ounces of mutton (loin). Turning to Table IV we find mutton (loin) 
 numbered 4, and we multiply by 8 the figures given for one ounce, and 
 write them down. After doing the same for the other articles, we have 
 the füllowing little table: 
 
 No. in 
 Table. 
 
 Am't Used. 
 Ounces. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Fuel 
 Value. 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 8 
 3 
 18 
 1.8 
 8 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Salmon 
 
 1.01 
 1.14 
 0.26 
 1.16 
 0.02 
 0.17 
 
 2.36 
 0.70 
 0.06 
 0.30 
 1.53 
 O.Ol 
 
 2.28 
 
 10.56 
 O.Ol 
 1.43 
 
 740 
 
 318 
 
 24 
 40 
 
 Graham Flour 
 
 Bread. .. 
 
 309 
 1,440 
 
 407 
 
 22 
 
 Butter 
 
 30 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 1S8 
 
 
 
 
 
 46.8 
 
 3.76 
 
 4.96 
 
 14.28 : 
 
 3,402 
 
 The above figures show us that the protein is lacking in the dietary, 
 also that the fuel value is slightly below the Standard. To remedy this 
 defect we add some one article specially rieh in protein; suppose we 
 take about lg ounces of skim-milk cheese (No. 21 in Table IV). Cal- 
 culating this out for the different nutrients, and adding to the above 
 we have — 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbohy- j Fuel 
 drates. Value. 
 
 No. 21 — IJ^ ounces skim-milk cheese 
 Original dietary 
 
 Completed dietary 
 
 0.72 
 3.76 
 
 0.13 
 
 4.96 
 
 0.17 
 14.28 
 
 135 
 3,402 
 
 4.48 
 
 5.09 
 
 14.45 
 
 3,537 
 
 Whicli is practically identical with our Standard as regards prutein and 
 fuel value. This is a good Illustration of the fact that fat and carbohy- 
 drates can replace each other in any dietary or ration in tlie proportion 
 of 1 of tlie fonner to 2.25 of the latter and not alter its fuel value. Our 
 Standard ealls for 4.48 ounces of fat; we have 5.09. TIr- dil'fi'renee, O.tll, 
 multiplied by 2.25 amounts to 1.37, whieh almost equals the differenoe 
 (1.89) between 15.84, the figure named for earlioliydratcs in our Stand- 
 ard, and 14. 15, the quantity given in our assuined dietary. 
 
 For a second dietary supjjose we take sirloin steak, butter, milk, pota- 
 toes, and bread. Proeeeding as before, we have — 
 
17 — 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 22 
 19 
 30 
 40 
 
 Am't Used. 
 Ounces. 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 28 
 16 
 16 
 
 76 
 
 Material. 
 
 Steak... 
 Butter . - 
 Milk-.-. 
 Potatoes 
 Bread .. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 2.10 
 .02 
 .99 
 .34 
 
 1.03 
 
 4.48 
 
 Fat. 
 
 2.33 
 1.70 
 1.12 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 .27 
 
 5.42 
 
 .02 
 1.28 
 2.86 
 9.39 
 
 13.55 
 
 Fuel 
 Vftlue. 
 
 854 
 452 
 570 
 375 
 1,2>;0 
 
 3,531 
 
 This happens to be a well-balanced dietary; that is, one in which the 
 nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous materials are in the proper proportions. 
 
 As another example, let us take oatmeal, bread, eggs, sweet potatoes, 
 butter, sugar, chicken, and rice: 
 
 Number 
 
 Amount 
 
 in 
 
 Used. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Guuees. 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 
 48 
 
 Material. 
 
 Total Nu- 
 trieuts. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 Value. 
 Calories. 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Bread 
 
 Eggs.. - 
 
 Sweet Potatoes 
 
 Butter 
 
 Sugar -- 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Rice 
 
 3.68 
 10.83 
 .93 
 2.31 
 2.69 
 2.94 
 1.30 
 1.75 
 
 26.43 
 
 .64 
 
 1.03 
 .48 
 .12 
 .03 
 
 1.21 
 .15 
 
 3.66 
 
 .32 
 
 .27 
 
 .41 
 
 .03 
 
 2.55 
 
 .09 
 .01 
 
 3.68 
 
 2.72 
 9.39 
 
 2.08 
 
 .01 
 
 2.93 
 
 1.59 
 
 18.72 
 
 460 
 1,280 
 164 
 265 
 678 
 342 
 165 
 204 
 
 3,558 
 
 This is a dietary with about the right caloric value, but is lacking in 
 the muscle-forming element, as seen by the low figure for protein. Yet 
 it is not by any means an uncommon one, and most people woiüd con- 
 sider themselves well fed on it. The lack of protein could be very 
 easily remedied by substituting beans for the rice, as this change would 
 increase the nitrogenous element, and, at the same time, decrease the 
 amount of starch. If beans are not relished, and rice is preferred with 
 chicken, the same result may be obtained by reducing the amount of 
 sweet potato to one half, and in the place of it substituting a concen- 
 trated soup of dried peas. Thus, in many ways could this incorrect 
 dietary (according to our Standard) be regulated, without making any 
 very radical change. 
 
