UCSB LIBRARY THE APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN |Uhil (Dbstat. J. P. ARENDZEN, S.T.D., CENSOR DEPUTATU^. EDM. CAN. SURMONT, VICARIUS GENERALIS. WESTMONASTtKII, Die 2 Septembris, 1911. THE APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN A COMMENTARY ON THE GREEK VERSION BY JAMES J. L. RATTON, M.D., M.Cn., Q.U.I LIEUT. -COLONEL (RETIRED), I.M.S LATE FELLOW AND EXAMINER, MADRAS UNIVERSITY AUTHOR OF "THE APOCALYPSE, THE ANTICHRIST, AND THE END," "ESSAYS ON THE APOCALYPSE" NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO BENZIGER BROTHERS PUBLISHERS OF BENZIGER'S MAGAZINE 1912 DEDICATED, (BY KIND PERMISSION), TO HIS EMINENCE, FRANCIS, CARDINAL BOURNE, ARCHBISHOP OF WESTMINSTER PREFACE IN January 1906 the present writer published a book on "The Apocalypse, The Antichrist, and The End," and in 1908 a supplementary book of " Essays on the Apocalypse." These books were designed to show that the Revelation was given in the year 67, that the Letters to the Seven Churches were predictions concerning the Seven Ages of the Church of Christ, and that the Jewish and Roman themes of the book were historic forecasts, which have come true. These works were so well received and favourably reviewed, notwithstanding their many shortcomings, that the author ventures now to publish a " Commentary " on the Greek text of the Apocalypse. Further study especially of the original Greek of S. John has strengthened the conclusions reached in the works above mentioned. The usual custom has been followed of giving the Revelation its ancient title, "The Apocalypse." But that word seems to have had an obscuring influence on the study of the book. Its real title is " The Revelation of Jesus Christ." Many of those who have neglected "The Apocalypse," as being a difficult and mysterious book, would have felt compelled to read " The Revelation of Jesus Christ." A slight sketch of the Book and its period will enable the reader to appreciate its contents. We pass over the Preface and the Letters to the Seven Churches, and come to the first or Jewish theme. This is a dramatised representation of the end of the Jewish Dispensa- tion. At the time of writing, i.e., in the year 67, this climax was in sight. The armies of Nero were marching on Jerusalem. In the eyes of S. John and his brethren it was an epoch of transcending importance. The establishment of the Kingdom of Christ preached by our Lord and His Apostles was im- mediately looked for. It was the turning-point of religious history, when Christianity took over the inheritance of the Jews. Delivered from its earliest foe, Judaism, Christianity was next imperilled by the hostility of the Caesars evidenced by Cassar worship. Nero's persecution of the Church was in progress when S. John went to Patmos. Nero's extraordinary promi- nence in the history of the Church as the destroyer of the Ancient Temple and bloody persecutor of the nascent Church invested him with peculiar horror in the eyes of Hebrew Christians. He was looked upon as a kind of demoniacal manifestation. Christians and heathens alike thought that there viii PREFACE was something supernatural about him. Traces of this feeling will be noticed in the Roman theme of the Apocalypse, in which Nero appears as the great protagonist of paganism. The Roman theme is a dramatised version of the history of Caesar worship and the punishment it brought upon Rome and the Caesars, symbolically rendered. It ends with the fall of Rome about the beginning of the sixth century. Then follows a prediction of a thousand years of peace for the Church. After which we are told the Devil must be loosed for a little time. The predictions of Revelation have been marvellously ful- filled as history shows us. The Chosen People were given prophets to warn them of the future. It is natural to suppose that the people chosen to replace them would be given a like advantage. No one can study this Revelation without seeing that the mantle of prophecy has fallen on S. John. He is our Christian prophet, and this Book contains his predictions, meant for the guidance of the Chief Bishops of the Church, down to the end of time. The last two Popes have been moved to ordain a special searching of the Holy Scriptures. Leo XIII. wrote: "Let Catholics cultivate the science of criticism, as most useful for the right understanding of Holy Scripture. They have our strenuous approval. Nor do we disapprove if the Catholic interpreter, when expedient, avails himself of the work of non- Catholics. . . . There are a few things concerning which Holy Church has yet made no certain and definite statement. In regard to these it is lawful to each Catholic scholar to hold and to defend his own opinion " (Brief Vigilante, 3oth October, 1902). The Apocalypse is precisely one of those parts of Holy Scripture about which the Church has as yet made no certain and definite statement. As will be noticed later, our present Holy Father, Pope Pius X., writing to Mgr. Le Camus, Bishop of La Rochelle, encourages the pursuit of Scriptural exegesis in similar terms. (See p. 83.) This brings me to the question of the " Imprimatur " of the Diocese of Westminster, placed on this Book. Some reviewers of my previous works, which also bore this imprimatur, con- cluded that my books set forth " the Roman view " of the Apocalypse officially. But there is no Roman view. The " Imprimatur" means that the book has been read by a censor deputatus, who has given it a nihil obstat, that is a certificate that it is free from heresy. The imprimatur conveys no official approval of the book whatever. My very sincere thanks are due to the Rev. Francis J. Sheehan, Blackheath, for his kindness in helping me to correct the proofs of this book. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE - ...... vU BIBLIOGRAPHY ......... jd INTRODUCTION I. LIFE OF S. JOHN - i II. HISTORY OF THE BOOK - 22 III. HISTORIC NOTES - .... 47 IV. THE DATE OF REVELATION - 83 V. THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA - 96 VI. THE PLAN AND SYMBOLISM OF REVELATION - - in VII. THE TEXT ... . n 9 COMMENTARY PART I. PREFACE TO THE REVELATION - - - - 123 II. LETTERS TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES - - - - 139 III. THE JEWISH THEME - - - - - 187 IV. THE ROMAN THEME - - - - 267 V. THE MILLENNIUM - - - - 361 VI. THE GENERAL JUDGMENT - ... 373 VII. THE NEW JERUSALEM - . 377 EPILOGUE 392 INDEX - - - - - 401 BIBLIOGRAPHY ALLARD, P. : " Histoire des Persecutions des Deux Premieres Siecles." 1885. ALLARD, P. : " Les Catacombes de Rome." 1896. ALLARD, P. : " Le Christianisme et L'Empire." 1897. ALLARD, P. : "Ten Lectures on the Martyrs." 1907. BAILEY, CYRIL : "The Religion of Ancient Rome." 1907. BARRY, VERY REV. DR. : " The Tradition of Scripture." 1906. BATIFOL, BISHOP : " Was Apostolic Christianity a Church?' 1906. BOSSUET : " L' Apocalypse." 1689. BRANDSCHEID : " The New Testament," Greek. CHASE, BISHOP : Journal of Theological Studies, April, 1907. CHURCH AND BRODRIBB : " Select Letters of Pliny." CORNELIUS A LAPIDE : "Commentaries." 1625. CRUDEN'S Concordance. D ARRAS : " History of the Catholic Church." DILL : "Roman Society." 1899. DION CASSIUS : "Roman History." 229. " Encyclopaedia Britannica." " Encyclopaedia, The Catholic." " Encyclopaedia, The Harmsworth." EUSEBIUS : " Ecclesiastical History." 325. FOUARD, ABBE : " Les Origines de L'Eglise." 1905. GASQUET, ABBOT : " The Great Pestilence." 1893. GIBBON, ED. : "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 1788. GWYNN, DR. : " The Apocalypse of S. John," Syriac. 1897. HASTINGS : " Dictionary of the Bible." 1902. HOLZHAUSER, YEN. : " Interpretation de L' Apocalypse." 1649. HORT, DR. : " Judaistic Christianity." HORT, DR. : "The Apocalypse of St. John." 1908. JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS: "Wars of the Jews," "Antiquities," etc. (Whiston). KENYON : " Our Bible and Manuscript." 1898. xii BIBLIOGRAPHY LATTEY, REV. C, S.J. : "Ancient King Worship." 1909 LAYARD, SIR W. : " Nineveh and Babylon." 1853. LEWIN, THOS. : Fasti Sacri. 1865. LIGHTFOOT, BISHOP: " The Apostolic Fathers." 1890. LIGHTFOOT, BISHOP : " Biblical Essays on Supernatural Religion." MACKINLAY, COLONEL : " The Magi." 1908. MADAN, REV. J. : " St. Luke's Silence about St. Paul at Antioch." 1904. MANN, REV. H. K. : " Lives of the Popes of the Middle Ages." 1910. MARTINDALE, REV. A. C., S.J. : "The Religion of Early Rome." 1909. NEWMAN, CARDINAL : "The Protestant Idea of Antichrist." 1840. NEWMAN, CARDINAL : "Miscellanies." 1840. PASTOR, DR. L. : " History of the Popes Middle Ages." 1911. PASTORINI (BISHOP WALMSLEY) : " The Apocalypse/'' 1771. RAMSAY, SIR W. : " The Church and the Roman Empire." 1900. RAMSAY, SIR W. : " Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia." 1904. SALMON, DR. : " Historical Introduction to the Study of the N.T." SCOTT, REV. T. : " The Visions of the Apocalypse." 1893. STUART, MOSES, REV. : "Commentary on the Apocalypse." 1845. SUETONIUS: " The Twelve Caesars." 125 (?). SWETE, H. B., DR. : " The Apocalypse of S. John." 1906. TACITUS : " Annals," " History." 115 (?). TESTAMENTS, Old and New. "SEA DREAMS" THE Sabbath, pious variers from the church, To chapel ; where a heated pulpiteer, Not preaching simple Christ to simple men, Announced the coming doom, and fulminated Against the scarlet woman and her creed. For sideways up he swung his arms, and shriek'd " Thus, thus with violence," ev'n as if he held The Apocalyptic millstone, and himself Were that great Angel ; " Thus with violence Shall Babylon be cast into the sea." ALFRED TENNYSON. ABBREVIATIONS R. = " The Revelation," " The Apocalypse. Jhn. = Gospel of S. John. O.T. = Old Testament. N.T. = New Testament. H.E. = " Historia Ecclesiastica," Eusebius. B.M. = " Book of Martyrs," Eusebius. S. = Dr. H. B. Swete. Bd. = Dr. Brandscheid. Anls. = " Annals," Tacitus. Ants. = " Antiquities," Josephus. Ezech. = Ezechiel (Ezekiel A.V.). Zach. = Zachariah (Zechariah A.V.). Osee = Osee (Hosea A.V.). Vg. = Vulgate. D. and F. = " Decline and Fall," Gibbon. ERRATA Page 10, for "Niokorate " read " Neokorate. " ,, 14, for tyi6s read T26s. ,, 41, for " Mopsoestia " read " Mopsuestia." ,, 66, for " Clements" read " Clemens." ,, IT i, for "sign of the Cross " read " baptism." ,, 123, for dyytXov read dyytXov. ,, 134, after " septem " read " candelabrorum aureorem." ,, i^g.for " Simon " read "Simeon." ,, 145, for " the Church " read " each Church." .. J 55) f or " Thome " read " Theme." ,, 179, for " correspond well " read " correspond with. ,, 210, for dvicpiveis read 6v Kpiveis. ,, 240, for " Empires " read " Empire." ,, 278, for " his prerogative " read "His prerogative." 354) f or ftvffffivov read pfoffivov. 358, for " Parmonian " read " Pannonian." i 384, for " 1,72,8000" read " 1,728,000." THE APOCALYPSE OF S. JOHN INTRODUCTION I LIFE OF S. JOHN THE Apocalypse of S. John is in the canon of the Bible, recog- nised by the Church as the Word of God. It describes itself officially as "The Revelation of Jesus Christ." The precise nature of its revelation is a question that has been asked and has been variously answered for eighteen hundred years. The Book was written in a cypher, the Key of which was lost at the end of the first century. Experience teaches us that the best guide to exegesis lies in the study of the environment of the writer. A clear realisation of his position in relation to surrounding forces will best indicate his thoughts and designs, the aim and object of his writings. To apply this method to the study of the Apocalypse we begin with a review of the life of its author, S. John the Evan- gelist, his relation to the " Son of Man ;" his sufferings, travels, experiences, anxieties, outlook, aims, and all other contemporary matters which may throw light on the Revelation that bears his name. The name John, in Hebrew, signifies "Jehovah hath been gracious." We gather from his Gospel (i. 35-42) that S. John was originally a follower of the Baptist, and that he walked with Jesus as a disciple for a time, before his final call to the Apostleship (Jhn. ii. 12, iv. 8). When our Lord chose from the hardy fishermen of the Sea of Galilee, the companions of His ministry, He called S. John to be one of His great Apostles. John, the son of Zebedee and Salome, was mending nets in his father's ship with his brother James, when our Lord called them. " Forthwith they left their nets and father and followed 2 THE REVELATION him" (Matt. iv. 21-22). S. John was probably of the tribe of Zabulon, derived according to Genesis (xxx. 20), from the sixth son of Liah. The verse offers two etymologies of the name Zabulon, from the roots ZED, "give," and Z B L, " inhabit " (Encyc. Brit. Zebulun). Son of Zebedee seems to claim the root Z B D. The eastern boundary of the country of Zabulon was near the Lake of Galilee. The sons of Zabulon were a sea- faring people. " Zabulon shall dwell on the sea shore, and in the road of ships " (Gen. xlix. 13). Cetron was within its boundaries (Judg. i. 30). S. Matthew writes : " And leaving the city of Nazareth he came and dwelt in Capharnaum on the sea coast, in the borders of Zabulon and of Nepthalim " (iv. 13). The sea coast referred to is that of Galilee. S. John and his family seem to have been fairly well to do. Zebedee employed hired servants. Salome contributed to the support of our Lord. S. John was part owner of his ship (Luke v. 10). His "ship " was a large open boat with lateen sails, capable of holding more than a dozen men (Matt. viii. 23). The same kind of ship still sails the sea of Galilee. S. John was the chosen friend and companion of our Lord. His innocence, his sublime faith and strength of character, seem to have conduced to this privilege. He was probably also about the same age, or but little younger than our Lord, as parity of age is one of the recognised causes of companionship. Besides, resolute and seasoned men were wanted to help in the labours and privations of the ministry; men in the prime of life, fit to carry the cross to the ends of the earth, and able to preach the Gospel. The Apostles were chosen as preachers. " He made that twelve should be with him and that he might send them to preach " (Mark iii. 14). The Jews were very exacting as regards the age of preachers or teachers, wherefore it is at least probable that S. John was not much under thirty years of age, when he was called. S. John and his brother S. James, were early named Boanerges, " which is the sons of thunder " (Mark iii. 17). Some modern philologists equate the word with " filled with the rushing Spirit of the Holy Ghost," connecting it with the idea of prophecy as John, " the prophet." In the Book of Reve- lation, S. John is twice saluted as a prophet, by an angel (R. xix. 10, xxii. 9). Both S. James and S. John were given an official preference by our Lord. S. John seems to have been placed on a level next to S. Peter, above the rest of the Apostles. These three went up with Jesus on a high mountain, apart, and witnessed the Transfiguration (Matt. xvii. 1-2). Some reflection of this vision will be found in the description of the Son of Man, in the Revelation (R. i. 13-15). Again, apart, LIFE OF S. JOHN 3 they heard from our Lord the Temple prophecy. He told them of the destruction of the Temple and of the signs which would presage that event. And with an eye on S. John, perhaps, who was destined to see those days, He said, " Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains, and those who are in the midst therof, depart out ; and those who are in the countries, not enter into it" (Luke xxi. 21). S. John took these instructions to heart. Bossuet remarks that prophecies have always been fulfilled by natural means, so that the living actors in the events predicted, have been too preoccupied with their parts to notice their relation to prophecy. When Titus besieged Jerusalem the Jews failed to recognise that their hour had come. Even Simeon and the Nazarene Church needed a warning to flee to Pella. That warning they received from S. John, in the Book of Revelation, which was sent to them early in the year 67 A.D. S. Peter and S. John went forward to prepare the last supper. When our Lord said to the Apostles that one of them would betray Him, S. Peter beckoned to one of the disciples who was leaning on the bosom of Jesus, whom Jesus loved, and asked him to inquire who was the betrayer. " He therefore leaning on the breast of Jesus said to him. Lord, who is it ? Jesus answered. He it is to whom I shall reach bread dipped. And when He had dipped the bread, he gave it to Judas Iscariot " (Jhn. xiii. 24-27). This episode shows the extraordinary privilege of S. John. S. John walked with our Lord. He noted the % murderous hatred of the Jews, and frequently alludes to it in his Gospel (Jhn. v. 18, vii. i, viii. 37, 59, x. 31, xi. 53). On the night of the Agony, he was in the garden of Gethsemane. He followed our Lord to the court of Annas, and entered it, as he " was known to the high priest." " But Peter stood at the door without." He spoke to the portress and brought S. Peter in. (Jhn. xviii. 15, 16.) This action naturally suggests that S. John was a superior person. But in the Acts we are told that he and S. Peter were both looked upon as "ignorant men " (Acts iv. 13). S. John's writings show him to have been a man of culture, on a par with Josephus. Later, outside the hall of Pilate, he heard the Jews cry out, " Not this man but Barabbas " (Jhn. xviii. 40). '' Crucify him, Crucify him " (Jhn. xix. 6). He witnessed the suffer- ings on the Cross. Our Saviour seeing " his mother and the disciple standing, whom he loved, he saith to his mother, Woman behold thy son. After that he saith to the disciple Behold thy mother. And from that hour the disciple took her to his own " (Jhn. xix. 26-27). Our Saviour conferred upon 4 THE REVELATION S.John the supreme honour of being His substitute on earth in regard to the care of His Mother. After the death of our Saviour S. John saw the soldier open His side with a spear. This action he recalls in the Revelation (R. i. 7) and in his Gospel (xix. 34). All these things, related by S. John, in his Gospel, must have coloured his mental outlook as regards the Jews. The note of vengeance is prominent in the Apocalypse. We shall recur to that hereafter. SS. Peter and John were informed by Mary Magdalen that the tomb of our Lord was empty, and these two went to examine it. (Jhn. xx. 2, 4.) After the Resurrection, once more upon the shore of Galilee, the disciple whom Jesus loved followed Him, and S. Peter asked, " Lord what shall this man do ? Jesus saith to him, So I will have him to remain till I come." This saying, therefore, went abroad among the brethren that that disciple should not die. (Jhn. xxi. 20-23.) It is evident that the brethren did not think that S. John would live for centuries. They thought that the second Coming would not be long delayed, and that it would occur in S. John's lifetime. After the Resurrection the Apostles asked our Lord, " Lord wilt thou at this time restore again the Kingdom to Israel ?" (Acts i. 6). The early Church at Jerusalem, retained most of the distinc- tive customs of the Jews, such as circumcision, kosher meats, the Jewish Sabbath, the Jewish rites, and worship of the Temple. Our Lord, Himself, lived the exterior life of a Jew, even so far as the observance of Jewish religious customs was concerned. The early Church of Jerusalem followed His example. The Jews looked upon the Hebrew Christians in Jerusalem simply as a Jewish sect, which they called the sect of the Nazarenes. Tertullus, pleading before Felix, the Governor, described S. Paul as " the author of the sedition of the sect of the Nazarenes " (Acts xxiv. 5). S. John was a leader of the Nazarenes. He is said by Poly crates to have worn the TrerdXov or sacerdotal headpiece of a high priest. It was a plate of the finest gold having engraved upon it, "The Holy of the Lord " (Exod. xxxix. 29). This shows his position in the Nazarene Church, and the Jewish complexion of that Church. S. John celebrated the Christian Pasch on the i4th day of the moon, agreeing as to time with the Jewish " Passover " (S. Irenaeus I. iii. 12, Euseb. H. E. v. 24). The early Hebrew Christians looked upon themselves as true Jews and upon their brethren who rejected the Messias as false Jews. They were not called Christians at Jerusalem (Acts xxiv. 5). That name was assumed or acquired by the Gentile disciples at Antioch. So long as worship according to the Old Law continued in the LIFE OF S. JOHN 5 Temple, it claimed their allegiance. This state of affairs con- tinued until the year 67, when the exodus of the Church of Jerusalem to Pella took place. After that, in the year 70, the Temple was destroyed. Then a new era appeared, that of the Messianic Kingdom. Jesus preached the Gospel of the Kingdom (Matt. ix. 35). The Apostles were sent to preach it. It is generally recognised that God's Church is His Kingdom Church Militant and Church Triumphant. When the Temple and Judaism fell, Christianity stood alone, and the primacy of the Church passed away from Jerusalem. S. John's life was spared to chronicle these events and their relation to the Kingdom. This is a part of his Revelation. "When the days of Pentecost were accomplished, the Apostles were all together in one place. . . . And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and they began to speak with divers tongues, according as the Holy Ghost gave them to speak" (Acts ii. 1,4). Besides the Aramaic of his native Galilee, it is probable that S. John knew Greek, which was the lingua franca of the East. Greeks are not mentioned amongst those surprised at the Apos- tolic display of the gift of tongues. " But Parthians and Medes and Elamites and inhabitants of Mesopotamia, 5 ' are mentioned (Acts ii. 9). There is reason to believe, as we shall see presently, that S. John spent some years preaching " the Kingdom " in Mesopotamia, where he would have amongst his hearers, Parthians, Medes and Elamites. S. John seems to have prayed regularly in the Temple, as an orthodox Jew. " Now Peter and John went up into the Temple at the ninth hour of prayer. And a certain man who was lame from his mother's womb was carried " to the gate of the Temple. " He when he had seen Peter and John about to go into the Temple asked to receive an alms. But Peter with John fasten- ing his eyes upon him, said, Look upon us " (Acts iii. I, 4). Whereupon S. Peter lifted him up and made him sound of limb, miraculously, in the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth. " And as he held Peter and John all the people ran to them to the porch, which is called Solomon's, greatly wondering " (Acts iii. ii). S. John was associated with S. Peter in the per- formance of this great miracle, and shared with him in the honour of it. S. Peter took the opportunity of preaching Jesus Christ to the assembled crowds. In this also he appears to have been helped by S. John. " And as they were speaking to the people, the priests and the officer of the Temple and the Sadducees came upon them. . . . And they laid hands upon them and put them in hold till the next day, for it was now evening" (Acts iv. 1-3). They were both imprisoned for the night, and next day they were tried before " Annas the high 6 THE REVELATION priest and Caiphas and John and Alexander and as many as were of the kindred of the high priest " (Acts iv. 6). " Now seeing the constancy of Peter and of John, understanding that they were illiterate and ignorant men, they wondered." . . . " They charged them not to speak at all nor teach in the name of Jesus. But Peter and John answering said to them. If it be just in the sight of God to hear you rather than God, judge ye." ... " But they threatening sent them away, because of the people" (Acts iv. 13-21). As the result of other miraculous cures wrought by S. Peter, the