LN 
 
 SAN Dteod 
 
 U. C. L A. 
 
 EDUC. DEPT,
 
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 (Jftmtaiion 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D. 
 VOLUME XL
 
 INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 
 
 EDITED BY W. T. HARRIS. 
 
 IT is proposed to publish, under the above title, a library for teachers 
 and school managers, and text-books for normal classes. The aim will 
 be to provide works of a useful practical character in the broadest sense. 
 The following conspectus will show the ground to be covered by the series : 
 
 I. History Of Education. (A.) Original systems as ex- 
 pounded by their founders. (B.) Critical histories which set forth the 
 customs of the past and point out their advantages and defects, explain- 
 ing the grounds of their adoption, and also of their final disuse. 
 
 II. Educational Criticism. (A.) The noteworthy arraign- 
 ments which educational reformers have put forth against existing sys- 
 tems : these compose the classics of pedagogy. (B.) The critical histories 
 above mentioned. 
 
 III. Systematic Treatises on the Theory of Edu- 
 cation. (A.) Works written from the historical standpoint; these, 
 for the most part, show a tendency to justify the traditional course of 
 study and to defend the prevailing methods of instruction. (B.) Works 
 written from critical standpoints, and to a greater or less degree revolu- 
 tionary in their tendency. 
 
 IV. The Art of Education. (A.) Works on instruction 
 and discipline, and the practical details of the school-room. (B.) Works 
 on the organization and supervision of schools. 
 
 Practical insight into the educational methods in vogue can not be 
 attained without a knowledge of the process by which they have come to 
 be established. For this reason it is proposed to give special prominence 
 to the history of the systems that have prevailed. 
 
 Again, since history is incompetent to furnish the ideal of the future, 
 it is necessary to devote large space to works of educational criticism. 
 Criticism is the purifying process by which ideals are rendered clear and 
 potent, so that progress becomes possible. 
 
 History and criticism combined make possible a theory of the whole. 
 For, with an ideal toward which the entire movement tends, and an ac- 
 count of the phases that have appeared in time, the connected develop- 
 ment of the whole can be shown, and all united into one system. 
 
 Lastly, after the science, comes the practice. The art of education is 
 treated in special works devoted to the devices and technical details use- 
 ful in the school-room. 
 
 It is believed that the teacher does not need authority so much as in- 
 sight in matters of education. When he understands the theory of edu- 
 cation and the history of its growth, and has matured his own point 
 of view by careful study of the critical literature of education, then he is 
 competent to select or invent such practical devices as are best adapted 
 to his own wants. 
 
 The series will contain works from European as well as American 
 authors, and will be under the editorship of W. T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D. 
 The price for the volumes of the series will be $1.50 for the larger 
 volumes, 75 cents for the smaller ones.
 
 Vol. I. The Philosophy of Education. By Joliann Karl 
 Friedrich Rosenkranz. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. II. A History of Education. By P.of. F. V. N. Painter, 
 of Roanoke, Virginia. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. III. The Rise and Early Constitution of Univer- 
 sities. With a Survey of Mediaeval Education. By S. S. Laurie, 
 LL. D., Professor of the Institutes and History of Education in the 
 University of Edinburgh. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. IV. The Ventilation and Warming of School 
 Buildings. By Gilbert B. Morrison, Teacher of Physics and 
 Chemistry in Kansas City High-School. 75 cents. 
 
 Vol. V. The Education of Man. By Fricdrich Froebcl. 
 Translated from the German and annotated by W. N. Hailmann, 
 Superintendent of Public Schools at La Porte, Indiana. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. VI. Elementary Psychology and Education. By 
 
 Joseph Baldwin, Principal of the Sam Houston State Normal 
 School, Huntsvillo, Texas. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. VII. The Senses and the Will. Observations concern- 
 ing the Mental Development of the Human Being in the First Years 
 of Life. By VV. Preycr, Professor of Physiology in Jena. Trans- 
 lated from the original Gentian, by H. W. Brown, Teacher in the 
 State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. Part 1 of THE MISD OF 
 THE CHILD. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. VIII. Memory. What it is and how to improve it. By David 
 Kay, F. R. G. S. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. IX. The Development of the Intellect. Observa- 
 tions concerning the Mental Development of the Human Being in 
 the First Years of Life. By W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology in 
 Jena. Translated from the original German, by H. W. Brown, 
 Teacher in the State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. Part II 
 of THE MIND OF THE CHILD. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. X. HOW to Study Geography. By Francis W. Parker. 
 Prepared for the Professional Training Class of the Cook County 
 Normal School.
 
 EDUCATION 
 IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ITS HISTORY 
 FROM THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS 
 
 BY 
 
 RICHARD G. BOONE, A.M. 
 
 PROFESSOR OP PEDAGOGY IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YOKE 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1889 
 
 U. C. L A. 
 
 EDUC. DEPT,
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1889, 
 BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
 
 U. C. L A . LA 
 EDUC. DEPT, 
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE editor takes great pleasure in presenting this 
 work to the public, as the first noteworthy attempt at a 
 general history of education in the United States. It 
 forms a tolerably complete inventory of what exists, as 
 well as an account of its origin and development. 
 
 Ever since the Oracle uttered the admonition " Know 
 thyself," civilized man has been slowly turning his atten- 
 tion to the importance of studying the deeds and institu- 
 tions of his race. He finds in them a revelation of human 
 nature altogether above and apart from the self-knowledge 
 that comes to each individual through his own conscious- 
 ness. For in the history of deeds and institutions there 
 stands out prominently the effigy of human nature in its 
 essential outlines. In contrast to this the individual con- 
 sciousness offers a picture in which the essential is obscured 
 or obliterated by the complications of the passing moment, 
 which assume undue importance. 
 
 Modern science has caught most fully the meaning of 
 the Oracle It has become fully aware of the importance 
 of knowing every object in the light of its history. How 
 it began and how it developed must lead to a knowledge 
 of what it is. The knowledge of a thing only as a dead 
 result is very superficial. We learn what it is good for
 
 vi EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 by seeing it in the entire sphere of its action. This reveals 
 its living force and character. 
 
 Practical knowledge, in the eminent sense of the word, 
 is to be found in this study of history. The statesman or 
 the teacher knows practically when he knows the trend of 
 the system which he is to direct or manage. 
 
 As a mere inventory, the results of this history will 
 at first surprise us. We see the broad scope of the educa- 
 tional idea not merely its school course from the Kinder- 
 garten to the university, but its supplementary institutions, 
 the library, the museum, the reading circle, the scientific 
 association, the variety of special schools ; the wide-spread 
 impulse toward founding educational institutions, showing 
 itself in all the colonies at the beginning, and increasing 
 with the growth of the nation. All this becomes impress- 
 ive only when seen in the solid mass. 
 
 But, more than all, the trend of the movement inter- 
 ests us as it becomes apparent through the contrast of 
 beginnings with subsequent stages of unfolding : 
 
 1. We see everywhere a movement from private, en- 
 dowed, and parochial schools toward the assumption of 
 education by the State. The General Government, founded 
 " to promote the general welfare," as the preamble to the 
 Constitution recites, has fostered education from the begin- 
 ning by extensive donations of lands. States first establish 
 colleges and universities, and next free common elementary 
 schools ; and afterward gradually fill in intermediate links 
 of the system, and then add supplementary institutions. 
 By-and-by State systems of education for the unfortunates 
 and criminal 'classes arise. Then special schools for the 
 training of teachers, and the foundation and support of 
 libraries and museums at public expense begin. Private 
 endowment and religious zeal initiate new lines of educa-
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. v ii 
 
 tional experiment, and as soon as their utility to the gen- 
 eral welfare is demonstrated they are adopted into the 
 system of free education supported at public expense. 
 
 2. There is a trend away from isolated efforts and to- 
 ward system and supervision. System has this advantage, 
 that it makes supervision possible. It is the object of 
 general superintendence to discover what is fruitful and 
 promising in the work of individuals or localities, and to 
 strengthen the whole system by making the adoption of 
 these improvements universal. Each shall contribute 
 something worth adopting by all, and, in turn, avail him- 
 self of their experience. In this lies the great significance 
 of our national trend toward system. 
 
 3. There has been a trend in methods. This appears 
 in several particulars, namely, in the adaptation of the 
 matter of instruction to the mind of the child, so that he 
 assimilates relatively more, and memorizes or stores up in 
 an undigested form relatively less. This adaptation ap- 
 pears most noticeably in the instruction of the primary 
 grades, and, next to this, in the advanced instruction in 
 natural history and physics. The pupil is made to con- 
 duct his own researches, and is furnished the material for 
 study. The methods also have improved, in the fact that 
 they widen the investigation into collateral branches. 
 Formerly each subject was isolated from its relations; 
 now it is illuminated by light thrown on it from other 
 provinces. The methods of discipline have generally im- 
 proved. Corporal punishment has been very much dimin- 
 ished. The entire educational idea of the people has pro- 
 gressed in the direction of divine charity. The institu- 
 tions for the education of women, together with the men- 
 tioned supplementary institutions for unfortunates (the 
 deaf and dumb, the blind, the feeble-minded, etc.), and
 
 viil EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 for the reform of criminals, the multiplication of means of 
 education for the youngest children all show this. Again, 
 the opening of free public libraries, museums, and courses 
 of lectures, shows the logical results of the democratic prin- 
 ciple in the diffusion of knowledge. Teach the people 
 how to read, and then furnish them what is best to read. 
 
 Our national Government bases itself on the ability of 
 the people as people to govern themselves through the 
 ballot-box. The history of education shows how it has 
 seemed fit to make provision for the enlightenment of 
 those citizens. It has grown clear in the process of ages 
 that the only help which may be safely given to individ- 
 uals or communities is the help that aids and increases 
 self-help. All other help dwarfs the individual and weak- 
 ens the State. Now, the only infallible aid to self-help 
 that has been found up to this time is education which 
 produces intellectual enlightenment and training in moral 
 habits. This alone is a help that is good alike for sound 
 and perverse. It improves the former and corrects the 
 latter. This view of education has been seen by the fathers 
 of the republic, and preached by the religious founders of 
 our colonies. The conviction has become so generally 
 prevalent that it has produced the joint action private, 
 national, State, and municipal looking toward the foun- 
 dation and encouragement of schools and supplementary 
 institutions, recorded in this book. The patriotic will 
 hope that the results reached are encouraging; at all 
 events, whether, gratifying or otherwise, the study of the 
 facts is necessary and salutary to Americans interested in 
 the welfare of their country. 
 
 W. T. HARRIS. 
 
 CONCORD, MASSACHUSETTS, May, 1889.
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 IT is now generally recognized that any complete 
 study of education must include the historical no less 
 than the critical and practical phases. Neither can be 
 left out of account. Wanting the theory, instruction 
 becomes aimless ; without knowledge of means, wasteful. 
 But the teacher who presumes to work without an ac- 
 quaintance with the record of his profession, is like a 
 ship lacking log-book and compass progress will be only 
 a happening. 
 
 And yet, of general histories of education, there are, 
 in English, less than half a dozen, only two of which 
 are more than primers. In these two, American schools 
 receive the merest mention eighteen pages in one, and 
 two in the other. For the only other attempts at a 
 notice of our State and municipal systems, we are in- 
 debted to foreign interest. Prominent among these are 
 P. A. Siljestrom's " Educational Institutions of the 
 United States " (1855) ; Eev. James Eraser's report to 
 the Parliamentary Schools Inquiry Commission, on " The 
 Common-School System of the United States " (1865) ; 
 Francis Adams's " Free Schools of the United States " 
 (1874) ; and occasional statements drawn from educa- 
 tional exhibits and conferences at international exposi-
 
 x AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 tions. These are all more or less critical estimates of 
 American schools as seen through foreign eyes ; were 
 all made for special purposes ; are chiefly descriptive, and 
 rarely historical. Valuable as they are in themselves, 
 they are imperfect as setting forth American schools to 
 American teachers. Profit comes always from a close 
 and comparative study of current systems, their general 
 aims, conditions, and accompanying agencies; and the 
 books named can render an incalculable service to Ameri- 
 can teachers. But so vitally is every present related to its 
 past, that the study of contemporary institutions can be 
 made intelligent only in the light of their origin. To 
 know along what lines in educational experience have 
 been the great changes, and why, and so what is new and 
 what old, in current doctrine and practice, serves to 
 temper undue enthusiasm over real or supposed new de- 
 partures, and saves from condemning the worthy only 
 because it chances to be old. 
 
 "While it can not be claimed that education is more 
 seriously regarded now than by the thinkers of every 
 past generation, it certainly is more widely studied. More 
 is demanded of the body of teachers more professionally 
 and socially. The inferior teacher has an increasingly 
 smaller hope of public confidence ; the well-informed 
 one, more of leadership. This is the meaning of normal 
 schools, institutes, reading-circles, teachers' classes, and 
 professional libraries. It is believed that this history may 
 help along this impulse make it possible to study intelli- 
 gently, and as a whole, the particular but complex institu- 
 tion called the American School. 
 
 The book lays no claim to completeness. It is meant 
 to be a text-book, suggestive of lines of thought for the 
 teacher, and sources of information. One constant aim
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. x i 
 
 has been, avoiding mere description on the one side, and 
 personal criticism on the other, to exhibit faithfully the 
 development of contemporary institutions and educational 
 forces with something of their national setting. 
 
 To bring the sketch into a small compass, within 
 reach of the leisure and conditions of the body of teachers, 
 and yet omit no fundamental factor in the educational 
 movement of two centuries and a half, have compelled a 
 frequent readjustment of materials. But it seemed bet- 
 ter, all things considered, to cover the whole field of 
 elementary, higher, and special educations, and so give 
 a basis for special studies by individuals. Besides, so 
 interwoven are the interests of the one with those of the 
 others, that no treatment of the common-school system 
 would be complete that ignored the academies and col- 
 leges, and vice versa. 
 
 The author has been placed under repeated obliga- 
 tions to the librarian, assistants, and other officials of 
 Johns Hopkins University, during some months' resi- 
 dence at which most of the present work took shape ; 
 and particularly his indebtedness to Dr. Gr. Stanley Hall, 
 whose long and varied educational experience, and wide 
 reading, through much counsel and suggestion, have con- 
 tributed to whatever of value the book may have. The 
 Peabody Library, of ninety thousand volumes, including 
 much valuable literature upon special phases of education 
 and educational institutions, and the Maryland Historical 
 Library, both of Baltimore ; the Library of Congress, and 
 the Pedagogical Library of the United States Bureau of 
 Education, at "Washington thanks to Librarian A. E. 
 Spofford and Commissioner Dawson were both freely 
 and frequently used. 
 
 The great task, of course, was in the gathering and
 
 x ii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 sifting of materials. These were found in abundance, 
 but widely scattered ; not generally to be had in cyclo- 
 paedias or compilations, but in journals, both general and 
 educational, often in broken sets ; in monographs and 
 addresses ; in reports and manuals ; in histories ; and in 
 the proceedings of educational bodies and learned acade- 
 mies, and in the annual statements of special institutions. 
 
 Barnard's "American Journal of Education" (1855- 
 '80), and the " Official Keports of the United States Bureau 
 of Education" (18G8-'87), have been the sources of the 
 most, and most valuable, information for the periods they 
 cover. In addition to the frequent mention of them 
 throughout the volume, the author's formal acknowledg- 
 ment of their services is here gratefully given. Care has 
 been taken to verify facts, where it has been possible, by 
 reference to first and official records. But, as has already 
 been suggested, much has had to be taken at second-hand. 
 Of any errors of statement, either statistical or other, the 
 correction will be gratefully received and cheerfully used. 
 
 The bibliography following each chapter is meant to 
 cover, not so much the accepted and standard literature, 
 which may be found in any general catalogue, as in a 
 limited way to call attention to some of the best recent 
 literature, whether of books, pamphlets, or magazine arti- 
 cles. Never was the general press more given to an all- 
 sided discussion of educational interests than now ; and 
 the professionally inclined teacher finds it necessary to be 
 acquainted with its contents. As suggesting lines of col- 
 lateral and special reading, these brief reference-lists are 
 given a place. 
 
 E. G. BOONE. 
 
 BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA, April, 1880.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 INTRODUCTION ..... ... 1 
 
 PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS 9 
 
 1. New York and the Dutch West India Company. 
 2. Virginia and the Virginia Company. 3. Early New 
 England Schools. 
 
 II. COLONIAL COLLEGES 20 
 
 1. Harvard College. 2. The College of William and 
 Mary. 3. Yale College. 
 
 III. COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS 43 
 
 1. The Massachusetts Law of 1647. 2. The Connecticut 
 Code of 1650. 3. Other New England Schools and 
 Teachers. 4. New York prior to the Revolution. 
 5. Pennsylvania prior to the Revolution. 6. New Jer- 
 sey prior to the Revolution. 7. Colonial Education in 
 the South. 
 
 PART II. THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 IV. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 61 
 
 1. "Pauper" Schools. 2. Teachers. 3. Common-School 
 Text-Books. 4. The Education of Girls. 
 
 V. ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES 70 
 
 1. Academies. 2. Colleges. 
 1
 
 X1V CONTENTS. 
 
 PART HI. THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 CHAP. PAG* 
 
 VI. CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES . . . . . . .79 
 
 1. The Transition. 2. The Creation of School-Funds. 
 3. Permanent Funds and Local Taxes. 
 
 VII. CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES (continued). School Supervision 94 
 1. The District System. 2. State Supervision. 3. City 
 Supervision. 4. County Supervision. 
 
 VIII. THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. . . . . .117 
 1. Educational Associations. 2. Institutes. 3. Nor- 
 mal Schools. 
 
 IX. THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS (continued) . . . 142 
 4. Pedagogical Training in Colleges. 5. Educational 
 Literature. 
 
 X. RECENT COLLEGES 158 
 
 A. The Curriculum. 
 
 1. The Physical Sciences. 2. Modern Language 
 Studies. 8. Institutional History. 4. Economic 
 Studies. 
 
 XI. RECENT COLLEGES (continued ) 186 
 
 A. The Curriculum (continued ) 
 
 5. Elective Courses and Studies. 6. Graduate 
 Courses. 
 
 B. University Organization. 
 
 1. State-established Colleges. 2. Privately Endowed 
 Institutions. 
 
 XII. THE PROFESSIONS 209 
 
 1. Theological Education. 2. Legal Education. 3. Med- 
 ical Education. 
 
 XIII. TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 221 
 
 1. The Beginnings of Industrial Training. 2. The Cur- 
 riculum. 3. Agricultural Education. 4. Military 
 and Naval Education.
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAP. PAOB 
 
 XIV. EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES AND CRIMINAL CLASSES . 243 
 1. Deaf-Mute Education. 2. Education of the Blind. 
 3. Education of the Feeble-Minded. 4. Reforma- 
 tories. 6. Indian Education. 6. Education in 
 Alaska. 
 
 XV. SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS 264 
 
 1. Private Schools. 2. Denominational Schools. 3. Even- 
 ing Schools. 4. Museums of Art and Science. 6. 
 Clubs and Circles. 
 
 XVI. LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES 285 
 
 1. General Societies. 2. Libraries. 
 
 XVII. THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION . . . 307 
 1. The Bureau of Education. 2. The Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution. 3. Special Scientific Work. 4. Special Pub- 
 lications. 
 
 PART IV. CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 XVIII. COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 326 
 
 XIX. THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS 331 
 
 1. Primary Schools. 2. The Kindergarten. 3. The 
 High School. 
 
 XX. EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH 347 
 
 1 . The Ante-war Period. 2. The Period of Reorganization. 
 A. The Freedmen's Aid Society. B. Government 
 Agency, c. Denominational Agencies. D. The 
 Peabody Fund. E. The Slater Fund. F. Public- 
 School Systems, a. Normal Schools. H. Col- 
 leges, i. Professional Schools. 
 3. General Conditions. 
 
 XXI. THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN 362 
 
 1. Ladies' Seminaries. 2. Colleges for Women. 3. Co- 
 education of the Sexes in College. 4. Examinations 
 and Annexes. 5. Association of Collegiate Alumnae. 
 6. The Professional Education of Women. 
 
 CONCLUSION . . . 382
 
 EDUCATION 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 OF the underlying notion of the colonists who instituted 
 the American school system, Dr. D. C. Gilman has asked:* 
 " How far was it a natural evolution from the social usages 
 and laws of England ? How far from those of Holland ? " 
 
 For an answer to this query, one of which Lieber says 
 " it must be of interest to every American," the future gives 
 continually less of promise. Every day loses something of 
 record. The question remains. It recurs perennially. It 
 must be asked by every thoughtful mind. Every day's ex- 
 perience enforces the belief that no life is dissociated from 
 its past of government or man. Whence, then, the Ameri- 
 can idea of control, of society, and the family ? of educa- 
 tion and industry ? of place and character ? For these are 
 the flower of culture for which institutions exist. Of whom 
 and where were learned the lessons of self-mastery and direc- 
 tion, of distributed sovereignty and co-operation ? For these 
 make a general education, not so much possible, as safe. 
 They can not be supposed wholly unknown to Puritan and 
 Huguenot Europe ; and yet the want of them has made her 
 the battle-ground of the centuries. 
 
 * " Education in America," D. C. Gilman, " North American Review," 
 January, 1876.
 
 2 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 "Puritan" and "Huguenot," "Saracen" and "Protest- 
 ant" the very names recall the birth in Europe, of the 
 impulse whose developments in the newer West have out- 
 stripped the best in the Old World. They mean what mod- 
 ern dissent and the independence of a growing individual- 
 ism have led us to understand by them. They mean mod- 
 ernism wherever found in institutions or the personal life, 
 in education or industry. 
 
 Mr. Eugene Lawrence says : " The true parent of the cur- 
 rent system of teaching was the Reformation." It was the 
 world's recoil from authority ; the renunciation of servitude ; 
 the assumption of personality. Protestantism meant, not so 
 much independence, as a growing fitness for independence. 
 We have learned to think of the race, in every period, as 
 growing toward its manhood ; and America is a step in that 
 growth, a phase of race-development; a long stride may be 
 Americans believe it is. Horace Mann insisted, and his life 
 enforced the thought, that " the transference of the fortunes 
 of our race from the Old to the New World was a gain to hu- 
 manity of a thousand years." It was the opinion of Froebel, 
 to which he gave frequent expression, that " the Kindergarten 
 could only have its full development in America, where the 
 national principle is self-government ; in perfect freedom, 
 but according to law." 
 
 Here were to be found the more favorable conditions, free- 
 dom from established customs and precedents, and an ab- 
 sence of fixed public institutions, giving room to invention, 
 a field for new and, in the light of a larger independence, 
 more rational adventure. 
 
 The period itself (seventeenth century) was one of vigor- 
 ous social and intellectual activity. The invention of print- 
 ing, and the consequent and rapid multiplication of books 
 equally multiplying the resources and occasions of mental 
 culture were more than paralleled by the coincident in- 
 crease in the facilities of commerce, the extension of geo- 
 graphical discoveries, the increase not less than the diffusion 
 of physical knowledge, and the expansion of industries. It
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 was a period in whose activity every people and every sort 
 of human interest more or less participated. Society became 
 eclectic. The past was studied and drawn upon for its wis- 
 dom. Nations began to take note of their neighbors. Gov- 
 ernments were remodeled. New inventories were taken, and 
 men came to read history with a new purpose. In the awak- 
 ening education shared richly. 
 
 " The idea that education must be coextensive with sov- 
 ereignty," says Dr. E. E. White, " was not original with our 
 fathers. This has been," he continues, "the favorite doc- 
 trine of aristocracy the world over " ; and " despotism clam- 
 ors for a restricted education, because she would have a re- 
 stricted sovereignty." That control should be intelligent is 
 older than Plato, and is denied by no people. 
 
 In the Zealand school law of 1583, education is insisted 
 upon because " it is the foundation of the commonwealth." 
 And Charlemagne, eight centuries before, had required that 
 the children of all persons participating in the government 
 should be educated, "in order that intelligence might rule 
 the empire." 
 
 Nor is the idea of universal freedom less ancient or more 
 Western in its origin. It has been the inspiration of poet 
 and statesman ; the dream of Roman gladiator and Greek 
 slave ; of Israelitish brick-maker and Russian serf. The 
 idea of local self-government was already historical at the 
 time of the colonization of North America. Among the 
 Germanic ancestors of the colonists, the custom was so gen- 
 eral for the inhabitants of a district to control their local 
 affairs, that it has been said : "One leading principle pervaded 
 the primeval polity of the Goths ; where the law was admin- 
 istered, the law was made." * 
 
 In ancient England, local self-government was found 
 along with the common political and territorial division of 
 tithings, hundreds, burghs, counties, and shires, in which the 
 body of the inhabitants had a voice in managing their own 
 
 * Frothingham's, " The Kepublic of the United States," p. 14
 
 4 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 affairs. Local self-government was the germinal idea of 
 Anglo-Saxon polity. 
 
 So is the notion of universal education common to all 
 philosophy. That it is yet to be realized, only emphasizes 
 the aspiration. 
 
 John of Nassau, in the sixteenth century, urged upon the 
 States-General that they should " establish free schools where 
 children of quality as well as of poor families, for a very 
 small sum, could be well and Christianly educated and 
 brought up." He saw the fruitfulness of a wise and state- 
 administered system of universal education. This he said 
 to his subjects " would be the greatest and most useful work 
 you could ever accomplish, for God and Christianity, and for 
 the Netherlands as well." * 
 
 In the middle of the tenth century, the Arabian Caliph 
 Alhakim, at Cordova, besides schools in every village, estab- 
 lished twenty-seven others at his own expense, where the 
 children of indigent parents were instructed free of charge. 
 Prior to this even, Abderrahman I. had established, in addi- 
 tion to the usual agencies, high-schools for girls, taught by 
 female teachers. The expulsion of the Jews, the effects of 
 the Inquisition, and the limited opportunities and means of 
 education, prevented the influence of this early Arabian 
 learning from being immediately felt in the colonies of the 
 early Spanish explorers. t 
 
 The very barbarism of the uninstructed but self-depend- 
 ent Saxons and Germans attracted Alfred and Charlemagne, 
 and schools and universities attest the faithfulness of their 
 service. 
 
 Charles X and Gustavus Adolphus did for Sweden and 
 their generations what America, with all her achievement, 
 has failed to do since made education so common that in 
 
 * Motley's, " Rise of the Dutch Republic." 
 
 t See, in the " Report of the United States Commissioner of Education," 
 a collection of facts relative to the Old World early ideas of education, 
 1875, p. 13. Also " Circular of Information," No. 11873.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 the year 1637 (the year of the founding of Harvard) " not a 
 single peasant's child was unable to read and write." * 
 
 In the previous century, under William, Holland, having 
 founded the universities of Leyden and Frankfort, supple- 
 mented them -by Latin or "great schools," and lower, or 
 public, or " small schools," for the elementary training. 
 Fixed salaries were paid to such as, by an examination before 
 the magistrates, had shown their competency. Following 
 the Union of Utrecht (1579), it was ordered that " the inhab- 
 itants of towns and villages should, within six weeks, find 
 good and competent schoolmasters." Two years later, it was 
 further provided that " such as neglected to do this should 
 be bound to receive the schoolmasters sent to them," and 
 provide the usual compensation.! In the year 1618 the Synod 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Dutch Church .of Dort urged 
 that schools be instituted, " not only in cities, but in towns 
 and country places." So common was the impulse, it is 
 said, that " neither the perils of war, nor the busy pursuit of 
 gain, nor the excitement of political strife, ever caused them 
 to neglect the duty of educating their offspring. Schools 
 were everywhere provided at the public expense, with good 
 schoolmasters to instruct the children of all classes in the 
 usual branches of education." f 
 
 Motley, the historian, is authority for the statement* 
 that in 1635 the Latin school at Dordrecht had been in ex- 
 istence for some centuries, || and was one of the most famous 
 institutions of Northwestern Europe. It frequently instructed 
 six hundred students brought from all parts of the conti- 
 nent. It was a training-school for a nation of merchants, 
 and, though classical, was eminently practical as fitted to 
 the social conditions. " The one linguistic need of the boys," 
 
 * Schmidt's " Geschichte der Erziehung." 
 
 t Compare this provision with that of the Massachusetts law of 1G42, 
 p. 16. 
 
 J Broadhead'8 "History of New York," vol. i, p. 4G2. 
 
 * See his "John De Witt," p. 35. 
 1 Founded about 1290.
 
 6 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 said Motley, "was instruction in Latin and French. No 
 progress in public life was possible without a knowledge of 
 these tongues."* 
 
 Mr. Motley concludes that the New England colonists 
 gained their educational impulse more from the Netherlands 
 than from their own country. And a recent writer, t after 
 asserting that the influence of the Dutch in shaping our edu- 
 cational life has not been enough regarded, says : " Our free 
 public-school system of which we are justly so proud seems 
 to have its beginnings distinctly traceable to the earliest life 
 of the Dutch colonies here in America, and to have had its 
 prototype in the free schools in which Holland had led the 
 van of the world." 
 
 It was a favorite doctrine of the protesting Luther that 
 every child was worthy to have the best education lan- 
 guages, history, music, mathematics everything that can 
 contribute to his highest development. And in a " Letter to 
 Magistrates " (1524), after recounting the advantages to the 
 Church and to the religious life of the individual, he insists 
 that, " if there were no soul, no heaven, no future after this 
 life, and temporal affairs were to be administered solely with 
 a view to the present, it would yet be a sufficient reason for 
 establishing in every place the best schools, both for boys 
 and girls ; that the world, merely to maintain its outward 
 prosperity, has need of shrewd and accomplished men and 
 women." Taking the sentiment as typical of a national 
 idea, Hon. Henry Barnard speaks of the " common school " 
 as " only an improvement on the parochial schools of Ger- 
 many." J 
 
 Once more : John Calvin, at Geneva, in the sixteenth 
 century, made education, so far as he might, obligatory upon 
 all ; and, to-day, the thrifty cantons of Switzerland enjoy 
 
 * It would seem as if the founders of the Boston Latin School adopted 
 the form of this, without the social demand (see p. 338). 
 
 t H. B. Adams, in " Johns Hopkins Studies in History," series iii, 
 p. 15. 
 
 J " American Journal of Education," vol. x, p. 32.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 the beneficent influences of a law of whose significance the 
 author little dreamed. Tracing the growth of this impulse, 
 George Bancroft says : " The common-school system was de- 
 rived from Geneva, the work of John Calvin ; introduced by 
 Luther into Germany ; by John Knox into Scotland ; and so 
 became the property of the English-speaking nation." * 
 
 So instances of old ideas clustering about this common 
 sovereignty and universal education might be cited indefi- 
 nitely. No stronger word, however, has been said in the in- 
 terests of the latter, and the enforcement of school provisions 
 and attendance, than by Plato, in his "Laws." Indeed, 
 throughout both this and the " Eepublic," one frequently 
 falls upon ideas peculiarly modern, and especially so of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 In the " Laws," as a part of a discussion on schools and 
 their importance to the state, the Athenian stranger is made 
 to say : " In these several schools let there be dwellings for 
 teachers who shall be brought from foreign parts by pay ; 
 and let the frequenters [learners] be taught the art of war, 
 and the art of music ; and they shall come, not only if their 
 parents please, but if they do not please ; and, if then educa- 
 tion be neglected, there shall be compulsory education, of all 
 and sundry, as the saying is, so far as this is possible ; and 
 the pupils shall be regarded as belonging to the state rather 
 than to their parents, "t 
 
 That these sentiments can not be more definitely derived, 
 only marks their universality. They form a kind of ideal of 
 civilization ; and the problem that the states were set to 
 solve had been a long-established theory of thinkers and 
 statesmen. The English, as the later born of European na- 
 tions, was the heir of all the East ; and among the early colo- 
 nists to this country were specimens of both individuals and 
 families from the highest level of English thought. There 
 
 * " History of the United States," vol. iii., p. 100. 
 
 t "Laws" (Jowett's translation), book vii, p. 732. A presentation of 
 Plato's "Theory of Education" appeared in the "Presbyterian Keview" 
 for July, 1887, by Prof. J. Watson.
 
 8 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 were English Churchmen in Virginia, English Puritans in 
 Massachusetts, English Catholics in Maryland, and English 
 Quakers in Pennsylvania. And, not ignoring the early edu- 
 cational attitude of Dutch and Swede, Spanish Saracen and 
 modern German, the united colonies were founded and 
 school systems organized by somewhat homogeneous forces 
 a people of common stock, having common political in- 
 stincts, and with the tradition of common institutions. In 
 England they sprang from a superior class : a rank that pro- 
 duced Milton and Sir Walter Pvaleigh and Locke ; Hampden 
 and Cromwell ; Carver, Eaton, and Winthrop ; Robinson, 
 Cotton, and Davenport. Of the first six hundred who landed 
 hi Massachusetts, one in thirty, it is said, was a graduate of 
 the English Cambridge. These and their companions were 
 rare men. They had the schooling for a service the like of 
 whose execution, in completeness and good sense, the world 
 has never equaled.* 
 
 " With matchless wisdom they joined liberty and learn- 
 ing in a perpetual and holy alliance, binding the latter to 
 bless every child with instruction, which the former invests 
 with the rights and duties of citizenship. They made edu- 
 cation and sovereignty coextensive, by making both uni- 
 versal.''! 
 
 * Two interesting papers were published some years ago : the one in 
 1859, " The American System of Education," by Dr. E. 0. Haven ; and the 
 other the " Common School Historically " a most valuable summary made 
 in 1878, by Prof. David Putnam, and read before the Ohio Teachers' Asso- 
 ciation. Both are well worth reading on this point. 
 
 t E. E. White, " Proceedings of National Education Association," 1882.
 
 PART FIRST. 
 THE COLONIAL PEKIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 
 
 IN a prefatory note to a recent oration, the Rev. Phillips 
 Brooks records that " the Public Latin School of Boston en- 
 joys the distinction of being the oldest existing school within 
 the bounds of the United States." * ^ 
 
 As frequently happens of sweeping statements concern- 
 ing " first events " and " oldest institutions," this one of Dr. 
 Brooks seems questionable. A similar claim has been made 
 for Dorchester, Hartford, Brooklyn, and Virginia. Indeed, 
 it is known that various schools had been established prior 
 to that in Boston, one of which, the school of the Reformed 
 Dutch Church in New York, founded as early as 1633, con- 
 tinues to the present. 
 
 Those in Virginia, though established earlier, had gener- 
 ally a short existence. Schools in the three sections f were 
 very unlike, and were typical of very dissimilar institutions. 
 
 1. The New York Settlements. 
 
 The Dutch West India Company, organized in 1621, re- 
 ceived, nine years after, instructions from the States-General 
 
 * Founded 1635. t New England, New York, and Virginia.
 
 10 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 of Holland, among which occurred the following order, " to 
 all founders of colonies " : Patroons should particularly exert 
 themselves " to find speedy means to maintain a clergyman 
 and a schoolmaster, in order that divine service and zeal for 
 religion may be planted in that country."* And it was re- 
 quired that to this end " each householder and inhabitant 
 should bear such tax and public charge as should be consid- 
 ered proper for their maintenance." 
 
 Four years later, in an official estimate of the company's 
 expenses, the schoolmaster is entered at three hundred and 
 sixty florins per annum (just one fourth that of the clergy- 
 man), t Under these provisions, the educational policy of 
 New Amsterdam was unbroken, and for many years more 
 or less uniform. The second Director-General of the new 
 province was Wouter Van Twiller, who arrived at Manhat- 
 tan in the year 1633, and with him Adam Roelandsen, the 
 first schoolmaster. The latter remained nine years. With 
 the advent of the new administration, the first school-tax 
 was levied, four pounds being collected. This would seem 
 to give color to Brooklyn's claim to have had the first free 
 public school in the United States. J 
 
 Corel de Beauvois, a recent arrival from Holland, was 
 called to take charge of the school ; adding to his duties as 
 instructor those of grave-digger, court bell-ringer, and pre- 
 centor. During this period, and for many years thereafter, 
 indeed until 1808, when a special board of trustees was ap- 
 pointed, this school, both for support and management, was 
 in the hands of the local congregation of the Protestant Re- 
 formed Dutch Church. It was perhaps only an elementary 
 parochial school, receiving now and then aid from the public 
 treasury, and, while controlled by the Church, was maintained 
 
 * " Colonial History of New York," vol. i, p. 99. These volumes are 
 valuable not alone for New York, but for all the early colonies. 
 
 t Ibid., p. 155. 
 
 t See article " Brooklyn " in Kiddle and Schem's " Cyclopaedia of Edu- 
 cation."
 
 THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS. H 
 
 for the use of the general public. From its founding it 
 has a continuous history,* through a long line of teachers, 
 legislative and ecclesiastical provisions, and educational 
 progress. 
 
 Though Stuy vesant wrote in 1642, " Nothing is of greater 
 importance than the right, early instruction of youth," no 
 care seems to have been shown for more than the rudiments, 
 including, besides reading, writing, and arithmetic, the doc- 
 trines of the Church,f and the fundamental " Freedoms, Priv- 
 ileges, and Exemptions," granted to the colonists, through 
 the West India Company, f 
 
 But in the year 1658, while yet Stuyvesant was Director, 
 the burgomasters petitioned " for a fit person as Latin School- 
 master, not doubting that the number of persons who will 
 send their children to such teacher will, from year to year, 
 increase, until an Academy will be formed, whereby this 
 place to great splendor will have attained." The petition 
 was granted, and the first classical school was instituted 
 nearly a quarter of a century after the founding of the Bos- 
 ton Latin School. The first principal was one Dr. Alexan- 
 der Carolus a professional teacher who was paid out of 
 the public treasury five hundred guilders ($187.50) annually, 
 was given the use of a house and garden, received six guild- 
 ers from each scholar, and was privileged, in addition, to 
 practice medicine ! 
 
 During this early period, from the first, teachers, whether 
 of private, parish, or public schools, were subjected to an 
 established and formal examination ; and, while licensed by 
 the council of '" nine men," must be sanctioned by the dea- 
 cons of the Church. 
 
 * This has been well and fully written by H. W. Dunshee, in " A His- 
 tory of the School of the Reformed Protestant Church in New York." 
 
 t It was ordered (see "New York Colonial MSS.," edited by George 
 Bancroft) that " no other religion should be publicly admitted in NewNeth- 
 erland, except the Reformed, as it was then preached and practiced by pub- 
 lic authority in the United Netherlands." 
 
 t Dunshee, p. 51.
 
 12 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 Besides Roelandseii and Cornelison, of elementary teach- 
 ers, there were others. Mr. Dunshee, the historian of the 
 school, speaks of certain private schools, of Jan Stevenson 
 and Aryaen Jansen, and " other teachers in hired houses," 
 prior to 1649. By the middle of the century, New Amster- 
 dam had a population of eight hundred. This was doubled 
 in the next decade, and, by the close of Stuyvesant's adminis- 
 tration, fifteen teachers are recorded as having served in the 
 settlement, some of them with long terms. As early as 1650 
 they were paid regularly out of the public treasury ; the ex- 
 cise money being set apart for this purpose. The pay there 
 as elsewhere, then and since, was probably poor enough ; for 
 a few years later one William Vestens headed the long line 
 of petitioners for "an increase of salary."* 
 
 2. Virginia and the Virginia Company. 
 
 Even prior to New Amsterdam and Boston, the needs of 
 education were being considered by the older colony of Vir- 
 ginia. These also were an earnest body of men. In 1619 
 Sir Edwin Sandys, treasurer to the London Company, 
 moved in the English Parliament, the grant of fifteen thou- 
 
 * It has frequently happened that the services performed and the wages 
 received by the common-school teacher have been sadly disproportioned. 
 Concerning the former it is interesting to note the functions of the teacher 
 in the early colonial period. He was usually, both in New England and 
 the middle colonies, clerk of the town, chorister of the church, and official 
 visitor of the sick. Indeed, far into the last century, the teacher was scarcely 
 differentiated from the preacher. The Rev. Gideon Sheets, when engaged 
 as minister at Renssclaerwick, New York, was required among other duties 
 " to bring up both the heathens and their children in the Christian relig- 
 ion; to teach the catechism; and to pay attention also to the office of 
 Bchoolmaster for old and young." The following extract from the " Town 
 Book," indicates the manifold duties of a New England schoolmaster of 
 1661: 1. To act as court-messenger; 2. To serve summonses; 3. To con- 
 duct certain ceremonial services of the church ; 4. To lead the Sunday 
 choir ; 5. To ring the bell for public worship ; 6. To dig the graves ; 7. To 
 take charge of the school ; 8. To perform other occasional duties. 
 
 Adam Roelandsen not only taught the youth, but took in washing also 1
 
 THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 13 
 
 sand acres of land for a university. It was to be a great 
 Episcopal college a preparatory school to English learning 
 and English religion. The grant was made. The king ap- 
 pealed to the churches for contributions. Interest was 
 aroused. Schools as well as a college were projected. Fif- 
 teen hundred pounds were contributed " toward the erect- 
 ing of some chui'ches and some schools for the education 
 of the children of those barbarians." Two years later, upon 
 the ai'rival of the Royal James, a subscription was opened 
 by the chaplain, Rev. Mr. Copeland, for the erection of a 
 free school. The company gave "one thousand acres of 
 land, five servants, and an overseer, for the maintenance of 
 a master and an usher. " * Toward the erection of the house, 
 also, the company subscribed one hundred pounds, to which 
 were afterward added other small amounts of money, and 
 a few books. About the same time (1621) two English crews 
 gave nearly sixty-seven pounds ; f and the year following a 
 bequest of three hundred pounds was left to the proposed 
 college. Matters were promising. Affairs, educational 
 and commercial, were shaping themselves to the profit of 
 both the company and the settlers. School and college were 
 in sight ; buildings and land had been provided. But the 
 terrible Indian war of 1622 came on. Settlements were laid 
 waste, houses and property destroyed, and lives lost. Edu- 
 cation was out of the question ; rather, the education most 
 needed was that of arms and self-defense. Neither school 
 nor college, howevei*, was forgotten. Immediately steps 
 were taken to increase the funds and replace the buildings. 
 Collections were made throughout the kingdom, in English 
 factories, and on board ships. But the summer following, it 
 was ordered that "all the moneys collected be deposited, 
 until the plantation be so settled as there may be use of a 
 school there.' 1 ' 1 \ 
 
 * E. D. Neill, " Virginia Company of London," p. 211. 
 t Warren and Clark. " Public Libraries of the United States," p. 22. 
 J " Virginia Vetusta," Neill, p. 180. 
 2
 
 14; THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 In the Bermuda (Somers) Islands there was already a 
 considerable population some five thousand inhabitants 
 and a school regularly established. The bequest (three 
 hundred pounds) noted above, failing of its purpose be- 
 cause of the Indian massacre, was turned (1622) to the 
 Somers Island Company, on condition that they " educate 
 three Virginia Indian children, and, when they were of 
 proper age, put them into business or send them back to con- 
 vert their relations." The Bermuda school, both then and 
 later, had a reputation on two continents, and claimed the 
 thought of the philosopher Berkeley, who sought to found 
 a college there. Richard Norwood, writing from the island 
 (1645), stated that he had been teaching in that place for 
 thirty years, and at that time had twenty pupils.* 
 
 That on the continent also the efforts stand as something 
 more than vain attempts, appears from an extract made from 
 a thoroughly entertaining description of Virginia, 1649. 
 The writer says : " I may not forget to tell you we have a 
 free school, with two hundred acres of land, a fine house up- 
 on it, forty milch kine, and other accommodations to it; 
 the benefactor deserves perpetual memory; his name is 
 Mr. Benjamin Symmes, worthy to be cherished. Other 
 petty schools we have too." f 
 
 8. Early New England Schools. 
 
 On the 13th of April, 1635, the people of Boston, in town- 
 meeting assembled, impressed not less with their need of 
 schools than with their appreciation of education in general, 
 requested "Brother Philemon Purmont to become school- 
 master, for the teaching and nourteuring of children " in the 
 town. In part pay for his services, thirty acres of land were 
 
 * It was here that Bishop Berkeley proposed founding his college, and 
 in anticipation of which he spent some years at Newport, R. I. For further 
 notice of the schools of the island, see Neill's " Virginia Company of Lon- 
 don," p. 214. 
 
 t " Massachusetts Historical Collections," vol. xi*, p. 119.
 
 THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 15 
 
 voted him by the young colony. Almost immediately " a 
 garden plot was voted to Mr. Danyell Maude, schoolmaster," 
 also. Both of these occurred within less than a year from the^ 
 founding of the town. John Winthrop, writing, 1645, said : 
 " Divers free schools were erected at Roxbury (for the main- 
 tenance whereof every inhabitant bound some house or land 
 for a yearly allowance forever), and at Boston, where they 
 made an order to allow forever fifty pounds to the master, 
 and an house, and thirty pounds to an usher who should 
 also teach to read, write, and cipher. Indian children were 
 to be taught freely. The charge to be by yearly contribu- 
 tion, either by voluntary allowance, or by rate of such as 
 refused; the order being confirmed by the General Court." 
 
 Sixteen years before, wild and warlike natives alone stood 
 between Virginia and the proposed Charles City school and 
 Henrico College ; three years before, the infant school of the 
 Reformed Church was beginning its long career. Looking 
 back upon these events, it is easy to see that they were big 
 with promise of the marvelous achievements of the first half 
 of that great seventeenth century, destined to do so much for 
 liberty and intelligence. These three settlements were civili- 
 zation centers for a continent. 
 
 Little can now be definitely known of the first few years 
 of the Boston school or schoolmaster. They were brave, 
 and not the less scholarly men, who were laying the founda- 
 tions of a new commonwealth. Posterity is left to infer the 
 greatness of the deeds of those years from the outcome. 
 
 Other Massachusetts towns also showed a vigorous and 
 liberal spirit of culture. Rehoboth was set off from Wey- 
 mouth as a colony about 1643, and the fifth man upon the 
 list was a professional schoolmaster, who taught the village 
 urchins twelve months in the year. Plymouth Colony had 
 ordered schools, 1650; while, ten years before, Dorchester 
 had petitioned for some islands " for and toward the main- 
 tenance of a free school."* Ipswich and Salem each, had 
 
 * " Records of Massachusetts Colony," vol. iii, p. 139.
 
 1(5 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 schools as early as 1641, Cambridge the year following-, and 
 Roxbury in 1645.* 
 
 In the year 1642, in an attempt to make the privileges of 
 the few towns general, the Colonial Court enjoined upon all 
 towns the duty of seeing to it in their localities. The order 
 is comprised in the following extract from the Massachusetts 
 law of 1642: t 
 
 "This court," so the record runs, "taking into serious 
 consideration the great neglect of many parents and masters, 
 in training up their children in learning and labor, and 
 other employments, which may be profitable to the common- 
 wealth, do hereby order and decree, that in every town, the 
 chosen men appointed to manage the prudential affairs of 
 the same, shall henceforth stand charged with the care of 
 the redress of this evil ; so as they shall be sufficiently pun- 
 ished by fines, for the neglect thereof, upon presentment of 
 grand jury, or other information of complaint in any court 
 in this jurisdiction: and for this end, they or the greater 
 number of them shall have power to take account, from time 
 to time, of all parents and masters, and of their children, 
 especially of their ability to read and understand the princi- 
 ples of religion and the capital laws of this country, and to 
 impose fines upon such as shall refuse to render such ac- 
 count to them when they shall be required ; and they shall 
 have power, with the consent of any court, or the magistrate, 
 to put forth apprentices, the children of such as they shall 
 find not able and fit to employ and bring them up. They 
 are also to provide that a sufficient quantity of materials, as 
 hemp, flax, etc., may be raised in their several towns, and 
 tools and implements provided for working out the same." t 
 
 * For a history of this school, with much additional contemporary mat- 
 ter of interest, see C. K. Dillaway's " History of the School in Roxbury." 
 
 t Taken from the " Records of the Massachusetts Colony," vol. ii, p. 6. 
 
 J From almost the beginning of New England settlements it seems to 
 have been common to transact the current public business in a meeting of 
 the people assembled. By such body Mr. Punnont was called to be Boston's 
 first teacher ; Mr. Cheever, in New Haven ; and Mr. Lenthrall, in Provi-
 
 THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 17 
 
 
 
 What grave educational and social questions were then 
 sprung by the Boston fathers, that subsequent generations 
 have had to answer! Parental responsibility, the general 
 viciousness of indolence, the educative, office of labor, the 
 state's relation to individual need, compulsory employment 
 and schooling, the function of courts, and the state owner- 
 ship of child-life, were all suggested by the act quoted. The 
 town society in its organized capacity was commissioned 
 to secure to the child its rights, and to the community pro- 
 tection. 
 
 The selectmen of every town were further required " to 
 have a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see 
 that none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of 
 their families, as not to endeavor to teach, by themselves or 
 others, their children and apprentices, so much learning as 
 may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue and 
 [obtain] a knowledge of the capital laws ; upon penalty of 
 twenty shillings for each neglect therein." * 
 
 "If, after admonition, parents were still neglectful of 
 their duty in these particulars," children might be taken 
 from their parents, and servants from the custody of their 
 masters, and bound to such masters as the selectmen might 
 deem worthy to supply the place of " the unnatural parent " 
 boys until the age of twenty-one, and girls until that of 
 eighteen. 
 
 dence. In these meetings all were freemen, and all equal in privileges. 
 The voice of each was individual and stood for one only. As early as 1632, 
 however, twelve men of Dorchester were selected to meet statedly, and hold 
 in consideration public interests. Two years later, Boston chose a like 
 number, and Charlestown the year following ; Watertown, Newton, and 
 others soon did the like. And Mr. Palfrey says ("History of New Eng- 
 land," vol. i, p. 372) that, " at the fifth General Court of Massachusetts, 
 twenty-four persons appeared delegated by eight towns." It was such a 
 representative body of freemen, fit type of the later administrative republi- 
 canism, that passed the school act of 1642, from which the extracts are 
 taken. 
 
 * See Horace Mann's comments upon this in " Tenth Report of the 
 Massachusetts Board of Education," 1849.
 
 18 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 Commenting upon this act and the primitive Boston idea 
 of barbarism, Horace Mann was led to say that, " tried by 
 this standard, many a man who now glories in the name 
 and prerogatives of a republican citizen would, according 
 to the better ideas of the Pilgrim Fathers, be known only 
 as the barbarian father of barbarian children.'' * 
 
 It would seem that the first school in Connecticut was 
 at New Haven, during the year 1638. f Prof. G. B. Emerson 
 says Ezekiel Cheever left Boston with those who founded 
 the settlement, and " began his services as schoolmaster in 
 that year ; the pastor, Mr. Davenport, together with the 
 magistrates," according to the records, being invited to con- 
 sider what yearly allowance was " meet to be given him out 
 of the common stock of the town." Two years later a 
 second and higher grade school was established, and Mr. 
 Cheever, then a young man of twenty-seven, was made its 
 principal. This also was supported, in part, out of the 
 " common stock. " 
 
 Besides Mr. Cheever's, there were other schools in New 
 Haven. Care was even then taken that every child should 
 have its just deserts. In a year from the date of settlement, 
 one Thomas Fugill appears on the public records, charged 
 by the court to keep Charles Higinson, an indentured serv- 
 ant or apprentice, " at school one year ; or else to advan- 
 tage him as much in his education as a year's learning would 
 come to." 
 
 With the exception of Mr. Cheever's school, instruction 
 was chiefly elementary, comprising only reading and cipher- 
 hag. The former was called a grammar-school, in which 
 were taught, besides the common higher branches, Latin, 
 rhetoric, grammar, etc., corresponding nearly to the modern 
 high-school, but with relatively more of the classics. 
 
 The first school appearing on the town records of Hart- 
 
 * " Lowell Institute Lectures," 1869, p. 851. Also " American Journal 
 of Education," vol. i, p. 297. 
 t Eeport for 1840.
 
 THE EARLIEST AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 19 
 
 ford was a somewhat famous one in that day, in operation 
 as early as 1641, and kept by a not less widely known 
 teacher, Mr. William Andrews. He was employed to teach 
 the school for one year (twelve months) for fifteen pounds ; 
 each patron to pay at the rate of twenty shillings per year, 
 the poor being paid for at the town's charge. 
 
 In Rhode Island, Newport had a public school in 1640, 
 and Providence one, twenty years later. 
 
 Throughout the colonies, schools were endowed ; first 
 with lands, very early with bequests, rents, and donations, 
 and supplemented by taxation. They were not free. Tui- 
 tion was paid for all. The abuse of the principle is an 
 interesting historical study. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 Consult "The School of the Reformed Dutch Church" of New 
 York, by H. W. Dunshee, which contains also pertinent information of 
 other schools and colonies ; " Documents of the Colonial History of New 
 York," in eleven volumes ; and manuscripts of the New York Historical 
 Society; the "Virginia Company of London," "Virginia Carolorum," 
 and " Virginia Vetusta," three volumes, by E. D. Neill, comprising 
 original documents and records ; the " History of Education in Rhode 
 Island," edited by T. B. Stockwell ; the " Roxbury Grammar-School," by 
 C. K. Dillaway; the "Massachusetts Historical Collections," and the 
 official " Colonial Records " of Plymouth, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, Connecticut, and Providence Colonies. A series of articles also by 
 G. G. Bush in the "Yale Review " for 1885, affords a general view of 
 "Early Education in New England." In the "Atlantic Monthly "for 
 January, 1885, is a description of the "Dame School," such as the early 
 English colonies had a few curious examples of.
 
 20 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 
 
 1. Harvard. 
 
 IN the autumn of the sixth year of the settlement of Bos- 
 ton, the General Court * of the colony, with a far-seeing liber- 
 ality, and a wisdom of sacrifice such as shall be for years to 
 come a monument to it and its people, voted t the sum of 
 four hundred pounds " toward a school or college ; whereof 
 two hundred pounds shall be paid the next year, and two 
 hundred pounds when the work is finished, and the next 
 Court to appoint where and what building." 
 
 The following year twelve of the most trusted men of the 
 whole colony, previously appointed, magistrates and minis- 
 ters, of political foresight and abundant learning, were set to 
 execute the official mandate, " to take order for a College at 
 New Towne." Among these early educational leaders were 
 such men as the Rev. Thomas Shepard, John Cotton, and John 
 Wilson, Jr. ; all clergymen and all college-bred ; J Stoughton ; 
 Dudley, the Deputy-Governor, and above all " Winthrop, the 
 Governor, the guide and the good genius of the colony."* 
 Such were the men and the sources of greatness of the infant 
 colony, and pledge of the college. Here were learning and 
 character ; world-wisdom and refinements of the heart ; 
 breadth and wholeness of culture, such as could alone justify 
 the boldness of their attempt. "It is questionable," says 
 
 * This Massachusetts Assembly, over which Henry Vane presided, has 
 been said to be " the first body in which the people, by their representatives, 
 ever gave their own money to found a place of education." (Quoted by 
 Palfrey, vol. i, p. 247.) 
 
 t September 8, 1636. 
 
 J Mr. Savage estimates that in 1633 there were in Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut not fewer than forty men who had been more or less educated 
 at Cambridge, England. 
 
 * " History of Harvard University," Josiah Quincy, vol. i, p. 9.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 21 
 
 Mr. Dwight, " whether a more honorable specimen of public 
 spirit can be found in the history of mankind." 
 
 Institutions of learning are expected among men of in- 
 tellect and refinement, but not in poverty ; in leisure, but 
 not surrounded by public dangers. " These early settlers," 
 wrote Quincy, " waited not for affluence, for days of peace, 
 or even domestic concord." Neither narrowness of terri- 
 torial limits, nor fear of savage enemies, nor scanty subsist- 
 ence, nor meager population ; neither religious dispute, nor 
 uncertain abode, nor lack of leisure restrained their un- 
 bounded zeal for an education that to them seemed not so 
 much desirable as necessary, that " the light of learning 
 might not go out, nor the study of God's Word perish." 
 
 Notwithstanding their own learning, however, and solici- 
 tude for their children, they must have failed in their under- 
 taking had it not been for the generous gift of John Har- 
 vard. 
 
 A citizen of Boston, writing back to friends in 1643, says : 
 " After we had builded our houses, provided necessaries for 
 our livelihood, reared convenient places for worship, and 
 settled the civill government, one of the next things wee 
 longed for and looked after was to advance learning and to 
 perpetuate it to posterity ; dreading to leave an illiterate 
 ministry to the churches, when our present ministers shall 
 lie in the dust. And as wee were thinking and consulting 
 how to effect this great work, it pleased God to stir up the 
 heart of one Mr. Harvard (a godly gentleman and a lover of 
 learning, then living among us) to give the one half of his 
 estate (it being in all about 1,700) towards the erecting of a 
 colledge, and all his library. After him another gave 300 ; 
 others after them cast in more, and the publique hand of the 
 State added the rest." * The official record is similar. 
 
 Of John Harvard little is known. The institution founded 
 is his best monument. This much may perhaps be said : He 
 was a son of Robert and Katharine (Rogers) Harvard, and was 
 
 * " Massachusetts Historical Collections," vol. i, p. 242.
 
 22 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 born in the parish of Southwark, London, November 29, 1607. 
 His father was a butcher by trade, dying while John was yet 
 a youth. He entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, at the 
 age of twenty-one, his name appearing on the registrar's book 
 as a pensioner. He received the bachelor's degree in 1631, and 
 was made a master four years later. Beyond these meager 
 facts, concerning his life in England, it is only known that 
 he was a dissenting clergyman, and set sail for this country 
 some time in the early part of 1637. Almost immediately 
 upon his arrival in Massachusetts he was admitted a free- 
 man of the village Charlestown along with his co-laborer, 
 Mr. John Fisk, and others. He continued his ministry, as 
 appears from the records, and was wealthy beyond his sur- 
 roundings. His small bequest was almost double what the 
 whole colony besides was able to give. Thirty years old, and 
 a finished scholar, after the severe standards even of that ul- 
 tra-classical period, his counsel was sought outside the field 
 of theology also; for, almost immediately upon his arrival, 
 he was appointed one of a committee " to consider of some 
 tilings toward a body of laws for the town." After a year 
 in the colony he died of consumption, September 24, 1638. 
 He has been called " reverend " and "godly." Henry Bar- 
 nard says of him, " He was the greatest benefactor of edu- 
 cation in America." 
 
 " It was given," said Edward Everett, " to the venerated 
 man whom we commemorate this day " * (1828), " first to 
 strike the key-note in the character of this people ; first to 
 perceive with a prophet's foresight, and to promote with a 
 princely liberality, considering his means, that connection 
 between private munificence and public education which, 
 well understood and pursued by others, has given to New 
 England no small portion of her name and praise in the 
 land." 
 
 His books, which formed the nucleus of the present Har- 
 vard Library, were solid and standard. The catalogue is still 
 
 * Upon the erection of a monument at Charlestown to hia memory.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 23 
 
 preserved, showing two hundred and sixty volumes, and is 
 one window into the intellectual habit of the man. As 
 might be expected, they were chiefly theological and polem- 
 ical. They were also classical, and mark the thoughtful bias 
 along with general culture. There were Aquinas and Chrys- 
 ostom and Calvin ; Duns Scotus, Luther, and Pelagius ; but 
 there were, besides, Bacon and Homer, Isocrates and Plu- 
 tarch, Pliny, Juvenal, and Horace. John Harvard * was a 
 fit benefactor of the first American university. 
 
 The colony caught his spirit. Among the magistrates 
 themselves two hundred pounds was subscribed, a part in 
 books. All did something, even the indigent. One sub- 
 scribed a number of sheep ; another, nine shillings' worth of 
 cloth ; one, a ten-shilling pewter flagon ; others, a fruit-dish, 
 a sugar-spoon, a silver-tipped jug, one great salt, one small 
 trencher salt, etc. From such small beginnings did the in- 
 stitution take its start. No rank, no class of men, is unrep- 
 resented. The school was of the people. 
 
 The institution was as yet only a modest school ; not till 
 later did it aspire to be a college, much less a university. 
 The first principal, during whose administration the Harvard 
 bequest was received, was Nathaniel Eaton. " Of this man," 
 says Josiah Quincy, " nothing has been transmitted worthy 
 of being repeated " ; a thought emphasized in the statement 
 of Hubbard, that " he was fitter to have been an officer in 
 the Inquisition than the instructor of Christian youth, "t 
 
 Eaton was succeeded (1640) by Mr. Henry Dunster, with 
 the title of "President." A scholarly, painstaking, pious, 
 earnest man, he, of all the early friends of the college, after 
 its founder, deserves most thoughtful notice. Under his di- 
 rection was formed the first code of laws, regulations were 
 
 * The remains of John Harvard lie buried on Harvard Hill, in Charles- 
 town, where (1828), almost two centuries after his death, a monument was 
 erected to his memory ; it was upon this occasion that Hon. Edward Ever- 
 ett pronounced his famous oration on the founder of Harvard College. (See 
 "Orations," vol. i, p. 176.) 
 
 t " History of New England," p. 01.
 
 24: TUB COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 adopted, and degrees established. Like John Harvard, Mr. 
 Dunster was educated in Emmanuel College, and, like him 
 also, had been a nonconformist clergyman. 
 
 From his own early training, he patterned the Harvard 
 course largely after that of the English universities, though 
 variously modified to suit the new conditions. After nine- 
 teen years of only informal management the policy began 
 to be more fixed, and the requirements for admission were 
 announced as follows : " When any scholar is able to read 
 Tully or any like classical Latin author, ex tempore, and 
 make and speak true Latin in verse and prose (suo ut aiunt 
 Marte), and decline perfectly the paradigms of nouns and 
 verbs in the Greek tongue, then may he be admitted to the 
 college ; nor shall any claim admission before such qualifi- 
 cation." 
 
 The course covered three years, and, in the nomenclature 
 of the day, was both " liberal " and comprehensive. It must 
 be remembered that for sixty years the institution was little 
 more than a training-school for ministers, managed as a the- 
 ological seminary, having religion, of a more or less well- 
 defined type, as its basis and chief object. Yet, as Prof. 
 Emerson has put it,* "It is one of the most remarkable 
 things in the history of Harvard, that, in all the constitu- 
 tions of the college, there is nothing illiberal or sectarian ; 
 nothing to check the freest pursuit of truth in theological 
 opinions, and in everything else; and this, too, while the 
 founders of the college were severely and strictly orthodox ; 
 often exclusive in their own opinions, and while their object 
 was unquestionably to provide for the thorough education 
 of ministers of the gospel of like views with themselves." 
 
 The course t included two years of logic, and something 
 of physics ; two of ethics and politics ; two of mathematics 
 (including, however, only arithmetic and geometry), the 
 equivalent of four years of Greek, and one year each of He- 
 
 * " Lowell Lectures," 1869, p. 293. 
 
 t Eichardson's " The College Book," p. 8.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 25 
 
 brew, Chaldee, and Syriac. Latin was excluded as some- 
 thing that must have been mastered before entrance, its con- 
 versational use being obligatory upon all within the limits 
 of the college, in place of the mother-tongue, which was " to 
 be used under no pretext whatever, unless required in public 
 exercises." The Bible was systematically studied for the en- 
 tire three years, Ezra, Daniel, and the New Testament being 
 specified. A year was given to catechetical divinity. Daily 
 prayers must be attended " at six o'clock in the morning and 
 five o'clock at night all the yeare long " ; at which time stu- 
 dents were required to " read some portion of the Old Testa- 
 ment out of Hebrew into Greek, and the New Testament out 
 of English into Greek, after which " one of the Bachelors or 
 Sophisters should logically analyze that which was read." 
 
 History was taught by lectures a few weeks in the winter, 
 and botany in like manner in the summer. Allowing even 
 for this last, science was practically unknown ; all profane 
 literature was excluded ; and even "philosophy, such as is 
 worthy of the name," says Richardson, " was untouched." 
 
 Not less exacting were the requirements of studentship. 
 President Dunster seems to have been head and body of the 
 whole institution. No possible conduct escaped his eye. 
 Class deportment, plan of studies, personal habits, daily life, 
 private devotions, social intercourse, and civil privileges, 
 were all directed. 
 
 Concerning degrees it was ordered that "every scholar 
 that on proof is found able to read the originals of the Old 
 and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and to resolve 
 them logically ; withal being of Godly life and conversation ; 
 and at any publick act hath the approbation of the overseers 
 and master of the Colledge, is fit to be dignified with his first 
 degree."* 
 
 For a second degree, it was required, in addition to the 
 
 * See " New England's First Fruits," a quaintly entertaining sketch of 
 Harvard, written 1643, and to be found in " Massachusetts Historical Col- 
 lections," vol. i, p. 245.
 
 26 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 above, that the applicant should "give up a system, or 
 synopsis or summe" of logic, natural and moral philoso- 
 phy, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy ; and defend his 
 thesis. 
 
 The first commencement was held in 1645, when nine 
 young men took their degrees. The first doctorate conferred 
 was upon the famous Increase Mather (1692), a distinction " as 
 well deserved," says Quincy, " as it was acceptable to both 
 father and son." 
 
 Under President Dunster the college grew and prospered. 
 Few men have done so much for American education as he. 
 In a chaotic period he gave it form. Amid distracting re- 
 ligious and political claims, he secured to the college a 
 union of interests and a co-operation of forces that, aside 
 from formal education, did much to shape and fix a com- 
 mon New England sentiment. During his office, Harvard 
 acquired such repute that "in several instances youths of 
 opulent families in the parent country were sent to the 
 American Cambridge for a finishing education." * 
 
 In the year 1647 the population of the Massachusetts 
 Bay Colony was about four thousand, and that of all New 
 England something more than five times as much. There 
 were in all, fifty towns and villages, as many ministers, and 
 half as many churches. Of the twenty graduates in the 
 first decade, twelve found their life-work in Europe ; but of 
 the five hundred alumni during the seventeenth century, 
 fully one half, it is estimated, entered the ministry, and 
 chiefly in New England. After Chauncy, successor to 
 Dunster and second president of the college, " both presi- 
 dents and tutors were chosen from its own graduates." t 
 
 The four colonies had, in the first decade, given Harvard 
 thirteen hundred dollars Boston, one third of it. Con- 
 necticut, about this time, projected a college ; but, failing in 
 the undertaking, the money raised was generously turned 
 
 * Palfrey's " History of New England," vol. i, p. 200. 
 t George C. Bush's " Harvard College," p. C3.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 27 
 
 over to Massachusetts. Indeed, it is on record that, up to 
 the founding of Yale, the one settlement of New Haven had 
 furnished one thirtieth of the Harvard graduates. 
 
 The institution was intrusted to a managing hoard in 
 1642, and eight years later received its first and only charter, 
 sealed by Governor Dudley, and ratified by the Constitution 
 of 1780. Fellowships were introduced by President Dun- 
 ster, and, about 1725, two professorships founded by a Lon- 
 don merchant. Aside from the latter, the salaries were, for 
 a hundred years, paid out of the colonial treasury. 
 
 In an official paper signed by Governor Endicott, bearing 
 date 1655, and addressed to the General Court, information 
 was given that " all the estate the college hath (as appears 
 by the inventory thereof), is only its present building, library, 
 and a few utensils with the press,* and some parcels of land 
 (none of which can with any reason, or to any benefit, be 
 sold to help in the premises), and in real revenue, about 
 twelve pounds per annum (which is a small pittance to be 
 shared among four fellows), besides fifteen pounds per an- 
 num, which by donor's appointment is for scholarships." 
 
 During the next fifty years the embarrassments of the col- 
 lege were numerous, both financial and official. Salaries 
 small as they were were repudiated ; the buildings were 
 decayed, and the political influences of the English Restora- 
 tion were noticeable in the diminished support accorded the 
 college. Added to all this, the president proved inefficient, 
 and the attendance greatly decreased. But for timely help 
 from New Hampshire, and occasional private aid from Eng- 
 land, the institution must have been seriously impaired. 
 
 Under the provincial reorganization of William and 
 Mary, a strong effort was made to revive the college interest. 
 A royal charter was repeatedly sought. It was a period of 
 extreme religious controversy and political unrest, witchcraft 
 
 * The printing-press brought from England, and set up at Harvard by 
 Stephen Daye in 1C39. (See Thomas's " History of Printing," voL i, pp. 
 203, 231).
 
 23 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 was at its highest, Calvinism and the newer New England 
 Congregationalism were in conflict.* The college was with- 
 out a recognized charter, and for twenty years without a resi- 
 dent head.t The once unquestioned power of the clergy was 
 waning. There was faction without, and sometimes incom- 
 petence within. A child of the people, and expecting little 
 from royalty, it received less. Having only a provincial 
 charter, with no English authority, the institution lacked 
 permanence. The management was various and unequal. 
 A fixed constitution was indispensable. This came, as has 
 been noted, not from the queen, but from a royal Governor, 
 Joseph Dudley, of whom and whose service to the college, 
 Mr. Quincy has said, " Of all statesmen who have been in- 
 strumental in promoting the interests of Harvard College, 
 Governor Joseph Dudley was most influential in giving its 
 constitution permanent character." 
 
 President Leverett (1707-1724) was a man of rare intel- 
 lectual attainments and dignity of character. Rich in schol- 
 arship, he was at the same time, what was far more common 
 then than now, both theologian and statesman. He was one 
 of the earliest, if not the first, among American recipients of 
 election to membership in the Royal Society of London. 
 Under his somewhat uneventful service were initiated cer- 
 tain improvements hi the curriculum, which, while not com- 
 pleted for many years, ultimately made the Revolutionary 
 Harvard very different from that of the seventeenth century. 
 
 First, Latin ceased to be required in conversation, and 
 through Virgil and Cicero became a part of the instruction. 
 Chaldee and Syriac were omitted, though Hebrew long re- 
 mained. After a time there was added to the course, some- 
 thing of geography, and in a limited way of physics. Not 
 
 * This is well treated in Quincy's " History of Harvard University,'' 
 vol. i, p. 366. 
 
 t Both Increase Mather (except for a few months of the sixteen years he 
 held the office) and Samuel Willard, residing in Boston and having minis- 
 terial charges.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 29 
 
 until near the Revolution was any attempt made to organ- 
 ize the instruction into a system, by establishing departments 
 or courses. This change marks an epoch in the development 
 of the Harvard curriculum. All instruction was thrown into 
 the four groups : 1. Latin. 2. Greek. 3. Logic and meta- 
 physics. 4. Mathematics and natural philosophy ; each of 
 which was put into the exclusive charge of one man. 
 
 By benefactions during the century prior to the Revolu- 
 tion, the college received in money nearly fifteen thousand 
 pounds, of which Thomas Hollis, an English Dissenting 
 friend, and his son, gave one half. It received also one 
 thousand acres of land, and a few books. Nevertheless, the 
 management all these years had to do with poverty and fac- 
 tion and antagonisms. Dunster was compelled to resign 
 his presidency through the jealousies of Paedobaptist fanat- 
 icism. Chauncy lived in grinding poverty ; Mather and 
 Willard both depended upon pastoral relations to eke out a 
 pinched maintenance ; and Leverett died bankrupt.* But 
 most of all and most serious, the institution was for years 
 disturbed by being brought into the religious controversies 
 of the time. In a controversial age this was inevitable. 
 The conscience of dissent begot a habit. 
 
 The very foundation idea of the college was the theo- 
 logic want. The presidents and members of the corporation 
 were generally the prominent scholars, the theologians, and 
 political leaders, of the community and time. The college 
 easily came to be the arena upon which, or the interest 
 about which, were fought those terrible logomachies of 
 dogma and doctrine. These required, as they had, the best 
 learning, the shrewdest insight, the most politic minds of 
 the day. 
 
 * The president's salary during this period never exceeded two hundred 
 pounds a year, and usually was but one hundred and fifty. The total grants 
 made to the college during the first century, by the colony, amounted to 
 about eight thousand dollars. At the close of the century (1732), the total 
 annual income from all sources was but seven hundred and fifty pounds.
 
 30 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 In the controversies sustained by the Mathers; in the 
 New England scheme for establishing a chair of divinity 
 by Hollis ; in the conflict of Puritans and Episcopalians; 
 Whitefield and Wiggles worth ; Chauncy and Edwards, the 
 college was repeatedly shaken to its foundations. Yet, 
 through it all, it accomplished a much-needed work, with 
 manifold wholesome reactions upon society and govern- 
 ment, so that it has been affirmed, with show of truth, that 
 " the founding of Harvard College hastened the Revolution 
 half a century."* 
 
 . The College of William and Mary. 
 
 Ten years after the settlement at Jamestown (1617), the 
 English king, James I, addressed the following letter to the 
 bishops of the English churches : 
 
 " Most Reverend Father in God, right trustie and well- 
 beloved counsellor, wee greet you well : 
 
 " You have heard, ere this time of the attempt of diverse 
 worthie men,' our subjects, to plant in Virginia (under war- 
 rant of our letters patent), People of this Kingdom, as well 
 for the enlarging of our Dominion, as for the propagation 
 of the Gospel among Infidells: wherein there is good prog- 
 ress made, and hope of further increase; so as the under- 
 takers of that Plantation are now in hand with the erecting 
 of some churches and some schools for the education of the 
 children of those barbarians ; ... in which we doubt not 
 but that you and all others who wish well to the increase of 
 the Christian religion will be willing to give all assistance 
 and furtherance you may, and therein to make experience 
 of the zeal and devotion of our well-minded subjects, espe- 
 cially those of the clergy. 
 
 " Whereby we do require you, and hereby authorize you 
 to write your letters to the severall Bishops of the Dioceses of 
 your Province, that they do give order to ministers and 
 
 Concerning this controversial period and its relations to the college, 
 read chapters vii, x, and xxii of Quincy's u History of Harvard University."
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 31 
 
 other zealous men of their Dioceses both by their own ex- 
 ample in contribution, and by exhortation to others to move 
 our people within their severall charges to contribute to so 
 good a work in as liberal a manner as they may ; for the 
 better advancing whereof our pleasure is that those collec- 
 tions be made in the particular parishes four severall times 
 within these two years next coming ; and that the severall 
 accounts of each parish together with the monies collected, 
 be returned from time to time to the Bishops of the Dioceses, 
 and by them transmitted half-yearly to you ; and so to be 
 delivered to the treasurer of that Plantation, to be employed 
 for the Godly purpose intended and no other." * 
 
 Two years afterward (1619) Sir Edwin Sandys, treasurer, 
 reported fifteen hundred pounds, one half of which had been 
 loaned to the company as an investment, whose interest 
 should be applied to the support of the school. 
 
 He recommended, however, that the building of the 
 college be temporarily postponed ; that a piece of land be 
 laid out at Henrico, which should be called the "college 
 land," one half the returns from which should go to the 
 company, and be set apart as a "college fund."t It 
 was so ordered. A hundred laborers were sent over, a 
 superintendent of buildings was appointed, and Rev. Patrick 
 Cope! and made first president of the college. The enter- 
 prise was promising. Everything was planned on a large 
 scale. These were loyal English subjects and had the pat- 
 ronage of the throne. In the year 1621 the preparatory 
 school at Charles City was ordered open, with its lands and 
 servants and revenue. The college was to follow. 
 
 The massacre, the next year, put a stop to every enter- 
 prise, except that of self-defense. Superintendent Thorp, 
 nine of the college laborers, and more than three hundred 
 
 * Neill' 8" "Virginia Vetusta," p. 167. 
 
 t The story of the efforts in Virginia during these years to found a college 
 is told with much interest and a fund of original material, in Mr. Neill' s 
 "Virginia Company of London."
 
 32 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 colonists, perished in a day. It seemed as if years must 
 elapse before anything further could be even attempted. 
 Dangers were all about. The Virginia savages were at their 
 crudest, crops were uncertain, disease had numerous victims, 
 and for many months the company's reports abounded in 
 disappointment and defeat. Of ten thousand colonists, old 
 and young, said to have arrived in the first sixteen years of 
 the Virginia settlement, but two thousand remained. 
 
 Yet the colonists were not disheartened. The only peo- 
 ple on the continent asking immediate means of schooling, 
 their sacrifices become heroic. New England existed in 
 four towns. Davenport, Winthrop, Eaton, and John Har- 
 vard were still in England. As yet Virginia was America. 
 Ambitious beyond their means, there was no Berkeley to 
 oppose. Almost immediately after the massacre the idea of 
 the college was revived. 
 
 One Edward Palmer, an educated Englishman, and holder 
 of a Virginia patent, provided by will for the founding of a 
 university and school of art, on an island near the mouth of 
 the Susquehanna River. He is said to have spent many 
 thousand pounds improving the island, and the immediate 
 site, that it should be at once a quiet retreat for the studious, 
 and afford security from the attacks of the savage. It was 
 to be called u Academia Virginiensis et Oxoniensis." * Of all 
 this, however, nothing remains but the memory of a mis- 
 placed aestheticism, the vagary of an educational enthusiast. 
 The Indian was a poor subject for a school of art ; and the 
 Indian seemed to rule. 
 
 In 1660 the founding of the college was again revived, 
 this time by the settlers themselves. The Virginia Company 
 had dissolved, nearly forty years before. It had sought to 
 colonize the country, make a profitable investment, convert 
 the heathen (the infidels), and magnify the king. On every 
 point they came out bankrupt : money had been sunk in the 
 experiment, lives lost, and the gains to religion, to learning, 
 
 * " Virginia Vetusta," p. 183.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 33 
 
 and to human comforts, were painfully small. The settlers 
 were now few, and in poverty. Harvard was flourishing, 
 paying her president one hundred and fifty pounds a year, 
 and fighting heresy through anti-paedobaptism. In the year 
 named, the Virginia Assembly, moved by the want of able 
 and faithful ministers, enacted that "for the advance of 
 learning, education of youth, supply of the ministry, and 
 the promotion of piety, there be land taken for a colledge 
 and free schoole." Subscriptions were taken, and others 
 invited by magisterial order and sanction.* They came 
 from every class and of varying amounts. 
 
 In this first appears the spirit of the people as distinct 
 from the administration and the Church. It marks a feeling 
 of confidence and self-helpfulness wholly new to the Vir- 
 ginian. Although nothing came of it immediately, it con- 
 stituted the beginning of an interest that culminated in the 
 founding of William and Mary College thirty years later. 
 The institution was as yet without name only known as 
 the " college " but referred to in frequent communications, 
 public documents, bequests, and legislation ; and universally 
 so recognized throughout Virginia, the Bermudas, New Eng- 
 land, and in Parliament, for fifty years prior to the reign of 
 William and Mary. 
 
 Finally (1688), certain wealthy planters subscribed for 
 the college twenty-five hundred pounds, and the preamble 
 to the charter then sought, and obtained five years later, was 
 largely in the words of the act of 1660. The Winthrop of 
 Virginia was Rev. James Blair, for many years a minister 
 of the Established Church, first in England, then in the col- 
 ony; and later an educator, a scholar, and an author, he 
 was familiar with the people, their institutions, and their 
 ignorance, as few others could be. He presented the cause 
 to the queen in person, receiving her enthusiastic support. 
 King William co-operated. Both generously gave aid in 
 money, promising a charter. 
 
 * Hcnning's " Statutes at Large" (Virginia), vol. ii, p. 25.
 
 34: THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 When Seymour, the attorney-general, was presented with 
 the royal order for a charter, he refused. The home country 
 was involved in a war with France ; and Virginia and the 
 barbarians could wait for their college. Mr. Blair urged, by 
 way of manly appeal, that, as " Virginians had souls to be 
 saved as well as their English countrymen," the institution 
 was needed to prepare young men for the ministry. " Souls ! " 
 cried Seymour, "damn your souls! make tobacco." Not- 
 withstanding official profanity, however, the charter was 
 granted the first royal educational charter in America. 
 Aid was abundantly given. A provisional board was con- 
 stituted, Mr. Blair was made first president, and the college 
 of William and Mary became the second colonial school. 
 By charter the college was established in the Middle Plan- 
 tation, now Williamsburg, where it remains ; was given 
 twenty thousand acres of land, a penny a pound tax on all 
 tobacco exported from Virginia and Maryland, and the fees 
 and privileges of the Surveyor-General's office.* It further 
 provided for a chancellor, who should hold his office seven 
 years ; a president (in terms of the charter, a commissary) ; 
 the education of Indians ; immunity of the college belong- 
 ings from taxation, and a representative of the college in the 
 colonial Legislature. In respect of the last point, at least, 
 the history of William and Mary is peculiar among Ameri- 
 can institutions of learning. This representative might be 
 one of the faculty, or a member of the board of visitors, or 
 " one of the better sort of inhabitants of the colony," but, in 
 any case, the selection was by the college faculty. The bish- 
 ops of London were the chancellors down to the Revolution. 
 George Washington, chosen to the office in 1789, was not 
 only the first American, but the first layman, to receive the 
 honor. 
 
 The institution came into existence rich. In three months 
 it was given more than Harvard received for the first fifty 
 
 * Washington and Jefferson both received their surveyor's commission 
 from the College of William and Mary.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 35 
 
 years. In twenty years, while Harvard was in poverty and 
 Yale had yet no fixed existence, the property of William and 
 Mary included, besides buildings and grounds, 22,450 acres of 
 the richest of Virginia river-bottom land, a large tobacco 
 revenue, the fees and profits of the Surveyor - General's 
 office, together with a considerable cash income. In its 
 royal foundation, its generous endowment and liberal pat- 
 ronage, it stands in sharp contrast to the early years of 
 Harvard. This was established by Puritans and stood for 
 the severest of ultra-orthodox though dissenting Protest- 
 antism ; that was founded to be and was an exponent of the 
 most formal ceremonialism of the Church of England. The 
 one was nursed by democracy ; the other befriended by Cava- 
 alier and courtier. Endowment for the one came from the 
 thin purses of an infant and needy settlement ; the other was 
 drawn from the royal treasury. The one was environed 
 and shaken for a hundred years by the schisms of a contro- 
 versial people ; the roots of the other were deep in the great 
 English ecclesiastical system. 
 
 In the organization, besides the grammar-school for teach- 
 ing the Latin and Greek, and a school of philosophy, includ- 
 ing mathematics, there was designed to be a third, and one 
 to which these were to be in the main supplementary and 
 subordinate, in which should be taught divinity and the Ori- 
 ental languages ; * for it was part of the original plan, run- 
 ning back through the years to 1619, that the college when 
 established should be " a seminary for the breeding of good 
 ministers."! Governors and visitors were required to be 
 members of the Church of England, professors to subscribe 
 to the Thirty-nine Articles, and students to know the cate- 
 chism. 
 
 Of the curriculum up to the Revolution, less even is 
 known than of that of Yale of the same period, and far less 
 than of Harvard. All were of English pattern, though 
 
 * To these was afterward added the " Indian school." 
 
 t See " Massachusetts Historical Collections," vol. v, p. 164.
 
 36 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 modified in time by local conditions. History seems to have 
 had an earlier prominence in Virginia than in the colonies 
 North.* The general course covered three years, and in- 
 cluded the five departments Greek, Latin, mathematics, 
 moral philosophy, and divinity. It was classical and pre- 
 scribed. For a hundred years the speaking of Latin in 
 original composition was required twice a month. Meager 
 as it all seems in the light of inadequate records, it was nev- 
 ertheless a " school of the prophets," outside divinity. It 
 was a place where independence grew, but where tolerance 
 also thrived. Its teaching has been described as after the 
 Oxford order of humanities : the abstract as the foundation 
 of the concrete; everything for discipline; the ancient lan- 
 guages before the modern; the laws of right rather than 
 those of matter. 
 
 Whatever it was, the historic product is worthy of consid- 
 eration. Jefferson and four other signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence were graduates ; three Randolphs, Monroe, 
 Judge Blab-, and Chief -Justice Marshall. This, too, from a 
 school whose annual average enrollment for the entire period 
 was less than seventy-five students. 
 
 With an annual revenue of 4,000 it was by far the best 
 equipped institution in America; but its buildings were 
 twice burned, its libraries lost, and it came out of the war 
 (1783) with entire loss of its landed interest, and, in the de- 
 preciation of currency, of all its endowment, revenues, etc. 
 
 The regulations of William and Mary College were no 
 less severe than those of Harvard already noted. Laws 
 were passed (1754) prohibiting students " keeping or having 
 to do with race-horses," against " playing or betting at the 
 billiard or other gaming table," or being concerned in " keep- 
 ing or fighting cocks," under pain of severest animadversion 
 or punishment. Everything was prescriptive and manda- 
 tory. Even the faculty had no escape. Just prior to the 
 
 * See Adams's " College of William aud Maty," and " Study of History 
 in American Colleges."
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 37 
 
 Revolution, the Professor of Divinity and the master of the 
 grammar-school having married and taken up their residence 
 outside the college grounds, it was resolved by the Board of 
 Visitors that it was " the opinion of this visitation that the 
 professors and masters, their engaging in marriage and the 
 concerns of a private family, and shifting their residence to 
 any place without the college, is contrary to the principles 
 oh which the college was founded and their duty as pro- 
 fessors." It was further ordered that thereafter, upon the 
 marriage of a professor or master, his professorship be im- 
 mediately vacated.* 
 
 S. Yale College. 
 
 With John Davenport,f one of the founders of the 
 New Haven Colony, it was a design from the first to provide 
 them a college. He had assisted in the establishment of 
 Harvard and lost no opportunity to give like direction to 
 the newer colony. In 1647 a lot was set apart for a col- 
 lege. Within ten years the need was so urgently felt that 
 New Haven had subscribed three hundred pounds and ad- 
 joining settlements nearly as much more. The project how- 
 ever, halted. The "college" was not begun. The people 
 were few, and the embarrassments attending all new settle- 
 ments pressing at New Haven. Besides, the support of all the 
 colonies was needed at Cambridge. The cost was counted, 
 the returns from two small colleges put beside the influence 
 from one vigorous and well-supported one ; and it seemed to 
 them more wise to be content with something less than a 
 college at home, and wait for a more favorable season. 
 
 Of course, it could not long remain that the colony of 
 Davenport and Eaton should be dependent upon another for 
 the best education. The inconveniences of a journey to Bos- 
 ton, the extra expense, and the importance of a sufficient 
 
 * See " Sketch of William and Mary College," anonymous, p. 50. 
 t He was a member of the committee, 1637, to carry into effect the order 
 of the General Court locating Harvard College.
 
 38 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 and thoroughly and wisely educated ministry, all served to 
 keep alive the original design. In 1698 a plan was pro- 
 posed, and embraced with great unanimity. It contemplated 
 a college founded and directed by a general synod of the 
 churches. It should be called the " School of the Church," 
 and receive from them toward its support, and an oversight 
 " as far as should be necessary to preserve orthodoxy in the 
 government." * The synod seems not to have been formally 
 constituted ; but the ministers, among whom, all the while, 
 the design was concerted and cherished, held it in remem- 
 brance and discussed it in their councils. In the year 1699 
 ten of the principal clergymen of the colony were agreed 
 upon to be " trustees to found, erect, and govern a college." 
 They met the year following with invited counsel, and 
 formed a society, to consist of eleven ministers, to take initial 
 
 At a second meeting, but in the same year, each trustee 
 brought a number of books, and, laying them on a table, pre- 
 sented them to the body, saying in substance, " I give these 
 books for the founding of a college in this colony." These 
 forty volumes, and the acts of the trustees at this meeting 
 (1700), constitute the beginning of Yale College. Like that 
 at Cambridge, sixty-three years before, it was without dis- 
 play; and, except for the magnanimous character of the 
 founders, without promise. 
 
 The colony had a population of fifteen thousand (about 
 one fourth that of Massachusetts), a tax-list of two hundred 
 thousand pounds, and fifty or more college men, including 
 the clergy. 
 
 The whole of New England had a population of less 
 than one hundred thousand, whose patronage must now 
 be divided not only between Harvard and Yale (with tbe 
 advantages three to one in favor of the former financially), 
 but more or less also with the recently founded William 
 
 * On this point sec a " Sketch of the History of Yule College," by Prof. 
 Kingsley, 1835.
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 39 
 
 and Mary College. With limited means and a scattered pop- 
 ulation; little royal support, and the taxing industry of a 
 pioneer life ; exhausted by Indian wars, and no established 
 commerce, the prospect was anything but encouraging. 
 