 In Order to show that it is not necessary to have any great variety to 
 get the proper proportions, let us compare the two foUowing lists of 
 foods, given' by Atwater. Suppose one man eats in a single day, of 
 steak, 13 ounces; butter, 3 ounces; potatoes, 6 ounces; and bread, 22 
 ounces. This constitutes a well-balanced dietary. But the man who 
 takes as his dietary pork chops, 8 ounces; liver, 8 ounces; one egg; 
 butter, 3 ounces; milk, one cup; potatoes, 12 ounces; turnips, 4 ounces; 
 corn, 4 ounces; oatmeal, 1 ounce; rice, 1 ounce; wheat flour, 4 ounces; 
 graham flour, 2 ounces; and sugar, 3 ounces, would have a dietary no 
 better in any way, as they both contain the same amount of protein, 
 4.48 ounces, with 3,500 calories; but the latter might prove more pleasing 
 to the palate, which is worth considering. At the same time, it might 
 also prove more expensive, or harder on the stomach — points which 
 must not be lost sight of. One of our Berkeley students is living on a 
 
— 18 
 
 small loaf of bread, a pound of steak, and foiir oiinces of biittor per day. 
 This is a meager dietary, thoiigh seemingly like the one just called cor- 
 rect; but the first diet had potatoes in addition, and probably more 
 bread. The composition of his diet is as follows: 
 
 No. in 
 Table. 
 
 Am't Used. 
 Ounces. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Fuel 
 Value. 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 Steak 
 
 Bread 
 
 Butter . 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.03 
 
 .04 
 
 2.62 
 
 .27 
 3.40 
 
 
 970 
 
 40 
 22 
 
 9.39 
 .02 
 
 1,280 
 904 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 3.47 
 
 6.29 
 
 9.41 
 
 3,154 
 
 The subsistence dietary, No. 13 in Table I, would consist of about 18 
 ounces of bread and 6 of meat, as follows: 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbo- j Fuel 
 hydrates. Value. 
 
 18 ounces bread 
 
 1.16 
 
 .90 
 
 ..30 ; 
 
 .96 .. 
 
 10.56 
 
 1,440 
 360 
 
 6 ounces meat. ... .. _. 
 
 
 
 
 2.06 
 
 1.26 
 
 10.56 
 
 1,800 
 
 The army ration of the United States is a good illustration of the fact 
 that although several of the foods seeni to have the same composition 
 they cannot be used as Substitutes for each other. For instance, the meat 
 ration consists of 22 ounces salt beef, or 12 of salt pork or bacon, or 12 
 of corned beef (fresh.or canned), or 20 of fresh beef, or 14 of dried lish, or 
 18 of pickled fish. The caloric value of these meats vary greatly, that ^ 
 of 20 ounces fresh beef being 1,700 with 8.16 ounces of p^otein, while 12./ > 
 ounces corned beef has only 1,200 calories with about 5.5 ounces of p«)v 
 ^eirtr. The same may be said of the cereal part of the ration, thus prov- 
 ing that these materials connected by " or " are not always equivalents. 
 
 The foUowing is an example of a strictly vegetable diet: 
 
 l^ 
 
 No. in 
 Table. 
 
 Am't Used. 
 Ounces. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Fuel 
 Value. 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 16 
 
 4 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 l?eans _ 
 
 1.16 
 .34 
 .12 
 
 1.16 
 .30 
 .61 
 
 .10 
 .02 
 .05 
 .30 
 
 m 
 
 .28 
 
 2.96 
 2.86 
 .57 
 10.56 
 3.18 
 2 73 
 
 505 
 
 30 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 375 
 
 36 
 
 (Uirn 
 
 88 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 Bread 
 
 Rice - - 
 
 1,440 
 408 
 
 25 
 
 üatmeal 
 
 424 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 3.69 
 
 .77 
 
 22.86 
 
 3,240 
 
 Tliis dietary, wliile fully \\\) to the averago in aniount of food-material, 
 is deficient in protein and fuel value, thus showing that it would be a 
 somewhat diflicult matter to obtain the proper amouni of protein aiul 
 the right caloric value from a strictly vegetable diet. It luust not ))e lost 
 sight of that not only is the })rotein low, but that tlie amount i)resent 
 would not be equal in nutritive value to the same quantity derived from 
 animal foods, owing to the higlier digestion coeflicient of protein i)oss(>ssed 
 liy aiiimal foods. Thelackof iirolciii or iilbuiuinoids nnd f;i( in 1heal)ove 
 
— 19 — 
 
 ration could be remediecl by the use of nuts, which are rieh in both these 
 ingredients. 
 
 Caution, however, must be used when nuts constitute part of the die- 
 tary, because of the concentrated form in which the nutrients are found 
 in these food materials. 
 
 The riebest of the nuts represented in the table, with respeet to protein, 
 is the peanut (No. 49), which is analogous, botanieally, to the bean. 
 It does not eontain as much fat as either the wahiut or almond, but 
 has the great advantage of being much cheaper in priee. 
 
 It will be seen by examining the data given for fresh fruits that it 
 would require a very large bulk and amount of these artieles of food to 
 yield a suffieient proportion of nutrients. Dried fruits eontain about 
 three times the pereentage of nutrients that are found in fresh fruits, 
 and are therefore more available in the eonstruetion of dietaries. 
 
 Many more dietaries could be calculated from the tables, but the few 
 examples are suffieient to give an idea of the method to be employed by 
 any who intend to make use of them in properly regulating either their 
 own diet or that of others. 
 
 A careful study of the tables is reeommended to those who appreeiate 
 the importanee of the subjeet, both from the nutritive and the economic 
 Standpoint, Of course individual tastes and idiosyncrasies must be con- 
 sidered in this conneetion, as it will not do to override these for the sake 
 of eonforming to any preconeeived ideas. 
 
 It must never be forgotten that while the nearest approaeh to a nor- 
 mal dietary as expressed by the above data should be aimed at, it by no 
 means follows that a dietary eorrectly proportioned aecording to the 
 above data can be suecessfully used in every partieular case. 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CAIvIFORNIA IvIBRARY