Apostles were put in prison. " And they laid hands on the Apostles and put them in the common prison " (Acts v. 18). This was S. John's second imprisonment. " But an Angel of the Lord by night opening the doors of the prison and leading them out, said, Go, and standing speak in the Temple to the people, all the words of this life" (Acts v. 19). Accordingly we find S. John preaching in the Temple with the other Apostles. They were again arrested and brought before the Council, who were so cut to the heart by Peter answering, that they thought to put them to death. But Gamaliel, a member of the Council, dissuaded them from it. Instead of killing them, they scourged them and dismissed them with orders not to preach Jesus. S. John experienced the lash as well as imprisonment. Nevertheless he and the other Apostles every day ceased not in the Temple, to teach and preach Christ Jesus (Acts v. 26-42). Not long after this S. Stephen was martyred, and a great perse- cution was raised against the Church of Jerusalem, so that Christians were dispersed through Judea and Samaria, except the Apostles. " Now when the Apostles who were in Jerusalem had heard that Samaria had received the word of God, they sent unto them Peter and John " (Acts viii. 14), showing that these two great Apostles were looked upon as colleagues. Some time after this, when the Church had peace throughout all Judea and Galilee and Samaria, S. Peter went visiting all the Churches (Acts ix. 31, 32). It seems that on this occasion S. John stayed in Jerusalem. In the meanwhile S. Paul had been converted and had spent some years evangelising the Gentiles with great success. However, some disciples from Judea who believed in the necessity of complying with the Old Law, came amongst them and taught them, " That except you be circumcised after the manner of Moses, you cannot be saved " (Acts xv. i). This led to Paul and Barnabas, who objected to putting such an imposition on the Gentiles, going up to Jerusalem to get the matter settled by the Apostles. A council was held at which S. John was present. S. Paul says, "And when they had known the grace that was given to me, LIFE OF S. JOHN 7 James and Cephas and John, who seemed to be pillars, gave to me and Barnabas, the right hands of fellowship, that we should go unto the Gentiles and they unto the circumcision " (Gal. ii. 9). This was about the year 52 A.D. Clement, in the ninth book of his Institutions, says that Peter and James and John, after the Ascension of our Saviour, though they had been preferred by our Lord, did not contend for the honour, but chose "James the Just" as Bishop of Jerusalem (Euseb. H. E. ii. i). James, the brother of John, was beheaded for his faith by Herod Agrippa, c. 42 A.D. (Acts xii. i f.). S. Paul recognised James the Just, S. Peter and S. John as pillars of the Church of Jerusalem. And he agreed with them that he should go unto the Gentiles and they unto the Circumcision. S. Peter had but lately returned from Rome, where there was a very large colony of Jews. He seems to have been forced to leave by the edict of Claudius expelling Jews from Rome, c. 51 A.D. He returned to Rome later. The next period of S. John's life is not well documented. Here we may pause and review some conditions in the Nazarene Church, which appear to be reflected in the Revelation of S. John. When our Saviour died the Apostles, according to Apollonius (c. 180 A.D.), remained in Jerusalem for twelve years (Euseb. H. E. v. 18). The Blessed Virgin was there, and it may be supposed that all those who were connected by ties of kindred or marriage to the Holy Family and the Apostles, were also there and formed the nucleus of the Nazarene Church. Thousands of other converts were made by the Apostles. See Acts ii. 41 and iv. 4, where eight thousand altogether are men- tioned. " And the word of the Lord increased and the number of the disciples was multiplied in Jerusalem exceedingly, a great multitude also of the priests obeyed the faith " (Acts vi. 7). When S. John refers to "the elect," he has in his mind the Nazarene Church, in which he had many friends, and possibly relations. All these converts looked to him, especially, for guidance as a pillar of the Church, for he was longer associated with Jerusalem than S. Peter or any other Apostle. In its early days, the Nazarene Church shared its possessions and held all things in common. " Continuing daily with one accord in the Temple " (Acts ii. 44 f. and iv. 32 f.). S. John refers to this in the Revelation as the " first charity " of the Church (R. ii. 4). " In those days the numbers of the disciples increasing, there arose a murmuring of the Greeks against the Hebrews for that their widows were neglected in the daily ministration" (Actsvi. i). The words used are rwv '^\\r)via-rwv TT/JO? TOW? 'E/3patoi;r??/3. " Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." A fish painted over a tomb signified a baptised Christian. Apart from political and religious motives of secrecy, there were insuperable difficulties in the way of explaining the Apocalypse to the men of the first century. They could not understand events which were to happen centuries after their time. Even the " Servants of God " could not know anything LIFE OF S. JOHN 15 about the Kings of the Goths, the Huns, the Vandals, and others, who were to conquer and partition the Empire. Rome was a solid and imperishable fact in the first century. Christians were touched with the pride of Empire, and felt the honour of the " Civis Romanus sum." It is not probable that more than three copies of the Apocalypse existed before the year 96, viz., one at Jerusalem, one at Ephesus, and one at Rome. We know that the Church of Jerusalem was warned in time and fled to Pella. We know that the Book reached Rome before Hebrew Christians ceased to have influence in the Church there. S. Paul may have been there in the year 67. There is evidence that the Book was understood. S. Irenseus of Lyons tells us (c. 170 A.D.) that amongst the copies of the Apocalypse he found in the West, some had the number of the Beast inscribed as 616, instead of 666. The name of Nero Caesar, in Latin, written in Hebrew letters, makes in gematria, 616. Some Hebrew Latin scribe, acquainted with that fact, must have made a marginal note to that effect. To know that Nero was the Beast was to understand the political allusions of the Book, and that, at Rome, would necessitate its being kept in concealment. Soon after S. John's return from Patmos the prophecies of the O.T. regarding the Jews were fulfilled. In the year 70 the Temple was destroyed, Jerusalem sacked, and the people en- slaved. The cleavage between the Old Law and the New, was complete. The Kingdom of Christ stood alone. A great part of the prophecies of Revelation was accomplished, and what remained related chiefly to the political forecast regarding Rome. S. John locked these things up in his own mind. His Hebrew brethren died out, and left him alone in the midst of a Gentile Church. He had no inducement to expound the Apocalypse to Gentile Christians. We gather from a book by S. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150, 215 A.D.), "Who is the rich man that shall be saved," that when S. John returned to Ephesus from Patmos he led a strenuous missionary life. Clement says : On the death of the tyrant S. John returned to Ephesus. The title tyrant, belonged to Nero pre-eminently. It may be noted that Clement's statement concerning the Apostle's missionary activity after his return from Patmos is not a mere passing assertion, but is based on a detailed account of an episode which, if only substantially true, would go far to establish the point that S. John was banished long before old age had disabled him from missionary effort. This well-known legend is quoted at length by Eusebius (H. E. in. 23). Clement begins: 1 6 THE REVELATION " Listen to a story that is no fiction, but a real history, handed down and carefully preserved, respecting the Apostle John. For after the tyrant was dead, coming from the Isle of Patmos to Ephesus, he went also, when called, to neighbouring regions of the Gentiles ; in some to appoint bishops, in some to institute entirely new churches, in others to appoint to the ministry some one of those that were pointed out by the Holy Ghost." " When he came, therefore, to one of those cities, at no great distance, of which some also give the name, and had in other respects consoled his brethren, he at last turned towards the bishop ordained [appointed] and seeing a youth of fine stature, graceful countenance and ardent mind, he said, ' Him I commend to you with all earnestness, in the presence of the Church and of Christ.' The bishop having taken him and promised all, he repeated and testified the same thing, and then returned to Ephesus. The Presbyter, taking the youth home that was committed to him, educated, restrained and cherished him, and at length baptised him. After this he relaxed exercising his former care and vigilance, as if he had now committed him to a perfect safeguard in the seal of the Lord ; but certain idle, dissolute fellows, familiar with every kind of wickedness, unhappily attached them- selves to him, thus prematurely freed from restraint. " At length, renouncing the salvation of God, he contemplated no trifling offence, but having committed some great crime, since he was now once ruined, he expected to suffer equally with the rest. Taking, therefore, these same associates, and forming them into a band of robbers, he became their captain, surpassing them all in violence, blood and cruelty. . . . " Time elapsed, and on a certain occasion the bishop sent for John. The Apostle, after settling those other matters for which he came, said, ' Come, bishop, return me my deposit, which I and Christ committed to thee in the presence of the Church over which thou dost preside.' The bishop at first, indeed, was confounded, thinking that he was insidiously charged for money which he had not received, and yet he could neither give credit respecting that which he had not, nor yet disbelieve John. But when he said, ' I demand the young man, and the soul of a brother,' the old man, groaning heavily and also weeping, said ' He is dead.' ' How, and what death ?' ' He is dead to God,' saith he ; ' he has turned out wicked and abandoned, and at last a robber, and now, instead of attending the Church, he has beset the mountain with a band like himself.' The Apostle, on hearing this, tore his garment, and beating his head, with great lamentation, said, ' I left a fine keeper of a brother's soul ! But let a horse now be got ready, and someone to guide me on my way.' He rode as he was, away from the Church, and, coming to the country, was taken prisoner by the outguard of the banditti. He neither attempted, however, to flee, nor refused to be taken, but cried out : ' For this very purpose am I come ; conduct me to your captain.' He in the meantime stood waiting, armed as he was. But as he recognised John advancing towards him, overcome with LIFE OF S. JOHN 17 shame, he turned about to flee. The Apostle, however, pursued him -with all his might, forgetful of his age, and crying out : 'Why dost thou fly, my son, from me, thy father, thy defenceless, aged father ?' " The upshot of this pursuit was that the robber captain yielded to S. John, and was converted again to a life of Christian piety. Such is the story told as " no fiction but a real history " by Clement of Alexandria, and enshrined by Eusebius, the historian of the early Church, in his collection of historical facts. Clement tells us elsewhere that some of the immediate successors of the Apostles SS. Peter, James, John, and Paul, " have lived down to our time, to shed into our hearts the seed which they had received of the Apostles, their predecessors " (Strom, i. 1. p. 274; and Euseb. H. E. v. n). Clement was much esteemed by the ancients. S. Jerome calls him " the most learned of our authors." According to Theo- doret, " That holy man surpassed all others in the extent of his learning." There is a school of exegetes who hold that S. John was exiled to Patmos in Domitian's reign, about the year 96. At that time S. John was about 100 years of age ! The commonly received date of our Lord's Nativity, found by Dionysius Exiguus, in the 6th century, has long been known to be incorrect. The early Fathers, Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria, and Hippolytus, put it at what we must now call 3 B.C. But the latest researches show that our Lord was born about 7 B.C. C. H. Turner, M.A., "Chronology, Biblical" in the Encyclo- paedia Britannica, 1902, dates the Nativity at 7-6 B.C. Dom Hewlett, M.A., in the Catholic Encyclopaedia (1908), " Chronology," summing up his article on this subject says, " Tertullian and Irenseus are nearer to the truth with the years 2 or 3 B.C. ; but it must be placed still further back, and probably the year 7 B.C. will not be found to be much astray." Colonel Mackinlay, who has made a special study of this subject, in his book, " The Magi," 1908, puts the date at 7 B.C. Assuming, therefore, that S. John was three years younger than our Lord, he was about one hundred years of age in Domitian's persecution of 96. We need not insist on the point that if S. John returned from Patmos at the end of Domitian's reign he was quite incapable of the strenuous missionary labours above described. One of the great troubles of S. John's missionary career was the prevalence of false teachers, men who taught heresy, claiming to have received the Holy Ghost, and even to have been followers of our Lord. Our Saviour warned the Christian world of the advent of such men (Matt. vii. 15; xxiv. n ; 2 1 8 THE REVELATION Mark xiii. 22). S. Peter refers to them (2 Peter ii. i), and S. John in his Epistles, " Dearly beloved, believe not every spirit, but try the spirits, if they be of God, because many false prophets are gone out into the world " (i Jhn. iv. i). S. John calls them Antichrists. He refers to them in the Apocalypse (R. ii. 2). They are liars (R. xxi. 8, 27; xxii. 15). S. Irenaeus in his third book, " Against Heresies," relates a story told by S. Polycarp, a disciple of S. John. " And there are those still living who heard him relate that John, the disciple of the Lord, went into a bath at Ephesus, and seeing Cerinthus within, ran out without bathing, and exclaimed, ' Let us flee lest the bath should fall in, as long as Cerinthus, that enemy of truth, is within ' ' (Euseb. H. E. iv. 14). In another place Eusebius says that S. John " leaped out of the place and fled from the door " (H. E. iii. 28). S. Irenseus probably refers to himself as one of those " still living " who heard this from S. Polycarp, for he was a hearer of S. Polycarp. This Cerinthus was a gnostic, Ebionite heretic, who denied the Divinity and virgin birth of Jesus Christ. He made a dis- tinction between the man Jesus and the Christ, God. He was an Egyptian who conformed to the Jewish law. We shall hear much of him later, in connection with the millennium, and the authorship of the Revelation, which has been attributed to him ! S. John's Gospel is said to have been published partly with a view to refuting him. S. John's first Epistle, sometimes called the Epistle to the Parthians, seems to have been written at Ephesus, in the darkest hour of his ministry, after the death of S. Peter. A Roman army stood before the walls of Jerusalem. The ful- filment of the Temple prophecy was at hand and the end of all things seemed to be in sight. He begins by declaring that he had seen and handled the Word of Life. Afterwards he goes on to the consideration of Antichrist, who was expected by the Jews to appear towards the end of the world. He says, " Little children, it is the last hour, and as you have heard that Anti- christ cometh, even now there are become many Antichrists, whereby we know that it is the last hour. . . . And now little children, abide in him, that when he shall appear, we may have confidence and not be confounded by him at his coming " (i Jhn. ii. 18, 28). In this Epistle to his Parthian followers, S. John settles the question of Antichrist for us. There is no mention of Anti- christ anywhere in the Sacred Scriptures except in this Epistle. S. John sets the whole weight of his authority against the view that Antichrist will be a demon incarnate or a man possessed of the devil, wielding supernatural powers. He goes on to say, LIFE OF S. JOHN 19 " Who is a liar but he who denieth that Jesus is the Christ. He is Antichrist who denieth the Father and the Son " (i Jhn. ii. 22). " And every spirit that dissolveth Jesus is not of God and this is Antichrist of whom you have heard that he cometh and he is now already in the world " (i Jhn. iv. 3). According to S. John, Antichrist is a movement rather than a man. It will be observed that S. John calls him a liar who denies that Jesus is the Christ. He has in mind the false prophets of his day. In the Revelation he shows hell to be their portion. The same type of ^revBea-t still exists in our day. S. John's second and third Epistles are very short, because he looked forward to meeting his friends again at Ephesus. These Epistles appear to have been written at Patmos, after the Revelation, at the end of his sojourn on the Island. He writes to Gaius, " I had many things to write unto thee, but I would not by ink and pen write to thee, but I hope speedily to see thee, and we will speak, face to face" (3 Jhn. 13 f.). The second and third Epistles were written to personal friends at Ephesus in a somewhat familiar vein. They open with the words, O IIPE2BTTEPO2 " The Presbyter," " To the lady elect," " To the dearly beloved Gaius." Presbuteros meant a superior. 'O Hpecrfivrepos was an elder of the Jewish Council. It seems that S. John was familiarly known at Ephesus as the Presbyter. Papias who collected " the sayings of our Lord " from the followers of the Apostles, and who lived at Hierapolis in S. John's province, called him "the Presbyter" in his book, written early in the second century. He wrote of " John the Presbyter " in connection with the other Apostles. The second and third Epistles of S. John are free from all " parousial " influence, as we should expect them to be if they were written after the Revelation. But Cerinthus and his kind were working evil, and S. John refers to them in his second Epistle, " To the lady." " For many seducers are gone out into the world who confess not that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh, this is a seducer and an Antichrist " (2 Jhn. 7). S. John repudiates the Antichrist anthropomorphic tradition, again, after receiving his Revelation. There is a tradition that S. John's Gospel was written ten years after the Apocalypse. That would be about the year 77. Eusebius quoting S. Irenseus, and Clement of Alexandria says, " John's Gospel was published at Ephesus in Asia, at the request of his friends to supplement the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke." Also to confute Ebion and Cerinthus (H. E. I. 6, 14. S. Hier. in Cat.). In the year 77, S. John was about eighty years of age, still in the enjoyment of vigorous life and 20 THE REVELATION unimpaired memory. His followers were anxious to obtain his Gospel before age and infirmity told upon him. His Gospel differs in one respect very remarkably from that of the other Evangelists. They relate the signs which will precede and warn the Hebrew Christians of the destruction of Jerusalem. He omits that prediction, although he alone of the four Evangelists, heard it from the lips of our Lord. The conclu- sion is permissible that they wrote before the fall of the Temple. Whereas he had w r arned the Nazarene Church by means of the Revelation, and wrote his Gospel long after the event. S. John died when Trajan came to the throne in the year 98. S. Irenaeus says that he lived till the time of Trajan. " And all the presbyters of Asia that had conferred with John the disciple of our Lord testify that John had delivered it (sound doctrine) to them ; for he continued with them until the time of Trajan " (Cont. Haer., B. ii.). Again, " But the Church in Ephesus also, which had been founded by Paul and where John continued to abide until the time of Trajan " (Cont. User., B. iii.). S. Jerome relates that age and weakness grew upon S. John so that he was no longer able to preach or make long discourses to the people. He used always to be carried to the assembly of the faithful by his disciples, with great difficulty ; and every time said to his flock only these words ; " My dear children, love one another." When his audience wearied with hearing constantly the same thing, asked him why he always repeated the same words, he replied : " Because it is the precept of the Lord, and if you comply with it, you do enough " (S. Hier. in Galat., c. vi. See Jhn. xiii. 34, and xv. 12). Here it is worthy of note that there were no churches in those days. Assemblies of the faithful were held in private houses, in which the Apostles, generally, lived. It is therefore probable that S. John was so enfeebled in the year 98, that he had to be carried from one part of the house to another. S. John was, and is, greatly reverenced by Greek Christians, who call him "The Divine." His feast is kept by the Church on the 27th December, and by the Greeks on the 26th September. He died and was buried at Ephesus. Eusebius says, " the place of his burial is shown from the Epistle of Polycrates, who was bishop of the Church of Ephesus, which Epistle he wrote to Victor, bishop of Rome." In this Epistle he writes: " Moreover, John that rested on the bosom of our Lord, who was a priest that bore the sacerdotal plate, and martyr and teacher, he also rests at Ephesus" (H. E. iii. 31). Polycrates was bishop of Ephesus A.D. 190. LIFE OF S. JOHN 21 S. John was buried in the mountains above the town of Ephesus. His tomb attracted many pilgrims, and became a famous shrine. Miracles were wrought there. Even the dust of his tomb was venerated as holy, and carried away into far countries by pilgrims (S. Aug. Horn. 124, in Joan; S. Ephrem. Ant. Ap. Phot. Cod. 220 ; S. Gregory, Tur. de Glor. Mart., c. 30). There could be no mistake or doubt about his tomb. If other Johns were buried at Ephesus, the famous tomb of S. John had no rival. Justinian, A.D. 500, built a Basilica, called the Church of S. John, over the tomb. Ancient Ephesus was ruined by the Seljuk Turks in 1090 A.D. It was rebuilt on the heights surrounding the Basilica, by the Byzantines, and renamed Hagios Theologos, " The Divine Theologian," S. John's title in the Greek Church. A hundred years later the Turks again took it and converted the Basilica into a mosque. In the year 1403, the hordes of Timur Leng destroyed Ephesus altogether. II HISTORY OF THE BOOK IT has been assumed in the biography of S. John, that on his return from Patmos, he took the custody of the Apocalypse into his own hands and kept a vigilant guard over it. The Neronian decrees were alive in principle, though dormant in practice, and there was that in the Apocalypse which would revive persecution if its contents were known. Nothing happened to disturb this state of affairs for the rest of S. John's active life. But towards the close of the year 96, when he was in extreme old age, startling rumours of Roman persecution reached Ephesus from Corinth. It was rumoured that the Emperor Domitian, in a dynastic panic, had put to death almost all those who were eminent for virtue at Rome, and that many Christians were involved in this persecution. Clemens Romanus, the fourth Pope, who was then at Rome, wrote an Epistle to the Church at Corinth (see " Historic Notes "), in which he referred to persecution as impending, or begun, at Rome. He even compared the persecution with that of Nero, suggesting that it was the outcome of new and