 The beginning was made, however; a charter was ob- 
 tained the year following (1701), and Rev. Abraham Pier- 
 son chosen first rector. The school (it was not called a 
 college sometimes a collegiate school) was opened in 
 March, 1701, and, until the following September, one Jacob 
 Hemingway was the sole student. The first fruits were 
 largely gleanings from Cambridge. The school increasing 
 in numbers, a tutor was elected in 1703, and the school took 
 on something of organization. The regulations, for the most 
 part, were those at Harvard, as also the course of study. 
 
 There was nothing in the chai-ter concerning any relig- 
 ious test for trustees, rectors, or tutors. It was early re- 
 quired by the trustees, however, that no instruction should 
 be given in any other system or synopsis of divinity than 
 such as the trustees should order ; and that students should 
 recite daily, and be examined in, the " Assembly's Cate- 
 chism " and Ames's " Cases of Conscience," and " Theologi- 
 cal Theses." 
 
 To add to the first year's embarrassments, the school had 
 no fixed existence. It had been decided (1701) to open it at 
 Saybrook, " if it could be done without too much inconven- 
 ience." Inasmuch as the rector lived at Killingworth, how- 
 ever, where he had his clerical charge, the school was first 
 located there. At Mr. Pierson's death (1707), Rev. Samuel 
 Andrews was made acting rector, with whom, for nine years, 
 the seniors resided and were taught, at Milford. For most 
 of this time the under classes were with two tutors at Say- 
 brook, the nominal seat of the school, and where for fifteen 
 years the commencements were held. 
 
 Factions had been at work for a permanent location. 
 In 1716 the trustees being unable, financially, to decide the 
 question at once, allowed to students (except seniors) the 
 privilege of finding their own instructors until the next
 
 40 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 commencement. Seniors were required to reside with the 
 rector. The school, small as it was (about twenty-five stu- 
 dents), was scattered in half a dozen towns of the colony. 
 The provision was extremely unsatisfactory. The institu- 
 tion was really no institution. Its work was inconsiderable 
 in amount, and lacked every element of system, or unity, 
 or pervading purpose ; and yet, even then, next to the 
 churches, it was the one object of concern for clergy and 
 educated laity ; the one interest, universal and ever pres- 
 ent ; whose discussion was destined to unite the Connecti- 
 cut colonies as nothing else could. The factions were bit- 
 ter enough in seeming, but they were superficial. It was 
 finally decided to locate the school permanently at New 
 Haven. This was effected in 1718. 
 
 As yet little has been said of the financial condition and 
 growth of Yale College, and nothing of the event which 
 finally gave it a name. 
 
 Elihu Yale * was born in Boston, April 5, 1648. At ten 
 years of age he was taken to England to be educated. 
 Twenty years he spent in the schools and in special study. 
 He afterward went to the East Indies, acquired a large 
 fortune, was made Governor of Madras, and, later, Gov- 
 ernor of the East India Company. In 1718 he was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. His donations 
 to the college at New Haven, largely in books, amounted to 
 about five hundred pounds. 
 
 Next to John Davenport, also, the college owed much 
 to Rev. Cotton Mather, of Boston. Somewhat disaffected 
 toward Harvard, on theological grounds, f both he and his 
 
 * A good biography of Elihu Yale, including so much as is known of 
 his life, may be found in the " Yale Literary Magazine," April, 1858. 
 
 t The Saybrook school was opened the year after the unsuccessful at- 
 tempt at Harvard to impose a religious test ; and it has been frequently 
 affirmed, with some show of truth, that the first movers in the Connecticut 
 school alleged this as a reason : that the college at Cambridge was under the 
 tutelage of latitudinarians. (Quincy's " Harvard University," vol. ii, p. 
 462.)
 
 COLONIAL COLLEGES. 41 
 
 father had, from the beginning, encouraged the Connecticut 
 venture. A private letter from the younger Mather to Gov- 
 ernor Yale probably suggested the Yale donation, and led, 
 at the commencement, 1718, to affix to the now established 
 institution its present name. Besides Mr. Yale, others, both 
 in this country and in England, contributed to the college, 
 prominent among whom was the Rev. George Berkeley, 
 who gave ninety-six acres of land in Rhode Island, and one 
 thousand volumes for the library. The conditions and cir- 
 cumstances of this gift are interesting. Dean of Derry, and 
 afterward- Bishop of Cloyne, he was a man of outward as 
 well as intellectual rank. Though a High Churchman, he 
 was a liberal-minded, scholarly, generous-hearted lover of 
 learning. He came across to America early in the century, 
 hoping, with the promise of a parliamentary grant, to found 
 a college in the Bermudas. His property accumulated ; 
 but, his scheme failing, he returned to England, leaving in 
 America many nonconformist friends to whom and for 
 whom it was easy to make generous gifts. 
 
 The entire contribution of every sort made by the Com- 
 monwealth of Connecticut prior to the Revolution was less 
 than twenty-five thousand dollars, and in a century and a 
 half had not reached one hundred thousand dollars. In- 
 deed, the institution has been chiefly supported, as it was 
 originally founded, by private means. 
 
 Of the course of study not much can be given from these 
 earlier years even less than of Harvard of the same period. 
 As might be supposed, it was chiefly theological, though an 
 occasional tutor seems to have injected somewhat of science 
 into the common routine. Dr. Samuel Johnson (1718) broke 
 away from the established cosmic doctrine, and introduced 
 the Copernican theory. Mr. Ezra Styles, a little later, made 
 simple experiments with an electrical machine which had 
 been presented to the college by Benjamin Franklin. Rector 
 Clap (1740), " to keep the college abreast with what were 
 thought to be the demands of the age," made certain addi- 
 tions to the curriculum. The work in physics and mathe-
 
 42 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 matics was increased; the latter comprising instruction in 
 conic sections and fluxions, surveying, navigation, and the 
 calculation of eclipses. While there was not, for many 
 years, such a thing thought of as modern history, Dr. Clap 
 announced, and regularly delivered for a number of years, 
 " lectures upon all those subjects which are necessary to be 
 understood to qualify young men for the various stations 
 and employments of life." Here was an attempt at least, 
 whatever its success, to fit culture to living. The " Great 
 Awakening," also, of 1740, through the preaching of White- 
 field and Jonathan Edwards, led to the founding (1755), 
 after years of bitter excitement, and tract and pamphlet war, 
 of a professorship of divinity. Earlier in the century, 
 Rector Cutler and part of the tutors had gone over to Epis- 
 copacy,* and had been " excused from further service." 
 This was sufficient cause for alarm throughout the New 
 England congregations, and led in 1722 to the introduction 
 of a religious test in Yale, for rector and tutor, that lasted 
 for a hundred years. All officers of the college were re- 
 quired to assent to the " Saybrook Platform " of 1708, giving 
 satisfaction of " the soundness of their faith in opposition 
 to Arminian and prelatical corruption." This was reaffirmed 
 in 1753, and was followed by the divinity chair noted above. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 Of the colonial colleges, Harvard is best known, and has best pre- 
 served its history. The earliest, Part I, of " The First Fruits of New 
 England," published in 1G42, and to be found in the "Massachusetts 
 Historical Collections," is a brief but detailed sketch of the first Ameri- 
 can college. One published in 1833, by Prof. Benjamin Peirce, covers 
 the colonial period only. The best of all is the " History of Harvard 
 University," by Josiah Quincy, 1840. Information of William and Mary 
 College is very meager. An anonymous sketch, published in 1874, gives 
 a brief history, a list of the alumni, and what is known of the faculty 
 
 * This defection of Mr. Cutler and his friends, and the former's relations 
 to Harvard College, as well as to tho theological controversies of the day, 
 are well depicted by Mr. Quincy in his first volume (see pp. 364-376.)
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 43 
 
 and curriculum from its founding. Consult also "De Bow's Review," 
 August, 1859, "Scribner's Monthly," vol. xi, p. 1, and a recent sketch by 
 H. B. Adams, published by the Bureau of Education. Somewhat more 
 is known of Yale College, though far less than of Harvard, and the 
 "Annals of Yale College," by President Thomas Clap (1766), a "Sketch 
 of the History of Yale College," by J. S. Kingsley (1835), and "Yale 
 University," by T. B. Dexter (1885), contain most that is authoritative. 
 Next to these, perhaps first in importance, because dwelling upon certain 
 details, are the numerous articles that have appeared in the " Yale 
 Literary Magazine," begun 1836. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 
 
 ACCORDING to Horace Mann, there are three fundamental 
 propositions upon which the common-school system of 
 Massachusetts rests. These he gives as 
 
 " 1. The successive generations of men, taken collect- 
 ively, constitute one great commonwealth. 
 
 " 2. The property of this commonwealth is pledged for 
 the education of all its youth up to such point as will save 
 them from poverty and vice, and prepare them for the ade- 
 quate performance of their social and civil duties. 
 
 " 3. The successive holders of this property are trustees, 
 bound to the faithful execution of their trust by the most 
 sacred obligations ; and embezzlement and pillage from chil- 
 dren have not less of criminality, and more of meanness, 
 than the same offenses perpetrated against contemporaries."* 
 
 This was written but forty years ago, and so belongs to 
 the present ; but the sentiment was scarcely less true of Mas- 
 sachusetts two hundred years before. 
 
 New England early adopted, and has, with a single ex- 
 
 * Sec his " Lectures," vol. ii, p. 549. (Keport for 1846.)
 
 44 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 ception, constantly maintained the principle that the public 
 should provide for the instruction of all the youth. That 
 which elsewhere, as will be found, was left to local provision, 
 as in New York ; or to charity, as in Pennsylvania ; or to 
 parental interest, as in Virginia, was in most parts of New 
 England early secured by law. " For the purpose of public 
 instruction," said Daniel Webster, " we have held, and do 
 hold, every man subject to taxation in proportion to his prop- 
 erty ; and we look not to the question whether he himself 
 have or have not children, to be benefited by the education 
 for which he pays." That it was not always so only serves 
 to define the growth of the educational idea. The act of 
 1643 in Massachusetts, whose provisions were adopted in 
 most of the adjacent colonies, was admirable as a first legis- 
 lative school law. It was watchful of the neglect of parents, 
 and looked well after the ignorant and the indigent. But 
 it neither made schooling free, nor imposed a penalty for its 
 neglect. It provided employment for the idle, and so early 
 recognized the dependence of social institutions upon in- 
 dividual thrift ; it admitted the force of intelligent citizen- 
 ship, and sought to make the school also serve the uses of 
 the State, enjoining upon all towns provision for universal 
 education. The spirit of the law was progressive. But 
 schools were largely maintained by rates, were free only to 
 the necessitous, and in not a few of the less populous districts 
 closed altogether or never opened. This led, five years later, 
 to more stringent legislation. 
 
 1. The Massachusetts Law of 1647. 
 
 As the Colonial Assembly, in the founding of Harvard, 
 was moved by a consideration of the interests of the Church, 
 so the preamble to the first compulsory common-school- 
 enactment of Massachusetts urged the necessities of the relig- 
 ious life as its occasion. As suggesting the general scope 
 and tenor of the law, the following extract is made : 
 
 " It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to 
 keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as, in former
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 4.5 
 
 times, keeping them in an unknown tongue, so in these later 
 times, by persuading from the use of tongues; so that at 
 last the true sense and meaning of the original might be 
 clouded and corrupted with false glosses of deceivers ; and to 
 the end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our 
 fore-fathers, in church and commonwealth, the Lord assist- 
 ing our endeavors : It is therefore ordered by this Court and 
 authority thereof that every township within this jurisdic- 
 tion, after the Lord hath increased them to the number of 
 fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within 
 their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him, 
 to write and read ; whose wages shall be paid, either by the 
 parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in 
 general, by way of supply, as the major part of those who 
 order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; provided 
 that those who send their children be not oppressed by pay- 
 ing much more than they can have them taught for in the 
 adjoining towns. 
 
 " And it is further ordered that where any town shall in- 
 crease to the number of one hundred families or house- 
 holders, they shall set up a grammar-school, the master 
 thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they may be 
 fitted for the university ; and if any town neglect the per- 
 formance hereof, above one year, then every such town shall 
 pay five pounds per annum to the next such school, till they 
 shall perform this order."* 
 
 In this law, it is evident, the school system of Mas- 
 sachusetts had its birth. Schools did not spring up all at 
 once, and throughout the State ; nor were all of equal effi- 
 ciency ; the school course was not yet fixed ; resources were 
 limited ; teachers were poorly prepared ; there were no ele- 
 mentary texts and no school organization. With every 
 possible support of the law, there were many hindrances. 
 As a matter of fact, if perhaps Sweden be excepted, there 
 was no precedent in the world's history for such universal 
 
 * " Massachusetts Colonial Kecords," vol ii, p. 203. 
 4
 
 4G THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 education, through the agency of free schools as a civil in- 
 stitution. The attempt must have seemed, to the nations 
 looking on, as the irrational presumption of a youthful 
 colony. 
 
 The law was a public measure and sought the schooling 
 of all: not the poor alone, or of preference; nor select 
 schools for the sons of ministers and magistrates ; nor 
 family schools; but common schools, upon the principle, 
 then efficient, but formulated later, that " they must be cheap 
 enough for all, and good enough for the best." It should be 
 noted that the law makes provision for grammar-schools; 
 that is for schools which should give instruction in Latin and 
 Greek ; and, indeed, in whatever should be necessary to fit 
 young men to enter Harvard. They belonged to a type of pre- 
 paratory school, characteristic of New England, the original 
 of the best modern secondary institution. Still further, the 
 law was mandatory ; a penalty was attached for a town's 
 neglect. The original forfeit, five pounds, was increased in 
 1671, 1683, and 1718, successively, to correspond with the in- 
 creasing wealth of the towns, to a penalty of sixty pounds 
 for a town of three hundred families.* 
 
 * Mr. Joseph B. Felt, in his " Historical Account of Massachusetts 
 Currency," has been at some pains to estimate the relative cost to the com- 
 munity of these forfeitures, measured by the community's resources. It is 
 known that, in early American times, grains were used as tender in payment 
 of debts. New Haven for many years paid her annual quota to Harvard by 
 sending " one peck of wheat to each man." For the payment of obliga- 
 tions, the law fixed the value of the product in terms of its standard unit. 
 The average rate for Indian corn for the last half of the seventeenth cent- 
 ury (the period under consideration), Mr. Felt estimates at less than three 
 shillings per bushel. To pay a fine, therefore, of sixty pounds, to which a 
 town of three hundred families was liable, would require four hundred and 
 twenty-three bushels. At sixpence a day (the wages provided by law, 
 1630, and in force many years), it would take a man forty days to pay a 
 fine of one pound. The penalty imposed upon towns by the law of 1647, 
 was five pounds ; equivalent, at the above rate, to the work of a common 
 laborer for two hundred days.
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 4-7 
 
 2. The Connecticut Code of 1650. 
 
 Three years after the law just cited Connecticut passed a 
 very similar one. A difference will be seen in the reasons 
 assigned for the enactments in the two colonies ; and it is a 
 significant fact that the " indifference and indulgence of 
 many parents and masters " is made a sufficient reason for 
 the colony's interference in the interest of the child. 
 
 This enactment continued in force, substantially un- 
 changed, until the close of the last century, and, excepting 
 that of Massachusetts, marks out the only system of schools 
 during the colonial history. It is given almost entire, first 
 as a means of comparative study, and as a specimen also of 
 the severe ethical standards of the day : 
 
 " Forasmuch as the good education of children is of sin- 
 gular behoof and benefit to any commonwealth, and whereas 
 many parents and masters are too indulgent and negligent 
 of their duty in that kind: It is therefore ordered by this 
 Court and the authority thereof, that the selectmen of every 
 town, in the several precincts and quarters where they dwell, 
 shall have a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, 
 to see first : that none of them shall suffer so much barbar- 
 ism in any of their families, as not to endeavor to teach, by 
 themselves or others, their children and apprentices, so much 
 learning, as may enable them perfectly to read the English 
 tongue, and knowledge of the capital laws, upon penalty of 
 twenty shillings for each neglect therein : also that all mas- 
 ters of families do once a week at least, catechise then- chil- 
 dren and servants in the grounds and principles of religion, 
 and if any be not able to do so much, that then, at the least, 
 they procure such children or apprentices, to learn some 
 short, orthodox catechism, without book, that they may be 
 able to answer to the questions that shall be propounded to 
 them out of such catechism by their parents or masters, or 
 any of the selectmen when they shall call them to a trial of 
 what they have learned in this kind. And further that all 
 parents and masters do breed and bring up their children
 
 48 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 and apprentices in some honest, lawful calling, labor, or em- 
 ployment, either in husbandry or some other trade profitable 
 for themselves and the commonwealth, if they will not, nor 
 can not, train them up in learning to fit them for higher 
 employments : and if any of the selectmen, after admonition 
 by them given to such masters of families shall find them 
 still negligent of their duty, in the particular aforemen- 
 tioned, whereby children and servants become rude, stub- 
 born and unruly, the said selectmen with the help of two 
 magistrates, shall take such children or apprentices from 
 them, and place them with some masters boys till they 
 come to twenty-one, and girls to eighteen years of age com- 
 plete which will more strictly look unto, and force them to 
 submit unto government, according to the rules of this or- 
 der, if by fair means and former instruction they will not be 
 drawn into it."* 
 
 In addition to the provisions quoted, the code required of 
 every town of fifty families an elementary school, and every 
 town of one hundred families a grammar-school, as provided 
 in the Massachusetts law. 
 
 The enactment in the colony of New Haven (1655) was 
 very similar to this, differing perhaps only in being, if equal- 
 ly considerate, more exacting. The same watchful eye over 
 their brethren was enjoined upon the deputies of the Court 
 or other officers. Negligent parents and masters were to be 
 warned, and, if still remiss, pay a double fine. For a third 
 offense the Court might " proceed to a greater fine," or, " tak- 
 ing security for due conformity to the scope and intent of 
 the law," might take such children or apprentices and bind 
 them out " both for the public conveniency, and for the par- 
 ticular good of the children and apprentices." 
 
 Ten years afterward the two colonies were united, the 
 Connecticut " code of 1650 " becoming operative for the 
 whole province. The law was revised when the civil or- 
 
 * Extract from Code of Laws, 1650, paragraph 19, u Colonial Records of 
 Connecticut," p. 520.
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 49 
 
 ganization \vas perfected (1672), each of the four county 
 towns, irrespective of population, being required to maintain 
 a grammar-school. 
 
 Elementary schools were later required of towns having 
 thirty families, and in those of seventy householders must 
 continue eleven months in the year. 
 
 It was a vigorous system among a thrifty and self-deny- 
 ing people. It betrays no loose sentiment of tender-hearted 
 indulgence. Children should be brought up, not left to 
 grow up. It was the sternest kindness, participation in 
 whose benefits was incident to citizenship.* 
 
 These laws of Massachusetts and Connecticut t remained 
 in force for many years of the former practically till the 
 State Constitution of 1780, of the latter eighteen years longer, 
 until school societies and petty districts were formed. 
 
 3. Other New England Schools and Teachers. 
 
 In Rhode Island there was no attempt at a school system 
 prior to the efforts of John Howland about 1790. There 
 
 * As illustrating further the severity of the ethical idea current at the 
 period, two extracts are presented from the capital laws of the colony of 
 the same date : 
 
 u SEC. 14. If any child or children above sixteen years old and of suffi- 
 cient understanding, shall curse or smite their natural father or mother, ho 
 or they shall be put to death ; unless it can be sufficiently testified that the 
 parents have been very unchristianly negligent in the education of such 
 children, or so provoked them by extreme and cruel correction, that they 
 have been forced thereunto, to preserve themselves from death or maiming. 
 
 " SEC. 15. If any man has a stubborn or rebellious son of sufficient un- 
 derstanding and years, viz., sixteen years of age, which -will not obey the 
 voice of his father or the voice of his mother, and when they have chastised 
 him, he will not hearken unto them ; then may his father or his mother, 
 being his natural parents, lay hold on him and bring him to the magistrates 
 assembled in the court, and testify to them that their son is stubborn and 
 rebellious and will not obey their voice and chastisement, but lives in sun- 
 dry notorious crimes ; such a son shall be put to death." 
 
 t " Blue Laws, True and False," by J. H. Trumbull (1876), is an excel- 
 lent exposition of the spirit of discipline and its consequences, in early Con- 
 necticut.
 
 50 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 were schools in both Providence and Newport; but the col- 
 ony was small (with a population of less than ten thousand 
 in 1700), broken into feeble settlements, and offering little 
 opportunity for organization. Up to 1820, as a matter of 
 course, the school history of Maine was the same as that of 
 Massachusetts, from which it was then set off as a separate 
 State. A like remark may be made of New Hampshire. 
 United with Massachusetts in 1641, it was subject to the law 
 of that colony until 1693, when, having become an inde- 
 pendent province, and copying the spirit of the Massachu- 
 setts system, the selectmen of the towns were required to 
 raise money "by equal rate and assessment on all the in- 
 habitants for the support of schools," the penalty being put 
 at twenty pounds. In Vermont, as the first white settlement 
 dates from 1724, no schools were maintained during the 
 period other than occasional and chance ones. 
 
 Education to the New England of this period was a pub- 
 lic responsibility part of an exacting religious duty. 
 Viewed from the individual side, it was to many a privilege. 
 It claimed the public's second attention ; and, next to the 
 pulpit, commanded the best talent in every settlement. 
 
 Among the New England teachers there were men of 
 both learning and ability. Not a more cultured body of 
 men ever formed a colony than settled about Boston, Salem, 
 New Haven, and Hartford. They coveted the best advan- 
 tages for their children, frequently making the best men 
 their teachers. It is on record that of the twenty-two mas- 
 ters of Plymouth from 1671 to the Kevolution, twenty were 
 graduates of Harvard. The like was true of Eoxbury.* 
 Such men, next to the functionaries of church and state, 
 commanded the highest respect. In the churches, they had 
 
 * It was this school whose memory has been perpetuated in the " Free 
 School of 1645 in Roxbury," by C. K. Dillaway ; and of which Cotton 
 Mather said, " It had afforded more scholars, first for the college, and then 
 for the public, than any town of its bigness, or, if I mistake not, of twice its 
 bigness, in all New England."
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 51 
 
 special pews provided for their use beside those of magis- 
 trates and the deacon's family. In every community was 
 usually one who was the teacher professionally, so consid- 
 ered as much as was the minister or physician. But, among 
 them all, Ezekiel Cheever stood, and stands pre-eminent. 
 
 Born* in 1614, he came to this country at the age of 
 twenty-three, joining Eaton and Davenport at New Haven 
 the year following. Here he taught twelve years, first in 
 the free schools, and later in the grammar-school, with a 
 " scholarship and force of personal character which left a 
 permanent mark on the educational policy of New Haven." 
 For eleven years he taught at Ipswich, nine years at 
 Charlestown, and thirty-eight years as master of the Boston 
 Latin School. Cotton Mather links his name with that of 
 Master Corlett's, in the couplet : 
 
 " 'Tis Corlett's pains and Cheever's, we must own, 
 That thou, New England, art not Scythia grown." 
 
 Mr. Cheever was the author of an " Introduction to the 
 Latin Tongue," popularly known as the " Latin Accidence," 
 which was the hand-book of Latin instruction in New Eng- 
 land for more than a century. President Quincy said of it: 
 " For simplicity, comprehensiveness, and exactness, I do not 
 believe it is exceeded by any other work." Under his guid- 
 ance, the Boston Latin School became the principal classical 
 institution, not only of Massachusetts Bay, and New Eng- 
 land, but, according to Dr. Prince, " of the British colonies, 
 if not of all America." 
 
 He died in 1708, aged ninety-four, after having taught 
 seventy years. 
 
 Women were not formally recognized as teachers until 
 after the Revolution, not generally so till late in the present 
 century, though dame's schools were not infrequent through 
 all the earlier period. 
 
 * For an extended and appreciative biography of Mr. Cheever, see 
 "American Journal of Education," vol. i, p. 297.
 
 52 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 Salaries varied, much as they do now. Exceptional 
 ability always commanded extra remuneration. In consid- 
 ering this question it must be remembered that schools then 
 continued, nominally, twelve months in the year ; the sala- 
 ries, ranging from two pounds, paid to Thomas Fox, in New- 
 port, some time before 1700, to sixty pounds paid Ezekiel 
 Cheever (1670) as Master of the Boston Latin School. Mr. 
 Barnard is authority for the statement that previous to 1800 
 the wages of a master varied from four to ten dollars per 
 month, besides board, which was generally "given." Mis- 
 tresses received from fifty cents to a dollar and a half per 
 week, and board. 
 
 The kind and amount of instruction have already been 
 broadly marked out for the whole of New England by the 
 legislation quoted. The classics required in the grammar- 
 schools were, no doubt, well taught. But the elementary 
 instruction, limited to reading, spelling, writing, and the 
 simplest calculations, was very meager. Its content can 
 best be shown perhaps by enumerating the school-books 
 used. Prior to 1665, Richard Mather's Catechism * was, 
 aside from the Bible, almost the only one known. Then, 
 and later, the New Testament was in common use ; and 
 the Psalter, containing 1, the Psalms; 2, Proverbs; 3, the 
 Sermon on the Mount ; and 4, the Nicene Creed. The 
 Horn-Book was very early employed in this country, as 
 it was in England, while the historical " New England 
 Primer " was not introduced until near the close of the 
 seventeenth century, then taking the place of the Cate- 
 chism. 
 
 By these books was determined the organization of the 
 schools, as follows : 
 
 * " A Catechism, on the Grounds and Principles of the Christian Relig- 
 ion, set forth by question and answer, wherein the summe of the Doctrine of 
 Religion is comprised, familiarly opened, and clearly confirmed from the 
 Holy Scriptures. By Richard Mather, Teacher to the Church in Dorches- 
 ter in New England, 1650."
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 53 
 
 1. Psalter class beginners. 
 
 2. Testament class. 
 
 3. Bible class. 
 
 Of the education of girls almost no mention is made, 
 though they were now and then admitted to the dame's 
 schools. 
 
 4. New York prior to the Revolution. 
 
 Outside the localities already described, there was little 
 that could be dignified by the name of school system, 
 though here and there, as in the early days of New Eng- 
 land, regard was had for education both elementary and 
 advanced, with like courses of study and in the same texts. 
 
 It is claimed that, at the surrender of the Dutch in New 
 York (1664), so general was the educational spirit, almost 
 every town in the colony had its regular school and more or 
 less permanent teachers. After the occupation of the prov- 
 ince by the English, little attention was given to education ; 
 the settlers were robbed of their revenues ; and the new gov- 
 ernment was not forward to aid Dutch schools in the control 
 of a nonconforming church. While many of the parochial 
 schools were broken up, that in New York city insisted on 
 its chartered rights, maintained its privileges, and is still 
 in existence. Thirteen years after the surrender, a Latin 
 school was opened in the city ; but the first serious at- 
 tempt to provide regular schooling was in the work of the 
 " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel " (1704) in the 
 founding of Trinity School. The society kept up an effi- 
 cient organization, for many years, and at the opening of 
 the Revolution had established and chiefly supported more 
 than twenty schools in the colony. About 1732, also, there 
 was established in New York city a school after the plan of 
 the Boston Latin School, free as that was free, and which 
 became, according to eminent authority,* the germ of the 
 later King's (now Columbia) College. 
 
 * " New York Colonial Manuscripts," vol. viii, p. 486.
 
 54 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 From all which it would appear that while the Dutch set- 
 tlers in New York were earnest in the support of their princi- 
 pal schools, the English officials, either in London or in the 
 province, showed little interest in the matter. The whole 
 attitude was in sharp contrast to what was found in New "Eng- 
 land. Eev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, President of King's College, 
 writing (1762) to the English archbishop, complained that, 
 when royal patents were granted for large tracts of colonial 
 land, "no provision was made for religion and schools." 
 These, he insisted, should be encouraged, whatever else be 
 neglected. It is safe to say that, prior to the Revolution, 
 hundreds of acres had been appropriated in New England 
 for schools, and in Virginia many thousands. 
 
 In one other recpect, also, the educational influences in 
 the two sections were different. Lieutenant-Governor Col- 
 den, petitioning for aid for King's College, seeing " that dis- 
 senters from the Church of England had the sole education, 
 not only in seminaries of learning in New England, but like- 
 wise in New Jersey and elsewhere," argued that it was 
 "highly requisite that a seminary founded on the princi- 
 ples of the Church of England be distinguished in America 
 by particular privileges ; not only on account of religion, 
 but of good policy, to prevent the growth of republican 
 principles which already too much prevail in the colonies." 
 
 5. Pennsylvania prior to the Revolution. 
 
 Here, as in the last-mentioned colony, no system of 
 schools existed until the present century. In this province, 
 however, some attempts at education are worthy to be noted, 
 both because of occasional individual success, and the fact 
 that, in the social and civil conditions of that period, recent 
 educational sentiments have received their impulses.* 
 
 The original draught of the Penn Colony charter required 
 
 * In Sypher's " School History of Pennsylvania," chap, xxxvi, on 
 "Education," is a very satisfactory summary of the schools and school 
 legislation of the colonial period.
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 55 
 
 that the Governor and Provincial Council should erect and 
 order all public schools, and " reward the authors of the use- 
 ful sciences and laudable inventions in said province." In 
 the fifteen years following the settlement, a feAV schools were 
 opened in other parts, and in 1698 the Society of Friends 
 established one in Philadelphia. This was the now famous 
 Penn Charter School, to which all children were admitted, 
 male and female, even servants ; and provision made that 
 while the children of the rich might attend at reasonable 
 rates, " the poor should be taught gratis." Though a Friends' 
 school, it was open indiscriminately to children of all de- 
 nominations, and for fifty years was the only public school 
 in the province. 
 
 Near the middle of the last century (1754), urged by the 
 interests of the large German population of the colony, Dr. 
 Franklin and others, aided by contributions from Europe, 
 were instrumental in organizing the " German Society," in 
 Philadelphia, whose purpose was " to found and maintain 
 schools for the numerous children of German settlers." It 
 had a long service, instructed at times nearly one thousand 
 pupils, and proved a powerful civil as well as educational 
 factor in the development of the colony. 
 
 It is a matter of history that the Swedes early took pos- 
 session of fertile valleys along the Delaware, and even in 
 proximity to the mountains, in what is now Pennsylvania. 
 A. thrifty, industrious people, they acquired property, and 
 exerted a far-reaching influence on the State's institutions. 
 Others came Hollanders and English, Catholic and Prot- 
 estant, Churchmen and Quakers. A book,* descriptive of 
 the Swedish churches of this section, includes a characteriza- 
 tion of the people and social conditions of the time, which is 
 suggestive. " The people," the author says, " are a mixture 
 of all sorts of religious belief ; the schoolmasters have a dif- 
 ferent faith from their pupils, and the children, in like man- 
 ner, differ from each other. Hence, Pennsylvania is known 
 
 * "History of New Sweden," by Israel Acrelius, p. 357.
 
 56 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 all over the world for its lamentable destitution and defi- 
 ciency in the instruction of its children in the knowledge of 
 Christianity." Forty years before, about 1725, his people, 
 he claimed, scarcely knew what a school was. While this 
 will be admitted, or it should be, as an exaggeration, it is still 
 only an exaggeration of an actual state, having a foundation 
 in fact, that persisted through the colonial period. A hetero- 
 geneous population, and the idea that public education was 
 a form of charity, obstructed schools generally.* 
 
 Among all the early teachers of the province, the reputa- 
 tion of none is more worthy to be perpetuated than that of 
 Christopher Dock. A simple but scholarly man, a Mennon- 
 ite and teacher, exceedingly conscientious, little acquainted 
 with the ways of the world, but devoted to his school, he 
 acquired a reputation as an instructor and companion of the 
 young that, if the record of his life be true, makes him a 
 veritable Pestalozzi in his way. He taught for many years 
 in Germantown ; then, dividing his time with a neigh boring 
 village, gave three days to the one and two to the other each 
 week, and so continued for twelve years. 
 
 His life is historical, though little known. He used a 
 blackboard as early as 1725, instructed in music, and had a 
 well-developed method of primary numbers. He was an 
 author a century and a half ago, and one of the fathers 
 of American pedagogy. His " Schul-ordnung," f published 
 about the middle of the century, must have seemed to most 
 of his contemporaries very strange and unreal, so modern 
 and orthodox it seems now. Mr. Dock is an excellent repre- 
 sentative of the best colonial Pennsylvania teaching every- 
 where. Service and success were individual, intermittent, 
 and local. There was no system, no uniformity. 
 
 * Of successful private and church schools there were some excellent 
 examples. Prominent among these were those of the Moravians and Qua- 
 kers. Most German settlements had schools; of public schools there 
 were none. 
 
 t See page 149.
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 57 
 
 6. New Jersey prior to the Revolution. 
 
 Although the settlers of New Jersey, Delaware, and Penn- 
 sylvania, were of similar tastes and antecedents, and one 
 would expect a kindred educational history, they are found 
 to differ greatly. Schools were established in Newark, and 
 (1683) an island in the Delaware River was appropriated to 
 education in the Burlington settlement, the revenue from 
 which by rent or sale was to be enjoyed " by all the fami- 
 lies equally." The fund is certainly one of the oldest per- 
 manent school-funds in America, the income of which is yet 
 enjoyed by the town. 
 
 Ten years later (1693) a general law was passed, legalizing 
 schools in any town of the colony, "the consent of the major 
 part of the inhabitants to be binding upon all," to pay their 
 shares for the maintenance of a school, " even to the distress 
 of their goods and chattels.' 11 This seems equal to the best 
 New England interest, and was withal thoroughly republi- 
 can. Within ten years schools had been established in all 
 the counties, and, for a sparse and pioneer population, were 
 generously supported. But the law, at best, was only per- 
 missive, and subject to annual defeat in each community. 
 There was no permanence, and for more than a century no 
 further attempt to perfect a system of schools. 
 
 In New Jersey also, as in Pennsylvania, what is most 
 significant of the general condition is the individual service 
 rendered by the occasional teacher. Typical of the whole- 
 some but unorganized educational spirit, and the influences 
 that were working, were the labors of Rev. William Tennent. 
 An Irishman by birth, a clergyman by profession, a teacher 
 of choice, and liberally educated, he probably did more to 
 shape the first sentiments of culture and morality about him 
 than all others combined. After preaching for a Presby- 
 terian congregation in New York, and later in Bucks County, 
 Pennsylvania, he was called (1726) to the charge at Nesham- 
 iny, twenty miles north of Philadelphia, where he soon 
 established what has come to be known, through the writ-
 
 58 TEE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 ings of George Whitefield and others, as the " Log College." 
 In a rude school-house, uncomely and secluded, the reputa- 
 tion of his great work is justified, as that of any school, by 
 its service to society. Mr. Tennent was a classical scholar, 
 conversing in Latin with the ease of his vernacular, and 
 proficient in other languages as well. He is described as a 
 man of integrity and industry, with great piety, and drawing 
 students from adjoining provinces. He taught for twenty 
 years, most of the time in the " Log College," * the germ of 
 the now famous Princeton, the College of New Jersey. 
 
 7. Colonial Education in the South. 
 
 The colonies of the South were settled, on the whole, quite 
 as early as those farther north Virginia and New York 
 about the same time ; South Carolina a dozen years before 
 Pennsylvania. Maryland made a permanent settlement a 
 year before the Boston Latin School. Except Georgia, then, 
 lateness of colonization can not be urged as a reason for de- 
 lay in establishing schools. As a matter of fact, however, 
 there was no school system in any colony south of Connecti- 
 cut before the Revolution, and no enterprise of the kind to 
 speak of before the present century. As elsewhere, there 
 were isolated and transient schools, throughout the provinces, 
 which had a commendable influence in forming public sen- 
 timent. In both Virginia and South Carolina, however, the 
 sons of those who could afford it were sent abroad to be edu- 
 cated, or put under tutors at home ; and parents, assisted by 
 settled clergymen, and an occasional transient teacher, fur- 
 nished all the elementary instruction of the period. 
 
 Indeed, it was a part of the policy of the colonies, charac- 
 teristic of the class who settled them, though not unknown 
 also in Rhode Island, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, to leave 
 elementary instruction to the family. Of Rhode Island, 
 Mr. Barnard says, " Her people tolerated no legislative inter- 
 
 * See a sketch of the " Log College and its Founder," by Archibald 
 Alexander, 1851.
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 59 
 
 f erence with religious belief or practice, or with the education 
 of children, which, like religion, was considered strictly a pa- 
 rental and individual duty. " When the English Commission- 
 ers of Foreign Plantations asked what course was taken in 
 Virginia for instructing the people hi the Christian religion, 
 Governor Berkeley replied, " The same that is taken in Eng- 
 land out of towns, every man according to his ability in- 
 structing his children." But he also added, what has become 
 historic, though little understood in its connections : " I 
 thank God there are no free schools nor printing-presses, 
 and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years ; for 
 learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into 
 the world, and printing has divulged them and libels against 
 the best of governments: God keep us from both!" And 
 the hope of Berkeley was fulfilled, for he spoke in 1671, and 
 there was no system of schools in Virginia attempted before 
 Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 There was one school in South Carolina whose founding 
 and career are deserving of mention. It was the Dorchester 
 Seminary, established by a body of Massachusetts Congrega- 
 tionalists who colonized in the South about 1734. This 
 seemed more like the New England academy than any 
 other school in that section ; and, with the four other gram- 
 mar-schools claimed for the colony, probably justified Mr. 
 Ramsay's assertion that, " from this time, all who wanted 
 might find in South Carolina the best of classical instruc- 
 tion." 
 
 The Battle Creek School of Maryland, also, was older 
 even than this last, and of nearly equal rank, and was the 
 type, both in function and organization, of the later county 
 academies. 
 
 It can not be said that any of the colonies were indif- 
 ferent to education of any grade, any more than they were 
 to the claims of religion and individual honesty. But to 
 some of them these were not matters of public control. It 
 was not schools, but free schools, which Governor Berkeley 
 denounced. During his short administration he was more
 
 60 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 than once a generous subscriber to funds for private acade- 
 mies a policy of conduct entirely consistent with his own 
 and the South's views concerning the means of education ; 
 consistent too, with the practice of all the colonies, or parts 
 of them at some period, even in New England. Only seventy 
 years ago in Boston, primary instruction was first made pub- 
 lic, and elsewhere even later. As a fact, the taking on of 
 general education as a function of government was yet an 
 experiment, well into the present century. The question of 
 how much, has carried with it a multitude of others, whose 
 answers are the way-marks in the growth of American edu- 
 cational ideas. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 The only comprehensive reference on the colonial schools and school 
 systems is Barnard's "American Journal of Education," begun 1855. 
 Its republication of original papers, legal enactments, and early educa- 
 tional documents, gives it a peculiar and unquestioned authority. Con- 
 sult also "Ezekiel Checver and his Descendants," in "New England 
 Historical Register," vol. xxxiii, p. 164, and " Colonial Education in the 
 South," " De Bow's Review," vol. xx, p. 622 ; also " Local Government 
 and Free Schools in South Carolina," by B. J. Ramage, 1883.
 
 PAET SECOND. 
 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 FROM the first vigorous colonial resistance to English ag- 
 gression it took America fifty years to establish an independ- 
 ence among nations. The Revolutionary War and the War 
 of 1812 were two culminating incidents in the conflict. 
 How much more than this was necessary before national 
 equality was granted, how much of diplomacy and inven- 
 tion, advancement in learning, and domestic control, can 
 scarcely be estimated. The period was not altogether one 
 of revolution ; but the ideas and the type of men dominant 
 in 1783 ruled still in civil and administrative and social 
 affairs for a quarter of a century. They enacted laws, erected 
 schools, shaped education, and gave direction to sentiments 
 of industry and refinement and the means of progress. In a 
 history of culture, the period of the Revolution in America 
 may be said to include the War of 1812. Indeed, the next 
 period, that of reorganization, can not be said to have had a 
 recognized beginning until twenty-five years later (1837). 
 
 The two chapters following seek to sketch the conditions 
 of elementary, secondary, and collegiate education during 
 the period named. 
 6
 
 62 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 1. " Pauper Schools." 
 
 Francis Adams, speaking for his own country, recently 
 (1875) said:* "Our public elementary schools of England 
 have always been regarded as charitable schools." 
 
 The same idea prevailed for many years in this country, 
 in Pennsylvania, almost wholly throughout the South, rare- 
 ly in the West, but more or less in New England, though 
 not extensively in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Rhode 
 Island held that elementary instruction might not safely be 
 interfered with by the State except in the interest of those 
 who were unable to provide for their own ; and, contradictory 
 as it seems, when John Rowland and his mechanic friends 
 undertook (1785) to establish the free school in Rhode Isl- 
 and, it was objected to chiefly " by the poorer sort of people." 
 
 A generation later, Governor Hammond, of South Caro- 
 lina, in his annual message, animadverting upon the com- 
 mon schools, but evidently speaking in the atmosphere of a 
 local unfriendly sentiment, took occasion to say : " The free- 
 school system has failed. Its failure is owing to the fact 
 that it does not suit our people, our government, our insti- 
 tutions. The paupers for whose children it is intended need 
 them at home to work."t The sentiment was not peculiar 
 to this State : Governor Hammond was only more emphatic. 
 In half the original colonies the idea was a ruling factor in 
 more or less of the educational legislation through the early 
 constitutional period. By the Maryland act of 1723, and fol- 
 lowing, visitors for the counties were empowered to select 
 certain children to be taught gratis. The literary fund of 
 Virginia (1810) was set apart for the exclusive benefit of the 
 poor, as was a special Georgia appropriation of two hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand dollars seven years later. In the 
 same year also New Jersey began the foundation of a 
 
 * " Free Schools of the United States," p. 52. 
 
 t Rev. James Eraser's report, p. 10 ; quoted there from an address by 
 Dr. B. G. Northrop, delivered 1864.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 63 
 
 school-fund, but almost immediately provided for an op- 
 tional taxation of townships " for the education of paupers." 
 Even Ohio, as late as 1821, attached a charity clause, and 
 so defeated the purpose of an otherwise liberal enactment. 
 In Pennsylvania, also, throughout both the colonial and 
 the early constitutional periods, the public-school idea was 
 compassed by the care which it was thought the State should 
 take of the dependent and unfortunate classes. Public 
 schools in the early history of Pennsylvania were " pauper 
 schools." This appeared in the Penn School, Philadelphia, 
 and was reaffirmed in the Constitution of 1790. 
 
 Such schools raised and maintained a well-meant, char- 
 itably intended, but unfortunate distinction between rich 
 and poor, so as in time to frustrate the design of the schools 
 and the generous charity of their founders. The poor de- 
 spised the provision as a public badge of their debasement ; 
 the wealthy shunned them as degrading. That this was 
 not merely the bias of legislation imposed upon the public 
 appears in the constant misinterpretation of the spirit and 
 function of the common schools by the people themselves. 
 Not till far into the present century was even Philadelphia 
 freed from the invidious distinction, while the emancipation 
 of the rural districts came later. 
 
 Elsewhere a similar antipathy resulted from very differ- 
 ent conditions. The "school fees" in England and the 
 " rate-bills " in the United States were designed to throw a 
 part of the burden of maintaining the schools upon patrons. 
 While doing this they had the effect in every State where 
 tried either to exclude those from the privileges of the school 
 who could not afford them, or to subject them to the odium 
 of "pauper patrons" when school fees were remitted. In 
 either case the " odious rate-bill " has been the occasion of 
 setting off society into classes, excluding some, and so limit- 
 ing the efficiency of the schools.* 
 
 "* See this question of rate- bills discussed, in the light of both English 
 and American experience, in Mr. Adams's "Theory of Free Schools," 
 " Free-School System," pp. 45-57.
 
 64: THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 These fees took on various forms. They were not always 
 assessed in money, though in cities they were usually so. 
 In country districts in most States, both East and West, the 
 rate frequently included board for the teacher. In Rhode 
 Island, pupils were assessed for fuel as late as 1833, fee-bills 
 being entirely abolished fifteen years later. In Vermont 
 they remained until 1864, in New York three years and in 
 Connecticut four years longer, and in New Jersey until 1871. 
 
 2. Teachers. 
 
 In general, the teachers of the last century were poorly 
 qualified for their work. But of the majority of the teach- 
 ers, of what generation, since Adam Roelandsen, Dutch 
 schoolmaster under Wouter Van Twiller, at Fort Amster- 
 dam, and Brother Philemon Purmont, in Boston, might the 
 same not be said ? The cause is not difficult to find. What 
 with the material urgencies of a new country, the dangers 
 without and want within, a professional spirit was not to be 
 expected. Contemporary conditions show less excuse. In 
 a pamphlet, published in 1791, the teacher of the period is 
 characterized as generally " a foreigner, shamefully deficient 
 in every qualification for instructing youth, and not seldom 
 addicted to gross vices." * Dr. William Darlington, also, of 
 Pennsylvania, describes the country school-teachers (1788) 
 as "often low-bred, intemperate adventurers of the Old 
 World," but generally on a par with the prevalent estimate 
 of the profession. For some years before, and again soon 
 after the War for Independence, the Atlantic States were at 
 times overrun with English adventurers or Irish immi- 
 grants, many of whom occupied the interval till they should 
 find employment, in teaching. Some came, as did other 
 laborers, indentured for their passage-money. One Boucher, 
 a royalist, in an address (1763), t is reported as saying that 
 
 * See " American Journal of Education," vol. xiii, p. 752. 
 t See Neill's " Maryland Colony," p. 212. Thomas Scharf, in his " His- 
 tory of Maryland," vol. ii, p. 22, says, of the same period, "Probably much
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 65 
 
 " at least two thirds of the contemporary Maryland educa- 
 tion was derived from instructors that were either indent- 
 ured servants or transported felons. Not a ship arrives," he 
 said, " either with redemptioners or convicts, in which school- 
 masters are not as regularly advertised for sale, as are weav- 
 ers, tailors, or -any other tradesmen." 
 
 With such standards of intellectual and literary excel- 
 lence among the people, no prominence could he expected 
 among their servants the teachers, and yet the case was not 
 wholly bad. In each of a dozen colleges were a few men of 
 ability and noble influence men to know whom, and to 
 live in whose atmosphere, was an education. Of this char- 
 acter, without exhausting the list, or excluding others, were 
 Dwight and Stiles, of Yale, and a little later Prof. Silli- 
 man ; Dr. David Tappan and Prof. Sewall, of Harvard; 
 Maclean, of Princeton ; President Wheelock, of Dartmouth ; 
 and, somewhat earlier, Prof. Hugh Jones, of the College 
 of William and Mary. In the academies there were Masters 
 Moody and Doddridge ; Ebenezer Adams, of Leicester ; and 
 Dr. Thomas Rowe, the teacher of Isaac Watts. Benjamin 
 Abbot began in this period, also, his long career at Exeter. 
 
 Concerning the common or elementary school-teachers, 
 however, the story is different. Exceptions were few. The 
 learning of the day was not of the school-room. The period 
 was one of activity, not thought. Life was conduct : culture 
 was valued, not less ; but doing, more. The years were full 
 of a wisdom suited to the times. The needful teachers were 
 new institutions, an unbroken continent, impoverished treas- 
 uries, menacing neighbors, and the care that belongs to vent- 
 ure without precedent. All these the period had ; and from 
 their influence, in season, came both men and scholars.* 
 
 more than hall the population, not including slaves, were totally illiterate 
 and grossly ignorant," and still further that there was " no general educa- 
 tion, no free circulation of books, no emoluments and distinction of liter- 
 ature." 
 
 * Tor a vivid and entertaining sketch of life and culture in the Revolution- 
 ary period, see McMaster's " History of the People of the United States."
 
 66 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 5. Common- School Text-Books. 
 
 The subjects of the school course remained much the 
 same as in the first century, with this difference : whereas 
 then there were almost no hooks but the Bible and Cate- 
 chism, scarcely had the war closed, when texts were pub- 
 lished in such numbers and quality as revolutionized the 
 methods of teaching. The change was fundamental.* 
 
 Spelling at first was not distinct from reading; or, rather, 
 reading had not differentiated from spelling. The "New 
 England Primer," first published some time during the seven- 
 teenth century, had already gone through fifteen editions in 
 1720, been many times revised and enlarged, and, in the re- 
 issue of 1777, dedicated to the " Hon. John Hancock, Presi- 
 dent of the American Congress." It was used until the close 
 of the century, but was probably valued more for the abridg- 
 ment of the Catechism it contained than as a speller. The 
 " New England Psalm-Book," after fifty editions, was still in 
 use during the Revolution. The Dilworth " Spelling-Book," 
 published about the middle of the eighteenth century, with 
 a little elementary grammar, furnished all the instruction 
 given upon this subject for three generations. Besides these 
 were half a dozen other spellers of various grades, including 
 John Woolman's " First Book for Children," Daniel Flem- 
 ing's " Universal Spelling-Book," and one by Mr. Pierce, a 
 Pennsylvania teacher, which contained a tolerable English 
 grammar. Of course, the eminently popular, successful and 
 influential speller of the period was Webster's "Spelling- 
 Book," published in 1783. The author planned " A Gram- 
 matical Institute of the English Language, comprising an 
 Easy, Concise, and Systematic Method of Education, designed 
 for the Use of English schools in America." It was to be in 
 three parts a Speller, a Grammar, and a Reader. The first 
 contained, besides appropriate word-lists, much geographical 
 knowledge of countries and towns, to be taken occasionally 
 
 * McMaster, vol. ii, chap. vii. Also, Thomas's " History of Printing."
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 67 
 
 as spelling-lessons. The wide use of this book almost justi- 
 fies the author's assertion that " the Spelling-Book does more 
 to form the language of a nation than all others combined." 
 
 The readers of the period were a great improvement on 
 those previously used. Webster's " Third Part " came first 
 (1785), and, like the speller, was very comprehensive. Its 
 modest title " An American Selection of Lessons in Read- 
 ing and Speaking ; calculated to improve the Mind, and re- 
 fine the Taste of Youth ; and also to instruct them in the 
 Geography, History and Politics of the United States. To 
 which are prefixed Rules in Elocution and Directions for giv- 
 ing Expression to the Principal Passions of the Mind" marks 
 its scope. Its only rivals for many years were Bingham's 
 " American Preceptor " and the " Columbian Orator," about 
 the close of the century. Of others, having less sale, were 
 Murray's " English Reader," reaching its fifth edition ; Chip- 
 man's " American Moralist " ; Stanford's '' The Art of Read- 
 ing "and Goldsmith's " Roman History," all published about 
 the opening of the century. Another book of merit, and 
 used as a reader, was an "Account of the Historical Transac- 
 tions of the United States after the Revolution" (1788), by 
 Webster. 
 
 Hodder's " Arithmetic, or that Necessary Art made most 
 easy ; being explained in a Way familiar to the Capacity of 
 any that desire to learn it in a Little Time," the first of a long 
 line of similar texts, had passed through twenty-five editions 
 in 1719, and was practically the only book in use until the 
 publication of Pike's " Arithmetic " (1785). This claimed a 
 "new system," was somewhat more pretentious, and con- 
 tained an appendix of forty pages, or an " Introduction to 
 Algebra," for the use of academies. Daboll's " Arithmetic " 
 was published about the same tune, and, a few years later 
 (1790) the " Schoolmaster's Assistant," by Thomas Dilworth, 
 an English teacher at Wapping. 
 
 Of works on language there were many, from Bailey's 
 " English and Latin Grammar," in its fifth edition, 1720 ; new 
 ones being pu bushed at the rate of two to a generation for
 
 68 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 the century. Mr. Cheever's " Latin Accidence," first issued in 
 1645, was republished about the middle of the next century, 
 and again in 1838, with the commendation of distinguished 
 scholars throughout New England. The "Young Lady's 
 Accidence," by Mr. Caleb Bingham (1790), is notable as one 
 of the first books on English grammar, " the first ever used 
 in the Boston schools," where it was continued many years. 
 Besides these were South's " Short Introduction to English," 
 and the much-used " Grammar " of Lindley Murray. Mr. 
 Murray was never a teacher, but, watchful of the progress of 
 education, gave, about 1790, a series of informal lessons, on 
 the teaching of English, to the assistants in a girls' school in 
 York. These were afterward put into form and published, 
 and, later still, reissued in the United States. 
 
 Of all the other texts of the period, the only one claiming 
 attention is the geography. Except the incidental informa- 
 tion gathered into readers and grammars, no instruction 
 was afforded in this subject before the " Universal Geogra- 
 phy" of Jedediah Morse (1784).* This was an 18mo 
 book, contained four maps, and, excepting in a limited way 
 Nathaniel Dwight's " Catechetical System of Geography," it 
 was the only available text for nearly half a century. 
 
 4. The Education of Girls. 
 
 By a kind of " traditionary blindness," few among the 
 colonial fathers saw the contradiction of the most funda- 
 mental of their religious and political principles in disre- 
 garding or thwarting the intellectual life of their daughters. 
 The independence which they claimed, carried implicitly 
 the emancipation of all mind if in holy things, certainly in 
 secular; but, with a bias born of generations, while demo- 
 cratic in government and Protestant in religion, in a few 
 things they exemplified the most conservative aristocracy. 
 
 * An abridgment of this book was made seven years afterward, in 
 which were added historical accounts of the European settlements in Amer- 
 ica, the thirteen States, and of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 69 
 
 Before the close of the last century, most New England 
 towns had made some provision for the education of girls, 
 either in short summer terms, or at the noon hours, or other 
 interval, of the town (boys') school. But no such opportunity 
 was afforded girls to make the most of themselves, as had 
 been forced upon most boys for a half-dozen generations. 
 There were certain schools that were not only eminently 
 successful as schools, but were agencies of wide influence in 
 educating public sentiment, and at the same time of service 
 in publishing the possibilities of the female mind. 
 
 For a hundred years the Penn Charter School, Philadel- 
 phia, had admitted both sexes on equal terms. The Mora- 
 vians had established a school for girls at Bethlehem, Pa., as 
 early as 1745, while the Philadelphia Female Academy dates 
 from the Revolution. Among the earliest in New England 
 were Dr. Dwight's Young Ladies' Academy, at Greenfield, 
 Conn. (1785), and the Medford School, near Boston (1789) ; 
 the latter is said to have been for many years the resort of 
 young lady students from all the Eastern States. 
 
 The most vigorous and systematic experiment, however, 
 and the most vigorously and systematically antagonized 
 was in Boston. As early as 1700 there had been " writing- 
 schools," to which girls were admitted. They were irregu- 
 larly maintained for nearly a hundred years, but to no defi- 
 nite purpose. Instruction was usually given by the teachers 
 of the common schools, but between the regular sessions. 
 
 About 1787 Mr. Caleb Bingham,* with an illustrious repu- 
 tation as a teacher, proposed to open a real school for girls, 
 where, besides writing, they should be taught reading, spell- 
 ing, arithmetic, and English grammar. Immediately upon 
 opening, his room was filled. The supply created a de- 
 mand. More sought admission than could be accommodated. 
 With the selectmen's daughters in school, female educa- 
 
 * For a biography of Mr. Bingham, and much interesting matter con- 
 cerning the early education of girls, see " American Journal of Education," 
 vol. v, p. 325.
 
 70 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 tion was becoming popular. It was proposed to establish 
 three new schools for girls, called "reading-schools." Now 
 was introduced a curious organization. Pupils attending a 
 writing-school in the morning in one building, were, in the 
 afternoon in another building, by another set of teachers, in- 
 structed in the "reading-school." While the girls were in 
 one school, the boys were in another ; and, to avoid too great 
 hazard, the girls were only allowed to attend school six 
 months in the year. 
 
 This came to be called, very appropriately, the " double- 
 headed" system, and continued until near the middle of the 
 present century. A like separation of sexes in the same 
 building, without the alternation of rooms and teachers, is 
 yet practiced in Baltimore and in many Eastern and some 
 Southern cities. 
 
 Bibliography, 
 
 Oil " Social Life in the Colonies," just prior to and during the Revo- 
 lution, see " Building the Nation," by C. C. Coffin, chapters vi, vii ; and 
 on the text-books of the period, the " History of Printing in America," 
 by Thomas ; the " Christian Examiner," vol. vi, p. 1 30 ; and " De Bow's 
 Review," vol. xxvSii, p. 434. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. 
 
 1. Academies. 
 
 ALONGSIDE each of the first colleges, frequently antedat- 
 ing them, sometimes forming part of the organization, was a 
 grammar-school. This was true of Harvard, William and 
 Mary, Yale, Princeton, the University of Pennsylvania, and 
 Dartmouth. Such schools served the double purpose of fit- 
 ting for the college and supplementing with a classical train- 
 ing the meager elementary instruction of the common 
 schools and the home. They were the only preparatory
 
 ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. 71 
 
 schools of the time and of uniform type, their courses being 
 fitted to the time-sanctioned curriculum of the college. They 
 taught much Latin and Greek, an extended course in math- 
 ematics, and were strong generally on the side of the hu- 
 manities as these were understood. Theirs was an eminent 
 service, making the severe training of the college possible. 
 
 But within a century there had been established schools 
 of a high order which did not, and were not designed to, in 
 any special manner, prepare for the universities. These 
 were independent institutions of extended courses, some of 
 them endowed in a limited way, presided over by the best 
 scholarship and teaching in the State, and altogether deserv- 
 ing the name of the people's college. During the period 
 these rapidly multiplied, and with changed social conditions 
 came new academic functions. 
 
 The academy, both name and institution, was evidently 
 borrowed from Great Britain. Scotland had such schools in 
 her principal towns as early as the twelfth century, while 
 the so-called middle schools of the Continent, the classical 
 drill-schools of Germany, and the great public schools of 
 England Rugby, Eton, and the like, " the most English in- 
 stitutions of England," venerable with age are their Euro- 
 pean antecedents. 
 
 The Edinburgh High School dates from 1519. In 1644 
 John Milton, after describing, in his " Tractate," a complete 
 and generous education as "that which fits a man to per- 
 form justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, 
 both private and public, of peace and war," recommended 
 that " less time be bestowed on grammar and sophistry," and 
 that an academy be established which should be both school 
 and university. Immediately upon the " Act of Toleration," 
 academies were set up by Dissenters, who subsequently intro- 
 duced them into the colonies. Indeed, Harvard, Yale, and 
 William and Mary were for many years not superior to the 
 best classical schools of English Dissenters. The Dummer 
 School, Massachusetts (1763), Flatbush Academy, " Erasmus 
 Hall," on Long Island (1787), and a few years earlier, Ger-
 
 72 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 mantown Academy, Maryland, Phillips Exeter (N. H.), 
 Phillips Andover, and Leicester academies, Massachusetts, 
 all belong- to this period, and, while the most famous, con- 
 stitute but a small proportion of all. Of the Moravian 
 academies at Bethlehem and Nazareth, Pa., the historian 
 Winterbotham asserts (1795) that they were "among the 
 best establishments of any schools in America." 
 
 At the close of the century New York had nineteen of 
 these schools and Massachusetts about an equal number. 
 They were to be found in almost every State, both North and 
 South, and were the one characteristic educational agency 
 of the time. In these and their like, sometimes followed 
 by a college training, oftener not, were educated the " boys 
 of '76 " and the generation following. Franklin, for a 
 time, both the Adamses, and Johu Hancock, were trained 
 in the Boston Latin School. Prof. Tappan, of Harvard, 
 Chief -Justice Parsons and Sewall, prepared for college un- 
 der Master Moody at Dummer Academy; while Benja- 
 min Abbot and John Adams, masters at Exeter and An- 
 dover, made for themselves and their schools a lasting rep- 
 utation.* 
 
 The English academies were usually well endowed. (Eton 
 has an annual revenue of one hundred and fifty thousand 
 dollars, and pays the head-master twenty-five thousand dol- 
 lars.) The Americans of the last century were in no condi- 
 tion to endow so well their schools, though possibly they did 
 better. The academies were kept near the people, breathing 
 the spirit of the time. Most of them were incorporated ulti- 
 mately. Some were founded by returns from lotteries, more 
 by appropriations from the public treasury, and yet more by 
 private munificence. 
 
 An interesting characteristic of these academies and pe- 
 culiar to the oldest colonial grammar-schools is the signifi- 
 
 * The New England academies, typical of such agencies throughout the 
 States, have been well characterized by Mr. C. W. Hammond in the " Amer- 
 ican Journal of Education," vol. xvi, p. 423.
 
 ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. Y3 
 
 cance of the term "free" as applied to them. They were 
 not at all " free " in the modern meaning of the word ; the 
 privileges of attendance involved the payment of a fee. The 
 larger the endowment, however, the smaller the fee usually ; 
 and to most of them, in whatever State, admission might be 
 had hy the needy without charge. The Dummer School was 
 for those specified in the bequest, chiefly the inhabitants of 
 Byfield, Mass. So the Hopkins grammar-schools in the 
 seventeenth century were free to the towns of Hartford, 
 New Haven, Hadley, and Cambridge, in which they were 
 situated. Later, the Phillips Academies were opened to all 
 from whatever State in the sense that no race, nor rank, nor 
 limitations of residence, nor religious distinctions, were made 
 conditions of admission. Equal privileges were given on the 
 same terms. They were free, then, in contrast with the like 
 schools and seminaries of England, admission to which re- 
 quired membership in some particular church or other or- 
 ganization, and so were exclusive.* 
 
 2. Colleges. 
 
 After the three colonial colleges already noted, sixteen 
 others were founded before the close of the century, six of 
 which preceded, by a few years, the Revolution. 
 
 Of these, the earliest was Princeton, already referred to 
 incidentally as the local outgrowth of the " Log College " 
 of Rev. William Tennent. Though founded by Presby- 
 terians, and still supported by them, it stands as the repre- 
 sentative of the State's higher education in New Jersey. 
 
 Following Princeton was King's College (now Colum- 
 bia), New York. It was founded by royal charter (1754), 
 and was meant to be an Episcopal seminary. Initiated by a 
 legalized lottery the usual step in such moral and educa- 
 tional enterprises then it received local excise money, pri- 
 vate benefactions, and the " King's Farm," a valuable grant 
 
 * See a second view also offered by Mr. Hammond in his " New Eng- 
 land Academies and Classical Schools."
 
 74 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 held by "Trinity Church*' for religious and educational 
 purposes. Started upon an Episcopal basis, it met the an- 
 tagonism, not only of Dissenters, of whom President John- 
 son bitterly complained, but of the Dutch, also, who natu- 
 rally opposed anything English. Nevertheless, it pros- 
 pered. Prior to the Revolution it received liberal grants 
 from King George III, and generous contributions from the 
 nobility and gentry of England, besides substantial aid 
 from the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
 Foreign Parts." Its curriculum had been expanded in the 
 few years, even beyond that of Harvard and the older 
 institutions. In addition to the usual subjects it included 
 u divinity " and msdicine, something of natural science, the 
 modern languages, and " whatever else of literature may 
 tend to accomplish the pupils as scholars and gentlemen. " * 
 Predisposed to royalty, the college was closed early in the 
 war, and not reopened until 1784, when it became Columbia 
 College, with its general control in the "Regents of the 
 University of the State of New York." 
 
 Even before the agitation in New York city about King's 
 College, Pennsylvania, led by Franklin, began to talk of an 
 institution in Philadelphia. In the year 1749 was opened 
 the Philadelphia Academy, with a kind of charity-school 
 attachment. In the former were taught Latin, English, 
 and mathematics. It immediately took on the functions 
 of a high-grade seminary, at the same time fitting young 
 men for college. Within a decade, it had four hun- 
 dred students, was chartered with the privileges of a col- 
 lege, had an extended course of study, a department of 
 law, and drew patronage from half the colonies. At the 
 close of the war it was merged in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 Brown University, though founded (1764) as a Baptist 
 institution, was, nevertheless, one of the first schools of the 
 period to emphasize the growing sentiment for a thoroughly 
 
 " Historical Sketch of Columbia College," 1884, p. 3.
 
 ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. 75 
 
 undenominational collegiate training. Dartmouth College * 
 developed from the Indian school of the honored principal, 
 and first president, of the college, Rev. Dr. Wheelock. It 
 was chartered 1769, and had a few years later a large landed 
 interest (twelve thousand acres in one body, and valuable), 
 yielding even during the last century a considerable reve- 
 nue. A second college was founded in New Jersey (1770) 
 Queen's, now Rutgers ; and sixteen others, in various States, 
 before the close of the century. Of these, three were in 
 Maryland, two each in Virginia, Tennessee, and Vermont ; 
 and one in each of the six States Maine, Massachusetts, 
 North Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania, and South Caro- 
 lina, with one in the District of Columbia. 
 
 A marked feature of the period is the rapid multiplica- 
 tion of colleges that followed the first flush of independence. 
 Four were established during the war ; twelve immediately 
 following. By the close of the century the country -had 
 more colleges in proportion to the population than it has 
 now. Massachusetts was the first to protest. When it was 
 proposed to found Williams College, Harvard filed a long 
 and formal remonstrance. It was urged that " Harvard was 
 properly a college of the whole government ; and that the 
 Commonwealth would do its people an injury by taking the 
 support from one old and established institution, and en- 
 couraging a new and feeble school, "t The protest failed, 
 and the college (Williams) was established (1793). It still 
 remains true that the Harvard principle was sound. Will- 
 
 * Dartmouth has a very excellent history in a work published 1878, 
 written by B. P. Smith. Chapter xii, p. 100, contains a succinct statement 
 of the celebrated " Dartmouth College Case " touching the charter of the 
 college. Consult also the " Dartmouth Causes and the Supreme Court," 
 by J. Shirley, St. Louis, 1879. Works of Daniel Webster, vol. v, p. 462. 
 
 t Tennessee at this time, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New Jersey, 
 had each two, and Virginia three, colleges. On the " Multiplication of Col- 
 leges and Education in Smaller Colleges," see the " Ninety-fifth Eeport of 
 the University of the State of New York" (1882), p. 833; also, " Educa- 
 tion and the State," by F. A. P. Barnard, p. 30.
 
 76 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 iams has a record of which to be proud ; but, of the sixteen 
 institutions founded between 1776 and 1796, the present con- 
 ditions of five only, hint at even passable thrift. The cur- 
 rent average attendance of the others falls below eighty, 
 with a present aggregate endowment of less than three mill- 
 ion dollars. 
 
 This was a time of general expansion. More or less un- 
 settled, society was necessarily less given to formal and pre- 
 scribed culture, but devoted to organization and attempts at 
 practical readjustments. 
 
 Harvard now first assumed the name of university ; for, 
 though there had been collateral professorships, these were 
 maintained by assessments upon students, were not co-ordi- 
 nated into departments, and left the institution only an aca- 
 demic school of art. Signs of catholicity also appear, in that 
 students were no longer required to attend the divinity lect- 
 uresj except they were preparing for the ministry. The 
 democratic tendencies of the time were shown in many 
 ways. Students from about the beginning of the Revolution 
 (1770 in Yale) were catalogued alphabetically, and not as 
 previously by the social rank of their families. Literary 
 societies, voluntary associations for social and general cult- 
 ure, were multiplied ; and at William and Mary College 
 was formed (1776) the first Greek fraternity in this country 
 the Phi Beta Kappa the parent of both secret and open 
 college fraternity organizations in America.* 
 
 New interests were arising. The New England colonial 
 conflict had been a theological one. The opposition and 
 divergence of sects freedom from which, in Virginia, had 
 constituted, in the estimation of President Blair, one of that 
 colony's commending social features were rapidly being 
 obscured, in the greater immediate civil and political inter- 
 ests which all the colonies shared in common. Less impor- 
 tance was attached to the formal subscription to creeds ; re- 
 
 * For a sketch of this organization, its origin, and occasion, sec Quincy'a 
 " Harvard University," vol. ii, p. 397.
 
 ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. 
 
 77 
 
 ligious tests were less frequent and insistent. William and 
 Mary elected a lay chancellor ; Yale, also, though nominally 
 on a Congregational foundation, received aid (1792) from the 
 State, and gave place in her corporation to State representa- 
 tives. 
 
 The college, once an appendage to the Church, was seen, 
 in view of imminent State dangers, to have an equal value 
 to the Commonwealth. First encouraged because it pro- 
 vided an educated ministry, there was coming to be recog- 
 nized an opinion, despite the deficiencies in culture, that edu- 
 cation is something more that it has a value in itself ; that 
 schools might well be maintained apart from the Church as 
 an organization, and in no way lessen their usefulness. Of 
 the four colleges established during the war, two were non- 
 sectarian, as were three fourths of the sixteen colleges found- 
 ed in the twenty years after 1776. 
 
 Colleges founded prior to 1800. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 State. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Character. 
 
 1 . Harvard 
 
 Massachusetts .... 
 
 1637 
 
 
 2. William and Mary 
 3 Yale 
 
 Virginia 
 Connecticut 
 
 1693 
 1701 
 
 Epi&copal. 
 
 4. Princeton 
 
 New Jersev 
 
 1746 
 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 5. University of Pennsylvania* 
 6. Columbia 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 New York 
 
 1749 
 1754 
 
 Non-sectarian. 
 Episcopal 
 
 7. Brown 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 1764 
 
 Baptist. 
 
 8. Dartmouth 
 
 New Hampshire. . 
 
 1769 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 9. Queen's (Rutgers) 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1770 
 
 Reformed 
 
 10. llampden-Sidney 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1776 
 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 11. Washington ana Lee 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1782 
 
 Non-sectarian. 
 
 12. Washington University.... 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1782 
 
 Non-sectarian. 
 
 13. Dickinson 
 
 Pennsylvania .... 
 
 1783 
 
 M. Episcopal. 
 
 14. St John's 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1784 
 
 Non-sectarian 
 
 15 Nashville* 
 
 Tennessee ... 
 
 1785 
 
 
 16. Georgetown 
 
 District of Col. . . . 
 
 1789 
 
 R. Catholic. 
 
 17. University of N. Carolina.* 
 18. University of Vermont* . 
 
 North Carolina . . . 
 Vermont 
 
 1789 
 1791 
 
 Non-sectarian. 
 Non-sectari an 
 
 19. University of E. Tennessee. 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1792 
 
 Non-sectarian 
 
 20. Williams 
 21. Bowdoin.... 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Maine . 
 
 1793 
 1794 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 22. Union 
 
 New York 
 
 1795 
 
 Non-sectarian. 
 
 23. Middlebury 
 
 Vermont 
 
 1795 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 24. Frederick College 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1796 
 
 Non-sectarian. 
 
 
 
 
 
 State.
 
 78 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 The "New England Academics," by Rev. Charles Hammond; the 
 "Old Academies," " New-Englander," January, 1885; "Academies in 
 New England" (1830), "American Quarterly Register," vol. 5i, p. 131, 
 and vol. iii, p. 288 ; the " Relation of Academies to Colleges," " Congre- 
 gational Review," vol. ii, p. 60, and "Putnam's Magazine," vol. ii, p. 169. 
 The colleges of the period are well represented in " A History of Harvard 
 University, 1636-1776," by Benjamin Peirce; a "History of the College 
 of New Jersey," by J. Maclean ; an " Historical Sketch of Columbia Col- 
 lege," 1754-1876, by J. Van Amringe; "History of the University of 
 Pennsylvania," by T. H. Montgomery ; the " Early History of Brown 
 University," by R. A. Guild (1864); the "First Half -Century of Dart- 
 mouth College," by N. Crosby (1769-1820); and "Descriptive Analysis 
 of the Society System in Colleges of the United States," by W. J. Baird.
 
 PART THIRD. 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 
 
 1. The Transition. 
 
 THE transition from a colonial dependence to national 
 independence was a costly one. The States came out of the 
 contest bankrupt financially ; disorganized in industries ; a 
 Government without precedent ; the real War of Independ- 
 ence yet to fight, and the civilized world looking on to see 
 the failure. Not three decades had passed from the inaugu- 
 ration of Washington when the final conflict was over. 
 The War of 1812 was fought, a substantial independence 
 achieved ; and the States, no longer engrossed with conflict- 
 ing and unsettled foreign interests, turned their attention to 
 economic and industrial questions at home. Trade began to 
 revive ; commerce had found a way ; social and govern- 
 mental forces were active and planning. The period was 
 one of great change and much growth. 
 
 In four decades population had trebled. The six cities of 
 1790 had grown to twenty-six in 1830 ; then, one thirtieth of 
 the entire population, they were now one sixteenth. The 
 acquisition of territory had been enormous. The scarcely 
 more than eight hundred thousand square miles of 1783 had 
 expanded to upward of two million square miles in 1819, or
 
 80 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 five times the total area of the original thirteen States. The 
 increase alone was equal to one hundred and fifty-eight States 
 such as Massachusetts. The Mississippi was open to American 
 commerce its full length, leading to a rapid extension of set- 
 tlements in the Southwest. It was the era of new States. 
 Eleven had been added to the first thirteen. Trade was 
 opened with the West Indies. In the census of 1820, statis- 
 tics began to be taken concerning manufacturing interests. 
 Appropriations were made by Congress, as well as by several 
 of the States, for internal improvements, in the year 1816 
 three hundred and fifty thousand dollars being set aside by 
 congressional act for this purpose. Virginia, Delaware, and 
 Maryland established "improvement funds." Manufactur- 
 ing associations and trade leagues were organized in Penn- 
 sylvania and North Carolina. Congress voted one hundred 
 thousand dollars annual appropriation to the navy. A sys- 
 tem of coast defense was projected, and the pre-emption land 
 act passed. The year 1830 opened upon twenty-five canals, 
 including the great Erie, with an aggregate length of sixteen 
 hundred miles ; while, five years later, one thousand miles 
 of railroad had grown from the Quincy (Mass.) four-mile 
 granite line of 1826. 
 
 Already the slavery question was forcing itself upon the 
 public mind, leading directly to the founding of the Ameri- 
 can Colonization, and other manumission societies, and end- 
 less political readjustments. Academies of science, philoso- 
 phy, and history, the " North American Review," in Boston, 
 and thirty colleges, took their start in this period. It was 
 in these years when most of our educational systems origi- 
 nated or began their reorganization. Professorships of 
 science, law, medicine, and the modern languages were 
 added to the existing faculties. In place of the thirty-five 
 newspapers of 1775, there were three hundred and twenty- 
 three in 1810, and one thousand two decades later. It was a 
 period of great awakening and great activity. In the atmos- 
 phere of the Revolution were born and reared statesmen 
 and soldiers ; not less did the years following give scholars
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 81 
 
 and authors and teachers, tradesmen and benefactors, pro- 
 fessional and scientific men.* 
 
 It was the period of the Adamses and Jefferson ; of Frank- 
 lin and Webster ; of Governor De Witt Clinton ; of young 
 Denison Olmsted ; of Horace Mann and Joseph Henry ; of 
 Everett and Story; Gallaudet, of Connecticut; Guilford, of 
 Ohio; Grimke, of South Carolina; and Frelinghuysen, of 
 New Jersey. Way land, in Rhode Island; Peers, in Ken- 
 tucky ; and Shaw, in Virginia, were planning school systems 
 in their several States. Chancellor Kent was in his prime, 
 and Randolph and Marshall and Jackson and Clay were con- 
 temporaries whose like the modern world has rarely seen. 
 
 In the presence of such men, one ceases to wonder that 
 the young nation was growing confident and aspiring. To 
 the vigorous young the future is always promising. To them 
 the maintaining of a free government seemed, if not easy, 
 at least possible. How possible ? The wise men these and 
 others set themselves to answer the question. 
 
 They differed in their views about the Constitution, and 
 wrangled over the dangers of centralization ; the best men 
 were fearful of the inroads of slavery and the dangers to 
 commerce ; but all agreed that intelligence was necessary to 
 citizenship. Look through the writings of Washington and 
 Jefferson, and it will be found that the best thought was 
 given to the importance of a right training of mind. "In 
 proportion as the structure of a government gives force to 
 public opinion," said Washington, " it is necessary that public 
 opinion should be enlightened." So Mr. Jefferson repeated- 
 ly urged, and made it the guide of his later years, that " the 
 diffusion of light and education are the resources most to be 
 relied on for ameliorating the condition, promoting the vir- 
 tue, and advancing the happiness of man." 
 
 * On the general culture, the refinement, the progress of institutions, 
 etc., Holmes' s "American Annals," first published at the opening of the 
 century and reissued a generation later, contains much material not to be 
 found in later books covering the same period.
 
 82 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 The sentiment was no forced one nor exotic. It was 
 familiar to the best men in every State and station ; to John 
 Adams, and Madison, and Rush ; to lawyer and statesman 
 and clergyman. It was so general, that the memorable saying 
 of Chancellor Kent, that " the parent who sends his son into 
 the world uneducated, defrauds the community of a youth- 
 ful citizen and bequeaths to it a nuisance," * was not more a 
 personal opinion than the expression of a wide-spread public 
 faith. Out of such patriotic and exalted sentiments, that of 
 universal and liberal education had an easy birth. Not that 
 intelligence sprang suddenly out of ignorance, or that suffi- 
 cient schools were at once provided. History can hardly be 
 so set off into periods. Most "turning-points" are curves; 
 improvement is growth. But, in the fifty years after 1800, 
 there was a time when progress noticeably accelerated. 
 Organization was upon a higher plane. Institutions took 
 on new significance. New arts and industries, thronged 
 cities and an active press, the exaltation of personal and co- 
 operative life, and the increased recognition of humanitarian 
 interests, were, both logically and chronologically, accom- 
 panied by a large and wholesome enthusiasm for education. 
 The time was pregnant with half -seen possibilities. 
 
 In this awakening was the American renaissance a re- 
 turn to vigorous life, such as had not been enjoyed for a 
 hundred years. Something of the early enthusiasm for 
 learning and the means of learning came in with Jefferson 
 and Mann, Mark Hopkins, Denison Olmsted, Mary Lyon, 
 and their contemporaries. 
 
 Early in the century (1805) the Public School Society of 
 New York city was formed; the claims of public primary 
 education were urged Boston, 1818; and New York pro- 
 vided for the county supervision of schools. Within the 
 
 * " In the United States, he who does not send his child to school 
 (which he should do, for the same reason as he pays his taxes, or fights in 
 time of war) must be regarded in a peculiarly insidious sense as an enemy 
 of the State." DB. G. S. HALL.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 83 
 
 period were introduced or discussed the first high-schools, 
 manual training-schools, and mechanics' institutes, semi- 
 naries for teachers, associations, institutes, and the publi- 
 cation of educational journals. Independent professional 
 schools and departments, technological institutions, and 
 learned societies, school and general public and free libra- 
 ries, were multiplied. Evening and special schools for 
 laboring classes, and the whole list of institutions for the 
 defective and dependent classes institutions for the blind, 
 the deaf, the imbecile, orphans, and the wayward took their 
 rise during these years. 
 
 There were without doubt great agencies at work looking 
 to general education. "A broad philanthropy," says Mr. 
 Bicknell, "rather than a deep philosophy, ruled the hour; 
 when men consulted their instincts more than formulas of 
 logic in their educational policy." But they were impulses 
 well rooted and guided, out of whose working have come the 
 current systems. 
 
 This enlargement of educational interest was accompa- 
 nied further by certain tendencies toward centralization 
 peculiarly modern, and which claim a fuller treatment. 
 These appear in the creation of school-funds by the States, 
 and the accompanying boards of control, superintendents, 
 commissioners, etc. Begun with a purpose, they show a far- 
 reaching wisdom, and an understanding of the educational 
 problem, rare enough in any age ; surprising, then. 
 
 2. The Creation of School-Funds. 
 
 The sources of income for the support of schools have 
 been various. Local, State, and national taxes ; municipal 
 and legislative appropriations ; city, State, and congres- 
 sional land-grants ; land-rents, students' fees, rate-bills, and 
 private benefactions ; swamp and saline lands ; bank-tax and 
 surplus revenue funds ; fines, forfeitures, and escheats ; excise 
 tax and vender's license, have all contributed to the support 
 of education. 
 
 Speaking generally, most early funds were local and
 
 84 .THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 annual. This is especially true of New England and Penn- 
 sylvania, where the idea of local self-government was strong. 
 For a different reason also the same statement applies to parts 
 of the South, where, as in Rhode Island, education was put 
 alongside of religion as a matter of personal and domestic 
 concern. The district system, as will appear elsewhere, is a 
 phase of this same early tendency to divide authority, dis- 
 tributing the school control among many small and inde- 
 pendent corporations. First appearing in New England, it 
 has, at some time, been upon the statute-books of more than 
 half the States of the Union. It was part of the general im- 
 pulse toward the sharing of administrative power, educa- 
 tional, political, and religious, which was a vigorous and long- 
 lived reaction against the unreasoning monarchism which 
 had prevailed into modern times, and been imposed upon 
 our forefathers. 
 
 The later years the last half -century in education show 
 a bias toward a larger and more central control. The co-op- 
 erations of an industrial life in a populous country not only 
 require a general likeness of interest, but a homogeneity of 
 culture and participation in a common experience. This 
 disposition of the public, in the direction of organization and 
 concerted action, is manifest in most civil affairs. It is 
 shown in the consolidation of industry into corporations; 
 in the inauguration of fraternities and lodges, and guilds 
 and granges ; in the organization of charity and the union 
 of church agencies in the service of missions, Christian asso- 
 ciations, benevolent exchanges, etc. It appears also in the 
 endowment of research, and the multiplication of learned 
 societies, as set over against individual investigation ; while 
 the constant aggressions of legislation upon territory once 
 recognized as individual grounds has led Herbert Spencer to 
 say: " The old superstition was the Divine Right of kings; 
 the modern one is the Divine Right of Parliaments." 
 Among all representative governments the mark of centrali- 
 zation is upon contemporary interests. Education is no ex- 
 ception. Questions of compulsory school attendance, re-
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 85 
 
 formatory training, and the treatment of bodies of illiteracy, 
 reveal, in their discussion, a like sentiment. Care for the 
 defective classes, once regarded as a private charity, is now 
 made a State interest almost without exception. 
 
 Speaking historically, the first step in all this centering 
 of educational control was the creating of permanent school- 
 funds. 
 
 A. THE BEGINNINGS OF PERMANENT FUNDS. 
 
 As has already been seen, Massachusetts and other colo- 
 nies both North and South, made appropriations of land, some 
 of which, held by leases, ultimately went into the general re- 
 serve.* Connecticut as early as 1733 had set apart her public 
 lands lying in the northwestern part of the colony " to the 
 perpetual use of the schools." A portion of the proceeds was 
 distributed to the town and parish school societies, and now 
 constitutes a part of their permanent funds. To these have 
 been added at different times " excise moneys," local bequests, 
 and forfeitures, forming in some towns considerable sums. 
 In the year 1786, upon the cession of Connecticut's Western 
 domain to the United States, a State reservation was made 
 of what is now northeastern Ohio, and called the " Western 
 Reserve." This (except a small tract) was sold 1795, for one 
 million dollars, which was turned into the school-fund. 
 
 By a law of 1786, New York t State set apart two lots in 
 each township of the unoccupied lands, for "gospel and 
 school purposes," and fifteen years later ordered that the net 
 proceeds of half a million acres of vacant and unappropri- 
 ated lands should be devoted to a permanent fund for the 
 support of common schools. 
 
 New Hampshire, 1821, began a similar fund, by exacting 
 
 * A very exhaustive study of the " Origin and History of the Massachu- 
 setts School-Fund" is presented by Hon. George S. Boutwell, in the Re- 
 port of the Board of Education, 1859. 
 
 t For a statement of the New York School-Fund (for the Common 
 schools) and the Literary Fund (for the benefit of academies), see " His- 
 torical and Statistical Eecords " of New York, 1888.
 
 86 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 one half of one per cent upon the capital of all banks within 
 the State. And Maine, about the same time, devoted the pro- 
 ceeds of the sale of twenty townships of public lands for a 
 like use ; a part of which was distributed to the towns, as in 
 Connecticut, but held as invested capital whose income only 
 might be used for schools. Certain bank-stock held, and the 
 funded debt of the State, were made in New Jersey a perma- 
 nent fund whose revenue, since about 1820, has been applied 
 to the public schools. 
 
 Rhode Island, Vermont, and Pennsylvania have no in- 
 vested school-funds. The first supplements the local rev- 
 enues by an annual appropriation of one hundred thousand 
 dollars, and the last by not less than one million dollars. 
 
 As might be supposed, and as has been frequently as- 
 serted by historians, little was accomplished in the South 
 during this period ; little even attempted. Yet the principle 
 of State responsibility, and somewhat of State control, was 
 admitted, and became a factor of legislation in half the 
 Southern States. 
 
 A beginning was made by Delaware as early as 1796, it 
 seems, though no definite results came of it; the present 
 fund dates from 1837, and rests upon bank-stock, and a bond 
 of the State, together amounting to about one hundred and 
 fifty thousand dollars. Virginia (1810) began the constitu- 
 tion of her " Literary Fund " by legislative appropriation, 
 which was augmented from various sources, until, at the 
 close of the War of 1812, it amounted to two million dollars. 
 South Carolina followed (1811), but feebly, and North Caro- 
 lina (1825). Any substantial benefit from the funds was 
 negatived in all three of the States by conferring them 
 chiefly upon the poor. Alabama, Florida, and Georgia 
 made large appropriations of land, and maintained, espe- 
 cially the last, flourishing academies, but upon special en- 
 dowments or local support. At the prompting of Congress 
 (1806), grants of reservation lands were made in Tennessee, 
 one hundred thousand acres each to colleges and academies, 
 and one thirty-sixth of the remaining unoccupied territory
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 87 
 
 for the use of the common schools. All this, which later 
 would have yielded such abundant revenues, was almost 
 wholly wasted, and the present fund began with an in- 
 vestment in Bank of Tennessee stock (1846). This was 
 increased both by legislative enactments and bank-stock 
 dividends, amounting in 1858 to one million five hundred 
 thousand dollars. Large grants of land were made by 
 Kentucky and Louisiana also. In the former (1821), one 
 half the net profits of the Bank of the Commonwealth were 
 made a " Literary Fund," to be distributed annually for the 
 maintenance of common schools under State control. The 
 land-grants in Louisiana were, in the year 1847, consolidated, 
 aggregating nearly eight hundred thousand acres, and form- 
 ing a large and for some years a productive investment. 
 
 B. LOTTERIES. 
 
 An interesting feature of school administration, fifty to 
 seventy-five years ago, was the lottery. It came in for all 
 sorts of uses, and some which to-day would be counted very 
 questionable. Those referred to here, however, were legal- 
 ized, had the sanction of public opinion, and were considered 
 altogether an honorable means of raising funds. Their pro- 
 ceeds were in some instances considerable, and contributed 
 to increase the common-school fund, and the endowment of 
 colleges ; to aid in the erection of buildings, furnishing ap- 
 paratus, and paying salaries. 
 
 The first steps taken (1747) toward the founding of what 
 is now Columbia College were in the grant of a system 
 of lotteries. Williamstown Academy, Massachusetts, was 
 partly so founded (1790), and two years later, four lotteries 
 were granted to the Regents of the University of the State 
 of New York, one eighth of whose proceeds should go to the 
 academies, and the remainder to the common-school fund. 
 Upon Union and Hamilton Colleges, and the College of 
 Physicians and Surgeons, Vincennes University, Indiana, 
 and academies throughout the West, was bestowed such aid. 
 The Catholepistemiad, first University of Michigan, and the
 
 88 TUB PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 General Board of Education, were granted four lotteries, fif- 
 teen per cent of whose proceeds should be applied to the 
 general fund. William and Mary College and Brown and 
 Harvard* Universities were recipients of like favors. In- 
 deed, for the half-century following the Revolution there 
 was almost no public enterprise requiring pecuniary aid 
 that did not receive more or less State recognition and 
 assistance through lotteries, at some tune and in some 
 section. From municipal improvements to founding and 
 equipping colleges, establishing libraries, initiating and aug- 
 menting school -funds, and building churches, the lottery 
 has been a common source of relief. One writer, speaking 
 for Rhode Island alone, says lotteries were made " to con- 
 tribute to churches in Providence, Newport, Bristol, and 
 half a dozen other towns ; by Baptist, Methodist, Presby- 
 terian, and Congregational faith." They were the church 
 fairs of our grandfathers a device whose function, as a 
 source of general revenue, possesses a decided historic in- 
 terest. 
 