fierce Antichristian legislation. Domitian died in the month of September A.D. 96. The Epistle was written about that time. It gave rise, at Corinth, to an alarm of persecution, and the news spread quickly to the East. Rumour, like a river, gathers volume as it flows. We may be sure that when the news reached Ephesus, at the end of 96, the leaders of the Church consulted anxiously together, to prepare for the coming persecution. It was known that the Revelation of S. John, written in the time of Nero, was a help to the persecuted Church. His Revelation was sought and found. S. John apparently refrained from explaining its esoteric meanings. His reasons for doing so were as strong as ever. Besides, he was too old to take an active part in this exciting rally. He died of old age, two years later. Churchmen copied the Apocalypse freely, both at Ephesus and Rome. They circulated it to the Churches of the East and West. But the meaning of it was lost. This multiplication of HISTORY OF THE BOOK 23 copies shows that the dangers lurking in the political allusions of the Apocalypse were quite unknown. The old Hebrew Servants of God were dead, " The kingdom" had passed into the hands of the Gentiles. On the fall of Jerusalem, the primacy of the East passed to Antioch, a Gentile Church, where first the followers of Christ were known as Christians. At Rome, Linus, a native of Volterra, succeeded S. Peter. He was followed by Cletus in the second year of Titus, A.D. 81 (Euseb. H. E. iii. 13). Cletus was a Roman by birth. Clemens Romanus, the fourth Pope, living in the year 96, was also a Roman. The bishops of the Church in that year were everywhere, except at Jerusalem, men of Gentile birth. Even the Church of Jerusalem was drifting into the hands of Gentiles. Eusebius says of Hadrian's war with the Jews (A.D. 134) : " Since this event we have shown that this Church consisted of Gentiles after those of the circumcision, and that Marcus was the first Bishop of the Gentiles that presided there" (H. E. v. 12). It seems probable, moreover, that the Gentile leaders of the Early Church were out of sympathy with the Jews and their religion. The Hebrew Scriptures were disliked as Jewish. The O.T. cypher of Revelation must have entirely escaped the knowledge of these men. It is certain that only those who were well acquainted with the verbal details of the Hebrew prophecies of the Old Law, could unravel the mysteries of the Apocalypse. We assume that the Book was published and disseminated widely towards the close of Domitian's reign, and that later writers would connect the Book with that date. Cerinthus, the Gnostic, of Ephesus, made the first attempt at Exegesis. He was not in the least likely to have seen the Book before this time. " That enemy of truth," as S. John called him, was the last person to whom he would have shown his Revelation. Cerinthus was deeply impressed with the parousial views of the first century. He seized upon that part of Reve- lation containing the passage, " They lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years" (R. xx. 4), and gave it a grossly material interpretation. Caius, a Roman Presbyter, who lived about a hundred years later, tells us something about him. " But Cerinthus said that after the resurrection there would be an earthly Kingdom of Christ, and that the flesh i.e., men again inhabiting Jerusalem, would be subject to desires and pleasures, that there would be a space of a thousand years for celebrating nuptial festivals " (Euseb. H. E. iii. 28). This Cerinthian view of a chiliad of years of sensual pleasures got the name of " Chiliasm." It was accepted, with modifications 24 THE REVELATION as to the nature of the earthly happiness, by a large and ever- widening circle, whose chastened view of the thousand years of terrestrial pleasure was known as Millenarianism. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, early in the second century was a Millenarian. His Book, " Logion Kuriakon Exegesis," has perished, but portions of it are found in the works of Eusebius and other writers. Eusebius says that Papias relates some matters " rather too fabulous." ... "In them he says there would be a certain millennium after the resurrection, and that there would be a corporal reign of Christ on this very earth." ..." He was the cause why most of the ecclesiastical writers, urging the antiquity of the man, were carried away by a similar opinion, as for instance Irenseus " (H. E. iii. 39). We may anticipate a little here by saying that Eusebius was one of the strongest opponents of Millenarianism. S. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch 109-115 A.D., wrote letters to S. Polycarp, the Ephesians, Smyrnians, Philadelphians, Mag- nesians, Trallians, and Romans, in which there are no refer- ences to the Revelation of S. John, although the Revelation contains " Letters " addressed to three of these churches by name, viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, and Philadelphia. Assuming that he had seen the Apocalypse, he evidently did not see the connection between the warnings and the Churches named. S. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, a follower of S. John, wrote a letter to the Philippians in which there is no reference to the Apocalypse. He endorsed S. John's teaching as regards Anti- Christ. " Everyone who hath not confessed that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is Antichrist " (Epist. to Philippians). Montanus, a Mysian student of the Apocalypse, c. 136 A.D., proclaimed himself a prophet, and predicted that Christ was coming down quickly to Pepuza in Phrygia, to begin his mil- lennial reign. He called upon all Christians to get ready for the second coming by repairing to Pepuza, there to lead lives of self-denial, abstinence from marriage, etc. He accepted the Cerinthian Millennium and applied it to his own time and country. He obtained his ideas from a literal interpretation of the " Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia." In the Letter to the Angel of the Church of Philadelphia we read: "Behold I come quickly, hold fast that which thou hast that no man take thy crown " (R. iii. n). And in the Letter to the Angel of the Church of Laodicea, we read, " Behold I stand at the door and knock. . . . To him that shall overcome I will grant to sit with me in my throne, as I also have overcome, and have sat with my Father on his throne " (R. iii. 20, 21). These passages were taken by Montanus as foretelling an earthly kingdom to be established in the region of Philadelphia and Laodicea. His HISTORY OF THE BOOK 25 own town of Pepuza, lying to the east of those cities, he claimed as the seat of the throne of the new kingdom. The avoidance of marriage would seem to flow as a precept from the vision of the followers of the Lamb, in R. xiv. 4 : " These are they who were not defiled with women, for they are virgins." " Montanism" spread rapidly in the East and developed into a serious heresy, threatening the Church with schism. Orthodox leaders of the Eastern Churches were revolted by the sensuality of Montanist aspirations, its egotistical pre- tensions, its exaggerated spiritualism, its withdrawal of Christians from missionary work, and its arrest of the development of the Christian family. Moreover, on the death of Montanus, the movement passed into the hands of female leaders, who had trances, and pretended to be inspired. It fell into disreputable ways (Euseb. H. E. v. 18). Montanism continued to flourish, however ; and in the long run it led to the rejection of the Revelation of S. John by the Eastern churches. The Western church was not much affected by it. The Bishop of Rome with the majority of the Bishops were against it, and opposed it more and more effec- tively as they gained in authority, and the organisation of the Church crystallised into form. Justin Martyr, born c. 100 A.D. visited Ephesus, and wrote there, according to Eusebius, his " Dialogue with Trypho the Jew." In this he argued in favour of a spiritual millennium as opposed to Cerinthian Chiliasm. " Moreover, since even among us, a certain man, John by name, one of the Apostles of Christ, in the Revelation made to him, prophesied that those who believed in our Messias, should spend a thousand years in Jerusalem." He quotes S. Luke against the nuptial views of Cerinthus. " And of the resurrection from the dead, shall neither be married nor take wives" (Luke xx. 35). Melito, Bishop of Sardis, c. 170 A.D., wrote two books on " The Devil," and " The Apocalypse of S. John," according to Eusebius (H. E. iv. 26). His books have perished, but it may be inferred that he found Antichrist in " the Beast," as did S. Irenaeus, a few years later. His views of the Millennium are not known. We get the date from the only surviving fragment of his writings, an Apologia addressed to Marcus Aurelius, c. 170 A.D. Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, c. 170 A.D., made use of testi- mony from the Revelation in his book. " Against the heresy of Hermogenis " (Euseb. H. E. iv. 24). Eusebius does not give any extracts from this work. Apollonius, Bishop of Ephesus (?) wrote against the Mon- tanists, c. 190 A.D. Eusebius writes of him as follows. " He 26 THE REVELATION quotes also the Revelation of John as testimony, and relates also that a dead man was raised by the Divine power, through the same John, at Ephesus " (H. E. v. 18). Eusebius quotes Apollonius at considerable length as against Montanus, " that called Pepuza and Tymium, little places in Phrygia, ' a Jerusalem,' in order to collect men from every quarter thither, etc. Who provided salaries for those that preached his doctrine, that it might grow strong by gormandising and gluttony" (H. E. v. 18). Apollonius says many scathing things of the venal prophetesses of Montanism, " receiving both gold and silver and precious garments." His writings have disappeared with the exception of those quoted by Eusebius (H. E. v. 18). S. Irenceus, Bishop of Lyons, c. 185 A.D., wrote a book against Heresies, in five volumes, in Greek. In the fourth volume he gives an extract from the first Chapter of Revelation, and says that S. John the disciple of the Lord saw these things in the Apocalypse (xx. n). He repeats this formula several times practi- cally in the same words (v. 26. iv. 24. 3, v. 35. 2, v. 36. 3). That he attributed the authorship of the Book to S. John the Evangelist is made clear in iii. i. where he says " S. John wrote his Gospel afterwards." In his fifth volume he recapitulates the heresies he has refuted, and goes on to make some remarks about Antichrist, whom he assumed to be the Beast of the Apocalypse. He noticed that some copies of the Book gave the number of the Beast as 616, instead of 666, but considered the latter number distinctive of genuine copies. " As matters are thus and the number is thus found in all the genuine and ancient copies, and as they who saw John attest, reason itself shows that the number of the name of the Beast is indicated by the Greek letters which it contains " (Haeres. v. 33). He proposes three names as possible solutions of the gematrial value of the number 666. ETAN0AS, AATEINO2, and TEITAN. The first he does not defend. The second he thinks probable as referring to the Roman Empire. But the third he prefers, because it consists of six letters ; it has two syllables of three letters each ; and because Teitan was a giant who assaulted the Gods, and might therefore be put for Antichrist. S. Irenasus's testimony as to the authorship of the book, a matter of fact within the knowledge of his early friend S. Polycarp, is very strong. His testimony as to the meaning of the book shows very clearly that the Key to the book was lost. From the above quoted writings of S. Irenseus the following conclusions with regard to Revelation were drawn by Medieval writers. A. A personal Antichrist will appear on earth, whose name is contained in the number 666 in Greek letters. B. The HISTORY OF THE BOOK 27 Revelation was given to S. John about the end of Domi- tian's reign. C. (consequent upon B) There was a severe persecution of the Church about the end of Domitian's reign. These conclusions rest, in the last resort, on the above quoted words of S. Irenseus. There is no other authority for any of them. They have had an obscuring influence on the elucida- tion of the Apocalypse. Clement of Alexandria was a contemporary of S. Irenseus, and wrote about the same time. He frequently quotes the Apocalypse in his " Stromata." We have seen that he shows in his " Who is the rich man who shall be saved," that he is a firm believer in the Neronian date of the Book. (See p. 16.) The Alogi. In the last quarter of the second century, a sect of men arose in Asia Minor, who denied the manifestation of the Paraclete and rejected the logos teaching of the Gospel of S. John and of the Apocalypse. Hence they were called the Alogi. They were strongly opposed to the Montanists. Seeing that Montanism was based on the Revelation, they decried the Book. They denied the existence of Thyatira, one of the seven Churches of Asia, to which a special letter in the Apocalypse is addressed. And they attributed the authorship of the Book to Cerinthus, the heretic! (Epiphanius, Haer. I. I. 3). Caius, a Roman, who wrote against Montanism at the beginning of the third century (202-210) took the same polemical line, denying S. John's authorship of the Apocalypse. He disputed with the Montanist, Proclus, in the time of Pope Zepherinus (See Euseb. H. E. iii. 28). His views are gathered from certain passages of the work of Hippolytus " Contra Caium," published by Dr. Gwynn. These show 7 that Caius also attributed the Book to Cerinthus. The Epistle of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons to the Churches of Asia (c. 177), refers to the Apocalypse five times .as canonical scripture (Euseb. H. E. v. i). This reflects the Western or Roman view of the period. Tertullian, of Carthage, who wrote about the beginning of the third century, made liberal use of the Revelation of S. John in many of his controversial works. In " A Avers Marcion" he shows that Marcion rejected the Book, partly, on account of its Old Testament style (iv. 5). In all his works he showed that he accepted and upheld the Johannine authorship of the Book. According to S. Jerome, he referred S. John's exile to Nero (Adv. Jovin i. 26). In his later years Tertullian, alarmed by the laxity of the Church, fell under the influence of rigorous Montanism. But many of his works, "' De Pudicitia," " De Resurrect," " De Anima," " Prescript H&res," " Advers Jud&os," 28 THE REVELATION were written before that time. He looked upon Babylon as Rome, and the Beast as Antichrist. The Muratorian Fragment. A Latin fragment published by Muratori in his " Antiq. Ital." (iii. 854), attributed to the early part of the third century, writes of the Apocalypse of S. John as being received in the Canon of the Church. It says that " Paulus sequens praedecessoris sui, Johannis, ordinem, nonnisi nominatim septem ecclesiis scribit ordini tali " (C.F. Schmid. Offenbarung Johannis, p. 101, f.), showing that at that period S. Paul was supposed to have followed the model of the Apocalypse in writing his Epistles. But as S. Paul died towards the close of Nero's persecution, 67 A.D., it follows that in the opinion of the author of the fragment, S. John wrote the Apocalypse before that date. The Shepherd of Hernias was written about this time. The Muratorian fragment refers to it as having been written in Rome, " nuperrime temporibus nostris." It uses a symbolism which appears to have been taken from the Apocalypse. The expression 77 6\tyis 17 fj,yd\ij, taken from Rev. vii. 14, occurs twice in it (Vis. ii. 2, 7, iv. i. 3). Hippolytm, a Roman Bishop, who lived in the early part of the third century, wrote a work on Christ and Antichrist, in which he quotes extensively from the Apocalypse. Like S. Irenasus, and probably Melito of Sardis, he looked upon the Apocalypse as relating to an anthropomorphic Antichrist tradition. He recognised the Beast from the Sea as the Roman Empire ; the woman in Rev. xii. 1-3, as the Church ; Babylon as Rome ; and the two witnesses (R. xi. 3) as Enoch and Elias. He also expressed millenarian views. This book S.Jerome names in his catalogue of the works of Hippolytus (Cat. 61). Photius also says that he read it. It shows an advance in exegesis. S. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage c. 250 A.D., was a pupil of Tertullian. He made frequent references to the Apocalypse of S. John in his writings and treated it as a part of the Canon of Scripture. Origen (c. 185-254), was a pupil of Clement of Alexandria. His reputation as a teacher stands high. He took a mystical view of the Apocalypse generally, and objected to Chiliasm as Jewish. He studied Hebrew for the purpose of his Hexapla (Euseb. H. E. vi. 16). In his exposition of the Gospel of S. Matthew he remarks, " What shall we say of him who reclined upon the breast of Jesus, I mean John ? who has left one Gospel, in which he confesses that he could write so many that the whole world could not contain them. He also wrote the Apocalypse, commanded as he was, to conceal, and not to write the voices of the seven thunders " (Euseb. H. E. vi. 25). HISTORY OF THE BOOK 29 In a Commentary on S. Matthew he says, " The King of the Romans, as tradition teaches, condemned John, who bore testi- mony on account of the word of truth, to the island of Patmos. John moreover teaches what concerns his testimony, not saying who condemned him, for he speaks thus in the Apocalypse," then follows a quotation Rev. 1-9 (Edt. Wirccp. p. 300 f.). This was written, probably, between the years 230 and 250. The phrase " The King of the Romans as tradition teaches us," shows that Origen had Nero in view, or he would not have written " The King." Throughout the East the Julian Caesars were looked upon as a royal line and hailed as Kings. The Caesars from Julius Caesar to Nero the sixth, King of the Apocalypse (R. xvii. 10), were blood relations. Nero was the last of them. After him came the successful generals raised to the purple by their legions. They took the title of Caesar, but prefixed it to their own names. They reigned by virtue of their leadership of the Army. The official title of Domitian illustrates both these points " Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus." Origen was a pupil of Clement of Alexandria, who taught that S. John was exiled in Nero's reign. He would naturally accept the Neronian tradition so clearly set forth in Clement's tradition of " Who is the rich man who shall be saved ?" Origen's further expression that S. John does not say " who condemned him," may have refer- ence to his condemnation and exile from Ephesus. He was tried and condemned at Ephesus by the Provincial Governor, or Asiarch. There is no mention of him in the Revelation. Origen read books with avidity and dwelt for many years in Palestine. If there had been a Domitian tradition of S. John's exile, he would have heard of it. He would have observed that it was at variance with the teaching of the school of Alexandria, of which he was so great an ornament. And in all probability he would have taken some notice of it when penning the above lines. Victorinus, Bishop of Pettau in Upper Pannonia, about the middle of the 2nd century, wrote a Commentary on the Apocalypse in Latin. It has been preserved to our day in an expurgated recension, said to have been made by S. Jerome (Biblioth. Max Palt. vol. iii.). It still retains traces of Chiliasm. Nepos, a learned and pious Bishop of the Egyptian Church, wrote, in the first half of the third century, a book called the " Refutation of the Allegorisers." This was written in defence of the literal chiliastic interpretation of the Apocalypse, as against the mysticism of the Alexandrian school. He quoted the Apocalypse extensively in support of his views, which were gaining many adherents in Egypt (Euseb. H. E. vii. 24). 30 THE REVELATION Dionysius of Alexandria, an ardent Antimontanist, whose influence on the Book rivals that of S. Irenaeus, was at Alexandria about this time. He wrote in the middle of the third century. ' S. Athanasius calls him, " Teacher of the Church." Basil says that " he was a man of canonical authority." He was known subsequently as " St. Denis the Great." He wrote two books called " The Promises," against the teaching of Nepos. In the second book he enters into a discussion on the Revela- tion of John, where, in the introduction he makes mention of Nepos as follows : " But they produce a certain work of Nepos upon which they lay great stress, as if he advanced things that are irrefragable, when he asserts that there will be an earthly reign of Christ. . . . When I was at Arsinoe, where, as you know, long since, this doctrine was afloat, so that schisms and apostacies of whole churches followed, after I had called the presbyters and teachers of the brethren in the villages, when those brethren had come who wished to be present, I exhorted them to examine the doctrine publicly. When they had produced this book as a kind of armour and impregnable fortress, I sat with them for three days, from morning till evening, attempting to refute what it contained " (Euseb. H. E. vii. 24). Dionysius shows what injury Montanism was doing to the Church. He shows how it depended upon the misinterpreta- tion of the Revelation of S. John, which was the real fortress on which Nepos rested his book. And he shows his own zeal and energy in opposing it. Presently we shall see that his line of argument was to undermine the authority of the Book by saying that it was not written by John the son of Zebedee, and that, therefore, it was not canonical. Consequently Chiliasm was based upon a work of no great authority, and could not stand against the other Scriptures. The influence of Dionysius was so great that Montanism was declared heretical at the Synod of Iconium, in the year 253. His writings throw a very strong light upon the position of the Apocalypse in the minds of Churchmen, in, and before this time, especially in the East. He says in the second book on " Promises " : " But it is highly probable that Cerinthus, the same that estab- lished the heresy that bears his name, designedly affixed the name (of John) to his own forgery. For one of the doctrines that he taught was that Christ would have an earthly kingdom. And as he was a voluptuary, and altogether sensual, he conjectured that it would consist in those things that he craved in the gratification of appetite and lust, i.e., in eating and drinking and marrying, or in such things whereby he supposed these sensual pleasures might be HISTORY OF THE BOOK 31 presented in more decent expressions; viz., in festivals, sacrifices, and the slaying of victims " (Euseb. H. E. iii. 28 and vii. 25). He continues : " For my part, I would not venture to set this book aside, as there are many brethren that value it much; but, having formed a conception of its subject as exceeding my capacity, I also consider it to contain a certain concealed and wonderful intimation in each particular. For, though I do not understand, yet I suspect that some deeper sense is wrapped up in the words, and these I do not measure and judge by my private reason ; but allowing more to faith, I have regarded them as too lofty to be comprehended by me, and those things which I do not understand, I do not reject, but I wonder the more that I cannot comprehend. . . . For 'blessed,' says he, ' is he that keepeth the words of the prophecy of this book, and I, John, who have seen and heard these things.' I do not, therefore, deny that he was called John, and that this was the writing of one John. And I agree that it was the work also of some holy and inspired man. But I would not easily agree that it was the apostle, the son of Zebedee, the brother of James, who is the author of the Gospel, and the General (Catholic) Epistle that bears his name " (H. E. vii. 25). A little further he adds : " But John never speaks as of himself (in the first person), nor as of another (in the third), but he that wrote the Apocalypse declares himself immediately in the beginning. . . . But neither in the second nor third Epistle ascribed to John (the Apostle), though they are only brief, is the name of John presented. But anonymously it is written, the presbyter. But the other did not consider it sufficient to name himself but once." " That it is a John that wrote these things we must believe, since he says it, but what John it is, is uncertain. For he has not said that he was, as he often does in the Gospel, the beloved disciple of the Lord. ... I am of opinion that there were many of the same name with John the Apostle. ... I think, therefore, that it was another one of those in Asia. For they say that there are two monuments at Ephesus, and that each bears the name of John. . . ." (Euseb. H. E. vii. 25). In these passages Dionysius reveals the prejudice that is in his mind in dealing with the authorship of the Apocalypse. He does not deny its value. But he will not allow that it is written by S. John the Evangelist, because he will not have that great name used as a shield by Montanists or Millenarians. Dionysius admits that the Book was not understood in his time, or by any writer before it. The Key was lost. The O.T. Hebrew references were not recognised as a cypher. On the contrary, the Book was disparaged on account of its peculiarly 32 THE REVELATION O.T. style. The extent of the confusion may be measured by the fact that so great a man as Dionysius attributed the work to the Ebionite heretic, Cerinthus ! The Revelation, as we shall see, insists repeatedly on the Divinity of Jesus Christ, and his equality with God, the Father Almighty. Basing himself on Papias, who was supposed to have referred to two Johns, as co-existing at Ephesus, in Apostolic times, Dionysius argues that the Revelation was written by the second John, not the Evangelist. He strengthens his case by the mention of two tombs at Ephesus, each dedicated in the name of John. It will appear, presently, that Papias did not say that there were two separate Johns, though he would have said so plainly if that was what he meant to say. For he laid himself out to be the collector of the Apostolic traditions of his time. Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical History, throws some light upon this question of the two Johns. Eusebius begins by saying, "There are said to be five books of Papias." He does not seem to have had any of " the books " of Papias before him, since he does not specify any one of them. He relies, apparently, on S. Irenaeus for his information about the works of Papias. He quotes from Papias as follows : " But I will not hesitate to record for thee, together with the interpretations, all the things which I once learned well from the Presbyters, and kept well in my memory, that so I may confirm their truth. For I took pleasure, not in those who are great talkers, as the multitude do, but in those who teach the truth ; not in those who relate alien commandments, but in those who record such commandments as were given by the Lord to the faithful, and spring from the Truth itself. If, therefore, anyone came who had been a follower of the Presbyters, I would ask him about the words of the Presbyters ; what Andrew, or what Peter said, or what Philip, or what Thomas or James, or what John or Matthew, or any other of the disciples of the Lord. And as to the things which Ariston and 'John the Presbyter,' the disciples of the Lord, say, for I did not think that the things which are contained in the books were as much use to me as what came from a living voice still remaining among us" (Euseb. H. E. iii. 39). Eusebius comments on this as follows : " Where it is also proper to observe that the name of John is twice mentioned. The former of which he mentions with Peter and James and Matthew, and the other apostles, evidently meaning the evangelists. But in a separate point of his discourse he ranks the other John with the rest not included in the number of apostles, and placing Ariston before him, he distinguishes him plainly by the HISTORY OF THE BOOK 33 name of presbyter, so that it is here proved that the statement of those is true who assert there were two of the same name in Asia, that there are also two tombs at Ephesus, and that both are called John even to this day, which it is particularly necessary to observe. For it is probable that the second, if it be not allowed that it was the first, saw the revelation ascribed to St. John. And the same Papias, of whom we now speak, professes to have received the declarations of the apostles from those that were in company with them, and says also that he was a hearer of Ariston and the presbyter, John. For as he has often mentioned them by name, he also gives their statements in his own works " (Eusebius, H. E. iii. 39). In addition to this comment Eusebius devotes a whole chapter of his History (vii. 25) to the " Apocalypse of John," in which he quotes Dionysius extensively against S. John's claim to the Revelation. In this chapter Eusebius repeats the remark about the two Johannine tombs at Ephesus, quoted above. " For they say there are two monuments at Ephesus, and that each bears the name of John.'j Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, historian and traveller, many years after Dionysius, reintroduces the story of the two tombs, still as an on dit, and then claims that it is capable of being proved to be true, because Papias mentions a John by the name of "John the Presbyter"; " placing Ariston before him he distinguishes him plainly by the name of Presbyter, so that it is here proved that the state- ment of those is true, who assert that there were two of the same name in Asia !" It will be observed that neither Dionysius nor Eusebius furnishes any details in connection with their mention of the story of the two tombs at Ephesus ; they do not enter into any historical discussion as to the origin or credibility of the legend, nor do they appear at all solicitous concerning its accuracy. We have seen that Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, at the end of the second century, wrote that : " John, who rested upon the bosom of our Lord, is buried at Ephesus" (Euseb. v. 24). There does not seem to have been any question of two tombs or two Johns at Ephesus then, or Polycrates, writing of S. John's burial-place, would have been obliged to particularise. He wrote a letter " to Victor and the Church of Rome " about the proper time of the observance of Easter (Euseb. v. 24). Pope S. Victor succeeded S. Eleutherius in the Pontificate in the year 192 and died A.D. 202. Hence Polycrates stands as a witness half a century earlier than Dionysius. Considering the unique position of S. John as the beloved Apostle of our Lord, one would expect his tomb to be well known and held in great reverence. We have seen that S. Augustine, S. Ephraeem and S. Gregory, hand down a tradition that it was a 3 34 THE REVELATION well-known shrine visited by pilgrims from " far countries " (p. 21). S. John was highly venerated by the Greeks, who call him the Divine Theologian, Justinian built a Basilica over his tomb. It is very remarkable that neither the Alogi, nor Caius, earlier writers than Dionysius, knew anything of the second John. They were obliged to attribute the Book to Cerinthus for want of any other putative author. So illusory is this other John, even in the mind of Dionysius, that he says that " it is highly probable that Cerinthus forged the name of John to his own work." But Papias goes on to make it quite clear that he meant S. John the Evangelist all through. It has been shown by Professor Drummond that Papias refers, in the first part of the above fragment, to the living voice of the Apostles, including the presbyter John, as handed down to him by their followers ; and, in the second part, to the writings of Ariston and "John the Presbyter." It may be remarked, in passing, that Papias did not put the Apostles in the order of their rank, since he puts Andrew before Peter. Papias knew that S. John, in his Epistles, described himself as the Presbyter. Eusebius notices, in this same chapter, that " Papias made use of testimonies from the first Epistle of John." So that Papias had the writings of S. John before him, as well as the recollection or tradition of his living voice, and was com- paring them together. S. John's two minor Epistles begin : " The Presbyter to the elect lady and her children," " The Presbyter to the dearly beloved Gaius." The Presbyter was evidently the title by which he was commonly known. " John the Presbyter," or " the Presbyter John," would point to him, and to him only. But there is another fragment from Papias in this same thirteenth chapter of Eusebius. It reads as if it were a part broken off from the first. It is this : " And ' John the Presbyter ' also said this : ' Mark being the interpreter of Peter, whatsoever he recorded he wrote with great accuracy, but not, however, in the order in which it was spoken or done by our Lord, for he neither heard nor followed our Lord, but, as before said, he was in company with Peter, who gave him such instructions as was necessary, but not to give a history of our Lord's discourses; wherefore Mark has not erred in anything by writing some things as he has recorded them ; for he was carefully attentive to one thing, not to pass by anything that he heard, or to state anything falsely in these accounts !' " (Eusebius, H. E. iii. 39). Here we have "John the Presbyter," according to Papias, passing judgment in the most authoritative way possible on the HISTORY OF THE BOOK 35 Gospel of S. Mark. John the Presbyter does not say that he has heard this, or that he believed it. He says of his own knowledge, decisively, that " whatsoever he [S. Mark] recorded he wrote with great accuracy, but not, however, in the order in which it was spoken or done by our Lord," Papias evidently accepted this statement of " John the Presbyter " as coming from one whose evidence on the point was final. Only an eye- witness and constant follower of our Lord was qualified to make such a comment on the Gospel of S. Mark. There was no John but S. John the Evangelist, the constant companion of our Lord, who was in a position to make it. The whole statement of " John the Presbyter," as recorded by Papias, reveals the mind of one who was intimately associated with our Lord. Who else could say that S. Mark's records are not all related in the order in which it was spoken and done by our Lord, nevertheless he has not erred in anything, or stated anything falsely ? From all of which it may be fairly argued that Papias had but one John in his mind, and that one S. John the Evangelist. Dionysius notes that John of the Apocalypse mentions his name more than once, whereas the Evangelist in his Epistles simply calls himself " the Presbyter." We have seen that "John the Presbyter" was the commonly acknowledged title of S. John the Evangelist (pp. 19, 31 f.). The Apocalypse was an extraordinary production, requiring ample confirmation as to the authenticity of its character as a direct revelation from God to S. John. Accordingly we find that S. John mentions His name no less than five times, three times in the beginning of the book, and twice towards the end (Rev. i. i ; i. 4; i. 9 ; xxi. 2; xxii. 8). He sent it to Ephesus, where his disciples dwelt, in these terms, " I, John, your brother and sharer in tribulation and in the kingdom and patience in Christ Jesus " (Rev. i. 4). Such a message coming from Patmos, where S. John lived in exile, could only be attributed to one author, and that was S. John the Evangelist. Another argument brought forward by Dionysius in favour of attributing " the Revelation " to an unknown John, is the difference of the Greek in the Gospel and in the Revelation. The latter is written in a Greek more akin to Hebrew than the former. It is distinctly Hebraic in some of its idioms and grammatical constructions. If we take it as written during Nero's persecution, in the year 67, soon after S. John came to reside at Ephesus, we should expect the writing to be flavoured with Hebraicisms. If we admit that the Book was written at Patmos, where S. John was a prisoner, that it was written under the eyes of his 36 THE REVELATION jailers, we should expept it to be veiled in Hebraic symbolism. If we admit the tradition that the Gospel was a later work, written at ease, at Ephesus, we should expect to find it written in more polished Greek (as, in fact, it is), yet on these natural differences of style rests the theory that S. John the Evan- gelist could not have written both books, the Gospel and the Revelation. Dionysius, as quoted by Eusebius, says : " For the Gospel and Epistle mutually agree. . . . And, altogether, throughout, to attentive observers, it will be obvious that there is one and the same complexion and character in the Gospel and Epistle. Very different and remote from all this is the Apocalypse, not even tending, or even bordering upon them in the least, I might say not even containing a syllable in common with them." " We may also notice how the phraseology of the Gospel and the Epistle differs from the Apocalypse. For the former are written not only irreprehensibly, as regards the Greek language, but are most elegant in diction, in the arguments and the whole structure of the style. It would require much to discern any barbarism or solecism, or any odd peculiarity of expression at all in them ; for, as is to be presumed, he was endued with all the requisites for his discourse, the Lord having granted him both that of knowledge and that of expression of style. That the latter, however, saw a revela- tion, and received knowledge as prophecy, I do not deny ; but I perceive that his dialect and language is not very accurate Greek, but that he uses barbarous idioms, and in some places solecisms, which it is now unnecessary to select" (Euseb. H. E. vii. 25). Dionysius says that in complexion the Epistle and Gospel of S. John resemble each other, but the Apocalypse is very different and remote from them. " I might say not even containing a syllable in common with them." We shall see that this is not a fair estimate. In the Revela- tion, when our Lord appears leading His forces to the final battle which is to rout the armies of paganism, it is said, " And he was clothed with a garment sprinkled with blood, and his name is called the Word of God " (Rev. xix. 13). It is universally recognised that we have here a very important literary idiom, connecting the Apocalypse with the Gospel and Epistle of S. John (i Jhn. ii. 14 ; i Jhn. v. 7). The Gospel begins, " In the beginning was the word, and the word was God." Again, the Lamb of God is a peculiarly Johannine form of expression, found only in the Revelation and in the Gospel of S. John as an emblem of our Lord. In the most dramatic scene of the Revelation, the opening of HISTORY OF THE BOOK 37 the book with the seven seals, Christ appears as a Lamb, and takes the book and opens the seals. Thereafter the Lamb appears at frequent intervals as a figure of Christ (R.v. 8, 12, 13 ; vi. i, 16 ; vii. 9, 14, 17; xii. n; xiii. 8; xiv. i, 4, 10 ; xv. 3; xvii. 14; xix. 9; xxi. 9, 14, 22, 23, 27; xxii. i, 3, 14). In S. John's Gospel we have the same symbolism. " Behold the Lamb of God " (Jhn. i. 29, 36). These expressions, the "Word of God," and the "Lamb of God," are peculiar to S. John. They are found only in his writings, and their occurrence in the Revelation and in his Gospel seems to many modern critics to place him in an unassailable position as the writer of both books. Again, S. John's is the only received Gospel which mentions the piercing of our Lord's side, " But one of his soldiers with a spear opened his side, and immediately there came out blood and water. And he that saw it hath given testimony, and his testimony is true. And he knoweth that he saith true that you may believe. For these things were done that the scriptures might be fulfilled. . . . They shall look on him whom they pierced " (Jhn. xix. 34, 36). S. John himself, as he says, witnessed the piercing of our Lord's side with the spear, and, remembering the prophecy in the Hebrew Scriptures (Zach. xii. 10), solemnly testifies to its fulfilment. The same event is noted in the Apocalypse as a mark of identification of our Lord, " Every eye shall see him, and they also that pierced him " (Rev. i. 7). Professor Moses Stuart makes the following comment on veVse eleven in the first chapter of the Revelation. The verse begins, " Saying, what thou seest write in a book." He says, with regard to et? /3i/3\iov, R. I. n : " We say copied into a book but written in a book, and in accord- ance with the latter phrase is the usual idiom of the Greek ; but in Jhn. viii. 6, 8 (if the genuineness be allowed), we have two cases of cypafav et's showing, at least, a resemblance in minutiae between the Gospel and the Apocalypse, for the idiom is found nowhere else in the New Testament " (Com. on the Apoc. Vol. ii., p. 41). Again he says : " The syntax of the verb and participle, it has often been alleged, is frequently violated in the Apocalypse. (a) The Present tense is put for the Praeterite. . . . The historic Present (as grammarians call it) belongs, of course, to all animated narration ; and it is to be found unusually often, both in the Gospel of John and in the Apocalypse. In reading through both these books, I have noted one hundred cases in which it is employed in the Gospel, and forty cases in the Apocalypse. Of the one hundred, however, some sixty-five belong merely to the word Xeyet, singular or plural ; and a large portion of the others to 38 THE REVELATION ep'xerai and some other common verbs of motion. The numerous cases of \eyei belong almost entirely to the frequent dialogues which the Gospel exhibits. In the Apocalypse, but few dialogistic passages occur ; and in these there is just the same frequency of \eyei as in the Gospel. As to other cases, I have noted thirty- five in the Gospel, and thirty in the Apocalypse, which exhibit a similarity of usage in both, that deserves special notice, inasmuch as they are some indication of the same hand in both. For the . rest, I would merely remark, that although the historic Present is everywhere to be found in the New Testament, yet nowhere is it employed with so much frequency as in the writings of John. As the Hebrew has no appropriate form for the Present, this must be put to the account of the Greek, and not of the Hebrew idiom." (Op. cit., i. 388.) Dionysius says, we do not find in the Apocalypse the Johan- nine words coij, though written in Greek, has to be converted into Hebrew for the purpose of its gematrial interpretation. All this leaves out of account the fact that the book was purposely obscured by the use of Old Testament symbolism to form a Hebraic cipher. Though written in Greek, it was not intended to be read or understood by the Greek-speaking Asiarchs of Asia Minor. 40 THE REVELATION L. Ccecilius Firmianus Lactantius, a rhetorician and Christian Apologist of Nicomedia, who died about A.D. 330, wrote a book entitled, Divinarum Institution/urn, in which he shows Chiliastic tendencies (L. xvi. 7). He accepted the Revelation as written by S. John. In his Epit. c. 42, he refers to Rev. xix. 12, " a name written which no man knoweth but himself," " sicut docet Joannes in Revelatione." Methodius, Bishop of Olympus, in Lydia, about the same time, took a mystical view of the Apocalypse. The seven heads of the dragon he took to be the seven deadly sins ; and the Beast, the empire of lust. In this exegesis he had many followers. He belonged to the school of Allegorists. Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea, in Palestine, already noticed, wrote an Ecclesiastical History, which he finished about the year 324. It is a wonderful store-house of all kinds of facts concerning the early history of Christianity. As the quotations from his history, printed above, show, he was in sympathy with Dionysius of Alexandria, in his antimontanist polemic. He was a prominent figure in the Christian revival under Constantine whose friendship he enjoyed. He sat beside the Emperor at the Council of Nicea, and was honoured by him for many years, both in private life and in public ceremonies. His influence, therefore, was much greater than that of an ordinary Bishop, and that influence was exerted against the Canonicity of the Apocalypse. He tells us in his " Life of Constantine " (iv. 36, 37), that by order of that Emperor he prepared fifty sumptuous copies of the Bible for the Church of Constantinople. From these he excluded the Apocalypse. Thus it came to pass that when Byzantium, renamed Con- stantinople, became the Metropolitan Church of the East, it was endowed from the beginning with an Antimontanist Bible, and with a large number of sumptuous spare copies for presentation to the Eastern Churches under its influence. The Bible of Eusebius completed the work of Montanism and its opponents in discrediting the authority of the Apocalypse in the East. At the celebrated Council or Synod of Laodicea held in the year 360, many of whose Canons are still reverenced, the Eastern Bishops dropped the Apocalypse out of the Canon of Scripture. It is not found in the Peshitta or original of the Syrian New Testament. Gwynn believes that it was unknown to the Syrian Christians for four hundred years, with the exception of those who could translate Greek. Nor does it appear in Canon 85 of Apost. Const. (Zahn. ii. 177 #".,197, 190 if.). Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), excluded the Apocalypse from public and private use (Catach. iv. 31, 36). HISTORY OF THE BOOK 41 Gregory of Nazianzum, 330-389 A.D., left it out of his Canon. Theodore of Mopsoestia omits to quote it. Theodoret fails to quote it. Chrysostom omitted it from his Synopsis Scripture Sacra. Nicephorus omitted it from his Chronography, and List of Books. The Apocalypse was not generally reinstated in the Eastern Church till the 6th century. The Armenians continued to exclude it till the I2th, and the Jacobites till the I3th century. A curious instance of this Eastern prejudice was noticed as far West as Spain. At the Synod of Toledo A.D. 633, the Apocalypse was ordered to be read in Church under pain of excommunication. The Visigoths, who settled down in Spain, had brought an Eastern Bible, and Greek tradi- tions, with them. Some of the leading Bishops of the East, however, even in the fourth century, gave the Apocalypse a canonical position. Athanasius, the great Bishop of Alexandria (c. 326), placed it definitely in his list of canonical Scriptures. Ephr&em of Edessa, who died in the year 378, quoted it as canonical. Epiphanius, Bishop of Constantia, in Cyprus (c. 367), insists on its Canonicity. In his " Panarion " 25 and 51, against the Alogi and Nicolaites, he places the Apocalypse and Gospel of S. John on the same level. He states that the Alogi rejected the Apoca- lypse, partly because there was no Church at Thyatira. He says (Haer. I. 33) : " eiTre 7rd\iv Ypa-^rov rw ayyeXa rr)s e/c/cX^o-ta? ra> ev &vareipoi9 ovv eypafa TJJ fj,rj ov "^ = 200 = 666. This very remarkable discovery was made in 1835. S. John wishes to convey to his brethren a definite name. He makes use of gematria, or the science of numbers, with which they were familiar, and uses Greek letters to conceal his meaning from Nero and his officers. Recent researches have shown that, in the Hebrew writings of S. John's time, the name of Nero is spelt with a mark, called the Yod, equal to ten in gematria thus *lD*p, which would make the number of his name 676, not 666. But this does not detract from the value of the discovery, for it is felt that "iDp, without the Yod would be recognised as Nero by the brethren, as every other indication pointed to Nero. Dr. Hort says, " The absence of the Yod is nothing, there is excellent authority for that " (p. xxxi.). Dr. Swete says, " But the abbreviation is perhaps allowable in a cypher, and it is not without example " (Renan L' Antichrist, p. 415 ; op. cit. p. 176, note 4). THE DATE OF REVELATION 93 It will be remembered that S. Irenseus found in the more recent, and probably Latin copies of the Apocalypse, at Lyons, the number of the beast given as 616. This is fortunate, as it shows the Roman recipient of Revelation understood the meaning of the Beast, and marked his copy accordingly. The Latin name Nero Ccesar, expressed in Hebrew letters, and worked out to numerals by gematria, gives the number 616. Some have denied that Nero was the sixth King. They begin the line of Caesars with Augustus. We have to go back to the time of S. John to see how the Romans and Jews of the period reckoned the line of kings. Suetonius, who lived a few years after Nero's time, begins the list with Julius Caesar, in his work " The Twelve Caesars." Dion Cassius does the like. In the fourth book of Esdras, written by a Jewish Christian at the close of the first century, an angel, explaining the vision of the Roman eagle, says, that twelve kings shall reign in it, the second of which (Augustus) shall reign longer than any of the twelve (xii. 13 et seq.