 C. CONGRESSIONAL LAND-GRANTS 
 
 A more important source of school revenue, in the form 
 of permanent investment grows out of the provisions of the 
 famous " Ordinance of 1787 " and subsequent acts. 
 
 The several colonies, upon establishing independent gov- 
 ernments, and even before the " Articles of Confederation," 
 laid claim to the undeveloped territory lying west of them 
 and extending nominally, to the Pacific. Virginia owned 
 Kentucky and the territory north of the Ohio River, except 
 some reserves in Ohio. Tennessee was held by North Car- 
 olina ; Alabama and Mississippi by Georgia ; Maine by Mas- 
 sachusetts ; and Vermont claimed by both New York and 
 New Hampshire. The claims of Pennsylvania and Con- 
 
 * Harvard, 1775, took two thousand tickets in a public lottery, and 
 realized eighteen thousand dollars toward the erection of Stoughton Hall. 
 Again, in 1811, Massachusetts Hall was almost wholly built from the pro- 
 ceeds of a lottery that brought twenty-nine thousand dollars.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 89 
 
 necticut also were conflicting, and the dispute was finally 
 submitted to Congress (1775). 
 
 The offer of Virginia, in the year 1781, to cede her terri- 
 tory, was accepted by the General Government (1784). Two 
 years later (1786) Connecticut withdrew her claims, reserv- 
 ing to herself a section in the northeastern corner of Ohio, 
 from the western boundary of Pennsylvania, one hundred 
 and twenty miles westward and from the forty-first parallel 
 of latitude north to the lake, called in the early days " New 
 Connecticut. " The school-fund to which reference has been 
 made elsewhere began in the sales of this " Western Re- 
 serve." 
 
 For the organization and control of this Northwest Terri- 
 tory Congress provided in 1787. In the year 1784, Mr. Jeffer- 
 son, as chairman of a committee, had presented to Congress 
 the draught of a bill respecting the disposition of the public 
 lands, in which one is surprised to find no reference to 
 schools or education. Eleven months later another bill was 
 reported, containing the provision that " there shall be 
 reserved the central section of every township for the main- 
 tenance of public schools, and the section immediately ad- 
 joining the same to the northward for the support of re- 
 ligion." After several amendments and prolonged discus- 
 sion, the clause referring to the support of religion was strick- 
 en out. The remaining provisions were confirmed two years 
 later in the " Ordinance for the Government of the Terri- 
 tory Northwest of the River Ohio," * along with which was 
 given the fundamental declaration which has since been 
 incorporated into almost every State Constitution that " re- 
 ligion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good 
 government and the happiness of mankind, schools and 
 the means of education shall be forever encouraged." 
 
 Ohio, the first State admitted to the Union from this Ter- 
 ritory, received three townships ; one as a Territory, and two 
 upon admission as a State (1802), for the support of a univer- 
 
 * Of this ordinance it is said Nathan Dane was the author.
 
 90 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 sity, and subsequently the sixteenth section in each township 
 toward the maintenance of common schools. Prior to 1821, 
 Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan had received like grants. In 
 the South, under the general provision for the disposition of 
 public lands, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee 
 received three townships each. Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, 
 Florida, Texas, Wisconsin, and Iowa, respectively, received 
 the sixteenth section only (one square mile out of each town- 
 ship of thirty-six square miles). 
 
 In the year 1841, by act of Congress, sixteen States Ala- 
 bama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, 
 Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ne- 
 braska, Nevada, Oregon, and Wisconsin each received five 
 hundred thousand acres, of which three million in the ag- 
 gregate went to augment the common-school fund. Upon 
 the organization of Oregon Territory, 1848, the reservation 
 for schools was doubled, whereby California, Minnesota, 
 Oregon, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Nevada have each 
 received both the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections. The 
 provision applies, indeed, to every new State since 1848, ex- 
 cept West Virginia. 
 
 By act of Congress (1849), supplemented by legislation 
 the year folio wing, and again in the year 1860, thirteen 
 States Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, 
 Iowa, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
 Missouri, and Wisconsin received an aggregate of 62,428,413 
 acres of swamp-lands, 14,000,000 acres of which Were appro- 
 priated to the use of schools. 
 
 The total land-grants made by the United States for edu- 
 cational purposes up to 1876 one century of its existence 
 amount to nearly eighty million acres, or one hundred and 
 twenty-five thousand square miles ; a territory greater than 
 the landed area of Great Britain and Ireland, and more than 
 half that of all France. Of this it is estimated that more 
 than eighty per cent has contributed to permanent funds 
 for the elementary schools. 
 
 In addition to the appropriations of land, it has been the
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 91 
 
 policy of the Government to turn into the State treasuries, 
 also, a percentage of the net proceeds of the sale of public 
 lands within their borders. At first this was three per cent 
 (later made five per cent), and was known as the " Three- 
 per-cent Fund." In the year 1818 Congress ordered that 
 one sixth of it should be given to the founding or main- 
 tenance of a college or university in each. The disposi- 
 tion of the remainder being left to the option of its 
 holders, in a dozen States it was diverted to education ; 
 Missouri realizing one million dollars' increase of the per- 
 manent fund. 
 
 Arkansas, Indiana, Missouri, and a few other States, re- 
 ceived saline lands, the proceeds from the working or sale 
 of which were added to the school-fund. In New Jersey 
 (1871) the income from the sales and rents of riparian lands 
 between high and low water were made a part of the school- 
 fund, a sum the future possible revenue of which has been 
 estimated at millions. 
 
 In some of the newer States school lands have been sold 
 in part only. Nebraska has two million five hundred thou- 
 sand acres, none of which can be sold for less than seven 
 dollars per acre. Texas has about twenty-four million acres. 
 
 D. THE SURPLUS REVENUE FUND. 
 
 In 1836, by act of Congress, a large surplus in the United 
 States treasury, amounting to over $42,000,000, was ordered 
 to be deposited with the several Stages, in proportion to their 
 representation in Congress. On account of subsequent 
 financial embarrassments, the amount actually distributed 
 was something less than $30,000,000. Sixteen of the twenty- 
 six States then organized (1837) set aside their quota of the 
 deposit, in whole or part, as a fund whose revenue should 
 go to the maintenance of the common schools in their re- 
 spective States. Eight of these * so appropriated the whole 
 
 * Alabama, Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Ehode 
 Island, and Vermont.
 
 92 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 of their shares, amounting in the aggregate to $9,855,134. 
 Eight States,* of the $9,462,798 they received, added a part to 
 their school-funds, the other going for internal improvements 
 and general purposes. In ten States receiving the deposits 
 none was given to education. These were Arkansas, Lou- 
 isiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Hampshire, 
 New Jersey, Tennessee, and Virginia, receiving in the aggre- 
 gate $8,793,713, which went, as named above, to general pur- 
 poses or internal improvements. New York received most 
 and Delaware least, in both of which it was set apart for 
 education. 
 
 3. Permanent Funds and Local Taxes. 
 
 Notwithstanding the large common-school endowments t 
 considered in the last paragraph, they furnish but a limited 
 part of the total school revenues. 
 
 By the United States Commissioner's report for the year 
 1886-'87, it appears that the expenditures for education in 
 the United States, by States and Territories, was $115,103,886; 
 of which less than six millions was received from perma- 
 nent funds. More than sixty millions of dpllars were col- 
 lected in local taxes, a revenue representing a capital of a 
 billion and a half of dollars. With all the large funds, 
 it is, after all, the willing citizens' tax that supports the 
 schools. Pennsylvania appropriates $1,000,000 annually 
 from the State treasury, but raises $9,000,000 from local 
 sources. Illinois, with a permanent fund of over $12,000,000, 
 makes an annual expenditure nearly as large, all but half 
 a million being from local taxes. 
 
 In the table have been grouped the ten States having the 
 largest school-funds, in which the annual income, at four 
 and a half per cent, from this source, is compared with their 
 respective school expenditures for the academic year 1885-'86 : 
 
 * Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, North Carolina, 
 Pennsylvania, and South Carolina. 
 
 t The aggregate of the invested school-funds of the thirty -five States 
 approximates one hundred and twenty million dollars.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 
 
 93 
 
 Resources and Expenditures of Public Education in ten States, 1885-86. 
 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Invested fund. 
 
 Eevenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1 
 
 Illinois 
 
 $12,049,000 
 
 $542,205 
 
 $10,136,000 
 
 fl 
 
 Missouri 
 
 10,475,000 
 
 471,375 
 
 4,328,000 
 
 3 
 
 Indiana 
 
 9,458,000 
 
 425,610 
 
 5,314,000 
 
 4. 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 6 731,000 
 
 302,895 
 
 2,372,000 
 
 5 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 4,904,000 
 
 220,680 
 
 2,351,000 
 
 fi 
 
 Ohio 
 
 4 375 000 
 
 196 875 
 
 9,328 000 
 
 7 
 
 Iowa 
 
 4,100,000 
 
 184,500 
 
 4,660,000 
 
 8 
 
 New York 
 
 4,083,000 
 
 183,735 
 
 13,285,000 
 
 <l 
 
 Michigan 
 
 3,838,000 
 
 172,710 
 
 4,333,000 
 
 in 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 3,015,000 
 
 135,675 
 
 3,645,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $63,059,000 
 
 $2,836 260 
 
 $59,752,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 For a picture of society at the opening of the century, see Schouler's 
 " History of the United States," vols. ii and iii ; also, " Building the Na- 
 tion," by Coffin, chapters xvi, xvii, xviii, xxxi, and xxxiii, and " Historical 
 View of Education, its Dignity and Degradation," by Horace Mann, lect- 
 ure v. Consult " Public Lands for Schools," J. Sparks, " North Ameri- 
 can Review," vol. xiii, p. 310; "History of Land Grants in the North- 
 west Territory," G. W. Knight, 1885 ; the " Ordinance of 1787," Hon. 
 John Eaton, " Education," February, 1887, " Educational Influence of the 
 Ordinance of 1787," " Proceedings of the National Educational Associa- 
 tion," 188*7, p. 118; "Dr. Cutler and the Ordinance of 1787," W. F. 
 Poole, "North American Review," 1876; "American State Universi- 
 ties," by A. Ten Brook, including interesting matter on " Congressional 
 University Land Grants " ; " Land Grants in the United States for Edu- 
 cational Purposes," by Prof. H. B. Adams, "Proceedings of National 
 Educational Association, Department of Superintendence," 1889 ; " His- 
 tory of the Surplus Revenue Fund" of 1837, by E. G. Bourne (1885), 
 and the " Division of School Funds for Religious Purposes," by Dr. W. 
 T. Harris, "Atlantic Monthly," August, 1876. 
 
 A curious bit of history is to be found in a sketch of the " Pious Fund 
 of California," in the publications of the California Historical Society, 
 vol. i, Part I, 1887. See also the " Origin and History of the Massachu- 
 setts School Fund," by Secretary George S. Boutwell.
 
 94 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES.-(Continued.) 
 
 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 
 
 THE development in this country of systems of school 
 supervision was inevitable. It is the normal result of public 
 interest in the child. Division of labor in education, as in 
 other human industry, works out its own economy. And 
 the authoritative management of schools is justified, not 
 alone because the training of mind is of overmastering im- 
 portance, but on the plain business principle that the eco- 
 nomical use of resources is the first step to success. 
 
 It has been said there are three stages in the development 
 of school systems as known in the United States: 1. The 
 conviction made general, that every child should receive a 
 fair share of education. 2. The later but equally fundament- 
 al idea, that the property of the State should be responsible 
 for that education. 3. That of school unity and system as 
 secured by supervision. How slow has been the progress 
 along these lines is evident at a glance. The enforced pat- 
 ronage of the schools is a phase of the first not yet generally 
 accepted. Under the second is the to many doubtful 
 question of free, secondary, and professional education ; while 
 with an abundance of supervision, the public is not wholly 
 convinced of the importance of wise direction. 
 
 Bishop Fraser, visiting this country (1865), was constrained 
 to say, " The great desideratum of the common-school system, 
 both in Massachusetts and the States generally, was adequate, 
 thorough, impartial, independent inspection of schools " ; and 
 more than twenty years afterward, an editorial in the " New 
 England Journal of Education " declared, " The most im]X)r- 
 tant question of the hour in matters of education is that of 
 supervision." 
 
 In the earlier years, when there were f ew schools, and
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 95 
 
 scattered, control was chiefly local, and exercised, in New 
 England especially, by the selectmen of the towns ; later, and 
 until late in this century, by committees and local school- 
 boards. Each individual school was a law unto itself ; uni- 
 formity was out of the question. Schools were efficient or 
 neglected according to the local management. To a greater 
 or less extent this must always be true, even in cities. It is 
 the personal and localized effort that brings success. But 
 the extension of the powers of the committee (or board) to 
 administer a system of schools, or the fixing of a general 
 control in a specialist, while minor and executive interests 
 are left to the community, has great advantages. A close 
 organic connection of the stronger schools with the weaker 
 may advantage the one while offering no hindrance to the 
 other. This is the function of a well-ordered supervision. 
 The co-operation of all gives efficiency to each. 
 
 Again, the early supervision, if it may be so called, was 
 chiefly prudential and economical. It regarded the expendi- 
 ture of moneys and the erection of houses ; the levying of 
 taxes, making repairs, fixing the school terms and salaries ; 
 and, in general, had to do with the administration, the busi- 
 ness, as opposed to the professional side of education. It was 
 the infancy of control, necessary but incidental to the real 
 work of the school. It was a care for the scaffolding rather 
 than the structure. The oversight of methods and courses 
 of study ; of teachers and then* selection ; of individuals, and 
 grades and classes ; of discipline and sanitation, is a matter 
 of half a century's growth. While, hi a more comprehensive 
 view of the office, there must be added. to these its function 
 in respect to the school's broader economic relations as a 
 social institution, a factor in civilization, its ethical bearings. 
 This is the philosophical side of education, and belongs ap- 
 propriately to the office of general inspection. It has been 
 said by Dr. Hall, " If teaching is to become a profession, it is 
 superintendents, supervisors, etc., who must first make it so, 
 by becoming, as their high position demands, strictly profes- 
 sional themselves in their work."
 
 96 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 In tracing the rise and development of this systematic 
 supervision, it will be convenient, after a notice of the " dis- 
 trict system," the extreme of decentralization, to consider it 
 in its three forms * as : 1. State supervision which was the 
 occasion of, and has developed into, State systems. 2. 
 County supervision, occasionally appealing as township con- 
 trol. 3. City supervision. 
 
 1. The District System. 
 
 The district system of school management took its rise in 
 the colonial period of New England, and implies the setting 
 off of towns and townships into smaller bodies, and the erec- 
 tion of these into independent corporations. They were pos- 
 sessed of legal powers of holding property, levying taxes, 
 etc., and filled a large place in the life of the time. The 
 town, in New England, was the unit in all civil affairs. The 
 recognition of its functions gave character to the only two 
 school systems formed before the Revolution. The substi- 
 tution of the district, in educational matters, and the rise of 
 " school societies," t form an interesting piece of history. 
 
 First introduced into Connecticut (1701) and half a cent- 
 ury later into Rhode Island, the principle was incorpo- 
 rated into the revised Code of Massachusetts in the year 
 1789. It was the provision of this act, concerning " school 
 districts," which Mr. Mann pronounced the most disastrous 
 feature in the whole history of educational legislation in 
 Massachusetts. Vermont seven years before, and New 
 Hampshire in 1805, made like changes. 
 
 In Rhode Island these minor districts were called " squad- 
 rons," and were given the entire " management of their 
 school-houses and lands, leasing out the latter, and employ- 
 ing schoolmasters as was most agreeable to them." Massa- 
 
 * The supervision of the General Government -will be found considered 
 elsewhere. See, in index, Bureau of Education, Indians, Alaska, etc. 
 
 t For a history of these school societies, see " Educational Documents of 
 Connecticut, for 1853," p. 141.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 97 
 
 chusetts soon (1800) authorized district taxation a measure 
 from whose mischievous implications the State did not free 
 itself for seventy years. New York, with Ohio, Illinois, and 
 other Western States, passed similar enactments. Through- 
 out New England at the opening of the century the district 
 had become the educational unit, while outside of New Eng- 
 land (excluding the South), in a single generation, it pre- 
 dominated in half the States. The system represents the 
 extreme of self-government. A study of its development in 
 Connecticut will perhaps best reveal its character and influ- 
 ence. 
 
 An act of the General Assembly of Connecticut (1701) 
 provided that " the inhabitants of each town in the colony 
 shall pay annually forty shillings in every thousand 
 pounds in their respective lists toward the maintenance of a 
 schoolmaster." Some of the towns were large and con- 
 tained parishes or ecclesiastical bodies churches ; and elev- 
 en years later it was ordered that, " for the bringing up of 
 their children and the maintenance of a school," they (the 
 churches) should receive the money collected among them. 
 The ecclesiastical body thus became a civil organization 
 holding an official relation to the management of schools 
 sustained by public funds. 
 
 Originally, in New England, the parish was coextensive 
 with the town ; the two were coincident indeed. The citi- 
 zens in the one were members in the other. The same in 
 constituency, the same in territorial limits, and co-ordinate in 
 functions, there was no more occasion for friction, or differ- 
 ence of opinion, than among the members of either. The 
 interests of one were the interests of both. But, with the 
 growth of towns, religious care led to their division into dis- 
 tinct parishes; with diversity of religious belief came the 
 affiliation of those of like sentiments, without regard to ge- 
 ographical limits. The parish had lost its fixed existence, 
 while maintaining its functions and organization. It was 
 under these conditions that the Connecticut law was enacted. 
 The step was a new one, and away from the common-school
 
 98 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 idea of New England amounting practically to the estab- 
 lishment of school districts within towns. Authority was di- 
 vided, and the direction of education put into the hands of a 
 class. It pointed to a delegation of authority that is ruin- 
 ous. The parish was as yet, however, only a district, deriv- 
 ing all its power, as did other districts, from the civil body. 
 It could initiate nothing ; it levied no taxes ; it changed no 
 law. Forty years after, it was enacted that, when a town 
 consisted of but one ecclesiastical society, the selectmen of 
 the town should manage the schools ; but that, when it in- 
 cluded more than one, a committee from each society should 
 be empowered to manage lands and funds. By 1767 these 
 parishes were allowed each a separate treasurer; and, before 
 the close of the century, towns had been authorized, by the 
 new State Legislature, to incorporate themselves into '' school 
 societies." In the revision and codification of laws, 1799, it 
 was ordered that they should have full power " to grant rates 
 for building and repairing ; to appoint their own commit- 
 tees ; to provide teachers ; and to manage the prudentials of 
 their schools." This seems the extreme of deterioration. 
 So wide-spread was the influence, that few States in the 
 Union escaped it. 
 
 Growing out of these applications of the principle of 
 decentralization were two evils that were vicious in every 
 way, and call for special mention. 
 
 The first, though an incident of the system in Connecti- 
 cut, and not found in most States, was the farming out of 
 school revenues to religious bodies.* It was subversive of 
 civil and social unity. It was yet one more encroachment 
 of the ecclesiastical upon the civil and personal life, 
 because of which Puritan and Huguenot had left their 
 European homes. So disastrous have been felt to be its 
 implications, by the newer States and in recent years, that 
 
 * The claims, on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church, for participation 
 in the control of school revenues, suggest that the question has a present 
 significance also.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 99 
 
 seventeen of the thirty-eight States have seen fit to incorpo- 
 rate into the body of their Constitutions the provision that 
 " no religious sect or sects shall ever control any part of the 
 common-school or university funds." 
 
 But, aside from its ecclesiastical aspects, the district sys- 
 tem seems generally to have worked mischief except in an 
 occasional thriving and homogeneous community. Along 
 with the unequal distribution of wealth, the system leads to 
 great inequality in the means and provisions of education ; to 
 an unwise distribution of school-houses, many and poor ; to 
 short terms or poor teachers, or both ; and, in imposing upon 
 indigence and improvidence the education of its own, tends 
 directly to class distinctions. In Massachusetts, for example, 
 it is said that one third of the State's taxable property is found 
 within a radius of ten miles about Boston. Without appor- 
 tionment equalizing the revenues, schools in the more dis- 
 tant parts must be very insufficiently supported. 
 
 The system, moreover, in its ultimate development makes 
 each school an independant organization, assigns mixed 
 classes to the same teacher, obstructs gradation, and, besides 
 being a wasteful practice financially, ignores the plainest 
 pedagogical principles of instruction. During the adminis- 
 tration of Horace Mann, certain townships " abolished their 
 districts, assuming control of their schools in a corporate 
 capacity," but twenty years later it was said : " So fully are 
 most citizens attached to this system, so fully persuaded that 
 centralized power is dangerous, that the township ought not 
 to be intrusted with the entire care of schools (although its 
 officers preside in every other department), and that the 
 reserved right of having an agent to have the care of their 
 school-houses, and to employ the teachers of their children, 
 is a privilege of vital importance and not lightly to be re- 
 linquishedthat there was little hope for better things." * 
 
 In New York, but two decades ago, there was an almost 
 entire disappearance of the township. Whatever local 
 
 * " Twenty-eighth Beport of the Massachusetts Board of Education."
 
 100 THE PERIOD OF REORGAXIZATION. 
 
 taxes were raised came through the districts ; of one of 
 which it was said (1865) " it had not taxed itself nor raised 
 one cent by rate " during three years of the previous four. 
 These small and weak but more or less independent districts 
 in parts of New England, Delaware, some of the States West, 
 and one or two others South, have constituted the greatest 
 hindrances to the maturing of school systems. Strength 
 comes from co-operation ; differences are equalized, and pub- 
 lic administration is made to contribute to a homogeneity 
 that is civil no less than political safety. 
 
 But the influence of this division of authority is some- 
 times felt in States where the right to levy school-taxes has 
 not been reserved to the district. With more or less of 
 central organization, it frequently occurs that the right to 
 select, examine, and hire teachers, rests in the neighborhood, 
 while the township authorities are held to answer for the 
 school's success. Inferior teachers, and favoritism in then* 
 selection, indifference in some neighborhoods, and the fre- 
 quent shifting of instructors, are very serious evils, and all 
 cluster about district management. 
 
 The great diversity in State administration, and in local 
 administration among the States, makes any attempt to clas- 
 sify them as to local organization impracticable. In some, 
 both township and district control are combined in respect 
 to different though more or less conflicting functions. 
 Nevertheless, there are certain general distinctions apparent. 
 In twelve States the district system predominates, though in 
 most of them the union of districts is legalized. In general 
 this form characterizes the older colonies, or those whose 
 institutions are of the New England cast. The organiza- 
 tion by counties prevails in the South, as it did in the 
 days of Jefferson. In eighteen States, chiefly Western, 
 the township is the unit in most civil affairs, education 
 included. 
 
 Not until 1856 were " school societies " and parish educa- 
 tional corporations abolished in Connecticut, and many years 
 later the union of districts authorized. In Massachusetts the
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 101 
 
 change occurred less than twenty years ago, and in Rhode 
 Island soon after. In the reorganization of schools during 
 the middle of the century, while this change came after 
 State management and supervision, and partly as a result of 
 these, it was also in part an outgrowth of causes which led 
 to these, and so exhibits one form of the wide-spread ten- 
 dency of the period toward centralization. 
 
 2. State Supervision. 
 
 The Massachusetts law of 1647, and the Connecticut Code 
 of 1650, were the only successful attempts at systems of edu- 
 cation prior to 1800. Other States had tried: Rhode Island, 
 under John Howland; New York, under Clinton; Penn- 
 sylvania, and, about the same time, Virginia, under Jef- 
 ferson. But in every instance the laws failed of any effi- 
 cient results. 
 
 Of the States named, New ~% ork approached soonest to a 
 working plan. In 1795, Governor George Clinton had rec- 
 ommended the establishment of schools, and an act was 
 passed, one of whose provisions was a supervision by local 
 commissioners and trustees, reporting to the Secretary of 
 State. The act applied, though, to cities and towns only. 
 Seventeen years later (1812) was passed the first act contem- 
 plating a permanent system, and creating the office of 
 "Superintendent of Common Schools." Gideon Hawley 
 received the appointment, holding the office for nine years 
 until it was abolished, the Secretary of State becoming Super- 
 intendent of Schools ex officio. 
 
 Although the first State to move in the matter of State 
 oversight of schools, the legislation of 1821 left New York 
 far behind. Few Secretaries of State gave them any consid- 
 erable attention; the duties of the two offices having no 
 organic, much less any logical connection. Hon. John A. 
 Dix was perhaps an exception. Made Secretary of State 
 in 1838, and so charged with a kind of school auditorship, 
 he gave the system a large place in his thoughts. It was 
 during his term that the District Library act of the State was
 
 102 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 passed. In 1841 the office of deputy-superintendent was cre- 
 ated, and the duties largely turned over to him. With this 
 exception, nothing was done in New York toward State 
 supervision for thirty-three years ; and by the time the office 
 was revived (1854), and the State had set earnestly about 
 the task of developing a system of schools, eighteen oth- 
 er States had already done the like ; among the earliest 
 being Maryland (1823, the office was abolished after two 
 years) ; Vermont, 1827 ; Pennsylvania, 1834 ; Michigan, 
 1836 ; Massachusetts, Kentucky, and Ohio, 1837 (the du- 
 ties in the last being, after three years, in 1840, imposed 
 upon the Secretary of State) ; * and Missouri and Connecti- 
 cut, 1839. 
 
 For a time most States combined the general educational 
 duties with those of officers already provided for. The former 
 were often regarded as nominal only. In the newer States 
 there were few schools, sessions were short, the finances 
 could easily be managed by existing agencies, and, East 
 and West, with few exceptions, the office was subordinated 
 to the current administration. Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylva- 
 nia, Vermont, and Louisiana merged it, as had New York, 
 into that of Secretary of State. In Colorado, the duties were 
 performed by the State Treasurer; in Oregon, for thirteen 
 years, by the Governor. 
 
 The service was not easily set off from that of other 
 administrative agencies, as, in certain States, the office of 
 city and town trustee is not yet; as, for many years also, 
 and now for the smaller places, the city superintendent was 
 only a successful teacher or disciplinarian. And while the 
 chief State school officer is now, usually, one chosen for the 
 place, he is far too often a general student only, a specialist, 
 an ambitious young man or a politician, in place of the 
 practical, educational philosopher and wise organizer, which 
 
 * A very interesting sketch of the " Origin of the Ohio School System" 
 appeared in the " Magazine of Western History " for January, 1888, from 
 the pen of General M. D. Leggett.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 103 
 
 the schools need. In a few instances the Constitutions or 
 school acts require that he be a professional teacher or edu- 
 cator, though the same result is perhaps best attained, if at 
 all, by an educated public sentiment. 
 
 The best State systems are principally what they are 
 through the careful and unbiased administration of more or 
 less imperfect laws by sensible and professionally spirited 
 superintendents and Boards of Education. Not only States 
 but the nation delights to honor the names of Horace Mann 
 and Henry Barnard; Peirce in Michigan, Lewis in Ohio, 
 Mills and Hopkins in Indiana, Burrows in Pennsylvania, 
 and Beers and Northrop in Connecticut, besides more re- 
 cent officers in these and other States. Such wise direct- 
 ors are the hope of the schools. Order and harmony and 
 efficiency come from settled rational law, friction and waste 
 and confusion from aimless unassociated efforts. 
 
 A. MASSACHUSETTS AND HORACE MANN. 
 
 When Massachusetts, in 1837, created a Board of Educa- 
 tion, then were first united into a somewhat related whole the 
 more or less excellent but varied and independent organiza- 
 tions, and a beginning made for a State system. It was 
 this massing of forces, and the hearty co-operation he initi- 
 ated, hi which the work of Horace Mann showed its match- 
 less greatness. " Rarely," it has been said, " have great abil- 
 ity, unselfish devotion, and brilliant success, been so united 
 in the course of a single life." A successful lawyer, a mem- 
 ber of the State Legislature, and with but limited experi- 
 ence as a teacher, he has left his impress upon the educa- 
 tional sentiments of, not only New England, but the United 
 States. 
 
 At the time named (1837), Mr. Mann was President of the 
 State Senate, a position which he resigned to accept the sec- 
 retaryship of the new board ; withdrawing from financially 
 paying professional and business engagements, abstracting 
 himself from political parties, that he might in singleness of 
 aim do the best things in the line of duty, with timely need.
 
 104 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 He entered upon his duties in Juno * of that year, and, for 
 the rest of his life, was known as an educator. The office 
 was no sinecure. The gnarls of a century's growth were 
 to be smoothed; not all of the large number of private 
 schools were in accord with the new movement, and the 
 churches were naturally watchful of the encroachments of 
 unsectarian education. Incompetent teachers were fear- 
 ful, politicians carped, and general conservatism hindered. 
 Much was to be accomplished, also, within the school. 
 Teachers had to be improved, interest awakened, methods 
 ration alized, and the whole adjusted to the available re- 
 sources. Moreover, school architecture had to be studied ; 
 school-funds must be found, regularly provided and hus- 
 banded, and legislators instructed. All this and more Mr. 
 Mann did. It was at the beginning of his administration, 
 and by his wise counsels and persistent pleadings, that 
 the system of normal schools was originated. The annual 
 appropriation for schools was doubled ; two million dollars 
 expended on houses and furniture; the number of women 
 teachers increased ; institutes introduced and systematized ; 
 school libraries multiplied ; education provided for the de- 
 pendent, and young offending classes, and the first compul- 
 sory law of the State enacted. His volume of lectures and 
 twelve annual reports are already teachers' classics.! 
 
 B. CONNECTICUT AND HENRY BARNARD. 
 
 The securing of general control in two other New Eng- 
 land States also, is so important, because of the comprehen- 
 sive benefits resulting to education, and the wisdom and 
 magnanimity which brought them about, as to call for spe- 
 cial notice. 
 
 * Rev. John D. Peirce, eleven months before, had become Superintend- 
 ent of the Public Schools of Michigan. 
 
 t For an exhibit of the present Massachusetts school system, see special 
 report by the Bureau of Education on the Educational Conference at 
 the New Orleans Exposition, Part II, p. 130.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 105 
 
 At the time when Mr. Mann resigned his seat in the 
 Massachusetts Senate (1837), Mr. Henry Barnard, a young 
 man of twenty-six, a lawyer, and recently returned from two 
 years of European travel, was elected to the Connecticut Leg- 
 islature. He originated, and in less than a year had carried 
 through the Assembly, an act for the control of the common 
 schools, under which the "State Board of Commission- 
 ers" was organized. Mr. Barnard was made its first sec- 
 retary. His duties were to gather and disseminate infor- 
 mation, and to discover, devise, and recommend plans of 
 improvement. 
 
 His first report, in 1839, was a graphic and painstaking 
 exposition and summary of the local and general condition 
 of the Connecticut schools. No point of failure seemed to 
 escape his criticism, no success his commendation. Horace 
 Mann said of him : " No better man for carrying out the Con- 
 necticut measures of reform could be found." He devoted to 
 them both time and means. This first report made some 
 startling revelations, and emphasized the need of an effi- 
 cient general inspection of local schools. The twelve thou- 
 sand pupils in private schools cost more than was expended 
 for the forty thousand in public schools with equally good 
 instruction. Primary children were neglected in both; 
 there was almost no gradation of schools ; public money had 
 been misappropriated ; and, while in the cities and populous 
 districts Connecticut was doing as well as other parts of New 
 England, progress over the State was represented as very un- 
 equal. The influence of Mr. Barnard and his coadjutors 
 was soon felt. Much and most valuable information was 
 diffused through lectures, periodicals, and tracts. Teachers 
 were awakened, associations for mutual improvement were 
 formed. In the fall of 1839, was called at Hartford one of 
 the first teachers' classes in this country. He established an 
 educational periodical as a vehicle of official and current 
 educational information, which together with the institute 
 of teachers, was made a private enterprise wholly at the ex- 
 pense of Mr. Barnard.
 
 106 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Suddenly, in an evil hour, and seemingly without occa- 
 sion, the board was abolished, and the wholesome laws re- 
 pealed (1842). The only vestige of the office remaining was 
 that of the commissioner of the school-fund, who was, ex 
 officio, a nominal superintendent for seven years.* In the 
 year 1849, Mr. Barnard being made principal of the newly 
 founded State Normal School at New Britain, was also by 
 legal provision Superintendent of Common Schools, both 
 of which positions he held for six years. In the year 1865, 
 the State Board was reconstituted, and Mr. D. C. Oilman t 
 was made its first secretary. 
 
 C. RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 One year after the repeal of the Connecticut law and his 
 retirement, Mr. Barnard was invited to Rhode Island, to 
 assist in devising plans for the organization of schools hi 
 that State. For sixteen years there had been in force a 
 permissive law, but indifferently accepted and inefficient. 
 There were many private schools and expensive. The pub- 
 lic terms were short, and the work was without system. A 
 bill was drawn up largely at his dictation, submitted to the 
 Legislature, passed unanimously by both Houses, and Mr. 
 Barnard, before he could leave the State, was invited to be- 
 come " Commissioner of Public Schools " in Rhode Island. 
 He accepted, and in December of that year (1843) began a 
 work of six years, in magnitude and detail, in permanency 
 of result and general co-operation, scarcely second to that 
 of Horace Mann in Massachusetts. 
 
 It is not extravagant to say that the services of Mr. Mann 
 in Massachusetts, and Mr. Barnard in Rhode Island and 
 Connecticut, have been the models, in comprehensiveness 
 
 * Mr. Scth Beers became, in 1825, commissioner, and to him belongs 
 much of the credit of preserving and augmenting the school-fund, during 
 a quarter of a century, when the State organization was the most im- 
 perfect. 
 
 t Since President of Johns Hopkins University.
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 107 
 
 and system, and general spirit, of most of the inspec- 
 tion and oversight of State schools in the United States 
 for nearly fifty years. 
 
 D. GENERAL VIEW OP STATE CONTROL. 
 
 Delaware, of all the States, has no superintendent. The 
 last to create the office (1875), after eleven years, the legis- 
 lature repealed the law, and at present the three county 
 superintendents report (nominally) to the Secretary of State. 
 Among the Territories New Mexico has an officer appointed 
 annually to receive the educational reports, hut without 
 supervisory powers. With these exceptions the form of 
 State supervision is universal. Its functions are variously 
 exercised. 
 
 The average official term is a fraction over three years. 
 In fourteen States it is four years. Of these last, eight have 
 established the office in the last two decades ; while but five 
 State enactments in that period have made it two years 
 hinting at a tendency to lengthen the official service. In 
 Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island the appoint- 
 ment is annual, being in the first two a secretaryship in 
 the State Board. As a matter of fact, however, the terms 
 of service in these States have been longer than the average. 
 Uniformity of administration through a fairly established 
 tenure of office is fruitful of good in all departments of edu- 
 cation ; in supervision it is fundamental. 
 
 In most of the States the services of the superintendent 
 are supplemented by a general Board of Education, of which 
 he is, ex officio, a member, and whose two chief functions 
 are the examination of teachers, directly or indirectly, and 
 the management of the State school-funds. Of the thirty- 
 eight States, twenty-three have such boards. Three others 
 Arkansas, New Hampshire, and West Virginia provide 
 bodies corporate for the control of the funds ; and Illinois, 
 Iowa, and Ohio each a Board of Examiners only. In Minne- 
 sota the Board of Commissioners on Preparatory Schools
 
 108 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 is constituted of the Governor of the State, the Superintend- 
 ent of Public Schools, and the President of the University of 
 Minnesota, for the encouragement of higher education in the 
 State. 
 
 The first board organized, so far as known, was that in 
 North Carolina, in the year 1825, under the name of the "Presi- 
 dent and Directors* of the Literary Fund." From this act 
 and the services of this board, dates all that was attempted 
 toward a system of schools in North Carolina prior to 1861. 
 Ten years after the North Carolina law, Missouri instituted 
 a similar organization, to be known as the State Board of 
 Education, f and to consist of the Governor, the Auditor, and 
 the Treasurer of State. Besides these, and the Massachusetts 
 and Connecticut Boards already noticed, the only other State 
 with similar provisions before 1850 was Maine, whose board 
 was abolished six years later, and has not since been re- 
 vived. 
 
 Of the twenty-three State organizations, ten are com- 
 posed chiefly of State officials, and can only be regarded as 
 administrative in a business way. The constitution of the 
 other thirteen is mainly professional, and points to better 
 things. It is certainly a matter of grave importance that, 
 whatever the educational office, persons shall be chosen 
 for their fitness to discharge its functions. If super- 
 visory powers general or local are to justify themselves, 
 they must be administered in the light of the maturest, 
 all-sided educational thought. State control, both corpo- 
 rate and individual, may otherwise be only so much ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 The following table shows not only the date of the first ap- 
 pointment of a superintendent in each State, but in some cases 
 also the successive modifications of the idea of supervision. 
 
 * Consisting of the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, the Speak- 
 ers of the Senate and the House of Commons, and the Treasurer of the 
 State. 
 
 t This was eighteen years before the appointment of a State Superin- 
 tendent.
 
 CENTKALIZING TENDENCIES. 
 
 109 
 
 Slate Sc/iool Control. 
 
 No. 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Supt. 
 
 No. 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Supt. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 New York 
 
 1813 
 
 1821 
 1854 
 1825 
 1827 
 1864 
 1827 
 1833 
 1845 
 1851 
 1856 
 1833 
 1836 
 1837 
 1837 
 1840 
 1853 
 1837 
 1839 
 1841 
 1853 
 1839 
 1841 
 1842 
 1846 
 1858 
 1864 
 1843 
 1845 
 1846 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 33 
 
 Maine 
 
 1846 
 1846 
 1850 
 1857 
 1847 
 1868 
 1849 
 1851 
 1852 
 1852 
 1854 
 1854 
 1858 
 1859 
 1861 
 1866 
 1867 
 1868 
 1868 
 1868 
 1868 
 1869 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1874 
 1875 
 1886 
 
 Secretary of State 
 Superintendent 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Sec. of the County Bd. 
 Superintendent 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Abolished 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Revived . .... 
 
 Revived 
 
 Vermont .... 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 California . 
 
 
 Indiana . . 
 
 Abolished 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Revived 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Pennsylvania .... 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota . . 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Secretary of State 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Superintendent 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Florida 
 
 Secretary of State .... 
 Superintendent. . . 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Iowa 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Abolished 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Revived 
 
 Texas 
 
 Abolished 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Revived 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Abolished 
 
 Made general 
 
 
 
 3. City Supervision. 
 
 Next to some form of State control, as most general 
 and best defined, is that of cities. Now so common that 
 the attempt to maintain a system of schools in any city 
 of large size, without some responsible directive agent, is 
 looked upon as an anomaly, it is easy to forget many 
 seem not to know that the experiment itself is but a gen- 
 eration old. 
 
 In the year 1837, Buffalo (New York), made a city but 
 five years before, with a population of about a thousand, 
 and six school districts, was authorized to appoint a superin- 
 8
 
 HO THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 tendent.* The step appears to have been without precedent 
 in this country. Within two years there were fifteen dis- 
 tricts, a school in each, a central school for the higher Eng- 
 lish branches, and a superintendent. 
 
 About the same time in Rhode Island one Th'bmas W. 
 Dorr, known in history as the leader of the Dorr Rebellion 
 of 1842, was a member of the Providence School Committee 
 and, as chairman, drafted a plan for the more vigorous 
 management and inspection of the town schools. It is 
 claimed that he got his idea from the State and local factory 
 system, whose directors, as in all large industrial enter- 
 prises, select some skillful, trusted, intelligent workman as 
 foreman or superintendent. The plan was adopted in Provi- 
 dence as a similar one had been in Buffalo, and others were 
 later in most enterprising communities. Indeed, from the 
 material standpoint, any objection that may be made to 
 school supervision may be mad6 to foremen and overseers 
 and master-workmen anywhere. Hon. Nathan Bishop was 
 elected to the new position (1839), a place which he honor- 
 ably filled until his promotion twelve years later to a similar 
 one in Boston, where also he had the honor to inaugurate 
 a work so admirably established at Providence. 
 
 In the mean time, however, in other cities and sections, 
 the suggestion was being adopted. The city of New Orleans 
 was incorporated in the year 1804. - Thirty years later, hay- 
 ing about one hundred thousand population, it was set off 
 into three independent municipalities. By State law (1840) 
 they were authorized to establish schools. The second dis- 
 trict organized (1841) with twelve citizens as a board of 
 directors with power to act. Mr. John 'A. Shaw was chosen 
 superintendent. Within three years the enthusiasm was 
 transmitted to the other wards, and the system became (1844) 
 uniform throughout the city. For the same year also Cleve- 
 land, Ohio, specified the secretary of the board as " acting 
 manager of the schools," who served twelve years, when the 
 
 * Stciger's " Cyclopaedia of Education," article " Buffalo."
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. HI 
 
 name was changed to " Superintendent of Schools," and An- 
 drew Friese elected to the office. Springfield, Massachusetts, 
 the year following made the experiment, hut almost immedi- 
 ately adandoned it. Mr. J. N. McJilton was elected superin- 
 tendent of Baltimore, 1849 ; and Nathan Guilford, of Cincin- 
 nati, 1850. This last was by popular vote, though since 1853 
 the office has been filled by appointment of the board. The 
 decade from 1850 to 1860 shows a general reorganization, one 
 of whose elements was the choice of a superintendent. Bos- 
 ton made the change, as has been seen, in 1851, leading to a 
 State law in that year authorizing supervision in towns 
 throughout the State. Under this law Gloucester immedi- 
 ately made an appointment. New York city reorganized 
 the same year, San Francisco and Jersey City in the year 
 1852, Newark and Brooklyn La 1853, and Chicago and St. 
 Louis in 1854. In Jersey City the office was for several years 
 an unsalaried one, and was held by merchants and other 
 business men, the duties being performed, if at all, in a 
 perfunctory manner, and with no public expectation that 
 thought- or time would be put into the service. 
 
 But the most unique city system in this country for many 
 years was that of Philadelphia. Until 1883, it, among all 
 the cities of the United States, was without a superintendent. 
 In the midst of the enthusiasm aroused by the centennial 
 exhibit, leading citizens of the city organized somewhat in- 
 formally, but with capital and enterprise, the " Public Edu- 
 cation Society." Meetings were held, lectures were pro- 
 vided, educational systems and questions were studied, teach- 
 ers were consulted, the papers used, and the city officers and 
 general public educated. Finally, with a school census of 
 one hundred and sixty thousand and a school enrollment 
 of ninety thousand, with twenty-five hundred teachers and 
 more than five hundred schools, the city was asked to pro- 
 vide some effective supervision. The ward committees, the 
 Central Board, and municipal officers, readily consented; 
 and (1883) Superintendent James McAlister, with six asso- 
 ciates, was given the schools in charge to work out a system.
 
 112 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 No one, who would understand the functions and relations 
 of school supervision in the United States, can afford to miss 
 a comparative study of Philadelphia schools in the years be- 
 fore and since 1883. 
 
 From recent reports it appears that of four hundred and 
 seventeen cities, containing five thousand inhabitants or 
 over, but thirty -eight are without superintendents. Among 
 these the duties are nominally performed by some officer of 
 the board, as was the case in the early experiment in Cleve- 
 land, Ohio. 
 
 It would seem as if this phase of centralization, for bring- 
 ing which into New England Horace Mann was severely 
 censured, had become a fixed principle in educational econ- 
 omy. Wisely managed the investments here yield the rich- 
 est of all returns. It is skilled labor that pays best ; next 
 to this must be esteemed skilled oversight of average labor. 
 Three fourths of the teachers of the country at large have 
 had no professional training ; of the others, many have had 
 but little. For years to come, then, it must remain true that, 
 on an administrative basis alone, the success of schools can 
 be predicted only upon the maturest, far-seeing direction. 
 
 But this is only the infant stage of school control ; it 
 is primitive and prudential. It has to do with the acces- 
 sories of school management, whose officers are stewards 
 and keepers. There is a higher stage, in which organization 
 and system, the regulation of the machine, and the general 
 subordination of parts, are themselves seen as means ; and 
 the effect of all this upon the learner, the real object of in- 
 quiry. This phase is interrogative and inductive. Facts 
 must be gathered as data facts of mind, and child-mind ; 
 knowledge of the race and its environments ; observations 
 of men, and institutions and customs, as culture-yielding 
 agencies ; systems of education ; the bearings of science. 
 Out of such study by fearless inquirers, free from the bias of 
 adopted theories, must come, if at all, a science of educa- 
 tion. This is the particular function of a city superintend- 
 ent. Philbrick in Boston, Harris in St. Louis, Pickard in
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES.. 113 
 
 Chicago, and Rickoff in Cincinnati and Cleveland, have each 
 in turn given the schools of their cities distinctive features ; 
 and, what is far more to the purpose of an advisory super- 
 vision, have contributed measurably to the body of the edu- 
 cational doctrine of the present. 
 
 When the superintendent was only a successful teacher 
 or principal promoted, there was unavoidably little philo- 
 sophical study of the problem and conditions of education ; 
 but with the professional aspect of teaching is recognized a 
 demand for educators fitted for supervision and criticism ; 
 for men whose comprehensive training, habits of scientific 
 thinking, a careful and continued study of the historical as- 
 pects of education and its kindred philosophies, entitle them 
 to speak with authority on current questions and in the 
 organization of systems. No one can better render this serv- 
 ice to education than the city superintendents, because under 
 no other circumstances are the opportunities of manifold 
 observation and repeated comparison and verification of 
 pedagogical facts so numerous or available. 
 
 4. County Supervision. 
 
 The need of careful school inspection in rural districts is 
 implied in conceding any supervision. The best school, 
 other things equal, is the most wisely supervised school, of 
 uniform administration and professional direction. No 
 interests need this more than those of the outlying districts, 
 subjected to hindrances peculiar to sparsely settled and 
 widely separated neighborhoods.* 
 
 The earliest attempts at this local supervision were almost 
 wholly confined to the management and investment of 
 funds, the control of school-lands, and the services which 
 concerned the institution as a material organization. As 
 early as 1824 in Missouri, the civil commissioners of the 
 
 * A general discussion of the conditions and possibilities of rural 
 schools may be found in " A Graded School System for Country Schools," 
 by L. S. Wade, 1881. See also " Courses and Methods," by John T. Prince.
 
 114 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 county were required to appoint u visitors to the schools," 
 nine in each district, who were to visit their respective 
 schools once in three months, to examine teachers, grant 
 licenses, and to exercise " general supervisory power." Ten 
 years later, three trustees were made to take the place of the 
 nine visitors, but with like duties. The control was of the 
 district. In Vermont, about 1837, and in Massachusetts the 
 same year, superintending committees of towns (townships) 
 were appointed, with functions similar to those of the select- 
 men in Massachusetts and Connecticut towns a century be- 
 fore. The very literal way in which the duties of these 
 early committees have been adopted by the more recent 
 county supervisors well illustrates the evolution of the 
 office ; it has been in most instances a process of fixing an 
 existing function in fewer hands. In North Carolina also, 
 for many years deficient in execution, but forward among 
 States to recognize and adopt the best current thought on 
 education, the principle of more or less general control of 
 local school affairs was early incorporated into the school 
 law. In the year 1839, counties were directed to divide 
 themselves for educational purposes into six districts, each 
 six miles square, over all of which should be appointed not 
 less than five superintendents ; and for each of whose school 
 corporations should be chosen by the county court not less 
 than three "school committee-men." This provided a more 
 general control than that in Missouri fifteen years before, 
 but it was still of limited districts. The belief was growing 
 that a more centralized administration of schools would 
 conduce to their efficiency. County control (occasionally 
 as noted above, including or implying township or district 
 control) was the next step in the development of school sys- 
 tems. 
 
 In New York, county superintendents were authorized by 
 the law of 1841; their chief function being, however, con- 
 fined to hearing appeals from local officers. There was no 
 attempt at even advisory control. The law was repealed six 
 years later, and before its revival in the act of 1856, creating
 
 CENTRALIZING TENDENCIES. 115 
 
 the district commissioner's office, four other States had tried, 
 and proved the efficiency of the plan. California's first law 
 incorporated it, and Pennsylvania, always fearful of central- 
 ized authority, seemed (1884) wholly to forget her past, or to 
 read it more wisely, and abolishing sub-district committees, 
 introduced county control, uniformity of text-books, and a 
 minimum school term. Michigan (1867) adopted the county 
 system, but after eight years' trial abolished it, and now 
 maintains township school inspectors, who report to the 
 secretary of the County Board of Examiners, the county 
 clerk acting as the local agent of the State in financial 
 affairs. 
 
 Taking county supervision as a general term, including 
 all forms of local direction, narrower than the State, and out- 
 side of cities, there appears much diversity. In seven States, 
 comprising Michigan, and all of New England, it becomes 
 township supervision. In Arkansas, North Carolina, and 
 Texas, it is almost entirely of the district ; with the two com- 
 bined in Louisiana, Mississippi, and West Virginia. Alto- 
 gether, thirty States and five Territories have a fairly well- 
 defined county organization. 
 
 The diversity in the modes of selecting the supervising 
 officer, especially county superintendents is striking. In one 
 State only, Alabama, they are appointed by the State Super- 
 intendent, for a term of two years ; in Delaware and Florida, 
 by the Governor; in Mississippi, New Jersey, and Virginia, 
 by the State Board. The County Board elects in Georgia, 
 Maryland, North Carolina, and Indiana ; the school directors 
 in Pennsylvania ; and the town (township) superintendents 
 in Vermont. In thirteen States the office is subject to gen- 
 eral election ; these are California, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, 
 Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, Oregon, 
 South Carolina, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. In account- 
 ing for this diversity, something must be ascribed to differing 
 social and political conditions, something to official inher- 
 itances, but far more to an imperfect understanding of the 
 means and resources of real education.
 
 HO THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 In most States one of the duties of the office is to visit 
 schools, though this is not universal hy any means. Why 
 it should not be is difficult to say. Less than this makes 
 a business office only. If supervising schools means any- 
 thing, it implies familiarity with the management within 
 the room, methods, discipline, and the means and character 
 of instruction. It means counsel and criticism. Less than 
 this may be needful as precautionary and economic meas- 
 ures ; but these are in no sense professional, and contribute 
 only indirectly to the school as an agency of culture. 
 
 Another duty usually assigned to the local supervisor is 
 that of examining and licensing teachers. This, indeed, has 
 been one of the functions of school inspectors for two hun- 
 dred years. In twenty of the States, of very unlike organi- 
 zation, the offices of supervisor and examiner rest in the 
 same person. Whether this is well, has been questioned; 
 but the practice widely prevails. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 "School Supervision," by W. H. Payne; "School Inspection," by 
 D. R. Fearon, 1876; the "Supervision of Schools,'' in "Proceedings 
 of National Educational Association," 1887, p. 612; "Supervision of 
 Schools in Massachesetts," by A. D. Mayo, " Unitarian Review," vol. vii, 
 p. 400 ; " City School Systems of the United States," by J. D. Philbrick, 
 published by the United States Bureau of Education as Circular 1 1885 ; 
 " City Supervision," by R. W. Stevenson, in " Proceedings of National 
 Educational Association," 1884, p. 283, also " Proceedings of the National 
 Council of Education," 1884, p. 26 ; and the Annual reports of Dr. W. T. 
 Harris, St. Louis, 1867-'79. The "Inspection of Country Schools," by 
 J. D. Philbrick, in " American Social Science Journal," vol. ii, p. 1 1 ; 
 and, in general, "The School, its Rights and Duties," by J. H.-Hoosc, in 
 " Proceedings of National Educational Association," 1876, p. 167. See 
 "Life of Horace Mann," by Mrs. Mary Mann (1881), and his collected 
 " Lectures and Reports," 1872.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 THE changes already noted as accompanying the educa- 
 tional awakening were administrative. The transformation 
 on the professional side, in the school course, the teacher, 
 the objects and character of discipline, etc., was not less 
 complete. The administrative function preceded, not he- 
 cause it must logically, the changed function of the school 
 should work out its own adapted organization but because 
 the former want, being professional and technical, was not 
 generally recognized. A few men fifty years ago, fewer 
 yet ten years earlier, saw both the need and the remedy; 
 crudely it may be, and vaguely, but well in advance of the 
 common mind. From then' lectures and addresses and ser- 
 mons, their books, the classes they taught, and their persist- 
 ent influence on public and legislative sentiment, have de- 
 veloped, not only normal schools, but the earlier occasional 
 classes, institutes, associations, journals, etc. 
 
 It is a large interest and, from the pedagogical standpoint, 
 of the first importance.* 
 
 1. Educational Associations. 
 
 The principle of co-operation is fundamental in a repub- 
 lic ; it is the soul of both its individual and institutional lif e. 
 Social friction and the free interchange of experience pre- 
 suppose a degree of equality ; and equality, in turn, incites 
 to combination. The individual is strong in proportion as 
 he takes to himself the experience of all; each is increased 
 as he gives to all. 
 
 Societies, then combinations of individuals founded upon 
 a like interest, looking to the accomplishment of the same 
 
 * " Good teachers," said Dr. Philbrick, " and what next? There is no 
 next."
 
 118 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 object, and that a general good are in consonance with the 
 organic law of our government. In a sketch of the people's 
 culture, to leave out of view their organization, and the joint 
 services of individuals, would be to miss a powerful agent in 
 the upbuilding of our national life. Associations may be 
 classified, according to their objects, as 
 
 1. Those looking to the general good, through the estab- 
 lishment and efficient administration of institutions and or- 
 ganizations. 
 
 2. Those whose purpose is the promotion of professional 
 or class interests. 
 
 3. Those organized to investigate, discover, invent; to 
 add to the sum of human knowledge. 
 
 To the first belong missionary organizations, school and 
 manumission societies, and political parties. It includes 
 most organized effort, indeed, as lecture associations, village 
 improvement societies, temperance and other reforms, etc. 
 It is a potent agency, and, well used, one of the most fruitful 
 means of progress. With the second may be classed profes- 
 sional associations, conventions made permanent, industrial 
 guilds, fraternities, and sects. Philosophical and scientific 
 societies are representative of the last, and form a large 
 class. A consideration of such of these, in so far as they 
 are educational from the school or professional side, is the 
 aim of this section. The consideration of the third class 
 will be left mainly to a subsequent paragraph. 
 
 A. SOCIETIES FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 To one who is familiar with the current governmental 
 administration of schools only, the recital of how large a 
 part in education voluntary association played fifty years 
 ago in this country, must seem an exaggeration. It built up 
 schools, and supplied houses, and found and prepared teach- 
 ers ; it manipulated parties and draughted laws ; it formed 
 public opinion, and initiated reforms. Whatever was best 
 done in New York and Pennsylvania, in Rhode Island and 
 the South, and especially in the newer States of the North
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. H9 
 
 and West, in Ohio and Indiana and Kentucky, was the 
 work of organized societies. The earlier habit of Massa- 
 chusetts and Connecticut is in this respect in strong contrast 
 with that of other colonies and States, and even with their 
 own later history. 
 
 Ehode Island had no attempt at a school system until 
 the Mechanics' Institute of Providence took it in hand. In 
 New York city, the " Free School Society " established the 
 first permanent schools (1805), and through the law of 1812 
 secured the present system. The Philadelphia Society for 
 the Support of Charity Schools (1790) was the prime mover 
 in all the important school legislation, not only of Philadel- 
 phia but of Pennsylvania, for forty years. 
 
 Of a like general nature, but of broader field, was the Col- 
 lege Society formed at Yale, 1829, to assist collegiate and 
 theological students in the West. Illinois College, at Jack- 
 sonville, was founded and for many years supported by it. 
 The Western Baptist Educational Association organized a 
 little later '' for the promotion of schools and education 
 generally in the valley of the Mississippi," sent teachers to 
 both Indiana and Illinois ; and ten years after (1844) a 
 society, formed and controlled under the counsel of Miss 
 Catherine E. Beecher, the Board of National Popular Edu- 
 cation, sent West not less than five hundred teachers, sev- 
 eral of whom became eminently successful and widely 
 known. 
 
 About the same time was another organization * whose 
 services deserve mention, for it operated in half a dozen 
 States, and aided twice as many colleges that must otherwise 
 have succumbed to misfortune. Nowhere were the finan- 
 cial reverses of 18B7-'42 more seriously felt than in the then 
 new West ; and by no institutions more than by the col- 
 leges and schools. Twenty institutions for superior instruc- 
 tion had been founded in Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana ? 
 Ohio, and Kentucky, hi the fifteen years after 1825. Not 
 
 * The "Western College Society.
 
 120 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 one of them was endowed, few had even a moderate support 
 at best, and, as the little property they held was chiefly in 
 unimproved laud, it was unproductive. It seemed, as if 
 numbers of these colleges must surrender their charters. 
 Most of them, of course, were denominational, and in 1843, 
 delegates of churches representing Wabash, Illinois, Mari- 
 etta, and Western Reserve Colleges, and Lane Theological 
 Seminary, met representatives of Eastern churches to confer 
 on the state of Western education. The heavy losses of 
 these institutions (approximating two hundred, thousand 
 dollars), already greatly aided by the East, were strong ap- 
 peals for renewed help. An organization was effected, un- 
 der the name of the Western College Society, "to afford 
 assistance in such manner and so long only as, in the 
 judgment of the directors, the exigencies of the institutions 
 may demand." Besides the five colleges first aided, nine 
 others received help at various times in thirty years. More 
 than half a million dollars were contributed at the East, and 
 twice as much in the West, to promote the objects of this 
 management. Half the institutions became independent 
 before 1860, and the others soon after. The Western Col- 
 lege Society did an eminent service. 
 
 B. SOCIETIES FOU THE IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Supplementing these general endeavors, sometimes fol- 
 lowing them, were special organizations of teachers for mu- 
 tual improvement and professional advancement. Mem- 
 bers of the first class (A) were frequently not teachers, but 
 business men, lawyers, public officers, and especially the 
 clergy. The second class was composed of teachers. Indeed, 
 membership in the profession was, at first, a condition of 
 membership in the association. These were local and, 
 largely, expedients. They were at once a product and a 
 sign of the awakening interest in education and educational 
 institutions in the third and fourth decades of the century. 
 Reference has been found to but one earlier.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 121 
 
 The Middlesex County School Association of Massachu- 
 setts was in existence in 1799. A generation later, Essex 
 County formed a like society, and, among States, Florida, 
 followed by the Utica Convention of " teachers and friends 
 of education " in New York. About the same time (1829), in 
 Cincinnati, was organized, under the lead of Albert Picket, 
 the " Western Academic Institute and Board of Education," 
 merged three years later in the '' Western Literary Institute 
 and College of Professional Teachers," which for ten years 
 was almost the one regenerative agency in Ohio education.* 
 It sought to promote, by every laudable means, the diffusion 
 of knowledge in regard to education, and especially by the 
 elevation of the character and qualifications of the teachers. 
 Among the members were Lyman Beecher, Prof. C. E. Stowe, 
 B. O. Peers, and Samuel Lewis. Money was contributed, 
 and a school agent appointed to visit the schools of the State. 
 This was an attempt at a general supervision ten years before 
 the first State Superintendent. Ladies were not admitted as 
 members; though Mrs. L. H. Sigourney (1836), and again 
 Mrs. Emma Willard, were allowed to submit papers on 
 female education, which were read by men. 
 
 The work of these societies, and of such men and women 
 in behalf of education at the West, was having its effect. 
 Associations of teachers were held in Kentucky, Georgia, 
 Tennessee, Illinois, and Michigan prior to 1840. The State 
 Associations of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island 
 were all organized in 1845, and still exist. Established later 
 (1863), but of the same class of State organizations, is the 
 " University Convocation of the State of New York," than 
 which perhaps no State Association has performed a more 
 eminent and lasting service for good. It concerns sec- 
 ondary and collegiate interests chiefly, and admits : 1. Mem- 
 bers of the Board of Pvegents. 2. Instructors in colleges, 
 
 * At the second meeting occurred Thomas S. Grimke's arraignment of 
 the classics and mathematics, as subjects of study, and his enthusiastic 
 commendation of science.
 
 122 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 normal schools, academies, and other institutions under 
 the care of the regents and their trustees. 3. The presi- 
 dent, vice-presidents, and secretaries of the New York State 
 Teachers' Association. In 1867 representatives of colleges 
 in other States were invited to membership.* 
 
 The " Northwestern Educational Association " originated 
 in a teachers' institute held in Chicago 1846. Nine States 
 were represented. It marked an era in Western school ex- 
 perience, consolidating the interests of these States. They 
 were compacted into a section. What was best anywhere, 
 the sooner became common property. ' Free schools, grada- 
 tion, teachers' seminaries, institutes, State appropriations, 
 and supervision, were all made easier by the common recom- 
 mendation and support. 
 
 The earliest settled, New England preceded most other 
 sections in professional agencies. Almost a score of years 
 before the association last named, the " American Institute 
 of Instruction " was organized in Boston. It was incorpo- 
 rated (1831) " for the diffusion of useful knowledge in regard 
 to education." In its earlier meetings, and regularly for 
 many years, were Goold Brown, Warren Colburn, Judge 
 Story, Horace Mann, D. P. Page, Denison Olmsted, and 
 Bishop Huntington. Charles Northend talked on "Com- 
 mon Schools," and Hermann Kriisi told the story of Pesta- 
 lozzi. It was a veritable teachers' school, when such were 
 few. While its meetings have been chiefly confined to New 
 England, its influences were long general, and for thirty 
 years it was the only recognized national organization. 
 
 Out of this, perhaps urged by the apparent insufficiency 
 of it, grew the " National Educational Association." Its gen- 
 eral purposes were set forth in the first inaugural address of 
 President Richards, 1858, as : 1. The union of all sections in 
 friendly associated action. 2. The creation of a teaching 
 
 * A history and resume of the work of the Convocation since its organi- 
 zation may be found in the " Historical and Statistical Eecord of the 
 University of the State of New York, 1885," pp. 789-834.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 123 
 
 profession, by professional methods. 3. The accrediting of 
 teachers by proper examining boards. 4. The establishment 
 of departments of pedagogics in connection with all schools 
 which send out persons to teach. In thirty years the work 
 of the association has been much specialized, and doubtless 
 to advantage. Besides the general body, there are now nine 
 departments : 1. School Superintendence. 2. Higher In- 
 struction. 3. Normal Schools. 4. Industrial Education. 
 5. Art Education. 6. Music Education. 7. Kindergarten 
 Instruction. 8. Elementary Schools. 9. Secondary Instruc- 
 tion. Besides these also is the "Council of Education," a 
 deliberative body whose members are chosen from the gen- 
 eral association. This was organized in 1881, having for its 
 object " to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educa- 
 tional questions." It has standing committees as follows : 
 
 1. On State School Systems. 7. On Technical Education. 
 
 2. On City School Systems. 8. On Pedagogics. 
 
 3. On Higher Education. 9. On Education of Girls. 
 
 4. On Secondary Education. 10. On Hygiene in Education. 
 
 5. On Elementary Education. 11. On Educational Literature. 
 
 6. On Normal Education. 12. On Educational Statistics. 
 
 The modern Industrial and Scientific Exposition also has 
 come to be utilized as the occasion for conference on edu- 
 cational questions. 
 
 2. Institutes. 
 
 Somewhat more specific in aim than the associations and 
 conferences, but more general than normal schools, is the 
 " Institute." This has been characterized * as a peculiarly 
 American institution. Yet to an American it is not easy to 
 formulate the sufficient distinction between it and other 
 agencies for the training of teachers. Its function varies in 
 different States. It is all things to all sections. An eclectic 
 agency, it supplements the normal school with something 
 
 * Francis Adams, " Free School System of the United States," p. 65.
 
 124 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 of the function of the annual conference, but, more frequent 
 and local, is also more personal.* Under present conditions 
 with few institutions for formal training, and three hundred 
 thousand teachers, uncertain employment and temporary, 
 and an unsettled professional code, it must long remain that 
 these, and every contributing means, will be needed for the 
 better fitting of teachers. 
 
 As early as 1834 an institute was reported to the " Col- 
 lege of Teachers," as held in one of the counties in Ohio ; 
 and, in the same year, perhaps, one assembled in Boston for 
 the instruction of teachers of music. Five years later, and 
 just prior to the first State normal schools, Mr. Barnard, 
 then School Commissioner of Connecticut, called his teachers 
 together at Hartford, and again in the spring of the following 
 year. These gatherings were at his own expense, and enrolled 
 twenty to thirty teachers, with a faculty of seven instructors, f 
 
 The first institute, so named, was held in Tompkins 
 County, New York, by Superintendent J. S. Denman, 1843. 
 It continued two weeks, under the instruction of Hon. Salem 
 Town, and was, says the school report for that year, u a 
 revelation of the large sphere of this new agent in school 
 improvement." Two years afterward, the State reported 
 institutes in seventeen counties. They were introduced into 
 Rhode Island in 1844, and into Ohio, Michigan, and Massa- 
 chusetts the next year. In certain States they began to re- 
 ceive financial aid, and so became a part of the general sys- 
 tem. Before 1850 they were common in a dozen States, and 
 reached hundreds of teachers who must otherwise have had 
 no reliable professional training. 
 
 There are now J State and district organizations main- 
 
 * Prof. Payne has described it as a " normal school with a very short 
 course of study." 
 
 t Among them, besides Mr. Barnard, were Prof. Charles Davies and 
 Ecv. T. H. Gallaudet. 
 
 t For a very complete exhibit of "Teachers' Institutes," sec " Bureau 
 Circular of Information," No. 2, 1885, prepared by Hon. J. II. Smart, of 
 Indiana.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 125 
 
 tained in Alabama (for colored teachers), Arkansas, Florida, 
 Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New York, North Caro- 
 lina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, and West Vir- 
 ginia ; and county institutes in half of the States. Twelve 
 States Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, 
 Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, Ore- 
 gon, and Tennessee report neither, regularly held. Sixteen 
 make State appropriations in their aid, and six, county ap- 
 propriations. 
 
 In seven States California, Maryland, Nebraska, New 
 Jersey, North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia attend- 
 ance is compulsory. It is estimated that not less than one 
 hundred and fifty thousand teachers receive annually, an 
 average of six days' instruction by means of these State and 
 local institutes. 
 
 In addition to these also, are those in cities, more or less 
 regularly held, generally under the direction of the superin- 
 tendent, and, in the larger cities, set off into sections, each 
 doing the particular work of its department. Of ninety-six 
 cities reporting teachers' meetings, forty-four make attend- 
 ance upon them compulsory. Some of them have informal 
 courses, which, pursued for successive years, would do credit 
 to many a so-called normal school. Almost no agency, ex- 
 cepting a formal and established course of training, can do 
 so much for the right guidance of the teacher, the sharpen- 
 ing of her understanding, and the full rounding of her pro- 
 fessional character, as the frequent meeting, under wise 
 direction, of a body of teachers in daily co-operation a^id 
 
 intercourse. 
 
 3. Normal Schools. 
 
 From the earliest times, the fitness of the teacher has 
 been held as one condition of the learner's advancement. 
 Adaptation to the work of instruction is one measure of the 
 best service. Not knowledge alone, nor maturity, nor a 
 faithful conscience, can excuse inaptitude and want of skill 
 in address and presentation. " The art of well delivering 
 the knowledge we possess," said Lord Bacon, " is among the 
 9
 
 126 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 secrets left to be discovered by future generations." This 
 " delivering the knowledge we possess " has since been de- 
 veloped into a system, whose like even the fertile mind of 
 Bacon, but dimly perceived. There has come to be among 
 every civilized people a more or less specialized class, whose 
 business it is to instruct, and whose preparation is the work 
 of a particular institution. 
 
 That it was not always so that it is, indeed, of compara- 
 tively recent times needs only to be mentioned. Harvard 
 had been founded fifty years before the first known teach- 
 ers' seminary ; the school systems of New England were in 
 operation; and Mr. Cheever, now an old man, had been 
 himself the most famous master of his time, and had edu- 
 cated many others. The teacher then, and long since, was 
 himself only the best instructed ; now he was the parent, 
 and then the pastor; here, the young man fitted or fitting 
 for the professions, and so possessed of a real or supposed 
 superiority among his fellows ; there, again, he was any one 
 whose leisure or inclinations led him to choose this as a 
 business. 
 
 But, along with other social and economic interests, 
 teaching, in its vital importance, worked a specialization of 
 institution an organization adapted to the new function. 
 
 A. ITS EUROPEAN ORIGIN. 
 
 As with many another institution, so with this, it had 
 its genesis in the older civilization and more closely discrimi- 
 nated social interests of Europe. 
 
 The earliest school of the kind of which record is had 
 was that founded at Rheims (1681) by the Abbe de la Salle.* 
 This developed, three years later, into the now famous 
 Christian Brothers' School, and became widely influential. 
 By Hermann August Francke, the distinguished German 
 
 * A man of progressive, modern thought, he introduced, besides nor- 
 mal schools, gradation, and object-lessons, aiid established industrial 
 schools, polytechnic institutes and reformatories.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 127 
 
 educator, and Johann Julius Hecker, his follower, it was in- 
 troduced into Germany by the latter into Berlin (1748). 
 Before the century closed, Prussia had six normal schools, 
 and became the center from which radiated the professional 
 spirit to other European systems and to the United States. 
 
 B. BEGINNINGS OF THE IDEA IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 As early as 1789 Elisha Ticknor had urged, in the " Mas- 
 sachusetts Magazine," that steps be taken for the improve- 
 ment of education and the common intelligence, and to this 
 end recommended the establishment of a system of " county 
 schools to fit young gentlemen for college and school-keep- 
 ing." It was claimed by Noah Webster also, about the 
 same time, that " the principal defect in the plan of educa- 
 tion, in America, was the want of good teachers in the 
 academies and common schools." Without doubt these 
 were the expressions of a common feeling, whose develop- 
 ment and realization belong to the present century. 
 
 (1.) Lancastcrianism. 
 
 The monitorial system of instruction, originated in 1797, 
 by Dr. Andrew Bell, and elaborated and promoted by Jo- 
 seph Lancaster, was early introduced into the schools of the 
 United States.* Ten years before Lancaster visited this 
 country, the method had gained a foothold in half a dozen 
 States a ground which it held for half a century in New 
 York and Philadelphia, and in Maryland and elsewhere 
 even longer. 
 
 As early as 1810 the Public School Society of New York 
 city, employing the system, opened a school for female moni- 
 tors, and six years later a similar one for males. By invi- 
 tation of this society, Mr. Lancaster, on his tour through the 
 States (1818), lectured in New York, and so impressed his 
 hearers with the efficiency of his system that leading edu- 
 
 * See Gill's " Systems of Education," p. 162, and " History of the Ele- 
 mentary School Contest in England," by F. Adams, p. 48.
 
 128 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 cators regarded it as marking a new era in education. 
 Though falling short of the early claims for it, its history 
 in this country exhibits one phase of the development of 
 teachers' training that can not be ignored. 
 
 (2.) Early Promoters of the Normal Schools.* 
 
 There were as yet no very definite ideas as to the system- 
 atic and thorough training of teachers. Lancasterianism 
 was only a device, at best, for the crudest of information- 
 giving. Schools were at a low ebb and instruction me- 
 diocre. Nevertheless, forces were shaping themselves for 
 the greatest educational event of the century. 
 
 Upon taking his master's degree at Yale, 1816, Denison 
 Olmsted read a thesis on " The State of Education in Con- 
 necticut," in which he elaborated a plan of an " Academy 
 for Schoolmasters." In New York, since 1787, the incorpo- 
 rated academies, along with the colleges, had been under the 
 supervision of the Regents of the University. About 1821 
 the State making an annual appropriation to such of the 
 academies as were judged worthy, they came to be looked 
 to for a supply of teachers for the common schools, this 
 being made the basis, two years later, of a claim for a 
 generous distribution of funds. Almost simultaneously, 
 William Russell, of Massachusetts, and W. R. Johnson, 
 of Pennsylvania,, Rev. Thomas Gallaudet, of Connecticut, 
 and Dr. Philip Lindsley, of New Jersey, all submitted, each 
 unknown to the others, petitions and plans for teachers' 
 preparatory schools. 
 
 Previously, however, Prof. S. R. Hall, of New Hamp- 
 shire, minister, teacher, and writer, called to a church at 
 Concord, in that State, accepted the invitation, on condition 
 that he be allowed to open a " teachers' school. " Here, in 
 the year 1823, he opened a private seminary, chiefly for 
 those who would teach, but admitting a class of children, 
 
 * The " American Journal of Education" is full of information touch- 
 ing the rise of teachers' seminaries, especially vols. ii, iii, and v.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 129 
 
 which he used, in instruction and discipline, as a model and 
 practice school. In this village, away from libraries and 
 great teachers and the universities, were first delivered the 
 talks and lessons which, published in 1829, as " Lectures on 
 School-keeping," were spread broadcast through New Eng- 
 land and the central States. He continued in this school 
 seven years. From 1830 to 1837 he was at Andover, and tho 
 next three years at Plymouth, New Hampshire, at both of 
 which places he was principal of the only established teach- 
 ers' seminaries outside of New York, until the Massachu- 
 setts Normal School was founded in 1839. At Andover 
 the "Normal Department" had a three years' course, 
 including fifty lectures on the "Art of Teaching." At 
 Plymouth, during the year when Massachusetts got her 
 first normal school, it had two hundred and fifty students, 
 and was furnishing teachers for all the adjoining towns. 
 Mr. Hall is the American Hecker the pioneer in the work 
 which most distinguishes recent from early schooling in 
 the United States.* 
 
 (3.) Acquaintance with European Systems. 
 
 Another efficient influence of the period was the spread- 
 ing of a knowledge of German and other foreign schools. 
 Rev. Charles Brooks, visiting Europe, in 1834, became ac- 
 quainted, through friends, with the Prussian system, and 
 especially with their training of teachers. Returning in 
 1835, he urged the establishment of normal schools in this 
 country, enforcing the need and the advantage by a vigor- 
 ous exposition of Prussian teaching ; lectured in every New 
 England State, in New York and Pennsylvania, and ad- 
 dressed the Legislatures of most of them. Prof. A. D. Bache, 
 President of Girard College, also went abroad (1836) on a 
 
 * Mr. Hall was the author of a number of school-books, some of which 
 were much used in their day a " Child's Geography," a " School Arith- 
 metic," the " Grammatical Assistant," and a " School History of the United 
 States," besides a volume of " Lectures to Female Teachers."
 
 130 TIIE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 professional tour, visiting and inspecting the schools of 
 England, Scotland, Germany, Holland, Switzerland, France, 
 and Italy ; and upon his return published a volume of 
 six hundred pages on ''European Educational Institu- 
 tions," Chapter IX of which, "Seminaries for the Educa- 
 tion of Teachers for Primary Schools," is especially valu- 
 able, and was then most timely, as characterizing the train- 
 ing system of the principal European countries. Prof. 
 Calvin E. Stowe had recently returned from a similar 
 visit to those countries, and his report to the Ohio Legis- 
 lature, on the ''Elementary Schools of Europe," set new 
 standards for the "West. 
 
 Later, the studies of Mann and Barnard and Gallaudet 
 in the same schools, added to the contributions, and made 
 the improvement of American teaching an easier task. 
 Events were shaping themselves with more defmiteness. 
 Grimke, of South Carolina, Pickett and Lewis, of Ohio, 
 Emerson, of Massachusetts, Gallaudet, of Connecticut, John- 
 son, of Pennsylvania, and Clinton, of New York, were fixing 
 public sentiment in their respective States.* 
 
 C. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 But the one man to whom, more than to any other, must 
 be credited the permanent public normal school, and the 
 systematic training of teachers, is the Rev. James G. Carter. 
 All other service was good ; beside his it was occasional, or 
 an expedient, and, at best, suggestive. Prof. Emerson calls 
 him the " Father of Normal Schools." Born in the last 
 century, he graduated at Harvard, 1820, and at once began 
 writing upon education. In 1824 he published " Essays on 
 
 * In March, 1834, there was opened the Indiana Teachers' Seminary, 
 one express design of whose founding was, in the words of the trustees, "a 
 provision for the qualification of school-teachers' ; and three years later 
 there was formed in Maine the " Teachers' Association of Bowdoin Col- 
 lege," composed of students, and which was, in all but name, a teachers' 
 class, or club.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Popular Education " ; and two years later a second volume, 
 including an elaborated plan * for the education of teachers. 
 The same year he memorialized the Massachusetts Legisla- 
 ture on the subject of teachers' seminaries, and addressed 
 the American Institute of Instruction at its first meeting 
 (1829), on "Raising the Qualifications of Teachers." Mr. 
 Carter's greatest work, however, was done as a member of 
 the State Legislature after 1835. He was usually on the 
 Educational Committee, and for a time its chairman. In 
 1837 he sought to divert the State's share of the sur- 
 plus revenue to the uses of education, but failed. He 
 draughted the bill providing for the State Board of Edu- 
 cation, and was the one man within the Legislature to 
 whose exertions and speeches was due the passage of the 
 Normal School Act of 1838. 
 
 (-1.) Massachusetts. 
 
 Next to Mr. Carter, the establishment of the Massachu- 
 setts Normal School was due to Mr. Edmund Dwight, who 
 offered ten thousand dollars toward it, provided the State 
 would give a like sum. As so frequently happens, the gen- 
 eral advancement was due to the benevolence and enterprise 
 of individual interest. The school was opened (1839) at Lex- 
 ington (afterward removed to Framingham), with Cyrus 
 Peirce as principal. Women only were to be admitted, and 
 three pupils entered. The number increased, however, and 
 the same year, later, another school was opened at Barre, 
 (now at Westfield), to both sexes. The year following 
 another was established at Bridgewater. 
 
 That there was not perfect confidence in normal training, 
 though, is apparent from the action of the Boston School 
 Committee. It was recommended that a suitable person be 
 employed to visit the schools of the city, confer with the 
 teachers, and " to instruct and qualify a class preparing to 
 
 * This was reviewed in the " North American Review," May, 1827.
 
 132 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 teach.."* The committee made two objections : 1. Such in- 
 struction would "lead to repeated experiments of new 
 methods, and so tend to disorganization." 2. "It would les- 
 sen the respect of pupils for their teachers, when it should 
 be found that, like themselves, they were the subjects of in- 
 struction.''! 
 
 (2.) New York. 
 
 Notwithstanding the work done in teachers' classes by 
 the New Yoi-k academies, the feeling was growing that the 
 system lacked uniformity and thoroughness and complete- 
 ness. "They contributed," says Dr. Potter, "to supply in- 
 structors for select rather than for common schools." The 
 work was academic, and but incidentally didactic. Teach- 
 ers were needed who, in addition to their scholarship, were 
 familiar with the theories and best -known methods of 
 teaching. 
 
 It was recommended to the Legislature (1843) that there 
 be established an institution devoted exclusively to the prepa- 
 ration for teaching. Massachusetts schools were inspected, 
 European systems studied (by a legislative committee), and 
 a school was ordered as an experiment for five years. David 
 P. Page became, in 1844, its first principal. At the expira- 
 tion of four years the school was made permanent. 
 
 The New Britain (Connecticut) school was established 
 in 1849, with Hon. Henry Barnard as principal ; the Michi- 
 gan Normal School 1850, opening two years later, and one 
 in Philadelphia 1853. J Altogether, the almost half-century 
 of discussion, and the personal and public influence of the 
 highest scholarship and best statesmanship, resulted in nine 
 
 * Boston had not a superintendent of schools for fourteen years after. 
 
 t Wightman's " Annals of the Primary Schools of Boston," p. 180. 
 Tliis is very suggestive on the growth of primary education in New Eng- 
 land. 
 
 J This was the reorganization of another, established 1818, to fit teachers 
 for the schools of Philadelphia, and of which Joseph Lancaster, the English 
 educational reformer, was first principal.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 133 
 
 schools outside of academies, whose leading purpose was 
 the training of teachers. Six of these were public four 
 in New England, and one each in New York and Michi- 
 gan. The Oak Grove Seminary, Missouri, and Mount Ver- 
 non College, Ohio, had normal departments ; and the Evan- 
 gelical Lutheran Church had opened a normal school at 
 Addison, Illinois. 
 
 D. THE MODERN NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 In organization, contemporary policy makes the nor- 
 mal' school a part of the common-school system. In some 
 sections this has long heen true. Elsewhere the public is 
 only coming to recognize the common dependence of the 
 two. This does not so much imply that the ratio of public 
 to private schools is increasing, as that the first are increas- 
 ing. It appears that there are in the United States {1887) 
 one hundred and sixty-eight institutions admitted as normal 
 schools, of which one hundred and nineteen are public, 
 either of the State, county, or city. 
 
 These are found in thirty-two States, Arizona, Dakota, 
 and the District of Columbia. Colorado, Delaware, Florida, 
 Georgia, Kentucky, and Nevada, report none ; Ohio, none 
 under State control. Ten States, including the six in New 
 England, Pennsylvania, New York, North Carolina, and 
 West Virginia, support half (fifty-six) of them ; while eleven 
 States have but one each. Of the whole number, but thir- 
 teen were founded in the first twenty years. Each one 
 came more as a concession than a recognized necessity. 
 Not with those who knew, but with the great body of 
 the people teachers even the normal school was an ex- 
 periment. The public is convinced slowly. Before 1860, 
 however, almost one thousand teachers had graduated and 
 themselves became exponents of the idea ; more had taken 
 partial courses, and in the single decade from 1859-1868, 
 twenty-nine schools were established, nineteen of them in 
 States which had previously had none. In the nearly 
 twenty years since, the multiplication has been rapid, chiefly
 
 134: THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 in the South and West. Of the twenty-six schools founded 
 in the last eight years, half have been in the South, eight in 
 North Carolina alone. 
 
 Besides the public normal schools, there have been many 
 private ones, though information regarding them is incom- 
 plete and unsatisfactory. That their academic work has 
 been of incalculable service in the absence of true profes- 
 sional schools, is the uniform testimony of educators. They 
 have extended the meager advantages of local common 
 schools, have furnished many excellent teachers, and men 
 and women of studious habits ; but they have rarely been 
 professional. 
 
 Not too great praise can be spoken of the few really good 
 schools of the class that have pioneered the work in the 
 newer and in the Southern States, and made a thorough, 
 critical teachers' training so much in demand as to enlist 
 the public interest. The need for such schools will probably 
 not grow less. They will at least long be required to sup- 
 plement those of the State and of cities. But some of them 
 which have not even the semblance of the considerate, ac- 
 curate habit, either of student or teacher, can not be too 
 vigorously condemned. Quality is far more important than 
 the number of institutions. It is not enough that there be 
 normal schools, either public or private. It rests with the 
 profession itself to adjust them to the highest professional 
 needs. 
 
 Although it appears that much has been already accom- 
 plished, a comparison of the number of teachers required, 
 with the total normal school supply, makes equally appar- 
 ent the inadequacy of the present provision. The table sub- 
 joined is an attempt to exhibit the normal school as to num- 
 bers, both of institutions and pupils (those in professional 
 classes only), making a distinction between public and pri- 
 vate foundations; and, of the former, between State schools 
 and local (city or county). It is admitted ihat there are 
 numbers of private, well-established schools from which no 
 reports are available :
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 135 
 
 Normal Schools, State, Private, and City, in the United States, 
 1885-'86. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 State. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Pri- 
 vate. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 City. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Total en- 
 rollment. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 5 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 525 
 46 
 750 
 
 4 
 
 198 
 
 
 
 723 
 46 
 826 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 
 
 California 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 76 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 266 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2C6 
 
 Delaware 
 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 658 
 909 
 432 
 431 
 
 3 
 6 
 2 
 1 
 
 833 
 2,910 
 630 
 580 
 
 1* 
 2 
 2 
 
 425 
 22 
 20 
 
 1,916 
 3,841 
 1,082 
 1,011 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 4 
 1 
 
 75 
 581 
 272 
 1,128 
 623 
 891 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 191 
 170 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 
 100 
 223 
 32 
 233 
 
 375 
 995 
 474 
 1,361 
 628 
 891 
 453 
 1,275 
 828 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 4 
 1 
 2 
 
 453 
 46 
 80 
 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 1,091 
 248 
 
 1 
 
 138 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 1 
 2 
 9 
 4 
 
 50 
 128 
 2,693 
 559 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 
 12 
 60 
 1,684 
 
 62 
 
 458 
 4,377 
 562 
 674 
 100 
 5,128 
 153 
 381 
 404 
 256 
 191 
 843 
 702 
 1,303 
 50 
 241 
 50 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1 
 
 270 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 3 
 385 
 
 Ohio 
 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 
 289 
 
 Oregon 
 
 2 
 11 
 1 
 
 100 
 3,537 
 153 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 2 
 
 373 
 
 1,218 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 276 
 250 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 105 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 6 
 5 
 1 
 2 
 
 154 
 215 
 191 
 493 
 702 
 1,185 
 50 
 241 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 Vermont 
 
 
 
 Virginia. .... 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 350 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 2 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 Arizona 
 
 
 
 Dakota 
 
 
 
 
 
 District of Columbia . 
 Total 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 19,382 
 
 49 
 
 8,065 
 
 32 
 
 4,987 
 
 32,384 
 
 
 Cook County Normal School.
 
 13G THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION". 
 
 1. Professional vs. Academic Studies. 
 
 But, far more than organization, the curriculum of a 
 training-school is important. Current tendencies seem to 
 show that it is becoming more professional, if not less 
 academic, emphasizing the model and practice schools, and 
 directing original studies in mind and philosophy. 
 
 The earliest institutions seem not to have differed mate- 
 rially in function from the academies, and more special 
 academic courses, of which they were the outgrowth. 
 
 The time devoted to the study of school economy, meth- 
 ods of instruction, and the history of educational theories in 
 the Canandaigua Academy (1832) was scarcely exceeded by 
 that in any established normal school for twenty years. 
 
 The MLllersville (Pennsylvania) Normal School (1859) of- 
 fered three courses elementary, scientific, and classical ; the 
 first only of which was meant to be professional. In this the 
 academic work was supplemented by two courses of " Lect- 
 ures on Teaching," and practice in an elementary school at- 
 tached, for six months. 
 
 As late as 1865 the curriculum of the Massachusetts 
 schools comprised essentially * a shorter course of one year, 
 covering only such studies as were taught in the common 
 schools ; and a course of two years, adding to the elementary 
 branches general history, mental philosophy, music, the 
 Constitution and history of the United States and of Massa- 
 chusetts, natural philosophy and astronomy, natural history, 
 the principles of piety and morality common to all sects of 
 Christians, and the science and art of teaching with refer- 
 ence to all of the above-named studies. In the Westfield 
 (Massachusetts) institution (1862), of twenty subjects required 
 in a two years' course, the school laws of the State, and the 
 theory and the art of teaching, with one term on mental phi- 
 losophy given to seniors, constituted the professional matter. 
 
 * For the full course sec, " American Journal of Education," vol. xviii, 
 p. 657.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 137 
 
 This academic work was necessary, perhaps, in all the 
 first schools. Eight methods were given in the process 
 of correct teaching, subject-matter being held central. An 
 advance was made when these studies came to be taught as 
 a means to illustrate modes of instruction, or the process of 
 learning. The course of study of the Winona (Minnesota) 
 Normal School, adopted soon after its opening (1860), is typical 
 of this enlargement of the special exercises. The scholastic 
 work included English, mathematics, physical and natural 
 science, graphics, and political economy; the professional 
 outline specified intellectual and moral philosophy, the 
 principles of education, the history of education,* didactic 
 exercises, observation in the model school, preparation of 
 sketches, criticism, lessons in teaching, teaching in the prac- 
 tice-school, and the school laws of Minnesota. 
 