}. In Book V. of the Sibylline Oracles, written not long after the destruction of Jerusalem, in an enumeration of the Roman emperors, Julius Caesar is placed first, and Nero sixth. The emperors are not named, but are marked by a number corre- sponding to the initial letter of their official names. " He whose name signifies twice ten stands at the head of the series," meaning Kaicrap, or Julius Caesar K = 2O. Next follows: " He whose name is first of the alphabet" i.e. Augustus; and sixth, 50 = N Nero. Josephus, who lived in the reign of Nero, and who was a contemporary of S. John, makes Julius Caesar the first of the Caesars, and Nero the sixth. When we consider that the principal object of the Roman theses was to set forth the crime and punishment of Caesar worship, that Julius Caesar was the first of the Caesars, that he was the first of the Caesar Gods, that he gave his name to the line of the Caesars, that the name of Caesar is part of the name of the Beast, it seems unreasonable to exclude him from con- sideration. The Revelation foretells the overthrow of the Roman power by hostile armies. But Rome, Mistress of the World, was held by all in Nero's reign to be invincible. A symbol of a conquering power, threatening Rome, was required. It was chosen from Parthia. For more than a century Parthia, in defiance of Rome, had proudly upheld the banner of the lion in the broad lands beyond the Euphrates. For many years the struggle had been for the possession of 94 THE REVELATION the kingdom of Armenia. In the year 66, Tiridates, a Parthian of the royal line of Arsacid, came to Rome to receive at the hands of Nero the crown of the kingdom of Armenia. Tiridates was received with great splendour and the crown was given to him by Nero. We turn now to the Apocalypse. The action of the book begins at verse two of Chapter vi. where our Lord appears as a conqueror. " And I saw and beheld a white horse, and he that sat on him had a bow : and a crown was given to him, and he went forth conquering, that he might conquer." What is the significance of this symbolism ? The bow in those days was just as much a weapon of warfare as the rifle is to-day. The Romans had ceased to use it, but it was the chief weapon of their enemies, the Parthians, who used it, moreover, on horseback. The Parthian army was composed of mounted archers, whose battle tactics are so well known that " a Parthian shaft " has passed into a proverb. White was the sacred colour of the Persians, with whom the Parthians were confounded at Rome. The Roman poets of the Augustan era used the ex- pressions Parthia and Persia indifferently. A sacred white horse accompanied a Persian army. Kings of Persia who led their armies to battle were mounted on white horses. Parthian coins of the years 42-65, just before S. John's exile, show the King, Artabanus III. mounted on a white horse. The regular reverse type on Parthian coins shows the King deified as Apollo, armed with a bow, as a symbol of military power (Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches, pp. 58-61). The Apocalypse makes use of both sides of the coin in this symbolism. The horseman is identified as our Lord, later in the Apocalypse, when He appears at the head of His forces in final battle. He is " the Word of God " (R. xix. 13). Moreover, we are told that " He hath on his garments and on his thigh written, King of Kings and Lord of Lords" (R. xix. 16). Now Pljraates II. adopted the title of " King of Kings," which came into general use as the title of the Parthian kings from the time of Orodes, 38 B.C. It was the title of the Parthian kings when Tiridates came to Rome. A Greek inscription was found at Bisutun, in which G6terzs, a Parthian monarch who reigned A.D. 41-51, is called Satrap of Satraps, equivalent to Lord of Lords. He was chief Satrap of Parthia, and assumed the title of King of Kings, later on, when he came to the throne. It will probably be admitted that this is Parthian symbolism and that it throws light upon the date of the Apocalypse. The book was written, apparently, when Parthian politics in relation THE DATE OF REVELATION 95 to Rome deeply interested all parts of the Empire, as in the year 66. In all the thirty years that elapsed between the time of Tiridates' visit to Rome, and the persecution of Domitian, in 96, peace with Parthia reigned supreme. There was no Parthian question in Domitian's reign. The memory of the Parthian war had been blotted out by a succession of startling events at home and abroad. It is not probable that either Jewish or Parthian symbols would be familiar to the Servants of God in the year 96. The old Hebrew leaders of the Church were dead. The Kingdom of Christ had been long established. The primacy of the Church had passed to Rome, when Gentile Bishops ruled the Church. There was no one left to read the riddle of the Apocalypse aright. Papias, Justin Martyr, and Irenseus were all Millenarians. The mere fact that the Revelation was not understood in the year 96, shows that it was not written at that time or for that genera- tion. Dating the Book in Domitian's persecution is tantamount to saying that it fell flat and was not understood. 5. There is a note of vengeance running through the Book which seems out of harmony with the placid character of S. John's old age and the nature of his teachings late in life. On the other hand, before the fall of the Temple, the fulfilment of prophecies was in the air. The Nazarene Church had in- herited Jewish ideals, and believed in the lex or jus talionis. " The Lord is a jealous God and an avenger and hath wrath, the Lord takes vengeance on his adversaries " (Nahum i. 2. See Exod. xxi. 24, and Levit. xxiv. 20). The Book itself is in a great measure a revelation of God's vengeance on Jew and Pagan. The day of vengeance had come. The scroll of vengeance was unrolled in the sight of the Seer, and he was told to write it down. We can hardly imagine S. John, carried into church, and preaching brotherly love as the one thing needed (p. 20), and in the same period of his life breathing forth the fire and slaughter of the Apocalypse, and painting its pictures of vengeance. The Domitian date is not patristic. It clashes with early and well established traditions. The internal evidence of the Book rules it out of court. It seems most probable, therefore, that the Apocalypse was written in the Neronian persecution, early in the year 67. S. Irenseus, the supposed author of the Domitian date, makes no mention of Domitian persecution. THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA A FOREWORD is needed as to the meaning of the Letters addressed to the Angels of the Seven Churches of Proconsular Asia, viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Many have thought that the Letters were intended for the above-named local Churches. Montanus of Phrygia thought so, and paved the way to schism. On the other hand some have thought, even in early days, that the Letters were addressed to the Church at large. Victorinus, Bishop of Petavio, A.D. 303, the earliest commen- tator on the Apocalypse, says : " What John addresses to one Church he addresses to all. Paul has first taught us that there are seven Churches in the whole world, and that the seven Churches named mean the Catholic Church " (Bib. Max. Patrum, Tom. iii., p. 414 ff.). Andreas of Cappadocia agreed with this. Grotius and Vitringa held that the letters to the seven churches revealed the condition of the Church in the successive ages of its existence down to the end of the world (see Vit. in Apoc., p. 32). The Ven. Holzhauser specialised on this subject, to which he devoted a great part of his book, " The Interpretation of the Apocalypse " (A.D. 1646). He found in these Letters a prediction of the spiritual state of the Church of Christ in the seven ages of its existence ; and he attempted to map out the seven ages from the pages of history. Far-reaching consequences hang upon this inquiry. If we find that the letters were not intended for the local Churches of Asia Minor, but for the universal Church of all time, the messages will have to be re-examined and closely scrutinised from the point of view of history. From data already obtained, we may be sure that this will lead to most important con- clusions respecting the past and future of the Church, the millennium, and the position of the Church of the twentieth century in the secular scale. It seems probable that the early Church took the Letters to be symbolical ; the note of symbolism is so clearly stamped 96 THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 97 upon the whole Book of Revelation. If we look at the " History of the Book," we will find that S. Polycarp in his Letter to the Philadelphians made no mention of the Letters. S. Ignatius of Antioch in his Epistles to Ephesus, Smyrna, and Philadelphia ignored the Letters. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, close to Laodicea, made no reference to them. Neither did any other early writer of Asia Minor, or elsewhere. The Apocalypse was known. Its millenarian passages had given rise to Chiliasm. But there is a significant silence about the Letters. If the letters were written in the Hebraic metaphoric style, which veils the political predictions of the Book, one could under- stand this silence. But they are not. They are written almost entirely in plain language. If their warnings came home to the individual Churches, and the truth and application of each was generally recognised, we should hear of it. It would have entered into the prolonged controversies as to the merits of the Book. The Seven Churches of Asia would surely be found ranged with the supporters of the Book. As a matter of fact, there is no mention of the Letters in the polemic about the authorship of Revelation. They seem to have been taken by both sides as symbolic and incomprehensible. The mere fact of there being seven Churches would have arrested the atten- tion of S. John's Hebrew compeers. Seven, as we shall see in the next chapter, was a sacred Hebrew symbol, signifying completeness, or the full cycle of the things denoted by that number. In the seven days of creation and the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost, we have characteristic illustrations of the meaning of the number seven. But to the numerical symbol we have added, in this particular instance of the Seven Churches, a most elaborate symbolical introduction. The Seven Churches are seen in a vision as " seven golden candlesticks " (R. i. 12). Our Lord explains to S. John that " the seven candlesticks are the Seven Churches " (R. i. 20). These candlesticks were familiarly known to the Hebrew Servants of God. They were the seven lamps of the Tabernacle of the Temple of Jerusalem, lamps which branched from a common stem uniting them all into one solid lamp of gold. This lamp was designed by God, and the orders for its construction are given in Exodus xxv. 31 ff. It was a peculiarly sacred object. Even the oil burnt in it, was prescribed for its use by God (Levit. xxiv. 2). The light of the Tabernacle symbolised the Light of the Old Law. When the Temple was destroyed the Light of the Old Law was extinguished. The sacred candlestick was taken to Rome to adorn the triumphal procession of Titus ; and its shape and form are sculptured upon his Arch, at Rome. The accompanying sketch, which 7 98 THE REVELATION does not profess to be correct, was taken partly from the Arch of Titus and partly from the details in Exodus. It will serve to illustrate the symbolism of the Seven Churches. The seven golden candlesticks of the Tabernacle are made use of by Jesus Christ to symbolise His Church, through which He shines, as the Light of the World. The Candlesticks and Churches appear in the first chapter of the Book and are introduced in this way. "The Revelation of Jesus Christ which God gave to him to make known to his servants the things which must shortly come to pass, and signified sending by his angel to his servant John" (R. i. i). A revelation of the future was given to John to make known to the Servants of God. We may anticipate the exegesis a little by saying that the " Servants " of God form the hierarchy of the Church. Then follows, " John to the Seven Churches " grace and peace from the Father, the Holy Spirit, and Jesus Christ who has made us a kingdom and priests to God. " I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet, saying : What thou seest write in a book ; and send to the seven churches which are in Asia, to Ephesus, and to Smyrna, and to Pergamos, and to Thyatira, and to Sardis, and to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea. And I turned to see the voice that spoke with me : and being turned, I saw seven golden candlesticks. And in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks, one like unto the Son of Man. . . . And he had in his right hand seven stars. . . . And when I saw him, I fell at his feet as dead. And he laid his right hand upon me, saying : Fear not : I am the first and the last. . . . Write, therefore, the things which thou hast seen, and which are, and which must be done hereafter. The mystery of the seven stars, which thou sawest in my right hand, and the seven golden candlesticks : the seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven candlesticks are the seven churches " (R. i. 10-20). The first and most important point to notice is that this is a vision of the future. S. John was ordered to make known to the servants of God " the things which must shortly come to pass." It is a revelation in the sense of a prediction or prophecy. S. John heard behind him a great voice, and " turned to see the voice," and being turned " saw seven golden candlesticks," corresponding to the Seven Churches. This imagery places the Seven Churches in the future. The prophets looked upon history as a procession of events. As in a procession the leader must turn round and look behind him to see what is coming after him, so the prophet turns round to see the events which follow after him in point of time. Looking behind him into the future, S. John saw seven golden candle- THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 99 sticks, which our Lord tells him, " are the seven churches," subsequently named, from Ephesus to Laodicea. He saw " in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks one like unto the Son of Man." This vision confirms the promise made by our Lord to His^Church. " Behold I am with you all days even to the consummation of the world " (Matt, xxviii. 20). And our Lord had " in his right hand seven stars " which He tells us are " the Angels of the Seven Churches." The Angels of the Churches are the Chief Bishops of the Church, the successors of S. Peter, to whom it was said, " Thou art Peter and upon ioo THE REVELATION this rock I will build my Church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it" (Matt. xvi. 18). This promise is also confirmed by the vision. Some writers have held that the Angels of the Churches are not flesh and blood, but spiritual beings, in charge of the Churches, as guardian angels. Our Lord held visible stars in His right hand, and He tells S. John that these are the " angels " of the Seven Churches. Spirits are invisible and intangible, and do not correspond to the symbolism. More- over, these angels of the Apocalypse are admonished, warned, praised and encouraged, according to the state of their Churches. It is not probable that God would grant visions to S. John, and order him to write a book about them and send it to super- natural beings. We may anticipate the exegesis a little by saying that " angels " and " apostles " are derived from two Greek words, having the same meaning, " a messenger " or " one sent." We assume that the Angels are the successors of the Apostles, who as Chief Bishops, rule the Church. The introduction to the seven Churches contains one other important note for our guidance. Our Lord refers to " the mystery " of the seven stars, and the seven golden candlesticks. He draws attention to the fact that this vision veils a mystery, and He lifts but a corner of the veil. The Key to the mystery lies in the seven candlesticks which symbolise the seven churches. As the seven-branched lamp of the tabernacle formed but one lamp, so the seven churches are one church, the complete cycle of the Church of Christ in its secular aspect. The seven lamps of the Tabernacle in their union with each other, through their foundation and support, represent the union of the Church in all its ages with its founder and supporter Jesus Christ. This invests every one of the Seven Churches of Asia with a symbolic significance. Collectively they stand for the universal Church of all time. Individually they stand for its seven successive periods. It is generally accepted that the history of the Church, as it lies before us, falls naturally into seven divisions, each having its special characteristics. First, " the Apostolic Church. Second, the Church of the Martyrs. Third, the Church of the Confessors and Doctors. Fourth, the wide- spreading Church of the Middle Ages. Fifth, the Church of the Reformation period. Sixth, the present day Church of the open door. Seventh, the Church of the last days." Holzhauser thought that the seven churches from Ephesus to Laodicea were selected because their names indicated the THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 101 chief characteristics of the different ages of the Church. Thus, Ephesus means "counsel," "my wish" and "great distinction." The first age witnessed the will of God in the new counsel of Christianity. It also witnessed the aboli- tion of the Old Law and the advent of the Kingdom of Christ. Smyrna means " canticles," or " myrrh." Myrrh is an emblem of blood. It characterises the martyrs' age, which ended in the canticles of the Church triumphant (R. vii. 10). Pergamos means " dividing the horns." It witnesses to the separation of truth from heresy, which took place in the third age ; also the division of the Church into East and West. Thyatira means "to be lighted up." It is a symbol of the conversion of the nations, which took place in the fourth age. Sardis signifies, " the origin or cause of beauty," referring to the Reformation persecution, which renewed the strength and beauty of the Church in the fifth age. Philadelphia means, " brotherly love," the characteristic of the present or sixth age. And Laodicea means " vomiting," significant of the last age of the Church. The Seven Churches to which the Book of Revelation was sent, were situated on the main Roman road circling in S. John's district of Proconsular Asia in the same order in which they are named by S. John. This will be seen in the accompanying map. Starting from S. John's headquarters at Ephesus and travelling north, one came first to Smyrna, and then to Pergamos, where the road turned south-east, then to Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea. There is a peculiarity in the selection of these names which gives colour to Holzhauser's theory. A glance at the map will show that the seventh city on the Roman road was Hierapolis. But that Church was passed over in favour of Laodicea, because Laodicea signifies vomiting. Of this Church our Lord says, " But because thou art lukewarm and neither cold nor hot I will begin to vomit thee out of my mouth " (R. iii. 16). The Letters were not Epistles from S. John to his flock, although the Churches addressed were in his Apostolic charge. They are unlike any of the Canonical Epistles. They come direct from God. Their opening words are prophetic and their concluding words show that they are the outpourings of the Holy Spirit. Every letter ends thus, " He that hath an ear let him hear what the Spirit saith to the Churches." Dr. Swete makes a comment on the Greek text with which these letters begin, which confirms the above conclusion. He says : The formula T> o/yyeA,&> . . . ypd^ov : TaSe Xeyet is not epistolary, but prophetic; for jpd-^rov cf. i. n, 19; xiv. 13; xix. 9; IO2 THE REVELATION THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 103 xxi. 5. TdSe \eyei announces a prophetic message, as frequently in the LXX (" The Apocalypse of S. John," p. xli, Note 4). The Letters are distinctly a part of the Revelation of S. John, and they are put in the forefront of his Book. The reader will find that they relate exclusively to the interior state of the Church. There are predictions as to the punish- ments of the wicked and the rewards of the just, also as to persecution ; but the general tenor of the Letters is a survey of the moral condition of the Church, accompanied by advice and warning, and guidance from the Holy Spirit. As addressed to living local Churches, one fails to understand how they could be taken as a prediction. The repetition of warnings and threats of punishment remind one of the prophecies of the Old Law. The predictions of the prophets were given to the chosen people to encourage them to virtue and especially to warn them of the final doom of impeni- tence. It is natural to suppose that a similar concession would be made to human weakness in the new Dispensation. The Revelation or Prophecy of S. John stands to the Church of Christ in the same relation as the prophecies of the Old Law stood to Judaism. It reveals the future, warns the Church, and proclaims the final judgment. This will appear more distinctly in the detailed exegesis of the Letters. The importance of the Seven Churches in the scheme of Revelation is not limited by the Letters. The Book of Reve- lation as a whole was intended for them. The Command of God was thus expressed to S. John, " What thou seest write in a book and send to the seven churches " (R. i. n, where see notes). " What thou seest " relates to the visions which come on after the Seven Letters, which visions contain the revelation of the future, down to the end of the world. Philadelphia, the sixth Church, is warned of the near approach of the second coming of Christ, "Behold I come quickly" (R. iii. n). Laodicea, the seventh and last church, is warned that the second coming is at the door, " Behold I stand at the door and knock " (R. iii. 20). " The last words of the Apocalypse, based on two passages of Deuteronomy, place the