 In the Kansas State Normal School, opened some years 
 later, but in the same decade, six terms (twenty weeks each) 
 were given to the science, method and history of education. 
 
 A forward and helpful impulse was given by the Oswego 
 Training-School (1861) also, that is yet apparent throughout 
 most of the States, not only in the cities, but in rural districts 
 as well. From 1853 the city schools had maintained Saturday 
 classes for their own teachers. The need of something more 
 permanent and systematic being felt, Miss M. E. M. Jones, of 
 London, England, was employed to arrange and give direc- 
 tion to a course of training for primary teachers. Miss Jones 
 remained a year and a half, and shares with Superintendent 
 Sheldon the credit of having first systematically established 
 the principle of object-teaching in this country. The origi- 
 nal course of one year has been extended to four, with 
 shorter courses for special classes, and the school has been 
 adopted by the State. 
 
 In Michigan great latitude is offered in the selection from 
 five regular and five special courses, each covering four 
 
 * One of the earliest appearances of a subject of fundamental importance 
 to the teacher.
 
 138 
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 years (except the English course, which is three years), and 
 each including, during the last two years, a large introduc- 
 tion of special exercises, both theoretical and practical. 
 Indiana offers six courses, as follows : 
 
 1. Regular English course 3 years. 
 
 2. English and Latin course 8i years. 
 
 8. Course for graduates of high-schools 2 years. 
 
 4. Course for graduates of high-schools 1 year. 
 
 5. Course for college graduates 1 year. 
 
 6. Post-graduate course 1 year. 
 
 The following table of the regular English course is 
 given as showing fairly the proportion of professional and 
 academic work in the better public normal schools : 
 
 Terms. 
 
 Subjects of Instruction. 
 
 I... 
 
 Theory. 
 
 Penmanship 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 
 
 and Reading. 
 
 
 
 
 Methods in 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 II... 
 
 Reading and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 
 
 
 III... 
 
 Mental Science. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 
 
 History. 
 
 IV... 
 
 Mental Science. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 
 
 History. 
 
 V... 
 
 Methods in 
 
 Music. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 General His- 
 
 
 Grammar, 
 
 
 
 tory. 
 
 
 Geography, 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Compo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 sition. 
 
 
 
 
 VI... 
 
 Practice. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 General History 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Rhetoric. 
 
 VII... 
 
 Practice. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 Algebra. 
 
 Literature. 
 
 VIII... 
 
 History of Edu- 
 
 Astronomy or 
 
 Algebra. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 
 cation. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 
 
 IX... 
 
 Science of 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Theses. 
 
 
 Teaching. 
 
 
 
 
 (2.) Model and Practice Schools. 
 
 A further mark of the professional character of the 
 schools is found in the general recognition of model and 
 practice schools as factors in their organizations. These 
 are not peculiarly modern, although the use made of them is.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 139 
 
 The first Massachusetts schools early provided practice 
 classes ; the Albany and Millersville institutions, at their 
 organization ; while the Oswego school was itself the out- 
 growth of a model or training class. 
 
 The number of these departments, and the amount of 
 practice- work, seem to have constantly increased. Of one 
 hundred and three schools, 1872, fifty-seven reported model 
 departments ; in fifteen years the latter had increased to 
 eighty-three, out of a total of one hundred and seventeen 
 schools, or at twice the rate. In the first experiments, the 
 courses being short and chiefly academical, the practice- work 
 was taken along with the other. In contemporary schools 
 there is an obvious tendency to condition the observation 
 and practice upon a thorough grounding in the study of 
 mind, and the general principles of instruction and learning. 
 
 In a few institutions, notably the State Normal School 
 at Worcester, Massachusetts, a system of apprenticeship is 
 practiced which serves a like purpose. For half a year the 
 student is allowed to teach in some selected public school as 
 an assistant. 
 
 The system is designed to give the student practical 
 acquaintance with the work of teaching, and at the same 
 time furnish the faculty a standard by which to judge of her 
 teaching ability. 
 
 (3.) Child-Study. 
 
 One characteristic of very grave importance, though less 
 conspicuous than others, is the prominence given in a few 
 schools to psychological principles, and in fewer yet to the 
 systematic observation and patient, scientific study of child- 
 mind. It has been recently well said : * " The study of psy- 
 chology lies at the foundation of any substantial building for 
 high excellence in the profession of teaching. It is this 
 body of principles more than all else, which makes teaching 
 a profession and not a mere trade. All the reasons that 
 
 * G. S. Albee, "Proceedings of the National Educational Association," 
 1887, p. 500.
 
 140 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 force upon physicians the study of physiology may enforce 
 the study of psychology upon professional teachers." 
 
 For many years, however, in normal schools, lessons 
 on mind were given in no other way than might have 
 been found in any college and in many secondary schools, 
 and to little better purpose for the teacher. But, as the 
 study of plants at first hand is better than conning names, 
 and the inspiration from work in a laboratory of matter 
 is fresher than of books, so does the teacher's efficient 
 study of mind differ from the reflection upon theories and 
 controversial psychology. And the ocasional recent texts 
 upon educational psychology, and the culture of mind, 
 point to better things. A dozen normal schools through- 
 out the country are doing somewhat original work in this 
 respect, as their courses show ; and the Worcester (Mas- 
 sachusetts) school has been, for some years, quietly pur- 
 suing an investigation into child experience, both unique 
 and suggestive. It was begun in 1884, by a single section 
 of the school ; at present all the classes take part in it. 
 About seven thousand records have been preserved, each 
 representing a particular observation, the whole classified 
 under twenty heads. 
 
 (4. ) Specialization in Training. 
 
 The impulse toward specialization belongs to the training 
 of teachers not less than to other industries and professions. 
 First, the conditions in cities considerably modify the prep- 
 aration given in their training-schools. The course is gen- 
 erally shorter, is more purely professional, involves rela- 
 tively more practice- work, and frequently fits for particular 
 grades. 
 
 The inauguration of city training did much to system- 
 atize and adjust the instruction, to rationalize the courses. 
 Their influence upon State and other institutions has 
 been a wholesome one. The Normal School in Boston, 
 established in 1852, and that of St. Louis (1857), are among 
 the oldest in cities, and examples of an efficient direction.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Davenport, Iowa, early followed (1863), San Francisco (1865), 
 New Haven (1866), and Fort Wayne and Indianapolis the 
 same year, the last two directed by graduates of the Oswego 
 Training-School. There are now twenty-five such institu- 
 tions in the United States, established in most of the large 
 cities, and in a few of the second class. Besides these there 
 are forty-one Kindergarten training-schools, normal, art, 
 and music schools, and, in New York city, a system of 
 special training of teachers for instruction in science, in 
 charge of the director of the Central Park Museum, and an 
 Industrial Training-School recently opened. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 " History of Normal Schools in New England," Rev. Charles Brooks ; 
 " Normal Schools, their Necessity and Growth," Thomas Hunter, " Edu- 
 cation," vol. v, p. 235 ; " Normal School Work and the State," S. N. 
 Fellows, "Education," vol. i, p. 180; the "Nature and Limits of the 
 Normal School," F. Louis Soluan, "St. Louis School Report," 1875; 
 " The True Function of the Normal School," General T. J. Morgan, 1886 ; 
 "Teaching as a Profession, Inadequacy of the Present Normal School," 
 Dr. E. II. Magill, " The American," March 5, 1887; "Methods in the 
 Normal Schools of the United States," Thomas J. Gray, " Proceedings of 
 the National Educational Association," Chicago, 1887, p. 472. 
 
 Concerning the nature and method of child-study, consult the " Con- 
 tents of Children's Minds," by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, " Princeton Review," 
 May, 1882; "Biographical Sketch of an Infant," by Charles Darwin, 
 "Mind," vol. ii (1877), p. 285; " About the Minds of Little Children," 
 M. A. Powers, " Education," vol. vi, p. 26 ; " Observations on Infants," 
 by E. S. Holden, " Transactions of the American Philosophical Society," 
 1875 ; the " Growth of Children," by H. P. Bowditch ; and " The Mind 
 of the Child," by W. Preyer, 2 vols., D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 10
 
 1-1-2 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS.-^Continued.) 
 
 A SYSTEM of education comprising elementary, secondary, 
 and collegiate schools, viewed pedagogically, is incomplete, if 
 it fail to provide competent instructors and supervisors for 
 any of them. If this be true, how imperfect is the best State 
 system we yet have! In the large cities the management 
 usually provides teachers for the graded schools. For the 
 rest, normal schools supply, perhaps, from one fourth to one 
 third of the places. But with the most generous allowance, 
 many thousands of positions, in the elementary schools even, 
 in cities of the second class and smaller, and in rural dis- 
 tricts, must be filled from chance selection, or from non-pro- 
 fessional sources. 
 
 1. Pedagogical Training in Colleges. 
 
 The danger from the blunders of inexperience, or want of 
 knowledge, or both sometimes, might be provided against 
 by the employment of disciplined principals and masters, 
 wise supervision, and a leadership schooled in the problems 
 of education and the machinery of its institutions. But, 
 while some little provision has been made to fit teachers for 
 the elementary schools, almost nothing had been done, until 
 recently, to prepare for instruction in secondary and colle- 
 giate institutions. The high-school could not do it, nor with 
 fairness could most normal schools attempt it. This ap- 
 pears in the fact that the average curriculum of one hundred 
 and fifteen public normal schools is a fraction over two 
 years in length, and the conditions for entrance such as 
 would admit to the better high-schools. This need for a 
 broader scholarship for secondary teachers has been met 
 generally by the colleges. But discipline of mind and 
 wealth of information are but two of the three factors con-
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 143 
 
 cerned in the right training of the teacher. The only one 
 which makes the teacher to be a teacher, and not a lawyer 
 or a journalist, has been omitted. 
 
 How to combine this needful academic study with the 
 professional training is a question of grave importance. 
 That in the present social conditions it belongs,- in part, to 
 the college, is already widely recognized. In sixty-eight 
 colleges (degree-giving institutions), in thirty States and 
 Territories, more or less instruction is given in the theory of 
 education. These have about two thousand students pursu- 
 ing such courses, varying from one to four years in length. 
 
 A. REVIEW COURSES. 
 
 Among the earliest provisions of these schools was the 
 introduction of "review courses," whose only aim was to 
 combine, with more or less college study, a systematic and 
 somewhat critical survey of the elementary branches. In 
 the absence of other means, this has advantages, and is not 
 to be wholly condemned. 
 
 B. COURSES IN DIDACTICS. 
 
 The presentation, by lectures, or an occasional text, of the 
 principles of school management, questions of school-room 
 economy, and the few best known theories of education, 
 was a considerable step forward in the college training of 
 teachers. The young man of average graduate training 
 and maturity, who has learned to look at social questions 
 from his business point of view, and make them an object of 
 patient study, has made no small beginning. It is little 
 enough ; but it is the recognition of a teaching class, with a 
 special function, and is significant. 
 
 C. THE UNIVERSITY NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Of a different sort, more systematic and comprehensive, 
 is the normal school, equipped and complete within itself, 
 but co-ordinated with other "schools" in the university. 
 These differ in no essential from the independent normal
 
 144 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 school. They usually teach the same subjects, have the 
 same length of course, and employ (occasionally) both 
 model and practice schools. Further than this, their con- 
 nection with the college secures them students better in- 
 structed, makes available the advantages of libraries, and 
 lectures, and the specialist's discussion of related questions. 
 These are so much clear gain to the normal school, and must 
 favorably react, not only upon the instruction, but upon the 
 general public estimate of education. 
 
 As types of the university normal school may be named 
 (not excluding others) those connected with the Central 
 Tennessee College at Nashville ; the University of Missouri, 
 and Drury College, Missouri; Hillsdale College, Michigan; 
 De Pau w University, Indiana ; and the university of Colo- 
 rado. Connected with the "University of the Pacific" at 
 San Jose, California, is a "School of Psychology and the 
 Science and Art of Education," with a faculty of three, and 
 nine courses, entirely professional, including one on " Human 
 Development and the Psychology of Childhood," and an- 
 other on the " Science and Art of the Froebel Kindergarten." 
 
 D. PROFESSORSHIP OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Somewhat different, in respect to both organization and 
 aim, is the university professorship of Pedagogics. 
 
 "The distinctive function of the university," says Rev. 
 R. H. Quick, " is not action, but thought. And the best 
 thing the university can do for schoolmasters is to employ 
 some of their keenest intellects in considering education on 
 the side of theory, and in teaching such principles respect- 
 ing it as have been or can be established." 
 
 Both the normal school and the professorship have like 
 educational bearings. The former, however, is special ; the 
 latter general. The one seeks to influence elementary 
 training directly through its teachers ; the other mediately, 
 through the more advanced. Each is needed, as appears 
 from the history of both. The European experience is long- 
 er than the American, and altogether reassuring. Not only
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 145 
 
 in Germany, but in other Continental and the insular states, 
 especially England and Scotland, university training in ed- 
 ucation has commanded the ripest learning.* 
 
 In the United States its introduction is comparatively 
 recent; its development slow, hut on the whole forward and 
 continuous. It could not hut be that the universities, sup- 
 plying the principals and assistants in secondary schools, 
 supervisors and directors, local and State commissioners 
 should ultimately find a demand for a preparation for such 
 positions. 
 
 As early as 1850, Prof. S. S. Green, then superintendent 
 of the Providence schools, was made Professor of Didactics 
 in Brown University, Ehode Island. He held the position 
 five years. 
 
 Ten years later (1860) Dr. Gregory (State Superintendent 
 of Michigan) gave a course of lectures to the seniors in the 
 university on the " Philosophy of Education, School Econ- 
 omy, and the Teaching Art." It was afterward given in 
 Kalamazoo College, Michigan, and in the Illinois Industrial 
 University (1867). 
 
 The first permanent chair of the kind in this county, so 
 far as known, though shared with the professorship of Gen- 
 eral Philosophy, was that established in Iowa University 
 (1873). t A department was organized in the University of 
 Wisconsin (1881), followed three years later by somewhat 
 similar ones in the University of North Carolina, and Johns 
 Hopkins University, Baltimore. Since then, four others 
 have opened : in Ottawa University, Kansas (1885) ; Indiana 
 University, and Cornell, New York (1886) ; and the Univer- 
 sity of the City of New York (1887). 
 
 * The New York Regents' Report for 1883 page 342, contains a very 
 fair statement of the " English and Scottish University Work in Peda- 
 gogy," and some liberal suggestions as to its introduction into the colleges 
 of the United States. 
 
 t In the March issue of " Education," 1881, Dr. Fellows has an excel- 
 lent statement of the work offered for many years, in his course in didactics. 
 Bee p. 393.
 
 146 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 In line with the purpose of these departments, though 
 having no immediate dependence upon any institution, 
 were " Pedagogical Lecture Courses " given for three years 
 in Boston. At the suggestion of a Boston master, and official 
 of Harvard, Dr. Hall (1881), then a member of the university 
 faculty, was invited to deliver to a body of Boston teachers a 
 course of lectures on professional subjects. These were the 
 so-called " Harvard Lectures an Pedagogy," and were main- 
 tained thoughout the winter, and also for the whiter of 
 1883-'84. A course was given by Dr. Harris in Boston Uni- 
 versity in 1881, and a second in 1882-'83 in Wesleyan Hall, 
 in the same city. The lectures were well attended, and the 
 experiment as a whole serves admirably to illustrate the readi- 
 ness with which the best thought everywhere finds listeners. 
 
 Perhaps Michigan University first demonstrated what 
 could be done in a strictly professional way, on a high 
 plane, to fit young men and women for the best positions 
 in the school system, whei-e scholarship and discipline and 
 a comprehensive knowledge of the means and ends of edu- 
 cation are needed. The department* (1879) is that of the 
 " Science and Art of Teaching," and from two series of lect- 
 ures has been enlarged to include seven courses, covering the 
 practical, theoretical, and historical phases of the subject. 
 The work is entirely elective, falls largely into the later 
 terms of the course, and has been taken, in the last half- 
 dozen years, in whole or hi part, by forty per cent of the 
 graduates, besides partial courses by undergraduates. 
 
 Lectures on pedagogics were first given in Johns Hop- 
 kins University during the collegate year 1884-'85. Dr. 
 G. Stanley Hall had been recently elected to the chair of 
 General Philosophy, and with this the instruction in peda- 
 gogics was incorporated. The course covers three years : 
 the first being historical ; the second devoted to problems 
 
 * The work and growth of this department are set forth in detail, in 
 Prof. Payne's " Contributions to the Science of Education," p. 335. See 
 also chap, xv, p. 257, " Education as a University Study."
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 147 
 
 of elementary and secondary education ; and the third to 
 higher and special education. The pedagogical work of Dr. 
 Hall has, throughout the course, been given with reference 
 to its philosophical bearings, and has been discussed in a 
 comprehensive way, and in the light of universal princi- 
 ples. His resignation * leaves vacant a position not easily 
 filled. 
 
 The course projected for the department in the University 
 of the City of New York is somewhat more extended. 
 Begun in the year 1887, with three lectures a week on 
 the history of education, it now includes: 1. Psychology; 
 2. The psychological basis of education ; 3. Methodology ; 
 4. Economy as applied to education ; 5. Bibliography with 
 criticisms ; and, 6. Sociology in so far as it has reference to 
 education. 
 
 It need scarcely be said that the work as a whole, and in 
 this country, is yet only tentative. A few of the courses are 
 painfully narrow and barren ; others are subordinated 
 made to share both time and attention with unrelated sub- 
 jects. Nevertheless, the movement is assuring and is, almost 
 without exception, favorably regarded by educators. 
 
 " The great need of the hour," it has been said,t " is to 
 ascertain what has been done in the line of educational 
 effort, what plans have succeeded, and what have failed, and 
 the conditions under which success or failure has come." 
 This is one of the most stimulating services of the contem- 
 porary college the large contributions it has made to the 
 intelligent and systematic and comparative study of history ; 
 and now, especially, the history of education and its institu- 
 tions. This involves not only the education of the states, 
 ancient and modern, but the accompanying social and 
 political forms, custom and creed, antecedents and eviron- 
 ment, and the physical and other conditions which deter- 
 
 * Dr. Hall has just recently accepted the presidency of the new Clarke 
 University at Worcester, Massachusetts. 
 
 t Prof. Payne, " Contributions to the Science of Education," p. 265.
 
 148 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 mine the institutional life. It is a work, viewed from the 
 pedagogical side, peculiarly within the province of the uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Again, as the principles of instruction are to be sought 
 in the nature and functions of mind, and the general spirit- 
 ual life, the conditions of education, in its deeper content, 
 presuppose the broader co-ordinations of knowledge included 
 under anthropology, ethics, and the indefinitely complex 
 sociology, in the study of institutional life. Philosophy of 
 education is, then, a phase of general philosophy, rests upon 
 its constituent knowledges, borrows its deductions and is con- 
 ditioned by them. Theories of mind, and the individual 
 responsibility ; prevalent estimates of the social life and the 
 functions of the State ; the changed interpretations of natural 
 phenomena and forces, all contribute to the shaping of edu- 
 cational doctrine and its ultimate creed. The enlargement 
 of university pedagogy on the side indicated is one of the 
 hopeful signs of the day. Never was it more needed than 
 now. And if the present movement shall result in calling 
 to the universities throughout the country its best men to 
 study these questions in their universal relations, study edu- 
 cation as philosophy, and mark its bearings, it will have 
 done the generation an eminent service. 
 
 2. Educational Literature. 
 
 One of the conditions of professional efficiency, at the 
 present day, is familiarity with the contributing literature. 
 It marks economy in service, and is the starting-point for 
 any sound original study of current conditions. This is 
 neither less nor more true of teaching than of law, medicine, 
 or theology. Paraphrasing the famous dictum of Matthew 
 Arnold, it may be said the right acquaintance with the best 
 that has been thought and said touching one's profession is 
 a liberal professional education. 
 
 Incomplete and unsatisfactory as this literature is in the 
 United States, most departments of modern inquiry have 
 made some contributions.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 149 
 
 A. WORKS ON PEDAGOGY. 
 
 Historically, educational literature in the United States 
 belongs almost wholly to the period of reorganization. 
 Christopher Dock,* in Pennsylvania, had published his 
 " Schul-ordnung," Joseph Neef t his " Plan of Education," 
 and " Methods of Teaching," and Rafinesque, J the eccentric 
 naturalist, a pamphlet on the " Improvement of Universities, 
 Colleges, and other Seats of Learning in North America." 
 
 Besides these, and the movements which they repre- 
 sented, it has been said of this period (the first fifty years 
 of our national history), that there were only two men 
 whose efforts to promote general, and especially higher edu- 
 cation, are worthy of note Jefferson and Washington.* 
 Within two decades from the accomplishment of Jefferson's 
 plan in the founding of the University of Virginia, came the 
 "educational revival" that touched all the States, and in 
 which began, along with school systems, supervision, normal 
 schools, etc., a school literature, descriptive and critical, if 
 not constructive, and of very general influence. Some of it, 
 though used with a local purpose, has yet a permanent value. 
 Such were the writings of Mann and Stowe ; Abbott, Page, 
 and Hall. President Wayland's study of the "Collegiate 
 System of the United States," is well worth a careful reading 
 by contemporary teachers, and, among expositions of foreign 
 school systems, Prof. Bache's " Report on Education in Eu- 
 rope," which has been pronounced " one of the most influen- 
 tial educational works ever published in this country." 
 
 * For a biography of Mr. Dock, and a summary of his book, see Penny- 
 packer's " Historical Sketches," p. 95. A copy of the first edition of the 
 "Schul-ordnung" may be found in the Library of the Historical Society 
 of Pennsylvania. 
 
 t Mr. Neef was connected with the " Community School," at New Har- 
 mony, Indiana, then and now one of the most cultured, progressive neigh- 
 borhoods in the West. 
 
 % See " Science Sketches," by Dr. Jordan, p. 143. 
 
 * " Washington and Higher Education, a Monograph," by C. K. Adams.
 
 150 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 To these and other more recent works reference will be 
 found in the bibliographies upon the several topics. Espe- 
 cial attention, however, should be called to the few works on 
 infant and child education, on graded and rural schools, on 
 city school systems, and occasional books on methods that 
 are especially valuable. There are a half-dozen State histo- 
 ries of education that are of value outside their localities ; as 
 those of Rhode Island, New York, California, Pennsylvania, 
 and Michigan. Histories, longer or shorter, of colleges, are 
 quite numerous ; but of city schools very few. Some valua- 
 ble special studies have appeai'ed in the last years on normal 
 schools, something of the science of education, industrial 
 and reformatory training, and the general relations of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 One of the most fruitful sources of educational literature 
 has been the translation and republication of foreign works. 
 By this means have been made available to the English 
 (American) reader, Froebel and Pestalozzi, Rousseau, Rosen- 
 kranz, Compayre, Radestock, Preyer, Perez, and others; as 
 well as Quick, Browning, Payne, Sully, Fitch, Tait, Laurie, 
 and Spencer; to master whose pedagogical writings would 
 be a liberal training for any teacher. 
 
 Ten years ago was published the " Cyclopaedia of Educa- 
 tion." One or two supplementary volumes have been added 
 since ; and, while it is exceedingly defective and incomplete 
 in parts, it is nevertheless, to the reading and thinking 
 teacher, an invaluable source of much-needed information. 
 But the one comprehensive reference on educational mat- 
 ters a library in itself thoroughly American, though all- 
 sided in its fullness, is Barnard's " American Journal of Edu- 
 cation." 
 
 Among reference works for teachers, also, should be 
 named two bibliographical texts recently published. The 
 one, "Bibliography of Education,"* by Dr. Hall, and the 
 
 * Including twenty-one hundred and sixty-five entries. These are put 
 under sixty headings. The Mac Alister " Catalogue of the Philadelphia
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 151 
 
 other a " Catalogue of the Pedagogical Library of the Phila- 
 delphia Public Schools," by Superintendent Mac Alister, are 
 timely and suggestive. Both include bibliographical and 
 critical notes which, for busy, ambitious teachers are not the 
 least valuable part. 
 
 B. PERIODICALS. 
 
 When the complete history of general education in the 
 United States comes to be written, it will be found that the 
 rise, growth, and influence of educational periodical litera- 
 ture fill a long chapter. School journals * early began in 
 this country the campaign against ignorance and unrea- 
 soning conservatism. The inferiority of some in no wise 
 detracts from the incalculable services of the few timely 
 and well-managed ones, adaptable, working with a purpose 
 and that the enlargement of public views on education. 
 
 The first published journal in the United States (and Mr. 
 Barnard is authority for the statement that it was the " first 
 in the English language " devoted to the advancement of 
 education) was that of Wait, Green & Co., Boston, 1826. Its 
 editors were William C. Woodbridge, William A. Alcott, 
 and William Russell, with such men for correspondents as 
 Prof. Emerson, Horace Mann, Joseph Story, Caleb Gushing, 
 Francis Wayland, and Bronson Alcott. 
 
 The " Massachusetts Common-School Journal " (1837) and 
 a similar paper in Connecticut (1838) were started, the one 
 by Horace Mann, the other by Henry Barnard, when State 
 School Commissioners of their respective States. They were 
 used as organs of the administration, disseminating school 
 and legislative and official news, and embodied in both cases 
 their editors' maturest thoughts and most unselfish service. 
 Very early such periodicals were made the organs of local 
 
 Pedagogical Library," noticed in the text, comprises thirteen hundred and 
 forty-eight entries. 
 
 * In the Government report on the educational exhibit at New Orleans, 
 1885, is published a sketch of " Educational Journalism in New England," 
 by T. W. Bicknell.
 
 152 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 or State associations of teachers. The " Massachusetts Teach- 
 er " was so begun (1847), the " Ohio School Journal " (1852), 
 the " Pennsylvania School Journal " (1853), and the " Indi- 
 ana School Journal" (1856). A file of the periodicals al 
 ready named would afford a fairly complete exhibit and 
 summary of American education for more than sixty years. 
 Of something more than one hundred and forty such papers 
 started prior to 1870, twenty were organs of State Teachers' 
 Associations. 
 
 The Barnard "American Journal of Education," estab- 
 lished 1855, has already been referred to. At first published 
 monthly, it now appears quarterly, each number containing 
 about two hundred pages, and in educational biography, na- 
 tional and foreign school systems, it is very full. Upon the 
 whole, no American journal devoted to education has had 
 a more general or salutary influence upon the higher edu- 
 cation, or has done more to dignify the cause of liberal 
 culture. 
 
 Of more recent journals (of which there are about three 
 hundred) it is well known that their undue multiplication 
 has left some of them of indifferent quality. Editorial inex- 
 perience and ignorance and carping bias have crept in at 
 times and bemeaned the true service of journalism. Mere 
 devices and formulae, which have filled so large a place in 
 these papers, are rarely constructive. They are expedients 
 at best, and of themselves add neither power nor insight. 
 Such literature has given the profession neither credit 
 among thinking men nor confidence with the people. 
 Much of it seems both trifling and puerile. In the opposite 
 of this appears the great power of school journalism forty 
 years ago ; it was uncompromisingly in earnest. It was one 
 with the spirit of co-operation that carried reform through 
 communities and States and Legislatures; that established 
 systems and rationalized methods. 
 
 But much current periodical literature is creditable also. 
 There is a manifest tendency to combine journals of limited 
 patronage, to the great improvement of the matter. Each
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 153 
 
 State can well support one paper, rarely more, as a medium 
 of frequent local communication, on legal and administra- 
 tive matters, with which every State teacher should be famil- 
 iar. But to every teacher's desk there should be brought 
 (and it is not impossible among contemporary journals) 
 abundant and intelligent comparative studies of home 
 schools, with the best thought of neighboring and foreign 
 states gathered and focused upon them. It is believed the 
 tendency is strong in this direction. 
 
 But there is apparent, also, and on the contrary, a parallel 
 drift toward specialization in educational and academic 
 papers. This is shown in the multiplication of Kindergar- 
 ten records, health journals, and exponents of manual 
 labor, primary and normal schools, etc. More especially it 
 appears in a class of journals published as the represent- 
 atives of departmental work in the universities. Of this 
 class are published, in Columbia College, " The School of 
 Mines Quarterly," now in its ninth volume, and the " Politi- 
 cal Science Quarterly," begun in 1886, and devoted to scien- 
 tific investigation in the field of economics and public law. 
 Of a similar nature are the Johns Hopkins " Studies in His- 
 tory and Political Science " (1882), and the " Quarterly Jour- 
 nal of Economics," published at Harvard since 1883. From 
 Johns Hopkins are issued also journals of mathematics, 
 chemistry, biology, and philology, and the recently estab- 
 lished " Journal of Psychology " ; each in a way repre- 
 senting the work and being under the control of the 
 department whose name it takes. How large a field is 
 opened here for the increase and dissemination of knowl- 
 edge can only be roughly estimated. Such journals must 
 make easier the work of every student and instructor in 
 these lines. 
 
 Altogether, then, periodical literature of whatever kind, 
 bringing together and publishing the freshest information 
 and established generalizations in special and general fields, 
 remains, as it has ever been, one of the teacher's readiest 
 means of improvement.
 
 154 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 C. EDUCATIONAL REPORTS. 
 
 Of the reports of school officers and educators it may be 
 said briefly that they include by far the largest part of 
 America's contribution to the literature of education. They 
 are valuable as furnishing statistical and other data,* for 
 comparative studies of school systems ; and as a medium of 
 information between institutions and the public. But as 
 supervision in city and State has developed toward a profes- 
 sion, employing a trained and special class, the annual 
 statement frequently takes the form of a monographic 
 treatise on some one or more phases of education or 
 schooling. 
 
 Among State reports those of Horace Mann easily stand 
 first. They grew out of the system and, in an interesting 
 way, reflect his own labors. After a general view of the 
 administration, they were usually didactic, discussing vital 
 questions in educational philosophy, with a vigorous mind. 
 Of the twelve reports some have become historical. The 
 fourth and ninth gave a comparative exhibit of the Massa- 
 chusetts system. The seventh discussed European schools, 
 and especially the Prussian seminaries for teachers. (It was 
 this report which called out the celebrated " Common-School 
 Controversy " between Mr. Mann and the " Thirty-one Bos- 
 ton Schoolmasters.'') In the tenth is traced the origin and 
 growth of the free-school system, in which he formulates 
 the now familiar sentiment that "the property of a com- 
 monwealth is pledged to the education of all its youth." 
 
 "To be appreciated," says Mr. Barnard "these reports 
 must be read." No abstract can exibit the fullness of 
 thought, or the familiarity with which the questions are 
 handled. " We know of no series of educational reports," 
 
 * It is of the first importance that something of uniformity be secured in 
 the taking and manipulation of census items ; the records of attendance, 
 including continuance, the school period and age ; and the relation of the 
 two classes ; those entitled to school privileges, and those attending.
 
 THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 155 
 
 he continues, " by one mind, in any language, so readable or 
 so instructive." The Massachusetts Board (1887) made its 
 fiftieth report, and with it published both a sketch of the 
 legislation of the State on leading matters, and an index 
 very complete to the entire set. It compasses the educa- 
 tional history of a large part of New England. The Con- 
 necticut reports are almost equally valuable, and those of 
 Rhode Island, especially under Stockwell. The New York, 
 Illinois, and Michigan reports are authorities outside their 
 respective States. The interchange of such literature among 
 the States promises to unify the systems, and to equalize the 
 opportunities as no legislation can do. 
 
 Of city reports, those of Boston being among the oldest, 
 are also among the most valuable, particularly those under 
 Dr. Philbrick. Excellent features are to be found in those 
 of Chicago, San Francisco, Cincinnati, Providence, etc., as 
 doubtless in others. But the most complete and systematic 
 presentation of educational philosophy is to found in the 
 annual reports of Dr. W. T. Harris, as Superintendent of 
 the St. Louis Schools (1867-79). The following analysis * of 
 the discussion is appended, both as illustrating their scope, 
 and as a somewhat connected outline of educational phi- 
 losophy : 
 
 1867-'6S. Discussion of Pestolozzianism and object-lessons. 
 
 1868-'69. Discussion of Leigh's phonetic system of teaching read- 
 ing. English orthography and how to teach it with the least loss of 
 time. Defects of the graded school system. What a pupil gains by a 
 mastery of the three R's. 
 
 1S69-'70. Discussion of the co-education of the sexes. Industrial 
 education. German-English instruction. Library classification, a scheme 
 for it. How the branches of the course of study give the pupil a mastery 
 of the world. How to conduct recitations. A plan for local supervision 
 of principals. 
 
 1870-'71. Moral education as involved in the school discipline. 
 Education and crime. Eulogy on Ira Divoll, Superintendent of Schools, 
 
 * Taken from Hall's " Bibliography of Education," p. 242.
 
 156 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 St. Louis. Syllabus of oral lessons in natural science, and directions for 
 teaching it. Music instruction. 
 
 1871-'7U. A classification of occupations in the United States pro- 
 posed, and a discussion of the occupations represented in the St. Louis 
 schools. The injury to the district schools caused by a too strict ex- 
 amination for admission to the high school. Corporal punishment. 
 German-English instruction. Arithmetic versus Grammar as a culture 
 study. The psychological significance of the several studies. 
 
 1872-'73. Method of promotion and classification adopted in the St. 
 Louis schools. Discussion of the psychological effect of Latin and 
 Greek in education, their containing the embryology of our civilization. 
 Elaborate discussion of the branches necessary in a course of study in 
 district schools, high schools, and colleges ; what each branch adds to 
 the mental structure in the way of discipline and knowledge. Identical 
 co-education of the sexes discussed in the light of the history of the three 
 epochs of industrial civilization. The library and its significance in 
 modern civilization. Outline of educational psychology. 
 
 1873-'74. Discussion of school hygiene and the lessons furnished by 
 statistics taken in the St. Louis schools. Grading, classification, class 
 intervals, and promotions. Suspension of pupils versus corporal punish- 
 ment. 
 
 1874-'75. History of the public school system of St. Louis. 
 
 1875-'76. The school architecture best adapted for good hygiene. 
 The philosophy of the kindergarten. The Centennial Exposition educa- 
 tionally considered. 
 
 1876-'77. German-English instruction, its uses for towns and cities 
 where there is a mixed population of English and Germans. What the 
 common schools teach to fit pupils for their future vocations. Half- 
 time schools for primary pupils, its economy and hygienic effect. The 
 proper school age. The results of the kindergarten in St. Louis. 
 
 1877-'78. Teaching United States history. 
 
 1878-'79. The age of withdrawal from school. Industrial educa- 
 tion. The educational influence of works of fiction drawn from the 
 library. History of the St. Louis kindergarten system, the philosophy 
 of its methods, and the practical devices necessary to make it a part 
 of the public school system. Oral lessons in history, syllabus of lessons 
 for all the grades of the common school. Bird's-eye view of the en- 
 tire organization of a system of city schools, with remarks and com- 
 mentary on the practical working of different devices in vogue.
 
 THE PREPARATION" OF TEACHERS. 157 
 
 In this day of growing interest in higher education, its 
 distribution and means, it is encouraging to note the adjust- 
 ment of college reports also to the public demand for a 
 better acquaintance with these agencies of culture. The 
 Harvard publications, especially the official annual state- 
 ments of President Eliot, have left in large measure the 
 formal exposition of the early days, and have shown a dis- 
 position to study the practical questions which concern the 
 university and not less the community. The report of 
 1883-'84 gives in a terse, plain statement the history of elec- 
 tions and the evolution of the curriculum in that ancient 
 institution. The annual statements of Cornell also, as a 
 representative of the " open system " of studies, of Columbia 
 and Johns Hopkins and Michigan, and the Universities of 
 Pennsylvania and California, have contributed much in ten 
 years to a better public understanding of the relations of 
 higher education. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 " Normal Training in Colleges," " Proceedings of New York Uni- 
 versity Convocation" (1883), p. 342; "Collegiate Instruction in Peda- 
 gogics," " Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of New York " 
 (1862); "Chairs of Pedagogics in Colleges," Harris, "Proceedings of 
 the National Council of Education" (1882); "Psychology as a Branch 
 of Education," " American Journal of Education," vol. iii, p. 125 ; 
 " Education as a University Study," chapter xv of " Contributions to the 
 Science of Education," by W. H. Payne (1886); "Philosophy in Educa- 
 tion," " Mind," vol. iii, p. 225. " Educational Psychology," by Dr. \V. T. 
 Harris, in "Journal of Speculative Philosophy," vol. xiv, p. 225 (1880). 
 See also " Educational Reports," by J. D. Philbrick, in the " United States 
 Commissioner's Report" (1884-'85), pp. xiv-xxiv; and on "Educational 
 Literature," "Popular Science Monthly," vol. ii, p. 713, and especially 
 Poole's " Index to Periodical Literature." No other knowledge can ex- 
 cuse ignorance of the uses and suggestions of this last source of informa- 
 tion. 
 
 11
 
 158 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 
 
 A. THE CURRICULUM. 
 
 IN no respect has the modern college changed more than 
 in its academic constitution. Between the average curricu- 
 lum of 1800, and that of the most conservative institution of 
 to-day, there is a great disparity. Practically speaking, it 
 is the difference between the sums of knowledge then and 
 now. The Harvard of 1700 was rich in contemporary learn- 
 ing. The statement would apply to the same and other in- 
 stitutions at the beginning of this century. But how has the 
 world of fact enlarged ! Then the " organization of knowl- 
 edge " was comparatively simple. That it is less so now is 
 one mark of progress. 
 
 Biology belongs to the present century. Chemistry in 
 the same time has been much developed along the old, and 
 worked out in new lines. Geography hi its comparative study 
 is very recent from Ritter, indeed and in its descriptive 
 aspect has been enriched by vast territories within half a 
 century. Ethnological investigation, the natural systems of 
 botany, together with its numerous economic bearings, and 
 the indefinite multiplication of our knowledge of physical 
 forces and their phenomena, come within the ages of men 
 yet living. Whole fields of science have been discovered 
 and inclosed, and others reclaimed from the dominance and 
 uses of mediaeval dogmatism. Both geology and astronomy 
 have been reconstructed and enlarged. College programmes 
 have been made over by the claims of such new and com- 
 prehensive interests. 
 
 Further, the current and recent magnifying of the hu- 
 manities, the growing recognition of an altruistic and co-op- 
 erative spirit in civil and social and political life, the increas- 
 ing complexity of social forces, new aspects of government,
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 159 
 
 the fundamental oneness of all life, and the sequent idea of 
 the solidarity of human society, have created for the student 
 new lines of investigation. The history of customs and in- 
 stitutions, the growth of opinions and sentiments as crystal- 
 lized in social forms, the study of governments and relig- 
 ions, of art and industry, are clamoring for place in the 
 curriculum. Comparative philology, with the enlarged in- 
 terest in modern languages, belongs to the present period. 
 
 The rise of new sciences, dependence upon other interests, 
 and this multiplication of facts and relations, have changed 
 the nomenclature of learning. The other day only, a lib- 
 eral education meant fitness for the professions. But in no 
 service has modern thought been more busy or more icono- 
 clastic than in the silent but ceaseless readjustment of the 
 professions. In a period of limited knowledge and the 
 universal rule of authority, a course of study was easily 
 made and as easily interpreted. The wants of a homoge- 
 neous life were met by a conventional training. But new 
 views of nature and mind, the aging of institutions, and the 
 interminable complexity of custom and impulse, give direc- 
 tion to indefinite individual divergence from the common 
 plan. The history of higher education for half a century is 
 largely a record of the readjustings of the curriculum to the 
 life or the one to the other an attempt to adapt the means 
 of culture to the highest ends. 
 
 1. The Physical Sciences. 
 
 Speaking generally, and not confined to mere chronologi- 
 cal sequence, the earliest, and certainly one of the most com- 
 pi'ehensive and conditioning modifications of the traditional 
 curriculum is found in the large infusion of the physical 
 sciences* 
 
 * A valuable contribution to this question was made by the publication 
 of Circular 6-1880, by the Bureau of Education, Washington, on " Physics 
 and Chemistry," in the United States. Not greatly historical, it is still sug- 
 gestive.
 
 1GO TIIE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Though having twenty-four colleges, the century opened 
 with the merest excuses for nature-study. Whatever was 
 known of the physical universe, little was taught. No sub- 
 ject better illustrates the marvelous development aud accom- 
 panying specializations, which have gone on in the field of 
 knowledge, than what has come to be known as physical 
 science. Science, among the early colleges, was either nat- 
 ural philosophy or natural history. The latter was little 
 regarded, and the former generally a branch of or compan- 
 ion study to mathematics. The term was generic, and made 
 to include not only physics (to which it is yet sometimes ap- 
 plied), but chemistry, geology, and astronomy, and had fre- 
 quently associated with it, in the first professorships, both 
 botany and zoology. 
 
 A. PHYSICS. 
 
 The department in Harvard, known as the Hollis Pro- 
 fessorship of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and 
 established in 1727, had, in forty years, accumulated several 
 pieces of apparatus. How well this was used can only be 
 conjectured. Mr. Quincy furnishes a list of those lost in 
 the fire of 1764, which included apparatus illustrative of the 
 mechanics of gravity, hydrostatics, pneumatics, and optics ; 
 an orrery, a number of microscopes (magnifying-glasses), 
 dials, a twenty-four-foot telescope, and instruments for sur- 
 veying. Some of these were subsequently replaced by Mr. 
 Hollis and friends, but it was many years before the physi- 
 cal laboratory was more than an appendage to mathematics. 
 
 After Harvard, Dartmouth (1782) and Union College 
 (1797) were the only institutions prior to 1800 that could 
 be said to have given any respectable attention to physics, 
 much less to the other sciences. But within fifteen years 
 after this half a dozen colleges had gone beyond them. The 
 University of Georgia, during the year 1800 ; Yale and 
 Williams Colleges, 1803; Dickinson College, 1808; William 
 and Mary, and Hobart Colleges, 1812 ; followed by Colby 
 University, Maine, and the University of North Carolina,
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 161 
 
 1818 had established courses in mechanical physics, and 
 possessed more or less of illustrative apparatus. 
 
 In the year 1827, James F. Dana, a professor in Dart- 
 mouth College, gave a course of lectures on electro-magnet- 
 ism, then a new and little understood topic. The lectures 
 were popular only in the sense that they were properly illus- 
 trated hy experiments a method of instruction quite as 
 new as the subject, and the audiences were general as well 
 as academic. Mr. S. F. B. Morse, an artist in New York, 
 heard Prof. Dana, took practical suggestions, and says that 
 from that course he had his " scientific birth." Seven years 
 later, Prof. Albert Hopkins was sent to Europe with a com- 
 mission to procure both philosophical and chemical appa- 
 ratus for Williams College. Returning, he was thought to 
 have furnished a rival for Harvard even, which in 1840 was 
 described as possessing a " complete outfit," including, besides 
 the usual apparatus in hydrostatics, pneumatics, and the me- 
 chanical powers, electrical and electro-magnetic pieces, an 
 air-pump, and somewhat in illustration of the polorization of 
 light. Besides these, the general contributions of the Rens- 
 selaer School at Troy, New York, are well known. Indus- 
 trial and material interests were being everywhere aug- 
 mented. Surrounded by an infinite diversity and potency 
 of physical phenomena, and material products, it was easy 
 for the American mind to be inquisitive and objective. 
 Private interest, the national character, and physical en- 
 vironment, were all helping the impulse along. But the 
 greatest advance of science along the line of physics for 
 recent times, began with Prof. Joseph Henry in Princeton, 
 and later in the Smithsonian Institution, and Prof. Picker- 
 ing's laboratory in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 (1867). Deserving of special mention are the more recent 
 services of Yale in mathematical physics, of Harvard and 
 Cleveland (Case School) ; and especially of Prof. Langley, of 
 the Smithsonian Institution, in the study of heat and light ; 
 the principal original work of the period being done in light 
 and electricity. The making and using of machinery, in-
 
 162 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 vestigation into little understood forces, their application to 
 industrial uses, and, finally, the study of them from a love of 
 science, mark not always successive but closely interrelated 
 steps in the growth of physical knowledge. 
 
 B. CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Though chemistry was originally a branch of physics, it 
 was early put into the colonial medical schools, and the first 
 chemists were medical students or practitioners. In this 
 way, as belonging to materia medica, it became a part of 
 the course in the University of Pennsylvania, 1768 ; of Har- 
 vard, 1782 ; and of Dartmouth, 1798. 
 
 But in the year 1795, Princeton College instituted an in- 
 dependent chair of Chemistry the first in this country 
 under Dr. John Maclean, a young Scotch medical graduate. 
 William and Mary, and Dickinson Colleges had combined 
 chemistry with natural philosophy twenty years before. 
 But that in Princeton was regularly co-ordinated with the 
 other departments, and so marks an era in the development 
 of chemical studies in American colleges. Columbia Col- 
 lege, five years later, established a like professorship ; and in 
 1801 Prof. Silliman was elected to a chair of Chemistry, 
 Geology, and Mineralogy, at Yale. While a mixed depart- 
 ment, it immediately became known under the young in- 
 structor for the thoroughness and originality of the work in 
 chemistry. Directly upon his election, he visited Dr. Maclean, 
 at Princeton, went through his laboratory, and afterward 
 said that there were then performed the first experiments 
 in chemistry he ever saw.* Bowdoin College provided for 
 chemical instruction in 1805, and the University of Georgia 
 some years earlier. But candor requires the statement that 
 most institutions offered but lectures, and the best of them 
 experiments performed by the instructors only. Laboratory 
 
 * " I regard Prof. Maclean," said Prof. Silliman, " as my earliest master 
 in chemistry, and Princeton as my starting-point in its pursuit." Fisher's 
 "Life of Silliman," vol. i, p. 109.
 
 EECENT COLLEGES. 163 
 
 practice of students was almost wholly unknown. Among 
 the better courses were those of Dr. Cooper, first in Dickin- 
 son College, and later in South Carolina College ; and those 
 of Dr. William H. Ellett, also of South Carolina, who did 
 initiate his students into some little handling of materials 
 and manipulating of simple experiments. " Silliman's Jour- 
 nal " also was a university in itself, and from its f ounding ? 
 in 1818, has exercised a directive and conserving influence 
 upon chemistry and chemical instruction, sadly wanting in 
 most other sciences. 
 
 Chester Dewey studied under Silliman some time at 
 Yale, and through him fitted up his laboratory at Williams 
 College in 1812. The next year Prof. J. F. Dana was em- 
 ployed to go to England and select and purchase for Har- 
 vard the furnishings of a chemical laboratory. The next 
 quarter of a century was a period of general activity, no 
 less than of individual inquiry and the increase of knowl- 
 edge. The scientific schools of Harvard and Yale, and other 
 Eastern colleges, were making experimental chemistry better 
 known, the Smithsonian Institution was founded, and the 
 American Association for the Advancement of Science ; and, 
 in the year 1862, the greatest recent impulse of all, to both 
 physics and chemistry, was given in the congressional act 
 providing for agricultural and mechanical instruction, in 
 that it opened the way for laboratories on a more com- 
 prehensive scale, and created a demand for experimental 
 physicists and chemists. 
 
 c. GEOLOGY. 
 
 Next to physics and chemistry, one of the earliest devel- 
 oped of the sciences was geology not always distinct from 
 geography on the one hand, or from mineralogy, which was a 
 branch of chemistry, on the other. It was included in Prof. 
 Silliman's department at Yale in 1802, and so continued 
 until after the middle of the century, when it became a dis- 
 tinct chair under James D. Dana. Among the older geolo- 
 gists, and one of the first to study nature in the field, was
 
 164 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Prof. Amos Eaton, of Williams College. He has been called 
 the "Father of American Geology," was the instructor of 
 Hall, Dana, and Williams, and initiated the interest in a 
 half-dozen States. Under the patronage of Hon. Stephen 
 Van Rensselaer, he made a systematic examination of the 
 section of the Erie Canal (1823), and explored other parts of 
 New York. During the same period, Prof. Olmsted was 
 doing a like service for North Carolina and the general 
 advancement of the science in the South. 
 
 Another phase of the development of geological study 
 and instruction is shown in the beginnings of museums 
 botanical, geological, rnineralogical in this period. Speci- 
 mens had been gathered, in a way, by various institutions 
 for many years; but in 1827 Williams College set about 
 doing it systematically. During the summer of that year 
 an exploring party was sent out professors and students 
 to Nova Scotia, and a quantity of mineralogies! and geo- 
 logical specimens collected, making an excellent start for 
 a museum. These expeditions were kept up for many 
 years, and all parts of the country visited, South and West, 
 and a place established for Williams College among the 
 originators of scientific museums. 
 
 D. ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Theoretical astronomy was taught, in connection with 
 mathematics, in the better institutions, even in the last cent- 
 ury. Some of the minor instruments, indeed, were used. 
 More than a hundred years ago Harvard boasted a tele- 
 scope ; but it all effected little of culture, less of discovery, and 
 scarcely more of illustration. Princeton provided a room 
 for instruments as early as 1803. Yale had an improvised 
 observatory in 1830, and, but seven years later, Williams 
 College, a separate building, and specially equipped under 
 Prof. Albert Hopkins. The Hudson Observatory, at Western 
 Reserve College, was founded hi 1839, and one for the Phila- 
 delphia (boys') High School the same year. A few years 
 later the National Observatory was established at Washing.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 165 
 
 ton, and shortly after, one at the Military Academy. Up to 
 this time astronomical instruction, and the science, so far as 
 Americans had contributed to it, had only a nominal exist- 
 ence. The instruments were hut ordinary, and the methods 
 those of authority and prescription ; inquiry was dependent 
 and subservient. Its emancipation was coming, but slowly. 
 In 1844 was completed the Cincinnati Observatory, and Prof. 
 Mitchell made director. Here began a truly scientific and 
 efficient study of astronomy. Not more for what it did, than 
 for the spirit it exampled to science, is its service honored. 
 The Cambridge (Massachusetts) Observatory was erected in 
 1846, and that of Michigan University, at Ann Arbor, in 1854. 
 This last was generously equipped, and furnished with the 
 most modern conveniences ; and, when measured by the first 
 Williams College foundation, exhibits the rapid growth of 
 seventeen years. Miss Maria Mitchell was for some years 
 connected with an observatory at Nantucket, Massachusetts ; 
 and later, for nearly twenty years, director of one at Vassar 
 College, where she made for herself a name of more than 
 national reputation. 
 
 A few years earlier than the last events recorded, just 
 prior to the civil war, the Clarks, manufacturers of optical 
 instruments, had established themselves at Cambridgeport, 
 Massachusetts, and have, in a quarter of a century, done much 
 to dignify and promote astronomical study.* In 1862 they 
 furnished a glass for the University of Mississippi, but which, 
 because of the misfortunes of war, was ultimately set up at 
 Chicago. It was eighteen and a half inches in diameter, and 
 was thought to be a large glass. Ten years later, they 
 erected a twenty-six-inch telescope in Washington at the 
 Naval Observatory, and took orders for another of the same 
 size, which was finished and set up four years since (1885) at 
 the McCormick Observatory, the University of Virginia. 
 
 * The American method of recording astronomical observations by means 
 of electro-magnetism, it is acknowledged, has greatly increased the efficiency 
 of the practical observer.
 
 166 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Princeton and Yale both erected large telescopes in 1882 in 
 the latter institution Denison Olmsted had taught astronomy 
 fifty years before. The famous Lick Observatory, Califor- 
 nia, has a thirty-six-inch glass, and the largest in use in this 
 country. * The Warner Observatory, at Rochester, is a private 
 institution, but one of the most efficient in important discov- 
 eries and verifications. Princeton, the University of Minne- 
 sota, and a few other institutions, have separate, endowed 
 and especially equipped foundations for the use of students. 
 
 E. BIOLOGY. 
 
 Natural history, which was for many years the all-inclu- 
 sive science, comprising even chemistry, physics, and astron- 
 omy, later became restricted to minerals, plants, and ani- 
 mals, in their normal condition, as objects of observation, 
 but not of experiment. Biology is narrower, resting funda- 
 mentally upon the observations and comparative studies of 
 the organs and phenomena of life. It has been said that 
 biological study (in the universities) began with Huxley in 
 England, and later in this country. 
 
 But it does the English scientist no discredit to say that 
 American learning, both in colleges and outside, presented 
 instances of the true scientific spirit, in the study of life- 
 forms, many years prior to 1875.f These instances are in- 
 dividual, it is true, and were not always connected with in- 
 stitutions of learning. As the first laboratories were private 
 or medical, so the first museums and studies of nature in 
 the field were of personal preference and interest. Through 
 individuals they got into the colleges how slowly, is em- 
 phasized by a study of a few names. 
 
 * A contract has just been completed for a forty-inch glass, for the ob- 
 servatory to be built for the Leland Stanford, Jr., University, in California. 
 
 t It is well known how revolutionary and regenerative was the influence 
 of Agassiz in all biological studies, substituting the comparative for the 
 merely descriptive method. The Penikese school and the Harvard Muse- 
 um are works of his wonderful genius.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 167 
 
 Thomas Herriott, an English scientist, a man of wide cult- 
 ure, the teacher of Sir Walter Raleigh, and an author, made 
 a voyage to America in 1585. He is described as astronomer 
 and mathematician, but also as botanist and zoologist. His 
 natural history writings were numerous, and included care- 
 ful descriptions from personal observation of twenty-eight 
 mammals, and more than thirty birds. John Smith, it has 
 been said, would have been a scientist if he had not had a 
 continent to rule ; Dr. James Logan early lectured on physi- 
 ological botany ; and John Bartram, the Quaker naturalist, 
 built a botanic garden, the first in this country, on the banks 
 of the Schuylkill. Linnaeus called him the greatest natural 
 botanist hi the world. In Harvard's first course botany was 
 included to be pursued for one term each year by lectures 
 only, but during the summer term. About the middle of the 
 last century lectures were also given on the subject, in con- 
 nection with materia medica, in the College of Philadelphia. 
 Of the same general character were Dr. Hunter's lectures on 
 comparative anatomy at Newport, Rhode Island, 1754 ; those 
 on natural history to the medical classes in Harvard, 1788, 
 and by Dr. Mitchell in Columbia College four years later.* 
 About the same date Dr. David Hosack was made Professor 
 of Botany in the same institution. 
 
 But, with all this, colonial instruction in science was 
 scarcely scientific. It was meager, almost wholly by lecture, 
 chiefly theoretical and classificatory, as it remained even 
 down to the present generation. There were but few books, 
 and upon the part of students no field study. Nothing sat- 
 isfactory is known of any better instruction prior to 1800. 
 Prof. Eaton lectured on botany in Williams College 1810, and 
 was succeeded by Prof. Chester Dewey. Among later men 
 have been Gray and Dana and Baird and Agassiz ; Martin 
 and Brooks in Johns Hopkins, and Jordan and Coulter in 
 Indiana, not to name others widely known, and large origi- 
 
 * Six years after this (1798) he established a scientific journal, perhaps 
 the pioneer in this country.
 
 168 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 nal contributors to biological science. The subject has 
 been greatly enlarged. Besides the first descriptive and 
 structural botany, there have been developed the whole field 
 of microscopic botany, paleontological and geographical 
 botany, and its various economic phases, as in agriculture, 
 medicine, and the commercial arts. Zoological science also, 
 along with the doctrine of evolution, has specialized into 
 new fields and answered many of the old questions. The 
 greatest present activity among institutions and individual 
 scientists, of this class, seems to be in the study of marine 
 forms absolutely and relatively a large field. 
 
 V. THE GENERAL RESULTS. 
 
 Chemistry has been greatly developed, and, so far from 
 being a branch of physics merely, has its own large divisions, 
 the prosecution of whose single interests occupy men a life- 
 time. Moreover, besides medical chemistry, and organic and 
 inorganic chemistries, forms thoroughly distinguished, it has 
 developed along both quantitative and qualitative lines, from 
 general chemistry into agricultural, domestic, commercial, 
 and other applications. 
 
 In physics * also, have been constructed almost bodily 
 the accepted doctrines of force, and of particular forces, elec- 
 tricity, magnetism, etc. 
 
 So in geology, beyond the older divisions into dynamic 
 and static has been carried on the study of particular 
 periods, particular structures or processes ; and historical 
 geology in its broader developments, economic geology, 
 microscopic geology, etc., have been added. Biology is 
 wholly a product of this century's thought. Resting upon 
 a large previous knowledge of animal and vegetable life, 
 there has followed an enormous increase in particular zo- 
 
 * Inasmuch as the university study of physics is more or less dependent 
 upon the preparatory work, teachers of high and normal schools and acade- 
 mies should see the little book, " Harvard Preparatory Physics," recently 
 published.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 169 
 
 ological and botanical and comparative studies, to the en- 
 largement of the curriculum many fold. 
 
 Of the several courses in Harvard, thirty per cent are in 
 science, and in most other contemporary institutions a simi- 
 lar large ratio obtains. All this has had its influence upon 
 the accepted curriculum. It could not be otherwise. It is 
 so much net addition to the sum of instruction offered in the 
 older courses even those of a century ago. It has come to 
 be universally recognized in the colleges, says Dr. Noah 
 Porter, that "the facts, the laws, the theories, the experi- 
 ments, with the changed conceptions of matter and spirit 
 which they warrant, the new view of the nearer and dis- 
 tant universe ; the discoveries and the arts which the 
 microscope, the telescope, and the spectroscope have made 
 possible ; the altered conceptions of matter living and dead, 
 and of spirit in its relation to both all these should be 
 familiar to the man who aspires to the culture of the 
 scholar." * 
 
 Not less pronounced have been the modifications of the 
 curriculum along the line of philosophy, psychology, and 
 ethics, f The enlargement of their meanings, comparative 
 studies, scientific methods of inquiry and exposition, and the 
 humanizing of interests, have, in the best sense, increased 
 the serviceableness of the course on this side. How much 
 has been accomplished by a few institutions is only equaled 
 by the much that remains to be done by most colleges, before 
 the study is rationalized. 
 
 2. Modern Language Studies. 
 
 A second characteristic of contemporary courses is the 
 emphasis put upon the modern languages. The impulse 
 has had a twofold confirmation, first in the general service- 
 
 * " The Ideal Scholar," in " The New-Englander," June, 1886. 
 
 t For a presentation of the current work in philosophy, see " Science" 
 for May, 1886, or the " Library Magazine," May 29, 1886, " Philosophy in 
 American Colleges," by John Dewey.
 
 170 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 ableness of those languages, but equally and directly in their 
 disciplinary value, as culture-giving studies. 
 
 Necessarily the record of current science must be made, 
 and must therefore be studied, in the half-dozen more or less 
 of living languages representing the field of original in- 
 vestigation. These become a medium of preserving and 
 transmitting the products of investigation into not only the 
 physical but institutional world as well. It is reported of 
 the classical scholar, Prof. Seeley, that while " recognizing 
 most strongly the value of the classics," he thought "the 
 needs of modern life were peremptorily demanding very 
 much more devotion to the modern languages than has ever 
 yet been accorded them." * Indeed it is this supreme utility, 
 it has been claimed, which is the prune agency in raising 
 their study " from the status of an accomplishment, or of a 
 commercial art," and making them to take rank as " an 
 integral portion of a liberal education." 
 
 This highest recognition of them the scientific study of 
 a language for its own sake, and for the accompanying 
 mental discipline was the outgrowth of, as later it supple- 
 mented, the study of vigorous li ving tongues from a persua- 
 sion of their economic functions. 
 
 How great is this divergence from the traditional defense 
 of the classical curriculum, can perhaps best be appreciated 
 by first taking a view of the older course. 
 
 Naturally, the introduction of the European languages 
 into our Western schools would find neither encouragement 
 nor occasion during the colonial period. But, with independ- 
 ence once achieved, the new relations fixed new obligations. 
 Such, for example, were the reciprocal influences between 
 France and the United States in the period immediately fol- 
 io whig the American Revolution; the frequent social and 
 general intercourse; the growing and mutually profitable 
 commercial interests; and the necessary and ruling diplo- 
 matic relations resulting, that the study of the French lan- 
 
 * " Modern Language Notes," February, 1888, p. 74.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 171 
 
 guage naturally followed. Their incipient republican im- 
 pulse, and a waxing protestant spirit, made an alliance with 
 the new European thought and literature both easy and im- 
 portant. 
 
 Columbia College, under Charles Bellini, established a 
 chair of French in 1779, and one of German five years 
 later. Two years before the latter, William and Mary 
 College had included modern languages in a single chair. 
 Not for almost half a century, however, was any study made 
 of their literatures. Harvard had provided incidental in- 
 struction in French, even during the heat of the Revolution, 
 but with no professorship until 1815. Union College, New 
 York, had a professor of French in 1806, another of German 
 a generation later, both of which had been merged into a 
 chair of Modern Languages by the middle of the century. 
 The one inexplicable official act of the time is that of Will- 
 iams College, whose formal acknowledgment of its impor- 
 tance, in the establishment of a chair of French (1793), 
 antedates the professorship of Greek and Latin by a quarter 
 of a century. 
 
 The affiliations of the South being generally more foreign 
 and less provincial than those of the North, except in the 
 institutions named, earlier introduced the study of the Euro- 
 pean tongues, especially the French. With the opening of 
 the century South Carolina College had a well-defined and 
 established two-years' course; as did William and Mary, 
 already noted, at least two of the colleges of Maryland, and 
 an occasional academy and high-grade seminary. 
 
 After all, little had been accomplished beyond a few in- 
 structorships in French, and an occasional tutor in German ; 
 both taught after the method of the classics, and omitting all 
 literature. In this, as in elementary education, the greatest 
 activity has been since 1825. This period includes the work 
 of the Grimm brothers, the rise of historical grammar, and 
 the comparative and critical studies in language. The rapid 
 increase of German immigration gave a peculiarly practical 
 aspect to the demand for the language, and led to its in-
 
 172 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 trod action, not only into the college curriculum, but into 
 many secondary and elementary schools even. This two- 
 fold impulse to modern language study lent it a new 
 importance. 
 
 Lafayette College, Pennsylvania, known for sixty years 
 for its modern language, Old English, and something of 
 philological interest, led out in the newer curriculum. To 
 the French and German of Columbia College were added 
 Spanish and Italian, Princeton provided modern languages, 
 and Longfellow went to Bowdoin, all within five years. The 
 University of the City of New York opened in 1831, with four 
 separate chairs. Michigan also organized, ten years later, 
 with a modern language department, which in 1867 was 
 erected into separate professorships of French and German. 
 Yale, noticeable among the older colleges, long contented 
 herself with only elementary and tutorial instruction, estab- 
 lishing her first chair of Modern Languages but twenty years 
 ago. As early as 1825, when Harvard, to the Smith profess- 
 orship of French and Spanish had appended Italian and 
 German, Yale was led to consider the propriety of modern 
 language instruction, but, with characteristic conservatism, 
 hesitated to endanger the dominance of the classics, and, 
 while having a chair of Arabic and Sanskrit (1873), voted to 
 strengthen the course in Greek instead. 
 
 In most of the older institutions now, and in all of the 
 recently established ones, two or more of the modern lan- 
 guages, either in a single department or separately, are recog- 
 nized as both a desirable and necessary part of any finished 
 course of study. In the University of California, Cornell, 
 Wellesley, and Bryn Mawr, Tulane University, and Johns 
 Hopkins, the new State institutions West and North, and 
 slowly throughout the South (the University of Virginia 
 since 1825), these languages are accorded a place beside the 
 older classics, mathematics, and philosophy ; taking the 
 place of the first in the curricula of industrial and mechani- 
 cal institutes, schools of science, commercial and political 
 departments, etc.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 173 
 
 It would be gratifying if as much could be now said for 
 the increased attention given to the university study of Eng- 
 lish as belongs to other modern languages. Whatever argu- 
 ment of utility applies to other tongues applies equally to 
 our own. As latest developed it is richest in the possibilities 
 of comparative studies ; historically it has a very practical 
 aspect. And yet no college in this country gives anything 
 like so comprehensive instruction in the philological or criti- 
 cal or even the practical study of English, as in that of most 
 other languages, or as it concedes to science or mathemat- 
 ics. Perhaps students are not properly fitted for this work 
 in the lower schools. If not, let it be remembered that the 
 raising of the standard must originate with the higher facul- 
 ties. Progress in education (it is emphatically true of the 
 United States) is downward from the universities. The 
 initiative must be taken by the colleges ; and no phase of 
 American learning shows more present neglect than the 
 university study of English. 
 
 Supplementary to this prominence of the languages, and 
 as its logical sequence, is the increasing attention given to 
 advanced philological studies. Initiated by the great learn- 
 ing of Leibnitz, the recognition of a universal kinship of 
 languages found a deserved and formal justification at the 
 close of the last century in the Zimmermann " Comparative 
 Grammar," under the patronage of Catharine II of Russia, 
 and its first authoritative development forty years later in 
 Bopp's studies among the Indo-Germanic languages, and 
 Grimm's " Historical Dictionary." The easy freedom of our 
 institutional life, and the uniform encouragement given to 
 new and promising interests, paved the way slowly for phil- 
 ological studies in American institutions also ; * the study 
 of language, not as a means to the prosecution of other 
 studies, nor yet as a mere mental discipline, but as a legiti- 
 mate field for original investigation, an open door to the 
 ethnological and institutional kinships of mankind. 
 
 * " Harvard Eeport," 1883-'84, p. 8. 
 12
 
 174 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Bowdoin early established a chair of Oriental Languages, 
 Yale, of Arabic and Sanskrit ; and Lafayette, of English and 
 Philology.* But, compared with the more recent instruc- 
 tion, much of the earlier was both superficial and diffuse ; 
 descriptive rather than comprehensive and critical. In Co- 
 lumbia courses are offered in Greek, Latin, French, Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, German, and English, with at least one 
 in each chiefly for senior or graduate study in the higher 
 critical literature and philology. Cornell offers a course on 
 ethnographical philology, and general linguistic science ; 
 Hamilton College, on comparative philology, with special 
 reference to Greek, Latin, and English ; Johns Hopkins, a 
 course in comparative philology and classical antiquities, and 
 in connection with the classics, but having a special profess- 
 or ; and Harvard one each in Greek and Latin, compara- 
 tive philology, and Romance philology. 
 
 3. Institutional History. 
 
 One of the most pronounced changes in the scope and 
 quality of the average course, and which has become, if it 
 was not originally, characteristically American, is that which 
 has enlarged it on the side of history, the study of social 
 agencies, and the growth of institutions.^ 
 
 Very early in the Harvard course history, such as it was, 
 shared with botany, such as it was, the honor of one hour 
 on Saturday afternoons for half the year. No considerable 
 advance upon this, either as to amount or kind of work 
 done, is shown by the records before the present century. 
 Both Harvard and Yale had, from about the time of the 
 
 * An Essay by Thomas Jefferson, " Toward facilitating Instruction In 
 the Anglo-Saxon and Modern Dialects of the English Language," is a 
 quaint production (1790), and well worth an examination. It was repub- 
 lished half a century afterward, for use in the University of Virginia. 
 
 t " The institutional history of political states is at the present moment, 
 perhaps, the subject which attracts the most lively attention of scholars." 
 J. C. MOEBISOK.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 175 
 
 Ke volution, included ecclesiastical history in an incidental 
 way, but with no particular reference to other social institu- 
 tions. Williams College, forward also in this as in the study 
 of modern languages, provided in the original organization 
 (1793) for instruction in " natural law and civil polity." Co- 
 lumbia College, the only other institution which seems to 
 have made any serious attempt to encourage the study of 
 history in the last century, was fortunate both in subject- 
 matter and method. The course is described by Dr. Adams 
 as "history with an ancient and geographical basis, but 
 with a modern political outlook." For the most part his- 
 tory had not been set off from the anciently allied studies 
 of language on the one hand, and philosophy on the other. 
 The historical expositions of Prof. Anthon, of the chair 
 of Greek and Latin, and Prof. McVickar, of Philosophy, 
 Rhetoric, and Belles-Lettres, both at Columbia ; Prof. 
 Hadley, of Yale; and Prof. Gross, of the department of 
 German and Geography, and later of Moral Philosophy, 
 illustrate the subordinate place of history during this pe- 
 riod, as late as 1835. 
 
 In the year named, Francis Lieber, a political refugee 
 from Germany, and but a few years in the United States, 
 was elected to the chair of History and Political Economy 
 in the University of South Carolina. In the twenty years 
 following, besides onerous class-room duties, he wrote his 
 manual of "Political Ethics," enthusiastically commended 
 by Kent and Story, and made the text of all best instruction 
 elsewhere ; " Great Events described by Great Historians," 
 the " Study of History and Political Economy as Branches 
 of a Superior Education," and his chief work, " Civil Liberty 
 and Self -Government." Chiefly known in the field of eco- 
 nomics and the studies of government, his influence in di- 
 recting the educated mind, and in bringing about a rational 
 view and presentation of the living fruitful facts of history 
 has been of inestimable service. 
 
 Four years later (1839) the first professorship at Harvard 
 was established, and Jared Sparks, pioneer representative in
 
 176 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 the study of modern and current, and especially American 
 history, was elected to the new chair. 
 
 Two centuries had worked a revolution in the attitude of 
 culture toward historical instruction. In Michigan Dr. 
 Whedon taught u Philosophy of History," succeeded a few 
 years later by Prof, (afterward President) Haven in the new 
 chair of "History and English Literature." But the long 
 step forward for Michigan, in respect to this subject, was 
 taken when, in 1857, Andrew D. White, of New York, grad- 
 uate of Yale, 1853, student of President Woolsey in this 
 country and of Laboulaye in France, was called at the age of 
 twenty-five to a separate chair of History. In half a dozen 
 ways President Tappan had shown a comprehensive appre- 
 ciation of the university function, and a far-seeing manage- 
 ment of local affairs, but greater wisdom in nothing than 
 in the strengthening along these lines. Prof. White re- 
 mained in Michigan five years, and set national standards 
 for study in political administration. Agencies of progress 
 were singled out and made the objects of both particular 
 and comparative study. Foundations were taken in a lib- 
 eral estimate of the social, physical, and culture conditions, 
 antecedent and contemporary, of political and other institu- 
 tions ; and it is safe to say that with the Michigan service 
 and twenty years as President of Cornell, few men have 
 exerted a wider and more wholesome influence upon higher 
 education, and particularly upon national and social studies 
 than Dr. Andrew D. White. 
 
 The year 1857 has been recognized as a way-mark in 
 American political culture. While Prof. White was enter- 
 ing upon his new duties in Michigan, Francis Lieber had 
 gone from South Carolina to Columbia College in a similar 
 department. He remained in New York eight years, giving 
 lectures not only upon history and economics as such, but 
 upon international, civil, and common law, as well. In 
 1865 Yale instituted her first chair in this subject, which 
 came to include, besides courses in general and ancient his- 
 tory, lectures and class-room work on modern and constitu-
 
 KECENT COLLEGES. 177 
 
 tional history and in 1868, optional exercises in Bancroft's 
 United States. 
 
 Great changes have occurred in the twenty years since, 
 in the multiplications of courses and the accompanying 
 specializations of study. These years include Dr. 0. K. 
 Adams's work in Michigan, Dr. White's at Cornell, the en- 
 largement of the course in Harvard, Prof. Dexter's lectures 
 on Ameiican history at Yale, the revival of the course at 
 Columbia (that had been abolished in 1865), and all of the 
 Johns Hopkins instruction. 
 
 Of the forty -seven higher institutions, whose reports are 
 given by Dr. Adams,* including Harvard, Columbia, and 
 Brown, and ten leading State universities, forty-six report 
 an aggregate of one hundred and eighty-nine courses in 
 history and closely related studies. The development of the 
 subject in half a century, and the really prominent place 
 (small enough) which it holds in the progressive college of 
 to-day, are rendered apparent by this multiplicity of courses, 
 their thoroughly practical character, and the comparatively 
 new but vital lines of inquiry in economic questions. A 
 look through a dozen college manuals reveals the fact that 
 to the limited traditional course in ancient and mediaeval 
 history, once so common, have been added new lines of lect- 
 ure and research, in modern and local and institutional 
 forces and phenomena, many times enlarging its scope and 
 fruitfulness : forms of government and political constitu- 
 tions ; history of political theories ; history of diplomacy 
 in general, and of particular periods and peoples ; compara- 
 tive history of religions, of constitutional law and govern- 
 mental administrations ; constitutional and political history 
 of contemporary governments, and especially of the United 
 States ; American history, etc. How large a field 1 To 
 these have been added also those newer subjects growing 
 out of the commerical character of contemporary society ; 
 mercantile and administrative law, and the financial his- 
 
 * " The Study of History in American Colleges," p. 268.
 
 178 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 tory of contemporary nations ; State and municipal finance, 
 and international history. 
 
 Of a piece with this new interest in modern history in 
 general is the increased recognition of the importance to our 
 schools of studies in American history. After repeated 
 recommendations by President White, Cornell established 
 (1881) a full professorship in this subject ; according to Dr. 
 White,* the first department of the kind in this country. 
 During the same year, however, similar provisions were 
 made at Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania. 
 Besides these three schools, courses varying in definiteness 
 and scope are offered at Yale, Columbia, and Michigan. 
 From the department in the University of Pennsylvania, 
 the literature of American history has been enriched by 
 McMaster's " History of the People of the United States," and 
 from Harvard a " Short History of the English Colonies in 
 America," by Henry Cabot Lodge. Not immediately grow- 
 ing out of the department, but intimately associated with, 
 and re-enforcing it as it re-enforces such interests every- 
 where, is the " Narrative and Critical History of America," 
 by Justin Windsor, Harvard librarian. The work is to be 
 complete in eight volumes, each division of the subject 
 being treated descriptively for general use, and, for the 
 scholar, critically. Supplementing both, are admirably ar- 
 ranged and very full bibliographical references, and clas- 
 sification of original documents and rare sources of in- 
 formation. 
 
 Following are the divisions of the work, vols. ii to vii, 
 inclusive, being already published : 
 I. America before Columbus. 
 
 II. Spanish Discoveries and Conquests in America. 
 
 III. English Discoveries and Settlements in America. 
 
 IV. French Discoveries and Settlements in America. 
 
 V. The French and English in North America (1689- 
 1763). 
 
 * " Official Report for Cornell," 1832-'83, p. 20.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 179 
 
 VI. The American Revolution. 
 VII. The United States (1783-1850). 
 
 VIII. Canada and the American Outgrowth of Continental 
 Europe. 
 
 4. Economic Studies. 
 
 Not less striking in the development of the historical 
 idea, and its presentation, is the kindred growth of political, 
 social, and economic studies. 
 
 The need for political education began to be felt with 
 our national birth. The peculiar national life early be- 
 came a subject for study in college, academic, and other 
 assemblies where citizens were schooled. For forty years 
 some form of economic instruction has been more or less 
 common in the leading colleges. A few of the represen- 
 tatives of the early day are historical. McVickar taught 
 political economy at Columbia College as long ago as 1817 ; 
 and the well-known author and economist, Dr. Cooper, was 
 elected the same year to a like position in William and 
 Mary College. Francis Lieber, to whom reference has al- 
 ready been made, began his political lectures and writings 
 in South Carolina College just half a century since. Tor- 
 rey and Bowen initiated the work at Harvard, and President 
 Woolsey at Yale. 
 
 In general, however, it may be said the instruction 
 showed its metaphysical presuppositions in an a priori dog- 
 matic treatment that left it barren of any insight into insti- 
 tutional life. Not until within a recent period has it come to 
 be studied as is geography or ethics for their higher eco- 
 nomic connections. The current decade (1880-'90), indeed, 
 includes nearly all the organized effort in this direction, 
 and is worth studying, both for its own results, and as an 
 illustration of the change that has come over the college 
 course. 
 
 The principal activity is shown in Columbia College and 
 the Universities of Pennsylvania, Michigan, Cornell, and 
 Johns Hopkins, having special schools ; and in Harvard
 
 180 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 and Yale offering extensive courses in political and eco- 
 nomic studies. 
 
 A. COLUMBIA SCHOOL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 The Columbia school was organized October, 1880, by the 
 combination of forces already at work, and which had been 
 directed to this end. A special faculty was selected, and a 
 course of study covering three years, and embracing a his- 
 tory of philosophy and political literature as the basis for a 
 rational study of the specific questions of the new depart- 
 ment. These were made to include, besides much historical 
 matter, a study of Roman law and derived codes, consti- 
 tutional and comparative administrative law, public and 
 private international law, statistics, and communistic and 
 social theories. 
 
 The purpose of the school was and is to give a complete 
 general view of all the subjects, both of internal and ex- 
 ternal public polity, from the threefold standpoint of his- 
 tory, law, and philosophy. 
 
 B. THE WHARTON SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND ECONOMY. 
 
 The Wharton School in the University of Pennsylvania 
 is rather a school of trade and the principles of finance than 
 for political science and economics in the usual sense. Its 
 functions are peculiar. It is more professional than politi- 
 cal, and looks to the manipulation of industries rather than 
 the administration of government. Nevertheless, it has 
 economic bearings. The school was founded by Joseph 
 Wharton in 1881, aiming to give, in addition to a purely 
 business training, an extended study of economic principles, 
 as a foundation for a correct political economy which shall 
 " command the respect of thoughtful business men who are 
 skeptical concerning the worth of that usually taught." The 
 course covers two years, and is re-enforced by a library par- 
 ticularly full in industrial, commercial, and economic liter- 
 ature.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 181 
 
 C. THE MICHIGAN SCHOOL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 As one effect of the experiment in Columbia College 
 (1880), and the general drift toward the university idea, was 
 the establishment of a School of Political Science at Ann 
 Arbor (1881). Similar in fundamentals to the Columbia 
 school, it developed certain new lines, which give it an in- 
 dividuality. Lectures were given ha general historical study, 
 and the method of original investigations, political economy, 
 international law, civil and political rights, sanitary and so- 
 cial science, and forestry. Subsequently were introduced 
 some very practical and fruitful lectures and discussions on 
 public surveys, the economic development of mineral re- 
 sources, the historical development of educational systems, 
 municipal government, modern diplomacy, and local gov- 
 ernment in Europe and America. 
 
 D. THE WHITE SCHOOL OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 Instruction at Cornell was organized into schools at its 
 founding. It could not well have been otherwise. It was 
 part of a wide-spread tendency. Culture should no longer 
 be bolstered and petted. All learning should stand upon its 
 merits. Alongside a full presentation of the dead languages 
 and traditional systems were offered the modern languages 
 and their discipline. The emancipation of the sciences from 
 metaphysics, and history from the Church, and politics from 
 monarchism, was a task worthy of, as it has commanded, 
 the best thought and most liberal means everywhere. As 
 the plan developed at Cornell, history rapidly appreciated. 
 Social and institutional life were dignified with the profound- 
 est study. Gold win Smith and James Anthony Froude and 
 Edward A. Freeman were invited to lecture on English his- 
 tory and related topics, Theodore W. Dwight on " Consti- 
 tutional Law," and others on their specialties ; but the lead- 
 ing spirit of the new school, as for twenty years he was the 
 administrative head of the university, was President White, 
 dean of the school, and lecturer upon French history and
 
 182 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 
 
 institutions, and general economics. His course was sug- 
 gestive. It paved the way and laid the foundation for the 
 recent and contemporary political and economic studies 
 recommended by the president in his first reports. 
 
 The school was formally instituted in 1882, with a course 
 extending over four years, two of which were to be chiefly 
 devoted to a thorough preparation in modern languages, 
 mathematics, and history. At present the department offers 
 fifteen courses, with five alternates, as follows : 
 
 1. The history and civilizations of Greece and Rome. 
 
 2. The private life of the Romans. 
 
 3. Private, political, and legal antiquities of the Greeks. 
 
 4. Political and social history of Europe to the French 
 Revolution. 
 
 5. Political and social history of England through the 
 Napoleonic wars. 
 
 6. General history of Europe to the Franco-German 
 War. 
 
 7. History of America to 1783. 
 
 8. Constitutional and political history of America, 1783- 
 1SG1. 
 
 9. Problems in American constitutional and political his- 
 tory. 
 
 10. History of political and municipal institutions. 
 
 11. Growth of the English Constitution. 
 
 12. International law and diplomacy. 
 
 13. Literature of political science. 
 
 14. Historic achievements in statesmanship. 
 
 15. Political and historical questions. 
 
 16. Elements of political economy. 
 
 17. Problems in political economy and finance. 
 
 18. History and management of industrial, penal, and 
 charitable institutions. 
 
 19. Economic questions. 
 
 20. History and significance of the Roman law.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 183 
 
 E. THE JOHNS HOPKINS HISTORICAL-POLITICAL SCHOOL. 
 
 This course is No. 6 of the seven groups of studies con- 
 stituting the academic work of Johns Hopkins University. 
 The department employs six professors, and, in addition to a 
 study of the general history of institutions, provides lectures 
 and seminary discussion on European politics, historical 
 jurisprudence, political economy, modern historical criticism, 
 historiography, and modern methods of historical research, 
 administrative and comparative politics, and concrete prob- 
 lems of social science. 
 
 The work throughout is carried on in a comprehensive, 
 familiar, and practical way ; libraries and original research, 
 both in Europe and the United States, being made to con- 
 tribute to its efficiency. 
 
 F. OTHER INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Yale maintains a strong department also, with character- 
 istic courses upon the industrial organization of society, 
 sociology with an elementary study of human paleontology, 
 archaeology, and ethnology, railroad administration, indus- 
 trial legislation, etc. The courses in Harvard are similar. 
 Mention should not be omitted, also, of the like instruction 
 and a commendable interest manifested among Western 
 institutions, particularly at the Universities of Wisconsin 
 and California. 
 
 G. HISTORICAL LIBRARIES AND SEMINARIES. 
 
 Besides the lectures and conventional class-room work, 
 most of these schools sustain, in fact if not in name, semina- 
 ries, or organized, more or less formal societies, of students 
 and instructors, for the carrying on of original studies, 
 chiefly among advanced students. 
 
 Dr. H. B. Adams is authority for the statement that the 
 seminaiy was first introduced in a simple form into this 
 country, through Michigan University, about 1869. The idea 
 was further applied in Harvard the next year ; but received
 
 184 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 its principal impulse in the department of the Johns Hop- 
 kins University in 1876. Cornell has three such seminary 
 bodies, one for American history, one for political studies, 
 and one for economics. 
 
 A necessary accompaniment of this seminary work, 
 whether in history and economics, or, what is not less com- 
 mon, in psychology, in physical science, or philology, is a 
 working collection of selected books. The Cornell library 
 for such use is one of the richest in this country in original 
 and standard materials for economic and historical studies. 
 It contains the Groldwin Smith library of English, and the 
 Sparks library of American history, a large collection of 
 documents on American slavery, and the generous gift of 
 President White's own historical library of thirty thousand 
 volumes. Prominent also among the numerous originally 
 valuable features of the Johns Hopkins Seminary of History 
 and Politics are the admirably managed and well-used spe- 
 cial library of twelve thousand volumes, containing valuable 
 manuscripts and rare treatises, the newspaper, Geographical 
 and Statistical Bureaus, and the Historical Museum. Few 
 similar schools have collections, either so valuable in them- 
 selves or so directly and without restriction available upon 
 occasion, and certainly none more industriously used. In 
 1882 was begun the publication of the " Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 versity Studies in Historical and Political Science." Six 
 volumes have been published, including papers on social 
 institutions ; economics ; Maryland, Virginia, and Washing- 
 ton ; municipal government and land tenure ; and like 
 questions, and represent the best results of individual and 
 organized original inquiry by the department. 
 
 At Harvard also as an organ of the department is main- 
 tained the " Quarterly Journal of Economics," supported by 
 the income from a fund of fifteen thousand dollars. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 "Science in American Colleges," the "Century Magazine," April, 
 1882; "The Beginnings of Natural History in America," by G. Brown
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 185 
 
 Good, " Proceedings of the Biological Society," Washington, D. C., Feb- 
 ruary, 1886; the "Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the United 
 States," F. W. Clarke, "Bureau of Education," Circular No. 6, 1881; 
 "Biological Teaching in Colleges," W. G. Farlow, "Popular Science 
 Monthly," March, 1886; "The Growth and Development in the Teaching 
 of Science in the Schools and Colleges of New York," in ninety-eighth 
 " Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York " 
 (1884); "A Century of Abstract Science in America," Simon Newcomb, 
 "North American Review" (1876). A valuable contribution to the dis- 
 cussion of this question was made in the " Culture demanded by Modern 
 Life," E. L. Youmans (1867), and its companion volume, as a sort of 
 reply, " Classical Study, its Value illustrated by Extracts from the Writ- 
 ings of Eminent Scholars," by S. H. Taylor (1 870). 
 
 Consult also " Modern Language as a College Discipline," by A. M. 
 Elliott, "Education," vol. v (18S4); the "Position of Modern Languages 
 in Higher Education," "Proceedings of the National Educational Asso- 
 ciation" (1876), p. Ill; "History of Classical Education," by C. S. 
 Parker, in Farrar's " Essays on a Liberal Education " ; "A College 
 Fetich," by C. F. Adams, Jr., "Independent," August 9 (1883); the 
 " Study of Language in a Liberal Education," by J. Bascom, " Proceed- 
 ings of National Educational Association" (1884), p. 273; "On the 
 Function of the Study of Latin and Greek in Education," by William T. 
 Harris, " American Journal of Social Science," vol. xx, p. 1 ; " The Classi- 
 cal Question in Germany," by E. J. James, " Popular Science Monthly," 
 January, 1884 ; the "Place of English in the College Curriculum," "Yale 
 Review," February, 1886; and "English in our Colleges," by A. S. Hill, 
 "Scribner's Magazine," April, 1887. 
 
 See "Manual of Historical Literature," by C. K. Adams (1882); 
 "Methods of Historical Study," by E. A. Freeman (1886); "Methods of 
 Teaching History," by G. S. Hall (1885); and the "Study of American 
 History in Schools and Colleges," by F. M. Thorpe ; also, a " Plea for 
 the Study of American Institutions in American Schools," by F. M. 
 Thorpe, " Education," November, 1886; "A Narrative and Critical His- 
 tory of the United States," by Justin Windsor ; " Outline of a Proposed 
 School of Political and Social Science," E. J. James (1885) ; " Economic 
 Science in America," C. F. Dunbar, "North American Review" (1876); 
 "Of the Study of Politics," Woodrow Wilson, "Princeton Review," 
 March, 1887 ; and " European Schools of History and Politics," by 
 Andrew D. White (1887).
 
 186 THE PEPJOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 RECENT COLLEGES.-(Continued.) 
 
 5. Elective Courses. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTING these modifications, and in some degree 
 made necessary by them and marking their culmination, 
 is the large privilege of option accorded students in follow- 
 ing a course of study. 
 
 The conditions leading to this changed attitude of the 
 educated and general public toward, and the newer ideas 
 of a liberal education, are manifold. Something may doubt- 
 less be ascribed to a very general withdrawal of author- 
 ity in all matters, domestic, civil, and political, as well as 
 educational. That this influence is one whose working and 
 effect are not calculable, and is indefinitely and variously 
 estimated, but universally recognized, only serves to dignify 
 the fact. Besides, the fundamental American trait, protest- 
 ant and confident, initiates a zeal for change, an impatience 
 of tasks and restraints ; and, along with a very natural in- 
 tolerance of the wisdom of experience, suffers a confidence 
 in untried methods, a wealth of risk, and speculation, and 
 hopefulness, which, to a people of ancestral foundations, 
 forebode only ill. 
 
 The growth of a people also, surrounded by and within 
 reach of abundant material resources ; stirred by constant 
 exhibitions of material progress ; influenced by present con- 
 siderations ; early forced into competitions for place, and 
 personal aggrandizement, and local advantages ; in a coun- 
 try where the virtues of party and sect are exalted ; and, 
 intoxicated by an almost unbroken record of achievements 
 easily divorces the public regard from the traditional re- 
 generations of a pronounced humanistic culture, and breeds 
 a warranted but sometimes unwise demand for the merely 
 expedient and useful. Further, the early training in self-
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 187 
 
 control which lies at the basis of our individual sovereign- 
 ty and the rapid maturing of American youth, suggest a 
 limited prescription and freer appointments throughout 
 society. A citizenship at twenty-one must rest upon a pre- 
 vious training in self-direction, making the assumption of 
 that citizenship rational. That the sentiment may be un- 
 wise though soundly inspired, and yet find a general indorse- 
 ment, is not improbable. The imminence of citizenship to 
 every student sets limits to authority, and fosters the tend- 
 ency to early independence. 
 
 It has been aptly said by a recent writer : * " The American 
 college curriculum, at the time when most of us became ac- 
 quainted with it, was a very definite thing, time-honored, 
 and commanding a certain respect from its correspondence 
 with the theory on which it is based. Its fundamental idea 
 was discipline of the mind. Its mode of effecting this was, 
 in large part, by shutting the student's eyes to the distract- 
 ing and inconsequential present, and fixing his gaze on that 
 which was great and good, and hard to understand, in the 
 past. The main work of the course consisted of drill in 
 grammar and mathematics ; and the results of this training 
 were bound together, at the hands of the president, by a final 
 exposition of such of the speculations of philosophers as 
 seemed to him safe and substantial. This work lasted for 
 reasons so old as to be long since forgotten just four years, 
 and was preceded by a certain very definite amount of drill 
 of much the same kind, which was regarded as a necessary 
 preliminary to the other work." 
 
 This is no caricature, but a statement of recorded fact ; 
 not all the merit belongs to the new education ; the old-time 
 learning, too, was worth treasuring ; but that such educa- 
 tion would no longer be called " liberal " has the most schol- 
 arly testimony. With the changed human relations have 
 come new estimates, and the growing impression that 
 " the languages of Greece and Home can never again be 
 
 * Dr. David S. Jordan, " Science Sketches," p. 230.
 
 188 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 considered as they were once almost the sole requisites of 
 a liberal education." * 
 
 The enlargement of the curriculum, due to the great in- 
 crease of the field of knowledge both spiritual and physi- 
 cal science has already been suggested as historically con- 
 ditioning the lapse of the prescribed course. Science, his- 
 tory, and their comparative studies ; philosophy that is not 
 metaphysics and is more than speculation; anthropology 
 the comparative study of races, language, and customs; 
 the evolution of laws, and ideals of culture all represent 
 legitimate lines of development and perfection. Neither can 
 all be included nor these omitted. 
 
 A. BEGINNINGS OF THE OPEN SYSTEM. 
 
 It can not perhaps be said where or when the freedom to 
 select studies was first formally allowed to students in our 
 American schools. Indeed, it is a matter of no great impor- 
 tance; it grew. The privilege has been granted; is now 
 used in every State, perhaps in a majority of all our colleges 
 in some institutions, too, where it should not be found. 
 But the change is made, or making, and is part of an im- 
 pulse as old as the century. This change in the curriculum, 
 which in the older institutions has been brought about 
 through years of experiment, and at the expense of much 
 halting and indecision, the newer colleges possess as an 
 inheritance. Sixty years span most that is historic in the 
 question. 
 
 It would be interesting to trace to their origin the liberal, 
 but to Americans then unfamiliar, notions of Jefferson, Pres- 
 ident Nott, Francis Wayland, Joseph Story, Prof. Ticknor, 
 and others, touching this movement. It has a tendency to 
 lead one into a kind of hero-worship to know how large a 
 place the ideas of a few men have filled in the educational 
 history of this country, until it is found that the few men 
 
 * Dr. Cbwe, " Liberal Education," address at the opening of Bryn 
 Muwr College, 1885.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 189 
 
 were exponents of a common sentiment, in whose minds the 
 general impulse took shape, and who so became public 
 spokesmen. 
 
 The early efforts to establish mechanics' and manual la- 
 bor institutes are interesting as marking a reaction against 
 the dominance of language and metaphysics, and an ingen- 
 uous appeal for a larger recognition of the physical sciences. 
 The University of the City of New York, in 1830, organized 
 with sixteen departments, one half of which were of science 
 and the modern languages. Union college, under Dr. Eliph- 
 alet Nott, established and maintained for many years both 
 classical and non-classical courses; the latter substituting 
 German and an increased amount of mathematics in place 
 of the classics, and both admitting a limited choice within 
 the courses. 
 
 Harvard also was early led to consider the "fitness of 
 the course of instruction," possibly at the suggestion, cer- 
 tainly with the support, of Judge Story, and in the year 1824 
 provided, through the corporation and overseers, and against 
 the judgment of the faculty, " for the consideration, to a lim- 
 ited extent, of the desires of students in the arrangement of 
 their studies." Under this provision, French and Spanish 
 were offered as " voluntaries " by Prof. Ticknor, and with 
 minor interruptions continued so throughout his own, and 
 Prof. Longfellow's connection with the institution, for twenty 
 years. Further than this, with the exception that juniors 
 might choose a substitute for one term of Hebrew, and seniors 
 between chemistry and fluxions, all the studies of the college 
 were required, as they had been for two centuries. 
 
 B. THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 One of the most interesting of American university foun- 
 dations is that of the University of Virginia. Its constitution 
 and management are full of instruction to institutions both 
 older and younger. Fortunate in wise direction, its com- 
 prehensive organization has been more or less copied by 
 institutions of even greater pretensions. 
 13
 
 190 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 He who would know the origin and inauguration, and 
 from them learn of the inner spirit, of the University of Vir- 
 ginia, must read the life and study the correspondence of 
 Thomas Jefferson. He was the controlling spirit in the en- 
 terprise from its inception till his death. His letters to Ca- 
 bell and Dr. Priestley and Thomas Cooper and John Adams 
 are full of interrogation and suggestion and plan concern- 
 ing a " real university." 
 
 As early as 1779, while yet the " Old Dominion " with her 
 sister States was embroiled in a doubtful war ; and again in 
 1814, after numerous defeats and constant opposition from 
 the already established William and Mary College, from the 
 Protestant churches, and from most of the political leaders 
 of the time, Mr. Jefferson and his friends sought to provide 
 for the State, along with a general system of education, a 
 university, in which should be taught in the highest degree, 
 " every branch of knowledge, whether calculated to enrich, 
 stimulate, and adorn the understanding, or to be useful in 
 the arts and practical business of life." Five years later 
 (1819) an act of the Assembly was obtained establishing 
 the University of Virginia. When six years later it was 
 opened, after a wide acquaintance and careful study of the 
 most progressive institutions in the United States, it was 
 found that in discipline and instruction, in constitution and 
 means, it very materially differed from them all. In Mr. 
 Jefferson's words publishing his plan it was said : " There is 
 one practice from which we shall certainly vary, although 
 it has been copied by nearly every college and academy in 
 the United States. That is the holding of the students all to 
 one prescribed course of reading, and disallowing exclusive 
 application to those branches only which are to qualify 
 them for the particular vocation to which they are destined. 
 We shall, on the contrary, allow them uncontrolled choice 
 in the lectures they shall choose to attend, and require ele- 
 mentary qualifications only, and sufficient age." * 
 
 * Letters to Prof. George Ticknor. Sec also Jefferson's "Works," vol.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 191 
 
 Substantially this policy has been in operation ever since, 
 now (1889), sixty-four years. There is no curriculum of 
 studies as in most institutions of like grade. Each distinct 
 branch of knowledge is assigned to, and presented by a sep- 
 arate " School," under the exclusive charge of its own pro- 
 fessors, and conferring its own certificate. The eight schools 
 with which the university opened, have expanded to nine- 
 teen twelve academic and seven professional. The aca- 
 demic schools are of two classes, the literary and the scien- 
 tific. The former (literary) comprise Latin, Greek, mod- 
 ern languages, English language and literature, historical 
 science, and moral philosophy; the latter (scientific schools), 
 mathematics, natural philosophy, general chemistry, analytic 
 and agricultural chemistry, natural history and geology, and 
 practical astronomy. 
 
 The professional schools are of four classes, the medical 
 department, three schools ; the law department, two schools ; 
 the engineering and agricultural departments, one school 
 each. Each of these nineteen schools is independent of 
 every other, both as to subjects included and internal con- 
 trol. This is the " freedom of teaching," widely known as 
 one of the cardinal principles of the German university sys- 
 tem ; and is the correlative of that (to them) equally funda- 
 mental "freedom of learning" which in this country has 
 come to be known as the " open system," * or elective prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 C. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 
 
 In view of its historical development, the most valuable 
 information concerning optional courses comes from Har- 
 vard. The official reports for years have been suggestive 
 upon many points of interest to college-men, and especially 
 
 viii, p. 300. Also " Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia," by 
 II. B. Adams. 
 
 * Tliis, as it appears in the University of Virginia, is very clearly set 
 forth by Prof. J. M. Garnett in " The Andover Eeview," April, 1886, 
 under the title " The Elective System of the University of Virginia.
 
 192 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 upon this. Harvard is distinguished as not only foremost 
 among the institutions of the country, but forward in the 
 effort to adapt the resources of the university to the modern 
 conditions, and the current demands of highest culture. In 
 a generous way it has been recognized by general, official, 
 and special reports, and in frequent public discussion that, 
 " the experience of Harvard, during the long transition from 
 a uniform required curriculum to a regulated freedom in 
 choice of studies," might be helpful to other institutions. 
 And from the records preserved, for more than fifty years, 
 the steps of advance and occasional retrogression can be 
 studied for Harvard as for almost no other institution in 
 this country. 
 
 After the first liberal impulse under the influence of Judge 
 Story (1834), little more was done for many years than to 
 work over and revise the original plan. Within eight years, 
 however, half the students in modern languages were taking 
 the study as an extra, or a substitute ; as a result of which 
 success, a like concession for a time was made to mathemat- 
 ics, Greek, Latin, theology, philosophy, logic, and rhetoric. 
 Having little encouragement, outside the department of 
 French, less was accomplished. Really, the extension was 
 discouraged, extras in most of these subjects being paid for 
 in students' fees. 
 
 In 1841, however, there was adopted a course, which 
 President Eliot describes as " by far the broadest plan en- 
 acted up to that time." For the freshman year all the 
 work was still prescribed ; for the sophomore year, only 
 five subjects ; for the junior, eight ; and the senior, eight ; 
 while students of these three years might, so far as their 
 time would allow, and the means of such instruction 
 " were within the resources of the university," elect from the 
 following subjects : mathematics, chemistry, Greek, Latin, 
 natural history, geology, geography, the use of the globes, 
 and any modern language. It was a large concession, and 
 had a permanent influence upon the course. 
 
 A condition of no less interest was found in the fact that
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 193 
 
 certain studies, once altogether excluded from the course 
 were occasionally regarded as essential to a liberal disci- 
 pline. For three years, under Prof. Longfellow, French 
 was a required study (1839 -'42), and even natural history 
 was prescribed in 1846, along with the classics, as were 
 chemistry and psychology. Twenty years later German 
 was required for a time, of sophomores, though it was 
 elective for juniors. But there was no system. The pub- 
 lished electives one year were required the next, and might 
 become extras the year following. There was no settled 
 policy, the argument for change in particular cases being 
 frequently convenience or expediency. French, for ex- 
 ample, was three times an elective in forty years, twice pre- 
 scribed, and twice extra. Chemistry was repeatedly shifted, 
 until 1851, when it became fixed as a part of the prescribed 
 course. 
 
 It should be remembered that, during all these years, 
 there was still maintained a uniform four years' course, and 
 the extras and electives, for which students were given no 
 credit on the rank lists were so much additional instruction 
 imposed upon an already burdened faculty. Besides, Presi- 
 dents Everett and Sparks were pronounced opponents of the 
 whole elective system. Changes were made slowly and 
 with little foresight ; with the administration of Dr. Walker, 
 however (1853), and later, of President Felton and Dr. 
 Thomas Hill, the tendency was strengthened and the policy 
 became fairly established. With increased attendance, there 
 were larger resources, leading to an enlargement of the 
 faculty, to added electives, and more generous privileges 
 granted to students. Slowly, sometimes with limitations, 
 but on the whole forward, the amount of prescribed work 
 has been reduced, and the proportion of options correspond- 
 ingly increased. 
 
 In the year 1867 a committee of the faculty, of which 
 the President (Dr. Thomas Hill) was chairman, reported the 
 following scheme of studies, which was adopted. 
 
 It is given in full, as being, first, a step in the develop-
 
 194 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 ment of the Harvard instruction ; and, second, as an interest- 
 ing attempt to distinguish between fundamental and desir- 
 able studies in a liberal schooling : 
 
 HARVARD CURRICULUM OF 1867. 
 Freshman year : 
 
 Mathematics, Latin, Greek each four hours a week ; 
 
 Greek history, French, ethics each two hours a week ; 
 
 elocution once a week. 
 Sophomore year : 
 
 Required Studies. Chemistry, German each two 
 hours a week ; Roman history, psychology and rhet- 
 oric two hours a week, for half the year. 
 
 Elective Studies. Latin, Greek, mathematics, pure and 
 applied each three hours a week. Each student 
 required to take two. 
 Junior year : 
 
 Required Studies. Physics three hours a week; logic 
 and metaphysics each two hours a week, for half 
 the year. 
 
 Elective Studies. Latin, Greek, ancient history, mathe- 
 matics, chemistry, natural history, German, Eng- 
 lish each three hours a week. Each student must 
 take two, may take three. Italian and Spanish as 
 extras. 
 Senior year : 
 
 Required Studies. Political economy, philosophy 
 each two hours a week, for half the year ; history 
 three hours a week ; ethics once a week for half 
 the year. 
 
 Elective Studies. Latin, Greek, mathematics, physics, 
 chemical physics, history, modern languages (for 
 advanced students only) each three hours a week. 
 Each student must take two, and may take three, 
 or give the time of three to two. 
 
 It will be noticed that neither Greek, Latin, nor mathe- 
 matics is required after the freshman year ; but instead,
 
 RECEXT COLLEGES. 195 
 
 philosophy in some form, psychology or ethics. The only 
 physical sciences prescribed were physics and chemistry ; 
 and they were only half studies in the sophomore and junior 
 years. 
 
 Five years later all required studies had dropped from 
 the senior work ; in 1879, from the junior; and in 1884, from 
 the sophomore. The only present prescribed work for the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts is a weekly lecture for half the 
 year in physics and chemistry each ; rhetoric and English 
 composition, including themes, throughout the four years, 
 and either German or French in the freshman year. About 
 the time of the last regulation, what is of not less impor- 
 tance and not less revolutionary, it was granted that seniors 
 might take their elementary German with juniors a step 
 toward the abolition of class distinctions, one of the charac- 
 teristics of the elective system. 
 
 D. MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY. 
 
 In Michigan the first change was made under the ad- 
 ministration of President Tappan, in the adoption of, 
 and the right of choice between, classical and scientific 
 courses. Dr. Tappan brought to his new position as first 
 president of the first great university of the West, not only 
 ability and scholarship, but a large acquaintance with the 
 best contemporary thought on university training. More- 
 over, he was an enthusiast in higher education, whose prob- 
 lems and management he had studied at home and abroad. 
 
 The liberal policy of the State under Superintendent 
 Pierce was accepted and enlarged. The scientific course 
 was arranged to cover four years, with students classed as in 
 the usual course, but graduating as Bachelors of Science. 
 These parallel courses did for Michigan what Harvard and 
 Yale but a few years before had attempted to accomplish in 
 the establishment of separate scientific schools. This inti- 
 mate connection and common dependence of all departments 
 in the Western and newer institutions is by no means the 
 smallest factor in their easier and more rapid readjustment
 
 196 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 of the curriculum, and their reorganization of faculties. The 
 past is always a teacher ; to the older colleges it has some- 
 times heen a burden. 
 
 In addition to this double course in Michigan, students 
 were allowed "to pursue special courses, and receive at their 
 departure certificates of proficiency." The sentiment was 
 growing that in some way a college of means, and the appli- 
 ances of highest culture available, should minister also to 
 the more popular demand for a share in the learning and 
 the privileges once accorded to the few; that, in a word, as 
 Prof. Ticknor said, fifty years in advance of his surround- 
 ings, "it should extend effectual instruction to portions of 
 society that now never resort to it." The sentiment, whether 
 well or ill founded, as respects the true university, had be- 
 come, by the war decade, a mastering force, reshaping the 
 control and enlarging the functions of college and school, 
 setting new limits to instruction, and giving direction to new 
 interests. 
 
 E. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 
 
 Cornell opened in 1868, dominated by this idea, that while 
 providing opportunities for the highest learning, it should be 
 a place the farthest removed from all exclusiveness ; a place 
 "where any person may find instruction in any subject." 
 Though throwing out inducements to higher special studies, 
 its doors should be closed to no one seeking even its tem- 
 porary privileges. The institution was organized with five 
 collegiate courses, of equal rank and scope ; fifteen special 
 courses, seven of which, chiefly science, led to no degree ; and 
 nine graduate courses. Of the first there were offered 1. 
 A course in literature, with Latin but no Greek (B. L.). 
 2. A course in philosophy, also requiring Latin but no 
 Greek (Ph. B.). 3. A course in science, including neither 
 Latin nor Greek (B. S.). 4. A course in science and liter- 
 ature, with neither Latin nor Greek (B. S.). 5. A course 
 in arts, the common academic course (B. A.). The fifteen 
 special courses have been changed to twelve, and the nine 
 graduate courses expanded to seventeen. Including the
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 197 
 
 medical preparatory, then, Cornell offers thirty optional 
 courses, and confers nine different degrees. Liberty in the 
 choice of studies is regarded as fundamental. 
 
 F. COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 
 
 Columbia as early as 1830 provided and for seven years 
 maintained two courses of study ; in 1857 made German vol- 
 untary, and a few years later allowed seniors a choice be- 
 tween the classics and higher mathematics. Since 1880, 
 except two hours per week of modern languages required of 
 freshmen and sophomores; history, English, and Anglo- 
 Saxon of juniors ; and English and Anglo-Saxon of seniors, 
 all the studies are elective. Three degrees are conferred, 
 Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of Science, and Bachelor of 
 Arts, according to the predominant character of the studies. 
 
 G. YALE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 Even Yale, which has been generally and very properly 
 regarded as the conservator of the principle of authority in 
 college instruction, has granted large liberty in a quarter of 
 a century. The institution was prosperous, new subjects 
 were yearly added to the curriculum, and the number of 
 departments increased. Within fifteen years from the elec- 
 tion of President Woolsey (1846), six new chairs had been 
 added to the faculty, and eight new subjects to the course. 
 The two professorships in chemistry soon grew into the 
 " Department of Philosophy and Art," in which chairs were 
 instituted in metallurgy, industrial mechanics and physics, 
 physical and political geography, agriculture, botany and 
 zoology. The section came to be known as the Sheffield 
 Scientific School, and before 1870 had already developed into 
 seven full courses, besides certain " select studies," prepara- 
 tory to minor pursuits, business, etc. 
 
 Along with this extension and enrichment of the course, 
 had been necessarily exercised the principle of selection. 
 From such a wealth of subjects, not all could be taken by 
 each. What should be omitted? Clearly the individual
 
 198 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 preference must be a factor. For some years, therefore, as 
 early as President Woolsey's administration (1846-1871), the 
 elective system had obtained, in a guarded way, in the later 
 years of the course. In 1868 Bancroft's "History of the 
 United States " was elective ; while in the next decade options 
 in the modern languages were greatly increased, as also in 
 natural science. Some choice, too, was admitted in entrance 
 examinations. Toward the close of President Woolsey's 
 administration, and in the ten years following, so rapidly 
 had the course enlarged, and so numerous were the conces- 
 sions, that " nearly one half the work of the last two years," 
 says Prof. Dexter, " was left to be determined by each stu- 
 dent for himself." At present juniors elect about sixty per 
 cent of their work, and seniors more than eighty per cent. 
 
 From the standpoint of the ancient, or even of a scholar of 
 the Revolutionary period, the change would seem to be ruin- 
 ous. And yet, in the most pronounced departure of reputa- 
 ble institutions, there has been no revolution, no disorgani- 
 zation. The transition is a hazardous one, and has need of 
 calm judgment and wise foresight. But no one longer 
 denies either the necessity or the wisdom of the elective 
 principle. " To permit choice," says Prof. Palmer, " is dan- 
 gerous ; not to permit it is more dangerous. " Only so can 
 superficiality, on the one side, be avoided, or, on the other, 
 cramping of minds. Yale offers ninety-one courses; the 
 Universities of Kansas, Indiana, and California, more than 
 one hundred each ; Harvard two hundred, and Michigan two 
 hundred and sixty-nine. Cornell, Columbia, Wisconsin, 
 Illinois, and Pennsylvania Universities offer long lists of 
 subjects. And yet, with no greatly heterogeneous conditions, 
 there is no common ground of agreement, or control at least, 
 among college authorities, as to this question. Harvard and 
 Columbia make the whole course practically elective, and 
 the University of Kansas largely so, after the freshman year. 
 In the University of Texas it is one half elective from the 
 first. The University of Minnesota, Dartmouth, and Prince-
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 199 
 
 ton, average about one half elective after the sophomore year. 
 To this the Universities of California, Brown, and Bowdoin, 
 add as elective one fourth of the sophomore work. In Will- 
 iams College the electives constitute from one half to three 
 fourths of the work of the last two years, and in Amherst 
 almost four fifths of the work from the middle of the sopho- 
 more. In Swarthmore, but about one fifth of the course is 
 elective after the freshman year; and in Boston University, 
 the order of subjects only. With a few institutions the 
 choice is between courses alone ; as in Lehigh University, the 
 University of Georgia, and the Tulane University, in the last 
 of which there are six courses, two including something of 
 the classics, but each leading to the degree B. A. 
 
 H. THE GROUP SYSTEM OF STUDIES. 
 
 In the attempt of educators to give a rational answer to 
 the question how the elective principle may be applied to 
 university work, without doing violence to the demands of 
 liberal culture, the "group system" is historically signifi- 
 cant. This assumes that there are certain studies which 
 must be held indispensable to a liberal education. These 
 form the groundwork of all the courses, whose additional 
 branches give specific character to each. The Johns Hop- 
 kins University (opened 1876) is a representative of this class 
 of institutions. The "essential studies" are logic, ethics, 
 psychology, German, French, English, science (chemistry, 
 physics, or biology), physical geography, and history (Greek 
 and Roman, or modern European). Upon this foundation 
 seven groups of studies are constituted, called respectively : 
 1. Classical. 2. Mathematical-physical. 3. Chemical-biologi- 
 cal. 4. Physical-chemical. 5. Latin-mathematical. 6. His- 
 torical-political. 7. Modern languages. The several courses 
 lead equally to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. Just here> 
 institutions which insist upon a more or less close following 
 of the traditional course (mathematics, philosophy, and the 
 classics), as entitling the graduate to the degree B. A., would 
 break with the Johns Hopkins control in the plan proposed.
 
 200 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 The question is not, they say : Shall a degree be given where 
 the classics have been omitted ? but: Shall the B. A. be con- 
 ferred without them ? Johns Hopkins, in Groups II, III, IV, 
 and VI, says Yes. 
 
 The curriculum of the recently founded college for 
 women, Bryn Mawr, near Philadelphia, is the group system, 
 as are those of Indiana University, Washington and Lee, 
 and Tulane Universities, substantially. Graduate work for 
 advanced degrees in the University of California, and a few 
 others, is also set off into groups upon the same principle. 
 
 6. Graduate Courses. 
 
 As an outgrowth of the larger personal interest, and the 
 less insistence upon a uniform curriculum, certain colleges 
 have developed an amount of advanced and original work 
 in various lines hinting at a true university spirit. 
 
 The admission of unmatriculated students to select 
 courses, or to lectures in particular lines only, has thrown 
 open the majority of higher institutions to a larger general 
 and popular patronage. For the academic year 1885-'86, 
 out of a total of three hundred and forty-six institutions, 
 one hundred and fifty-four reported four thousand six hun- 
 dred and five * students pursuing these special courses. These 
 are frequently undergraduates, studying for no degree, and 
 represent more or less incomplete and desultory work. That 
 this is not an unmixed evil might be shown ; but among the 
 special students are some who have already taken their first 
 degrees, and whose work is therefore advanced, and special 
 only in the sense of looking to mastery in particular fields of 
 learning. Historically, in this country, graduate study was 
 sequent to elective courses. Both were phases of the same 
 general impulse to adapt the instruction of the college, by 
 selection within, or by extension beyond the course, to pro- 
 nounced tastes and individual wants. It is not meant by 
 this that there were not instances of prolonged and special 
 
 * Nearly ten per cent of the total attendance (48,485).
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. . 201 
 
 disciplines under the foi'mer system ; but they were rather in- 
 dividual than part of the plan, though frequent and worthy. 
 
 As early as 1832 Harvard had provided for additional 
 instruction in the modern languages and philology, and 
 Yale ten years later in Arabic and Sanskrit, as also occasion- 
 al terms in chemistry under Prof. Silliman. General phi- 
 losophy soon followed in offering graduate instruction. 
 Early in President Tappan's administration, the University 
 of Michigan outlined a " university course," * in which lect- 
 ures were given in most of the departments, and which 
 were open to such students only as had already obtained 
 the degree of Bachelor of Science or of Arts. Such student, 
 by pursuing two courses during each semester of one year, 
 sustaining an examination upon three of the courses, and 
 presenting a satisfactory thesis, was given the degree of 
 " Master of Arts or of Science." 
 
 Columbia College also, about 1840, opened a " post-gradu- 
 ate" course, in which Prof. Arnold Guyot delivered his 
 celebrated lectures on " Comparative Physical Geography, 
 in Relation to History and Modern Civilization " ; and Mr. 
 George P. Marsh a course upon the English language, t 
 These were not continued after the one year, though re- 
 appearing in the broadly elective system and formal pro- 
 vision for graduate instruction in 1880. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the nine graduate 
 courses of Cornell, established at its opening, and the nine- 
 teen at Johns Hopkins, seven years later. 
 
 The graduate department at Harvard was instituted in 
 1872. Upon the extension of the elective principle in 1882, 
 the lines of class distinction were obliterated, and all courses 
 thrown open alike to graduate and undergraduate ad- 
 vanced courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, philoso- 
 phy, and classical philology being most frequently pursued 
 for higher degrees. 
 
 * " Farrand's History of the University of Michigan," p. 113. 
 t " Historical Sketch of Columbia College," 1884.
 
 202 TflE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Altogether, eighty-three institutions in the United States, 
 having advanced courses, report eight hundred and eighty 
 graduate students. In Princeton the class forms seventeen 
 per cent of the entire enrollment ; in Columbia, four per 
 cent ; Harvard, seven percent ; Cornell, five percent ; Uni- 
 versity of Notre Dame, Indiana, fourteen per cent ; South 
 Carolina College, ten per cent ; and Johns Hopkins Univer- 
 sity, an average of sixty per cent for twelve years. 
 
 B. UNIVERSITY ORGANIZATION. 
 
 In a recent characterization of the American university, 
 Dr. Gilman notes * four types as determined by their foun- 
 dations. These he denominates : 1. The College University; 
 2. The State University ; 3. The privately endowed Univer- 
 sity ; 4. The Supervisory University. 
 
 The first has already been described in the sketch of 
 the colonial and Eevolutionary colleges. Their object was 
 a rich and severe culture, classical in scope, and religious in 
 aim. Except for the theological bias, they betrayed no im- 
 pulse toward specialization. They were academic institu- 
 tions, collegiate in method, and universities only in potentia. 
 In general the first American schools were of this type, in- 
 cluding all the colonial colleges, except perhaps the Univer- 
 sity of Pennsyvania, which was a State institution. "William 
 and Mary College, Virginia, and Columbia College, New 
 York, were established under the support and protection of 
 royal charters, but were in all other respects of the " college 
 university" type. 
 
 The fourth class has, in this country, but one represent- 
 ative, the University of the State of New York. It is an 
 organization including all the incorporated colleges and 
 academies of the State, and certain academical departments 
 of the public schools. The governing body is vested in a 
 board whose corporate title is " The Regents of the Univer- 
 
 * " Cyclopaedia of Political Science," article "Universities."
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 203 
 
 sity of the State of New York," and whose functions include 
 general control and inspection, but not instruction. 
 
 Looked at from the present century, then that is, de- 
 scriptively and not historically the second and third classes 
 only remain. To these should be added the purely denomi- 
 national institutions, to which class belong about seventy- 
 five per cent of the colleges of the country. 
 
 1. State-established Colleges. 
 
 The State university had its inception within, and its con- 
 trol more or less determined by, the civil authorities, and the 
 foundation of its support in the public revenue, either na- 
 tional or local, or both. Its instruction is non-sectarian and 
 free, or with nominal tuition only. As a State agency, its 
 principal object is general training. It belongs practically 
 to the present century, only four institutions antedating 1800. 
 These were the college in Philadelphia, which at the close 
 of the Revolutionary war became merged in the University 
 of Pennsylvania; the University of North Carolina, 1789; 
 University of Vermont, 1791 ; and the University of Tennes- 
 see, 1794. The last received national as well as State aid. 
 
 From this time, excepting the Universities of Georgia and 
 South Carolina, both established in 1801, and Ohio, in 1804, 
 no other State institutions were founded for a generation. 
 The Ohio University * was the first in the Northwest, and 
 was established on a grant of the Ohio purchase. After 
 Virginia (1825) came Indiana in 1828, Alabama in 1831, and 
 others in rapid succession, so that by the middle of the cent- 
 ury seventeen of the twenty-four States then existing had 
 made public provision for university training. There are 
 now thirty State universities. Of the thirteen original States, 
 six only have such provision. 
 
 * Dr. Manassah Cutler, who was the author of the puhlic policy of re- 
 serving Government lands for the support of education, also drew the arti- 
 cles of incorporation, arranged the course of study, and selected the teachers 
 for the Ohio University.
 
 204 
 
 TEE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 The table shows not only the State institutions, but the 
 time and order of their founding: 
 
 State-established Colleges. 
 
 States. Date. 
 
 Kentucky 1868 
 
 Kansas 1861 
 
 West Virginia 1867 
 
 Illinois 1868 
 
 Arkansas 1868 
 
 Minnesota 1868 
 
 California 1869 
 
 Nebraska. 1869 
 
 Nevada 1874 
 
 Colorado 1875 
 
 Oregon 1876 
 
 Texas 1881 
 
 Florida. . . , 1883 
 
 States. Date. 
 
 I.Pennsylvania 1755 
 
 2. North Carolinu 1789 
 
 3. Vermont 1791 
 
 4. Tennessee 1794 
 
 5. Georgia 1801 
 
 6. South Carolina 1801 
 
 7. Ohio 1804 
 
 8. Virginia 1825 
 
 9. Indiana 1828 
 
 10. Alabama 1831 
 
 11. Delaware 1833 
 
 12. Michigan 1837 
 
 13. Missouri 1839 
 
 14. Iowa 1847 
 
 15. Mississippi 1848 
 
 16. Wisconsin 1848 
 
 17. Louisiana 1853 
 
 Washington Territory 1861 
 
 Dakota " .... 1888 
 
 Montana " 1884 
 
 2. Privately Endowed Institutions. 
 
 These perpetuate the name of the donor, and compi-ise 
 some of the best-equipped and most efficient institutions; 
 but, far more and better, they point to a wide-spread individ- 
 ual interest in the highest education. Bishop Fraser, twenty 
 years ago, condemned unsparingly the needless multiplica- 
 tion of universities in this country, but commended as 
 warmly the instances and the spirit of " individual munifi- 
 cence so common in America, so rare in England, as among 
 the not unhealthy signs of the times." 
 
 The institutions of this class are far too numerous for 
 more than representative mention. They are among the 
 wealthiest, and, in larger or smaller gifts, include more than 
 three hundred of the colleges. Among those founded by 
 private means are Cornell University, Johns Hopkins, Le- 
 high, Wellesley, Tulane, Vanderbilt, Bryn Mawr, Boston 
 University, Leland Stanford, Jr., University (California),
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 
 
 205 
 
 Vassar College, and the Clark University (Worcester, Massa- 
 chusetts) ten institutions, not to name others, representing 
 a productive endowment, exclusive of buildings and other 
 properties, of twenty-five million dollars. 
 
 But, besides the privately founded and endowed institu- 
 tions, some of the State schools and most of the denomina- 
 tional are more or less dependent for their endowments and 
 after-prosperity upon private means. Of this class are Har- 
 vard, Yale, Princeton, Brown, Dartmouth, the Northwestern 
 (at Chicago), De Pauw University (Indiana), Amherst, etc., 
 representing more than ten million dollars, most of which 
 has come from private beneficence. 
 
 Naturally the aggregate of such benefactions can only be 
 approximately estimated. The following table, made from 
 information collected chiefly from the reports of the United 
 States Commissioner of Education, and excluding gifts for 
 secondary or professional schools, may be taken as fairly 
 representing the annual and aggregate amounts contributed 
 to colleges and universities alone, in the years for which re- 
 ports are had since 1871 : 
 
 Private Endowment of Colleges by Years. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 Total en- 
 dowments. 
 
 To colleges 
 for women. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 Total en- 
 dowments. 
 
 To colleges 
 for women. 
 
 1872. 
 1873. 
 1874. 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1878. 
 1879 
 
 $6,282,461 
 8,238,141 
 1,845,354 
 2,703,650 
 
 1,273,991 
 1,389,633 
 3 878 648 
 
 $689,993 
 242,295 
 26,035 
 
 79,128 
 241,820 
 62 815 
 
 1881. 
 1882. 
 1883. 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886. 
 1887. 
 
 $4,601,069 
 
 8,522,467 
 6,688,043 
 5,134,460 
 2,530,948 
 
 $214,529 
 
 81,604 
 310,506 
 322,813 
 266,285 
 
 1880. 
 
 2,666,571 
 
 399,'9&7 
 
 
 $49,755,436 
 
 $2,937,810 
 
 Supplementary to the table just given is the following, 
 showing a few of the large benefactions and their recipients. 
 But it should not be forgotten that beyond the forty millions 
 which these few names represent, the most hopeful mark of 
 educational vigor is the large number of relatively small gifts 
 14
 
 206 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 from hundreds of donors. This, too, it has been already said, 
 includes only the moneys for colleges and universities, ex- 
 cluding secondary schools, medical and theological schools, 
 special large benefactions to the South, etc. : 
 
 Table of Benefaction*.* 
 
 1. Asa Packer Lehigh University, Pa $3,500,000 
 
 2. Johns Hopkins .... Johns Hopkins University, Md 3,500,000 
 
 3. Isaac Rich Boston University, Mass 2,000,000 
 
 4. Leonard Case School of Applied Science, Ohio 1,200,000 
 
 5. James Lick University of California 1,650,000 
 
 6. Peter Cooper Cooper Union, N. Y 1,200,000 
 
 7. Ezra Cornell Cornell University, N. Y 1,000,000 
 
 8. The Vanderbilts . . . Vanderbilt University, Tenn 1,775,000 
 
 9. Paul Tulane Tulane University, La. 2,500,000 
 
 10. W. C. De Pauw . . .De Pauw University, Ind 1,500,000 
 
 11. Leland Stanford . . .Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Cal.. . 5,000,000 
 
 12. S. W. Phoenix Columbia College, N. Y 650,000 
 
 13. Amasa Stone Adelbert College, Ohio 600,000 
 
 14. John C. Green Princeton College, N. J 1,500,000 
 
 15. Mathew Vassar Vassar College, N. Y 908,000 
 
 16. George I. Sency Wesleyan University, Conn 700,000 
 
 17. Ario Pardee Lafayette College, Pa 500,000 
 
 1 8. Benjamin Bussey . . Harvard College, Mass 500,000 
 
 19. Joseph W. Taylor . Bryu Mawr College, Pa 450,000 
 
 20. Joseph Sheffield ... Yale College, Conn 500,000 
 
 21 . Henry W. Sage Cornell University, N. Y 342,000 
 
 22. E. P. Greenleaf Harvard University 630,000 
 
 23. J. P. Jones Haverford College 500,000 
 
 24. Stephen Girard Girard College, Pa 8,000,000 
 
 25. Jonas G. Clark Clark University, Mass 2,000,000 
 
 Without elaborating, it may be noted that there is an 
 evident tendency, both in the older institutions and the later 
 founded, toward non-sectarian education ; this, in face of the 
 fact that two hundred and fifty-nine of the three hundred 
 and forty-six colleges are denominational, and that four 
 fifths of those founded since 1850 are more or less under the 
 control of church organizations. Within the last twenty 
 
 * Of course many millions have been given for secondary education also, 
 attention being called here to superior institutions only.
 
 RECENT COLLEGES. 
 
 207 
 
 years, church enterprise has been especially active in the in- 
 troduction of higher education into parts of the West, and into 
 the reconstructing States of the South; nearly three fourths 
 of the denominational colleges founded in the period, heing 
 in the South, and in the States bordering upon the Missis- 
 sippi River. Beside this is put the fact that, while seven of 
 the thirteen original States have no State-maintained col- 
 leges, every State admitted since 1790 has assumed the re- 
 sponsibility of providing collegiate training along with ele- 
 mentary. 
 
 Out of a total attendance of less than fifty thousand in 
 superior institutions, those supported by the State enroll 
 about ten thousand ; or eight per cent of the institutions 
 (State) instruct twenty per cent of the students. In West 
 Virginia the proportion is sixty per cent, Colorado twenty- 
 nine per cent, Michigan twenty -five per cent, Nebraska 
 twenty-two per cent. 
 
 The table appended exhibits the relative endowments of 
 representative institutions of the three classes, private, eccle- 
 siastical, and State foundations. There are a few State in- 
 stitutions that rank well with the majority of those from 
 other classes a fact which will appear more to their credit 
 when the comparatively recent foundation of most of the 
 former is noted : 
 
 Table of University Endowments. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Property. 
 
 Endowment. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Institutions : 
 
 
 $5,190,772 
 
 $5,190 772 
 
 Yale 
 
 509 600 
 
 657 680 
 
 1 167 280 
 
 Princeton 
 
 750 000 
 
 1 400 000 
 
 2 150 000 
 
 
 1,615,000 
 
 812,000 
 
 2 ? 427'oOO 
 
 Wesleyan (Connecticut) 
 
 509,000 
 
 667 000 
 
 1 176 000 
 
 Brown University 
 
 600,000 
 
 767 000 
 
 1 367 000 
 
 Tufts 
 
 200,000 
 
 700 000 
 
 900 000 
 
 Amherst 
 
 500 000 
 
 650 000 
 
 1,150 000 
 
 Hamilton .... 
 
 400 000 
 
 277 000 
 
 677 000 
 
 Madison 
 
 200,000 
 
 550,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $5,283,600 
 
 $11,671,452 
 
 $16,955,052
 
 208 
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Property. 
 
 Endowment. 
 
 Total. 
 
 State Institutions : 
 
 $1,333,000 
 650,000 
 790,000 
 1,370,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,050,000 
 600,000 
 482,000 
 450,000 
 1,550,000 
 
 $981,000 
 800,000 
 800,000 
 672,000 
 1,080,000 
 582,000 
 540,000 
 860,000 
 400,000 
 1,100,000 
 
 $2,314,000 
 1,450,000 
 1,590,000 
 2,042,000 
 2,680,000 
 1,632,000 
 1,140,000 
 1,342,000 
 850,000 
 2,650,000 
 
 
 
 Vinrinia . . 
 
 California 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Privately Endowed Institutions: 
 Cornell 
 
 $9,275,000 
 $1,300,000 
 
 $8,415,000 
 $5,000,000 
 
 $17,690,OCO 
 
 $6,300,000 
 1,200,000 
 1,264,000 
 1,400,000 
 1,100,000 
 2,225,000 
 1,167,000 
 3,650,000 
 550,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 
 Tulane 
 
 225,000 
 500,000 
 850,000 
 2,000,000 
 723,000 
 650,000 
 250,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,038,657 
 900,000 
 750,000 
 225,000 
 444,000 
 3,000,000 
 300,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 Vanderbilt 
 
 Bryn Mawr 
 
 Wellesley 
 
 Vassar 
 
 Johns Hopkins 
 
 De Pauw 
 
 Lehigh 
 
 Grand totals 
 
 $6,998,000 
 
 $13,658,000 
 
 $21,856,000 
 
 $21,557,000 
 
 $33,744,000 
 
 $56,501,000 
 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 The current literature on this section is very extensive, and the fol- 
 lowing selections are made more because they are generally available, 
 than that others are inferior. In general, consult : " The College of To- 
 day," by R. R. Bowker, " Princeton Review," 1884, p. 89; "Our Col- 
 leges before the Country," by W. G. Sumner, "Princeton Review," 1884, 
 p. 127 ; "Aspects of College Training," D. C. Oilman, "North American 
 Review," 1883; "The True Ideal of an American University," J. 
 Dwight, 1871; "What an American University should be," James Mc- 
 Cosh, " Education," vol. vi, p. 35 ; the " University of the Future," Hiram 
 Corson, 1875. Also, "Student Freedom in Colleges," Presidents Eliot 
 and McCosh, before the Nineteenth Century Club, New York, February, 
 1885, and the discussion of this by Dr. F. Patton, " Presbyterian Review," 
 April, 1885; the "Elective System in Harvard College," Samuel Brearly, 
 1886; "Electives," "Education," vol. v, p. 473; "Elective System in 
 Education," " Our Continent," February 22, 1882 ; the " Early History
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 209 
 
 of the University of Virginia," Jefferson and Cabell, 1860; "Academic 
 Freedom in Germany," H. W. Farnam, " Yale Review," January, 1887 ; 
 Discussion of President Eliot's " Annual Report " for 1884-'85, in "New 
 York Independent," May 6 and 13, 1886 ; " Should Colleges give the B. A. 
 where Greek is omitted ? " " New York University Convocation," 1886, 
 p. 105 ; " Post-Graduate Degrees," " Proceedings of the University Con- 
 vocation," 1884, p. 251; the "Place of Original Research in College 
 Education," J. H. Wright, " Proceedings of the National Educational 
 Association," 1882 (includes an exposition of the German seminary idea) ; 
 "Original Research as a Means of Education," H. E. Roscoe, 1884; 
 " Handbook of Requirements for admission to American Colleges," A. F. 
 Nightingale, 1879 ; the " Question of a Division of the Philosophical 
 Faculty," A. W. Hoffman, 1882 ; the " Organization of University Edu- 
 cation," in Conference on Education (" International Health Exhibition 
 Literature," vol. xv.) ; " University Corporations," J. L. Diman, 1882 ; 
 " College Endowments," Rossiter Johnson, " North American Review," 
 May, 1883. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 
 
 NEXT to the universities, both in time and in importance, 
 are those institutions providing for what are known as the 
 learned professions theology, law, and medicine. Among 
 every civilized people these professions have been recognized 
 as the conservators of learning, and the most efficient connect- 
 ing links between school and life. Whatever their limita- 
 tions, their dogmatism and pedantry and quackery, they have 
 been from early history the best representatives in society 
 of the culture of the university. Until recent years, for 
 them were taught science, history, and philosophy. Their 
 attitude has determined courses of study, and fields of inves- 
 tigation, and schools of literature, historical interpretations 
 and standards of culture. That they have lost much of this 
 almost absolute control over the means and standards of 
 general culture, neither detracts from their historical signifi-
 
 210 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 cance, nor depreciates their present eminent social import- 
 ance, or their contributions to the general welfare. 
 
 1. Theological Education. 
 
 From the nature of American institutions, theological edu- 
 cation, of course, has no organic connection with the general 
 system. No State institution supports such a department; 
 though Straight University, Louisiana (founded by the Con- 
 gregationalists), Livingstone College, North Carolina (of the 
 African Methodist Episcopal Zion's Church), Howard Uni- 
 versity, District of Columbia, Harvard, and Yale, all claiming 
 to be non-sectarian, maintain theological courses. With 
 these exceptions the current education of the profession is 
 denominational, though variously liberal as to sectarianism. 
 
 The Eoman Catholic Theological Seminary of St. Sul- 
 pice and St. Mary's University, Baltimore (1791) has been 
 claimed as the oldest institution of the kind in the United 
 States, though it seems that the Reformed (Dutch) Church 
 had established one at New Brunswick, New Jersey, seven 
 years before. The only other school of the kind belonging 
 to the last century is the United Presbyterian Theological 
 Seminary of Xenia, Ohio, founded in 1794. 
 
 Among the colleges, Harvard was first to establish a 
 separate department of theology (1817), Yale following after 
 ten years. The instruction in both of them, as well as in 
 William and Mary College, had been given since then- foun- 
 dation with more or less of ecclesiastical bias. In Yale it is 
 said, under Dr. Dwight (1795-1817), students received in the 
 Sunday sermons a somewhat complete course in divinity ; 
 so that graduates frequently went at once into the pulpit 
 without further special studies. 
 
 Even before this the Moravians had opened a seminary 
 at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (1807) ; the Congregationalists, 
 at Andover (1808), and Bangor, Maine (1816) ; the Presbyte- 
 rians, at Princeton (1812) ; and the Lutherans, Hartwick 
 Seminary, New York (1815). Besides those named, there 
 were established twenty-eight schools before the middle of
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 211 
 
 the century. In less than forty years since, more than 
 one hundred seminaries have started. These one hundred 
 and forty-two institutions, representing twenty-seven de- 
 nominations, are found in twenty-eight States, the District 
 of Columbia, and Indian Territory (this last is a Baptist Sem- 
 inary, maintained by the Indians themselves, having six in 
 the faculty, and seventy students). The Jews support one 
 the Hebrew Union College at Cincinnati. Ten States Ar- 
 kansas, Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
 Rhode Island, Vermont, and West Virginia report none. 
 
 The total number of students in these seminaries is six 
 thousand five hundred, less than one fourth of whom are 
 graduates with literary or scientific degrees; fifteen years 
 ago the proportion was nearly one third. In the seminaries 
 of four States New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and 
 Connecticut at present the percentage of college-bred stu- 
 dents is about forty-two; fifteen years ago it was fifty-five 
 per cent. In some sections the standard of required entrance 
 scholarship is very low. In one State, with two hundred and 
 thirty theological students, but five had taken degrees; and 
 less than half of them had more than a high-school training. 
 In another, among one hundred and seventy-nine students, 
 the showing was yet worse. 
 
 It would seem that there is a strong tendency in theology 
 as in trade to rush into the work with a constantly decreasing 
 general preparation. The average length of course of one 
 hundred and nineteen institutions is a fraction over three 
 years. In its character, as in that of the college of liberal 
 arts, modern thought has forced some noticeable modifica- 
 tions. Modern theology, modern theism, and anti-theistic 
 theories, occupy a large place, with something of the philo- 
 sophic relations of Christianity to science and comparative 
 cosmogonies. The course in Harvard includes the history, 
 methods, and principles of biblical interpretation ; compara- 
 tive studies in Vedic religions, Hindoo philosophies, Buddh- 
 ism, Mazdaism, and Chinese religions; the psychological 
 basis of religious faith and its content ; and ethics, in a study
 
 212 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 of such social questions as public charity, labor, prisons, tem- 
 perance, divorce, and the treatment of the Indians. And 
 yet there are fields of investigation and discovery in pagan 
 experience, and pagan cosmogonies, and pagan myths; plant 
 and animal worship ; blood covenants and the vicarious 
 sacrifices of primitive peoples, with large possibilities in 
 the newer development of anthropological and contempo- 
 rary social science, which would seem to contribute to any 
 rational study of the Christian religion, but which are usu- 
 ally omitted from the professional preparation. 
 
 2. Legal Education. 
 
 If a fairly comprehensive elementary education, gener- 
 ally diffused, is fundamental to a free people, not less mate- 
 rial is it that there be generous provision for the profound- 
 est and freest discipline in law and government. Failure in 
 this is suicidal. The profession is large and increasing. Its 
 members have been a ruling factor in shaping both constitu- 
 tion and law. From the presidential office, through both 
 Houses of Congress, the Cabinet, State Legislatures, and ad- 
 ministrative departments, State and Federal, a majority of 
 the incumbents have been of this class. For the safe exer- 
 cise of such function is demanded a broad and liberal prepa- 
 ration. Questions of government are to be studied at first 
 hand ; institutions in their genesis ; social law and custom ; 
 historical and comparative studies in legislation and judica- 
 ture. Familiarity with economic forces and political ques- 
 tions the conditions and interests in concrete, which under- 
 lie all legislation and administration as well, is indispensable. 
 But all this is needed for the lawyer as such. Whatever 
 culture makes him wiser to frame laws, rationalizes his prac- 
 tice as a jurist and at the bar. 
 
 Here as elsewhere the sphere of interest has been greatly 
 enlarged in fifty years. Anthropology and institutional 
 history and ethics can not be ignored. In a recent address 
 before the Yale Law Club, David Dudley Field, after insist- 
 ing that there is something more for a lawyer to do than to
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 213 
 
 learn what is contained in Kent's " Commentaries," said : * 
 " Population increases ; the wants and industries of the peo- 
 ple increase also; developments occur on all sides, more 
 often in the right direction, sometimes in the wrong; and 
 we who are affected by them have to see to it that we for- 
 ward and guide the one, while we hinder or arrest the other ; 
 I say we have to see to it. We, all of us, the lawyer in his 
 sphere, the citizen who is not a lawyer in his." 
 
 It would be satisfying to know that the average formal 
 training of the lawyer covered so large a field. That it does 
 not, requires no special training to see. The profession has 
 not wholly lost the " scholastic fondness for verbal subtleties, 
 puerilities, and refinements which obscure sound reasoning." 
 
 Of the highest ideas of " fitting for the bar," current at 
 successive periods, the data are wanting for any connected 
 study. Enough, however, is known to indicate the line of 
 development. In the United States two courses have been 
 open to the prospective lawyer. These correspond to the 
 apprentice and technical methods of learning a trade. The 
 one belongs to the office, the other to the school. The one 
 emphasizes the practice, the other the principle. Against 
 the thought is too often set the form. The office service, 
 viewed pedagogically, is not without its advantages. It in- 
 volves the principle, so familiar to teachers, of " learning by 
 doing." Besides there is a wholesome economy in seeing 
 half -understood theory put into daily practice by a master. 
 To have grown into a knowledge of law, under no formal 
 lessons, but in daily contact with Kent or Story or Marshall, 
 were better than four years at Harvard or Columbia. But 
 not every lawyer is a jurist, and many offices are shops. To 
 know the practice only is scarcely professional. Ability to 
 reproduce legal forms though necessary is a small part of 
 legal knowledge. 
 
 From an early day in our national history, there were not 
 
 * Quoted \vith comments in the " American Law Review," February, 
 1888, p. 58.
 
 214 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 wanting those who saw the need of a better preparation than 
 is possible to an apprentice or lawyer's clerk. Chancellor 
 Kent, the distinguished jurist, and professor in Columbia 
 College, delivered successive courses of lectures as early as 
 1796 ; and Judge Wilson, in the College of Philadelphia, six 
 years earlier (1790-'91). A kind of private school, at which 
 lectures were given by one Timothy Reeves, had been opened 
 at Litchfield, Connecticut, 1784. The lectures however, were 
 few, desultory, with no attempt at a logical treatment, and 
 very inadequate. Later (1798), Judge Gould became asso- 
 ciated with him, and the school is said to have been continued 
 for more than thirty years, and to have been the first suc- 
 cessful one in the United States. In the first years following 
 the Revolution, the ranks of lawyers were rapidly filled and 
 extended. A generation before, ambitious young men had 
 prosecuted their legal studies in England. Independence 
 once established, intercourse with Europe was less frequent. 
 An English work of 1790 affirms that there were three hun- 
 dred practicing lawyers in Connecticut; and that in New 
 York State and the North "lawyers swarmed." Burke had 
 said, fifteen years before, that "nearly as many of Black- 
 stone's ' Commentaries ' had been sold in America as in 
 England." Office pupilage, and a year in Blackstone, were 
 the order of the day. 
 
 The first school inaugurated after the beginning of the 
 century, and the earliest of those still in existence, was that 
 of the University of Maryland, founded 1812. (At this time 
 there were seven medical schools in the States, one of which 
 had been in existence nearly half a century.) The Mary- 
 land experiment was followed (1815) by a professorship at 
 Harvard, which two years later was dignified by the name, 
 if not the appointments, of a " school." Private enterprise 
 in a Yale graduate had maintained, for a quarter of a cent- 
 ury, a law-school in New Haven, to which students came 
 f rom the adjoining States ; and which, in the year 1824, at 
 the instance of President D wight, was recognized and incor- 
 porated as a part of Yale College.
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 215 
 
 The particular achievement, though, with which the 
 present consideration is concerned, coming within the 
 first half of the century, is the founding of the Univer- 
 sity of Virginia. It opened (1825) with eight independ- 
 ent schools, in which law was co-ordinated with medi- 
 cine, philosophy, science, the languages, and mathematics. 
 This was the most progressive step of the period, and did 
 much throughout the States to confer upon the profes- 
 sion its rightful dignity. Of others in the same period 
 there were the Law School of Cincinnati College (1833), 
 and departments in Emory College, Georgia, (1837), In- 
 diana University (1840), Cumberland University, Tennes- 
 see (1847), and the University of Mississippi (1848); per- 
 haps a dozen institutions in all, with an aggregate of four 
 hundred students. There were even fewer colleges giving 
 serious attention to history or political science, and none, 
 if the work of Lieber he excepted, to the constitution and 
 functions of government, and the nature of civil rights, as 
 the basis of legal study. And yet the period was rich in the 
 seeds sown for the generations. Story was in Harvard, and 
 Thomas R. Dew in William and Mary. The " Commenta- 
 ries " of Kent had been published, and, scarcely less import- 
 ant in their legal aspect, the " Hermeneutics " of Lieber, his 
 "Political Ethics," and "Civil Liberty and Self -Govern- 
 ment." 
 
 Within the next ten years the number of institutions was 
 almost doubled : in 1872 there were thirty schools, reporting 
 two thousand students. One impulse to this larger activity 
 is to be found in the establishment of more thorough courses 
 in Columbia College and Michigan University, both in the 
 same year (1858), and both regenerative, if not revolutionary. 
 This may be taken as the beginning of the more system- 
 atic and comprehensive and scientific study of law hi the 
 United States. The stand then taken by these two institu- 
 tions has given them an enviable record, and commends 
 the severer standards of legal fitness. Their prosperity has 
 been constant, the two schools including at present nearly
 
 216 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 twenty-five per cent of all the law students in the United 
 States.* 
 
 Concerning the legal profession as a representative of a 
 liberal culture, a study of the records of forty-five schools 
 reveals certain unwelcome truths. Very few institutions 
 impose any scholastic conditions for entrance; fewer yet 
 provide a graded course of instruction either lectures or 
 reading or, even indirectly, give any marked encourage- 
 ment to graduate study in the profession. 
 
 Of the first of these points, a recent correspondent in the 
 "American Law Register" says that, of twenty-three law- 
 schools interrogated, " eleven do have some sort of entrance 
 examinations. " Most of them, however, must be very meager. 
 To the Law School of Columbia College candidates for a de- 
 gree may (1) present diplomas of graduation from some 
 reputable college, and be admitted without examination ; (2) 
 present a certificate of having satisfactorily passed the regents' 
 examination ; or (3) take the formal entrance examination, 
 which includes (a) history Greek, Roman, English, and 
 United States ; (6) grammar, rhetoric, and composition ; (c) 
 Latin Caesar's Gallic War entire, six books of Virgil's ^Eneid, 
 and six orations of Cicero. Michigan has similar require- 
 ments, and Iowa since 1885. Harvard imposed an entrance 
 examination in 1877 ; an act which had the effect, says 
 President Eliot, "to increase the proportion of college 
 graduates." Yale had examined for admission, two years 
 before. Other institutions, as the University of Kansas, 
 recommend candidates to take a course of general cult- 
 ure, but have no established conditions for entrance. Of 
 the students in the Harvard Law School from sixty-five 
 to seventy per cent have taken academic degrees, in the 
 University of Georgia sixty-six per cent, Columbia fifty- 
 three per cent, Boston University forty-four per cent, and 
 Albany Law School forty per cent. But these are supe- 
 
 * Seven hundred and thirty-seven, out of an aggregate of three thousand 
 one hundred and eighty-five, reported to the Bureau of Education.
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 217 
 
 rior the average for 1886-'87, of fifty institutions, was but 
 twenty-one per cent. 
 
 Referring again to the statistical article in the " Law Reg- 
 ister," it was claimed that nineteen institutions have made 
 some attempt at grading the courses of study requiring cer- 
 tain subjects to be taken in course and before others specified. 
 In no other class of professional or academic work has so 
 little effort been made to co-ordinate the parts, or arrange 
 and present them with an eye to their logical or economic 
 sequence. In the last decade, however, something has been 
 accomplished. Harvard since 1877 has had a three years' 
 course, the first two years of which are elective, and Michi- 
 gan University a full graded and prescribed course since 1886. 
 In both the last and at Columbia the work covers two years ; 
 but at the latter each year is complete in itself, and recognizes 
 almost no necessary sequence of subjects. 
 
 3. Medical Education. 
 
 In its relation to general knowledge, the attitude of 
 medicine is unique. As a profession it is pre-eminently the 
 scientific one ; it stands close to physical Nature, and con- 
 cerns the material interests of man. It is one of the oldest, 
 and yet, of all the professions, its practice is most empirical. 
 Few callings have wider contributing fields of thought, or 
 are richer in the conclusions of modern inquiry. That the 
 profession has vastly profited by the general advance, is evi- 
 dent upon a superficial investigation only how much less 
 than it should, appears from the insufficient and hasty 
 courses in its schools. 
 
 As the earliest practice of medicine was non-professional, so 
 the first instruction was private. In this, as in colonial times, 
 theology, and in law even yet, the apprenticeship system has 
 been widely prevalent. With few physicians, no schools, 
 an undeveloped chemistry, and biology unknown, medicine 
 was chiefly a practice, and but imperfectly either a science 
 or a profession. Successful practitioners everywhere drew 
 about them would-be doctors. Pupilage was common. Emi-
 
 218 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 nent men sometimes had students from the adjacent col- 
 onies. These provisional courses of reading were followed 
 by a certificate, and so the ranks of the profession recruited 
 and enlarged. Sometimes, also, formal indentures were 
 practiced, the English period of seven years being served. 
 
 As early as the year 1745 one Dr. Thomas Cadwallader, of 
 Philadelphia, gave his students, and a few others who joined 
 them, more formal and systematic and complete instruction 
 in anatomy than was usual. A few years later, similar 
 training was to be had in Newport, Rhode Island, and just 
 prior to the Revolution, in a dozen or more colonial towns 
 and cities. By the middle of the century, also, dissection as 
 a means of instruction was employed in New York city. 
 All this, of course, was only a temporary expedient. It was 
 individual and local. Text-book anatomy, with rare excep- 
 tions, the compounding of medicines and an occasional 
 attendance at the treatment of a " special case," comprised 
 the whole education of many early physicians. It is not 
 strange that the thoughts of the best practitioners were 
 soon turned to some more efficient means of professional 
 training. The problem was not a simple one. 
 
 The University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1749, and 
 chartered a few years later, was already in a prosperous 
 condition. In the year 1765, five of the twenty-four trustees 
 being themselves physicians, the growing demand for medi- 
 cal instruction was warmly approved by the board, and in 
 that year was elected the first medical professor to fill the 
 new chair, " The Theory and Practice of Physic." This, it 
 should be remembered, was twenty years before the first 
 theological seminary, and almost half a century before the 
 oldest of existing law-schools. There was neither time for 
 specialization nor means ; and the department covered the 
 subjects now requiring, in the same institution, fifty profess- 
 ors. The first permanent hospital for the sick had been 
 opened some years before, in the same city ; and in 17G8 
 King's College founded a medical " school," which had a 
 half-century's doubtful success, and closed. Harvard organ-
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 219 
 
 ized a similar department in 1783 (a generation before the 
 other professional courses) ; Dartmouth in 1797 ; and the 
 University of Maryland three years later. During the same 
 year also (1800) was established the first pronounced special- 
 ization, and the only institution of the period, with specific 
 provision for instruction in surgery " The College of Physi- 
 cians and Surgeons of New York City." It initiated a new 
 period in medical training. 
 
 With the opening of the year 1811, the department of 
 Columbia College being discontinued, there remained, as the 
 net result of almost fifty years' experience, five institutions, 
 with an aggregate attendance of six hundred and fifty stu- 
 dents, two thirds of whom were in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania. The population of the country was about seven 
 millions. From all these institutions, six hundred appli- 
 cants had received the degree and been admitted to prac- 
 tice. Prior to the Revolution, it has been estimated that 
 there were four hundred physicians, not more than fifty 
 of whom had the sanction of colonial schools, and fewer 
 still of English training. The improvement was very 
 great, and had been almost wholly accomplished in a sin- 
 gle generation. 
 
 In the next quarter of a century, five other colleges, in- 
 cluding Yale, established departments, and in six States in- 
 dependent medical colleges were founded. The spirit of 
 expansion and reorganization was upon this as upon all 
 other phases of education. In the seventeen years from 
 1837 to 1853, twenty-five new schools were set on foot ; and, 
 in the period since, the multiplication has been almost four- 
 fold. There are now one hundred and seventy-five institu- 
 tions (including dentistry and pharmacy) out of two hun- 
 dred that have been attempted, representing thirty-two 
 States (Delaware, Nevada, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Texas, 
 and West Virgina reporting none). More than one third of 
 the institutions are in the four States of New York, Ohio, 
 Illinois, and Pennsylvania ; one fourth of them are in the 
 South. The ten cities Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cincin-
 
 220 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 nati, Louisville, New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, San 
 Francisco, and Washington contain half of them. 
 
 The specializations also mark another significant change. 
 The one all-inclusive professorship of 1765 has developed 
 into dental, pharmaceutical, and veterinary courses, besides 
 the schools of medicine and surgery ; the latter appearing as 
 allopathic, homoeopathic, eclectic, and physio-medical half 
 of all the schools and sixty-three per cent of the students 
 being " regulars." 
 
 Concerning the course of study, almost no uniformity 
 exists, either of opinion or practice. In length it varies 
 from two to six years, of from sixteen to forty weeks each. 
 Eighteen institutions report one course only, and one hun- 
 dred and twenty-nine but two courses. 
 
 The conditions for admission are not more encouraging. 
 It can scarcely be regarded as a " learned profession," in the 
 sense of being founded upon a liberal general scholarship. 
 Less than eight per cent of the more than sixteen thousand 
 medical students have previously taken any academic de- 
 gree. In respect to this, it stands lowest among the profes- 
 sions; and it is a change earnestly to be desired that the 
 efforts of Michigan and Harvard, and certain other institu- 
 tions in Philadelphia and New York, to increase the require- 
 ments, should be successful. Within the last quarter of a 
 century, also, something has been done toward grading the 
 medical course, by Northwestern University at Chicago, 
 Michigan, and elsewhere. That medical instruction should 
 follow some systematic plan, such as governs in all other 
 study, need scarcely be urged. The steady, vigorous growth 
 and popularity of institutions that have such requirements 
 would seem to recommend its more general adoption. 
 
 But the most important changes are those taking place 
 in the subject-matter of the course itself in the occasional 
 introduction of certain correlative branches. Primarily, 
 more attention is being given to the history of medicine, 
 both its practice and philosophy. Small beginnings have 
 been made in psycho-physical studies also, and the pathology
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 221 
 
 of mind and general biology ; and it appears as if, along 
 with abundant clinical advantages, and a well-used dissect- 
 ing-room, the medical college of the future will require large 
 general and special laboratory facilities. 
 
 Post-graduate and polyclinic schools also mark an ad- 
 vance on previous years. Seven such schools are reported 
 two each in Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia, and one 
 in St. Louis where opportunities are afforded for advanced 
 and special study. In this department the University of 
 Pennsylvania offers thirteen courses. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 "On the Education of Ministers," Dr. F. L. Patton, "Princeton Re- 
 view," May, 1883; "Ministerial Education in the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church," S. M. Vail, 1883; " Medical Education," " Proceedings of the 
 New York University Convocation," 1885, p. 291; "Medical Education," 
 " Science," March, 1888, p. 103 ; " Medical Education and Medical Col- 
 leges in the United States and Canada" (1765-1885), "Report of the 
 Illinois State Board of Health," 1885 ; the "Physician of To-day and of 
 the Future," "Yale Review," December, 1887; the "History of Medical 
 Education in the United States," N. S. Davis, 1876 ; " Legal Education, 
 its Aim and Method " (pamphlet), G. B. Finch, 1885; "A Century of 
 Law in America," G. T. Bispham, "North American Review," 1876; the 
 "Learned Professions in America," "Chambcrs's Journal," vol. xli, p. 6. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 THE three professions named, it has been said, were called 
 "liberal" because "they require the utmost perfection of 
 character in their members ; and because, as devotees of re- 
 ligion, law, and medicine, they have in all ages pursued them 
 as freemen, with hands unfettered and tongue untied, subject 
 to no bonds except those of truth." Whether this be true, it 
 15
 
 222 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 expresses a common sentiment, and the idea does not seem 
 to have occurred to most minds that " there is a score of oc- 
 cupations, professional in the fullest, and practical in the 
 most literal sense outside of those called learned, in which a 
 careful scientific education opens the door to the highest 
 usefulness and success."* Technological instruction, re- 
 garded in its general scope, is not more practical than pro- 
 fessional. Viewed from the standpoint of society, its organic 
 laws studied, and looked at in its civic and State conservative 
 relations, the technology of industry becomes more than a 
 trade. From the standpoint of the individual, its pursuit 
 requires all the perfection of character, all the devotion to 
 truth, and freedom from restraint and bias, ascribed to stu- 
 dents and practitioners in law, medicine, and theology. 
 Both in influence and dignity it has vastly appreciated in a 
 generation. It is assuming the professional aspect. 
 
 The nomenclature of industrial education is not a little 
 confusing. " Technology," says a standard and recently re- 
 vised " Cyclopaedia of Science," " is a term invented to express 
 a treatise on grammar." In the "American Cyclopaedia" it 
 is made to include the " principles of science as applied or 
 related to the industrial arts." The term "industrial" itself 
 is no less obscure. Now it is referred to manual-labor 
 schools ; again, to trades. A recent magazine article confines 
 the term to shop-schools. It is not un frequently made coex- 
 tensive with agriculture. According to the " Cyclopaedia of 
 Education," it includes any course in which are taught one 
 or several branches of industry. It is a matter of history 
 that industrial schools were formerly, in England, institutions 
 founded and supported by the Government, as " reformatory 
 agencies for young offenders." Sixteen contemporary re- 
 formatory institutions in the United States bear the same 
 name. In a recent most admirable article, " Industrial Art 
 Education " is used to comprise every sort of school subor- 
 
 * S. T. "Wallis, in "Johns Hopkins University in its Relation to Balti- 
 more."
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 223 
 
 dinating science to art or industry, from veterinary colleges 
 and schools of commerce and forestry to schools of textile 
 design, metal-working, and invention. Art itself means to 
 one, skill ; to another, industrial achievement ; to a third, 
 invention ; to a fourth, painting or sculpture. The earliest 
 manual-labor institutes were farms ; now they may include 
 any work hut farming. The few exceptions are of an earlier 
 foundation, and only serve to confirm the statement. 
 
 At the bottom of technical training is a mastery of the 
 principles of science in their relation to productive and ad- 
 ministrative art. Mr. J. Scott Russell, from the standpoint 
 of his own countrymen, has phrased it as " that which shall 
 render an English artilleryman a better artilleryman than 
 a Frenchman; an English soldier a better soldier than a 
 Prussian; an English locomotive-builder better than a 
 German; an English ship-builder better than an American; 
 an English silk-manufacturer better than a Lyons silk-man- 
 ufacturer ; and an English ribbon-maker superior to a Swiss 
 ribbon-maker." It is the perfecting of man on the creative 
 side. And in so far as this spirit takes on the character of 
 universality, technology becomes professional. 
 
 In a historical treatment of the subject, much appears 
 that is in no sense professional, is local and transient ; but 
 which belongs to the development of the impulse, and ex- 
 plains the current interest. It was antecedent to, because 
 the logical ground of, the more scientific study of re- 
 cent years. 
 
 1. The Beginnings of Industrial Training. 
 
 One of the first manifestations of the new industrialism 
 in the first half of the present century was the inauguration 
 of the manual-labor seminaries. Among these were the 
 Rensselaer School, New York (1834), and the Fellenberg In- 
 stitute, at Windsor, Connecticut. Within ten years the ex- 
 periment had been tried in a dozen States. It was proposed 
 to combine literary instruction with manual labor, sharing 
 the day between them, and afford students the means of
 
 224: THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 wholly or partially meeting their expenses. Of this charac- 
 ter were the Oneida Institute, the Genesee Manual Labor 
 School, and the Yates Polytechnic, of New York, all founded 
 before 1830, and a dozen or more in Illinois, out of one of 
 which Knox College took its rise. Franklin College, Indi- 
 ana, was first a manual-labor organization, as were others in 
 Michigan and adjoining States. Though many of these 
 efforts to promote industry in connection with literary in- 
 stitutions failed, and most of the schools were closed or re- 
 organized as academies, they served a double and worthy 
 purpose: the function of intelligent labor was magnified, 
 and the seed sown for a more fruitful harvest. For how 
 much of the idea of technical education in agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts the present is indebted to these institu- 
 tions, can not perhaps be determined. Enough is known to 
 suggest that the obligation must be large. 
 
 The Rensselaer School (1824) had, for that day extensive 
 laboratory advantages in chemistry and physics, and taught 
 the analysis of soils, fertilizers, minerals, and animal and 
 vegetable matter, with their applications to agriculture, do- 
 mestic economy, and the arts; and as early as 1835 had a 
 department for instruction in engineering and technology. 
 Its influence throughout has been bracing and intelligent, 
 and it deserves abundant honor as the pioneer in the United 
 States in a much-needed culture. Among its hundreds of 
 alumni, to name only two, are S. Edward Warren, of the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the late Wash- 
 ington A. Roebling, chief-engineer of the great East River 
 (New York) suspension-bridge. 
 
 Next to the institutions named, and generally of a more 
 technical character, were the three or four military acade- 
 mies of forty to sixty years ago. The United States Military 
 and Naval Schools, the Military Institute of Virginia, and 
 the South Carolina Military Academy, all founded before 
 1846, offered even then the best training for ordinary engi- 
 neering and mechanical pursuits to be had in this country. 
 Indeed, the only other institutions of the period, pretending
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 225 
 
 to give such instruction, were the University of Virginia, 
 whose course in science, however, for twenty years after its 
 founding meant little more than chemistry ; Norwich Uni- 
 versity, Vermont ; and the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. 
 To these should be added, perhaps, the school of civil engi- 
 neering first established (1846) at Union College, under Prof. 
 W. M. Gillespie. 
 
 In the fifteen years following, and covering the period 
 up to the national land grant of 1861, twelve other institu- 
 tions were founded having pronounced scientific aims. Six 
 of these were special schools, independent organizations of 
 well-defined purpose, and the first considerable approach to 
 the true technical institution. These were the Spring Gar- 
 den Institute, the Wagner Free Institute, and the School 
 of Design for Women, all of Philadelphia ; and the O'Fallon 
 Polytechnic Institute, established ten years later in connec- 
 tion with Washington University, St. Louis. 
 
 Supplementing these special schools or technological 
 institutions, perhaps logically antecedent to and sometimes 
 chronologically antedating them, are the fixed and more or 
 less independent scientific departments of the older and bet- 
 ter endowed collegiate schools. It has been seen that the 
 university curriculum in a century has greatly changed. 
 From the single classical course of the colonial school to the 
 present aggregation of studies the steps have been both many 
 and slow. It took Harvard half a century to accept a chair 
 of Chemistry, the Erving professorship (1783) being the first 
 formal recognition by an American college of the broad field 
 of natural science. Yale (1802) appointed Prof. Benjamin 
 Silliman to a like position. The Massachusetts professorship 
 of Natural History was added to Harvard about the same 
 time, and the Rumford chair of the " Application of Science 
 to the Useful Arts," ten years later, marking the only advance 
 for a quarter of a century. The impulse, however, was being 
 felt for a more generous recognition of science. Silliman 
 and Prof. Olmsted, in Yale, Prof. Amos Eaton in the Rensse- 
 laer school, the Connecticut and American Academies of
 
 226 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Arts and Sciences, and the Philadelphia Academy of Natu- 
 ral Science, were all so many agencies to magnify the im- 
 portance and service of acquaintance with natural phenom- 
 ena and their laws. 
 
 In 1846 Yale instituted two new professorships, one in 
 agricultural chemistry, and the other in practical or applied 
 chemistry ; and the year following the corporation of Har- 
 vard voted to establish in the university an advanced school 
 of instruction in theoretical and applied science, and in the 
 other usual branches of academic learning, to be called the 
 "Scientific School of the University of Cambridge." The 
 two developed into the Sheffield and Lawrence Scientific 
 Schools of Yale and Harvard respectively. 
 
 Union College (since 1873, Union University), New York, 
 chartered (1795), has for more than forty years maintained 
 a course called the " School of Civil Engineering." Except 
 the Rensselaer Polytechnic, this was apparently the only 
 institution providing instruction in civil engineering, until 
 the Lehigh University, founded and generously endowed 
 by Asa Packer in 1868. The " School of Mines," Columbia 
 College, established four years before, perhaps included civil 
 engineering as one of its subordinate courses. Besides these, 
 the University of Missouri (1871), Ohio University (1879), 
 and the University of Wisconsin (1881), provided instruction 
 in mining and metallurgy. Kindred courses or departments 
 are sustained in a number of the agricultural and mechan- 
 ical colleges, the Colorado School of Mines, etc. 
 
 The Chandler Scientific School of Dartmouth College 
 grew out of a bequest of fifty thousand dollars (1851) for the 
 establishment of a school of instruction in the college " in 
 the practical and useful arts of life." It includes mechan- 
 ical and civil engineering, and provides that " no other or 
 higher preparatory studies shall be required for entrance 
 than are pursued in the common schools of New England." 
 This aims to turn out intelligent workmen. On the con- 
 trary, the School of Technology of Lehigh University has 
 a five years' course, has chemical laboratories said to be un-
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 227 
 
 surpassed in this country, and sets forth as its object the 
 fitting of foremen and superintendents, rather than work- 
 men of manual dexterity and skill in the use of tools. The 
 Towne Scientific School (1872) of the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania, similar to others in general, differs in the recent pro- 
 visions made for instruction in "marine engineering and 
 naval architecture." The Pardee Scientific Department of 
 Lafayette College, Pennsylvania, the Scientific School of 
 the University of California, and the John C. Greene School 
 of Science in Princeton, all deserve mention, both for their 
 excellent work and their contributions to the solution of 
 current technologico-industrial problems. 
 
 The Case School of applied Science (1877), Cleveland, 
 Ohio, and the Sibley School of Cornell University, are ex- 
 cellent examples of the two classes of technological agencies 
 independent schools and university departments, well 
 endowed, and with a purpose to fit for the highest service 
 in science and the arts. 
 
 2. The Curriculum. 
 
 Though homogeneous in the scientific principles in- 
 volved, the instruction as to its applications is very diverse. 
 Upon this fact rests the most hopeful promise of the present 
 tendency. A few things well taught, a grounding in the 
 principles of abstract science, knowledge of and skill in the 
 most comprehensive applications, open the way for indefinite 
 developments. 
 
 Without attempting an exhaustive, or a strictly logical 
 classification, it may be said that technical training, as repre- 
 sented in the institutions of the United States, appears as 
 agriculture in forty-seven of them ; mechanical art in fifty- 
 six ; architecture, including naval and military, in sixteen ; 
 metallurgy specified in seventeen ; and engineering, eighty- 
 nine (civil, fifty-four ; mining, thirty ; electrical, five). 
 
 Of the eighty-six institutions prominently identified with 
 advanced technological work, twenty-eight, or about one 
 third, are provided with shops for instruction in practical
 
 228 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 mechanics. The great significance of this fact appears in 
 the statement that two thirds of these (twenty-eight) institu- 
 tions have been founded within the last twenty years, and 
 most of the practice schools even later. 
 
 Supplementary, also, to these courses are thirty-seven 
 schools of instruction in art and design ; a dozen or more 
 manual training schools ; either public and free, as in To- 
 ledo, Baltimore, Boston, New York, and Philadelphia ; en- 
 dowed, as the Miller Manual Labor School, Crozet, Virginia, 
 and the Manual Training School of Washington University, 
 St. Louis ; or private and maintained by tuition, as in Chi- 
 cago, Cincinnati, and Cleveland ; several industrial organ- 
 izations (forty to fifty), of the nature of " homes," " reform- 
 atories," "orphanages," "Indian schools," etc. ; besides 
 more or less of like work in the elementary grades of public 
 schools in the larger cities,* and a very satisfactory introduc- 
 tion to it all in the constructive habit born of the Kinder- 
 garten. 
 
 Most of the schools include two or more of the courses 
 named. Delaware College ; Cornwallis College, Oregon; 
 four of the six institutions in Georgia ; the Storrs Agricult- 
 ural School, Mansfield, Connecticut ; the Agricultural College, 
 Brookings, South Dakota; and the Massachusetts School at 
 Amherst, are almost wholly given to agriculture and im- 
 mediately related subjects. Colorado has a special school 
 of mines, and the technological instruction of the Western 
 University of Pennsylvania, of Syracuse University, the 
 University of the City of New York, and Union College, is 
 practically confined to civil engineering. A few schools are 
 really polytechnic : such as the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology, the Worcester Polytechnic School, the O'Fallon 
 Institute of St. Louis, the School of Technology, Lehigh 
 University, the Cornell College of Agriculture and Mechanic 
 
 * Jamestown, New York, is a good illustration of what may be accom- 
 plished in this direction in any town if sensibly undertaken. The manual 
 of Superintendent Love is suggestive of thoughtful training.
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 229 
 
 Arts, and Rose Polytechnic Institute, Indiana. The Colum- 
 bia College School of Mines, the John C. Greene School of 
 Science, and the Universities of Wisconsin and Minnesota, 
 comprehend most forms of engineering. Cornell and Yale, 
 the Industrial University of Illinois, and the State Agricult- 
 ural Colleges of Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Minnesota, 
 Missouri, Ohio, and Oregon, have more or less complete 
 courses in forestry ; and by a few institutions are taught 
 veterinary science, domestic economy, telegraphy, print- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 Of the thirty-seven schools of design, one half have for 
 their leading purpose .the promotion of the industrial arts, as 
 architecture, engineering and manufactures ; most of them 
 include something of the fine arts, a dozen of them such 
 instruction only. The Massachusetts Art Normal School is 
 a training-school for teachers of industrial drawing. This 
 was founded under the direction of Prof. Walter Smith, 
 than whom it is safe to say no individual has done more for 
 the higher industrial interests of the country ; and was doubt- 
 less inspired by the profound conviction, then becoming 
 general, that at the bottom of all this work the alphabet 
 of technical training is thorough instruction in drawing, 
 fixing habits of invention and construction. The Massachu- 
 setts law of 1869, authorizing free instruction in mechanical 
 drawing in the cities and large towns, the employment of 
 Prof. Smith as Superintendent of Drawing in Boston the 
 year following, its introduction into twenty-two other cities 
 almost immediately, Prof. Smith's State directorship, and 
 the establishment of the State Normal Art School (Boston, 
 1875), mark the beginning of an intelligent interest in 
 drawing in the United States. It had already (1869) been 
 put into the public schools of Cincinnati and Syracuse, and 
 within ten years appeared on most of the programmes in the 
 larger cities of the country. In a recent report on drawing 
 made to the National Educational Association (1884), of sev- 
 enty cities giving information, sixty-seven make it compul- 
 sory along with other branches. About half of them have
 
 230 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 special supervision, the work graded and extended into the 
 high-school. It forms a part of the regular course of in- 
 struction, also, in one hundred and eleven of the one hundred 
 and twenty-four public normal schools of the country. 
 
 Concerning the manual-training school there are two 
 widely different views. The one insists that it shall teach 
 no trade, but the rudiments of all of them ; the other that 
 the particular industries may properly be held to maintain 
 schools to recruit their own ranks. The first would teach 
 the use of the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the 
 square, the chisel, and the file ; claiming that " the graduate 
 from such a course at the end of three years is within from 
 one to three months of knowing quite as thoroughly as an 
 apprentice who had served seven years any one of the twenty 
 trades to which he may choose to turn." Of this class are, 
 besides most of those already named, the Haish Manual 
 Training School of Denver ; that of Tulane University, New 
 Orleans ; the Felix Adler's Workingman's School, of New 
 York City; and the School of Manual Technology, Van- 
 derbilt University, Nashville. 
 
 Among schools of the second class are some interesting 
 institutions. They include the numerous general and spe- 
 cial trade-schools for boys, instruction in the manifold phases 
 of domestic economy for girls, and the yet small but rapidly 
 growing class of industries open alike to both. 
 
 Sewing is taught in public or private schools in Balti- 
 more, Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, 
 Providence, St. Louis, and about a dozen other cities, besides 
 in a number of special institutions. 
 
 Cooking-schools are no longer a novelty in half as many 
 of the larger cities, since their introduction into New York 
 city in 1876. Printing may be learned in the Kansas Agri- 
 cultural College ; Cooper Union, New York ; Girard Col- 
 lege, Philadelphia, and elsewhere. Telegraphy, stenography, 
 wood-engraving, various kinds of smithing, and carpentry, 
 have, especially the last two, numerous representatives. The
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 231 
 
 New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction of children 
 in the work of the household, is an interesting modification 
 of the Kindergarten along 1 the industrial line. For young 
 ladies, the Elizabeth Aull Seminary, Lexington, Missouri, is 
 a school of home-work, in which "are practically taught 
 the mysteries of the kitchen and laundry," and upon whose 
 graduates is conferred the degree of "Mistress of Home- 
 Work. " The Lasell Seminary at Auburn dale, Massachusetts, 
 also has recently (1885) undertaken a similar but more com- 
 prehensive experiment, including lessons and lectures in 
 anatomy and physiology, with hygiene and sanitation, the 
 principles of common law by an eminent attorney, instruc- 
 tion and practice in the arts of domestic life, the principles 
 of dress, artistic house-furnishing, healthy homes, and 
 cooking. 
 
 Of training-schools for nurses there are thirty-one, dis- 
 tributed through twelve States and the District of Columbia. 
 New York has eleven ; Massachusetts, five ; Pennsylvania, 
 three ; Connecticut and New Jersey, each two ; and Illinois, 
 Indiana, Minnesota, Missouri, Rhode Island, South Caro- 
 lina, Vermont, and the District of Columbia, one each. 
 
 Of schools of a different character still, there have been 
 or are the Carriage-Builders' Apprenticeship School, New 
 York ; those of Hoe & Co., printing-press manufacturers ; and 
 Tiffany & Co., jewelers; and the Tailors' " Trades School " 
 recently established and flourishing in Baltimore, besides the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad novitiate system, at Altoona ; in 
 which particular trades or guilds or corporations have 
 sought to provide themselves with a distinct and specially 
 trained class of artisans. The latest and in some respects the 
 most interesting experiment of the kind is that of the " Bal- 
 timore and Ohio Railroad service " at Mt. Clare, Baltimore. 
 It was inaugurated in 1885, apprentices being selected from 
 applicants by competitive examination. 
 
 It was a technological school, whose instruction prima- 
 rily comprised the various phases of railroading, but was pre- 
 pared for, and supplemented by, drill in geometry, algebra,
 
 232 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 physics, locomotive - engineering, mechanics, mechanical 
 drawing, free-hand drawing, geometrical drawing, English, 
 and history. 
 
 3. Agricultural Education. 
 
 Of all the institutions for investigating and realizing 
 the applications of science to the arts, the most prominent 
 in recent years have been the agricultural schools founded 
 under the congressional Land Grant Act of 1862. 
 
 The Legislature of Michigan in 1850 instructed their dele- 
 gates to Congress to ask three hundred and fifty thousand 
 acres of land for the establishment of agricultural schools 
 in their State. In a generation twelve new States had been 
 formed ; and the center of population had moved westward 
 one hundred and fifty miles. Large developments in indus- 
 try were taking place in the Mississippi Valley. The section 
 was predominantly agricultural. Wealth lay in the right 
 tilling of the soil. This great and newly recognized need of 
 the country for intelligence in farming soon became matter 
 of common discussion. It was an era of farmers' societies, 
 agricultural conventions, etc. Following the legislative and 
 general interest in Michigan,* Illinois the next year held at 
 Granville an "Industrial Convention," inviting those en- 
 gaged in agricultural and mechanical pursuits. The burden 
 of discussion was the lack and need of industrial education ; 
 and a resolution was passed urging the " immediate establish- 
 ment of a university to meet the wants of the industrial 
 classes." A second convention was held in June of the fol- 
 lowing year at Springfield, and a third at Chicago a few 
 months later, at which the nature and organization of such 
 institution were discussed, one committee appointed to digest 
 a plan, and another to petition Congress, through the State 
 
 * A comprehensive discussion of the value of agricultural colleges, as 
 seen at that early day, and valuable bits of history, both of the Michigan 
 institutions and of the attempts made in other States, may be had in the 
 " Reports of the Michigan Schools," under Superintendent Ira Mayhew, 
 1885-'88.
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 233 
 
 Legislature, for the needed lands "/or the establishment of 
 an industrial institution in each State, to co-operate with 
 the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, for the more 
 liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and 
 their teachers." 
 
 As a result of these and similar efforts, East and West, 
 an act of Congress was passed in 1860 appropriating certain 
 lands for such purposes, but it was vetoed by President Bu- 
 chanan. Two years later substantially the same act was 
 passed, which, with the sanction of President Lincoln, pro- 
 vided for the appropriation of lands, thirty thousand acres 
 for each senator and representative in Congress, according to 
 the representation of 1860. From the privileges under this 
 act, mineral lands were excluded ; not more than a million 
 acres might be located in any one State ; and a share in its 
 benefits should accrue only to those States accepting within 
 three years after its passage, i. e., prior to July 2, 1865, or to 
 new States within three years of their admission as States. 
 The act further provided that all moneys derived from the 
 sale of apportioned lands should constitute a perpetual fund, 
 the interest only of which might be appropriated " to the en- 
 dowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college " 
 in each State, where " the leading object should be, without 
 excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including 
 military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are re- 
 lated to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner 
 as the Legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, 
 in order to promote the liberal and practical education of 
 the industrial classes, in their several pursuits and profes- 
 sions in life." 
 
 In course of time every State accepted the congressional 
 offer. Seventeen had opened institutions before 1870. Rhode 
 Island, Kansas, Massachusetts (in part), New Jersey, and 
 Vermont, very early ; * Mississippi, South Carolina, and 
 
 * A very full report of the establishment of these first institutions may 
 be found in the first " Report of the United States Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion," Hon. Henry Barnard, 1867-'68, pp. 133-309.
 
 234: THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Georgia (in part), since 1880. There are now forty-eight 
 schools operating under the act. In most of the States 
 South, the institutions founded have been opened since 
 1870 ; Tennessee, Virginia (at Hampton), and Kentucky 
 only, beginning before that time. Massachusetts, Missis- 
 sippi, Missouri, Vii'ginia, and South Carolina, have each 
 two schools. In Georgia the fund was divided among six 
 institutions. In twenty-two States the instruction required 
 is provided by State colleges or universities. The other 
 institutions are independent schools of science. Twenty- 
 four of the forty-eight institutions admit women on equal 
 terms with men. 
 