Apocalypse on a level with the Torah, and anticipate a place for it among the Scriptures of the Church. It is evident that S. John anticipated that it would go down to posterity as a book fc-r the warning and comfort of the whole Church to the end of time " (Swete, op. cit., p. xcviii). We read in the last words, " For I testify to every one that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book : If any man shall add to these things, God shall add io 4 THE REVELATION upon him the plagues written in this book. And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from these things which are written in this book. . . . Surely I come quickly: Amen" (R. xxii. 18-20). There is evidence here that the book was sent to Churches which will last to the end of the world. It is a prediction. It foresees the abundant apocalyptic literature of the seven- teenth and later centuries, and it warns us not to tamper with the words of the book. So far we have examined the Letters without reference to the special circumstances of the local Churches of Asia. We turn now to compare one with the other. The result would be astonishing if it were not foreseen. There appears to be very little connection between the Letters and the Churches. When the Revelation was given, in the year 67, the Seven Churches of Asia were newly formed. Some of them barely existed. When S. Paul went to Ephesus, about the year 54, he found certain disciples there, but they had not been either instructed or baptised. He asked them : " Have you received the Holy Ghost since ye believed ? But they said to him : We have not so much as heard whether there be a Holy Ghost. And he said : In what then were you baptised ? Who said : In John's baptism. . . . Having heard these things they were baptised in the name of the Lord Jesus. And when Paul had imposed his hands on them, the Holy Ghost came upon them, and they spoke with tongues and prophesied. And all the men were about twelve " (Acts xix. 2, 7). This was, practically, the foundation of the Church of Ephesus. Twelve men were baptised and confirmed by S. Paul. It would appear that they received, in Confirmation, the same gifts which the Apostles received on the day of Pentecost, for they spoke with tongues and prophesied; that is, preached as the mouthpieces of God. They were not bishops in the modern sense of the word, w r ith mitre and ring, and with a titular diocese. In the first century, " ancients," or " presbyters " of the Church were placed in charge of Christian groups, large enough to require supervision. These men had not the dignified position acquired by bishops of the Church in later times. But their existence in Asia Minor and their office as overseers of the Churches, is made clear by the " Acts of the Apostles " and the Epistles of S. Paul. About three years after S. Paul had consecrated the twelve men of Ephesus, he was shipwrecked at Malta on his way to Jerusalem. He sent to THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 105 Ephesus for the ancients of the Church, presumably these same twelve men. " Sending from Miletus to Ephesus, he called the ancients of the Church " (Acts xx. 17). And thus he addressed them : " Take heed to yourselves and to the whole flock, wherein the Holy Ghost hath placed you overseers [eVtovcoTroi] to rule the Church of God, which he hath purchased with his own blood " (Acts xx. 28). It appears, from the Acts of the Apostles, that the Church of Ephesus, the mother Church of the Province of Asia, was founded by S. Paul some thirteen years before the Apocalypse was writtten. We do not know when the other Churches, mentioned in the Letters, were founded. There is no evidence that S. Paul himself visited any of them. They were converted by missionaries, who spread out from Ephesus in the course of time. They were, therefore, founded later than A.D. 54. The exact dates of the acts of S. Paul are not known. The only fixed point we have is the date of the death of Portius Festus, the Roman Governor, which took place in the year 62. He it was who sent S. Paul to Rome for trial by Nero. This is supposed to have been about the year 61. Before that, S. Paul had been imprisoned at Csesarea, for more than two years, by Felix the governor. And so we work back to the other dates approximately. It is plain, at all events, that all of the Seven Churches of Asia were recently founded when the Letters were written, and that some of them were in their infancy as Churches. It is well known that there was no organised " church," in our sense of the word, in any of the cities of Asia Minor in the year 67. There was no public worship, no religious building, and no united congregation of the faithful. Christians were not allowed church buildings until the third century. In a great city like Ephesus, there were, at that time, small gather- ings of the faithful, held privately, in the houses of leading Christians. Each of them was known as a church. S. Paul speaks of " Nymphas and the church, that is in his house " (Col. iv. 15). Judging by the " Acts," the Apostles lodged in these so-called churches from time to time. " Aquila and Priscilla salute you much in the Lord, with the church that is in their house ; with whom I also lodge " (i Cor. xvi. 19). The epistle to Philemon is sent, not only to Philemon, but also " to the church which is in thy house " (Phil. 2). Writing generally of the history of the seven Churches, it may be said that they became infested with the Montanist and Arian heresies, which arose in the East, and tormented the Church of the first centuries. When the seat of Empire was transferred from Rome to Constantinople in the fourth century, they came 106 THE REVELATION under the Byzantine influence, and at the end of that century passed into the hands of the Greek Church. In the fifth century these Churches espoused the cause of Eutyches and embraced the Monophysite doctrine. Various dissensions arose in con- sequence, but all the forms of Eutychianism were united in the Jacobite Church by the monk, Jacob, in the sixth century. In the seventh century (636) the Arab conquest of Syria brought continual misfortunes upon that part of Asia. As members of the Orthodox Greek Church they shared in the conflicts between the Greeks and the Catholic Church : they denied the supremacy of the Pope and the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. They were finally excommuni- cated with the rest of the Greek Church, by Leo IX. in the year 1054. I n the same century they were overrun by the Seljuk Turks. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the district of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor was devastated by Islamic hordes of wandering nomads, with whom the Byzantine power was unable to cope. At the end of the thirteenth century Mohammedanism reigned supreme in the whole district, and it does so still. The Sultan of Turkey is now lord of Asia Minor. Some of the Churches of the Apocalypse have disappeared entirely. Others survive as Orthodox Greek, or Jacobite Churches. Some even of the great cities, which gave their names to the Churches, are gone from the face of the earth. Ephesus and Laodicea are mere heaps of ruins. The first and the last, and also the greatest of the Churches, have long since disappeared. This sad historic record points to the conclusion that the Seven Churches of Asia were but vanishing symbols of the ages of a Church which is imperishable. When we compare the Letters with the Churches in the exegesis, we shall find remarkable divergences. The statements made regarding them do not generally fit in with their condition as primitive Churches. But the things omitted are, if possible, still more surprising. Here we have Churches that were later more or less infected by Arianism and the other heresies which ravaged the Greek Church. There is not a word about heresy in any one of the Letters. On the contrary, Pergamos, the third Church, which we take to symbolise the third age, or age of heresies, is told, " I know where thou dwellest, where the seat of Satan is, and thou boldest fast my name and hast not denied my faith " (R. ii. 13). We can understand this as addressed to the Church of Rome, but not as addressed to the Church of Pergamos in Asia Minor. There is not a word about the extinction of the Churches. Quite the reverse. They are treated as guardians of the Book of Revelation till the end of THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 107 time. To the last Church it is said, " Behold I stand at the door and knock." This message was sent to Laodicea more than eighteen hundred years ago, and Christ has not come yet. More than that, Laodicea disappeared long ago. Its ruins are found near the village of Denizli, formerly called Denizli Ladik. Of positive divergences between the Letters and the Churches to which they are nominally addressed, it will be sufficient to mention here two glaring instances. Others will be found in the detailed exegesis. The longest Letter of the series is addressed to Thyatira. This Church is assumed to be of long standing and renowned for its good works. Our Lord says, " I know thy works, and thy faith, and thy charity, and thy ministry, and thy patience, and thy last works, which are more than the former " (R. ii. 19). What are the facts? The city of Thyatira was the smallest and least important of the seven. Its Church is unknown to history. Eusebius, the early Ecclesiastical Historian, does not mention it. Its early converts seem never to have gained sufficient strength to form a Church. The Alogi, who were very prominent Antimontanists, made it one of their strongest arguments against the authority of the Apocalypse, that there was no Church at Thyatira. They lived in Asia Minor towards the end of the second century, and were in a position to know. Controversialists of those days were very acute. If there had been a Church at Thyatira, we should have heard something about it. But the statement of the Alogi remains to this day uncontested. Again, take the case of Laodicea. This Church is assumed to be the worst of the seven, so bad, indeed, that our Lord threatens to vomit it out of His mouth (R. iii. 16). As it happens, we know more about this Church than any other, because it rose to be a well organised and zealous Church, in fact, the Primatial Church of the District. Eusebius mentions it frequently. It has left its mark upon history, and all that we know of it leads to the conclusion that it was one of the best Churches of the Seven. Putting all these facts together we will do well to range our- selves with the early Church in considering these Letters as symbolical. If they symbolise the Christian Church in its seven ages, then their meaning is clear, and this forecast of Church history splendidly accurate. For example, Thyatira, the middle Church of the seven, becomes the Church of the Middle Ages, and its Letter depicts its condition and trials accurately, with the far-seeing eye of prophecy. How comes it then that these Letters were addressed to the Seven Churches of Asia ? S. John had a prophetic revelation to make to the " Angels," or chief Bishops of the Christian io8 THE REVELATION Church of the future. That Church he foresaw was divisible into seven periods, each requiring a separate message of warning. The problem was an extremely difficult one. The chief thing to be avoided in warning the Churches of the future was to give them names that would rivet attention on local Churches. If the Letters had been addressed to the leading Churches of S. John's time, Jerusalem, Rome or Antioch, for example, it would be difficult to escape the conclusion that they were intended for those Churches. The system adopted, of giving the Churches the names of the cities met with in sequence on the Roman road circulating in S. John's district, was so obviously conven- tional, that it would tend to dissipate the idea that the Letters were meant for the local Churches. If these cities had names corresponding in a way with the chief characteristics of the Churches of the future, that was an advantage. If the local Churches named, were to work out a record unlike that of Revelation addressed to them, and were to be extinguished in the Middle Ages, that would bean additional advantage. They could not then be mistaken for the Churches of Revelation. We know the prophetic warnings concerning them follow the analogy of the prophecies of the Old Law as regards mysterious- ness. And we know also that we are warned at the end of each Letter to study them deeply, as a mystery to be unravelled, for that is the meaning of " He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith to the Churches." The question arises, how would the followers of S. John and the servants of God, in his own day, take the Letters ? They were men who knew Greek, but thought in Hebrew. They appreciated the esoteric character of the whole Book, and would be prepared to take the Letters as symbolic. Besides they knew the condition of the Churches named, how they were recently formed, immature Churches, without any special history, in some places without chief bishops corresponding to the Angels of the Churches. They knew also the conditions of the cities, how they were pagan cities in which the idolatries and vices of Greece and Rome were unhappily blended. Practically the Christians in all those cities were subject to the same environment and the same temptations. One circular letter would have sufficed for them all. It is commonly believed that S. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, was, in fact, a circular letter to the local Churches. " The words, ev 'E^eVw, in the first verse of the Epistle do not belong to the primitive text " (P. Ladeuze, Ephesians in Cath. Encyc.). This Epistle, written probably about A.D. 62, does not moreover correspond in any way with the Revelation Letters of A.D. 67. A very curious thing happened to S. Paul, not many years THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA 109 before the Letters appeared, which would in a manner have pre- pared the brethren to question the importance of the Seven Churches of Asia. When S. Paul and Barnabas went forth to preach to the Gentiles, having " passed through Phrygia, and the country of Galatia, they were forbidden by the Holy Ghost to preach the word of God in Asia. And when they were come into Mysia, they attempted to go into Bithynia : and the spirit of Jesus permitted them not " (Acts xvi. 6, 7). This very startling incident in the history of the early Church had been reported to the " brethren " at Jerusalem. It was well known to all. And there must have been some speculation amongst them as to the reason why S. Paul was turned away from the country of the Seven Churches of Asia. A mysterious mark was placed against those Churches. It was a mystery to the brethren, and it prepared them for the mystery of the Churches. ... TO [AvaTrjpiov . . . ra? e-Trra Xf%i/ta? (R. i. 20). The brethren knew that the Letters were symbolical. But it is not probable that they understood their true significance, excepting those to whom the Book was sent S. Simeon of Jerusalem, and S. Paul at Rome. Could S. John explain to the brethren that the local Churches, from Ephesus to Laodicea, in which they were zealously labouring, were destined to fall into heresy and decay 1 Could he reveal the heresies of the future to them ? Could he tell them of the Moslem Power that would destroy these Churches in the middle ages, not only the Churches, but the great cities of Ephesus and Laodicea ? The curiosity of the Brethren once aroused would prompt these and a host of other questions. There is no evidence that S. John told anyone about the meaning of the Letters. The most illuminating incident in the history of these Letters is furnished by the attitude of the local Churches, from Ephesus to Laodicea, towards them. A cele- brated Council of the Church was held at Laodicea in the year 360, when these Churches had attained their full development. It was attended by the Bishops of Asia Minor, amongst them the Angels or Bishops of the Seven Churches to whom these Letters were addressed. They had ample time to study the connection between the Letters and the Churches. An oppor- tunity was then afforded them of showing how they valued the Letters. They dropped the whole Book of Revelation, Letters and all, out of the Canon of the Scriptures. The Apocalypse of S. John does not appear in Canon 60 of the Synod of Laodicea (C. 3, 606). The 'meaning of that is plain. The men on the spot, who had the best means of testing the Letters, and who from their position as Bishops of the local Churches, were no THE REVELATION bound to examine the question reverently and closely, came to the conclusion that the Letters were not intended for the Churches. These Letters are a Christian Prophecy comparable to that given to the Jews by the Prophets of the Old Law. So far as the Church is concerned the Letters are the most important part of the whole Book of Revelation. The events foretold in the Jewish theme, the Roman theme, and the millennium have passed away. But the Letters to Philadelphia and Laodicea concern the present generation. The Letters are drawn up on a common sevenfold plan, comprehensive in character. They are the only portion of the Book, dictated to S. John, word by word, by God. First. They are addressed to the Angels or bishops of the Churches, in prophetic style. Second. They are introduced by some very significant attribute, taken from the vision of our Lord in the Preface. Third. Every Letter continues, " I know thy works " or " thy labours," or some other distinguishing character of the Church addressed. Fourth. The chief characteristics of the Church, good or bad, are briefly outlined. Fifth. Praise or blame is meted out to the Churches, and rewards or punishments are predicted for them. Sixth. The Churches are exhorted to do penance or hold fast the faith they have received. Seventh. Every Letter ends thus, " He that hath an ear let him hear what the Spirit saith to the Churches." THE Revelation of S. John is divisible naturally into seven parts, i. The Preface. 2. The Letters to the Seven Churches. 3. The Jewish Theme. 4. The Roman Theme. 5. The Mil- lennium and final struggles of the Church. 6. The Judgment. 7. Paradise. It ends with an Epilogue. Part I. Consists of the Title Page of the Book ; its general preface and a special preface to the Letters to the Seven Churches. (Chapter I.) Part II. Contains the Letters to the Angels of the Seven Churches. (Chapters II. and III.) Part III. Relates chiefly to the Jews. It has interludes, as will be seen from the following synopsis of its Chapters. Chapter IV. Vision of the throne of God. The Jewish prophecies are contained in a book with Seven Seals. Ch. V. The first four seals are opened disclosing our Lord as a Conqueror, followed by war, famine, pestilence, and death. We are invited to notice that these are the active agents of God's wrath in the following Chapters of the Book. Ch. VI. The fifth seal shows the martyrs crying to heaven for vengeance. They are told to wait till their roll is complete. Then follows the Sixth Seal, a vision of the completion of the martyrs' roll. Ch. VII. An interlude in which Hebrew Christians are pro- tected by the sign of the Cross from the vengeance which is about to fall upon the Jews. Ch. VIII. The Seventh Seal relates to vengeance upon the Jews. From it proceed seven woe trumpets. The first four trumpets bring dire calamities upon the Jews. Ch. IX. The fifth trumpet looses the spirits of the bottom- less pit upon the Jews. Then follows a vision of vengeance upon Rome, contained in the sixth trumpet. Ch. X. Continues the Roman interlude. S. John is given a little open book and is told to digest its contents, and to prophesy about many nations and peoples and tongues and Kings. in ii2 THE REVELATION Ch. XI. Takes us back to Jerusalem, where two witnesses appear and exhort the Jews to repentance. They are slain. An earthquake destroys the city. The Seventh Angel sounds his trumpet, and the end of the Jewish Covenant is indicated. Part IV. Caesar worship and the punishment of Rome. Ch. XII. The Roman theme begins with a preface of its own a vision of the Church as a woman in labour, and Satan, the dragon, trying to destroy her. The woman is saved and Satan departs to make war on the rest of her seed. Ch. XIII. A Beast arises from the sea, typifying the Roman Empire. The dragon gives him his own strength and power. A lamb-like beast, typical of the pagan hierarchy, arises from the earth, and makes the earth worship the Beast, whose number is 666. Ch. XIV. The martyrs appear in heaven rejoicing. Their cry for vengeance on Rome is heard. Angels proclaim the hour of judgment on Rome. The Son of Man appears with a sickle. The harvest of the pagan Empire is reaped, and the winepress of God's wrath is trodden down and overflows with blood. Ch. XV. Seven angels appear with the seven last plagues of God's wrath upon Rome. The martyrs sing a song of triumph. Ch. XVI. The vials of God's wrath are poured out upon men having the mark of the Beast, upon the' Beast, and upon his throne. They blaspheme God, and repent not. The Dragon, the Beast, and the False-prophet, collect armies for a final effort, the battle of Armagedon. Ch. XVII. One of the seven angels explains the meaning of the symbols. The woman, " Babylon " is Rome ; the Beast is the line of Caesar Gods, particularly Nero ; and the horns of the Beast are Kings who shall destroy Rome. Ch. XVIII. A glorious angel proclaims the fall of Rome. A picture of the burning and desolation of Rome follows. Heaven, the apostles and prophets are told to rejoice because God has executed His judgment on Rome. Ch. XIX. The martyrs rejoice, because the Church is free. The Church appears as a bride. Heaven is opened and the Lord and His army ride forth to the battle of Armagedon. The Beast and the False prophet are taken and cast into hell. Part V. The Millennium and afterwards. Ch. XX. Satan is chained up for a thousand years, and then loosed for " a little time." He causes the nations to surround " the camp of the saints " and " the beloved city." He is cast down to hell and his armies destroyed. Part VI. The General Judgment. PLAN AND SYMBOLISM OF REVELATION 113 Ch. XX. Verses n to 15. Part VII. The New Jerusalem. Ch. XXI. and Ch. XXII. Verses 1-5. Epilogue. Ch.-XXII. Verses 6 to 21. Viewed in this synoptic form the Book is easily understood. It will be noticed that the Chapters formed by Cardinal Stephen Langton about seven hundred years ago agree, as a rule, with the divisions of the Book. The Seven Parts of the Book, although separate in detail, are united by threads of continuation running through them all. The promises made to the Angels of the Seven Churches in the beginning of the Book are repeated towards the end. The throne of God in Chapter IV. which forms the preface to the General Revelation, is shown to be in permanent session throughout the action of the Book. Angels come and go from it, to execute the commands of God. There is a distinct verbal connection too. The same words and expres- sions are used in different parts of the Book, to show that they relate to the same events. This is better seen in the original Greek than in translations. Examples of this will be found in the exegesis. To give one value to one and the same word is a leading principle of hermeneutics. The greater part of the Book is written in a cypher of symbolism derived from the Old Testament, which forms its code. In a general way it may be said that the esoteric meaning of the Book can be discovered by following up its O.T. references. It has been shown in the Biography of S. John that the Roman invasion of Judaea, the Neronian persecution, and Caesar worship, were the principal subjects heavily weighing on his mind when he went to Patmos. The synopsis of Revelation given above, shows that they formed the leading themes of his Book. The Jewish theme and the Roman theme neces- sarily contained many political allusions to Rome, some of which certainly would be considered treasonable. The Book needed a cypher known to the Servants of God alone, to keep it from recoiling on the heads of its friends. The symbolic style of the prophets Isaias, Jeremias, Ezechiel, and Daniel, formed a vehicle of communication exactly suited to the occasion. Dr. Swete says : " The writer of the New Testament Apocalypse has made large use of the Apocalyptic portions of the Old Testament. He refers to the Book of Daniel in some forty-five places . . . and the Books of 8 IH THE REVELATION Isaias, Ezechiel, and Zacharias are used with almost equal frequency, while other prophets, the Psalter and the Pentateuch are often in view. No book in the New Testament is so thoroughly steeped in the thought and imagery of the Hebrew Scriptures " (Op. cit. liii.). Westcott and Hort have calculated that of 405 verses' in the Apocalypse, 265 contain Old Testament language, and there are 500 references to the same Scriptures in the Book. Amos, Joel, and Osee, are laid under contribution, and there are references to Genesis and Exodus. The prophets of the Old Law foretold the woes of the people of Israel for their constant relapses into idolatry, symbolised as harlotry. They are full of the symbolic vocabulary of punish- ments in store for the Jews, and for the Gentiles, especially the Babylonians. This language lent itself admirably to the purpose of S. John, whose Jewish and Roman themes deal with the punishment of the Jews and Romans. But the prophets of the Old Law uttered many predictions which were in process of fulfilment when the Revelation was written. S. John shows great care in selecting extracts from the O.T. with the double object of explaining the context of his Book, and showing forth the fulfilment of prophecies. It was S. John's aim to gather the prophecies of the Old Law, and focus them on the event and prove that the things fore- told by the prophets came literally true. A part of his object in writing the Apocalypse was to demonstrate the truth of the Messianic prophecies, which all hang together, whether they relate to the Messias, to His kingdom, or to the extinction of the old Judaism. If the prophets foretold truly the destruction of Jerusalem, they were inspired by God in all things, throughout. S. John's plan was to write the Book of Revelation as a con- tinuation of the Prophecy of Daniel, from the point where it broke off, and was closed and sealed. Daniel's prophecy related to the destruction of the Temple. That was known to the Hebrew Servants of God. When the Apostles asked our Lord about the destruction of the Temple, He answered, " When there- fore you shall see the abomination of desolation, which was spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing in the Holy place . . . then they that are in Judaea let them flee to the mountains " (Matt. xxiv. 15 f.). When Daniel heard, "And when the scattering of the band of the holy people shall be accomplished, all these things shall be finished," he wanted to know more, and was answered, " Go, Daniel, because the words are shut up, and sealed until the appointed time " (Dan. xii. 9). This abrupt and tantalising ending of the prophecy of Daniel had prepared the Apostles for another prophecy, breaking the seals, when the time appointed should arrive. That time had come. PLAN AND SYMBOLISM OF REVELATION 115 Rome had declared war on the Jews, and her legions were on the way to Jerusalem. What could be more appropriate than to throw the second and supplementary prophecy into the form of a sealed book, of which the seals should be broken one by one, as a continuation of the prophecy of Daniel ? It was not only appropriate itself and enlightening to the Servants of God, to whom the Revelation was sent, but it struck at once the note of O.T. symbolism which forms the key to the cypher of the Apocalypse. The prophecy of Daniel looked beyond the fall of the Temple, and foresaw the rise of the New Kingdom of Christ. As that shrewd exegete, John Henry Newman, pointed out, Daniel foretold the kingdom. " Nay holy Daniel himself is in no small measure employed on this very subject. He it is who announces a fifth kingdom like 'a stone cut without hands,' which broke in pieces and consumed all former kingdoms, but was itself to ' stand for ever.' . . . He saw in the night visions, and behold one like the Son of Man came with the clouds of heaven and came to the Ancient of Days, and there was given to Him dominion and glory and a kingdom that all people, nations, and lan- guages should serve Him " (" Essays Crit. and Hist.," vol. ii. p. 174). The reader will find loud echoes of these prophecies of Daniel reverberating through the Revelation of S. John. The woe trumpets of the Jewish theme lead up to the proclamation of the Kingdom. When the seventh trumpet sounded, "there were great voices in heaven saying, The Kingdom of this world is become our Lord's and his Christ's, and he shall reign for ever and ever, Amen " (R. xi. 15). We are told previously that when the seventh angel "shall begin to sound the trumpet, the mystery of God shall be finished, as he has declared by his servants the prophets " (R. x. 7). That mystery had reference to the destruction of the Temple and the King- dom of Christ. These passages show the close connection between these events in S. John's mind. And they show the period of his Book, viz., not long before the fall of the Temple of Jerusalem, which synchronised with the rise of the Kingdom of Christ. S. John was chosen as the prophet of the New Law when our Lord said, " So I will have him to remain till I come" (Jhn. xxi. 22). The mantle of the prophet Daniel fell upon him. An angel addresses him in the Book as " thy fellow servant and of thy brethren, the prophets " (R. xxii. 9). And he says to him, " Seal not the words of the prophecy of this book, for the time is at hand" (R. xxii. 10). Thus contrasting the prophecy of S. John with that of Daniel in words pregnant with mean- ing, taken from Daniel's prophecy. ii6 THE REVELATION The Book of Daniel was not concerned with the fall of the Roman Empire. It was necessary therefore before beginning the Roman theme, to provide another book, from which to draw the thread of narrative. This is done by introducing a little open book at Chapter X., in an interlude, before the close of the Jewish theme The Roman theme, as dwelling much on Caesar worship and the decline of Rome, has a closer veil of symbolism than the rest of the Book. But it is of the same Scriptural type. The most important symbols in the Book are clearly ex- plained, viz., the Seven Candlesticks and the Seven Stars. In the Roman theme an angel explains to S. John and, through him, to us, the meaning of many of the chief symbols. The leading character in the Roman theme, Nero, is as strongly and clearly portrayed as is compatible with a cypher. The names of the chief localities in Revelation, as Jerusalem and Rome, are stamped upon them by distinguishing marks (R. xi., 8, xvii. 5, 9, 18). From time to time the saints and martyrs in the standing vision of the Court of Heaven, by their prayers and hymns, throw a strong side-light on the nature and progress of events. They fulfil the office of the chorus in Greek drama. There is also a symbolism of numbers. The number seven is largely used in the Old Testament as a complete number, fully satisfying the mind as regards the context. It does not mean literally seven. Take the case of the seven days of creation in Genesis. It does not mean only seven days. It means the number of days required. The Holy Scriptures neither retrospectively nor prophetically give exact information as to numbers which correspond with dates. Professor Moses Stuart points out in his Commentary on the Apocalypse (op. cit. vol. ii. p. 425) that the gods of the ancients were threefold, that a trinity was a sacred form. Three stood for the divine power, the creator, and four for the created north, south, east, and west; the four corners of the earth; spring, summer, autumn, and winter ; the four elements earth, air, fire, and water. Seven, formed from the union of the divine three and created four, stood for completeness, amplitude, or universality, especially in a religious sense. S. Augustine says the number seven signifies the union of God with creation (Civ. Dei. xi. 31). The Jews were especially sensible of the import of the number seven. Not only the Sabbath day was sacred, but every seventh month. Every seventh year was the Sabbatical year in which cultivation was forbidden. Seven times seven was their Jubilee year. We shall find seven often occurring in the Book of Revelation, as in the seven seals, the seven trumpets, the seven vials, and PLAN AND SYMBOLISM OF REVELATION 117 the seven thunders. The number seven stands for the totality of the things concerned, by no means limited to seven. Three and a half has also a mysterious significance, as we gather from the missionary life and death of our Lord, as related in the Gospels. It was the period of the Jewish War, and it was the period of Nero's persecution. Both of these latter events are alluded to in the Apocalypse by this symbolism of time. Three and a half is not to be taken strictly ; it means more than three and less than four. Again, ten as a Scriptural number does not mean precisely ten. It is the sum of the digits of both hands, the basis of notation. It exhausts that basis and stands for a series of at least ten. In the Revelation we have the ten days of tribulation (R. ii. 10), and the ten Kings (R. xvii. 12). It follows that a thousand, which is a multiple of ten, is not strictly limited to that figure. It may mean more than a thousand ; but it is not an indefinite period, as in 2 Pet. iii. 8. Every word in the Apocalypse has a definite meaning. A thousand years is put in the Book of Revelation for the period of expansion of the Church, after the fall of the Roman Empire, and we know from history that that period, called the Middle Ages, lasted about a thousand years. The number twelve and multiples of twelve occur often in the Jewish theme and in the description of Paradise. The con- nection of these numbers with the twelve tribes of Israel and the twelve Apostles is made manifest by the context. The events predicted in the Book are placed in their correct historic perspective. Nero's persecution began in the year 64 and ended in the year 68, hence the seals of the martyrs come first (R. vi. 9-17). The Jewish cataclysm began in 66 and ended A.D. 70. It is taken next (R. viii. i to ix. 12). After the death of Nero, the wars of Galba, Otho, Vitellus and Vespasian, deluged Rome with blood and carried fire and sword into the Capital A.D. 68-69. Accordingly the Jewish theme is interrupted, and we get a vision of the slaughter of Roman armies (R. ix. 13-21). Then Titus besieged Jerusalem, and we get a picture of the fall of Jerusalem (R. xi. 1-15), after which comes the fall of the Roman Empire (R. xiii.-xix.). Then the thousand years of the middle ages and a glimpse of later times. Then the Day of Judgment (R. xx.). The visions of Revelation are linked together from first to last, not only in subject, but in minor details, by close and accurate workmanship. They reveal the careful labours of a mind filled with knowledge, conveying to others, by means of symbolism, the Divine message of Revelation. There is evidence in the Book that S. John had some freedom in its 1 1-8 THE REVELATION composition. He was told to write a book about his visions with special commands to write in it certain things (Rev. i. u, x. n, xiv. 13, xix. 9, xxi. 5). The Letters to the Seven Churches alone were dictated by God. It places them on majestic heights. The Seer of the first century saw and described correctly, as history testifies, the relations of the Church with the world, through a period of over eighteen hundred years. That is proof sufficient of the Divine Authorship of Revelation. The value of the eschatological revelations in the Book, in Chapters iii. and xx., may now be appreciated. VII THE TEXT THE original MS. of the Apocalypse was written by S. John on papyrus paper, in Greek uncials, or capital letters, without stops or breathings. Papyrus paper was made from the Egyptian " paper-reed." Manuscripts of the Apostolic Age were written on this material with a reed, dipped in cuttle fish ink, or other colouring matter. Pliny tells us that the stem of the reed, consisting of pith enclosed in a hard rind, was sliced into long strips, which were placed on a board, in two layers, one at right angles to the other. The sheets so formed were then soaked in Nile water, till soft, when they were pressed together and dried in the sun. The writing surface was then smoothed and polished with ivory or shell. The paper reed grew freely, and was cultivated commercially, on the delta of the Nile, where papyrus paper was almost exclusively manufactured (Pliny, N. H. xiii. n, 13). It has been estimated that the Apocalypse would cover a roll of papyrus fifteen feet in length (Kenyon, Text Crit. p. 30). To form this length several pieces were pasted together and rolled on a staff. Such a " book " unrolled and let go, would by elastic reaction, roll up again. When S. John wrote, " and the heavens withdrew as a book rolled up together " (R. vi. 14), he had in his mind the book under his hand. These things have to be borne in mind in considering the question whether S. John wrote the Apocalypse during his visions, or afterwards. Of that more, hereafter, in the Commentary. Papyrus paper became dry and brittle with age. It had to be unrolled and pinned down for the convenience of readers and copyists. It soon perished. No papyrus copies of the Apoca- lypse have come down to our time. The papyri of our museums were preserved in the tombs of Egypt, the ruins of Herculaneum, and like resting places. Our oldest existing copies of the Apocalypse are on parchment or vellum, and date from about the end of the fourth century. Considering that the Apocalypse was addressed to the Hebrew Servants of God in the first century, who spoke 119 120 THE REVELATION Aramaic, one may ask, Why was it written in Greek ? That, like its Hebraic cypher, was probably a measure of secrecy. Greek was used as the official language of the early Church. Rome was the enemy. As the catacombs shielded the bodies of the early Christians from persecution at the hands of Rome, so the Greek language shielded their intimate thoughts from Roman inquisition. The Apostles took the Greek language with them to Rome. S. Paul wrote his Epistles to the Romans and to the Hebrews in Greek. S. Mark wrote his Gospel in Rome, for the Romans, in Greek. The ritual of the early Church was Greek. So were the inscriptions in the Catacombs of Rome. The great majority of the Roman Christians were poor persons, ignorant of Greek, yet the Church of Rome held to the official use of Greek until the days of persecution were over. The literary quality of the Greek of the Apocalypse, we have seen, is peculiar. It reveals a mind well stored with Greek, but too strongly charged with Hebrew thought to give that Greek classical expression. It is evident that S. John had not been long in Hellenised Asia Minor when he wrote his Book. Moreover he was intent on infusing the Revelation with a current of Hebrew thought and symbolism, taken from the O.T., wherewith to convey his message to the Servants of God, unnoticed by pagan readers. The unbroken series of Greek uncials which originally com- posed the Book was divided by Andreas, in the sixth century, into seventy-two Ked\aia, or " headings." Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, gave us our present chapters. The versification of the Book dates from the era of the printing press and follows the stichometry, or lines, of the MSS. copies. Bearing in mind the vague and often fanciful exegesis of former times, it is wonderful how closely, chapter and verse accommo- date themselves to the new meanings which have been found in Revelation. No one, however, claims that the modern Book is perfect in these respects. Three MSS. of the Apocalypse have come down to us in the original Greek uncials. The Codex Sinaiticus symbol X. This is written on parchment without accents or breathings, only occasional points. In all probability it is as old as the time of S. Jerome. The Codex Alexandrinus symbol A. It is written on parchment and dates from about the fifth century. The Codex Ephraemi symbol C. Also fifth century, and very imperfect. Chapters ii., iv., vi., xii., xiv., xv., xvi., xvii., xx., xxi., and xxii., are missing, and the rest fragmentary. Besides the above, there are Greek Commentaries extant and quotations from the Apocalypse in the writings of the early Fathers of the Church. THE TEXT 121 In Latin we have the Codex Amiatinus symbol Am written stichometrically in uncials, without punctuation, on leaves of vellum. It is believed to have been made in Northumberland at the beginning of the 8th Century, and it is supposed to be derived from some old Latin copy, possibly the Itala, through the Codex Grandior of Cassiodorus, c. A.D. 540. This Codex was taken to Rome by Ceolfrid and presented to Pope Gregory II. about the year 720. It is considered by Catholic theologians that it gives the best rendering of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures generally. It was decreed by the Council of Trent to be the authentic and official Latin version of the Bible. It is the original of the Vulgate. There is also a Syriac version of the Apocalypse, lately printed by Dr. Gwynn, Regius Professor of Divinity, T.C.D., which dates from the beginning of the 6th Century. Latin Commentaries by Primasius and other writers have come down to us. The present Commentary is based upon a Greek version prepared by Frederic Brandscheid, a German Catholic, who produced it in 1893. It is practically a recension of the oldest and best codices, collated with the texts of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, and other scholars. It has the approval of the Bishop of Fribourg and is dedicated to Pope Leo XIII. Dr. Swete of Cambridge in his book on the Apocalypse, has printed a Greek text which he prepared from a collation of Westcott and Hort with Tischendorf, Gregory's prolegomena, Dr. Gwynn's Syriac versions, and two Athos minuscules. These two Greek texts agree generally with each other and with the Latin Vulgate, showing that the Apocalypse has been remarkably well preserved. Where the Vulgate occasionally differs from the Greek, Brandscheid follows the Vulgate, which he holds in great veneration. What slight differences there are between Dr. Swete and Brandscheid are shown in notes, in which S. stands for Swete, and Bd. for Brandscheid ; Vg., the recognised symbol, stands for the Vulgate. The Latin text is not printed in this book. There is no need to print it in full, as it is faithfully reflected in the English version, attached to the Greek. The English version is taken from the Rev. Geo. L. Haydock's Douay Bible, published in 1852, and from Richard Coyne, Maynooth Douay Bible, published in 1829. One supplements the other. For instance Haydock omits the word " flying " at R. iv. 7, " like to an eagle flying " Vg. Aquilce volanti. Coyne's version supplies it. But, the differences between the versions, Greek, Latin, and English, are unimportant. COMMENTARY CHAPTER I I. 'ATTO/caXvi/u? 'ITJCTOV X/HOTOV, rjv eSa>/cez> aura) 6 cos Set^at rot? SouXotg aurov a Set yei>e SovXa> avrov ' i. The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to make known to his servants the things which must shortly come to pass, and signified sending by his angel to his servant John. is a Greek word which means a revelation of the future. It is used in this sense by S. Paul 2 Cor. xii. I, and eschatologically, in Rom. ii. 5. This reading is confirmed by R. i. 3 and xxii. 10, in which the Revelation is referred to as " the words of this prophecy." At R. xxii. 9, an angel says I am "... of them who keep the words of the prophecy of this book." And at R. xxii. 18, 19, a solemn warning is issued against tampering with " the prophecy of this book " and " the book of this prophecy." The Apoca- lypse, or " Revelation," is a prophecy, in the sense of a pre- diction of Jesus Christ. That is its first note. " Which God gave to him to make known to his servants," follows the teaching of the Gospel of S. John in which the Son derives revelation from the Father (Jhn. v. 20, vii. 16, viii. 28). " To make known to his servants," raises the question who were the Servants of God. Much light is thrown on this point by the Revelation, and especially by the concluding words of this passage, " his servant John." S. John is given to us as an example of the individuals meant by " servants." The Apostles commonly used this title. The Second Epistle of S. Peter begins, " Simon Peter, Servant and Apostle of Jesus Christ." S. Paul's Epistle to Titus begins, " Paul a servant of God, and 123 I2 4 THE REVELATION an Apostle of Jesus Christ." These two great Apostles make " servant " their first title. See also Philippians and Romans (i. i). The Catholic Epistle of S. James begins, " James the Servant of God and of our Lord, Jesus Christ." That of S. Jude begins, "Jude the Servant of Jesus Christ." In R. x. 7, there is reference to " His Servants, the prophets," a very common phrase in the O.T. At R. xix. 10 an " Angel," who is also a prophet (R. xxii. 9), declares himself to be a fellow servant of John. The dignity of the expression survives in the title of the Popes, who style themselves officially, "The Servant of the servants of God " (see Jhn. xv. 20). The Revelation was not sent to everybody in the Church, in the year 67. It was, for grave reasons, confined to the safe hands of the Servants of God, who were men of Apostolic character, leaders of the Church. The denunciation of Caesar worship, and the political forecasts of the Roman Empire required this precaution. The immediate object of the Book was to reveal the fate of Jerusalem and Rome to the servants of God. " The things which must shortly come to pass," were the fall of Nero in A.D. 68, and the fall of Jerusalem and the out-standing of the Kingdom of Christ in A.D. 70. It does not mean that everything foretold in the Book must shortly happen. Though it does mean that the chief predictions of the Book would begin to come to pass quickly. The death of Nero was followed by Civil wars of opposing Imperators, which led to the crumbling of the Empire. " And signified sending by his Angel to his Servant John." Prof. M. Stuart points out that ecnjftavev, " signified," is derived from a-rjfj,a = a^fjLiov a "sign" or " symbol " indicating symbolic representation. An angel appears and interprets the symbolic visions at R. xvii. i and xix. 10. This angel seems to have been S. John the Baptist. We read in the Gospel of S. John, " There was a man sent from God whose name was John. This man came for a witness to give testimony of the light " (Jhn. i. 6, 7). He preached the gospel of penance " for the Kingdom of Heaven is at hand (Matt. iii. i), Behold I send my angel before thy face " (Mark i. 2). He is referred to at R. xxii. 16, " I, Jesus, have sent my angel." And he declares himself to be a fellow servant of S. John, and one of his brethren the prophets (R. xix. 10, xxii. 9). S. John recognises him apparently as his old teacher, the Baptist, and falls down before him. When Epiphanius wrote " The disciples of Christ being warned by an angel, fled to Pella," he seems to have had R. i. i in view. That would explain his reference to Claudius. PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 125 These opening lines form the title page of the Book. We might appreciate them better perhaps if they were displayed in accordance with modern custom, as thus : THE REVELATION OF JESUS CHRIST WHICH GOD GAVE UNTO HIM, To make known to his servants the things which must shortly come to pass, and signified SENDING BY HIS ANGEL TO HIS SERVANT JOHN. Here we see at once the title of the Book, its source, its Author, its object, its subject, the Intermediary, and the Writer John. The real title of the Book, " The Revelation of Jesus Christ," commands our attention. 