 The whole area of land appropriated was nine million 
 six hundred thousand acres. Not all of it has been sold, but 
 the amounts realized aggregate something over seven mill- 
 ion dollars, an average endowment to each State of nearly 
 two hundred thousand dollars. Almost as much, however, 
 has been received from other sources ; about six million 
 dollars from individual benefactions. Two thirds of the 
 schools have experimental farms,* averaging about three 
 hundred acres each. 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell concludes that the complete agricultural 
 school should teach technically the following subjects and 
 their immediate applications to the business of farming, in 
 both its fixed and commercial aspects : 1. Surface geology; 
 2. Anatomical botany ; 3. Physiology ; 4. Agricultural 
 chemistry ; 5. Comparative anatomy ; 6. Animal physi- 
 ology ; 7. Veterinary medicine and surgery ; 8. Land-sur- 
 veying; 9. Leveling; 10. Practical mechanics; 11. Agri- 
 cultural economy and plans; 13. Agricultural geography; 
 13. Theoretical mechanics ; 14. Elements of mechanism ; 
 15. Technical botany. Alongside of this ideal and admi- 
 rable course are presented two actual courses as they are 
 
 * An act of Congress approved March, 1887, provides for an annual 
 appropriation " to establish agriculture experiment stations in connection 
 with the colleges" established under the above-named act.
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 235 
 
 followed in Massachusetts and Colorado. These are fairly 
 representative of their respective sections, and illustrate the 
 work under widely differing conditions. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Freshman year : 
 Chemistry. 
 Human physiology. 
 Botany. 
 Agriculture. 
 Algebra. 
 Geometry. 
 Drawing. 
 English. 
 French. 
 
 Sophomore year : 
 Geology. 
 Zoology. 
 Botany. 
 Agriculture. 
 Surveys and leveling. 
 Geometry. ^ 
 
 Trigonometry. 
 Drawing. 
 History. 
 English. 
 French. 
 
 Junior year : 
 Practical chemistry. 
 Entomology. 
 
 Colorado. 
 Freshman year : 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Algebra. 
 Geometry. 
 Drawing. 
 English. 
 
 Book-keeping. 
 History. 
 
 Sophomore year : 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 Horticulture. 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 Surveys and leveling. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 History. 
 
 English. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 Mechanics. 
 
 Junior year : 
 Agricultural chemistry. 
 Entomology.
 
 23G 
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Junior year : Junior year : 
 
 Physics. Physics. 
 
 Horticulture and gardening. Horticulture. 
 Stock and dairy. 
 Mechanics. 
 Astronomy. 
 Drawing. 
 
 Roads and railroads. 
 Agricultural debate. English. 
 
 German. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 Meteorology. 
 
 Senior year : 
 
 Senior year : 
 Practical chemistry. 
 Microscopy. 
 Botany. 
 Agriculture. 
 Landscape-gardening. 
 Veterinary science. 
 Roads and railroads. 
 Rural law. 
 Book-keeping. 
 History. 
 
 English. 
 Mental science. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Landscape-gardening. 
 Veterinary science. 
 
 United States Constitution, 
 and political economy. 
 
 Mental science ; logic ; ethics. 
 
 Stock-breeding. 
 
 Shop mechanics. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Domestic economy. 
 
 With a general correspondence, especially in the first 
 two years, there is considerable divergence, growing out of 
 the different social and commerical and physical surround- 
 ings, very natural from a pedagogical point of view, and 
 suggestive of intelligent control.
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 237 
 
 4- Military and Naval Education. 
 
 The need for trained soldiers and seamen was early felt 
 in this country. The War for Independence had been a 
 school of tactics. Its heroes were the country's teachers. 
 The war closed, their influence was still held for the main- 
 tenance of some school which, in the words of Washington, 
 should keep the nation u supplied with an adequate stock of 
 military knowledge." 
 
 Although the Military Academy was formally instituted 
 at West Point, in 1802, the idea was poorly appreciated. It 
 was a school in name only, and scarcely military. It had 
 little system, because no purpose. Following the second 
 war with England, it was reorganized, a course of study de- 
 vised, and its discipline prescribed much as it remains to-day. 
 The conditions of admission which then required only that 
 the candidate be " well versed in reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic," now include in addition a knowledge of the ele- 
 ments of English grammar, descriptive geography, particu- 
 larly of our own country, and the history of the United 
 States. The new course of study, besides English grammar, 
 geography, and history, each occupying one year, was made 
 to include also two years of French, algebra, geometry and 
 logarithms, geometrical constructions, mensuration, plane 
 and spherical trigonometry, conic sections, natural and 
 experimental philosophy, astronomy, engineering, and eth- 
 ics. As will be seen, it furnished a substantial mathemat- 
 ical drill, and one of the earliest expansions of the cur- 
 riculum on the side of science to be found in this coun- 
 try. It was still, however, chiefly academic, and only 
 indirectly or secondarily contributed to the fixing of a 
 military science. The present curriculum is more special- 
 ized, and, while affording an admirable general discipline, 
 has a decided scientific and technological bias, and particu- 
 lar functions. As set forth in the official regulations (1883) 
 it embraces : 
 
 1. Infantry, artillery, and cavalry tactics ; target-practice ; 
 10
 
 238 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 military police and discipline; use of the sword, bayonet, 
 and gymnastics. 
 
 2. Mathematics. 
 
 3. English, French, and Spanish languages. 
 
 4. Chemistry, chemical physics, mineralogy, geology. 
 
 5. Natural and experimental philosophy. 
 
 6. History, geography, and ethics. 
 
 7. National, international, and military law. 
 
 8. Ordnance, gunnery, and the duties of a military lal 
 ratory. 
 
 9. Practical military engineering. 
 
 10. Civil and military engineering and the science of 
 war. 
 
 The courses in mathematics and physics are comprehen- 
 sive, and, in forming the general merit roll, rank in relative 
 value, with civil and military engineering and the science 
 of war, the highest in the course. The subjects and their 
 order are prescribed, and the discipline is founded upon an 
 absolute authority. Election has no place in the four years 
 academic or military training. The instruction from a tech- 
 nological standpoint, is of a high order, and commands gen- 
 eral confidence. It was recently said by General Hazen, 
 " After seeing much of European armies, I believe that, at 
 the opening of our civil war, our little regular army was 
 officered by better technical soldiers than any other army in 
 the world due, I believe to West Point." 
 
 The object of the institution is not civil but martial life. 
 It is "neither metaphysical discussion nor hair-splitting 
 argument on the law, in. which the young men are expected 
 to excel. They are to have the sterner arguments of the 
 battle-field; to arrange squadrons for the hardy fight; to 
 acquire that profound knowledge of the science and mate- 
 rials of nature, which should fit them for the complicated 
 art of war ; to defend and attack cities ; to bridge rivers ; to 
 make roads; to provide armaments; to arrange munitions ; 
 to understand the topography of countries ; and to foresee 
 and provide all the resources necessary to national defense."
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 239 
 
 The number of cadets is prescribed by law, as follows: 
 
 1. One for each congressional district. 
 
 2. One for each Territory. 
 
 3. One for the District of Columbia. 
 
 4. Forty whom the President may appoint, ten each year, 
 from the country at large. The selection is by competitive 
 examination, and includes both physical and intellectual 
 capacity. 
 
 After the manner of the United States Military Academy 
 were soon established similar institutions elsewhere, under 
 State or local or private control. The first of these was the 
 " American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy " at 
 Norwich, Vermont, in 1820. Fifteen years later, two were 
 opened at Portsmouth and Lexington, Virginia, the latter of 
 which became the Virginia Military Institute,* is still in 
 existence, and, next to the West Point school, the largest, and 
 most flourishing military institution in the United States, and 
 besides ranks high as an engineering school. In the years 
 before the war, also, were founded the South Carolina Mili- 
 tary Academy (1842), the Kentucky Military Institute (1845), 
 and the Louisiana State University, which had been estab- 
 lished upon a military basis (1860), and of which, at the 
 breaking out of the war, General W. T. Sherman was presi- 
 dent. 
 
 Since the last, Pennsylvania and Michigan have organ- 
 ized academies ; and the national Government an " Artillery 
 School" at Fortress Monroe, Virginia (1867), an "Infantry 
 and Cavalry School " at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas (1882), 
 and the " Artillery School " at Fort Riley, Kansas (1886) . The 
 curriculum of the last covers two years, and includes, besides 
 literary studies, the construction and service of artillery and 
 material, gunnery, and mathematics as applied in the artil- 
 lery service, and lectures upon the organization, use, and 
 application of artillery ; the duties of artillery troops in cam- 
 
 * " Stonewall " Jackson was for some years a professor in this institu- 
 tion.
 
 240 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 paigns and sieges; the construction of guns, carriage and 
 other material; and upon military law and military history.* 
 
 Reference has already been made to the Merrill Land 
 Grant Act (1862), one of whose provisions was for instruction 
 in military tactics. The original act was amended four years 
 later, providing for a special detail of officers of the army to 
 give instruction in drill and tactics in the higher literary 
 and other educational institutions of the country. Under 
 the provisions of this act more than one hundred and fifty 
 officers have been reported as giving instruction for longer 
 or shorter periods in colleges in two thirds of the States. 
 
 But nautical training in the mean time has not been 
 ignored. In this modern day of commerce and the brother- 
 hood of races, no people can be national without being at 
 the same time maritime. Other things equal, the strength 
 of a people is the strength of its bond with other people. A 
 mastery of the seas means not only power abroad, but vigor 
 at home. If, then, domestic industry and social and profes- 
 sional life demand a preparation, not less a life on the sea 
 and commerce with nations. 
 
 The United States was fifty-six years old before the first 
 formal instruction of her seamen. The department of the 
 navy had been created in 1798, and, in imitation of the Eng- 
 lish custom, chaplains of the ships were required to act as 
 schoolmasters. Fifteen years after, it was ordered that each 
 of a number of new ships should carry an instructor ; but 
 he was merely a chaplain worked over, with only a chance 
 fitness for his position, and in no wise supported in his 
 teaching. 
 
 Better provision was recommended (1814) by President 
 
 * The Government also provides instruction in the branches usually 
 taught in the common schools, at nearly every one of the one hundred and 
 twenty military posts in the United States. The day-school is open to all 
 the children at the station. A night-school is usually maintained for such 
 enlisted men as desire to attend. The teachers also are enlisted men, who 
 are detailed for the purpose, with extra pay. (From a private letter by Chap- 
 lain George Bobinson, in charge of education in the United States Army.)
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 241 
 
 Madison, as it had been before, and was afterward by others, 
 but " the United States had not yet learned the fact," says 
 Prof. Saley, " that a nation with a large commerce is bound 
 to do its part in maintaining the police of the ocean." In- 
 struction was, of course, given all these years and long after 
 at the navy-yards or on board cruising ships. The former 
 were at New York, Philadelphia, and Norfolk. In 1835 there 
 were three ships which, seven years later, had thirteen in- 
 structors of mathematics alone. At the navy-yards there 
 were twice as many. At this time Prof. Chauvenet was in 
 charge at Philadelphia, and was a man in a thousand. He 
 was a master, both as teacher and scholar. In 1845 George 
 Bancroft became Secretary of the Navy. After years of com- 
 promises, the Government had found a man who was equal 
 to the situation. He asked for no legislation. He only pro- 
 posed to use the power he had and make the most of it. A 
 school on shore was projected, whose instruction should in- 
 clude both theory and practice, and embrace besides aca- 
 demic studies, the law of commerce, marine surveying, ord- 
 nance, gunnery, and the use of steam. A half-dozen of the 
 most efficient of his force were selected, the rest were retired, 
 and there was opened at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1845, a 
 school which became, under Chauvenet and others, five years 
 later, the United States Naval Academy. 
 The present course includes : 
 
 1. Naval tactics and practice in seamanship. 
 
 2. Mathematics, navigation, astronomy, land and nauti- 
 cal surveying, and dra wing. 
 
 3. Natural and experimental philosophy, mechanics, the 
 construction and management of the steam-engine. 
 
 4. Chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. 
 
 5. Gunnery and infantry tactics. 
 
 6. Modern languages. 
 
 7. Ethics. 
 
 Besides the instruction afforded at the Naval Academy, 
 there is also the Nautical School on board the St. Mary's 
 vessel at Brooklyn, seventy per cent of whose five hundred
 
 242 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 graduates have become seamen, and that on the California 
 training-ship Jamestown. The University of Michigan gives 
 annually a course of lectures on naval architecture in which 
 are discussed the resistance of ships, speed, buoyancy, sta- 
 bility, wave-motion, etc. In Massachusetts, towns are au- 
 thorized by law to establish schools for training young men 
 in nautical duties. 
 
 The Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, is a 
 school of graduate instruction for officers of the navy. It 
 was opened in 1884, with a greatly specialized but withal a 
 comprehensive course of technical instruction in military 
 and naval science. It embraces (1) the science and art of 
 war; (2) law and history. Under the first are taught (a) 
 strategy and tactics ; (6) military campaigns, (c) joint mili- 
 tary and naval operations, (d) the management of seamen in 
 military operations, and (e) elements of fortification and in- 
 trenchment all from the military point of view; supple- 
 mented by (/) naval strategy and tactics, (g) naval cam- 
 paigns, and (h) joint military and naval operations, from the 
 naval standpoint. Under the second are embraced, (a) in- 
 ternational law, (6) treaties of the United States, (c) rules of 
 evidence, (d) general naval history, and (e) modern political 
 history. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 "Scientific Schools in Europe, considered with reference to their 
 Adaptation to America," Dr. D. C. Oilman, Barnard's " American Jour- 
 nal of Education," vol. ii ; " Art Education Scholastic and Industrial," 
 Walter Smith,! 873 ; " Report on Industrial Education," Senate document, 
 1883 ; " Report on Technical Education in the United States and Can- 
 ada," by the English Commission, 1884 ; " A New Principle in Education 
 Development of the Constructive Faculty," Felix Adlcr, " Princeton Re- 
 view," 1883 ; the same reviewed and criticised in the "Presbyterian Re- 
 view," January, 1884 ; " Education in its Relation to Industry," Arthur 
 McArthur, 1884 ; " Industrial Education, a Pedagogical and Social Neces- 
 sity," P. Seidel, 1887; " Industrial Training," " Forum," April, 1887 ; the 
 "Progress of Industrial Education," P. C. Garrett, 1883 ; "The Modern 
 Polytechnic School," inaugural address of Dr. C. 0. Thompson, of
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 243 
 
 Rose Polytechnic Institute, 1883; "Technical Instruction in America," 
 J. H. Rigg, " Contemporary Review," August, 1884 ; " Technology and Pub- 
 lic Education," C. 0. Thompson, before Michigan State Teachers' Associ- 
 ation, 1884; " Manual Training," Charles Ham, 1886; "Manual Train- 
 ing," C. M. Woodward, 1887 ; " Manual Training," by Colonel Augustus 
 Jacobson, " Proceedings of the National Educational Association," 1884, 
 p. 293 ; " Manual Training," Felix Adler, ibid., p. 308 ; the " New York 
 Trade School"; "Report of Massachusetts Board of Education, 1884 ; 
 " Naval Education," D. D. Porter, the " United Service Magazine," July, 
 1879. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES AND CRIMINAL CLASSES. 
 
 THE idea of education in its economic aspect, as a means 
 of reforming the offending classes, while not new, has a 
 larger field, and, in the different ethical standards of the 
 time, more favorable conditions for its growth. No intelli- 
 gent person supposes that a limited education is a sure cure 
 or prevention of crime, but that, other things equal, the 
 advance in general intelligence means higher measures in 
 conduct ; and the frequent reform of the viciously inclined, 
 if taken early, may be proved by history for a hundred 
 years. The. idea itself is not recent ; but faith in the prin- 
 ciple such as seeks to make the regenerative influences of 
 a right education common to all the class is altogether 
 modern. 
 
 So also it may be said that care for the dependent classes, 
 as charity to the unfortunate and needy, is a characteristic 
 of recent civilization. But other than this and indefinitely 
 superior is the attempt to enlarge their intellectual horizon. 
 Brotherly kindness has fed and clothed, sheltered and pro- 
 tected them in all ages of civilization. But provisions for 
 their education, not only as mental improvement, but train- 
 ing them to self-support, and as lifting them out of the
 
 244 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 pauper class, point to a higher and more recent interest. 
 The blind, deaf-mutes, minor orphans, imbeciles, the insane, 
 vagrants, and young and uncared-for offenders against so- 
 ciety, all, speaking broadly, belong to the same non-produc- 
 tive class, a drain upon society, except they be given pos- 
 session of their remaining powers, and a mastery of nature 
 by patient, intelligent training. 
 
 In this class, also, are to be considered the Indians in 
 large part, and their education in learning, industry, and the 
 ways of civilized life. 
 
 1. Deaf -Mute Education. 
 
 Even the oldest records of teaching the deaf are recent. 
 Among the ancients, regarded as under a curse, or idiotic, 
 or at best so deficient in intellect as to be irresponsible, 
 they were debarred from all civil rights. Even Blackstone 
 held * that a man who is born deaf, dumb, and blind is to be 
 regarded "in the same state with an idiot." 
 
 The first systematic attempt to instruct them was by 
 Pedro Ponce de Leon, in Spain, in 1550. Seventy years 
 after, was published a simple alphabet. By the middle of 
 the century the system was introduced into England ; lip- 
 reading was described by a Hollander about the same time, 
 and before 1700 the two-hand alphabet was invented. But 
 for two centuries from the time of Ponce de Leon, the interest 
 was wholly benevolent and individual. In 1774, at Leipsic, 
 was opened a government school. Such American deaf-mutes 
 as received any instruction were sent to England. In the 
 year 1815, however, Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, a recently ordained 
 minister in Connecticut, interested in the deaf-mute child of 
 his neighbor, undertook her instruction. The attention of 
 others gained, steps were taken to found an institution. 
 Mr. Gallaudet was made director. He at once visited the 
 schools of England and Scotland, and spent three months 
 with Sicard in Paris. Immediately upon his return there 
 
 * " Commentaries," Book I, chapter viii.
 
 EDUCATION OP UNFORTUNATES. 45 
 
 was opened at Hartford " The Connecticut Asylum for the 
 Education of Deaf and Dumb Persons." The State Legisla- 
 ture appropriated five thousand dollars. Private means did 
 most. Later, Congress granted the institution twenty-three 
 thousand acres of land, whose proceeds form a part of the 
 present endowment, and, upon the assumption that the one 
 institution would be sufficient to accommodate the deaf- 
 mutes of the country at large, the name was changed to 
 the " American Asylum for Deaf -Mutes at Hartford." But 
 many children were found so affected, and in 1818 the New 
 York Institution was opened as a day-school, and for several 
 years was under the direction of the State Superintendent, as 
 were other public shools. 
 
 Following these were established similar asylums in 
 Pennsylvania (1821), Kentucky (1823), Ohio (1827), Illinois 
 (1837), Virginia (1839), Indiana and Tennessee (1847), North 
 Carolina and Georgia (1845), and South Carolina (1849) 
 twelve in all, in as many States, in thirty years. 
 
 There are now sixty-one institutions in thirty-five States 
 (Delaware, Louisiana, Nevada, New Hampshire, and Ver- 
 mont, arranging for the education of their deaf in adjoin- 
 ing States), two Territories New Mexico, and Utah, and the 
 District of Columbia. Eleven States have two or more each ; 
 New York has six, and Missouri four. These schools enroll 
 in the aggregate nearly eight thousand pupils, and represent 
 an expenditure of a million and a half of dollars. More than 
 half of them are public institutions, and all, with perhaps 
 half a dozen exceptions, receive State (or municipal) aid. 
 Yet a large majority of them require tuition fees, and are so 
 made exclusive or pauper establishments. 
 
 In deaf-mute instruction two methods are chiefly used ; 
 that of De 1'Epee, the sign method, introduced by Gallau- 
 det, and in exclusive use in this country for fifty years. It 
 includes writing, and teaches by means of objects, gestures, 
 and arbitrary symbols. The other is the German or articu- 
 lation method, and involves lip-reading. This begins with 
 the voicing of simple sounds, slowly and distinctly by the in-
 
 246 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 structor, whose motions are carefully watched by the pupil, 
 and afterward imitated. Other sounds follow in the inverse 
 order of their difficulty. The method was first introduced into 
 the United States by the Clarke Institution, Northampton, 
 Massachusetts, in 1867. Since its successful use there it has 
 been introduced elsewhere, noticeably, and with equal re- 
 sults, by the " New York School for Improved Instruction," 
 founded soon after, by the Boston Day-School, and others. 
 
 Besides these establishments for elementary instruction, 
 there was chartered in 1857, and opened seven years later, at 
 Washington, in connection with the Columbian University 
 the " National Deaf -Mute College " for advanced instruction. 
 It offers the usual college course, and uses the same text- 
 books. The Iowa school also, besides the usual elementary 
 graded courses, has advanced academic, art, and industrial 
 departments. 
 
 Concerning industrial training it need only be said that 
 all schools provide it in some form, and there are few posi- 
 tions in life which the well-taught individuals of this class 
 may not fill to public profit as well as personal credit. The 
 industrial exhibits of deaf-mutes at recent expositions are a 
 monument to their skill and intelligence.* 
 
 2. Education of the Blind. 
 
 There are estimated to be about thirty thousand blind in 
 the United States ; of these, less than three thousand are re- 
 ported as receiving any formal instruction. The attempt 
 to provide for their education, while older than that of the 
 deaf in Europe, was introduced into the United States fifteen 
 years later. The " Hospital for the Three Hundred," founded 
 in Paris in 1260, was only an asylum, no attempt being made 
 at systematic mental training prior to Valentine Haiiy, the 
 " Apostle of the Blind," who in 1786 published a relief print, 
 
 * At New Orleans (1885) eighteen institutions made exhibits of both lit- 
 erary and industrial products, the latter including needlework, printing, 
 Bhoemaking, carpentry, photography, drawings, and fine art.
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 247 
 
 and five years later opened a school for the blind. This, re- 
 ceiving the king's sanction and favor, became afterward the 
 " Royal Institution of France," and has been followed by 
 many others in the intervening century : first in Germany, 
 then in Russia, England, Scotland, and the United States. 
 To Dr. S. (r. Howe educator and philanthropist, whose 
 name is inseparably associated with the work in the United 
 States belongs also the honor of its introduction. The 
 Perkins Institution in Boston (1832) did for the blind of 
 New England and the East what the American Asylum at 
 Hartford acomplished for deaf-mutes. Others were immedi- 
 ately founded, one in New York the same year, and another 
 in Philadelphia the year following. By the middle of the 
 century, there were eleven. There are now thirty-two such 
 institutions in thirty States ; the blind of Connecticut, Dela- 
 ware, Maine, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode 
 Island, and Vermont, being accommodated in neighboring 
 schools ; and New York and Maryland having two institu- 
 tions each. 
 
 All reputable schools of this class afford instruction in 
 most subjects of the average curriculum of secondary insti- 
 tutions, including a full course in mathematics, the lan- 
 guages, and history, the philosophical studies, and some- 
 thing of natural science. To this are generally added some 
 form of industrial training and always music. The one is 
 given as part of the general culture which every child needs, 
 not less than as a means to intellectual growth ; the other as 
 satisfying the peculiar need incidental to blindness. 
 
 That the industrial training called for is neither insignifi- 
 cant in character nor seriously restricted in variety, appears 
 from the occupations of the educated blind.* In a late re- 
 port of the United States Commissioner of Education, the fol- 
 lowing statistics are given ; and, while it is not supposed that 
 
 * At the New Orleans Exposition the exhibit of the blind was quite 
 remarkable. A dozen institutions in this country were represented, and 
 twice as many forms of industry all from children.
 
 248 
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 the list is complete in any particular, it is suggestive of tlie 
 industrial importance of the class : 
 
 Occupations of tJie Blind. 
 
 Superintendents of institutions. . *16 
 Teachers in schools not for the 
 
 blind 2 
 
 Teachers of the blind tl35 
 
 Ministers 36 
 
 Studying or practicing law 5 
 
 Authors 17 
 
 Publishers 8 
 
 Agents and lecturers 70 
 
 General teachers of music 463 
 
 Church organists 88 
 
 Piano-tuners 125 
 
 Composers and publishers of mu- 
 sic 14 
 
 Graduates from colleges 17 
 
 Manufacturing 305 
 
 Handicraftsmen 702 
 
 Merchants 269 
 
 Farmers 59 
 
 Newsdealers 7 
 
 Dealers in instruments 6 
 
 Horse-dealers 9 
 
 It appears that about seven hundred, or nearly one third 
 of the whole, have to do with music next to handicraft, the 
 largest single interest. Education along this line is of para- 
 mount importance. It is on the side of culture and refine- 
 ment and the growth of the gentler feelings, and very prop- 
 erly forms a part of every course. 
 
 Fundamentally, all literary training rests upon the ability 
 to read. Two principal alphabets have been designed, both 
 employing the fingers. In the one are used raised letters, 
 either in the common or some slightly modified form. The 
 other makes use of dots or points, raised also, but not resem- 
 bling the letter in any way. A modification of the latter a 
 system of point-writing and printing is the one generally 
 in use in the United States. In 1856 it was said there were 
 but forty-six books for the blind published in English ; now 
 there are three large publishing-houses in this country alone. 
 The point-system has also been applied to musical notation. 
 
 No study of the blind in this country, their education, 
 the means employed, and their success, would be in any 
 sense complete that failed to include the case of Laura 
 
 * This includes half of all the schools for the blind in the United States, 
 t One fourth of all the teachers employed.
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 249 
 
 Bridgman. A deaf-mute, and blind, and. her other senses 
 impaired, the limitations of her life have scarcely been 
 equaled in the world's experience, much less the marvelous 
 results of her education. The case has been repeatedly and 
 admirably described, but must remain of perennial interest.* 
 What she became, one is tempted to say, Dr. Howe made her. 
 The story of her training should be familiar to every teacher. 
 " His work," says Prof. Hall (referring to Dr. Howe), " was so 
 ingenious and successful that it remains one of the greatest 
 triumphs of pedagogical skill ; and his studies of his pupil 
 during the most interesting period of her education may 
 be called almost classical for the psychologist. " 
 
 3, Education of tJie Feeble-Minded. 
 
 Fifteen States f have made permanent provision for the 
 respectable maintenance, education, and training of those 
 of feeble minds. In these States are nineteen schools and 
 homes, with nearly four thousand inmates, all of whom, 
 with one exception (the New York State Custodial Asylum 
 for Feeble-Minded Women), are children. 
 
 These schools are provided with over four hundred teach- 
 ers and a course of training which, while chiefly industrial, 
 usually comprises, according to the capacity of the children, 
 something of language, calculation, and the use of the pen- 
 cil. Though this must be meager, the importance of sys- 
 tematic and persistent and uniform intellectual exercise, 
 simple as may be, but with an intelligent purpose, can not 
 be overestimated. Next to this, possibly first in importance, 
 because more available is the industrial training, the ability 
 
 * A second case, promising to be of scarcely less interest, is .that of Helen 
 Keller, of Alabama a second Laura Bridgman a report of whose condi- 
 tion and intellectual beginnings may be found in the " Annual Keport of 
 the Perkins Institution," Boston, for 1887. A notice appears in " Science," 
 also, February 24, 1888. 
 
 t California, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, 
 Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New York, 
 Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
 
 250 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 to use the organs of the body, to subordinate them to the 
 simple purposes of the mind, the use of tools and implements, 
 and a knowledge of things. 
 
 In the Illinois Institution and a few other schools Kinder- 
 garten exercises have been tried with the most marked and 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 4. Reformatories. 
 
 It has been said that institutions for reformatory educa- 
 tion began in this country as "Houses of Refuge"; that, 
 later, they were called " Reform Schools," both names being 
 discarded in the more recently established institutions of 
 like functions "Industrial Schools." In its unqualified 
 form the statement is misleading, though true to the spirit 
 of progress. The significance attaching to it seems to be 
 that the institutions described are coming to be more and 
 more educative, and so regenerative, rather than merely cor- 
 rectional and retributive. Discipline through growth is su- 
 perior to any coercion. Besides, not all institutions so 
 called are for the vicious and law-breaking. The system 
 includes as well the unfortunate, the homeless, the evilly- 
 surrounded, the idle and vagrant, the needy. And, wheth- 
 er the term used be "Houses of Correction" or "Indus- 
 trial Schools," "Orphans' Homes" or "Houses of Deten- 
 tion," " Farm-Schools," " Reformatories," or, as in France, 
 " Correctional Colonies," or " Ragged Schools," as in Eng- 
 land and Scotland, or by whatever name, they concern a 
 body of necessitous youth of both sexes, not always nor 
 usually of the criminal class, but numerous and danger- 
 ous, except their impetuous energies be directed into whole- 
 some service. 
 
 The contemporary reformatory institution in this coun- 
 try dates from the year 1820, in the founding of the New 
 York House of Refuge, on Randall's Island. This does 
 not imply that no previous care had been had and ex- 
 ercised in behalf of wayward youth. Plymouth Colony, 
 in 1658, had "joyned to the prison a House of Correc-
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 51 
 
 tion," * and other communities and States, and every gen- 
 eration, perhaps, had felt the danger and sought to stay it ; 
 but action was local and temporary. The Plymouth ex- 
 periment bore no fruit in similar institutions, and was itself 
 soon abandoned. The New York "House" originated in 
 the efforts of Edward Livingston and others, and was purely 
 philanthropic. 
 
 The Boston House of Eeformation was established in 1826, 
 and one in Philadelphia two years later. For almost twenty 
 years these seem to have been regarded as local experiments, 
 and not generally understood. Then came the "Isaac T. 
 Hopper Home " and " Western House of Refuge," both in 
 New York, and an institution for boys at New Orleans. 
 All these, it should not be lost sight of, had been instituted 
 by individual beneficence and philanthropy, and, though 
 receiving occasional aid from the State, they were yet pri- 
 vate institutions, or privately founded and managed by cor- 
 porations. In the year 1848 was established at Westborough, 
 Massachusetts, a State Pvef ormatory, and that it was the right 
 and policy of the State to care for this class soon came to 
 be common sentiment. Similar institutions were directly 
 opened in Pennsylvania, Maine, Connecticut, New Hamp- 
 shire, and Ohio, followed since by other States both West 
 and South. 
 
 Of Reform Schools proper there are sixty in twenty-five 
 States. These have approximately fifteen thousand inmates, 
 supported at an annual cost to the public of two million dol- 
 lars. Besides these, there are from four to five hundred 
 " Homes " and asylums for orphans, dependent and vagrant 
 children, which, since the Charleston (South Carolina) 
 " Home," 1790, have housed and reared and educated half a 
 million children. Of the Industrial Reform Schools, eighty- 
 three per cent are State or municipal. The former are 
 chiefly public ; of the latter more than half are denomina- 
 tional. The establishment, following the war, of homes for 
 
 * " Plymouth Colony Kecords," vol. iii, p. 137.
 
 252 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 soldiers' orphans, and the recent provision of some of the 
 Western States to furnish separate care for almshouse chil- 
 dren, have greatly increased the enrollment in these insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 In all of them, whether reformatory or preventive only, 
 three phases of training seem not only desirable but neces- 
 sary. The nature of the instruction here, also, must be de- 
 termined by the class want. 
 
 First, there are needed habits of industry. This is uni- 
 versally admitted, and has led everywhere to the introduction 
 and pursuit of farm and shop and household exercises ex- 
 ercises in the practice of which may be taught, if not trades 
 and special businesses, at least the principles of industry and 
 the busy habit. These are great conservers of purity, and, 
 from pedagogical motives only, to have fixed these tenden- 
 cies is so much fundamental gain. A few of these schools 
 have farms, thirty institutions reporting somewhat of agri- 
 culture and more of gardening. In most of the institutions 
 for girls, house-work is required ; laundry and tailoring in 
 twenty-four, and in these and others shoemaking, cane-seat- 
 ing, carpentry, smithing, etc. 
 
 To furnish a second kind of training, as the basis of 
 all other instruction, and as a means of literary and aca- 
 demic drill, the common branches are taught, of which, be- 
 sides reading and arithmetic, history and drawing and mu- 
 sic, for obvious reasons, are emphasized. The schools report 
 in the aggregate fifty thousand volumes in their libraries, 
 which, well selected and used under intelligent guidance, are 
 an important factor in their education. 
 
 As a third function of these schools, if anything be ac- 
 complished, they are called to establish right ethical senti- 
 ments, and develop standards of conduct. This is effected 
 slowly, if at all, and only by virtue of the wisest foresight 
 and patience. Toward the fixing of such moral and restrain- 
 ing influences, transferring authority from without to within, 
 perhaps nothing has been more generally efficient than the 
 school -room discipline : the habit of regular and instant obe-
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 253 
 
 dience ; subordination to authority for a common interest ; 
 the general spirit of co-operation ; the growth of a class 
 sympathy ; the frequent self-sacrifice, and the rendering of 
 services to companions and teachers ; and the constant fa- 
 miliarity with the moderation of impulses and frankness of 
 demeanor which the well-regulated school-room uniformly 
 teaches. 
 
 Altogether, the right management and discipline of these 
 classes almost one hundred thousand of them in the schools, 
 and a larger number yet without constitute one of the most 
 serious economic and educational problems of the day. 
 
 5. Indian Education. 
 
 A. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 Outside of New England and the other Atlantic colonies, 
 the earliest attempts to educate the Indian were by the Cath- 
 olics. Father Juan Roger in Carolina, in 1568, and Bena- 
 vides, among the Pueblos of the Southwest, half a century 
 later, began the work of teaching the savage reading and the 
 productive arts of life. In the early part of the last century 
 Spanish missions were established among the Indians of 
 southern California, whose descendants are known as "Mis- 
 sion Indians." * The first colonies on the Eastern coast were 
 founded upon land-grants in which care for the Indian was 
 one of the stipulations. The charter of the Virginia Com- 
 pany, and, fifteen years later, the supplementary acts of the 
 Colonial Assembly, specified as one of their functions, " the 
 enlargement of God's kingdom among the heathen people." 
 "That the Christian faith may be propagated among the 
 Western Indians," was one of the reasons assigned for the 
 founding of the College of William and Mary ; and for a 
 hundred years the organization of the college included an 
 Indian school. For many years also prior to the Revolution 
 
 * See Helen Hunt Jackson's " A Century of Dishonor," and " Ro- 
 mona" ; also, report by Mrs. Jackson to the United States Indian Com- 
 missioner, 1883, and one by Prof. C. C. Painter, 1887. 
 
 17
 
 254 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 William and Mary shared with Harvard a bequest of Hon. 
 Robert Boyle * " for maintaining and educating Indian 
 scholars." 
 
 Soon after the founding of Harvard, the General Court 
 of Massachusetts ordered " that the county courts in their 
 jurisdiction take care that the Indians of the several shires 
 be civilized," and about the same time was begun the great 
 work of John Eliot, teaching them, learning their language, 
 translating the Bible, and setting them off into towns.f 
 " They must be civilized," he said, " as well as, if not in order 
 to their being, Christianized." The mantle of Eliot seems to 
 have fallen upon Eleazer Wheelock, who in 1743 opened in 
 his own house a school, which for many years he main- 
 tained at his own expense, feeding, clothing, and schooling 
 Indian children from the neighborhood. This was followed 
 ten years later by Moore's Indian Charity School, enrolling 
 fifty to sixty children annually until about 1770, when it 
 was merged into and became the nucleus of the newly 
 founded Dartmouth College. Hamilton College, New York, 
 had a similar origin (1812). 
 
 Up to this time the effort to educate the Indians had 
 been almost wholly individual, much scattered, and entirely 
 without concert or plan. Next to Eliot's labors and Moore's 
 Charity School the work with the Oneidas in New York 
 through and after the Revolution was probably most efficient. 
 The descendants of this tribe in New York and Wisconsin 
 are said to be practically self-supporting, having their own 
 churches and schools, owning their lands, and being fairly 
 industrious. Following the Catholic missions, Protestant 
 churches sought and found numerous fields for both re- 
 ligious and secular service. The Moravians early in the 
 eighteenth century and the Quakers near the close, Episco- 
 
 * Died 1691. 
 
 t Whatever may be thought of the wisdom of Eliot's methods, these 
 fourteen u praying towns " have an historic interest wholly apart from 
 their religious aim.
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 255 
 
 palians, Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, and numerous 
 union and Indian missionary associations, have many fold 
 increased the efforts to serve the Indian. Sometimes the 
 service has added to his knowledge and happiness, some- 
 times to his knowledge only. The best meant offices have 
 not unfrequently been the most short-sighted and irra- 
 tional. All that had been accomplished at the opening of 
 the century was to show that the average Indian was not 
 lacking either in ability (intellectual) or skill. It remained 
 to be seen whether he have the requisite flexibility of 
 temper, the adaptability to take on the co-operative and 
 confiding habit of civilized life. 
 
 B. GOVERNMENT CONTROL. 
 
 For half a century the almost uniform attitude of the 
 Government toward the red man was one of military do- 
 minion. Nominally the administration has been by civil- 
 ians ; but the policy has not generally been a civilizing one. 
 Coercion and treachery and neglect have sometimes taken 
 the place of nurture and fidelity and the wise forbearance 
 that mark true teaching.* 
 
 From the first, Congress was supposed to exercise a sort 
 of supervision over the race, neither knowing how nor seek- 
 ing, however, to establish fixed relations of comity or helpful- 
 ness. About 1820 was made an appropriation of ten thousand 
 dollars called the civilization fund, which was for many years 
 the only Government aid to Indian education. The Indian 
 Bureau, at present belonging to the Department of the In- 
 terior, was created in 1833. Not, however, till the so-called 
 " peace policy " of President Grant's Administration was any 
 particular emphasis placed upon education. The positive 
 course of Government then and subsequently, and the co- 
 
 * An Indian visiting Washington in 1880, being called upon, made the 
 following speech to official listeners : " Four years ago the American people 
 promised to be friends with us. They lied. That is all." " Keport of 
 the Bureau of Ethnology," 1879-'80, p. 520.
 
 256 TIIE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 operation with existing agencies, mark the beginning of In- 
 dian education as now known. 
 
 In order to understand the present conditions it is neces- 
 sary to recall certain administrative facts. Prof. Painter 
 summarizes the Government Indian policy under three heads : 
 " treaties, the reservation and agency systems, and the ad- 
 ministrative and judicial departments at Washington." 
 
 Of the first, General Sherman is quoted as saying, " We 
 have made more than a thousand treaties with various In- 
 dian tribes, and have not kept one of them." * 
 
 Growing out of the treaty system, and as a part of the 
 inevitable accompanying compromises, are the "reserva- 
 tions." These amount in the aggregate to more than 212,- 
 000 square miles, t Of this policy the almost uniform testi- 
 mony is that it is irredeemably vicious. " The reservation 
 line is a wall that fences out law, civil institutions, and social 
 order, and admits only despotism, greed, and lawlessness." 
 
 Supplementing this treaty-reservation policy is the agency 
 system, whereby each reservation is provided with a Gov- 
 ernment representative, resident and supreme. That almost 
 unlimited power held as a political reward easily degener- 
 ates into a source of abuses must be expected. 
 
 So general had become the impression that the first of these 
 was a mistake, that Congress in 1871 enacted that thereafter 
 " no Tpflian nation or tribe within the territory of the United 
 States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independ- 
 ent nation, or tribe, or power, with whom the United States 
 may contract by treaty." And seven years later, equally 
 persuaded of the viciousness and general unfairness of the 
 reservation policy, Congress passed the " General Land in 
 Severalty Bill," authorizing the President of the United 
 States, according to his judgment, to allot the land in any 
 reservation to the Indians located thereon. 
 
 * Address of Pro C. C. Painter, Mohawk Lake Conference, 1886. 
 t The one single reservation of the Indian Territory is larger than all 
 New England.
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 257 
 
 So much has heen said the better to exhibit the little that 
 is known of the purely educational work being done among 
 the Indians. The problem is a complex one and far from 
 present settlement. Abused confidence among them, the 
 disorders growing out of a common ownership in land, the 
 evils of a machine-made agency, a large enforced idleness, 
 and the dissipation incident to unaccustomed modes of life, 
 negative the best results. It is not too much to say that for 
 no single year in the history of this question has the full 
 civilizing force of the simplest education had room to be 
 felt. Further, the elevation of a people from a wandering 
 hunter's life to a settled industrial one is a matter not of a 
 year or years, but of generations. In such a process education 
 requires more than books and forms. Even the restraints of 
 an agricultural life may be too exacting. The nearest in- 
 dustry that suits his taste, lying on the side toward civiliza- 
 tion is, pedagogically speaking, the lesson next to be learned. 
 But the conventionalities of the new life must also be 
 learned. As one of the conditions of any general co-opera- 
 tion the language of then* surroundings must be known, 
 means of intercourse and record adopted, new attitudes of 
 mind and desire ; and the part of education most essential is 
 " making one understand what kind of place this world is, 
 what one's relations to it are, and consequently his rights, 
 duties, and responsibilities."* 
 
 That this is the kind of education the Indians are every- 
 where getting nobody supposes. That individual schools, 
 and individual pupils in many schools, are getting it, can 
 scarcely be denied. And it is by the elevation of individuals 
 that races are civilized. 
 
 C. CONTEMPORARY INDIAN SCHOOLING. 
 
 Since 1882 there has been a special " Education Division " 
 in the Indian Bureau. The first superintendent was Mr. J. 
 M. Haworth, who at his death (1885) was succeeded by the 
 
 * W. G. Sumner, " The Forum," May, 1887, p. 260.
 
 258 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 present incumbent, Hon. J. B. Riley. Besides reservation 
 Indians and the five civilized tribes in the Indian Territory 
 two classes with which the present consideration is chiefly 
 concerned there are the remnants of the Six Nations in 
 New York, scattering settlements in half a dozen other States 
 east of the Mississippi River, and those in tribal relations, no 
 account of which will be here taken. 
 
 The Indian school-population aggregates nearly thirty- 
 nine thousand, scattered over nineteen States and Territo- 
 ries, with a school enrollment of about sixteen thousand, 
 and a daily attendance of thirty-four per cent. When it is 
 considered that but forty-one per cent of the school census 
 of cities throughout the United States are daily in school, 
 the success among Indian children seems surprisingly great. 
 If the centers of civilization, with from fifty years to two 
 centuries of school experience, and resting upon a civiliza- 
 tion reaching back to Alfred the Great, may take pride in so 
 little, what hope may not T>e cherished of the future of the 
 Indian ? 
 
 As appears from the table, Indian schools are : 1. Those 
 under the immediate charge of the Indian Office, about sev- 
 enty per cent of all. 2. Those for whose support special 
 appropriations are regularly made, but which are not man- 
 aged directly by the Bureau. 3. A class of schools chiefly 
 maintained by missionary or church organizations, or under 
 private endowment, but schooling a definite number of In- 
 dian children by agreement with the Department. These 
 are the " Contract Schools " item three in the table. 4. The 
 schools of the Indian Territory. Besides these there are a 
 few schools in the far West, chiefly maintained by societies 
 or individuals, with uncertain support, and from which only 
 imperfect statistics are to be had. 
 
 (1) Bureau Schools. 
 
 The first class are under the general management of 
 Superintendent Riley. They comprise boarding, day, and 
 industrial training schools numbering one hundred and
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 259 
 
 sixty-three. The boarding-schools have about half of all 
 the pupils. In the industrial schools, and in the boarding- 
 schools, indeed, are taught the common processes of farming 
 and related tasks dairying, stock-raising, fencing, building, 
 ditching, and domestic management and service ; in some 
 of them blacksmithing, carpentry, etc. At Standing Rock, 
 Dakota, there is an Agricultural School, having a farm with 
 one hundred and fifty acres under cultivation, and about 
 sixty pupils ; and an industrial boarding-school with twice 
 the enrollment. The Normal and Training School at Santee 
 Agency, Nebraska, is particularly worthy of note. It was 
 organized in 1870, and gives instruction in reading, writing, 
 drawing, arithmetic, English composition, geography, his- 
 tory, physiology, and music. From this, and from the Hamp- 
 ton and Carlisle schools, have been furnished a large number 
 of Indian young men and women as teachers to other agen- 
 cies. A graduate of the Hampton school is principal of 
 the Shawnee boarding-school, another at Pawnee, etc. At 
 Chilocco, two educated Kiowa girls and a Comanche In- 
 dian man have the local management. The normal school 
 referred to accommodates both sexes. It has an industrial 
 department, with thirteen instructors, and provides train- 
 ing in carpentry, smithing, shoemaking, brick-making, and 
 farming for the boys, and housekeeping and related tasks 
 for the girls. It has thirteen teachers in the academic 
 school, uses eighteen buildings, and enrolls over two hun- 
 dred students. 
 
 Both the Pine Ridge Indians and the Osages have com- 
 pulsory education laws of their own construction and en- 
 forcement, pronounced the "best ever devised." A child's 
 absence from school, except for good reasons, cuts off the 
 rations for the whole family. The Osages, a rich tribe, with 
 landed possessions and large money annuities, in their own 
 Council (1883), and not directly influenced by the United 
 States authorities, provided for an attendance of not less 
 than six months yearly. The school age is generally from 
 six to sixteen years.
 
 260 
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Indian Schools. 
 
 KIND OF INDIAN SCHOOLS. 
 
 21 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 jl 
 
 ll 
 
 1 
 
 1. In charge of Indian Bureau : 
 a. Boarding-schools 
 
 68 
 
 5,050 
 
 5,484 
 
 4,111 
 
 $548.787 65 
 
 b. Day-schools 
 
 flO 
 
 3,135 
 
 3 115 
 
 1 890 
 
 59,678 80 
 
 c. Industrial training-schools 
 
 5 
 
 1,455 
 
 1,573 
 
 1,342 
 
 243,089 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Bureau schools 
 
 163 
 
 9,640 
 
 10,172 
 
 7,349 
 
 $851,555 57 
 
 2. Special schools : 
 a. Carlisle Training, Carlisle, Pa 
 
 
 600 
 
 617 
 
 547 
 
 $81,000 00 
 
 b. Chilocco Training, Chilocco, Ind.Ter. 
 c. Genoa Training, Genoa, Neb 
 
 
 180 
 175 
 
 197 
 215 
 
 166 
 171 
 
 28,544 64 
 31,264 77 
 
 d. Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 
 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 116 
 
 19,382 79 
 
 e. Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kan 
 
 
 Sao 
 
 as9 
 
 273 
 
 61,532 00 
 
 /. Lincoln Institution, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 a. Salem Training, Chcmawa, Or 
 
 
 200 
 250 
 
 218 
 205 
 
 200 
 185 
 
 33.364 10 
 40,747 71 
 
 h. St. Ignatius Mission. Flathead Res., 
 Mont 
 
 
 200 
 
 186 
 
 170 
 
 22,500 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total special schools 
 
 8 
 
 2,005 
 
 2,137 
 
 1,828 
 
 $318,336 01 
 
 8. Under contract with the Indian Bureau: 
 o. Boarding-schools 
 
 41 
 
 2 733 
 
 2553 
 
 2081 
 
 $228445 58 
 
 b. Day-schools 
 
 90 
 
 843 
 
 1 044 
 
 604 
 
 ~ 10 777 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total contract schools 
 
 61 
 
 3,576 
 
 3,597 
 
 2.685 
 
 $239,223 11 
 
 Total Indian schools 
 
 W 
 
 15,221 
 
 15 ;HK; 
 
 11 862 
 
 $1,409,114 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (2.) Special Schools. 
 
 Of special institutions belonging to the second class 
 named, there are four training-schools at Carlisle, Penn- 
 sylvania, Chilocco, Indian Territory, Genoa, Nebraska, and 
 Chemawa, Oregon the Hampton Institute, Virginia, and 
 the Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kansas; the Lincoln Insti- 
 tution, Philadelphia; and the St. Ignatius Mission, on the 
 Flathead Reservation, Montana. The first of all these so 
 recognized was that at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Captain 
 R. H. Pratt, being put in possession of seventy -four Indian 
 prisoners at St. Augustine (1875), undertook their education. 
 At first chiefly industrial, upon the removal of the school in 
 1879 to Carlisle, formal instruction was begun in literary 
 branches as well, and with the number more than doubled. 
 They are taught, besides books, carpentry, harness-making, 
 shoemaking, blacksmithing, carriage-making, tin smithing, 
 baking, sewing, laundrying, and farming. The course at
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 261 
 
 Hampton and the Western schools is much, the same. At 
 Carlisle has been recently introduced a device, possibly 
 adopted elsewhere, for acquainting Indian youth with the 
 ways and insights and conventionalities of civilized life. It 
 is known as " outing," and consists in putting into farmers' 
 families boys and girls who have had a partial training in 
 the school. They remain on the farm from a few months 
 to a year, receive nominal wages, are admitted to the family, 
 and not unf requently attend the district school of the neigh- 
 borhood. Of nearly six hundred in attendance, more than 
 half have been so accommodated. At Hampton Normal and 
 Agricultural Institute about one fifth of the six hundred 
 students are Indians, the others negroes. All receive pay 
 for work, at the rate of five to eight cents an hour. 
 
 (3.) Contract Schools. 
 
 Two thirds of the schools of this class are boarding- 
 schools, well represented in the White's Institutes, at Wa- 
 bash, Indiana, and Mount Hamill, Iowa. Both have large 
 farms and shops, and accommodate each from fifty to 
 seventy-five Indian children, besides a small number of 
 whites. 
 
 The former are received from various reservations and 
 tribes, and educated for a definite period at a stipulated price 
 under contract with the Government Bureau. They include 
 pupils from the Sioux, Wyandottes, Senecas, Modocs, Peorias, 
 Miamis, Comanches, and perhaps a dozen others, of both 
 sexes, and varying in age from eight to eighteen years. 
 
 (4.) Education in Indian Territory. 
 
 The civilized tribes of the Territory embrace the Chero- 
 kees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, and Seminoles. Each 
 has an independent school system, both of common and sec- 
 ondary instruction, and in the English language only. Most 
 of the teachers are educated Indians. There are sustained 
 boards of education, directors, superintendents of public 
 schools, and an annual teachers' institute for each nation.
 
 262 TnE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 In the management the local neighborhood provides the 
 house and furniture; the nation, the books and teachers. 
 
 In the elementary schools, the Five Nations enroll over 
 eight thousand pupils; in the secondary schools, fifteen hun- 
 dred. The Cherokees and Chickasaws each maintain an 
 orphan school and asylum, that of the former having one 
 hundred and fifty inmates. The Creeks and Cherokees, as 
 a part of their system, support separate schools for the four 
 hundred to six hundred negro children among them. Co- 
 education of the races, while the exception, is not uncom- 
 mon. The Choctaws and Creeks have maintained regularly 
 from forty to fifty of their youth at colleges in the States ; 
 and Dr. T. A. Bland is authority for the statement that 
 " there is not in the Cherokee nation an Indian man, woman, 
 or child of sound mind, fifteen years of age or over, who can 
 not read and write." 
 
 Out of a school population of fifteen thousand the Five 
 Nations provide regular instruction for more than nine thou- 
 sand, or sixty-two per cent. This is a more general partici- 
 pation in the benefits of the public schools than was enjoyed 
 in the States of Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, 
 Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, 
 North Carolina, or Virginia, for the same year. 
 
 6. Education in Alaska. 
 
 Alaska is so far away from most of the States, so little is 
 known of its people, so habitually do we associate them in 
 our thoughts with the American Indians, that the education 
 of the Territory is scarcely regarded even by school-men as 
 belonging to our system. And yet there are towns whose 
 adult illiteracy can be in many cases paralleled in large sec- 
 tions east of the Mississippi River, and whose schools have 
 developed a skill that strongly hints at Yankee competition. 
 For half a century before its purchase by the United States 
 there were maintained by the Russians boarding and day 
 schools, elementary and advanced for both sexes ; academies 
 which taught, besides the usual branches, the Slavonian and
 
 EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES. 263 
 
 English languages, higher mathematics, navigation, and 
 astronomy ; and a theological seminary. 
 
 The natives, especially the Aleuts, are represented as su- 
 perior intellectually to the Indians, belong to the Russo-Greek 
 Church, live in good houses, dress in American garments, 
 and use the tools, utensils, and means of culture of a civil- 
 ized home. 
 
 Two hundred and fifty miles to the northwest of Unimak 
 Island are the Pribylov Islands. In 1870 these were leased 
 for twenty years to the Alaska Commercial Company for 
 seal-fishing, one of the conditions of which contract was that 
 a school for the natives should be maintained on each isl- 
 and, at the expense of the company, and for at least eight 
 months each year. From a recent report it appears that out 
 of a total population of less than four hundred thgre were 
 enrolled in the two schools seventy-five children, or ninety- 
 five per cent of the minors. The first successful school or- 
 ganized and maintained by the Government was established 
 at Sitka in 1880. A system of compulsory education was 
 inaugurated and enforced, and within a year the school had 
 two hundred and fifty pupils. A boarding-school for girls 
 opened at Fort Wrangel about the same time, being removed 
 to Sitka, was united with the former, under the organization 
 of a Government Industrial and Training School. The 
 school population numbers between five and six thousand, 
 of whom twelve hundred are enrolled in thirteen schools. 
 A number of these are denominational or missionary enter- 
 prises. In 1885 there was created the office of "General 
 Agent of Education in Alaska," and Mr. Sheldon Jackson 
 appointed to the position. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 See "Visible Speech," by Alexander Melville Bell, 1867; "Education 
 of the Blind History of its Origin, Rise, and Progress," by M. Anagnos, 
 1882; "Life and Education of Laura Dewey Bridgman," by Mary Lam- 
 son (for three years her special teacher), 1878; "Laura Bridgman," by 
 G. Stanley Hall, in "Aspects of German Culture," 1881. See also sketch
 
 264 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 of the Perkins Institution for the Blind, and notice of Laura Bridgman, in 
 Dickens'a " American Notes," chap. iii. See " The Jukes," by R. L. 
 Dugdale, 1877; and "Dangerous Classes of New York," by C. L. Brace, 
 1872 ; " Indian Education," " Proceedings of National Education Associa- 
 tion," 1884, p. 177; "Latest Studies on Indian Reservations," by J. B. 
 Harrison, 1887; "Education in Alaska," by Sheldon Jackson. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 1. Private Schools. 
 
 IN a.sketch of public education in a new country private 
 schools might fill a large chapter, for it is almost without 
 exception true that the one grew out of the other. In most 
 localities before public education by the State was tolerated 
 or encouraged its benignant influence was suggested, and its 
 right to general recognition justified, by public-spirited men 
 and women, who did what the community as a whole would 
 not undertake. 
 
 Private enterprise has commonly been the genesis of the 
 public institution. Every reform, every adoption of the 
 new and promising was once personal opinion. The whole- 
 some conservatism of government throws the burden of 
 proving a thing good upon individuals and societies. The 
 first manual training, the first Kindergartens, the first em- 
 phasis of science, were born of personal conviction, grew 
 alone or in contracted circles, and were forced to wait for 
 public recognition. The first art schools and galleries, and 
 museums and libraries and reading-rooms ; the earliest sur- 
 veys and explorations ; the first study and instruction in 
 agriculture ; the first Indian, negro, and Alaskan schools 
 were all the product of individual effort or private co-opera- 
 tion. So the beginnings of primary schooling, the instruc- 
 tion of girls and the higher education of women, were even
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 265 
 
 less honored than the "annex." And, equally so, the com- 
 mon school had its birth in the abounding individual enter- 
 prise of colonial New England and New York and the 
 South. 
 
 Danyell Maude, the first private schoolmaster of New 
 England, was the contemporary of " Brother Philemon Pur- 
 mont." Father Channing, in his "Early Recollections of 
 Rhode Island," says that " prior to 1770 private schools were 
 the only ones that were continuous, even for Providence 
 and Newport." In New York, throughout the State, and 
 into the present century, the supplementary services of indi- 
 viduals were the impulse that, through Governor Clinton 
 and Gideon Hawley, eventually brought about the present 
 public-school system. 
 
 Moreover, in many States, both East and West, even after 
 the public schools were begun, the private schools were these 
 public schools continued by subscription. The average 
 length of the school year, in thirty-six States reporting, is a 
 fraction over six months. Excluding the six States Mary- 
 land, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 and Rhode Island, having the longest terms (nine and a half 
 months) the average length for the remaining States is 
 barely five months. In these States, the private school 
 comes in as a valuable supplemental agency extending the 
 school term ; not unf requently continuing the same teacher, 
 and by common consent, if not by law, more or less of the 
 same supervision and the established course. Besides these 
 also there is a class of secondary schools similar in grade to 
 the public high-school. In cities these take the form of 
 ladies' seminaries, or boys' classical schools, numbers of 
 which may yet be found, especially in the South and East. 
 
 A secondary school of somewhat different character is 
 the so-called business college.* There is unquestionably a 
 
 * The Bryant and Stratton " International Chain of Commercial Col- 
 leges," begun a quarter of a century ago, many of which remain in the 
 larger cities, is an interesting development in American education.
 
 266 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 sufficient reason for its existence. General Garfield insisted 
 that " business schools were an attempt to answer the public 
 demand for a practical education " a kind of materialized 
 protest of the provident mind against the too common un- 
 practical education of the elementary schools. The public 
 asks a really available culture. 
 
 Out of environing conditions, and the constitutional im- 
 patience of a long preparation, have been evolved the trade 
 school, the business institute, commercial college, etc. Set- 
 ting themselves up in recent years as professional schools, 
 now chartered and authorized to issue diplomas and confer 
 degrees, and now, in the fullness- of unlicensed Philistinism, 
 without established curriculum, but assuming to include the 
 circle of practical knowledge to book-keeping, penmanship, 
 and arithmetic they have added political science and eco- 
 nomics, commercial law, modern languages, phonography, 
 telegraphy, etc. There are two hundred schools of the class, 
 with almost fifty thousand pupils. 
 
 2. Denominational Schools. 
 
 As has been seen, the earliest approaches to the public 
 school in this country were among a people who strongly 
 dissented from established ecclesiastical authority, and, in 
 more or less independent religious bodies, sought the free- 
 dom of worship and intellectual intercourse that they were 
 elsewhere denied. This independent, protesting spirit, an un- 
 willingness to submit to anything like a hierarchal authority, 
 has everywhere been favorable to the most widely diffused 
 education. Every phase of literary and professional and 
 technical institution has been, in turn and co-operation, 
 made to contribute to the general intelligence. In the line 
 of this current, co-operating more or less with State and pri- 
 vate agencies, and more often supplementing them, the 
 Church has claimed and been granted a place. Most Prot- 
 estants use the public schools for elementary instruction, 
 but sustain more or less generally their own institutions for 
 superior and sometimes secondary training.
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 267 
 
 Among the oldest of existing denominations, the Meth- 
 odists have for nearly a century supported church-schools. 
 Their first permanent college * was the now venerable Wes- 
 leyan University at Middletown, Connecticut, founded in 
 1831. They have now similar institutions in every section 
 of the country, and for a decade have been especially active 
 in the West and South. These comprise ten theological 
 schools, prominent among which are the Boston University 
 School of Theology and the Drew Theological Seminary ; 
 forty-five colleges and sixty-one classical seminaries, besides 
 eight female colleges. 
 
 Forty years before the Methodist Cokesbury School in 
 Maryland, the Presbyterians had founded the College of 
 New Jersey in Princeton not only one of the oldest, but 
 now one of the solid institutions of the United States. Be- 
 sides thirty-six colleges, Presbyterianism supports and is sup- 
 ported by thirteen theological schools, well represented in 
 Princeton, Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, and the 
 Theological Seminary of the Northwest at Chicago. 
 
 Among the Baptists are thirty-four colleges, seven theo- 
 logical schools, and forty to fifty academies for secondary 
 instruction, chiefly in the South. 
 
 As the school system started among the Congregation- 
 alists, so it has had their constant and generous support. 
 Among both colleges and academies they have a large repre- 
 sentation. Of the former, are : Harvard, in its founding ; 
 Yale, Dartmouth, Williams, Bowdoin, Amherst, Oberlin, and 
 the later Fiske ; of the latter, Andover (theological seminary), 
 and Phillips Academies at Andover and Exeter ; besides 
 Mount Holyoke and Wellesley. 
 
 But all other denominational service in education is par- 
 tial and irregular compared with the comprehensive grasp 
 of the Catholic Church. Their aim is all-inclusive, and as- 
 sumes no other agency. Ignoring the public school, their 
 
 * Cokesbury College, at Abingdon, Maryland, founded 1787, being 
 twice burned, was not afterward rebuilt.
 
 268 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 plan is coextensive with their membership. With one fifth 
 of all the theological seminaries, and one third of all their 
 students ; with one fourth of the colleges, nearly six hun- 
 dred academies, and twenty-six hundred parochial (ele- 
 mentary) schools, instructing more than half a million 
 children, the church is seen to be a force which, education- 
 ally considered, is equaled by no other single agency but the 
 Government itself.* The twelve Catholic provinces Balti- 
 more, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, New Orleans, 
 New York, Oregon, Philadelphia, St. Louis, San Francisco, 
 and Santa Fe are subdivided into seventy-nine dioceses. 
 The latter average from thirty-five to forty parishes, each of 
 which is supposed to have a school for the elementary train- 
 ing of their children. As a matter of fact, ninety-three per 
 cent of them do maintain parochial schools, in which are 
 educated, generally by the priesthood, rarely by laymen 
 (except in the teaching congregations), the 511,063 pupils. 
 In addition to these are 588 academies, usually for girls, and 
 91 colleges.f 
 
 The Theological Seminary of St. Sulpice, Baltimore (re- 
 cently raised to the rank of a university, and authorized to 
 confer degrees), is, according to the "Catholic Year-book," 
 the oldest organization for theological instruction in this 
 country, dating from 1791. To the Catholics, also, belong 
 several industrial and reform schools, orphans' homes, and 
 normal schools. 
 
 * For a statement of the work of the " Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools" see "Education," November, December, 1885 ; also "Govern- 
 ment Report of the Educational Exhibits and Conferences at the New Or- 
 leans Exposition," 1885. 
 
 t The corner-stone of a Catholic University was laid in May, 18S8, near 
 "Washington, District of Columbia. It is to receive its students from the 
 Catholic colleges, and to have a full university organization. The enter- 
 prise was started by a gift of three hundred thousand dollars from a Miss 
 Caldwell, of New York. (See the announcement in " American Catholic 
 Quarterly Review," April, 1885.)
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 269 
 
 3. Evening Schools. 
 
 The evening school, as found in our large cities, is a very 
 natural product of the conditions. There are two classes in 
 whose interest it exists : 1. For children who can not be 
 brought into the system of day-schools ; and, 2. For (a) men 
 and women of limited education, employed during the day, 
 but ambitious for intellectual and industrial improvement, 
 or (6) recent immigrants who wish to know the national 
 language, the forms of business, and means of industry. 
 Evening or night schools, like elementary industrial schools, 
 and nautical or floating schools, are illustrative of the at- 
 tempt constantly making to adjust the public-school forces 
 to the public needs. How well it has been accomplished 
 can only be suggested. 
 
 The first evening schools were probably due to the evils 
 of vagrancy, and to the truancy of children, and those of 
 school age. Again, they were demanded in manufacturing 
 towns, and, generally, in cities for messengers, clerks, and 
 servants. They were tried in New York city in 1834, but 
 failed for want of teachers. Fourteen years later they were 
 successfully established by the Public School Society, which 
 within two years had fifteen schools and eight thousand 
 pupils. They were introduced into Boston through a chari- 
 table organization, and legalized in 1857. The recent growth 
 of the system has been rapid. The Chicago enrollment has 
 more than trebled in five years ; and those of New York and 
 Philadelphia doubled. 
 
 For the most part, the night-schools in the United States 
 are provided for, and used by, the maturer classes of the 
 young. Indeed, in some cities they are opened to men and 
 women only, or to children beyond the compulsory school 
 age, employed during the day. The abundant material re- 
 sources of the country, the open avenues to industry, the 
 power implied in wealth and property, drive youth into 
 business before manhood even ; and, under the most guarded 
 systems, the education is often meager and unsatisfactory. 
 18
 
 270 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 To give these the opportunity of continuing their studies is 
 both politic and beneficent. New York maintains a large 
 system of night-schools for this class chiefly. With an en- 
 rollment of twenty thousand, one half of them are between 
 eighteen and twenty-one years of age. 
 
 For the classes described the studies are chiefly element- 
 ary. They include, primarily, writing and calculation (in- 
 cluding book-keeping), grammar and physiology, sometimes 
 history, and always drawing. Occasionally there are intro- 
 duced the elements of geometry and algebra ; and in Cincin- 
 nati general history and elocution, both of which are excluded 
 from the Boston course. Perhaps the most profitable parts 
 of the instruction are book-keeping and drawing. For cer- 
 tain classes, industrial training is fundamental. It should be 
 borne in mind that, in these schools, is no hard and fast 
 course of study to which all are held, and the completion of 
 which counts for advanced standing. Boston only, so far as 
 appears, has made any successful attempt to establish a grade. 
 Usually, upon entrance, each applicant chooses his work it 
 is rarely chosen for him, even by advice. Few take all that 
 is offered. That it seems necessarily so is the misfortune of, 
 not so much the school, as the social conditions. 
 
 Not all night instruction, however, is elementary. Of 
 sixteen of the larger cities making returns (1884), five report 
 one evening high-school each, and Brooklyn two. The at- 
 tendance upon these seven schools alone aggregates about 
 three thousand students, representing more than a hundred 
 trades, and justifying the agency beyond criticism. One 
 educator has said, "There is no argument for the regular 
 high - school that does not apply with equal force to the 
 evening class of like grade." And, as might have been 
 predicted, this night high-school is far more efficient, secur- 
 ing more certain good results than the elementary evening 
 school. Attendance is more regular, and study more to 
 the purpose. New York, Boston, Paterson, Cincinnati, and 
 Brooklyn, all sustain elaborate courses of study, or rather 
 long lists of subjects offered, from which applicants may
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 271 
 
 choose. Philadelphia has among the secondary classes one 
 German-English school and one Italian-English ; Louisville 
 teaches German ; San Francisco, Spanish ; Boston, whatever 
 foreign languages the demand justifies. 
 
 The last-named city requires examination for admission 
 to the high-school, as in other parts of the system ; the 
 examination including reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 geography. A half-dozen cities give certificates of profi- 
 ciency for completed work. 
 
 Among evening schools also which offer advanced and 
 higher technical instruction are those of the Maryland Insti- 
 tute, Baltimore, and Cooper Union, New York. 
 
 Peter Cooper was horn in New York city, February 12, 
 1791, where he died in 1883. He had hut a single year of 
 schooling, yet in his manhood he took a man's interest in all 
 that concerns the public or individual welfare. He was 
 prominent in the development of public-school education in 
 his native city. He was a trustee and officer of the Public 
 School Society; later, a school commissioner, and through- 
 out his life identified with the schools. The high opinion 
 he held of the value of education, both from a business point 
 of view and in its moral aspect, led him early to consider 
 how he might contribute to the better enlightenment of 
 those whom the schools did not reach. " I determined," he 
 says, " if ever I could acquire the means I would build such 
 an institution as would open its doors at night, with a full 
 course of instruction, calculated to enable mechanics to un- 
 derstand both the theory and the most skillful practice of 
 their several trades ; so that they could not only apply their 
 labor to the best possible advantage, but enjoy the happiness 
 of acquiring useful knowledge the purest and the most in- 
 nocent of all sources of enjoyment." 
 
 Cooper Union was incorporated in 1857. As provided by 
 the will of the founder, the institution, among other advan- 
 tages, maintains a course of academic instruction, and a 
 School of Art, both at night. It has a library of twenty thou- 
 sand volumes, and a reading-room furnished with four hun-
 
 272 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 dred and fifty periodicals. The course of instruction lias 
 industrial bearings, wholly apart from humanistic or disci- 
 plinary studies. It includes algebra, geometry, trigonom- 
 etry, calculus, physics, elementary and analytical chemistry, 
 astronomy, engineering, descriptive geography, mechanics, 
 and mechanical drawing. It is meant to cover the element- 
 ary principles of science, and their application to the practical 
 business of life. The School of Art furnishes instruction in 
 perspective, mechanical, and architectural drawing ; wood- 
 engraving, photography, and telegraphy. In full, the regu- 
 lar course covers five years, whose completion is marked by 
 a diploma and the medal of the Cooper Union. The institu- 
 tion enrolls over four thousand students, one half of whom 
 are clerks and mechanics. 
 
 4- Museums of Art and Science. 
 
 The rapid development of science and the consequent 
 turning of the public attention to the study of Nature, phys- 
 ical investigation, and observation generally, has emphasized 
 the great importance of collections of objects of study, in- 
 cluding also works of art. Except a half-dozen of them the 
 museums of the present are the product of the last forty 
 years. This is especially true of art collections, though the 
 Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts was founded 1805 and 
 the Boston Athenaeum two years after. 
 
 The National Academy of Design, New York, was estab- 
 lished in 1826, and four years later was begun that rare col- 
 lection of coins, gems, and specimens of printing by the His- 
 torical Society of Pennsylvania. If to these be added the 
 Museum and Gallery of Art of the New York Historical So- 
 ciety (1804) and the Museum of the Maryland Historical 
 Society (1844), the Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford (1842), 
 the Yale School of Fine Arts (1825), and the fine arts de- 
 partment of the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass. (1848), all have 
 been named that were founded prior to 1850. These muse- 
 ums number in the aggregate about thirty in two thirds as 
 many cities. A dozen of them belong to colleges and four
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 273 
 
 to libraries. Of the last are the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, 
 and the Boston Athenasum, Lenox, and Redwood Libraries. 
 Among the most notable galleries of art is the Corcoran 
 Institution, Washington. Founded in 1869 and generously 
 endowed by W. W. Corcoran with an annual income of 
 seventy thousand dollars and its already choice collection, its 
 growth and wholesome influence are assured. The princi- 
 pal collections of the old masters are to be found in the 
 Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York (1870), the Bryan 
 Gallery of the New York Historical Society, the Jarvis col- 
 lection in Yale, and in the Pennsylvania Academy. The 
 most notable institutions in the West are the Art Gallery of 
 the Illinois Industrial University, the Museum of Art and 
 History in the University of Michigan, the Crow Museum of 
 Fine Arts, Washington University, St. Louis, and the Muse- 
 um of the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, 
 Ohio. To half of them there is unrestricted admission by 
 the public, and by nearly the same number regular lectures 
 are sustained. 
 
 Of museums of science that of the Philadelphia Academy 
 of Natural Science is perhaps the oldest, dating from 1812. 
 Like most others it is general in its character. Besides these, 
 rapid developments in particular fields of science have here 
 and there built up special collections for their illustration 
 and verification, giving rise to museums of zoology like that 
 at Harvard ; and botany, as the Agricultural Museum at 
 Washington; of geology and mineralogy, as at Rochester 
 University ; of entomology and ornithology, as the Cuttings 
 Museum, Vermont ; and of medicine, as at the Army Medi- 
 cal Museum, Washington, and that in Yale College. Of 
 the first class, the State Museum of New York is an admir- 
 able example. It had its origin in the specimens gathered 
 in the progress of the State Geological Survey, begun in 
 1836. It comprises a library, a laboratory of analytical 
 chemistry, and collections of seeds and zoological and min- 
 eralogical specimens, and is maintained by State grants. 
 Having many duplicate specimens, it has been a part of its
 
 274 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 policy to encourage the establishment of museums, and has 
 in ten years distributed to normal schools, colleges, and 
 academies in the State more than twenty thousand labeled 
 and classified specimens. The enterprise is unique and of 
 incalculable benefit. A similar but more specific service has 
 been rendered the teachers of New York city by Dr. Bick- 
 more, in charge of the American Museum of Natural History 
 in Central Park. The plan includes a course of lectures at 
 the museum rooms, primarily for teachers, covering in a 
 period of years the various phases of natural science, in- 
 cluding ethnology and special anthropological studies. It 
 was initiated in 1884. 
 
 The Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard had its 
 origin in the collections made by Prof. Louis Agassiz. By 
 the year 1858 a vast amount of material had been gathered, 
 and specimens were being received thousands annually 
 from all quarters of the globe. In the year named there 
 came a generous bequest of fifty thousand dollars to found a 
 " national museum." Friends of the institution contributed 
 seventy-five thousand dollars, and the State Legislature one 
 hundred thousand dollars more. The museum management 
 is independent of the university control, though co-operating 
 with and supplementing its departments. 
 
 The one great museum, however, both in fact and in 
 making, is that of the Smithsonian Institution at Washing- 
 ton. It has numerous departments, the more important of 
 which are : 1. Anthropology ; 2. Archaeology ; 3. Natural 
 resources ; 4. Exploitive industries ; 5. Elaborative indus- 
 tries; 6. Ultimate products; and, 7. Social relations. The 
 Ethnological Bureau has made large collections in recent 
 years. 
 
 Of a more specific function are the Pedagogical Museum 
 of the Bureau of Education at Washington, and that of the 
 State Educational Department of New York, recently begun 
 at Albany. 
 
 In this connection, also, should be included though de- 
 serving a larger place industrial and other expositions as
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 275 
 
 educational agencies. The interdependence of nations, the 
 kinship of interests, the diversity of conditions, and the 
 abundance of skill in the world of our neighbors, have been 
 brought out by these schools of competition. Even the local 
 exhibits of limited sections of our own country, of single 
 States or cities, or particular industries, constitute a feature 
 of great educational value. New industries have been cre- 
 ated, new resources discovered, new tools put into shops, new 
 implements into fields, new machinery into factories, new 
 apparatus into laboratories ; millions of capital have been re- 
 invested, and the centers of population shifted, as a result of 
 their suggestions. They represent something of the uni- 
 versal spirit brought to the merchant's and farmer's and 
 shopman's doors. They furnish the much-needed occasions 
 for comparative study within the limits of local experience. 
 It is a wholesome club-life on a large scale, where friction of 
 mind brings sharpness of thinking. 
 
 " From whatever point of view we look at them," it has 
 been said, " whether material, intellectual, politico-economi- 
 cal, or merely commercial or industrial, expositions exert a 
 decided influence on the welfare of nations. They are the 
 milestones of progress ; its measures of the dimensions of the 
 productive activity of the human race. They make people 
 acquainted with the market, they cultivate taste, and afford 
 material for valuable comparisons. They bring nations 
 closer to one another, and so promote civilization." * 
 
 5. Clubs and Circles. 
 
 In its social significance, the distribution of culture is the 
 great educational desideratum. How to make the technical 
 and particular knowledge of the few the common experience 
 of the many, this fixes the direction of all systems of educa- 
 tion. Yesterday's doctrine of a class is the wide rule of con- 
 duct to-day. To extend the boundaries of knowledge and 
 obedience, and man's mastery of nature, is the function of 
 
 * J. D. Blanqui, in " Cyclopaedia of Political Science" : " Expositions."
 
 276 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 universities and societies, of laboratories and endowed re- 
 search. To the college and secondary school, the Church, 
 the lecture, and the press are left the diffusion of this knowl- 
 edge, and making more wide-spread this obedience and mas- 
 tery. Looked at from the social standpoint, the latter is 
 fundamental. The success of the undertaking conditions the 
 health of the social body and the perpetuity of government. 
 In homogeneity of culture are political and civil strength. 
 " There is no future for a stratified civilization " ; hence the 
 need for every possible local agency for the exchange and 
 circulation of the maturest and most saving experience. It 
 is of less importance even that much intelligence exist than 
 that the data of intelligence shall under wise direction be 
 brought within easy reach of all. It is a law of life not less 
 sociological than biological that vigor and fruitfulness are 
 promoted by adaptation and correspondence among the parts. 
 Personal culture and special knowledge, and individual in- 
 vention and local intelligence, must somehow be worked 
 down into communities, crystallized into form, talked about 
 around hearthstones, shaped into customs, and so erected into 
 institutions. And to this end, born of the need and fed by 
 the spirit of local self-interest, have sprung up more or less 
 general, less or more formally organized societies. They are 
 variously named, and even more diverse in constitution and 
 aim ; but, taken as a class, they are of greater importance as 
 educational means than appears from a casual view. 
 
 Under the guise of clubs for intellectual and social ad- 
 vantage have been formed philosophical and scientific or- 
 ganizations, less pretentious than the learned societies ; lit- 
 erary bodies for the study of the masters ; and historical 
 unions, with no official countenance from the large associa- 
 tions, but gathering up into permanent records the delicate 
 and far-reaching but fast-wasting threads of a rich local lif e. 
 Then there is the modern reading circle, including societies 
 for home study, correspondence schools, the Chautauqua, and 
 Agassiz Associations, etc. These can not be regarded with 
 indifference when it is considered that they enroll nearly
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 277 
 
 twice as many students as all the colleges of the United States 
 combined, for both men and women, and as many as all the 
 secondary institutions * taken together. 
 
 A. SOCIAL CLUBS. 
 
 The " Junto," of Philadelphia, was one of the earliest social 
 clubs whose history is left us, and more or less closely the 
 model of this class. It was a "club for mutual improve- 
 ment," and enrolled Franklin and his few thoughtful ac- 
 quaintances. It had weekly meetings, and was called by 
 Franklin the best school of philosophy, morality, and politics 
 then (1727) existing in the province. About the same time 
 was a similar organization at New Haven, under the lead of 
 Bishop Berkeley; another in Charleston, South Carolina. 
 In the Revolutionary period there were many of them. The 
 last half of the nineteenth century has no monopoly of this 
 means of culture, but in every generation it has been a 
 natural outgrowth of thoughtful intercourse. 
 
 Contemporary clubs cover every possible field of inquiry, 
 from theology and metaphysical speculation to politics and 
 agriculture, and concern every city, besides many of the 
 large and smaller towns. Boston, Philadelphia, St. Louis, 
 Cincinnati, and New York, have been forward in encourag- 
 ing the former. The Cincinnati " Literary Club " has been 
 in existence since 1849, and been honored with the member- 
 ship of such men as A. R. Spofford, the founder, Justice 
 Stanley Matthews, T. Buchanan Read, Salmon P. Chase, 
 Oliver P. Morton, George B. McClellan, ex-President R. B. 
 Hayes, J. J. Piatt, and others. The membership is limited 
 to one hundred. Among numerous other clubs in the same 
 city, the "Unity Club," the "Historical Society," and the 
 " Cuvier Club " are deservedly prominent. 
 
 The Philosophical Club of St. Louis is particularly wor- 
 thy of note as the center of one of the most pronounced 
 
 * These include high-schools, academies, and seminaries, college pre- 
 paratories, and normal schools.
 
 278 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 philosophical movements of this country. It was formed in 
 1862, under the influence of ex-Governor Brockmeyer, of 
 Missouri, and Dr. William T. Harris, who drew about them 
 a coterie of men and women interested in and intelligently 
 alive to the problems that have attracted the philosophic 
 minds of all the ages. In the atmosphere of its influence 
 was begun (1867) and is yet published the "Journal of 
 Speculative Philosophy," edited by Dr. Harris, and which, 
 for profundity of learning and for comprehensiveness of 
 philosophical discussion has not its equal in this country. 
 
 The Concord School of Philosophy is itself * an organized 
 club, with annual meetings, at which Dr. Harris, Julia 
 Ward Howe, Dr. Hiram K. Jones, F. B. Sanborn, Rev. C. 
 A. Bartol, and, in their time, Emerson and Alcott, have 
 elaborated their philosophies. Its first session was held in 
 the summer of 1879, with a programme of lectures and con- 
 versations that covered five weeks. In addition to some 
 unrelated courses of lectures, incident to the association of 
 teachers of more or less diverse views, one season each has 
 been devoted to Goethe, Emerson, and Aristotle, and re- 
 peated and comprehensive courses upon Plato and Hegel 
 and their philosophical implications. Milwaukee has, for 
 some years, maintained a society of like general aims, 
 though of less formal and permanent organization. Indi- 
 anapolis, for nearly twenty years, has had among the resi- 
 dents of one quarter of the city a " College Corner Club," 
 spending three years at one time upon Shakespeare, and 
 nearly as much upon Browning, besides studies in Goethe, 
 and other literatures and philosophies. It is estimated that 
 there are over one hundred Browning clubs in the United 
 States, and others for the consideration of special philoso- 
 phies, histories of particular periods or events, or for definite 
 scientific investigation. In Jacksonville (Illinois), as a cen- 
 ter, was formed a philosophical club called " The Akademe," 
 which enrolled members from all parts of the country. It 
 
 * Sec " International Review," vol. ix, p. 459.
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 279 
 
 held regular monthly sessions, and for several years pub- 
 lished its proceedings (including papers read) in a monthly 
 journal. Dr. H. K. Jones, a distinguished Platonist, was the 
 founder of the movement. 
 
 Of a less general and more technical character were 
 the discussions of the " Round Table," maintained years ago 
 in the West among the city school superintendents of St. 
 Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Indianapolis, De- 
 troit, Dayton, and two or three other cities, than which no 
 single influence, perhaps, did more to rationalize and unify 
 and perfect the organization and instruction of Western 
 school systems. The Michigan " Schoolmasters' Club " and 
 one of the same name in Boston (1881) represent the con- 
 temporary high-class teachers' society, and the highest au- 
 thority upon questions of education and civilization. 
 
 B. THE "OLD SOl'TIl" MOVEMENT. 
 
 Of a different kind, but eminently helpful, are the his- 
 torical lecture courses that, in ten years, have been formed 
 after the manner of those of the " Old South Church," Boston. 
 
 During the winter of 1878-79, Miss Alice Baker gave to 
 the young people of the city a series of talks on "Early 
 American Times," and the year following, Prof. Fiske a 
 course of lectures on the "Discovery and Colonization of 
 America." Out of these two have developed the successive 
 annual courses since 1883. These lectures are for young 
 people, not for children ; are historical, and designed to pro- 
 mote studies in American history among the youth of Bos- 
 ton. At each lecture are distributed " Old South Leaflets," 
 generally a republication of matter pertinent to the topic dis- 
 cussed. Historical courses of the same kind are maintained at 
 Indianapolis (1885), Madison, Wisconsin (1886), Chicago and 
 Bloomington, Illinois, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and perhaps 
 elsewhere. 
 
 C. BEADING CIRCLES. 
 
 The idea of the organized reading circle providing as- 
 sistance and encouragement for home study seems to have
 
 280 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 been brought to this country from London about fifteen 
 years ago. There was doubtless similar co-operation long 
 before, but it was chiefly local and occasional, with results 
 correspondingly individual. In fifteen years the impulse 
 has become a force involving the concert of communities, 
 and looks to an immediate general good. In this sense the 
 institution is modern. 
 
 (1.) General Organizations. 
 
 Miss Anna E. Ticknor, of Boston, learning of the English 
 society, invited the co-operation of some friends in the or- 
 ganization of extra-school study in New England, which 
 effort resulted (1873) in the " Society to encourage Studies 
 at Home." The purpose, as then formulated and still held, 
 is " to induce among ladies the habit of devoting some part 
 of every day to study of a systematic and thorough kind." 
 Instruction is entirely by correspondence, and is given in 
 six departments History, Science, Art, Literature, German, 
 and French representing twenty-four subjects ; of which 
 history, science, and English are most prominent among 
 courses taken. The staff of six, having in charge the forty- 
 five readers of the first year, has been enlarged to one hun- 
 dred and ninety-one correspondents, with over five hundred 
 members. These represent thirty-seven States and one Ter- 
 ritory, and all classes and conditions of society. A very im- 
 portant factor in carrying on the work of the society is the 
 "Lending Library." Members may, if they choose, borrow 
 from the society their books, paying carriage one way and 
 one half cent a day for their use. The privilege is used by 
 about two thirds of the membership. 
 
 Similar to the last in aim and organization, though of 
 more recent date, is the " Society for Home Culture," started 
 in Philadelphia in 1880, by members of the Society of Friends. 
 Instruction is given in Grecian and Roman history, church 
 and mediaeval history, modern European history, American 
 history, English history, travels and descriptions of nations, 
 physical geography, geology and mineralogy, botany, as-
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 281 
 
 tronomy, literature and language, political science, and edu- 
 cation. 
 
 The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, instituted 
 in the summer of 1878, prescribed a definite course of read- 
 ing and study covering the principal subjects of a college 
 curriculum, though " omitting of necessity the thorough drill 
 in mathematics and the languages." The peculiar Chau- 
 tauqua idea is the plan of simultaneous study by all classes 
 the work of each year being complete in itself. In addition 
 to the regular course of four years, are special courses in 
 Eoman history and literature, English history and liter- 
 ature, astronomy, political science, microscopy, botany, 
 chemistry, psychology, philology, art, temperance, missions, 
 agriculture. The circle enrolls seventy-five thousand mem- 
 bers from every State in the Union, from the Dominion 
 of Canada, Alaska, the Sandwich Islands, Great Britain, 
 several of the European states, India, Japan, South Africa, 
 and the isles of the sea. The local club idea is admirably 
 exemplified in the separate Chautauqua circles, of which 
 there are many thousands. Besides these are the local 
 unions, embracing the circles of a given section as the 
 New England Chautauqua Association, the Northern Illi- 
 nois Union, the United Circle of Philadelphia, the Brook- 
 lyn Assembly, and the North Carolina Chautauqua. The 
 C. L. S. C. (as it is known) is but part of a plan which, 
 taking more definite shape, was organized (1883) into, and 
 incorporated as, the " Chautauqua University." To the 
 original function have been added the College of Liberal 
 Arts and the School of Theology. Six courses are offered 
 in the former, two each, leading to the degrees of A. B., 
 Ph. B., and B. S. 
 
 Similar in general scope and workings to the last is the 
 " Correspondence University," organized the same year at 
 Ithaca, New York. It has regularly sustained classes in 
 physical science, languages (including Hebrew), philosophy, 
 history and political science, and law.
 
 282 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 (2.) Special Organizations. 
 
 Out of these experiments developed the idea of providing 
 special courses for particular classes. It was not entirely 
 new, though the application was. The Mechanics' Insti- 
 tutes and Libraries, and Apprentices' Societies of cities had 
 been more or less common for a century. Very early, also, 
 both East and West, especially in Pennsylvania and Ohio, 
 were teachers' libraries, circulating, limited in books, and 
 more restricted in variety, but designed to provide all the 
 teachers of a neighborhood with a somewhat uniform course 
 of reading. Later, the organizations noticed in the preced- 
 ing section were doing something for teachers ; but the in- 
 fluence was general and quite as serviceable to the clergy- 
 man, the farmer, or the school-girl, as to the teacher. The 
 Boston society was exclusive and had a limited membership, 
 while others were specialized in subjects foreign to the pro- 
 fession, and so were missed by the teacher. 
 
 In the winter of 1883 Ohio organized a " State Reading 
 Circle " for teachers, and published a suggestive list of books 
 in literature, history, science, and pedagogy, with directions 
 for reading and organizing into local circles. No course was 
 prescribed, the multitude of books recommended left teach- 
 ers, as before, in doubt as to what to read, and with little of 
 joint action. Besides, it also suggested much of general 
 culture, and little of professional. It soon came to be recog- 
 nized, in Ohio and the neighboring States, that if the name 
 and the idea have any significance, the " Teachers' Reading 
 Circle " must be chiefly professional. There is much to be 
 mustered : familiarity with professional literature, the his- 
 toric systems and reformers of education, something of 
 philosophical doctrine as a basis for one's theories, current 
 systems and contemporary school interests, the constitution 
 and functions of the child and the teacher, the State and 
 society in which he finds his labor. This does not mean 
 that one shall be less a man or woman, less cultured and 
 scholarly, but more a teacher.
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. 283 
 
 Toward this idea Ohio had pioneered the way. With 
 this thought before them, the year following teachers in 
 Indiana organized a circle. It is a State institution, the con- 
 trol vested in a board of nine members elected by the State 
 Teachers' Association, the State Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction being a member ex officio. It has a prescribed 
 course of reading, after published outlines, with directions 
 and bibliographical references, an official department in the 
 "State School Journal," and a system of certificates and 
 diplomas for completed work. The course extends over four 
 years, and is made to include three lines of study, two of 
 which are professional and one general culture. As a result 
 of the four years of experiment in Indiana for it was an 
 experiment the last year reported a membership of over 
 seven thousand, with all the counties in the State represented, 
 and enrolling in some counties every teacher. 
 