2. tV Os efjiapTvprja-ev rov \6yov TOV eov /ecu TTJV paprvpiav - Xpicrrov, ocra ei$ev. 2. Who hath given testimony to the word of God, and the testimony of Jesus Christ, what things soever he hath seen. 'Maprvpeiv " to bear witness " and paprvpia " evidence " are words frequently found in the Apocalypse. S. John says of himself " Who hath given testimony '^aprvp^aev the aorist refers to the past. He gave testimony in the past "to the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ," by preaching and example, and by his Epistles, one or two of which were written before this time. " What things soever he hath seen " would seem to limit this testimony, to his knowledge of " the word of God and the testimony of Jesus." But pdprvs " a witness " in the early Church also connoted suffering for the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. Hence the word ' martyr " in English. S. John had suffered many things at the hands of the Jews for the testimony of Jesus. He was scourged and imprisoned in common with the other Apostles. Writing to his intimate followers at Ephesus, S. John takes it 126 THE REVELATION for granted that no one will question the testimony of John. The brethren knew he was at Patmos, whence this Revelation came. Possibly they knew that he went there to receive it. (See R. 1-9 notes.) Our Lord said to the Apostles " You shall be witnesses unto me " ecrecr#e poi paprvpes " . . . even to the uttermost parts of the earth " (Acts i. 8). Dr. Swete remarks, " It may be doubted whether the word /ia/jru? had acquired a technical sense at the end of the first century" (Op. cit., p. 36). The doubt is greater in regard to the year 67. 3. Ma/capto? 6 dvayLvcocrKwv KOL ol d/covovres TOWS Xdyovs T-f)7)Tias Kal TirjpovvTfs TO. Iv avTy yeypafjijAeva 6 yap jcaipo? eyyus. 3. Blessed is he that readeth and heareth the words of this prophecy ; and keepeth those things which are written in it. For the time is at hand. There are many correspondences between the beginning and the end of Revelation. We have in the last chapter " Blessed is he that keepeth the words of the prophecy of this Book " (R. xxii. 7). ' A-vayivacTKci) means " to recognise," " to dis- tinguish," "to discern." It does not mean ordinary reading. Our Lord addressing His Apostles with reference to the destruction of the Temple, said, " When you shall see the abomination of desolation standing where it ought not, he that readeth let him understand" (Mark xiii. 14). Where the Greek for "he that readeth " is o avayivaxr/ccov, precisely as above, meaning the in- terpretation of the signs of the coming fall of Jerusalem and the Empire. The fact that the angel sent to John, declared himself John's fellow servant, "and of those who keep the words of the prophecy of this Book " (R. xxii. 9), would seem to indicate that those " who kept the words," were a limited and exalted class. The Book is to a great extent a cryptograph, requiring labour and intelligence to discern its meaning. Hence, blessed are they who labour patiently to solve the mystery. " He that heareth " has an esoteric meaning, and refers to one who, by the exercise of reason, gets to know things recondite. " He that heareth," is again referred to at R. xxii. 17, 18. And at the end of each of the Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia, we find, " He that hath an ear let him hear what the Spirit saith to the Churches." (See R. ii. 7, notes.) The Book claims to be a Revelation of future events. Blessed are they who understand and keep this revelation in mind. PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 127 Why? For the time is at hand. What time? The fall of the Temple of Jerusalem, the symbol of the Old Law, and the establishment of the Kingdom of Christ. This warning appears to have been addressed particularly to the leaders of the Nazarene Church, which was in danger. S. John uses the verb rrjpeoj, " to give heed to," " to watch narrowly," in his Gospel several times (viii. 51, xiv. 23), e.g., " Remember my word that I said to you ... if they have kept my word they will keep yours also " (Jhn. xv. 20). 4. 'Iwdvvijs rats CTTTO, e/c/cX^criats rat? iv T-fi 'Acrta KOL eipyvr) OTTO 6 &v KCU 6 r\v KCU 6 epyopevos, /cat airb T r ea> /cat irarpl avrov, avTot 77 So^a /cat TO /cparos ets TOUS aia)va<; 6. And hath made us a Kingdom and priests to God and his Father, to him be glory and empire for ever and ever. Amen. " The kingdom " comes into view. " And hath made us a kingdom and priests to God and his Father " marks the trans- ference of the promises of the Old Law to the Church of Christ. " And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests " (Ex. xix. 6). Under the Old Law the priesthood was confined to the tribe of Levi. Under the New Law, S. John of the tribe of Zabulon is made a priest. He is said to have worn, occasionally, the petalon of a high-priest. " But you are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood " (i Pet. ii. 9). S. John, writing to the Servants of God, reminds them that they are PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 129 priests. Another indication of their high position. " To God and his Father " recognises the Son, as God. K/aaro? is from tcpaT(o, " to be mighty," " to conquer," " to hold sway." " For ever and ever " is a Hebrew phrase expressing endless time. 7. 'iSov ep^erat /xera ratv vefaXatv, Kal oi^erat avrov Trot? o^^aXjao?, Kal otrtve? avrov t^eKtvrycrav, Kal eif avrov Tracrcu at v\ai Trj}s' val, 7. Behold he cometh with the clouds and every eye shall see him, and they also that pierced him. And all the tribes of the earth shall bewail themselves because of him. Even so. Amen. " Behold he cometh with the clouds," expands the phrase at R. i. 4, "that is to come." Daniel says, " One like the Son of Man came with the clouds of heaven " (vii. 13). " And they shall see the Son of Man coming in the clouds of heaven with great power and majesty" (Matt. xxiv. 30). It is made evident that the %a/94? vfuv, of R. i. 4, comes from the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. There is reference to the day of Judgment here, when all the tribes of " the earth " r% 7775 (denoting Antichristians in the Apocalypse) shall bewail themselves because of him. But especially those that pierced him the Jews. This portends that the Jews will remain unconverted to the end. The con- nection between the writer of S. John's Gospel and of the Apocalypse is seen here. In the Gospel we read " One of the soldiers opened his side with a spear" (Jhn. xix. 34). S. John stood by the cross and witnessed this deed, which he alone mentions. He identifies the Son of Man in His glorious second coming by this dreadful wound, and puts it to the account of the Jews. Notice his solicitude for the fulfilment of the O.T. Scriptures. " Again another Scripture saith they shall look on him whom they pierced " (Jhn. xix. 37). The other Scripture is found in Zach. xii. 10. In the verse above we have vai, Greek, interpreted by apyv, Hebrew. This passage is apparently epexegetical of R. i. 4. It does not indicate a speedy second coming. There is no word to that effect. It contrasts with the warning to the penultimate and last stages of the Christian Church. " Behold I come quickly" (R. iii. n). " Behold I stand at the door and knock" (R. iii. 20). 9 130 THE REVELATION 8. 'Eyw et/jtt TO a\a /cat TO oi, apx*) Ka ^ Te'Xos, Xeyet Kvptos 6 eos, 6 ov /cat 6 iqv /cat 6 e^d/xevos, 6 iravTO- 8. I am alpha and omega, the beginning and the end, saith the Lord God, who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty. (S. omits apxrj KCU reXo?. Bd. follows the Vulgate " prin- cipium et finis."} Aleph and Tau, the first and last letters of the Hebrew Alphabet, are the first and last letters of the Hebrew sacred word " Truth " (Emoth), the Hebrew symbol of God. The Seer, writing in Greek, uses the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, with a Hebrew meaning ; as at R. xiii. 18 he uses Greek numerals with a Hebrew meaning. In the O.T we have, " I am the first and I am the last and besides me there is no God " (Isa. xliv. 6). The question arises whether God the Father is the speaker, here, or Jesus Christ. Kvpios, " Lord," is applied to both the Father and the Son in this Book. R. iv. 8, xi. 4, 8, xvii. 14, xix. 16, xxii. 20, 21. The Almighty, " o iravTOKpdrwp" recurs at R. iv. 8, xi. 17, xv. 3, xvi. 7, 14, and xix. 15, with reference to God the Father. And at R. xxi. 22, where we read, " For the Lord God Almighty is the lamp thereof and the Lamb." On the other hand Christ says at R. i. 17, " I am the first and the last," and at R. xxi. 6, " I am Alpha and Omega." And at R. xxii. 13, " I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end." 'fl pxo/j,evo<}, " who is to come," seems to point to Christ as the speaker. He it is who makes known the Revelation to His servants. And the context preceding and following verse 8, supports this view. We shall find that the Seer throughout the Book maintains the equality of the Father and the Son. Hence the appellation, " the Almighty," is consistent with the view that Jesus Christ is the speaker. 9. 'Eyw *la)dvvr)s, 6 a8eX<6s VJJLGJV /cat O-VVKQIVWOS iv Ty tyei /cat ^SacrtXeta /cat VTrofjLOvy iv Xptcrrw 'lr)O~ov, iyfvo^v iv Ty vtjo~a) Ty /caXov/xeVi^ Ilar/xw Sta TOV \6yov TOV eoC /cat 9. I John your brother and sharer in tribulation, and in the Kingdom and patience in Christ Jesus, was in the island which is called Patmos, for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus. (S. omits Xpio-Tft). Bd. follows the Vulgate.) S. John further discloses his identity and that of the person- ages to whom he sent his Book. A servant of God, he sent PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 131 his Revelation to Servants of God (R. i. i). And to priests (R. i. 6). He addresses them now as " your brother and sharer in tribulation." He had shared in the sufferings \iiv foretold for the Apostles (Jhn. xvi. 33). So had the brethren he addressed. They are therefore men of Apostolic standing. Xn/r9, meaning "pressure," is put metaphorically for oppres- sion, and suffering. In this Book, it stands for persecution (see R. vii. 14). TTTo/iovT; " patience " chimes with this thought. It is exemplified in the letter to the Apostolic Church at R. ii. 3. " And thou hast patience and hast borne for my name, and hast not failed." " Sharers " " in the kingdom," assumes that " the Servants " knew about the kingdom. S. John was in the Island, called Patmos, one of the Sporades, in the ygean Sea, about twelve miles S.W. of Ephesus. It is a rocky and barren place, but it has an excellent harbour. It is now known as Patino, and has about 4,000 inhabitants. " S. John was at Patmos for the Word of God and for the testimony of Jesus." These expressions correspond with those used in the opening sentence of the Book. (R. i. 2). Ata rov \6jov rov eo) would seem to show that he was at Patmos for the purpose of receiving his revelation. Professor Van den Biesen, S.T.D., in the "Catholic Encyclopedia," says, "It is true that the more probable meaning of this phrase is ' in order to hear the word of God,' etc., and not ' banished because of the word of God,' etc." (Apocalypse). S. John does not say anywhere that he was banished or exiled. But at R. xx. 4, we have the phrase, " beheaded for the testimony of Jesus, and for the Word of God " 7re7reXe/aoyi/et>i> Bia rrjv paprvpiav 'Iijo~ov Kal Sia rov \6a)vr)v jaeyctX^v 0)9 10. I was in the spirit on the Lord's day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet. In the spirit means rapt in the spirit, in a state of trance. Prof. M. Stuart says, " That John means to assert, in the case before us, that he was in a pneumatic state, i.e., under peculiar and extraordinary divine influence, seems philologically certain " (Com. on the Apoc.). This state is described in the Acts of the Apostles as ev eWrao-et " in ecstasy," a suspension of the functions of the natural senses, whilst absorbed in the con- templation of the supernatural. So Ezechiel, " The spirit took me up and I heard behind me the voice " (iii. 12). See also Ezech. iii. 14, viii. 3, xi. 24, and xl. 2 ; Jer. xxiv. i ; Amos vii. i, 4, 7, viii. i ; Zach. iii. i. In S. Paul's second Epistle to the Corinthians we have an account of the condition of ecstasy : " I know a man in Christ above fourteen years ago (whether in the body I know not, or out of the body, I know not, God knoweth), such an one rapt even to the third heaven " (2 Cor. xii. 2). The state of prophetic rapture was physically exhausting as we know from Ezech. iii. 14, 15, 23 ; and Dan. vii. 15, 28, viii. 27. Accordingly we find indications in the Book that the Revelation was given to S. John at intervals, in successive raptures, viz., here, and also at iv. I, at xvii. 3, and at xxi. 10. Prof. M. Stuart thinks that /-texa ravra " after these things" indicates a fresh ecstasy, as well as a new phase of Revelation, at vii. i, 9, xv. 5, xviii. I, and at xix. i. The Lord's day is not mentioned elsewhere in the N.T. Bishop Melito of Sardis, c. 170 A.D., wrote a discourse " On the Lord's Day," according to Eusebius (H. E. iv. 26). S. Chry- sostom tells us that " It was called the Lord's day because the Lord rose from the dead on this day " (Com. on Ps. cxix.). It was the first day of the week, the Christian Sunday, an appropriate day for a vision of the risen Lord. " Behind me " in prophetic language means, " after me " in point of time, and refers to the future. The " voice of the trumpet " is heard in Exodus, in connection with the vision which God gave to Moses on Mt. Sinai (xix. 16 f.). PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 133 etecrov /cat ets ^pvpvav /cat ets ov /cat et? varet/>a /cat ets SayoSets /cat ets ex//as eiSov eTrra Xv^vta? 12. And I turned to see the voice that spoke with me, and being turned I saw seven golden candlesticks. So in Exodus, the people saw the voice of the trumpet (xx. 18). S. John turning to see what lay behind him i.e., in the future, saw seven golden candlesticks, which we are told later (verse 20) are the seven churches. The seven golden candle- sticks were made by Moses and the Israelites after a pattern explained by God (Exod. xxv. 31, 40). They were placed in the Tabernacle of the Temple. They were the light of the Temple. Jesus said of his disciples, " Ye are the light of the world " (Matt. v. 14). The Church of Christ is the light of the world. The Seven Churches, symbolised by the seven candle- sticks, are the Light of the World foreseen by S. John. The importance of these seven lights of the future is seen as the Revelation progresses. Av%Wa is a lamp-stand. Candles and candlesticks are modern. See Illustration, p. 99. i 3 4 THE REVELATION 13. Kat ev /tx(r&> T>V Xv^vtaiv o/xoto*/ vlbv d iroSijpr} /cat 7repiea>cr/*,eVoi> irpbs rot? 13. And in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks one like unto the Son of Man, clothed with a garment down to the feet and girt about the paps with a golden girdle. (S " One like the Son of Man," is put by Daniel for the Messias (Dan. vii. 13). Jesus Christ called Himself the Son of Man frequently to mark the fulfilment of prophecies. The expres- sion occurs many times in S. John's Gospel (Jhn. i. 51, iii. 13, 14, v. 27, vi. 27, 53, 62, viii. 28, xii. 23, 34, xiii. 31). The garment coming down to the feet and the girdle, indicate the sacerdotal office of the High Priesthood (Exod. xxviii. 4). The verb evSva) means " to get into " a garment, and may have reference to the seamless robe of the Son of Man. It will be noticed that the English version differs from the Greek. The Greek runs, " in the midst of the candlesticks," the English,"" in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks." The Vulgate has In media septem ; but Bd. and S. both omit seven golden. 14. *H Se Kea\r) avrov /cat at rp^es Xev/cat a>s tpiov /cat ot 6<0aXAOt avrov a>s (>\b 14. And his head and hair were white, as white wool and as snow, and his eyes were as a flame of fire. In Dan. vii. 9, " the Ancient of days " is clothed with a garment " white as snow," with hair "like pure wool." The Seer gives attributes of the Father to God the Son frequently. See R. i. 8, notes. " His head and hair were white " = "\evKal." The same word is used at R. xiv. 14 for the cloud on which the Son of Man is seated. SS. Matthew and Luke use the same word in describing our Lord's transfiguration which S. John witnessed (Matt. xvii. 2; Luke ix. 29). It means shining white. In Daniel's vision, we have "behold a man clothed in linen, and his loins were girded with the finest gold. And his body was like the chrysolite, and his face as the appearance of lightning, and his eyes as a burning lamp, and his arms and all downward even to the feet, like in appearance to glittering brass, and the voice of his word like the voice of a multitude " (Dan. x. 5, 6). PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 135 5. Keu ot TroSe? avrov o/x,oioi ^a\KO\LJ3dva> a>s ev K a), /cat rj ovrj avrov a>9 (fxavfj vSdrcav 15. And his feet like unto fine brass, as in a burning furnace, and his voice as the sound of many waters. (S. " The voice of a multitude " and the " voice as the sound of many waters," are practically the same simile. " Many waters" are put in this book for many peoples (R. xvii. 15). " Feet . . . like the appearance of glowing brass," is found also in Ezech. i. 7. Daniel's prophecy is chiefly in view here. He interprets the vision of the statue with feet part of iron and part of clay (ii. 33, 42), as the Roman Empire, " breaking in pieces and treading down the rest with his feet " (vii. 7). He gives the vision of the Lord with, " feet like in appearance to glittering brass " (x. 6), apparently as the antithesis to the feet of clay. More powerful than the feet of the Beast, to trample down his enemies. Trampling is a figure used by Ezechiel also at xxv. 6, and by Isaias Iviii. 3, " I have trampled on them in my indignation." See R. xiv. 20, where the wine-press is " trodden." 1 6. Kcu e^o)v ev rrj Se^ta x et /^ aurov acrre/jas eirra, /cat K TOV (TTO/aaros avTOV yoo/x(jkata Stcrro/AO? o^eta eKtropevo- pivr], /cat rj oi//t? avrov a>s 6 17X109 <^>atvet Iv TTJ Svt'a/xet avrov. 16. And he had in his right hand seven stars ; and from his mouth came out a sharp two-edged sword ; and his face shone as the sun shineth in its full strength. The seven stars are explained later, "The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches " (R. i. 20). The prophet Daniel says, " But they that are learned shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that instruct many to justice as stars for all eternity" (xii. 3). These stars'" instruct many to justice." They are upheld in the right hand of God. Their importance could not be more clearly indicated. The two-edged sword represents sentence of eternal reward, or punishment. " The sword of the Spirit which is the word of God" (Eph. vi. 17). "For the word of God is living and effectual and more penetrating than any two-edged sword " (Heb. iv. 12). " And his face shone as the sun " is reminiscent of the Transfiguration (Matt. xvii. 2). "And his face as the appearance of lightning " (Dan. x, 6). 136 THE REVELATION 1 7- Kat ore el&ov avrov, eVecra Trpos rovs TroSa? avrov as / > ff\ \ O ff- \ >>>\\/ 1/T N mnr* irni ^rtirti^fit rrviii f\>~im) /niiT'mi t-rr ^ lit A fx/s.tT; \/l -vn KCU r)KV T7)V etai> dVTOV (f)OJ3ov' eyw et/xt 6 irpatTos /cat 6 ecr/c^aro? 17. And when I saw him I fell at his feet as dead. And he laid his right hand upon me saying, Fear not. I am the first and the last. In Daniel viii. 17, 18 and x. 7-10, we have a similar vision. Daniel was afraid and fell on his face, but was touched and sat upright. S. John recognised Jesus Christ glorified, and " fell at his feet as dead." In like manner, after the Transfiguration, S. John fell and was raised up by our Lord (Matt. xvii. 6, 7). " I am the first and the last " connects with R. i. 8, " I am Alpha and Omega." , O TT 1 X J"* X ' X \\V > lo. Kcu o L,. The living God is taken from the O.T. " Living for ever " is also O.T. Deut. xxxii. 40. n / i f A ?& \*>\ \A /\\ / /) 19. L payov ovv a eioe? /cat a eto~ti> /cat a /xeAAet yivecruai ravra. 19. Write therefore the things which thou hast seen, and which are, and which must be done hereafter. Write " the things which thou hast seen " i.e., the past visions ; " which are," the events in progress viz., the Jewish war, and Nero's persecution ; " and which must be done here- after," the coming revelation of the future the latter, extending PREFACE TO THE REVELATION 137 to the day of judgment, for the information and guidance of the Seven Churches. S. John was commanded to write down past events, present events, and future events. It has been supposed by some that he wrote down our Lord's words as he heard them, and the Angel's words, and the visions as they passed before him. But that is not the word of command, and the reference to past events seems to preclude the idea. " What thou seest write in a book and send to the seven Churches " (R. i. n) conveys the idea of writing a book about the visions, which could not be done at one sitting. The question is a very important one, as it touches the composition of the Book of Revelation. If the Seer wrote down his visions at once, he must have been pre- pared beforehand with papyrus, pen and ink, and a table to write on. It would take many hours to inscribe a papyrus roll, about fifteen feet long, with Greek uncials. His writing could not keep pace with passing visions, interspersed with a running commentary by saints and angels. Hence the question arises, were the visions seen at different times ? As we have seen at R. i. 10, the exhausting effect of prophetic ecstasy may be inferred from Dan. vii. 15, 28, viii. 27 and x. 8. The visions may have been given at separate times. A second ecstasy is indicated at R. iv. 2. The Seer says, " I was in the spirit (ev Trvev/AfiTt,) on the Lord's day " (R. i. 10). If ev irvev^ari, means " prophetic ecstasy " S. John would have been unable to write whilst the visions were in progress. Further light is thrown on this question at R. x. 3, 4. The Seer heard the voices of seven thunders. " And when the seven thunders had uttered their voices, I was about to write." But he was ordered not to write the things which the seven thunders had spoken. The seven thunders comprised a considerable revelation, not intended for publication. They were evidently listened to and remembered by S. John. Afterwards he " was about to write." In like manner his other visions may have been memorised and written down afterwards. It seems that S. John was given clear and precise knowledge of the future, and was told what to write, and what not to write, without restriction as to time. The result is this Book, written under Divine guidance, at Patmos. The composition of the Book bears out this conclusion. S. John conveys to the Servants of God the knowledge intended for them, by means of visions and extracts from the Old Testament prophecies, which form a cryptograph, intelligible to them, but not to outsiders. 138 THE REVELATION 20. To ijwcrrripiov ra>v enrol a&rcp&v ovs etSes errt Se^tag juov, /cat rag evrra Xv^vta? rag \pvcraI> eTrra KK\v)crL(t)V ei