 Reading circles now in some form are parts of half the 
 State systems and they are found in many cities. The year 
 following the movement in Indiana similar organizations 
 were effected in Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Wis- 
 consin, Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Da- 
 kota, Alabama, and North Carolina. Something has been 
 done in Rhode Island, also in New York, Missouri, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Maine, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, 
 and Arkansas twenty-five States in all. The organizations, 
 as might be supposed, vary greatly in plan, in management, 
 in comprehensiveness and efficiency. Illinois reports 2,341 
 members in the first two years, and 738 who finished and 
 passed upon the work prescribed. Two courses were main- 
 tained an elementary course of two years and an advanced 
 one of three. Similarly the Missouri organization, while 
 contemplating a four years' course, makes the first two years 
 complete in themselves and elementary. The New Jersey 
 Circle opened in 1887 with flattering prospects, city and 
 town teachers joining with those from rural districts, and 
 the enrollment as to numbers being out of all proportion to 
 the number of teachers in the State. Of the Rhode Island
 
 284 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Circle the membership is coextensive with that of the State 
 Institute of Instruction, and without further fees. The sub- 
 jects offered are pedagogy, history, literature, language, geog- 
 raphy, and science. The work is voluntary and elective. 
 In Michigan the general course is three years, though the 
 State Council offers additional subjects for advanced study. 
 The " Chautauqua Teachers' Reading Union," organized in 
 1885, is part of the general Chautauqua plan, and so more 
 national than State. It has nine courses of study, elective, 
 and extending over three years. The " Teachers' National 
 Reading Circle," instituted the year following, has a like 
 organization and similar course. 
 
 Two States Indiana and Illinois have projected " Chil- 
 dren's Reading Circles," to suggest appropriate books and, 
 working through local teachers, encourage the better selec- 
 tion of books, and their more thoughtful reading by the 
 young. The management otherwise is the same, and under 
 the same board of control as is the "Teachers' Reading 
 Circle." 
 
 The Agassiz Association is an organization of several 
 hundred local societies banded together for the elementary 
 study of nature. Primarily for children and young people, 
 its membership has come to include all who wish to do, or 
 use it to induce others to do, original work in science. The 
 parent society was that of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, organized 
 in 1876, from which and under whose direction others have 
 taken their plan and inspiration. The clubs number nearly 
 one thousand, with fifteen thousand members, and are found 
 in every State, Canada, England, and Japan. They study 
 botany, entomology, geology, anatomy, physiology, etc. The 
 official organ is "The Swiss Cross." 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 " Sectarian vs. Public Schools," " The New-Englander," vol. vi, pp. 
 230, 299 ; " Defects in Political Institutions," Cardinal Gibbons, " North 
 American Review," October, 1887; "The Proposed American Catholic 
 University," " American Catholic Quarterly Review," April, 1885 ; " Peter
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 285 
 
 Cooper," " The Chautauquan," vol. iv, No. 7, p. 398 ; " On the Educa- 
 tional Uses of Museums," "Proceedings of the New York University 
 Convocation," 1887, p. 208; "How to spread Information," " National 
 Educational Association," 188Y, p. 238; "The Chautauqua Movement," 
 by J. H. Vincent, 1886; and "Expositions," in "Education," vol. vi, pp. 
 62, 178, 272; "History of the Agassiz Association," by H. H. Ballard, 
 /'Science," vol. ix, p. 93. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 
 
 1. General Societies. 
 
 "AN inventory of the means of general intelligence," 
 said Horace Mann, " which did not include these institutions 
 the lecture, mechanics' institutes, and scientific and gen- 
 eral societies would justly he regarded as incomplete." 
 
 Less formal in its organization but more spontaneous in 
 its results than the school, the free association of students 
 and investigators has led to some of the most valuable con- 
 clusions of modern science. The individual bias corrected 
 and the personal enthusiasm tempered by the combined 
 judgment and diverse views of one's fellows, knowledge 
 takes on the form of universality, and so becomes true sci- 
 ence. This friction works out a revision which otherwise 
 must come from the slow process of the unskilled criticism 
 of the general public. The scientific academy has a field as 
 definitely marked as the college or university, and has been 
 described * as " the most potent agency which our civiliza- 
 tion possesses for the discovery of truth." 
 
 While the Smithsonian Institution combines in itself the 
 two functions of increasing and diffusing knowledge, about 
 
 * By President Oilman, "Proceedings of the American Philosophical 
 Society," vol. xviii (1880), p. 538. 
 19
 
 28G THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 equally emphasizing both, " the prime function of the uni- 
 versity is education, its secondary object research. The con- 
 verse is true of the academy." This aims at investigation, 
 experiment, observation, and only incidentally instructs. It 
 looks to the enlargement of the field of knowledge, and yet 
 the academy as an organization finds its chief service in the 
 stimulation it affords the individual, the suggestion and 
 criticism, the direction of thought and broadening of views. 
 The association is the occasion only for a sharpening of 
 insight and a multiplication of data whereby right com- 
 parisons are possible. 
 
 A. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 
 
 Such academies are, first, scientific, and find their type in 
 the American Philosophical Society, established by Franklin 
 and his companions in 1743. This, besides the American So- 
 ciety of Philadelphia and the Berkeley Society of Newport, 
 Rhode Island, fifteen years before, both of which were short- 
 lived, was the only organization of the kind for half a cent- 
 ury. * At the close of the century the Connecticut Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences was founded (1799), and twelve years later 
 the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and a simi- 
 lar body in New York (1818). If, then, the Linnaean Society 
 (1807) and half a dozen literary and semi-historical associa- 
 tions be excepted, the development of the academy belongs 
 to the last fifty years. This enlargement was a part of the 
 new spirit of the period, which took shape in the American 
 Ethnological Society (1842), the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Science (1848), and the American Geo- 
 graphical Society, all typical of manifold new interests. So 
 also may be named, not excluding others of equal merit per- 
 
 * It is told (sec " Proceedings of Washington Biological Society," Feb- 
 ruary 6, 1886) that, before the middle of the seventeenth century, Bishop 
 Wilkins, of London, Mr. Boyle, and other scholars, purposed leaving Eng- 
 land to establish in America a " scientific society " or community and or- 
 ganization for research, hearing which Charles II provided for the estab- 
 lishment of the " Eoyal Society " instead.
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 287 
 
 haps, the American Philological and Modern Language Asso- 
 ciations, the Oriental Society, the Archaeological Institute, 
 the American Society of Microscopists, the Ornithologists' 
 Union, etc., all of which, national in their field and so gen- 
 eral, are yet special in their inquiry. 
 
 Further, there are local organizations also for special re- 
 search, as the science clubs, most State societies, the Tyndall 
 Association, and, in certain colleges, seminaries of mathe- 
 matics, engineering, the natural sciences, psychology, eco- 
 nomics, or of particular phases of these. 
 
 (1.) The American Philosophical Society. 
 
 An account of the American Philosophical Society, the 
 oldest of these organizations, and the type in form and con- 
 duct of many, will suggest the constitution of most others. 
 
 The society began with eight members besides the founder 
 (Benjamin Franklin), including a physician, a botanist, a 
 mathematician, a mechanician, a geographer, and a natural 
 philosopher. It was chartered (1780) as the "American 
 Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia for promoting 
 Useful Knowledge." For many years its work was done in 
 the five sections : 1. Medicine and anatomy; 2. Natural his- 
 tory and chemistry ; 3. Trade and commerce ; 4. Mechanics 
 and architecture ; 5. Husbandry and American improve- 
 ment. Put beside the better of the more recent societies, this 
 seems very general and ill-defined. A section was added 
 about 1790 on "history, moral science, and general litera- 
 ture,"* and a few others later, specialized from the first. 
 Franklin was for many years the society's secretary and the 
 first president of the incorporated organization (1780-'90). 
 At his death he was succeeded in office by David Rittenhouse, 
 of whom Jefferson (himself a member for forty-six years) t 
 
 * The genesis of the Pennsylvania Historical Society. 
 
 t Mr. Jefferson was much interested in all scientific and philosophical 
 questions. It is related of his horseback-ride to his inauguration as Presi- 
 dent of the United States that he carried with him a saddle-bag of strange
 
 288 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 said, " Genius, science, modesty, purity of morals, and sim- 
 plicity of manners, marked him one of Nature's best samples 
 of the perfection she can cover under the human form." 
 
 The membership has included, besides those already 
 named, men of such eminence as Benjamin Rush, A. D. 
 Bache, Bertram the botanist, Alexander Hamilton, John 
 Randolph, Benjamin Silliman, and Robert Fulton; and of 
 foreign gentlemen, Priestley, Erasmus Darwin, Dr. Jenner, 
 and Sir Humphry Davy seeming to justify the contempo- 
 rary comment that the " Philosophical Society of Philadel- 
 phia comprehended within itself whatever the American 
 world had of distinction in philosophy and science in gen- 
 eral." In its meetings were first discussed and revised many 
 of the theories and discoveries in physics, chemistry, meteor- 
 ology, and economics, which have played so large a part in 
 modern science and progress. The orrery of Rittenhouse, 
 the Delaware Canal, American silk-culture, the use of fertil- 
 izers, and the revision and enlargement of the census, all 
 took their impulse from its deliberations. 
 
 (2.) The Boston Academy of Sciences. 
 
 As representative of a comprehensive organization that 
 of the Boston Academy of Sciences is presented. It consists 
 of fellows and honorary members assigned to three classes, 
 with the minor sections as follows : 
 
 CLASS I. The mathematical and physical sciences : 
 
 1. Mathematics. 
 
 2. Practical astronomy and geodesy. 
 
 3. Physics and chemistry. 
 
 4. Technology and engineering. 
 
 CLASS H. The natural and physiological sciences : 
 
 1. Geology, mineralogy, and the physics of the 
 globe. 
 
 fossils, whose description he had attempted, and concerning which he 
 sought scientific authority.
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 289 
 
 2. Botany. 
 
 3. Zoology and physiology. 
 
 4. Medicine and surgery. 
 
 CLASS III. The moral and political sciences : 
 
 1. Philosophy and jurisprudence. 
 
 2. Philology and archaeology. 
 
 3. Political economy and history. 
 
 4. Literature and the fine arts. 
 
 (3.) The Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. 
 
 Early in the century natural history had received a strong 
 popular as well as scientific impulse in the publication 
 of Wilson's "American Ornithology," and certain devel- 
 opments in botany, under Dr. Muhlenberg and his school. 
 The study of the general phenomena of life, in France and 
 England, was claiming scientific attention, in which Ameri- 
 cans participated. The Philadelphia Academy of Natural 
 Sciences took its origin about 1812, with the versatile scien- 
 tist Mr. Thomas Say and his companions, and, very early, 
 under the prevailing scientific interest, became specialized 
 toward biological investigations. This was in contrast 
 with other societies, as appears from the organization. The 
 eight sections comprise: 1. Biology and microscopy. 2. 
 Conchology. 3. Entomology.* 4. Botany. 5. Mineralogy 
 and geology. 6. Invertebrate paleontology. 7. Inverte- 
 brate zoology. 8. Ethnology and archaeology. Its library 
 is said to be one of the most complete and reliable collections 
 of works upon natural history in the United States. 
 
 B. TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 
 
 The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, is representative of 
 a large class of organizations whose function is to point out 
 and enforce the applications of science to the industrial in- 
 terests of society. It includes mechanics' institutes, dating 
 from the last century; industrial associations of the more 
 
 * This constitutes the American Entomological Society.
 
 290 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 modern type, to which the public is largely indebted for a 
 revival of handicraft training, the promotion of art, and the 
 constructive habit, so important to an industrial people ; and 
 the more formal trade and technological organizations. Of 
 the latter are the "Society of Arts," of the Massachusetts 
 Institute of Technology, and the "Associates of Cooper 
 Union." In a general way, also, the National Academy of 
 Sciences, which was formed during the civil war, and which 
 grew out of the exigencies of the period, has a like constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 (1.) Cooper Union. 
 
 In the act of incorporation of Cooper Union it was pro- 
 vided that the trustees of the corporation might associate 
 with themselves such persons as they should see fit, whose 
 united organization should be known as the " Society of the 
 Associates of Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science 
 and Art." Its objects are stated to be " the encouragement of 
 science, arts, manufactures, and commerce; the bestowal of 
 rewards for such productions, inventions, and improvements 
 as tend to the useful employment of the poor, the increase 
 of trade, and the riches and honor of the country; for meri- 
 torious works in the various departments of fine arts ; for 
 discoveries, inventions, and improvements; and, generally, 
 by lectures, papers, and discussions thereon, and other suit- 
 able means, to assist in the advancement, development, and 
 practical application of every department of science in con- 
 nection with the arts, manufactures, and commerce of the 
 country." Investigations are carried on in fourteen sections, 
 comprising both technological and economic inquiries. 
 
 (2.) Society of Arts. 
 
 In conformity with the original plan of the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology, the Society of Arts was estab- 
 lished in 1861. It looks to the advancement of the practical 
 sciences in connection with arts, agriculture, manufactures, 
 and commerce. An idea of the society's function may be 
 gathered from the following list of topics discussed in one
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 291 
 
 year (1886-'87) : " Steel for Warfare," " Railroad Engineering 
 Education," " Incandescent Lighting," " Electric Welding," 
 " Stellar Photography," " Evolution of the Modern Yacht," 
 "The Freezing Process in Excavations," "Water-Power of 
 the United States," " Bessemerizing of Copper," " Coal-Min- 
 ing," " Sources of Business Profits," " Bail way-Tracks," " Au- 
 tomatic Fire- Alarms," "Submarine Signals." 
 
 C. HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC SOCIETIES. 
 
 Of a different character are the general historical associa- 
 tions for the collection and preservation of records, eminent 
 biographies, State and administrative papers, and whatever 
 adds permanence and completeness to the traces of institu- 
 tional life. 
 
 The Massachusetts Historical Society (1791) is the parent 
 of all this large class. Among other active organizations are 
 the New England Historico-G-enealogical Society, the Ameri- 
 can Antiquarian Society, the Pilgrim Society (Plymouth), the 
 American Historical Association, of somewhat general inter- 
 est, the Newport (Rhode Island) Historical Society, and the 
 Albany Institute, in the East; the Maryland, South Carolina, 
 Kentucky, and Missouri, and Southern (Virginia) Historical 
 Societies, in the South; State pioneer associations in Cali- 
 fornia, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin, and numerous his- 
 torical societies throughout the West belonging to this class. 
 Besides these, there are the more recent economic organiza- 
 tions, represented in the American Social Science Associa- 
 tion, the Institute of Civics, etc. 
 
 Such organizations are to be found in every State and 
 most of the Territories more than one hundred in all be- 
 sides a number of others that, including more or less of 
 philosophical and scientific inquiry, or connected with libra- 
 ries and museums, have a similar character. 
 
 D. SOCIETY PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 One of the most helpful services of these general societies 
 of whatever aim is the publication of their proceedings and
 
 292 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 contributions. In the aggregate they number perhaps three 
 hundred to four hundred volumes. Unique among them is 
 the " American Journal of Science," started in 1818 under 
 Prof. Silliman, who did so much for science in the first half 
 of the present century. It embraces the circle of the " physi- 
 cal sciences, and their application to every useful purpose." 
 Its one hundred and thirty-three volumes form a work of 
 permanent value as exhibiting the progress of American 
 science in the century. The ''Journal of the Philadelphia 
 Academy of Science," which is one year older, admitting to 
 its pages "only that which is new, or is thought to be 
 so," in natural history, has for sixty years had a wide 
 circulation both in Europe and America, and has been 
 pronounced "absolutely indispensable to every American 
 naturalist." 
 
 The published documents of the Massachusetts Historical 
 Society number forty-four volumes, include the Winthrop 
 and Sewall and Belknap papers, and are of more than local 
 importance. Together with like collections by other colo- 
 nies, they have been the (original) sources of most of the 
 early historical literature of this country. The " Plymouth 
 Colony Records " comprise ten volumes, and those of Massa- 
 chusetts and Rhode Island, the " New Hampshire Provincial 
 Papers," and the records of the town of Boston, aggregate 
 fifty more. Broadhead's " Documents of the Colonial His- 
 tory of New York," a similar set of papers in New Jersey, 
 the publications of the New York Historical Society (com- 
 piled by Mr. George Bancroft), including the noted "Lee 
 Papers," and the archives of Maryland, have all been the 
 work of either historical societies or of Legislatures and in- 
 dividuals, at the suggestion of such bodies. Their labors are 
 invaluable, not for the number of volumes they represent, 
 but for the indispensable fund of historical information, 
 town and church histories, political papers and correspond- 
 ence, biographies, records and diaries, glimpses of the past, 
 data for the comparative study of institutions and custom 
 and progress.
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 293 
 
 2. Libraries. 
 
 When one considers that, exclusive of parish and Sun- 
 day-school libraries, all private collections, and public and 
 school libraries of less than three hundred volumes each, 
 there are in the United States twenty million volumes, the 
 magnitude of the library interest is apparent. And yet 
 these millions of books, in more than five thousand libra- 
 ries, have been gathered in a century and a half. 
 
 A. COLONIAL BEGINNINGS. 
 
 Though rich in the sources of suggestion and example, 
 the colonial history is both short and of meager details. 
 
 The earliest community-libraries were, doubtless, sug- 
 gested by the occasional choice private libraries of public- 
 spirited citizens. Of historic note among these were : 1. The 
 Sharp Library of New York, which was presented to the 
 town in 1700, and fifty years later became the nucleus of the 
 New York Society Library. 2. The Logan Library of Phil- 
 adelphia; a valuable collection of classical works, owned 
 by a learned Quaker, who conveyed three thousand vol- 
 umes to the village in 1745, with an endowment. 3. The 
 Prince Library, the property of a pastor of the Old 
 South Church, Boston. This was rich in the annals of 
 New England ; and, after being held by the church a hun- 
 dred years, was finally deposited with the Boston Public 
 Library. 
 
 It is not likely these were all. Among the colonists were 
 scholarly men. But, at any time before the Revolution, 
 libraries must have been small, for their collection was both 
 difficult and expensive. In 1723 there was but one printer 
 in New York, and two only in Philadelphia. Practically 
 all books were brought from England. It is not strange, 
 then, that in the first one hundred and fifty years from the 
 founding of Jamestown, the country had barely six libra- 
 ries, besides what might be found in the colleges. It is esti- 
 mated that there were in the colonies, all told, in 1775, about
 
 294 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 forty-three thousand volumes, forty-five per cent of which 
 were in the colleges. 
 
 The most fruitful collections of this period were the social 
 or subscription libraries. The oldest of these was that in 
 Philadelphia, which Franklin said was the " mother of all 
 North American subscription libraries." It had its sugges- 
 tion in the " Junto," * a reading and debating club of Frank- 
 lin and his companions, and was started in 1732. The selec- 
 tion was chiefly of reference-books, though they circulated 
 among " subscribing members." t Of theological works and 
 controversial, it is said the library had none ; something of 
 polite literature, and much of science, travels, the mechanic 
 arts, and philosophy. The same general character is still 
 preserved, while it has been much enriched by certain rare 
 collections, newspaper files (one set continuous from 1791), 
 pamphlets of the Eevolution, etc. The society has now one 
 thousand members and one hundred and fifty thousand vol- 
 umes. 
 
 Next to this, both in time and influence, is the Redwood 
 Library, of Newport, Rhode Island (1747). It had large 
 donations before the middle of the century, and was the 
 recipient of substantial favors from the English bishop, 
 George Berkeley. This gentleman was both philosopher 
 and theologian. Coming to America (1729), his scholarly 
 tastes I early made him the center of the culture and learn- 
 ing of Rhode Island and Connecticut colonies noted for 
 their learning and refinement. A society for literary and 
 philosophical intercourse was founded the next year. Aspir- 
 ing to the possession of a library, its members contributed a 
 
 -* The basis of the American Philosophical Society, perhaps, started ten 
 years later. 
 
 t Mr. James Parton's "Triumphs of Enterprise " contains (p. 177) a 
 very readable and trustworthy chapter on the " Rise of Circulating Libra- 
 ries." 
 
 J " So much understanding, so much knowledge, so much innocence, 
 and such humility, I did not think had been the fashion of any but angels 
 till I saw this gentleman." ATTERBUP.Y.
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 295 
 
 few books, and in 1747, through the generosity of Abraham 
 Redwood, the library was established, said to have been one 
 of the choicest collections on theology, history, and the arts 
 and sciences of its day. Scholars came to it "from the 
 Carolinas and the West Indies, from New York, and even 
 from Boston," * to replenish their stores of knowledge. It 
 is still flourishing, with nearly thirty thousand volumes in 
 the library, extensive galleries of painting and sculpture, 
 and a liberal yearly income. 
 
 About the same time, and probably inspired by the New- 
 port and Philadelphia ventures, a number of young men in 
 South Carolina associated themselves for mutual improve- 
 ment ; a library was formed, which, though destroyed dur- 
 ing the Revolution, became, in organization, the nucleus of 
 the present Public Library of Charleston. 
 
 The present New York Society Library was incorporated 
 (1754) as the " City Library," and was chartered under its 
 present name just before the Revolution. In half a cent- 
 ury from 1800 it had increased from six thousand to forty 
 thousand volumes, has now more than twice as many, and 
 ranks as one of the earliest and most successful loan-libraries 
 in the country. It contains rare editions, valuable news- 
 paper files, and is withal the " library of the old Knicker- 
 bocker families of New York city." 
 
 One other library deserves mention in this connection, as 
 indicating the intelligence and general refinement which 
 might then be found in not a few New England communi- 
 ties. The " Social Library " of Salem, Massachusetts, was a 
 club organization (1760), limited in its membership, and phil- 
 osophical. Its books were few, but well chosen, numbering, 
 fifty years afterward, but eight hundred volumes; though 
 including the memoirs of the French Academy, the Royal 
 Society transactions from the beginning, and the memoirs 
 of the Berlin Academy, besides philosophical works of indi- 
 
 * Stockwell's " History of Public Education in Rhode Island," 
 p. 269.
 
 296 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 viduals and the publications of contemporary literary insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 I). RECENT LIBRARIES. 
 
 Between the Revolution and the second war with Eng- 
 land, little more was done in improving libraries than other 
 educational agencies. But the period since has shown inter- 
 esting developments. New agencies for increasing knowl- 
 edge were devised ; new means of spreading it. School and 
 church, government and trade, social interests and estab- 
 lished forms were put to the test out of the ordeal emerged, 
 if not new institutions, vastly modified and improved old 
 ones. 
 
 Within this period, besides those named, have started 
 the Mercantile, Mechanics', and Apprentices' Libraries; en- 
 dowed and public libraries; school and free town libraries; 
 most of those in colleges and professional institutions ; State 
 and national libraries. The aggregate is enormous, and 
 constitutes one of the most available of educational agen- 
 cies. 
 
 (1.) Mercantile Libraries. 
 
 The first of these, as the principal libraries of the colonial 
 period, are supported by subscription, but differ from those 
 already noted in belonging generally to or taking their mem- 
 bers from a guild or class. Three such were established in 
 the year 1820 the Boston and the New York Mercantile, and 
 the New York Apprentices' Library. The Philadelphia Mer- 
 cantile was founded a year later. After the example of the 
 English society, mechanics' institutes were formed in this 
 country, which frequently took advantage of the library in- 
 terest to hold their members together ; but no large collec- 
 tions resulted. 
 
 The two oldest of these mercantile library institutions 
 are also representative of two distinct types of control. 
 Most of them are principally for merchants' clerks or me- 
 chanics, and, as in Boston, are managed by them. In New 
 York, on the contrary, the Clinton Hall Association of the
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 297 
 
 City of New York is an organization of prominent mer- 
 chants, who own the building and " hold in trust and manage 
 all property, real and personal, for the benefit of the libra- 
 ry." The officers of the library control their own affairs, 
 financial and administrative, as a distinct organization, hav- 
 ing free rent, and holding the books equally open to mem- 
 bers of both associations. The institution has two hundred 
 and twenty-five thousand volumes, nine thousand members, 
 its own bindery, property to the value of half a milion, and 
 ranks fifth in size in the United States. Of the same class is 
 the St. Louis Mercantile Library (seventy-five thousand vol- 
 umes). The Brooklyn organization is pecular in that, while 
 a class institution in name and control, it is free to all on 
 equal terms. It has ninety thousand volumes ; San Fran- 
 cisco sixty thousand, and Philadelphia as many as both. 
 This last is famous for the large bibliographical department 
 numbering five thousand volumes. There are thirty-five li- 
 braries belonging to this class, and as many more that, while 
 social in their organization, are somewhat more literary, and 
 go by the name of young men's associations, athenaeums, 
 etc. Of the former is the Young Men's Association Library 
 at Albany, New York, founded in 1833. The Boston Athe- 
 naeum is a unique institution. Primarily devoted to its read- 
 ing-room, it has a library of one hundred and fifty thousand 
 volumes. It is proprietary, owning real estate, library, and 
 fine-art collections, and invested funds to the amount of a 
 quarter of a million of dollars. 
 
 (2.) Public Libraries. 
 
 The Public Library in Boston " sprang," says Mr. Henry 
 Barnard, " from a feeling on the part of its most thoughtful 
 and judicious citizens that the system of public education, so 
 liberally provided for the young, might be and should be 
 extended to those of more mature age." The sentiment took 
 form in 1847, when Mayor Quincy offered to give to the city 
 $5,000 in order to initiate a library, provided $10,000 should 
 be otherwise raised for the same purpose. The gift was ac-
 
 298 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 ccpted, and a legislative act secured authorizing its establish- 
 ment. In fifteen years it numbered nearly one hundred 
 thousand volumes. Besides cash donations from Mr. Joshua 
 Bates ($100,000) and others, it has received some valuable 
 gifts of books. The famous mathematical collection of Prof. 
 Bowditch was presented by his sons. Theodore Parker be- 
 queathed to it his own scholarly library of over eleven thou- 
 sand volumes. Mr. George Ticknor donated seven thousand 
 volumes of ancient classics, Spanish and Portuguese. It re- 
 ceived, also, the Prince Library from the Old South Church, 
 and the Boston Shakespeare Collection. It comprises four 
 hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and is, next to the 
 Library of Congress, the largest in the United States. The 
 Cincinnati Public Library, of one hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand volumes, and the Public Library of Chicago, nearly as 
 large, are both public (free) and tax-supported. 
 
 (3.) Endowed Libraries. 
 
 The endowed librai-ies of the United States either found- 
 ed or maintained, or both, by private benefaction form a 
 large class. Among the oldest and most widely known of 
 these are the Astor and Lenox Libraries of New York, the 
 Case Library of Cleveland, Ohio, the Peabody Libraries in 
 Baltimore, Maryland, and Danvers and Peabody, Massachu- 
 setts, and the Sutro Library, San Francisco, California. 
 
 John Jacob Astor, of New York, died March 29, 1848. 
 One codicil to his will said : " Desiring to render a public 
 benefit to the city of New York and to contribute to the ad- 
 vancement of useful knowledge and the general good of 
 society, I do, by this codicil, appoint $400,000 out of my 
 residuary estate to the establishment of a public library in 
 the city of New York." Eleven trustees were appointed, 
 whose first president was Washington Irving. The institu- 
 tion was opened (1854) with eighty thousand volumes, se- 
 lected wholly for reference, a character which the library 
 still retains. It has since received from the Astor family 
 (three generations) two large and well-equipped buildings
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 299 
 
 and $300,000 in cash donations and bequests. The library is 
 a general, not special one, but with history constituting about 
 one fourth of the whole (two hundred and twenty-five thou- 
 sand volumes). It has a permanent invested fund of $775,- 
 000. 
 
 Of the same general character, both as to organization 
 and books, is the Peabody Library, Baltimore, established in 
 1857. It has approximately one hundred thousand volumes, 
 free to any one within the building. The proposed New- 
 berry Library, Chicago, comes of the half part of an estate 
 left to the city, in a residuary bequest, by Walter L. New- 
 berry in 1868. The trustees have just come into possession 
 of $2,149,200, out of which are to be furnished buildings and 
 a reference library similar to the last. 
 
 (4.) School District Libraries. 
 
 It has been generally said that libraries supported by 
 public funds began in England (1850). But the State of 
 New York, fifteen years before, had a working law for pro- 
 viding and supporting free-school libraries throughout the 
 State. Three years afterward, $55,000 a year was ordered 
 turned from the general school fund for their mainte- 
 nance, on condition that the districts raise an equal sum. 
 Within fifteen years they numbered a million and a half of 
 volumes. These were to do for the rural districts of the 
 Empire State what Boston meant to do for the city con- 
 tribute to out-of-school improvement. The limit of their 
 efficiency was soon reached. In 1860 only seven hundred 
 thousand volumes were reported, notwithstanding more than 
 a million dollars had been expended in their support. 
 
 Following New York, Michigan (1837) authorized the 
 establishment of township libraries, and Massachusetts im- 
 mediately after. Connecticut passed a similar law in 1839, 
 Rhode Island in 1840, and Iowa the same year, while yet 
 a Territory. Indiana's first law was enacted in 1841, but 
 supplemented eleven years after, by ordering a tax of one 
 fourth of a mill on each dollar, and twenty-five cents on each
 
 300 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 poll, to be levied for two years, and the proceeds applied to 
 the purchase of books for the school districts. Within three 
 years half a million volumes had been distributed. Ohio 
 made substantially the same provisions in 1848, and Wis- 
 consin also, whose legislation Mr. Barnard pronounced " al- 
 together in advance, in its practical bearings and complete- 
 ness, of anything then attempted." Of twenty States which, 
 prior to 1875, had made some attempt to provide books for 
 the school districts, eleven had sent out more than three 
 million volumes. In a general way it may be said that, 
 while they fell short of the expectations of their friends, 
 these libraries yet served to prepare the way for the more 
 recent town libraries that promise to be a needed and whole- 
 some supplement to the common schools. 
 
 (5.) Free Town Libraries. 
 
 New Hampshire initiated the plan of town libraries main- 
 tained by public tax, or municipal appropriation (1849), the 
 amount of the grant in any case being left to the town. This 
 was a year before the so-called Public Libraries Act of Eng- 
 land. Previous to this, single communities in New Hamp- 
 shire * had assumed the responsibility, and by public vote had 
 established and by annual appropriation supported exactly 
 similar libraries. Castine, Maine, had one in 1827, and the 
 Bingham Library, at Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1803, ante- 
 dated the State law by sixty-six years. Such instances were 
 not unknown even in the West, though they came later, and 
 were generally given private aid. 
 
 The State Library law of Massachusetts (1851) grew out 
 of an attempt to establish a library at Wayland, in that 
 State, a few years before. New Bedford first organized un- 
 der this law a library that has now fifty thousand volumes. 
 Maine, Vermont, Ohio, Wisconsin, Connecticut, Indiana, and 
 Iowa had all made similar enactments before 1870 ; perhaps 
 a dozen others have done so since. 
 
 * Peterborough had then had a free public library for fourteen years.
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 3Q1 
 
 (6.) Professional Libraries. 
 
 Another class, far less numerous, and more special, are 
 those belonging to the professions law, medicine, and the- 
 ology. 
 
 Of the last, there is but one not connected with seminaries 
 or theological departments. This is the General Theological 
 Library of Boston, founded in 1860 by members of different 
 denominations, "looking toward Christian union by first 
 promoting a better understanding among the sects." Alto- 
 gether the United States has seventy-six theological libraries, 
 including both independent seminary and department libra- 
 ries, with an aggregate of eight hundred thousand volumes. 
 
 Of the function of medical libraries, it has been asserted : * 
 " Few persons have any adequate idea of the amount of med- 
 ical literature in existence, or its proper and true value. The 
 result is that the same ground is traversed over and over 
 again ; cases are reported as unique and inexplicable which, 
 when compared with accounts of others buried in obscure 
 periodicals, or collections of observations, fall into their 
 proper places, and both receive and give explanation." 
 
 The medical library is indispensable to the practitioner or 
 student who would know his profession ; and yet, for the 
 most part, the collections are very insignificant. Of the two 
 hundred and fifty or three hundred thousand volumes in 
 the United States, the three cities "Washington, New York, 
 and Philadelphia contain four fifths ; one third of the one 
 hundred and twenty-six schools reporting none. The col- 
 lection in the last city is regarded as valuable, though that 
 in the Surgeon-General's office, at Washington, is incom- 
 parably superior, not only to all others in that city, but, in 
 numbers and character, outranking any other in this coun- 
 try. It contains eighty thousand volumes. 
 
 To the bar, the need of well-stocked libraries of the pro- 
 fession becomes daily more urgent. The rapid multiplica- 
 
 * Dr. Billings, "Public Libraries of the United States," p. 171. 
 20
 
 302 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 tion of reports complicates incalculably the practice of the 
 profession. It is estimated that, including the judicial re- 
 ports of the English, Irish, Scotch, and American courts, 
 standard treatises and digests and the statute laws of these 
 countries, " a fairly complete library would embrace, approx- 
 imately, seventy-five hundred volumes, and cost not less 
 than fifty thousand dollars. The principal center for this 
 class of literature is New York, with its eighty-two thousand 
 volumes. Boston has fifty thousand, and San Francisco 
 forty thousand. The Bar Association Library of Washing- 
 ton the only one in the city catalogues but five thousand 
 volumes ; though it is supplemented by a vast collection of 
 books more or less closely bearing upon the profession, and 
 a large number, the most valuable of all, in the Government 
 departments, estimated at two hundred thousand volumes. 
 Of the forty-five law schools, fourteen report no libraries. 
 Harvard (1817) has twenty -two thousand volumes, particu- 
 larly full in Roman jurisprudence and the commercial law 
 of Continental Europe. That of Yale, formed later, is much 
 smaller (nine thousand volumes), but fairly complete in 
 English and American reports and international law. The 
 earliest collection seems to have been that of the Philadel- 
 phia Law Association (1802), though the Social Law Library 
 of Boston is nearly as old. Besides these, two Courts of 
 Appeals in New York, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, 
 and Harvard, possessed the only ones prior to 1825. 
 
 (7.) State Libraries. 
 
 Supplementary to collections of law books proper are sev- 
 eral State libraries, which because of their character very 
 naturally follow them. There are forty-seven of these in 
 the several States and Territories, having nearly a million 
 volumes. They include public documents of every kind 
 local and national, legislative, judicial, and administrative. 
 Some of them were formed very early, though perhaps none 
 before the Revolution. There was one in Philadelphia in 
 1777, others in New Jersey and New Hampshire twenty
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 303 
 
 years later, and similar ones in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New 
 York, Illinois, Kentucky, Virginia, and Indiana, all before 
 
 1825. 
 
 (8.) Government Libraries. 
 
 Government Libraries are of two kinds : 1. The Congres- 
 sional Library ; 2. The department libraries. 
 
 While the seat of the national Government was at Phila- 
 delphia, officials used the local City Library. Immediately 
 upon the removal to Washington (1800), Congress appro- 
 priated five thousand dollars to be expended in the purchase 
 of books " for the use of the two Houses of Congress and the 
 members thereof." Two years later an annual appropriation 
 was ordered and permanent regulations adopted. It was 
 provided that the library should be open freely to the Presi- 
 dent, heads of departments, judges and attaches of the courts, 
 members and officers of the two Houses, the diplomatic 
 corps, and, later, to the Secretary and Regents of the Smith- 
 sonian Institution. 
 
 The library grew slowly, having twelve years after (1814) 
 but three thousand books, which in the one day's occupation 
 of the city by the British were entirely destroyed by fire. 
 The year following, Jefferson's private library was pur- 
 chased. A generation later (1851) a second fire destroyed two 
 thirds of the collection, including works on English and 
 European history, the arts, sciences, literature, and voyages, 
 leaving but twenty thousand volumes. Then was erected 
 an iron finished building. In eight years the library had 
 added fifty thousand volumes, and was receiving an annual 
 appropriation of ten thousand dollars. In 1866 it was given 
 the Smithsonian deposit, and the next year the Peter Force 
 Library of " Colonization and History of the United States," 
 numbering sixty thousand volumes. The enactment of the 
 copyright law (1870), requiring the deposit of two copies of 
 each published work, makes about twelve thousand entries 
 annually. The books now number nearly six hundred thou- 
 sand, besides two hundred thousand pamphlets, and are open 
 in the room to all who choose to use them.
 
 304 
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Besides the Congressional Library, most of the depart- 
 ments have special collections, some of which are very com- 
 plete and valuable. In addition to those indicated in the 
 table there are libraries at each military post and garrison, 
 at army headquarters, at the National Soldiers' Homes, and 
 on naval and merchant vessels, aggregating two hundred 
 thousand volumes. 
 
 Government Department Libraries. 
 
 DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Character. 
 
 1. State 
 
 23,000 
 
 15,000 
 20,000 
 100,000 
 2,000 
 5,000 
 15,000 
 30,000 
 10,000 
 10,000 
 25,000 
 30,000 
 
 15,000 
 20,000 
 
 Diplomatic history, economics, 
 voyages ; 1,000 volumes Eng- 
 lish newspapers. 
 
 A complete set of state papers. 
 Legislative and executive. 
 
 Scientific works and journals. 
 
 Large pedagogical collection. 
 Best technological library in the 
 United States. 
 
 Very complete in agricultural 
 science and reports of agricult- 
 ural and scientific societies in 
 Europe and America. 
 
 o Treasury 
 
 
 4. House 
 
 5. Executive Mansion 
 
 6. Coast Survey 
 
 7 War 
 
 8 Military Academy 
 
 9 Naval Observatory 
 
 10. Naval Academy 
 
 1 1 . Bureau of Education 
 
 12 Patent-Office 
 
 13. Judiciary 
 
 14. Agriculture 
 
 
 (9.) College Libraries. 
 
 Among the most important of all the classes named is 
 the college library. It was also one of the earliest. John 
 Harvard's private collection started the first one simultane- 
 ously with the first college. Among the first donations to 
 Virginia education were books and maps for the "college." 
 Yale had a like beginning ; and yet in a different sense the 
 modern college library is important. It is both less and 
 more valued ; less a general possession, more as a special in- 
 strument. It is not now always the first step in the found- 
 ing of colleges. Forty existing institutions report none.
 
 LEARNED SOCIETIES AND LIBRARIES. 305 
 
 The total catalogue of three hundred and six libraries is 
 something over three million volumes. Twenty-four insti- 
 tutions, only, report more than twenty-five thousand vol- 
 umes each ; nine have sixty thousand or more. 
 
 A good college library is a thing of growth. But four of 
 these twenty-four larger ones were started since 1860 : Lehigh 
 (1866), Cornell (1868), University of California (1869), and 
 Johns Hopkins (1876). 
 
 This is one of the characteristics of the contemporary 
 library : it is coming to be adapted in kind and conditions to 
 the use to be made of it. It is made a laboratory, a work- 
 shop. To the student it becomes the starting-point for re- 
 search, the source of adjustments and verifications of knowl- 
 edge. It is indispensable in the study of history and lan- 
 guage, but scarcely less to the student of science who would 
 avoid the needless repetition of observations and established 
 conclusions. Much use of books by associated departments 
 tends to set off the mass of books into special libraries, each 
 with a particular character. So a university will have its 
 general library, society libraries, and professional libraries. 
 It may have, further, its mathematical references or biologi- 
 cal or psycho-physical ; its historical and philosophical ; ap- 
 pliances made constantly available for special studies; not 
 so many catalogued volumes, but trusted authorities. This 
 is true of all the eight or ten largest collections. Not that 
 they are kept in separate buildings or under independent 
 management ; indeed, they are not generally so controlled. 
 But, with the greater independence of departments and the 
 larger option among courses and the narrowing of special- 
 ties, comes the need for a more systematic use of technical 
 authorities and references and an adapted literature. With 
 such interpretation the library is no longer a place in which 
 to lounge, but an instrument to be used; and so around 
 well -managed libraries have grown up seminaries for 
 special inquiry, and societies, and a contributing litera- 
 ture, and subject alcoves, of great variety and of yet great- 
 er service.
 
 306 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Another device for making the library more generally 
 available and useful is the classified subject index. Not a 
 few small libraries of well-chosen books are made doubly 
 serviceable through the use of catalogues so arranged as to 
 place within easy reach their material. Next in importance 
 to the free use of books is the very extensive utilization of 
 magazine, newspaper, and other current literature as sources 
 of information bearing upon studies. Judiciously selected 
 pamphlet collections are of incalculable value. The geo- 
 graphical and educational and economic bureaus of the 
 Johns Hopkins University illustrate this function. Most 
 colleges sustain reading-rooms of substantial literature, also 
 brought by index into the regular current of the library 
 service. Columbia has ten thousand pamphlets, Cornell fif- 
 teen thousand, Michigan as many, Yale forty thousand, and 
 Harvard two hundred and seventy thousand. 
 
 So important are the management and use of these col- 
 lections considered in the best colleges, that in more than 
 one institution they have come to be subjects of study. The 
 Columbia College " School of Library Economy " (1883) is a 
 well-organized enterprise that in a more or less complete 
 way is being tried at Johns Hopkins University, Cornell, 
 Harvard, Michigan, and elsewhere, both East and West. 
 Rochester University, New York, has given annual lectures 
 on the founding, control, and development of libraries since 
 1880. At Columbia the faculty of the School of Library 
 Economy consists of nine instructors, including the di- 
 rector and twenty to thirty special non-resident lecturers 
 annually. 
 
 The course includes lectures and observations on : 
 
 1. Library economy. 
 
 2. The scope and usefulness of libraries. 
 
 3. The founding and extension of libraries. 
 
 4. Buildings. 
 
 5. Government and service. 
 
 6. Regulations for readers. 
 
 7. Administration, catalogue, references, loan, etc.
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 307 
 
 8. Libraries on special subjects. 
 
 9. General libraries. 
 
 10. Libraries of special countries or sections. 
 
 11. Reading and aids. 
 
 12. Literary methods. 
 
 13. Bibliography. 
 
 14. Catalogues of general collections. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 " The Literary Influence of Academies," by M. Arnold ; " Learned 
 Societies," by J. Farrar, " North American Review," vol. viii, p. 157; 
 Warren and Clark, " Public Libraries in the United States," 1876 ; " Col- 
 lege Libraries as Aids to Instruction," published by the Bureau of Edu- 
 cation ; "Free Public Libraries," T. Greenwood, 1886; "Libraries and 
 Schools," by S. S. Green, 1883 ; " Libraries and Readers," by W. E. Fos- 
 ter, 1883; " District School Libraries," Horace Mann, Lecture VI; also 
 " Relation of Libraries to General Education," Horace Mann, " Third Re- 
 port," 1839. Of incalculable value is the " Library Journal," edited by 
 M. Dewey, New York. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 
 
 THE modern representative Government, like the contem- 
 porary Church, is an organized protest against the dominance 
 of unreasoning authority, from whatever source. Neverthe- 
 less, the national Government in this country has had a large 
 share in the control and direction of educational thought 
 and institutions. 
 
 It has created and repeatedly enlarged school funds, first 
 and directly, by appropriations of land, to the common 
 schools, academies, and universities ; and indirectly, through 
 the surplus revenue deposit, and the three per cent of public 
 land sales. It is officially charged with the education of the 
 Indians and Alaskans ; provides generously for military and
 
 308 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 naval education, both in the two national institutions and in 
 established colleges and universities in the States; furnishes 
 homes and instruction to many hundred soldiers' orphans, 
 and has with rare wisdom contributed millions to the school- 
 ing of the impoverished South. The true spirit of republi- 
 canism has never opposed any centralization that looked to 
 the greater general good. And to the service of the Govern- 
 ment in the particulars named, must be added another chap- 
 ter treating of the National Bureau of Education, the Smith- 
 sonian Institution, and the general scientific work carried 
 on through its departments. 
 
 1. TJie Bureau of Education. 
 
 Pinckney, of South Carolina, Madison, of Virginia, Mor- 
 ris, of New York, the wise Jefferson, and a half-dozen other 
 contemporary statesmen, advocated the establishment of a 
 national university, " for the advancement of useful knowl- 
 edge, and the promotion of agriculture, commerce, trades, 
 and manufactures." The idea, in some form, has since come 
 up in almost every administration. 
 
 In his message to the two Houses of Congress in 1790, 
 Washington's often-quoted words were full of wisdom and 
 rare foresight. " Knowledge," he says, " is hi every country 
 the surest basis of public happiness. In one in which the 
 measures of government receive their impressions so imme- 
 diately as hi ours, from the sense of the community, it is 
 proportionally essential. . . . Whether this will be best pro- 
 moted," he continued, ''by affording aid to seminaries of 
 learning already established, by the institution of a national 
 university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy a 
 place in the deliberations of the Legislature." Six years 
 later he urged immediate attention to the improvement of 
 agriculture as a fundamental concern in this country, and 
 recommended "the creation of a national central agency, 
 charged with collecting and diffusing information, and en- 
 abled by premiums and small pecuniary aids to encourage 
 and assist a spirit of discovery and improvement." Twenty
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 3Q9 
 
 years after the address just quoted, M. Julian, a Frenchman, 
 urged upon his Government the comprehensive and com- 
 parative study of educational questions through a national 
 establishment, whose duty it should be " to collect the mate- 
 rial for a general report on the scholastic institutions and on 
 methods of instruction in the different European states." 
 
 The need for such an agency in this country early at- 
 tracted the attention of educators. The teachers of Essex 
 County, Massachusetts, in association 1849, voted to petition 
 Congess to established a " bureau in the home department 
 for promoting public education." Fifteen years later, at the 
 sixth meeting of the National Educational Association, a 
 paper was read and discussed on the subject of a " National 
 Bureau of Education," for the establishment of which the 
 intelligence and interest of the country were pledged. The 
 year following, Bishop Fraser, after emphasizing the impor- 
 tance of a more general supervision, commended the grow- 
 ing sentiment in the States in favor of a central agency. In 
 1866 the attention of the National Educational Association 
 was turned toward the subject in a practical way. At the 
 first meeting of the Section of School Superintendents, held 
 in Washington that year, a committee, of which State School 
 Commissioner E. E. White, of Ohio, was chairman, was ap- 
 pointed to memorialize Congress on the establishment of 
 such a bureau. This memorial was presented in the House 
 of Representatives, in June of the same year, by Hon. James 
 A. Garfield, in a speech which is rich in the history of the 
 educational sentiment of this country. After some unim- 
 portant modifications the bill passed both Houses, and on the 
 16th of March, 1867, Hon. Henry Barnard was appointed first 
 "United States Commissioner of Education." 
 
 Originally created a Department, it was two years later 
 made a Bureau of the Interior, as it remains. Mr. Barnard 
 held the office but three years, and was succeeded by Hon. 
 John Eaton, who resigned in 1886. The present commis- 
 sioner is Hon. N. H. R. Dawson. The function of the bureau 
 is : 1. To collect such statistics and facts as shall show the
 
 310 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 condition and progress of education in the several States and 
 territories ; and, 2. To diffuse such information respecting 
 the organization and management of schools and school sys- 
 tems, and methods of teaching, as shall aid the people of the 
 United States in the establishment and maintenance of effi- 
 cient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of 
 education throughout the country. 
 
 A. BUREAU PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The office issues an annual report, and publishes occa- 
 sional circulars of information, besides carrying on an ex- 
 tensive correspondence in both hemispheres. Its nineteen 
 reports make a valuable statement of a most interesting 
 period of our educational history. They completely cover 
 the quarter of a century since the war, and shed a flood of 
 light upon the saving influences of a right training of youth. 
 Among the sixty or seventy circulars are included discus- 
 sions of American and foreign systems; elementary, sec- 
 ondary, and collegiate instruction, and various phases of 
 them ; industrial, physical, and art training ; Kindergar- 
 ten and normal schools ; school architecture, expositions, 
 and legislation ; besides methods in particular branches of 
 the curriculum. Its special reports on " Medical Education," 
 " Public Libraries," " Education and Labor," and " Education 
 and Crime," the "Theory of American Education," and 
 "City School Systems of the United States," would be of 
 incalculable service if studied by every teacher. 
 
 B. PEDAGOGICAL LIBRARY. 
 
 In the prosecution of its official duties there has been 
 collected an educational library, in size and richness unsur- 
 passed in this country. It contains eighteen thousand vol- 
 umes and about fifty thousand pamphlets. It is full in more 
 or less disconnected and diffuse but original material for 
 the history of American education. This includes State and 
 city reports, American and foreign educational journals, 
 catalogues and special publications of colleges and other
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 31 1 
 
 educational bodies, scientific periodicals and papers, besides 
 a large collection of American text-books and foreign school 
 documents. 
 
 C. PEDAGOGICAL MUSEUM. 
 
 In addition to the library and supplementing it, the 
 bureau has the beginnings of an admirable educational 
 museum. It consists of clay and other models of primitive 
 and civilized industry ; art-work from city schools ; globes, 
 maps, charts, herbaria, school cabinets, portraits and busts 
 of educators ; Kindergarten and industrial exhibits, besides 
 specimens of apparatus and furniture. 
 
 2. The Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 About this institution cluster some of the most grateful 
 recollections and the most cherished hopes of science. Its 
 history is a record of enviable service. 
 
 In the year 1829 there died in Genoa an Englishman, 
 James Smithson. He had spent his life in travel and study. 
 Devoted to science, and a man of leisure, he became an in- 
 vestigator and author. In an authorized biography of him 
 is given a list of twenty papers published by him, mono- 
 graphs chiefly, on scientific subjects, showing not only a 
 comprehensive interest and knowledge, but a familiarity 
 with the latest achievements of science. He was educated 
 at Oxford, and was a member of the Eoyal Society. He re- 
 mained unmarried, never visited the United States, and, so 
 far as known, in political sympathies was undemocratic. 
 He belonged to the English aristocracy, and to the house of 
 Percy made famous by Scott and Shakespeare.* 
 
 A. THE SMITHSON BEQUEST. 
 
 Notwithstanding his English citizenship and his undemo- 
 cratic instincts, upon his death the United States Government 
 was made by provisional bequest the trustee of his large es- 
 
 * "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," vol. xvii, pp. 151, 152.
 
 312 TIIE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 tate. The property was to go to his nephew; but, if he 
 should die without heirs, should be committed to the United 
 States (save a small annuity) " to found at Washington, un- 
 der the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establish- 
 ment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among 
 men." Upon the death of this relative, Henry James Hun- 
 gerford (1835), the United States Government was informed 
 from London of the conditions of the bequest, and the Hon. 
 Richard Rush dispatched to receive it. The net amount was 
 five hundred and eight thousand three hundred and eighteen 
 dollars, to which were afterward added some small sums, 
 making in the aggregate about five hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand dollars. 
 
 B. PLANS PROPOSED. 
 
 Much doubt existed as to the original design of the testa- 
 tor, and yet more as to the means to be employed. It took 
 Congress nine years to decide upon its disposition. The one 
 condition, to provide " for the increase and diffusion of 
 knowledge among men," is very general. 
 
 The impression almost uniformly present at fi>st was that 
 Mr. Smithson meant to bestow his fortune upon the cause of 
 education, and that a school or college or university was the 
 only mode of meeting the condition. So it was argued that 
 this should be one of a number of colleges toward the crea- 
 tion of a national university, the possession of which had 
 been the hope of statesmen and scholars from the times of 
 Washington and Jefferson. Others would have the annual 
 income used to maintain a cabinet of natural history, a mu- 
 seum, or a general accumulating library. Indeed, this last 
 had the strongest minority support from Rufus Choate and 
 others. It was suggested that the money be made a primary 
 school fund for the city of Washington or for infant and 
 Sunday school encouragement throughout the United States, 
 or that it be applied to geographical or other explorations. 
 One party (to the credit of our representatives a small one) 
 proposed to refund the money to James Smithson's brother, 
 his proper heir, on the ground that the United States could
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 313 
 
 not legally become a trustee for individual benefactors. It 
 is needless to say the better judgments prevailed. The trust 
 had been accepted, and its right use was a sacred obligation. 
 It was early agreed by the committee to whom the whole 
 question was referred, and of which John Quincy Adams 
 was chairman, that " no part of the fund should be applied 
 to the education of children or youth nor to the establish- 
 ment or support of any school, college, or university, insti- 
 tute of education, nor ecclesiastical establishment." It was 
 then proposed that there should be founded an institution for 
 physical research, contributing to agriculture, war, engineer- 
 ing, architecture, mining, commerce, and manufactures. 
 John Quincy Adams pleaded for a great astronomical obser- 
 vatory rivaling those of Greenwich and Paris ; Mr. Tappan 
 for an institution after the plan of the Jardin des Plantes in 
 Paris. The best educated sentiment was converging upon 
 an agency of physical or general research ; that a part or all 
 of the proceeds of the fund should be appropriated "to a 
 system of annual awards " for original contributions to sci- 
 ence and the useful arts, scientific collections, the publica- 
 tion of scientific communications, and provisions for lectures. 
 The very approach to the final organization in its delibera- 
 tion, and the all-sided regard for ultimate efficiency, are pro- 
 phetic of the conservative and comprehensive service of the 
 subsequent management. 
 
 C. THE ORGANIZATION. 
 
 The formal act establishing the institution passed hi 1847, 
 the corporation being made to consist of the President, Vice- 
 President, members of the Cabinet, the Chief-Justice of the 
 Supreme Court, the Commissioner of Patents, the Mayor of 
 Washington, and such other persons as these may elect to 
 honorary membership. The immediate supervision rests 
 with a Board of Regents composed of the Vice-President 
 and Chief-Justice, the Mayor of Washington, three senators, 
 three representatives, and six other persons, two of whom 
 shall be residents of Washington, D. C., and four from the
 
 314 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 States, no two from any one. From the Board of Regents 
 one is chosen to be Chancellor, and by them a local execu- 
 tive officer called "secretary." 
 
 The plan of internal organization as submitted by Prof. 
 Joseph Henry, first secretary, and as finally adopted, in- 
 cluded the following provisions : Toward the increase of 
 knowledge 1. Such systematic encouragement should be 
 given as would stimulate to original research by rewards 
 for scientific memoirs ; 2. An annual appropriation of money 
 should be made sufficient to generously compensate physical 
 research. Further, looking to the diffusion of knowledge, 
 there should be published : 1. Regular reports on the prog- 
 ress of different branches of knowledge ; 2. Occasionally, 
 as may be advisable, separate and less formal treatises on 
 subjects of general interest. More specifically the organiza- 
 tion was made to include : 1. A museum ; 2. A chemical 
 laboratory; 3. A library; 4. A gallery of art; 5. Lecture- 
 rooms. 
 
 The botanical collection was, after some years, trans- 
 ferred to the Agricultural Department, and to the Army 
 Medical Museum certain articles of professional interest. 
 The library early acquired a valuable and, for this country, 
 a rare collection of books, including philosophical and 
 scientific transactions of learned societies throughout the 
 world. These were finally turned over to the Congressional 
 Library (1866), where are annually deposited copies of its 
 exchanges, and publications of whatever kind. Carrying 
 out the spirit of the original design to co-operate with exist- 
 ing societies and institutions as far as possible the accumu- 
 lations of the Art Gallery were deposited with the Corcoran 
 Aii Exhibit, in Washington ; and, upon rebuilding in 1865, 
 after the fire, by which both buildings and records were 
 destroyed, it was decided to discontinue the regular lect- 
 ures. There remains, then, the simple and single function 
 of carrying forward, on a liberal scale, systematic physical 
 research, and the publication to the world of its verified 
 conclusions. It has been from the founding, and remains,
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 315 
 
 the policy of the regents and the secretary to do no work of 
 investigation or collection or diffusion of knowledge, that 
 is being done, or can be as well undertaken, by existing 
 agencies. 
 
 Extensive researches have been made in the broad field 
 of ethnology, in the much-worked but promising one of 
 astronomy, besides the more common fields of science and 
 meteorology ; most of the last, however, being recently 
 transferred to the Signal-Service Bureau. 
 
 D. PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The publications of the institution are of three kinds : 1. 
 Contributions to knowledge. 2. Miscellaneous collections. 
 3. Annual reports. Of the first there have been about one 
 hundred and fifty volumes, in which appear only memoirs, 
 records of extensive original investigation and researches 
 resulting in what are believed to be new truths, and to con- 
 stitute positive additions to the sum of human knowledge. 
 The miscellaneous collections comprise a series begun in 
 1862, to present reports on the current state of our knowl- 
 edge on particular branches of science ; instructions for col- 
 lecting and digesting facts ; lists and synopses of species in 
 the organic and inorganic worlds ; museum catalogues ; re- 
 ports of explorations ; aids to bibliographical investigations, 
 etc. Of these there are something more than a hundred vol- 
 umes ; and of the annual reports thirty-eight. Besides these 
 there are the occasional bulletins of the National Museum, 
 and reports of special bureaus ; the latter including ethno- 
 logical studies of great value. 
 
 E. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 
 
 Not the least important part of the Smithsonian organi- 
 zation is the ''National Museum." In the original act of 
 establishment (1846) it was provided that " all objects of art, 
 and of foreign and curious research, and all objects of natu- 
 ral history, plants, and geological and mineralogical speci- 
 mens, belonging or hereafter to belong to the United States,
 
 316 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 which may be in Washington, and such like collections 
 made by the Coast and Interior Surveys, or by any other 
 parties for the Government of the United States, shall be 
 deposited in the rooms provided by the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion." This large accumulation of materials, besides being a 
 record of past investigations, and affording a stimulus to 
 and opportunity for research, is an educational agency of 
 the most comprehensive reach. The materials are arranged 
 in five divisions : 
 
 I. Anthropology, with three departments. 
 II. Zoology, with ten departments. 
 
 III. Botany, in two departments. 
 
 IV. Geology, in three departments. 
 
 V. Exploration and Experiment, in four departments. 
 
 Every precaution is taken to make its resources service- 
 able to their intelligent use. Persons not officers of the 
 institution may obtain access to the collection, for purposes 
 of study, by filing an application, which must be indorsed 
 by the director. It has been described as " the best record 
 of original research and investigation ever made in this 
 country." 
 
 Altogether, it may be said, no institution in this country 
 has more perfectly accomplished its object, and none con- 
 tributed more generously to either the increase or the diffu- 
 sion of knowledge, than the Smithsonian Institution. Its 
 studies of the antiquities of America, and the encouragement 
 given to such studies by others, have more than justified its 
 establishment and recognition by Government. 
 
 3. Special Scientific Work. 
 
 A. THE COAST SURVEY. 
 
 Among the earliest departments, and, at that time, in an 
 undeveloped country, the most important, as it is to-day per- 
 haps the best matured of any in the comprehensive system 
 of scientific work by the General Government, is that of the
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 317 
 
 United States Coast Survey. Its inauguration marks an 
 epoch in the growth of a national spirit. It dignified na- 
 tional interests and influence. 
 
 The enterprise was established under President Jefferson 
 (1807), and was designed primarily to furnish accurate maps 
 of the coast ; to determine positions for, and establish nauti- 
 cal and other signals ; to determine and mark the course and 
 conditions of shore-currents, tides, and prevailing winds, 
 and whatever should contribute to the safety and efficiency 
 of domestic and foreign commerce in our ports. The survey 
 was put in charge of the Secretary of the Treasury, and 
 work ordered after plans submitted by Prof. Hassler, a Swiss 
 resident in this country, and who was made superintendent. 
 Operations were begun on the New Jersey coast in 1816. 
 The commission being transferred almost immediately, how- 
 ever, to the army and navy, the work was checked. It was 
 revived in 1832, and Mr. Hassler reappointed superintend- 
 ent. At his death (1844) he was succeeded by Prof. A. D. 
 Bache, with whom the present system may be said to have 
 commenced. For twenty years he was center and compass 
 of the greatest single educational and scientific enterprise the 
 Government has ever undertaken. Under his direction both 
 Pacific and Atlantic coast lines were cut into sections, each 
 with its own base-line ; and the survey set about making a 
 systematic exploration and map of the entire shore. Trian- 
 gulation frequently reached far inland, and through subse- 
 quent years has covered adjacent States in a way to form 
 the basis of their topographical surveys thus rendering a 
 double service. About the year 1870 the province of the sur- 
 vey was enlarged by Congress, and the triangulation carried 
 farther inland, with a view of covering the intervening sec- 
 tion, " so as to form a geodetic connection" between the east- 
 ern and western coasts, determining points in each State of 
 the Union for needed local, geological, and topographical 
 surveys. 
 
 In addition to the immediate service it was meant to ren- 
 der the location of the coast-line, the mapping of harbors 
 21
 
 318 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 and other inlets, and the location of danger-signals it has 
 made numerous valuable hydrographic and magnetic ob- 
 servations ; carried on deep-sea soundings and dredgings ; 
 studied minutely, and for years, the tides from nine hundred 
 stations ; mapped the Gulf Stream ; perfected determinations 
 of latitude and longitude ; contributed data for calculating 
 the measurements and curvature of the earth, and corrected 
 variations of the magnetic needle. How much has been ac- 
 complished in all these respects, or in each, and how emi- 
 nently serviceable have been the conclusions both to eco- 
 nomics and to abstract science, can not easily be overstated ; 
 its contributions to the " general welfare " give it a promi- 
 nent place in the functions of the national Government. It 
 has been pronounced by Mr. J. D. Whitney " the only great 
 scientific work in this country, which has been uninterrupt- 
 edly carried on for any considerable time ; and one of the 
 few things done under the authority of the General Govern- 
 ment hi which every American citizen can take pride." 
 
 B. GEOGRAPHICAL S0RTEYS. 
 
 The Department of the Interior early made surveys and 
 explorations in the unoccupied territory of the Great West. 
 At the opening of the present century much of the territory 
 lying between the Mississippi and the Pacific was a wild 
 region. Till the second quarter of the century the Utah 
 Basin was unknown, and far into the third quarter much 
 of Nevada and adjoining parts. To map its domain was 
 one of the first needs of the Government toward its settle- 
 ment. 
 
 Very early, therefore, geographical exploring parties had 
 been sent into the more accessible of the little known parts. 
 Lewis and Clark made then: memorable expedition along 
 the upper Missouri and the Columbia in the three years 
 from 1804 to 1806. Major Pike, a year later, explored the 
 source of the Rio Grande. Major Long mapped the Platte 
 River in 1820, and Lieutenant Allen the head- waters of the 
 Mississippi twelve years later. About the same time Captain
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 319 
 
 Bonneville, on leave of absence from the army, at his own 
 cost, and for love of science, went into the Great Basin region, 
 and, though he has rarely been noticed in its history, dis- 
 covered and described Salt Lake. Nicollet, under Govern- 
 ment, again, explored and surveyed Minnesota; and Fre- 
 mont, in that fruitful transcontinental tour to the Pacific, 
 gave his country (1843-1847), besides new views of the Platte 
 and the Utah Basin, the now magnificent California. Then 
 came the gold discovery of 1849, and the Pacific Railroad 
 survey of 1852-'57 ; the fixing of the Northwestern boundary 
 line, and resurveys and mapping of the larger Western riv- 
 ers ; and the only really great geographical survey of the 
 century in the United States that of the fortieth parallel 
 begun in the year 1867, by Clarence King, under the direc- 
 tion of the War Department. 
 
 This survey covered a belt one hundred miles wide from 
 north to south, and along the line of the Central Pacific 
 Railway, from the western boundary of Nevada to the east- 
 ern base of the Rocky Mountains. Its work covered seven 
 years, and furnished material for the most accurate informa- 
 tion then had, not only of the topography, but of the geologi- 
 cal and biological conditions as well, of the entire section. 
 The published report comprises six large volumes, with nu- 
 merous elaborate illustrations. These volumes are : 
 
 I. Systematic Geology. 
 II. Descriptive Geology. 
 
 III. The Mining Industry. 
 
 IV. Paleontology and Ornithology. 
 V. Botany. 
 
 VI. Microscopic Petrography. 
 
 C. GEOLOGICAL 8UBVEYS. 
 
 Many years before any such interest was shown by Gov- 
 ernment, more or less systematic attempts were made by 
 States or individuals to effect local geological surveys. About 
 the time of the organization of the Coast Survey, Mr. William
 
 320 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 McClure macle a painstaking examination of the Appalachian 
 chain and the Piedmont region, together with the adjacent 
 States and Territories. He continued his observations for 
 several years, and into the West, visited the mining centers 
 of Europe and America, and gave withal a permanent direc- 
 tion to geological study in the United States. Amos Eaton, 
 also, under the generous patronage of Stephen Van Rensse- 
 laer, surveyed the regions about Albany, New York, and the 
 route of the Erie Canal. Resulting, no doubt, from these 
 exhibitions of local interest, and suggested by the geograph- 
 ical explorations then making, fifteen years later (1834) a 
 national survey was undertaken, in the appointment of G. 
 W. Featherstonhaugh, an Englishman, to examine geologi- 
 cally the Arkansas Territory ; he became, therefore, the first 
 " United States Geologist." David Dale Owen was employed 
 to explore and survey public mineral lands in the upper 
 Mississippi Valley, an expedition which revealed a rich lead 
 supply, as a few years later from two other surveys were 
 made known the resources of copper. 
 
 The systematic study of the Rocky Mountains began, 
 under Dr. F. V. Hayden, in the year 1853, along with the 
 paleontological investigations of Mr. F. B. Meek. Fifteen 
 years later Dr. Hayden was appointed United States geolo- 
 gist, and given charge of a scientific corps for the survey of 
 the Territories. In the mean time, however, the researches 
 begun by him were the commencement of the real geological 
 investigation of the Great West. Besides his geographical 
 and geological researches, he made large contributions also 
 to the ethnography and philology of the numerous Indian 
 tribes which he met along the Yellowstone and in neighbor- 
 ing regions. In 1879 this and the previous commission were 
 combined into the " United States Geological and Geographi- 
 cal Survey," in which the two forces co-operate under one 
 management. 
 
 The work of Mr. J. W. Powell, present director of the 
 survey, began twenty years ago in an exploration of the 
 Colorado River, which was repeated the next year. In 1869
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 321 
 
 he was employed by the department to make an extended 
 tour and study of that region, which he did in its geology, 
 botany, zoology, and ethnology, publishing the results in 
 1878 in five large and valuable volumes. The survey is or- 
 ganized under eleven departments, comprising general gla- 
 cial and volcanic geology, archaean geology of the Appa- 
 lachian and Lake Superior regions, structural and historical 
 geology of the Appalachian region, topographical* and 
 geological survey of Yellowstone Park, paleontology in five 
 sections, chemical and physical laboratories, microscopical 
 lithography, and economic geology. 
 
 D. THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 
 
 Since the survey of the fortieth parallel the most impor- 
 tant service of the Bureau of Engineers has been in the 
 establishment and maintenance of the "Signal Service." 
 This term originally meant still means in militant govern- 
 ments and in the United States in war-times an organized 
 system of transmitting reports and messages between officers 
 and the army or between posts of an army. It has come to 
 signify, in this period of our national peace, a system of 
 communicating intelligence of storms or other approaching 
 weather changes by flags or other device. The bureau has 
 five hundred stations within the territory of the United 
 States, twenty-five in Canada, three hundred and thirty-three 
 foreign stations, and five hundred and sixty-three naval and 
 merchant marine vessels, with all of which it co-operates in 
 collecting simultaneous meteorological observations and 
 publishing information. 
 
 In addition to the familiar but little understood weather 
 predictions, which, contrary to popular belief, constitute but 
 a part of its service, the bureau's studies include the nature 
 
 * For an interesting presentation of the changed meaning of " topogra- 
 phy" see "Science," September 23, 1887. The issue of the same journal 
 also, for July 29, 1887, has an elaborate statement of the work of the party 
 in perfecting a new map of the United States from these surveys.
 
 322 TnE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 and conditions of earthquakes, tornadoes, floods, etc. ; it con- 
 structs charts, sailing directions, and light lists for uses in 
 navigation, and is coming to be recognized as one of the 
 serviceable scientific bureaus of Government. From the 
 central office tri-daily reports are made of weather, wind- 
 direction, and temperature to the New York Associated Press, 
 to the United States Associated Press, to two telegraph com- 
 panies, to nine individual papers, and to the Secretary of 
 War. 
 
 E. NAVAL EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 In the effort to add to scientific knowledge the United 
 States navy has been an active agent. Its expeditions have 
 been numerous and fruitful. Under its authority the Ant- 
 arctic was explored by Wilkes in 1835-'42, and the Arctic 
 by Kane and Hall in the years 1854 and 1872 respectively. 
 Rodgers visited the Pacific in 1852, and Captain Lynch, 
 Africa and the Dead Sea four years earlier. The Amazon 
 was explored about the same period, and shortly afterward 
 Mordecai went to the Crimea. In 1854 was made Captain 
 Perry's historic voyage to Japan, which did so much toward 
 opening up that country to Western influence. The Howgate 
 Expedition to the North in 1877-78, and the recent Greely 
 cruise of three years in the same region, are well known. 
 
 T. THE NATIONAL OBSERVATORY. 
 
 A service more in the line of pure science, if not of 
 greater immediate economic utility, has been rendered in 
 the establishment and continued generous use of the Na- 
 tional Observatory at Washington. 
 
 Its organization was authorized (1842) as a "depot of 
 charts and instruments for the navy." * It is located at 
 Washington, with a branch observatory on Mare Island for 
 the Pacific coast. Among its instruments are mural and 
 
 * It is said that the repugnance of the dominant political party to sat- 
 isfying the long-cherished desire of John Quincy Adams, prevented its 
 being called at once the National Observatory.
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 323 
 
 transit circles ; meridian transit, and prime verticals ; and 
 two (a nine-inch and a twenty-six-inch) equatorial telescopes. 
 Its prime object was and remains the improvement of navi- 
 gation. For fixing boundaries, and determining the latitude 
 and longitude of cities it co-operates with the Coast Survey ; 
 and for the position of points abroad, with the navy. From 
 its chronometers, time-balls are dropped at noon in Phila- 
 delphia, Baltimore, New York, New Orleans, Washington, 
 Hampton Roads, Savannah, and Newport, Rhode Island. 
 It has a very complete library of twelve thousand volumes. 
 Connected with the observatory is the Nautical Almanac 
 Division, which publishes the " American Ephemeris," the 
 "American Nautical Almanac," the "Atlantic Coasters' 
 Nautical Almanac," and the " Pacific Coasters' Nautical 
 Almanac." 
 
 G. THE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Skill in farming and related industries, and familiarity 
 with the principles which underlie them, are obviously fun- 
 damental in the United States. Washington has already 
 been quoted as urging Government attention and encour- 
 agement to these interests. 
 
 Recognition has been given in the establishment of a 
 Bureau of Agriculture in the Department of the Interior 
 (1862), and though its services have been both numerous 
 and widespread, and at times exceedingly fruitful, it is per- 
 haps of all departments of the Government least understood 
 and most depreciated. The act creating it declares its func- 
 tions to be, " to acquire and diffuse among the people of the 
 United States useful information on subjects connected with 
 agriculture, in the most general and comprehensive sense of 
 that word, and to procure, propagate, and distribute among 
 the people new and valuable seeds." It has twelve special- 
 ized departments, besides an extensive museum and library. 
 The former are : 1. Pomological Section. 2. Contagious 
 Diseases of Animals. 3. Fertilization. 4. Entomology. 5. 
 Seeds. 6. Forestry. 7. Chemistry. 8. Ornithology. 9. Plant 
 Diseases. 10. Satistics. 11. Microscopy. 12. Animal Industry.
 
 THE PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION. 
 
 Besides a botanic or propagating garden at Washington, 
 its organization includes two experiment farms, one main- 
 tained in the South, and the other in the West. 
 
 4- Special Publications. 
 
 Besides these organized services contributed by the na- 
 tional Government to the enlargement of the sphere of nat- 
 ural science, and the general diffusion of its beneficent uses, 
 there are certain incidental and secondary ones, though not 
 the less positive in their educational bearings. 
 
 This larger service is shown first in the abundant litera- 
 ture of the departments, the annual and special reports, and 
 the particular and general histories of their respective duties. 
 The decisions of the Supreme Court, for example, number 
 one hundred and twenty volumes and form the standards of 
 law and equity for the bars of the entire country ; and the 
 special reports of the Interior Department on the Indians, 
 railroads, public lands, and labor, constitute a fund of valu- 
 able information. When Audubon's " Birds of America " 
 was ready to publish, the magnitude of the undertaking, 
 both in expense and execution, must have exceeded the pos- 
 sibilities of ordinary means ; but the generosity of Astor, and 
 the aid of the Department of State, gave the public one of 
 the rarest works, and immortalized American science. Serv- 
 iceable in a different way have been the publications by this 
 department of reports on the three great expositions Paris 
 in 1867 and 1878, and Vienna in 1873. In the publication of 
 Wheaton's "International Law," also, the office rendered 
 timely aid. The decennial census has been shown by Dr. 
 Harris to be full of the most significant educational informa- 
 tion to every locality. Three years before the first census, 
 a volume was published containing information on foreign 
 countries; in 1820 another on "Home Industries." The 
 treasury reports on commerce and navigation were made 
 , the same year. The first inquiries on education were made 
 in the sixth census (1840), whose answers contributed to the 
 general educational awakening of the period.
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION. 325 
 
 The anthropological studies also made by Surgeon Bax- 
 ter, among* civil- war recruits, deserve mention as among the 
 most careful and comprehensive of the kind made in this 
 or any other country. The " Medical and Surgical History 
 of the War of the Rebellion," in six volumes, and the gen- 
 eral "Official History of the Civil War," in one hundred 
 volumes, will furnish an authoritative statement of the oc- 
 currences of an eventful period. It is safe to say that the 
 Government itself, from the administrative side alone, is one 
 of the greatest educational forces of the country. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 " The United States Bureau of Education Answers to Inquiries 
 about its Work and History," 1883 ; " Origin and History of the Smith- 
 sonian Institution," W. J. Rhees ; concerning the Smithsonian bequest and 
 the final organization of the institution, much valuable material is con- 
 tained in the memoirs of John Quincy Adams, edited by C. F. Adams. 
 " Organization of the Scientific Work of Government," by J. W. Powell, 
 1885 ; " Government Geological Surveys," " Nature," vol. xii, p. 265 ; also 
 " North American Review," vol. cxxi, p. 270 ; the " United States Coast 
 Survey," " American Journal of Science," vols. xlix, Iv, lix, Ixii, and 
 Ixxv ; " What has the Coast Survey done for Science ? " " Science," 
 December, 1885, p. 558 ; " Catalogue of Government Publications," by 
 Ben. Perley Poore ; and " What has been done for Education by the Gov- 
 ernment of the United States," John Eaton, " Education," vol. iv, p. 276.
 
 PART POIJR 
 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVHI. 
 
 COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. 
 
 ON the plane of the State, enforced attendance is an 
 attempt to make good citizenship certain, by making educa- 
 tion universal. It is not a modern device, though it has its 
 recent applications and new conditions. In its most un- 
 yielding and narrow sense, it was authorized and enforced 
 among the Hebrews by Joshua. Under Solon, the Athe- 
 nians were enjoined to reach every child ; and, " with the 
 Spartans," says Mitford, " attendance upon the schools was 
 made every man's concern." * 
 
 Among more recent nations, German states had made 
 experiment of compulsory legislation as early as 1732; Ba- 
 varia in 1802. The cantons of Switzerland, always forward 
 in promoting the general welfare, have had like provisions 
 for more than half a century, and Denmark since 1814.f 
 The German system was introduced into Greece twenty 
 years after, and into Sweden in 1842. Norway, since 18G9, 
 has required even that pupils from private schools attend the 
 public examinations; and, if found deficient, enter the pub- 
 lic schools. England authorizes local boards to require the 
 
 * " History of Greece," vol. i, p. 286. 
 
 t Attempted as early as 1793, but IneflectuaUy.
 
 COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. 327 
 
 attendance of children between six and thirteen years of 
 age. Following the example of England, Scotland almost 
 immediately revised the " Parochial and Burgh School Act " 
 of 1869, and, while still retaining school fees, inserted a com- 
 pulsory clause, providing that no child under thirteen may 
 be employed in any labor, except it be shown that he has 
 attended school at least three years, from five to thirteen, 
 and is able to read and write. In more recent years the 
 same principle has been tried with greater or less success in 
 Italy, Japan, France, and other European and Oriental 
 countries. 
 
 So much has been given of foreign educational legisla- 
 tion to afford a kind of setting for the numerous recent 
 attempts in the United States to make really general partici- 
 pation hi the benefits of a free education. It will be seen that 
 the problem is an old one ; most of the applications are both 
 recent and Western ; the whole exceedingly complicated by 
 the diffusion of authority, which characterizes our republi- 
 can institutions. Yet how much simpler is the question in 
 a new community, among a homogeneous people, without 
 fixed institutions and with a high notion of learning and 
 the regenerations of culture, may be seen in the prevalent 
 sentiments of New England under the first administrations. 
 
 The Massachusetts law of 1647, and the Connecticut code 
 of 1650, were, both theoretically and practically, coercive, 
 and efficiently administered. They early recognized and 
 formulated the now common sentiment that the perma- 
 nence of a representative government also demands an 
 education coextensive with its sovereignty; that universal 
 suffrage is meaningless if not wedded to universal educa- 
 tion. That the public school is the only agency for securing 
 such citizenship has been sometimes questioned; that it is 
 the most available means is generally accepted. The steps 
 toward compulsory education have been taken, more or 
 fewer of them, in most States. 
 
 In the older sections the legalizing of free schools by au- 
 thorizing localities to tax themselves for the common school-
 
 328 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 ing was thought to be and was a great advance on the casual 
 instruction which had prevailed. It was an admission of 
 the supremacy of the common need. Still, the law was only 
 permissive. Schools might be established and they might 
 not. Such a statute was on the books in Rhode Island for 
 twenty years, leaving no trace of its existence other than 
 the system in Providence. It was simply inoperative. The 
 history of Pennsylvania is similar, and that of most States 
 South prior to 1870. The more recent provisions of State 
 Constitutions (since 1820), especially those in the Northwest, 
 are mandatory upon school officials, formulating the system, 
 appointing the administration, fixing a minimum time, and 
 regulating the tax, but not at the same time always equally 
 constraining upon children and parents. 
 
 Massachusetts requires that in every town there must be 
 kept at the public expense a sufficient number of schools, 
 and for a minimum time, for the instruction of all the chil- 
 dren who may legally attend. Michigan, Minnesota, Ore- 
 gon, and other States have somewhat similar provisions. 
 Nineteen States name a minimum school term, in some uni- 
 form throughout the State, elsewhere varying with the den- 
 sity of the population. The average required term in these 
 States is nearly four months and a half. Nine of them * 
 withdraw from delinquent communities any sharing in the 
 State school fund. Four States have enacted truant laws, 
 upon the principle that, by establishing separate schools for 
 the offending or truant or disturbing class and enforcing 
 their attendance, that of the majority would be satisfactory. 
 The like general results also have been sought in the 
 effort to accommodate the public, to make attendance easy. 
 Schools and school surroundings have been made both more 
 attractive and more safe. They have been multiplied and 
 so brought to each man's home. Tasks have been modified 
 
 * Colorado, Kentucky, Mississippi, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, 
 Wisconsin, and Arizona, In Michigan the offending party is prosecuted as 
 for any other violation of law.
 
 COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. 329 
 
 and courses revised to fit the general want. Industrial prac- 
 tice and the principles underlying it have been introduced 
 into the better secondary schools, and an immediate value 
 thus set upon their training. 
 
 The ultimate object of all these is the same as that of, and 
 justifies, compulsory attendance laws. Though considered 
 only as devices, these indirect efforts have accomplished 
 something. Attendance grows more regular. Terms have 
 been lengthened (something more than a month since 
 1880). Teachers have improved. Nevertheless, thousands 
 remain away from, while within easy reach of, the best 
 schools. 
 
 In populous districts, and especially manufacturing cen- 
 ters where it has been found profitable, child labor has 
 robbed the school to replenish the family purse. To meet 
 this injustice, factory laws and the like restrictive enact- 
 ments have been passed, most of which have an educational 
 aspect. New Hampshire and Rhode Island make it unlaw- 
 ful for any child under ten years of age to be employed in 
 any manufacturing industry. In Pennsylvania children 
 under thirteen are excluded from silk, cotton, paper, and 
 other specified factories and from the mines. Eight States * 
 prohibit the employment of children under a designated age 
 in any industry except upon evidence of recent prescribed 
 schooling, the Pennsylvania law (a typical one) providing 
 that no child from thirteen to sixteen may be employed 
 more than nine calendar months in a year, nor except after 
 twelve weeks of schooling. This, again, is only a negative 
 compulsion, and, as a means of securing a more general use 
 of the schools, ranks with their multiplication and bettering, 
 the improvement of teachers, and the revision and rational- 
 izing of the school course. By one class of men it is urged 
 that such indirect control is the only legitimate republican 
 management. To others, positive enactments, the fixing of 
 
 * Connecticut, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
 Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island.
 
 330 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 a minimum attendance, as well as a minimum term, pre- 
 sents itself as a possible means. 
 
 With a conservatism born of the masses, the States have 
 been slow to enact, and the administration slower to enforce, 
 the more coercive laws. A large and not unwholesome 
 laissez-faire is implicit in our State and local life. But, 
 when it shall be found that conditions of danger no longer 
 right themselves, or involve more dangerous delay, it is safe 
 to confide in the certainty that an organized public will take 
 them vigorously in hand. Upon the part of no small num- 
 ber of thinking tradesmen and educators, legislators and 
 patrons, the time seems impending when the State, as a 
 means to universal education, and so a means to public 
 safety, should make the acceptance of that education obliga- 
 tory. 
 
 Seventeen States have such statutory provisions. Massa- 
 chusetts, in the act of 1852, required that every child between 
 the ages of eight and fourteen years should attend school 
 for twelve weeks each year, six of which must be consecu- 
 tive. 'A penalty was imposed for violation, and twenty years 
 later the term lengthened. South Carolina passed a similar 
 law in 1868, and Connecticut and New Hampshire immedi- 
 ately after ; New York in 1874, and California, Kansas, New 
 Jersey, Rhode Island, and Vermont, the same year ; Maine 
 and Wisconsin (1875), Michigan and Nevada (1879), Ohio 
 (1880), Dakota (1882), Montana and Washington Territories 
 (1883), and Illinois (1885). 
 
 Justice compels the admission that, as it stands on most 
 statute-books, the law is at best inefficient, if not unmeaning. 
 Its execution is irregular, half-hearted, or ignored ; the duty 
 of its enforcement is often indefinitely placed, while the 
 law not unfrequently carries no penalty for its infraction, 
 either by officers or patrons. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 On compulsory education and allied topics consult " Social Science," 
 G. L. Harrison, 1877 ; "Dynamic Sociology," L. F. Ward, 1883; "Social
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 331 
 
 Statics," Herbert Spencer, 1865; "Higher Ground," Augustus Jacobson, 
 1888 ; " Relation of Education to Crime in New England," Rev. A. S. 
 Fiske ; " Compulsory Education in Relation to Crime and Social Morals," 
 Dr. W. T. Harris; "Compulsory Education," C. E. Norton, "Nation," 
 vol. v, p. 191. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 VIEWED from the side of organization, the acme of wise 
 supervision is the working adjustment of each part of the 
 system to its antecedent and subsequent stages a process 
 termed grading. Given the various attainments of pupils 
 on the one side, and the logical or economic sequence of sub- 
 jects on the other, gradation results in the co-ordination of 
 the two into classes with their appropriate work. The classi- 
 fication may be more or less conventional, and the nomen- 
 clature wholly so though, historically, the terms in use 
 have a fairly definite content. The names "high-school," 
 'grammar-school," "elementary," "primary," "intermedi- 
 ate," and "secondary," at first descriptive only, have been 
 more or less specialized into terms of individual significance. 
 
 From the standpoint of the college, "elementary" and 
 " secondary " name two successive stages in the educational 
 preparation for college studies ; the " high-school " is one of 
 the secondary agencies. As part of a city system, on the 
 contrary, assuming the primary and higher grades, the high- 
 school is the culmination only. 
 
 1. Primary Schools. 
 
 Prior to about 1818, speaking generally, the only public 
 schools were the so-called "grammar-schools." They were 
 in reality schools of mixed grades, with a comprehensive 
 course of elementary and secondary instruction, often fitting 
 for college, but to which children were not admitted except
 
 332 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 they had " learned in some other school, or in some other 
 way to read the English language by spelling the same." 
 The " other way " was the private or dame school, or home 
 the only means of primary instruction for many years. 
 
 The first low-grade school in New York city was opened 
 in 1828, by the " Infant School Society." Four years later it 
 was" assisted by public tax, and ultimately became a part of 
 the common system. In most other communities its adop- 
 tion came later. In the West, of course, it came in with the 
 organization of States, and the original enactments of school 
 laws. That it was not at first regarded as an essential part 
 of the public-school system appears in that, both in and out 
 of New England, for many years, it was as is the modern 
 Kindergarten managed independently of other schools : in 
 Boston, until 1854.* Moreover, it appears that among the 
 earliest infant-schools were the Sunday classes among poor 
 children, who were brought together for instruction. These 
 were only semi-religious at most, and on the instructional 
 side, in some towns, grew into the public primary school. 
 Notwithstanding its occasional exotic origin, it is now a 
 part of every public-school system, whether rural or urban. 
 In cities it includes about one half of all the pupils doing 
 elementary work, commands the best preparation and ex- 
 perience of teachers, and most patient temper ; and is, with- 
 al, peculiarly characteristic of the contemporary common 
 school. 
 
 2. The Kindergarten. 
 
 As another phase of child education belonging to the re- 
 cent period is the Kindergarten. It is a recognition of the 
 importance of a rational nurture of the young. The system 
 originated with Friedrich Froebel. He was the embodiment 
 of its idea. With all its changes, it remains essentially his 
 discovery. The first Kin dergarten was that opened by Froebel 
 
 * " Annals of the Primary Schools in Boston," by J. Wightman, is a 
 representative sketch, and very sufr^estive of improvements in primary in- 
 struction, covering a period of nearly forty years.
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 333 
 
 himself at Blankenburg, in Thuringia, barely half a century 
 ago. After ten years, by invitation of royal patronage, he 
 removed into Liebenthal, where, connected with his school, 
 he began the training of young women as Kindergarten 
 teachers. Froebel dying in 1852, the cause of infant educa- 
 tion was enthusiastically espoused and generously promoted 
 by the Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow. Her zeal and intelli- 
 gence interested all Europe. She became the Kindergarten 
 apostle of the Continent. France, Italy, and England 
 adopted it. 
 
 It was introduced into this country by pupils of Froebel 
 himself, and his immediate European successors. Mr. Carl 
 Schurz came to the United States in 1852. Three years after- 
 ward he settled in Watertown, Wisconsin, where his wife 
 " herself an adept in the theory, and expert in practice, by 
 attending con amore Froebel's own lectures and Kinder- 
 garten in Hamburg " * founded among the Germans a Kin- 
 dergarten. Through Mrs. Schurz, Miss Peabody became ac- 
 quainted (1859) with the Kindergarten idea, studied it from 
 every available source, and the year following, " without a 
 knowledge of the details of Froebel's system," opened a 
 school in Boston, which, with about fifty children, was main- 
 tained for many years. During this period Miss Peabody 
 published the "Kindergarten Guide," through which her 
 school became known far and wide. 
 
 Becoming convinced, in 1867, that she had not the full 
 Froebel idea, she went to Europe to study the system for 
 herself. "An hour," she says, "in the Hamburg Kinder- 
 garten, opened her eyes." Upon her return to Boston she 
 began anew her advocacy of the system. What Baroness 
 Marenholtz-Biilow did for Europe, Miss Peabody has done 
 for America. She was the earliest, as she has been one of 
 the most persistent, advocates of its merits. Hers was the. 
 first literature on the subject hers a pioneer labor. 
 
 * For this item, as for others here and there in this paragraph, the author 
 gratefully acknowledges indebtedness to Miss Elizabeth Peabody. 
 22
 
 334: CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 In the mean time some attempts had been made by Ger- 
 man-speaking communities in Hoboken (1861) and New York 
 (1864) to introduce the Kindergarten ; but it met with little 
 success for a time, although the two schools named are yet in 
 existence. About 1870 Mrs. Kriege and her daughter the 
 latter a graduate of the training-school of Baroness Maren- 
 holtz - Billow opened in Boston the first true Kindergarten. 
 The school still continues. A year later a Kindergarten 
 was attached to a private school in New York city, and Miss 
 Boelte (now Mrs. Kraus-Boelte) made director. Miss Boelte 
 was a graduate of the Froebel Training School, maintained 
 by the widow of the founder. In this New York school Miss 
 Susan E. Blow, of St. Louis, was a pupil. Upon her gradu- 
 ation, she returned home to introduce the system into the 
 public schools of St. Louis.* Dr. W. T. Harris, Superintend- 
 ent of the St. Louis Schools, had urged it for three years ; 
 and in 1873 Miss Blow offered " to undertake gratuitously 
 the instruction of one teacher appointed by the board, and 
 to supervise and manage a Kindergarten, provided the board 
 would furnish the rooms and a salaried teacher." The offer 
 was accepted, and the first school opened ; the year follow- 
 ing, three others. During the centennial year, thirty such 
 classes were reported, and in the school year 1879- 1 80 the 
 entire number enrolled in the St. Louis free public Kinder- 
 gartens was 7,828. 
 
 Such were the beginnings in Boston, New York, and St. 
 Louis initiative centers. Outside these cities into others, 
 large and small, the interest was communicated, and schools 
 established. A half-dozen enthusiastic, sensible teachers 
 
 * Miss Blow was already well trained in the theory of the Kindergarten, 
 and more or less familiar with the practical details of its management. She 
 had made, the year before the arrival of Miss Boelte, the offer to supervise 
 a Kindergarten and instruct one teacher gratuitously, provided that the 
 board would furnish rooms and pay the salary of the pupil-teacher, but 
 postponed beginning her work for a year, in order to avail herself of the 
 advantage of another year's study of the system in the excellent Kindergar- 
 ten of Miss Boelte. EDITOR.
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 335 
 
 had found place in American education for a new influence ; 
 had erected a new institution the public, free infant-school ; 
 had introduced it into fifteen cities, in one hundred and 
 thirty classes, and over four thousand pupils. 
 
 In the five years, from 1874 to 1878, ninety-three new 
 Kindergartens were established. Since the centennial year, 
 the number of schools has more than doubled, with five 
 times as many pupils. 
 
 The first "Kindergartens in the United States were private, 
 and patronized chiefly by the well-to-do families able to pay a 
 tuition. Soon were undertaken schools for the poor and the 
 uncared-for charity Kindergartens, that have done so much 
 to put best influences and refined standards within the reach of 
 the waif and the neglected. Later came public Kindergartens. 
 
 Of the first class are the Model Kindergarten, of San 
 Francisco ; the Garfield Kindergarten, at Washington ; the 
 La Porte Kindergarten, at La Porte, Indiana ; and the Kraus 
 Model Kindergarten, New York city. Among the largest of 
 charity Kindergarten enterprises are, or have been, those of 
 San Francisco, Chicago, Philadelphia, and the Quincy Shaw 
 Free Kindergartens of Boston and Cambridge. Besides, 
 St. Louis, San Francisco, Washington (D. C.), Des Moines 
 (Iowa), Portland (Maine), Boston, Worcester, Ionia (Michi- 
 gan), New York city and Oswego (N. Y.), Columbus and 
 Dayton (Ohio), Lancaster (Pennsylvania), Austin (Texas), 
 and Janesville and Milwaukee (Wisconsin), support one or 
 more public Kindergartens. Boston has recently adopted 
 the Quincy Shaw Kindergartens, which will hereafter be 
 supported as part of the common-school system. In Phila- 
 delphia,* of the forty schools, nine are private, four are char- 
 ity, and eight public ; of the other nineteen, there are com- 
 bined private and charity classes, and sixteen under the 
 management of the Sub-Primary-School Society, partly sus- 
 tained by public funds. 
 
 * They have just been made public in their adoption by the Public 
 School Board.
 
 336 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 Altogether, of the four hundred and seventeen schools, 
 forty per cent are public, thirty per cent private, and tho 
 others charity or mixed classes. These public Kindergartens 
 represent sixteen States and twenty-five cities. Besides these, 
 seven other cities contribute more or less of public money 
 to Kindergarten instruction, and so are pledged to the idea. 
 These, in the aggregate, represent a city population of four 
 million, and a wide reach of country from Massachusetts to 
 California. After the individuals named, much credit for 
 its introduction is due to the voluntary societies that, in 
 most cities, have espoused the cause of free Kindergartens. 
 The Sub-Primary-School Society in Philadelphia, the Free 
 Kindergarten Association of Chicago, and the half-dozen 
 similar organizations in San Francisco, are examples of this 
 co-operative spirit. Prof. Felix Adler and the Society of 
 Ethical Culture in New York have made the Twenty-second 
 Street Free Kindergarten a historic confirmation of the 
 regenerative power of cleanliness and innocent play, and 
 directed interests, and refined example, even among the 
 lowest. 
 
 The work of Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw (daughter of Prof. 
 L. Agassiz), in Boston, was a remarkable charity. In 1877 
 she started four schools among the poor at her own expense. 
 The year following she opened fourteen more. All were 
 among the laboring and poorer classes, all free, and all an 
 individual charity. The work extended to Cambridge, and 
 included about thirty schools, at an annual expense of from 
 thirty thousand to fifty thousand dollars. Their adoption 
 by the city * seems to be a forward movement. 
 
 In addition to the four hundred and seventeen Kinder- 
 gartens there are several reliable training-schools for teach- 
 ers. The first of these was that of the Krieges, in Boston, 
 already noted. In 1876 there were five ; there are now forty- 
 one, with four hundred and fifty-two pupil-teachers. Nine 
 State normals have Kindergartens attached. 
 
 * Maj, 1888.
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 337 
 
 Table of Kindergartens* in the United States. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Teach- 
 ers. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Support- 
 ed by 
 public 
 funds. 
 
 Kinder- 
 garten 
 trainiug- 
 Bchools. 
 
 Pupil- 
 teachers. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 1 
 56 
 1 
 13 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 48 
 12 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 3 
 10 
 46 
 16 
 10 
 71 
 1 
 1 
 15 
 60 
 1 
 34 
 6 
 63 
 5 
 2 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 31 
 11 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 121 
 3 
 30 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 157 
 31 
 22 
 3 
 1 
 11 
 5 
 19 
 86 
 31 
 19 
 244 
 4 
 1 
 28 
 124 
 1 
 74 
 13 
 108 
 15 
 2 
 6 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 58 
 22 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 35 
 2,815- 
 105 
 519 
 28 
 21 
 31 
 2,684 
 446 
 368 
 51 
 27 
 192 
 69 
 286 
 1,446 
 725 
 336 
 6,081 
 50 
 30 
 680 
 2,813 
 30 
 850 
 192 
 1,899 
 186 
 32 
 116 
 17 
 10 
 10 
 2,491 
 195 
 26 
 10 
 50 
 
 "i* 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 "i" 
 
 2 
 33 
 
 "io 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware..* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1 
 "i" 
 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 
 101 
 32 
 5 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas .... 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ' i' 
 11 
 i 
 
 68 
 1 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 5 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 
 '"4 
 
 "l3 
 34 
 4 
 9 
 25 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine ... 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 M ichigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 M issouri . 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 'ii' 
 
 "72 
 
 New York 
 
 North. Carolina . . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 5 
 
 '2<J' 
 
 2 
 
 "i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 1 
 1 
 
 *T 
 
 29 
 8 
 83 
 12 
 4 
 
 "is 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont .... . 
 
 Washington . 
 
 -ITT & 
 
 \V vonnn" . . 
 
 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 17 
 1 
 
 "3" 
 
 "ii 
 
 District of Columbia. . 
 Indian Territory 
 New Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 Total 
 
 544 
 
 1,256 
 
 25,952 
 
 158 
 
 49 
 
 524 
 
 
 * Inasmuch as the Kindergarten is in a state of transition, the table rep- 
 resents rather the distribution by States than the actual number of institu- 
 tions, or the number made public, though as far as possible the materials 
 have been corrected for the present condition.
 
 338 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 3. The High-School. 
 
 The oldest of the existing high-schools is the Boston 
 Latin School, which admirably represents the classical side 
 of this secondary training. To Boston, also, must be cred- 
 ited the first typical high-school an institution of the nine- 
 teenth century cast, representing the best English education. 
 The English High-School, Boston, was founded in 1821. 
 Among all secondary schools it marks almost the first re- 
 action against the mediaeval classicism of the previous two 
 centuries. It is the American " real-school," founded with 
 the design of " furnishing young men of Boston, who are 
 not intended for a collegiate course of study, and who have 
 enjoyed the usual advantages of the other public schools, 
 with the means of completing a good English education." 
 Its three years' course was made to include, besides Eng- 
 lish, the French and Spanish languages; physics; mathe- 
 matics, pure and applied ; mental and moral science, rhetoric, 
 and general history. It is emphatically a people's college, 
 the thoroughness of whose instruction led Tillinghast to say 
 that " West Point was the best place in this country to get 
 an education, and that the English High-School in Boston 
 was the next." For almost twenty years, among all the 
 cities, Boston stood alone in this public secondary education. 
 New York, early in the century, incorporated certain of her 
 academies, and so postponed the adoption of the high-school ; 
 though the organization of the Eochester and Buffalo Semi- 
 naries (1827) was under this name. As far as known, the 
 next city to follow was Philadelphia (1837). Both in its 
 inception and management the Central High-School was 
 particularly fortunate. Its course of study and constitution 
 were largely the work of Prof. Bache, then of Girard Col- 
 lege. Prof. J. S. Hart was the first principal. In this 
 school Philadelphia, and Pennsylvania indeed, first broke 
 away from the damaging charge of "pauper schools," by 
 declaring that "the benefits of the school were not to be 
 confined to the poor." Two years later Baltimore City Col-
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOL. 339 
 
 lege (the Boys' High-School) was founded, and in 1849 the 
 New York Free Academy, now the City College. The high- 
 schools of the four cities named were for boys exclusively, 
 and maintain their original rank as the best of their kind. 
 
 An attempt was made by Boston, in 1826, to establish a 
 high-school for girls. It failed, however, in a year, and the 
 enterprise was abandoned because of its great success to 
 give such an education to both sexes involved too great ex- 
 pense. Providence opened its high-school for boys and girls 
 in 1843. -It was many years before another community took 
 up the interest.* Philadelphia, three years after the opening 
 of the Central High-School (for boys), established a similar 
 one for girls (1840). It was organized, it seems, chiefly as a 
 training-school for teachers, but with an extended academic 
 course. It is known as the Girls' High and Normal School, 
 whose graduates receive principal's and assistant's certifi- 
 cates. With the election of a city superintendent (1852) and 
 the readjustment of her school system, Boston re-established 
 the Girls' High-School, but gave it, like that of Philadelphia, 
 a professional bias. Twenty years after, the school was set 
 off into two schools, one for academic instruction, the other 
 as a train ing-school proper. Boston has now ten high- 
 schools six open to both sexes, and one classical and one 
 non-classical school for each sex. Cincinnati has two, dat- 
 ing from 1847, and St. Louis (1853), Chicago (1856), and 
 Detroit (1858), one each, besides branch high-schools. By 
 1860, all of New England, and most States West, had ac- 
 cepted the principle, t 
 
 The " St. Louis School Report" for 1878 publishes a list of 
 one hundred and forty-one cities, each with a population of 
 seventy-five hundred or more, which then had public high- 
 
 * The Lowell High-School (1831) was opened to both sexes, but seems 
 to have been rather a mixed academy than a specialized secondary school. 
 
 t Mr. J. F. Babcock, Secretary of the New Haven (Connecticut) School 
 Committee, having made a careful and extended inquiry into the subject, 
 said he was not aware of any city of the size of New Haven that had even 
 a tolerable system of schools that had not then (1856) its high-school also.
 
 340 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 schools ; adding that in smaller cities, and other large ones 
 not reporting, there were more than twice as many. The 
 latest educational reports from cities of five thousand inhab- 
 itants and upward, show three hundred and forty-two cities 
 having high-schools, with more than seventy thousand 
 pupils. 
 
 A. THE LEGAL ASPECT OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL. 
 
 By public schools in the United States are meant those 
 maintained at public cosl; or under public control usually 
 both. School management everywhere has led uniformly 
 to some sort of gradation. The several grades are so ad- 
 justed as to form together a system which, under the control 
 of the State, is known as the common-school system. That 
 the high-school, in some form, is as legitimate a part of this 
 system as is the primary school, has frequent historical con- 
 firmation. It is recognized not only in the published senti- 
 ments of educators and statesmen, in school and college 
 texts, courses of study, and systems of promotion, but in State 
 Constitutions, and national and State appropriations of land 
 and money. Of the thirty-eight State Constitutions, twenty- 
 two specify high-schools as an" object of legislative and gen- 
 eral interest ; three others direct a " general, suitable, and 
 efficient system," which shall be gratuitously open to all 
 children between six and twenty-one years of age; and one, 
 "such grades of schools as are for the public good." 
 
 Nevertheless, there have not been wanting those who 
 deny the right of the State certainly its duty to provide 
 free secondary education. To understand the history and 
 general conditions of the legal phase of this question it is 
 necessary to summarize briefly the objections which have 
 been made to the school. 
 
 The first one seems to have been founded upon the as- 
 sumption that public schools are essentially charitable insti- 
 tutions, and that their patrons have no right to demand or 
 expect more than elementary instruction. Others, with a 
 tinge of like assurance, have insisted that such considerable 
 learning has the effect to educate children out of their des-
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 341 
 
 lined sphere in life, and for the industrial good of society 
 should be withheld. One class objects that, as the high- 
 school formed no part of the system of free schools as origi- 
 nally established, it has now no constitutional right to exist ; 
 and that tuition should be charged for all instruction beyond 
 the rudiments. It has been claimed, further, that but few 
 children are found in these schools, and it is manifestly un- 
 just to tax the general public for their maintenance. In this 
 same spirit also it has been argued that, as the few who do 
 attend come from families of affluence, it is unfair to tax the 
 poor for their support.* 
 
 All these questions, in some or other of their phases, have 
 come up for settlement before the law. Without comment- 
 ing upon any of them, the following reports of cases are 
 cited as showing the attitude of the courts, historically, upon 
 the subject : 
 
 COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS vs. THE TOWN OF DED- 
 
 HAM, 1817. 
 
 Indictment was found in the lower court against the 
 town, in its corporate capacity, for failure to maintain at 
 public expense a "grammar-schoolmaster, of good morals 
 and well instructed in the Latin, Greek, and English lan- 
 guages, to instruct children and youth in such languages." 
 The finding was sustained by the Supreme Court, and the 
 principle held that " every inhabitant had the right to par- 
 ticipate ha both descriptions of schools " f (lower and higher). 
 
 GUSHING vs. NEWBURYPORT, 18. 
 
 In a suit brought to restrain the collection of a tax for 
 the support of a high-school, it was held that the " schools 
 established by the town of Newburyport, Massachusetts, 
 
 * In 1848, in Norwich, Connecticut, it was said, when steps were taken 
 to establish a high-school, " It's a shame to tax the poor to pay a man 
 eighteen hundred dollars a year for teaching children to make z's and pot- 
 hooks and gabble parley-vous." 
 
 t Tyng's " Reports," Massachusetts, vol. xvi, p. 14L
 
 342 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 though extending instruction to branches of knowledge be- 
 yond those required by the statutes, were yet town (public) 
 schools, within the proper meaning of that term, provided 
 for the benefit of all the inhabitants, and that the taxes levied 
 for the support of them were not illegal." * 
 
 STUART et al. vs. SCHOOL DISTRICT No. 1, Kalamazoo, 
 Michigan, 1874. 
 
 This was a case similar to the last, brought to restrain 
 the collection of such portion of the school-taxes assessed 
 against complainants for the year 1872 as was voted for the 
 support of the high-school in that village, and for the pay- 
 ment of the salary of the superintendent. 
 
 "While nominally this is the end sought," said Judge 
 Cooley, in his decision, " the real purpose is wider and vastly 
 more comprehensive, . . . inasmuch as it seeks a judicial 
 determination of the right of the school authorities, in what 
 are called ' union school districts ' of the State, to levy taxes 
 upon the general public for the support of what, in this 
 State, are known as ' high-schools,' and to make free, by such 
 taxation, instruction in other languages than the English." 
 
 It was held, in confirming the decision of the lower court, 
 that " neither in our State policy, in our Constitution, nor in 
 our laws do we find the primary school districts restricted in 
 the branches of knowledge which the officers may cause to 
 be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, if 
 the voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and 
 raise taxes for the purpose." t 
 
 RICHARDS vs. RAYMOND, La Salle County, Illinois, 1878. 
 
 This was a bill in equity to test the constitutionality of 
 section 35 of the school law of Illinois, providing for the es- 
 
 * Metealf 's " Reports," Massachusetts, vol. x, p. 508. 
 
 t A full report of this interesting case may be found in the " Michigan 
 School Report" for the year 1874, p. 409. It was also held in this case that 
 " the power to appoint a superintendent was incident to the full control 
 which, by law, the board has over the schools of a district."
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 34.3 
 
 tablishment of high-schools to be operated under special 
 charters. It was held that " the law was constitutional, and 
 the levy and collection of a tax to maintain the school 
 was proper, although the course of study prescribed was dif- 
 ferent from that contemplated by the law." * 
 
 POWELL et al. vs. THE BOARD OP EDUCATION OF SCHOOL DIS- 
 TRICT No. 4, St. Clair County, Illinois, 1880. 
 
 This case rested upon the right to require the study of 
 German in the public schools, and was brought by a num- 
 ber of tax-payers against the village Board of Education to 
 enjoin what they alleged was a misappropriation of the 
 school-funds. The Supreme Court affirmed the judgments 
 of the lower court, holding that there was nothing " to show 
 that the school was not an English school, in which the 
 common medium of instruction is the English language " ; 
 and, further, that " the mere fact that the German language 
 is one of the branches of study prescribed does not change 
 its character as an English school." t 
 
 B. THE FUNCTION OF TIIE HIGH-SCHOOL. 
 
 Among secondary schools the American high-school is 
 unique. It shares with academies and normal schools and 
 college preparatory departments the privilege of fitting for 
 university studies, but has also an independent function. 
 The two services are not always distinct, though usually so. 
 The institution is now emphatically an industrial agency, I 
 fitting for business or trades ; and, again, a school of English I 
 culture, but excluding what is not narrowly American. I 
 Here it is classical and complete, looking to the college or 
 the profession ; there, honored as the apex of the common- 
 school, system the goal of school life. Usually its course 
 is overcrowded, often with a bias that obstructs general de- 
 
 * "Ninety- second Illinois," p. 612. 
 
 t For a full presentation of this case and the text of Judge Scott's de- 
 cision, sec "Illinois School Keport," 1881-' 82, p. 107.
 
 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 velopment; but, variously modified by material considera- 
 tions or culture environments, by wealth and ancestry, it 
 has yet certain well-marked functions, and falls into classes 
 fairly discriminated. 
 
 Its origin, its aims, its methods, all mark its kinship with 
 institutions below rather than above it. It appears as the 
 completion of the one system rather than an introduction to 
 the other. Viewed from the side of its organization it pre- 
 pares for life, not for learning; it fits for industry, not 
 study. And yet it seldom loses sight altogether of the end 
 of culture. If the two ends are one, or if the means to those 
 ends coincide, then will the function be single. With a 
 somewhat homogeneous organization, however, it frequently 
 exercises very diverse functions. 
 
 That, in the one view, the demand for industrial training, 
 for business courses, studies in government, economics, etc., 
 has not always been an intelligent one, goes without saying ; 
 but whether a rational or instinctive insight, the intimate 
 organic relation of the high-school with the grades below, 
 has emphasized with many the impression that the system is 
 all one ; that, for the people, by a large majority, the high- 
 school is a finishing school, and, as such, should be adapted 
 to the immediate and pressing and understood wants of the 
 people. 
 
 On the contrary, there is discernible a marked educa- 
 tional tendency toward centralization. No part of our edu- 
 cational policy is better defined than the constant, generous 
 governmental support and encouragement accorded to insti- 
 tutions of learning. The conviction grows, in a most whole- 
 some way, that every child of every Commonwealth should 
 have access gratuitously, and without needless restriction, to 
 every grade of education, from the most elementary to the 
 most comprehensive, which public wealth can buy ; that no 
 step shall be wanting; that no part shall be left wholly to 
 chance or to private enterprise. Each stage of the system 
 should fit itself to its neighbor. The elementary must not 
 attempt the work of the high-school, nor this of the college ;
 
 THE GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 345 
 
 no more must gaps be left between. This is the State's ideal. 
 As a matter of fact, circumstances determine more or less of 
 modification. In sections where other secondary agencies 
 fail, and the college spirit prevails, the high-school becomes 
 the legitimate fitting school. 
 
 The attempt to give permanence and system to this rela- 
 tion of the high-school and the university has worked out 
 in what is called the diploma system in Michigan, the High- 
 School Board in Minnesota, and commissioned high-schools 
 in half a dozen States. 
 
 (1.) Michigan High-Schools. 
 
 Dating from 1837, the University of Michigan was au- 
 thorized to establish, in the State, branch schools, to be under 
 its direction, with uniform courses of study and tributary to 
 it. In three years seven such branches had been established. 
 The reason assigned twelve years after for then* decline was 
 that " they were not able at the same time to perform the 
 functions of a common school and those of a branch of the 
 university." * 
 
 Nevertheless, as the years went on, the Superintendents 
 Mayhew and Gregory and Shearman, and President Tappan, 
 favored a closer union of the academies and public schools 
 on the one hand, and the university on the other. In 1870 
 it was recommended by the faculty of the university that a 
 " commission of examiners " be appointed who should visit 
 annually such schools as desired it, giving certificates to 
 those pupils who were successful in examination, which 
 should admit directly to the university. The year following 
 a plan very similar was adopted. Pupils have since been 
 received upon the diplomas of accredited schools. In 1876 
 there were eight such high-schools ; four years later there 
 were sixteen. Since 1884 the same conditions have been 
 extended to, and accepted by, certain schools in New York, 
 Illinois, Minnesota, and California. The experiment in 
 
 * "Report of Eegents of the University," 1852.
 
 310 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 Michigan is wholly voluntary, having its origin and its de- 
 velopment in the readiness of both lower and higher schools 
 to co-operate for their mutual advantage. 
 
 (2.) Minnesota High-Schools. 
 
 Seven years ago (1881) the State of Minnesota attempted 
 to effect a similar union by legislation. A u High-School 
 Board" was constituted for the encouragement of liberal 
 education in the State. Through this board the law provides 
 for the rendering of pecuniary aid to such schools as shall 
 have "regular and orderly courses of study, embracing all 
 the branches prescribed as requisite for admission to the col- 
 legiate department of the university." The New York plan 
 is similar to this, the distribution of funds being made and 
 certificates given by the " Board of Regents of the University 
 of the State of New York." * 
 
 (3.) Commissioned High-Schools. 
 
 Following the experiment in these States, and especially 
 in Michigan, as the first attempt, the idea has been adopted 
 in Indiana, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and perhaps other 
 States not always, unfortunately, with careful guards 
 thrown about its application, like those in Michigan and 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Since 1881 graduates of approved high-schools in Cali- 
 fornia have been admitted to the State University ; and since 
 1878 graduates of the Hopkins Grammar-School, New Haven, 
 to Yale. Dartmouth has for ten years had a like arrange- 
 ment with local schools, and recently Rutgers. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 " Annals of the Boston Primary School Committee," by J. Wightman, 
 I860 (comprises the history of primary education for a large part of New 
 
 * For a general discussion of this subject, sec " Relations of High-Schools 
 and Colleges," in " Proceedings of National Educational Association," Chi- 
 cago, 1887, p. 282.
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 347 
 
 England, and is of general interest) ; " Courses and Methods for Primary, 
 Grammar, and Ungraded Schools," J. T. Prince, 1886 ; " District Schools," 
 J. 0. Taylor, 1834; "Graduating System for Country Schools," A. L. 
 Wade, 1881; "The Kindergarten hi America," Steiger, 1872; "The 
 Kindergarten in the United States," by Kate B. Ford, " Michigan School 
 Report," 1877, p. 287; "Lectures in the Training-School for Kindergart- 
 ners," Miss E. P. Peabody, 1886 ; "Reports of the St. Louis City Schools 
 for 1875-'76, 1876-'77, and 1878-'79," by Dr. W. T. Harris, on the 
 " Philosophy of the Kindergarten " and the " History of the System in 
 St. Louis"; "The High-School and the College," C. W. Tufts, "New 
 England Journal of Education," February 12, 1885 ; "Relation of Sec- 
 ondary Education to the American University Problem," A. F. West, 
 "Proceedings of the National Educational Association," 1885; "The 
 Function of the High-School as a Factor in Public Education," H. H. 
 Morgan, " New England Journal of Education," vol. xii, No. 24 ; " Re- 
 port on Preparation for College," " Proceedings of the National Council 
 of Education," 1884, p. 36 ; " City School Systems in the United States," 
 by J. D. Philbrick, 1885. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 
 
 THERE are three well-defined periods in the educational 
 history of the South: 1. The colonial period; 2. The ante- 
 war period ; 3. The period of reorganization. 
 
 During the first of these, if the systems of Massachusetts 
 and Connecticut be excepted, parts of the South were even 
 better supplied with the means of education than most colo- 
 nies North. This means only that throughout this period 
 and for almost the entire country the only established 
 agencies were private and parochial schools, and these, 
 in the early days of Georgia, South Carolina, and Vir- 
 ginia, were superior. The reorganization came a quarter 
 of a century later in most of these States than in the 
 North and West.
 
 348 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS 
 
 1. The Ante-war Period. 
 
 In the second period began the educational divergence 
 between the two sections. The South perfected existing in- 
 stitutions, adapting them to the peculiar social and govern- 
 mental conditions. The North founded new ones the pub- 
 lic free schools. The colleges and academies and denomina- 
 tional seminaries met the common want of the financially 
 independent planter, and, for anything more, sons were 
 sent to the North or abroad. It was estimated in 1855, by 
 eminent authority,* that for many years before the war the 
 South paid annually to the North for books and education 
 not less than five million dollars. And yet in most States 
 something had been done looking toward common schools ; 
 but it was done half-heartedly, as will appear, and in the 
 midst of the most unfavorable conditions. To those familiar 
 with these conditions and the prevalent social and ethical 
 standards, the common sentiment concerning public schools 
 can not seem strange. 
 
 Georgia as early as 1792 had taken steps for a high-grade 
 school in each county, and in 1821 appropriated two hundred 
 and fifty thousand dollars to their maintenance. Two years 
 later a like fund was set apart for the use of the elementary 
 or " poor schools." Beginnings were made in Virginia for a 
 literary fund in 1810, and a decade later in Kentucky. Lou- 
 isiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee made appropriations of 
 land. Seven of the States Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, 
 Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, and South Carolina 
 applied their shares of the surplus revenue in whole or in 
 part to education. This alone aggregated three and a half 
 millions, and under favorable conditions would have been a 
 powerful factor in their school administration. Maryland 
 as early as 1825 had a State School Superintendent and 
 others later. Georgia, North Carolina, Louisiana, Missis- 
 sippi, Tennessee, Alabama, and Kentucky each spent annu- 
 
 * J. B. Do Bow, " Review," vol. xviii, p. 664.
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 3-t9 
 
 ally on common schools for many years from one fourth to 
 three fourths of a million dollars. The result of the effort 
 was the establishment of systems in Baltimore, St. Louis, and 
 Louisville, with beginnings in New Orleans and Charleston. 
 
 Speaking broadly, all attempts at public education, as is 
 seen now, were stamped with failure from the beginning 
 with failure, if by success is meant making the schools free 
 and equally open to all without class implications.* First, 
 the general better class sentiment of these States was, if not 
 antagonistic, at least indifferent to a free education. In 
 1859 it was asserted that the New England system was not 
 adapted to Louisiana and the South. A Southern review 
 said : " After ten years' trial it has been proved that the laws 
 can not be carried out, that more than half the families in 
 Louisiana will not accept of the mental food the State offers 
 to her children. Some parishes will not receive any of it."f 
 It was said of Texas about the same time that, while taxed 
 sixteen thousand dollars for public schools, there was not 
 one in the State. Yet nearly every planter had a school in 
 his own house. That the feeling sometimes appeared in 
 stronger antagonism is shown by another extract from the 
 same authority (1858). After quoting those who, while ad- 
 mitting that the system had failed in rural districts, yet 
 asserted its success in New Orleans, the writer said, ''If the 
 tree be judged by its fruits, it is poisonous instead of salutary 
 to republican institions in our great cities." 
 
 Further, under the most favorable circumstances, the 
 laws that were enacted were, almost without exception, per- 
 missive only. In a report made to the Delaware Convention 
 in 1843 was a section on education showing how fundament- 
 ally the citizenship of that State rested upon optional taxa- 
 tion. It said : 
 
 " The report of the Massachusetts Board of Education de- 
 clares that the cardinal principle which lies at the founda- 
 
 * Of course, no consideration is had of the negro in this period, 
 t " De Bow's Review," vol. xvii, p. 278. 
 23
 
 350 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 tion of their educational system is that all the children of 
 the State shall be educated by the State. Let it be distinctly 
 remarked that this is not the principle of our school system, 
 but that our system is founded upon the position that the peo- 
 ple must educate their own children ; and that all the State 
 should do or can do for any useful effect is to organize them 
 into communities, so as they may act together for that pur- 
 pose and help and encourage them to act efficiently. The 
 school of every district is thus in the power of its voters. 
 They can have as good schools as they wish, or an inferior 
 school, or no school."* 
 
 Most States, however, provided some means of schooling 
 the children of those who were unable to educate their own. 
 In South Carolina the schools were for all, preference being 
 given to the poor. In Virginia these were paid for by the 
 State at the rate of four to eight cents per day. In general 
 this was the " pauper system " that had worked such disaster 
 in one or two Northern States, and those who could do 
 otherwise would have nothing of it. The tendency to large 
 plantations also and small towns negatived the free-school 
 impulse, while "the existence of slavery," says Bamage, 
 " prevented the growth of a large middle class, out of whose 
 ranks the patrons of the common school are so strongly re- 
 cruited." 
 
 2. The Period of Reorganization. 
 
 With the close of the war came new conditions, new in- 
 stitutions, and new standards of public policy and adminis- 
 tration. Taxable property had depreciated sixty per cent at 
 a stroke, and four million illiterates were added to the school 
 population. The educational problem set for solution, it 
 has been said, was how to educate three times the number of 
 children with one third the money. School funds had been 
 wasted in the conflict to the amount of millions. Banks 
 were gone, investments of every sort swept away, and per- 
 
 * Delaware haa no State School Superintendent, and but little system in 
 State schools.
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 351 
 
 sonal security was valueless. There was no currency, no 
 independent industry. Labor was disorganized. There was 
 no skill in the use of tools, no co-operation. Private schools, 
 once the pride of the South, were closed for want of patron- 
 age. There were no public schools, but in their stead an 
 overmastering ignorance of their beneficent influences ; ig- 
 norance of their management and their accompanying in- 
 stitutions; and, next to the want of efficient teachers and 
 funds -and the prevailing indisposition to taxation, the ab- 
 sence of an established authority that could be used to gather 
 data for an intelligent organization and oversight of edu- 
 cational forces was the most serious obstacle. For ten years 
 in educational affairs the executive energy and control were 
 from without. That it has not remained so is an index of 
 the marvelous elasticity of the Southern mind. 
 
 A. THE FREEDMEN'S AID SOCIETY. 
 
 In the year 1861 was opened a school at Fortress Monroe 
 for colored youth fugitive slaves by the American Mis- 
 sionary Association. Immediately almost was formed the 
 Freedmen's Aid Society, which, all through the war, and 
 afterward until 1869,. established schools and furnished 
 houses and teachers, and may be said, along with the Mis- 
 sionary Association, to have initiated the work of negro edu- 
 cation in the South. At the close of the war the society had 
 six hundred teachers and many thousand pupils. 
 
 In the eight years of its existence it expended $1,350,000 
 on its work, which at its dissolution passed into the hands of 
 denominational agencies, by whom, during the war even, 
 schools and churches had been planted in half a dozen States. 
 
 B. GOVERNMENT AGENCY. 
 
 The Freedmen's Bureau was a Government institution, 
 created by act of Congress, March 3, 1865, as a " Bureau of 
 Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands." It soon took 
 the shorter name, and, while having other functions, also, 
 was predominantly serviceable as an educational agency.
 
 352 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 It took hold of schools already established, co-operated 
 with the churches and other corporations, built houses and 
 hired teachers. During the first year (1865-'66) the Bureau 
 schools those under Government supervision, and partially 
 or wholly supported by it had nine hundred and seventy- 
 five teachers and ninety-seven thousand five hundred pu- 
 pils. In four years it had developed into a great system, 
 with twenty-five hundred teachers and two hundred and 
 fifty thousand pupils. At first its work was elementary 
 only. Both day and evening schools were established, and 
 industrial schools; and later, even Sunday-schools whatever 
 was demanded, or could be used to dispel the appalling ig- 
 norance of the freed blacks. Still later, by acting with the 
 religious denominations, it assisted in the founding of insti- 
 tutions for superior instruction also. It contributed in this 
 way to Howard University and Wayland Seminary, at 
 Washington; Claflin University, South Carolina; Fisk Uni- 
 versity and the State Central College, in Tennessee ; Straight 
 University, Louisiana; and Hampton Normal and Agricult- 
 ural Institute, Virginia. 
 
 The great service rendered by the Bureau was not in 
 hiring teachers, or meeting any current expenses, but in 
 erecting buildings. In respect to this first need, the Govern- 
 ment was a strong arm and a ready purse in an emergency. 
 It did easily and at once for the South what it must have 
 taken them years to accomplish unaided or through pri- 
 vate beneficence alone. The general functions of the office 
 ceased in 1869, its educational support continuing in certain 
 States a year longer. It had done a great work, one of 
 the pronounced benefactions of the General Government. 
 In the five years of its existence it had contributed to the 
 schools $5,250,000. 
 
 C. DENOMINATIONAL AGENCIES. 
 
 Increasingly, the oversight, much of the support, and the 
 enlargement of the established institutions passed into the 
 hands of the missionary organizations, chiefly of the
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 353 
 
 churches, though not a few of the foundations were unsec- 
 tarian ; and ultimately drifted into or were absorbed by the 
 public systems. Prominently active among these agencies 
 were : 
 
 1. The American Missionary Association. 
 
 2. The Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episco- 
 pal Church. 
 
 3. The Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen. 
 
 4. The American Baptist Home Mission Society. 
 
 5. The work of Congregationalists, Friends, Unitari- 
 ans, etc. 
 
 The first of these, the American Missionary Association, 
 was organized in 1866 for Southern work, and, next to the 
 national Government, has been the largest contributor to 
 education in that section. In twenty years it has spent 
 $6,000,000, and has now under its control nine institutions 
 for superior and professional instruction, more than a dozen 
 normal schools, and fifty elementary and academic schools, 
 with an aggregate of nearly three hundred teachers and 
 twenty thousand pupils. 
 
 The Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church was organized in 1866 also, with a fourfold purpose 
 (among negroes primarily, though their recent interest has 
 extended to whites also): 1. The preparation of ministers. 
 2. The preparation of teachers. 3. The education of physi- 
 cians. 4. The elevation of colored women of the South. 
 The society has charge of seven chartered university organi- 
 zations in as many States the Central Tennessee College, 
 Clark University, Georgia, Claflin University, South Caro- 
 lina, New Orleans University, the Philander Smith College, 
 Arkansas, Rust University, Mississippi, and Wiley Univer- 
 sity, Texas. In addition to these, it supports three theologi- 
 cal schools, one medical college, two normal schools, and 
 eleven seminaries and academies. It has more than half a 
 million dollars invested in permanent school property, and 
 has collected and disbursed in twenty years $2,000,000. 
 
 The Presbyterian Board expends annually in this section
 
 354 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 from $30,000 to $50,000, and the Baptist Society about as 
 much, the latter having institutions at Washington, Rich- 
 mond, Baltimore, Raleigh, Columbia, Augusta, Nashville, 
 and New Orleans. 
 
 D. THE PEABODY FUND. 
 
 Few men have given more to benevolent purposes, none 
 more wisely, than George Peabody. Besides two and a half 
 millions to organized charity in London, $10,000 to the Kane 
 Arctic Expedition, and $15,000 to the London Exposition of 
 1851, he distributed in life and at his death nearly $6,000,000 
 for education in the United States. A table of these bene- 
 factions is presented, setting forth his numerous large gifts, 
 and the magnitude of his service to the South : 
 
 Benefaction* of George Peabody. 
 
 INSTITUTION. Amount. 
 
 1. Library at Thetford, Vt $5,500 
 
 2. Library at Newburyport, Mass 15,000 
 
 3. Library at Georgetown, D. C 15,000 
 
 4. Library at Peabody, Mass 125,000 
 
 5. Library at Danvers, Mass 125,000 
 
 6. Museum at Harvard, Mass '. 150,000 
 
 7. Museum at Yale, Conn 150,000 
 
 8. Kenyon College, Ohio 25,000 
 
 9. Washington and Lee University, Virginia 145,000 
 
 10. Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass 25,000 
 
 11. Peabody Academy, Salem, Mass 140,000 
 
 12. Peabody Institute, Baltimore, Md 1,400,000 
 
 13. Massachusetts Historical Society 20,000 
 
 14. Maryland Historical Society 20,000 
 
 15. Peabody Fund for the South 3,100,000 
 
 16. London Charity 2,500,000 
 
 17. Memorial Church, Georgetown, Mass 100,000 
 
 18. Kane Arctic Expedition 10,000 
 
 19. London Exposition, 1851 15,000 
 
 20. United States Sanitary Commission 10,000 
 
 21. Commission to Maryland 60,000 
 
 22. To uphold the credit of the South 40,000 
 
 Total 18,195,500
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 355 
 
 Impressed with the need of the more favored and wealthy 
 portions of our nation to assist the less fortunate, Mr. Pea- 
 body gave (February, 1867) to R. C. Winthrop and fourteen 
 others trustees one million dollars to be held in trust, and 
 " the income thereof applied and used for the promotion of 
 intellectual, moral, and industrial education among the more 
 destitute portions of the Southern and Southwestern States 
 of our Union." His purpose was as generous as his purse; 
 and, with the bias of a philanthropist only, he charged that 
 the benefit should be " distributed among the entire popula- 
 tion, without other distinction than their needs and the op- 
 portunities of usefulness to them." The same year was 
 added to this amount another $1,100,000 in Mississippi State 
 bonds, and two years afterward, upon his death, a bequest of 
 $1,000,000 in railroad, State, city, and bank bonds of various 
 descriptions, and completing the total of $3,100,000. 
 
 Dr. Barnas Sears, then President of Brown University, 
 was immediately made general agent of the board, and began 
 one of the grandest educational experiments and the most 
 successful labors of the century. At the same tune, dona- 
 tions of school text-books were tendered by prominent pub- 
 lishing houses to the amount of nearly one hundred and fifty 
 thousand volumes. 
 
 It was early agreed by the board that only those should 
 receive aid who had first contributed to the support of their 
 own schools, and that the amount raised by the district must 
 be twice that received from the fund. Further, schools aided 
 must have at least a hundred pupils, with a teacher for every 
 fifty; they must be graded, and must continue through the 
 school year with an average attendance of not less than 
 eighty-five per cent. With these careful guards against 
 waste, the Peabody beneficence " gave the earliest impulse 
 to the cause of common-school education, which was vital 
 to the regeneration of the States impoverished and devastated 
 by war." By requiring the best, and insisting upon local 
 effort, it set standards and initiated habits of fundamental 
 importance. By 1872 the cities of Savannah and Columbus,
 
 35G CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 Georgia, Natchez and Vicksburg, Mississippi, and a few 
 others, had already become self-supporting. 
 
 It was early felt that, with public schools begun and laws 
 formulated, the furnishing of capable teachers, and some 
 skill in industry, were of importance. So that, in addition 
 to appropriation to common schools, aid was applied (1875) 
 to institutions having in view these special trainings. In 
 the twenty years aid has been given to twelve States, as 
 shown in the table : 
 
 Distribution of the Peabody fund. 
 
 STATES. Amounts. 
 
 1. Alabama. $95,200 
 
 2. Arkansas 103,475 
 
 3. Florida 72,075 
 
 4. Georgia. 123,127 
 
 6. Louisiana. 96,870 
 
 6. Mississippi 88,383 
 
 7. North Carolina 138,315 
 
 STATES. Amount?. 
 
 8. South Carolina $77,950 
 
 9. Tennessee 306,975 
 
 10. Texas 122,350 
 
 11. Virginia 267,599 
 
 12. West Virginia. 137,010 
 
 $1,629,249 
 
 K. THE SLATER FUND. 
 
 In the year 1882, fifteen years after the Peabody dona- 
 tion, Mr. John F. Slater, of Norwich, Connecticut, conveyed 
 to trustees $1,000,000 cash to be invested for the education of 
 the freedmen of the South. Rev. Atticus G. Haygood has 
 been agent of the trust from the first. Its appropriations 
 have been principally devoted to the industrial elevation of 
 the colored youth, and to their medical education. These 
 have averaged $30,000 a year, and extended to eleven States, 
 omitting Florida and West Virginia in the Peabody list, 
 and including Kentucky and the District of Columbia. Its 
 aid has been given to about forty institutions annually (all 
 for colored students), among which are State universities 
 and normal schools, the Meharry Medical College, indus- 
 trial schools, and female seminaries the best in the South. 
 By its assistance have been introduced into Central Tennes- 
 see College carpentry and printing ; shoemaking, smithing, 
 and a workshop into Claflin University ; carriage and har-
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 357 
 
 ness making and painting into Clark University, and into 
 most of them sewing and general housework for the girls. 
 Two such benefactions, of so wide-spread influence and so 
 economically disposed as the Peabody and Slater funds, has 
 the world scarcely seen elsewhere. 
 
 F. PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 
 
 In the mean time much had been accomplished by the 
 people for themselves. Even before the centennial, and but 
 ten years after the war, there were creditable beginnings of 
 both State and city systems of graded schools ; there were 
 superintendents of State, city, and county; established sys- 
 tems of taxation, courses of study, institutes, associations, 
 etc. To this end were and have been all the services of the 
 North to the South, to make them independent, to establish 
 self-supporting institutions. Fundamental ideas in regard 
 to education had to be given in regard to schools, and 
 teachers, and taxation, and State co-operation. Legislation 
 must be directed, and legislators themselves brought to right 
 views. These, combined with wholesome industrial and 
 social interests and more liberal governmental administra- 
 tion, have done much to help on the new South. 
 
 Before 1870 every Southern State except Delaware had 
 made constitutional and somewhat of legislative provision 
 for free schools and a general system. Twelve States had 
 some form of State control ; eight had county supervision. 
 Normal schools had been started in six States, and some 
 progress made in grading schools in the larger cities. Of 
 the last, the best specimens here, as elsewhere, were in cities. 
 The sixteen States show systems in cities whose combined 
 school census aggregates nearly seven hundred thousand, 
 and having a school enrollment of about three hundred 
 thousand. These same cities report forty-five high-schools, 
 with a membership of over eight thousand. Of these, Louis- 
 ville, New Orleans, Baltimore, St. Louis, and Richmond 
 have nearly one half.
 
 358 
 
 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 Table stowing Ormcth in Public School Patronage, 1872-1885, in 
 Sixteen Southern States. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 School cen- 
 sus, 1872. 
 
 Enroll- 
 ment, 1872. 
 
 School em- 
 eus, 1885. 
 
 Enroll- 
 ment, 1885. 
 
 A labama 
 
 1868 
 1868 
 
 340,000 
 180,000 
 40,000 
 62,000 
 200,000 
 340,000 
 182,000 
 276,000 
 634,000 
 268,000 
 197,000 
 350,000 
 230,000 
 350,000 
 246,000 
 125,000 
 
 150,000 
 62,000 
 19,000 
 14,000 
 77,000 
 181,000 
 50,000 
 80,000 
 330,000 
 51,000 
 76,000 
 121,000 
 64,000 
 167,000 
 120,000 
 77,ODO 
 
 450,000 
 858,000 
 46,000 
 124,000 
 509,000 
 581,000 
 311,000 
 341,000 
 813,000 
 535,000 
 275,000 
 623,000 
 350,000 
 610,000 
 450,000 
 243,000 
 
 253,000 
 176,000 
 31,000 
 61,000 
 319,000 
 283,000 
 103,000 
 175,000 
 569,000 
 306,000 
 184,000 
 883,000 
 261,000 
 308,000 
 304,000 
 172,000 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Delaware 
 
 .Florida 
 
 1865 
 1868 
 1873 
 1868 
 1864 
 1865 
 1868 
 1868 
 1867 
 1869 
 1867 
 1868 
 1863 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Missouri 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Mississippi. .. 
 
 "West Virginia 
 
 Total 
 
 4,080,000 
 
 1,639,000 
 
 6,619,000 
 
 3,888,000 
 
 
 
 G. NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Thirteen of these States maintain thirty-six public and 
 eighteen private normal schools, enrolling in the aggregate 
 ten thousand to twelve thousand students. West Virginia 
 and Alabama have each six, and North Carolina and Mis- 
 souri five. Kentucky, Georgia, and Delaware report none, 
 either public or private. 
 
 Some of these schools have acquired a national reputa- 
 tion for the preparation they give and for the wide-spread 
 influence of their graduates. The State Normal College of 
 Tennessee was founded in 1875, and has sent out one thou- 
 sand teachers. The Tuskegee Normal and Industrial School 
 (Alabama) is for colored students, of whom it has three hun- 
 dred to four hundred, with a faculty of twenty, all colored. 
 The Baltimore Normal School for Colored Teachers was es- 
 tablished in 1864 two years before the State Normal School 
 for White Teachers in the same city. Of the five State schools 
 for teachers in North Carolina, four are for the negroes.
 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 359 
 
 H. COLLEGES. 
 
 This section has one third of the colleges and universities 
 of the country, and nearly one third the instructors and 
 students. Prominent among the institutions are Tulane 
 University, New Orleans, to which Mr. Paul Tulane gener- 
 ously gave a million and a half of dollars for the education 
 of the white youth of Louisiana ; the Vanderbilt University, 
 the recipient from the Vanderbilts of one million dollars ; 
 the University of the South, at Sewanee, Tennessee; the 
 University of Mississippi, the University of Virginia, and 
 Johns Hopkins. In addition to the usual collegiate work, 
 nineteen institutions in this group of States have three hun- 
 dred graduate students doing special work. 
 x 
 
 I. PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Besides the institutions for general culture, the section 
 has its full quota of professional schools. Of these, forty- 
 eight are medical colleges, or departments, Delaware, Missis- 
 sippi, South Carolina, Texas, and West Virginia, reporting 
 none, and Maryland, Missouri, and the District of Columbia, 
 thirty of them. 
 
 Twenty-five are law-schools, representing every Southern 
 State except Delaware and Florida. The theological schools 
 number forty-two. 
 
 Altogether, the professional schools report nearly eight 
 thousand students, more than half of whom are in the medi- 
 cal colleges. 
 
 8. General Condition. 
 
 Without doubt a great work has been going on in the 
 South these years. No form of education is without its 
 representative. There are thirty-six business schools, six- 
 teen for deaf-mutes, twelve for the blind, one, in Kentucky, 
 for the feeble-minded, and five reformatories, two thirds of 
 all of which have been founded and three fourths of them 
 developed in the last score of years. The section has been 
 profitably active in educational publications, and issues one
 
 360 
 
 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 third the educational journals of the United States. Its five 
 hundred libraries have an aggregate of three million vol- 
 umes. Its university properties are valued at eleven million 
 dollars, and their productive endowments at twelve million 
 dollars; or, with one third the superior institutions (128 out 
 of 361), it has one fourth the endowments. 
 
 The relatively generous provision for the colored race, 
 also, where the great ignorance centers, emphasizes the mag- 
 nitude of the work going on. Their schools are, for the 
 most part, separate, though coeducation of the races is not 
 unknown. Besides thirty -three normal schools, forty-four 
 secondary schools, and eighteen colleges, they have twenty- 
 three theological seminaries, four schools in law, and six in 
 medicine. Of the twenty-eight institutions for the deaf- 
 mute and blind, nine are for the negroes. These, with the 
 public elementary schools open to them, represent a school 
 attendance of more than a million of the colored race. 
 
 School Expenditures. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 1878. 
 
 ^883. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Property 
 valuation. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 $358,697 
 148,393 
 216,540 
 134,880 
 411,453 
 1,130,000 
 558,231 
 1,593,260 
 592,805 
 2,406,133 
 324,287 
 319,030 
 794,232 
 747,534 
 963,865 
 687,275 
 
 $522,727 
 661,745 
 215,161 
 172,178 
 613,647 
 1,248,524 
 466,930 
 1,686,640 
 803,876 
 4,288,135 
 535,200 
 423,273 
 955,470 
 1,661,476 
 1,321,537 
 997,431 
 
 $741,244 
 866,892 
 215,161 
 885,800 
 711,990 
 700,790 
 450,030 
 1,832,388 
 840,776 
 4,328,596 
 671.116 
 425,903 
 1,047,223 
 2,166,633 
 1,453,103 
 1,036,874 
 
 $167,124,594 
 
 126,826,394 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida . 
 
 76,611,409 
 829,489,505 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Kentucky .... 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 469,593,225 
 140,000,000 
 725,775,259 
 202,752,622 
 149,973,365 
 226,844,184 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri ... 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 V irginia 
 
 341,735,707 
 159,514,752 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Total 
 
 $11,386,645 
 
 $16,472,050 
 
 $17,875,514 
 
 $3,116,241,016 
 
 New York 
 Ohio 
 
 $10,755,905 
 7,995,125 
 3,116,519 
 
 
 
 $18,284,886 
 9,827,549 
 4,332,968 
 
 $3,224,682,343 
 1,688,676,168 
 945,450,000 
 
 
 

 
 EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 361 
 
 Another interesting and suggestive phase of Southern 
 education appears in a comparative study of the expenditures 
 for % schools in the various States. In the decade just closed 
 the actual outlay in the sixteen States has increased from 
 $11,400,000 in 1878 to about $20,000,000 in 1888, or seventy-five 
 per cent. Again, the assessed valuation of taxable property 
 in twelve Southern States from which returns are available 
 aggregates a little less than that of the State of New York ; 
 the former nevertheless spent on the public schools, for the 
 year 1885-'86, $1,058,000 more than the latter. Mississippi, 
 Missouri, and West Virginia each spend more mills to the 
 dollar than does New York, and the last of them three times 
 as much as does Michigan. 
 
 The South is rapidly settling for itself the vexed problem 
 
 of education. 
 
 .Bibliography. 
 
 " Schools and Universities North and South," " De Bow's Review," 
 1855, p. 545; "Opposition to the Free-School System in the South," 
 " American Social Science Journal," vol. ix, p. 92 ; " Sketch of Education 
 in South Carolina," R. Means Davis, 1882 ; also, in " Creoles of Louisi- 
 ana," by G. W. Cable, see " The Schoolmaster," chap, xxxiii, p. 256, for 
 a picture of education before the war. 
 
 Upon the later period consult " The Freedmcn during the War," Gen- 
 eral 0. 0. Howard, "Princeton Review," May and September, 1886; 
 " Our Southern Colleges and Schools," C. F. Smith, " Atlantic Monthly," 
 October, 1884, p. 542; "Proceedings of the National Educational Asso- 
 ciation," 1884 (fifty pages by Robert Bingham, Rev. A. D. Mayo, B. T. 
 Washington, Miss Clara Conway, and others, in a very valuable discus- 
 sion) ; " Twenty Years of Negro Education," J. M. Keating, " Popular 
 Science Monthly," November, 1885 ; " The Case of the Negro," Rev. 
 Atticus G. Haygood ; " The South, the North, and the Nation keeping 
 School," Rev. A. D. Mayo ; " The Negro Question," by G. W. Cable, 
 " New York Tribune," March 4, 1888; "Education in South Carolina," 
 by Mayor Courtney. On the question of " Federal Aid to Education," 
 see discussion by J. L. M. Curry, " Circular of Information, No. 3," 1884 ; 
 H. R. Waite, "Princeton Review," May, 1884, p. 215 ; and D. H. Cham- 
 berlain, " Princeton Review," March, 1887. Consult also the "Annual 
 Reports of the Peabody and Slater Funds," and of the " Frecdmen's Aid 
 Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church."
 
 362 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 
 
 Till: JUdJIFM EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
 
 THE caption is here used in its most general significance, 
 to include the educational recognition accorded to girls 
 and women in the United States. The popular sentiment 
 touching the question has been an index to the attitude of 
 the public upon many others. Woman's right to the high- 
 est culture has shared the national creed the privilege of 
 every individual to make the most of himself. A century of 
 her education admirably illustrates the evolution of an idea 
 among a people already committed to the doctrine of per- 
 sonal sovereignty, predisposed to a wholesome recognition 
 of individual rights. It is in keeping with the character of 
 a free people that no class, and no one of any class, shall be 
 hindered in a rational participation in all manner of good 
 and enjoyment. In the degree that the people have become 
 less selfish and more rational, less individual and more per- 
 sonal, the privileges of superior training have become less 
 exclusive. 
 
 In the last century the United States stood beside other 
 nations touching the education of girls. No European gov- 
 ernment made anything like the same provision for the two 
 sexes. The educational institutions of Prussia were first 
 co-ordinated into a state system in the common law of 1794. 
 There had been schools of a kind for girls for a hundred 
 years, but " far less efficient than for boys." And it is said 
 that not till 1804 had any one in Prussia courage to start a 
 seminary for female teachers. The English schools came 
 even later, Girton College being opened eight years after 
 Vassar. It can not seem strange, then, that American schools 
 have been only recently opened to girls.* 
 
 * Mayor Quincy, in closing the Girls' High School, Boston (1822), after 
 a year's trial, said : " It is just as impracticable to give a classical education
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 363 
 
 The steps in the development of this best sentiment, from 
 indifference to interest, while not always distinctly apparent, 
 are distinguishable. There came first the girls' academies, 
 many of which remain. Within the same generation, this 
 secondary training had the effect to greatly increase the 
 demand for the advanced. Refused admission to the estab- 
 lished colleges, women sought to found others for them- 
 selves. With so much granted, access to institutions for 
 young men was not long delayed not to all, but to the 
 younger colleges, and, generally, those most in sympathy 
 with the spirit of the time. It was to be expected that the 
 older and more conservative institutions, the product of a 
 long past, and with established functions and courses, should 
 more slowly accept the change. Even these, however, form 
 an interesting class, making concessions recently, and giving 
 assurances of their good intentions. Further, to concede 
 the general education of women is, among a busy, practical, 
 here-and-now people, to concede the use of that education, 
 looking toward the general welfare. The professional train- 
 ing of women easily follows their admitted general culture. 
 
 The subject is resolved, then, under the several heads 
 enumerated, viz. : 
 
 1. Girls' seminaries and academies. 
 
 2. Colleges for women only. 
 
 3. Colleges admitting women. 
 
 4. College " annexes," and examinations. 
 
 5. Women in the professions. 
 
 1. Girls' Seminaries. 
 
 The story of the rise of girls' schools in the United States 
 is almost biographical, so interwoven is it with the lives of 
 four women in the first half of the century, whose names 
 and services have become historical. Mrs. Emma Willard, 
 
 to all the girls of a city whose parents would wish them to be thus educated 
 at the expense of the city, as to give such a one to all the boys at the city's 
 expense ; no funds of any city could endure the expense of it."
 
 364 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 in Vermont and New York ; Miss Catherine E. Beecher, in 
 Connecticut and Ohio ; Mary Lyon, in Massachusetts ; and 
 Miss Grant, in New Hampshire, did for girlhood and woman 
 what Horace Mann did for school systems brought them to 
 consciousness ; what Mary Carpenter and Mary Somerville 
 did in England. 
 
 After a short service in Bradford Academy (1804), Mrs. 
 Willard (then Miss Emma Hart) opened a school for young 
 ladies at Middlebury, Vermont (1808). Six years later it was 
 made a boarding-school, and the curriculum extended. In 
 1819 she removed, by invitation, to Waterford, New York, 
 and two years later founded the celebrated Troy Female 
 Seminary,* to which, for seventeen years, says a recent Re- 
 gents' Report, "she brought unparalleled success." While 
 here she prepared and published, in an address, a " Plan for 
 improving Female Education," which, being submitted to 
 the New York Legislature, secured to Waterford Academy, 
 and a few other proposed girls' schools, a share, for the first 
 time, in the Literature Fund, or State appropriation for 
 academies. The " Plan " was a sensible and comprehensive 
 discussion of the '' education of girls." 
 
 Her published address and the fame of her teaching 
 reached other States, and similar institutions were founded 
 in Georgia, Kentucky, Illinois, Michigan, etc., besides one 
 at Bogota, in South America, and another at Athens, Greece, 
 as a school for the preparation of native teachers. She vis- 
 ited Europe twice, first in 1830, and again twenty-three years 
 later, to attend the World's Educational Conference at Lon- 
 don both times inspecting schools, conferring with the most 
 eminent foreign educators, and studying systems; received 
 in France as the friend of Lafayette, and everywhere wel- 
 comed, both for her womanhood and her profession.! 
 
 * For a very interesting sketch of Mrs. Willard's school and her educa- 
 tional doctrine, see Barnard's " American Journal of Education," vol. vi, 
 pp. 125-168. 
 
 t Mrs. Willard was a successful author, also, of two histories of the
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 365 
 
 Miss Beecher, born in 1800, and educated in Connecticut, 
 opened, when twenty -two years of age, at Hartford, in that 
 State, an academy for young ladies, which is said to have 
 been for ten years so successful as to have attracted students 
 from every State in the Union. She was assisted by her sis- 
 ter Harriet, the pupils frequently numbering more than one 
 hundred and fifty. In 1832, settling in Cincinnati, she again 
 opened a seminary, which failing health, after two years, 
 compelled her to abandon. She immediately gave her in- 
 fluence to the forming of public sentiment on the subject of 
 female education, and, through a National Board and Socie- 
 ty, to the enlargement of its facilities. For forty years she 
 was a controlling spirit in the organization, which sent hun- 
 dreds of teachers to Western schools, to the Territories, and 
 to the South.* 
 
 Since the active period of these two women, young ladies' 
 seminaries have become both fashionable and numerous. 
 There are reported two hundred and seven institutions now of 
 about the same grade as the Troy Seminary, most of which 
 have been founded within a generation. Of these, Ken- 
 tucky, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee, and Missouri have each 
 more than a dozen ; Ohio has eleven, and North Carolina, 
 New York, and Alabama, ten each, these nine States having 
 more than half the whole number. In seven Southern States 
 are forty-seven per cent of them. About two thirds of them 
 are authorized to confer degrees, though the course is vari- 
 ous as to scope and fullness. 
 
 2. Colleges for Women. 
 
 One of the oldest of the higher grade schools was the 
 somewhat famous Wesleyan Seminary and Female College 
 
 United States, a universal history, a number of historical charts, and works 
 on physiology, astronomy, and morals. 
 
 * Miss Beecher was the author of text-books on arithmetic, mental and 
 moral science, a " Course of Calisthenics " for young ladies, and one or two 
 books on female education. 
 24
 
 3GG CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 at Kent's Hill, Maine, founded in 1821. In the West was one 
 at Granville, Ohio (1834) ; but as all earlier and contempo- 
 rary services were eclipsed by the beneficent earnestness of 
 Emma Willard, so the later founding of colleges was insig- 
 nificant beside Mary Lyon and Mount Holyoke. 
 
 Three years the senior of Miss Beecher, Mary Lyon began 
 teaching while yet a girl, and from 1821 for thirteen years 
 was continuously in the school-room, ten years of the time 
 with Miss Grant at Londonderry and Ipswich, New Hamp- 
 shire, teaching and studying. During these years originated 
 the idea of a seminary " which should be to young women 
 what the college is to young men." After many delays and 
 much opposition, funds amounting to eight thousand dollars 
 had been collected; South Hadley, Massachusetts, was fixed 
 upon for the location, and Mount Holyoke Female Seminary 
 was incorporated February 10, 1836. It was opened the fol- 
 lowing year, all students being required to live within the 
 institution and to assist in domestic duties. 
 
 The course occupied three years, and received graduates 
 from other seminaries and academies of New England. For 
 many years it was mainly devoted to preparing teachers for 
 public and private schools, furnishing in the first twenty 
 years (1837-' 57) seven hundred and twenty-four teachers out 
 of ten hundred and sixty pupils leaving the institution. 
 Beyond this, however, the school was designed to give and 
 did afford a solid, extensive, and well-balanced English and 
 classical education to its pupils. It provided three years of 
 Latin, two of mathematics, three each of general history 
 and literature, three of physical science and mental and 
 moral science. The instruction was meant for culture, not 
 mere accomplishments. The whole work and management 
 of the institution were adapted not to girls, but to women of 
 mature character and considerable attainments. 
 
 The seminary has recently been incorporated as a college 
 and authorized to confer degrees. 
 
 Elmira Female College, founded in 1855, claims to have 
 been "the first in this country, and, so far as known, the
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 
 
 first in the world that offered to women the same advan- 
 tages and adopted the same standard for graduation as col- 
 leges and universities for the other sex."* The course was 
 a small advance over that of Mount Holyoke.f It required 
 more Latin, added Greek and the modern languages, and 
 gave more mathematics, all included in a four years' course, 
 and leading to degrees. 
 
 There was noticeable a growing spirit of approbation in 
 the public. Interest was here and there manifested by the 
 investment of capital, by Legislatures and churches, in the 
 "new experiment." The sentiment was spreading beyond 
 the centers where it originated, and schools were multiply- 
 ing, perhaps too rapidly. Of the two hundred institutions 
 of this class now in existence, more than half had their origin 
 prior to Vassar College, which dates from this period (1861). 
 The preceding decade had witnessed a great wave of interest 
 on this subject. 
 
 As the earlier standards were set by Troy, Hartford, and 
 Mount Holyoke, so the more recent date from Vassar, Smith, 
 Wellesley, and Bryn Mawr. 
 
 Of these, Vassar came first by almost ten years, the act of 
 incorporation dating January, 1861. The war coming on, 
 the work was hindered, though never entirely stopped, the 
 institution opening in 1866 with three hundred students. 
 The founder, Matthew Vassar, looking to the " necessity of 
 providing such an education for the women of this country 
 as would be adequate to give them a position of intellectual 
 equality with men in domestic and social life," purposed, he 
 says, to devote a liberal portion of his estate " to promoting 
 their education in literature, science, and art," endowing an 
 institution so liberally as " to secure to it the elevated char- 
 acter, the stability, and the permanency of our best col- 
 
 * " New York Historical and Statistical Record " (1885), p. 269. 
 
 t Mount Holyoke has recently taken steps to expand the course and con- 
 fer degrees. For a fresh and reliable sketch of this school see " Education," 
 April, 1888, p. 477.
 
 368 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 leges."* The buildings are located on a farm of two hun- 
 dred acres, beautifully situated, near Poughkeepsie on the 
 Hudson, the whole valued at seven hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand dollars. It is supplied with an observatory, over which 
 from the first Prof. Maria Mitchell has presided, a museum, 
 a library of fifteen thousand volumes, a large and well-en- 
 dowed art-gallery, music-rooms, and gymnasium. 
 
 The collegiate course covers four years, and has nine de- 
 partments, besides music, drawing, and painting. Its faculty 
 numbers twenty-two professors, among whom have been 
 from the foundation some whose names are familiarly 
 known to the educated public, and give guarantee of the ex- 
 cellence of the Vassar work : Prof. Sanborn Tenney, the 
 naturalist ; Prof. T. J. Backus, now President of Packer 
 Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn; Prof. Cooley, the physicist; 
 and Dr. Maria Mitchell,! the well-known astronomer and 
 mathematician. 
 
 Wellesley College, a few miles out of Boston, is the gift, 
 so far as grounds and buildings are concerned, of Mr. Henry 
 F. Durant. The farm consists of four hundred acres, with 
 groves and lakes and lawns, and, with improvements, is 
 estimated to be worth two million dollars. The first and 
 largest structure was intended to accommodate three hun- 
 dred students. For some years the average attendance has 
 been twice that. To provide for this increase, cottages have 
 been built in the place of large structures, and a system of 
 home-life management introduced, not the least attractive 
 of the Wellesley administration. 
 
 The institution is well supplied with apparatus, labora- 
 tories physical and chemical a hall with a capacity of 
 seven hundred, and a library of thirty thousand volumes, 
 admirably catalogued after the Dewey system. The college 
 was opened to students in 1875 with a faculty of thirty, and 
 an extended course of study. The first experience of Well- 
 
 * " Official History of Vassar College " (1876), p. 6. 
 f Besigncd, 1888.
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 369 
 
 esley coincided with that of Vassar young ladies were 
 poorly fitted to do the work offered. Of the three hundred 
 and fifty who entered Vassar ten years hefore, less than a 
 third were well prepared. Fitting-classes were a necessity. 
 That in Wellesley, however, was dropped in 1881, and the 
 present faculty of seventy-five is engaged in collegiate in- 
 struction only. 
 
 The course is very complete covers five years, including, 
 besides four modern languages, Greek and Latin (with post- 
 graduate courses), science and history, embi'acing an extend- 
 ed course in political and social science and constitutional 
 history. The work in hotany requires three years, and is en- 
 forced and supplemented by a morphological laboratory and 
 a working library of more than one thousand volumes. The 
 physical laboratory, with its special library, is quite as com- 
 plete. Of mathematics, the president, in her report for 1883, 
 said : " I know of no American college where more intelli- 
 gent or more advanced undergraduate work has been at- 
 tempted than that accomplished by those seniors who have 
 been reading Doster's 'Determinants,' Howison's 'Ana- 
 lytics of Three Dimensions,' Watson's ' Theoretical Astron- 
 omy,' and calculating the orbit of the new comet from data 
 obtained at Harvard."* 
 
 Smith College was established about the same time as 
 Wellesley, through the beneficence of Sophia Smith. It 
 has an endowment of $400,000, an art-gallery costing $30,000, 
 and a full collegiate course of instruction. The professor- 
 ships are equally divided between the sexes. Wells Col- 
 lege, of like grade, was founded two years earlier. 
 
 Bryn-Mawr, the most recent institution of this class, was 
 opened in 1885. It is located near Philadelphia, and was 
 founded by the late Joseph W. Taylor, M. D. It has a limit- 
 ed number of students, a productive endowment of nearly a 
 million dollars, and opens with great promise. No prepara- 
 
 * See article " Wellesley College " in " Education," January, 1887, 
 p. 313.
 
 370 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 tory class is sustained. For undergraduates, the "group 
 system"* of studies is employed. Graduate study is pro- 
 vided for and encouraged, the institution conferring no hon- 
 orary degrees, but offering annual fellowships in history, 
 biology, Greek, and mathematics. The gymnasium is pro- 
 nounced by Dr. Sargent the largest and most complete for 
 women in the United States. 
 
 3. Coeducation of the Sexes in College. 
 
 Whatever later means may accomplish for woman's edu- 
 cation, the first schools and seminaries, with all their fre- 
 quent show and little careful study, with much of accom- 
 plishment and little of discipline, fitted the general mind 
 and the feminine mind for something better. 
 
 The something better came, not all at once, nor without 
 opposition, nor equally throughout the land, but occasion- 
 ally, with varying success, at Middlebury and Hartford ; in 
 Maine, Ohio, and Michigan; in Vassar and Wellesley; an 
 occasional success compelling confidence ; sometimes fail- 
 ing; always working with limited means, but with every 
 favorable experiment answering questions of health, capaci- 
 ty, and demand. With these settled or settling, the next 
 question was that of coeducation. Is its intellectual com- 
 petition safe for the girl ? Morally, is it wise ? Physically 
 is it prudent ? 
 
 From Oberlin came an early answer. The institution was 
 opened as the Collegiate Institute (1833) . Both sexes have been 
 admitted from the first. After seventeen years the school 
 was incorporated as Oberlin College, under the presidency 
 of Rev. Charles G. Finney. From the start it has been an 
 ultra-radical since 1835 no distinction being made either as 
 to sex or race. In addition to the preparatory department, 
 which has always been large, are theological, classical, philo- 
 sophical, and literary departments, and a " ladies' course. " 
 
 * The name originated with Miss Thomas, the dean of the institution, 
 though now in common use.
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 371 
 
 This last differs from others in that it omits all the Greek, 
 most of the Latin, and, in mathematics the calculus, adding 
 French and drawing. It leads to no degree, but is followed 
 by a certified diploma. Since 1837 women, upon applica- 
 tion, have been admitted to the regular academic courses as 
 candidates for a degree. The present attendance is from 
 twelve hundred to fourteen hundred, fifty-five per cent of 
 whom are women. 
 
 The table, indicating the selection of work by the two 
 sexes, is taken from the official report of the institution for 
 1886-'87: 
 
 COURSES. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 1. Classical 
 
 160 
 
 50 
 
 2. Philosophical .. .... 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 3. Literary 
 
 
 157 
 
 4. Music 
 
 85 
 
 889 
 
 5. Art 
 
 3 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 
 Next to Oberlin as a pioneer in coeducation, though two 
 decades later, was Antioch, at Yellow Springs, Ohio. The 
 institution was opened (1853) under Horace Mann, one of 
 whose aims was to make its advantages, whatever they were, 
 equally open to both sexes. About one third of the attend- 
 ance since its establishment has been of young women, usu- 
 ally mature and efficient. It is not too much to 'say that no 
 one has seriously questioned coeducation at Yellow Springs. 
 The conditions may have been different, the circumstances 
 more favorable than thoSe found elsewhere, but it appears 
 that Antioch, whether from the point of view of intellectual 
 capacity, or physical endurance, or moral purity, affirms 
 the wisdom of the experiment in coeducation. So entirely 
 satisfactory and without criticism have been the moral in- 
 fluences, that a prominent literary man* was led to say, 
 some years since, that " young men were first called gentle- 
 
 * Moncure D. Conway.
 
 372 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 men at Antioch." The present faculty consists of sixteen, 
 five of whom are women. 
 
 In 1846 Earlham College, Indiana, a Friends' school, ad- 
 mitted, both sexes, and the Indiana State University in 1867. 
 The next year women were admitted to Boston University, 
 and two years later to Swarthmore College and the Univer- 
 sity of Missouri. They were formally admitted to Michigan 
 University in 1870, and to Cornell in 1874. In the last quar- 
 ter of a century, even, it has been the rule rather than the ex- 
 ception to grant them full privileges in the newly established 
 institutions. Most State endowments are coeducational. Of 
 three hundred and forty-five colleges and universities re- 
 porting to the National Bureau of Education, and exclusive 
 of those for women alone, two hundred and four are coedu- 
 cational. Thirty-eight of the forty-eight schools of science 
 endowed with the national land grant are coeducational, as 
 are eleven of the independent schools of the same class. 
 
 4, Examinations and Annexes. 
 
 Contemporary with the founding of Smith and Welles- 
 ley, an organization was formed in Boston (1872) whose aim 
 was to aid in the more liberal and thorough education of 
 woman in the higher branches. Arrangements were made 
 with the Harvard authorities to hold examinations for 
 women similar to those, and under the same conditions, ac- 
 corded them by the Edinburgh, Oxford, and Cambridge 
 Universities. These were first held (1874) in Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, though similar ones are now offered annu- 
 ally at New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati, also by the 
 Harvard authorities, in all respects equivalent to and on the 
 same conditions as the regular examination of men for ad- 
 mission to university classes. 
 
 After five years' experience it was proposed to provide 
 for instruction as well as examination, the new organization 
 being incorporated as the "Society for the Collegiate In- 
 struction of Women by Professors and other Instructors of 
 Harvard College." The former has recently dissolved, the
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 373 
 
 functions being assumed and the duties performed by tbe 
 later organization. A dozen Harvard professors are mem- 
 bers of the corporation, of which Mrs. Elizabeth Agassiz is 
 president. The " Annex " bears no official relation to Har- 
 vard ; the names of its graduates do not appear in the college 
 catalogue. Instruction is given by Harvard professors who 
 have taken a personal interest in the matter, and ai*e under 
 contract with the "Society." Fifty members of the uni- 
 versity faculty are on the " Annex " staff, and offer eighty- 
 one courses, as follows: Hebrew (two), Sanskrit (two), Ital- 
 ian (two), astronomy (two), philosophy, political economy, 
 music, physics, and chemistry (three each), fine arts (four), 
 German (five), Greek, French, mathematics, and natural his- 
 tory (six each), Latin (seven), English (eight), and history 
 (ten). 
 
 The first year twenty-seven women were admitted, and 
 twenty -four courses taken; most of the students were ma- 
 ture ; many have been teachers. The second year the 
 courses were doubled, and the attendance increased, there 
 being one hundred students now ; the average for nine years 
 has been above fifty. In 1883-'84 the students were drawn 
 from twelve States, seven outside of New England. The 
 Harvard Annex has been called the "American Girton," 
 and is said by Prof. Goodwin to offer "better advantages 
 to women than any institution [in this country] offered 
 young men in 1865." Tuition is two hundred dollars a 
 year. The society owns its building, and has one hundred 
 thousand dollars' endowment. 
 
 Next to the Harvard examination for women, both in 
 tune and in the dignity of the undertaking, is that of Colum- 
 bia College. After an entrance examination, a course of 
 study (without instruction) is offered, embracing the follow- 
 ing nine groups : 
 
 1. The English language and literature. 
 
 2. Modern languages and foreign literature. 
 
 3. The Latin language and literature.
 
 374 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 4. The Greek language and literature. 
 
 5. History and political science. 
 
 6. Moral and intellectual philosophy. 
 
 7. Mathematics. 
 
 8. Physics, chemistry, and hygiene. 
 
 9. Natural history, geology, paleontology, botany, and 
 zoology. 
 
 The course covers four years, and is prescribed for the 
 first two ; in the Harvard Annex the instruction offered is 
 altogether elective. Arrangements have been recently shap- 
 ing in Columbia to offer instruction also, as jn Harvard. 
 
 5. Association of Collegiate Alumnce. 
 
 Seven years ago (1882) there was formed in Boston an 
 "Association of Collegiate Alumnae," representing Vassar, 
 Wellesley, Smith, Oberlin, Wisconsin, and Boston Univer- 
 sities. Within one year it enrolled two hundred and sixty- 
 four members, admitting graduates, also, from Cornell, 
 Michigan, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Wesleyan 
 University, Syracuse, Kansas, and Northwestern. The object 
 is said to be " to unite alumnae of different institutions for 
 practical educational work." It offers advantages for home 
 and advanced study, and covers a wide range of investiga- 
 tion. The present membership is about five hundred, rep- 
 resenting fifteen institutions in nearly as many States. 
 Branch organizations have been formed in Washington, 
 Chicago, New York, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Pough- 
 keepsie, and Cleveland, and perhaps one or two other places. 
 Members have been doing more or less special and graduate 
 work in political and sanitary science, in a study of the 
 " Occupations of Women," " Health Statistics," and " Local 
 Histories." There has been recently organized, also, by the 
 society a "Bureau of Collegiate Information," whose ob- 
 ject is " to collect trustworthy facts and statistics concern- 
 ing the history of the movement for the collegiate educa- 
 tion of women."
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 375 
 
 6. The Professional Education of Women. 
 
 A. THEOLOGICAL. 
 
 Of the departments for special training of women, that 
 of medicine is best established, and of the ministry least. 
 Yet among Friends, for more than two centuries, women 
 have performed ministerial functions, as among Moravians 
 also, there being one instance at least of a woman hold- 
 ing regularly and discharging the duties of a bishopric. 
 The like may be said in general of women among Univer- 
 salists and Unitarians, who have ordained them preachers 
 and pastors, as have the Protestant Methodist and Baptist 
 Churches. Mrs. Antoinette Brown Blackwell, a graduate 
 of Oberlin in 1847, finished the theological course also in 
 the same institution three years afterward. At first re- 
 fused a license to preach, she was subsequently ordained 
 pastor of a church in New York. Rev. Olympia Brown, 
 Rev. Phebe Hanaford, and others followed both in the 
 seminary and in the pulpit. In 1880 there were in the 
 United States one hundred and sixty-five pulpits regular- 
 ly occupied by women, most of whom had taken more or 
 less of theological training in the schools of their respective 
 churches. 
 
 Boston University, Northwestern University, Chicago, 
 and St. Lawrence University, New York, have been es- 
 pecially forward in extending the privileges of their di- 
 vinity courses to women. 
 
 B. MEDICAL. 
 
 To the Drs. Blackwell, Elizabeth and Emily, sisters, is 
 due more than to any other single agency the early though 
 slow recognition accorded to women by the medical institu- 
 tions of the country. In the year 1847, the former and 
 elder of the two, having read in Charleston and Philadel- 
 phia, applied for admission to the medical schools of the 
 latter and afterward of New York and Boston, being uni- 
 formly refused. She was finally admitted to the Medical
 
 376 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 School of Geneva, New York, by vote of the students. She 
 graduated in 1849, and, upon going abroad, studied in 
 Paris and London, practiced successfully in foreign hos- 
 pitals, and returned in 1854 to the United States. In New 
 York she was instrumental in establishing the " Infirmary 
 for Women and Children," to which was attached thirteen 
 years afterward a medical college. 
 
 During the studies of Miss Blackwell in Geneva Col- 
 lege, there had been organized in Boston a " Female Med- 
 ical Education Association," which led (1848) to the es- 
 tablishment of the New England Female Medical College. 
 In 1874 it was merged in the Boston University. The 
 Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, founded in 
 1850 and graduating its first class the next year, has now 
 a faculty consisting of both men and women of high so- 
 cial and professional standing and scientific attainments, 
 buildings and apparatus, lecture-rooms, and laboratories of 
 modern completeness and design. The University of 
 Michigan organized a medical department about 1850, and 
 twenty years later admitted women to it, as to all other 
 departments, on equal terms with men. In the same year 
 also was opened the "Woman's Hospital Medical Col- 
 lege," Chicago. In twenty years from Miss Blackwell's 
 graduation at Geneva, half a dozen institutions received 
 women regularly, and more than five hundred graduates 
 were practicing their profession. There are now about one 
 thousand in practice, and of one hundred and twenty-six 
 medical schools, exclusive of dental, pharmaceutical, and 
 veterinary courses, thirty-six admit both sexes on equal 
 terms. These schools represent eighteen States and the 
 District of Columbia, and such large cities, with all their 
 hospital and clinical advantages, as New York, Philadel- 
 phia, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Baltimore, Louisville, 
 Cincinnati, and Washington. Besides these coeducation 
 schools there are six independent institutions, as shown in 
 the table, for women only :
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
 
 377 
 
 Medical Colleges 
 Allopathic. 
 
 University of Southern California, 
 Los Angeles. 
 
 Cooper Medical College, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. 
 
 University of California, San Fran- 
 cisco. 
 
 University of Colorado, Boulder. 
 
 Howard University, Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 National Medical College, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. 
 
 Quincy College of Medicine, Quin- 
 cy, HI. 
 
 Iowa College of Physicians and Sur- 
 geons, Des Moines, la. 
 
 College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
 Keokuk, la. 
 
 College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 
 Mich. 
 
 Minnesota Hospital College, Minne- 
 apolis, Minn. 
 
 University of Nebraska, Lincoln,Neb. 
 
 Omaha Medical College, Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Leonard Medical School, Ealeigh, 
 N. C. 
 
 University of Wooster, Cleveland, 0. 
 
 Columbus Medical College, Colum- 
 bus, O. 
 
 Toledo Medical College, Toledo, O. 
 
 Willamette University, Portland, 
 Or eg. 
 
 Eclectic. 
 
 California Medical College, Oak- 
 land, Cal. 
 
 Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine 
 and Surgery, Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Bennett College of Eclectic Medicine 
 and Surgery, Chicago, 111. 
 
 admitting Women. 
 
 Indiana Eclectic Medical College, In- 
 dianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Iowa Medical College, Des Moines, la. 
 
 American Medical College, St. Louis, 
 Mo. 
 
 American Eclectic Medical College, 
 Cincinnati, 0. 
 
 Eclectic Medical Institute,, Cincin- 
 nati, 0. 
 
 Homoeopathic. 
 Hahnemann Medical College and 
 
 Hospital, Chicago, 111. 
 Boston University, Boston, Mass. 
 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 
 
 Mich. 
 Medical College of Missouri, St. 
 
 Louis. Mo. 
 
 Univ ersity of Nebraska, Lincoln ,Ncb. 
 Pulte Medical College, New York, 
 
 N. Y. 
 Homoeopathic Hospital College, 
 
 Cleveland, 0. 
 
 Physio-Medical. 
 
 Physio- Medical Institute,Chicago, 111. 
 Physio-Medical College, Indianapo- 
 lis, Ind. 
 
 Independent Schools for Women. 
 
 Woman's Medical College, Chicago, 
 111. 
 
 Woman's Medical College, Balti- 
 more, Md. 
 
 Woman's Medical College of New 
 York Infirmary, N. Y. 
 
 Woman's Medical College of Penn- 
 sylvania, Philadelphia, Pa, 
 
 New York Medical College and Hos- 
 pital, N. Y. 
 
 School of Pharmacy for Women, 
 Louisville, Ky.
 
 378 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 C. LEGAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The history of the legal education of woman is brief.* 
 About twenty years after Dr. Blackwell left Geneva Col- 
 lege, Washington University, St. Louis, admitted a young 
 lady to the department of law. The next year one was 
 admitted to the Iowa bar, and three others enrolled as stu- 
 dents of the Law School of Chicago University. The same 
 year from the same institution Mrs. Ada H. Kepley was 
 given the degree of Bachelor of Laws, though she was re- 
 fused for two years permission to practice. 
 
 Women were first admitted to the Iowa University Law 
 School in 1872. Seven years later Miss Clara Foltz received 
 judgment to compel the directors of Hastings College of Law, 
 in the University of California, to admit her as a student. 
 
 Now, after twenty years, though comparatively few use 
 the privilege, women are admitted to most law schools, and 
 are practicing at the bar in Maine, Massachusetts, Connecti- 
 cut, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, California, 
 Oregon, Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin, Texas, District of 
 Columbia, and the Territories of Wyoming, Washington, 
 and Utah. A woman is Professor of Commercial Law in 
 Rockford, Illinois, and the principal legal newspaper of 
 Chicago and the West is edited by a woman. The Equity 
 Club of Michigan and the Woman's International Bar Asso- 
 ciation are organizations of women lawyers, both with a 
 considerable membership. 
 
 D. WOMEN AS TEACHERS. 
 
 One accompaniment and consequence of the long neglect 
 of female education was the great preponderance of male 
 teachers in the schools, both public and private. The eight- 
 eenth century had its dame-schools both in England and 
 her colonies. Bright girls occasionally taught in a quiet 
 
 * It is a fact of history that one Margaret Brent, attorney to Lord Balti- 
 more, was admitted to the Maryland bar in 1648.
 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 379 
 
 way, and the mothers themselves, learning of pastor or 
 father, sometimes instructed their own children. From the 
 later schools of Mrs. Willard, and especially from Mount 
 Holyoke, young ladies went out to teach more than sixty 
 years ago. The teachers sent West by Miss Beecher were 
 principally well-educated young women. Nevertheless, 
 they were not only few, as compared with the great body 
 of teachers, but they were indifferently regarded among 
 patrons and school officers and even among teachers them- 
 selves. Women were not allowed to take part in the teach- 
 ers' gatherings, though toward the middle of the century it 
 was granted that they might submit communications to be 
 read by their gentlemen friends. 
 
 As late as 1845 Mr. Barnard asserts that in the entire 
 State of Rhode Island, except Providence and the primary 
 departments of a few large central districts, there were prob- 
 ably not more than a dozen female teachers employed. A 
 like state of affairs existed throughout the newer West and 
 the South. 
 
 Yet there were forces at work in most sections to change 
 this arrangement. When the first State Normal School was 
 opened at Lexington, Massachusetts, it was, as it has re- 
 mained, for women only. Of twenty-nine students who en- 
 tered at Albany a few years afterward, sixteen were women. 
 A like proportion obtained at New Britain, Connecticut, in 
 1850. Before the middle of the century the New York 
 academies also began sending out young women from their 
 teachers' classes ; and after twenty years' experience in Mas- 
 sachusetts with four normal schools, eighty-seven per cent 
 of the students were found to be women. So rapidly had 
 the proportion of men decreased that it attracted the atten- 
 tion of the Swedish visitor, Siljestrom, in 1854, who com- 
 mented upon it favorably; of Bishop Fraser, ten years 
 later ; and of Francis Adams, who criticised it in his recent 
 visit to this country in 1875. The impulse was a part of 
 the general movement which established normal schools, 
 State systems, supervision, etc., in the first half of the cent-
 
 380 
 
 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 ury. Below is presented a tabulated statement of the change 
 noted in thirteen typical States : 
 
 Table showing Per Cent of Female Teachers in TJdrteen States. 
 Growth in Thirty Years. 
 
 No. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 
 85 
 
 83 
 
 88 
 
 67 
 
 9, 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 83 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 89 
 
 71 
 
 76 
 
 79 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 Iowa 
 
 44 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 76 
 
 32 
 
 5 
 
 Indian:! 
 
 21 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 61 
 
 67 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 Kliodo Island 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 87 
 
 27 
 
 ft 
 
 Missouri 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 64 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 82 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 74 
 
 88 
 
 87 
 
 89 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 74 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 88 
 
 14 
 
 T> 
 
 Ohio 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 n 
 
 Maine 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In noting the increasing proportion of women teachers 
 between 1855 and 1875, it should be remembered that it in- 
 cludes the war period, when there was a large withdrawal 
 of male teachers : 
 
 Table shoiring Per Cent of Women Teachers in each State, 1885-86. 
 
 No. 
 
 STATE. 
 
 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 No. 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 1 
 2 
 8 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 
 Alabama 
 
 36 
 23 
 76 
 73 
 82 
 57 
 45 
 33 
 67 
 49 
 76 
 58 
 47 
 54 
 65 
 67 
 89 
 75 
 89 
 
 20 
 21 
 -2-1 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 
 
 45 
 40 
 75 
 
 77 
 88 
 79 
 81 
 40 
 56 
 83 
 62 
 87 
 46 
 32 
 31 
 88 
 50 
 34 
 79 
 
 
 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 
 Delaware 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 New York 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Ore <r on 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Louisiana. . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Maine .... 
 
 Texas 
 
 Maryland ... ... 
 
 Vermont 
 
 
 Vi rginia 
 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 W isconsin 
 

 
 THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 381 
 
 In thirteen States, it will be seen, male teachers yet pre- 
 dominate; these are all Southern States except Indiana. 
 Yet even here the gain in the proportion of women teachers 
 is scarcely less than for the thirteen States shown in the 
 preceding table. Georgia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
 and Vermont made no gain, and Arkansas and Maine pre- 
 sent the anomaly of employing constantly fewer women 
 teachers for the last twelve years. 
 
 In cities, especially the larger ones, the preponderance of 
 female teachers is most noticeable. In sixty-nine cities of 
 the United States, employing more than one hundred teach- 
 ers each, more than ninety-one per cent are women. In but 
 twelve of them does the proportion fall below ninety per 
 cent, while in seventeen of them it is ninety-five per cent or 
 over. A few cities are typical of the most radical policy of 
 employing women. Twelve cities in seven States reporting 
 an aggregate of three hundred and nine teachers, and repre- 
 senting a school population of thirty-three thousand five 
 hundred, employ women teachers only. 
 
 7. School Suffrage of Women. 
 
 As showing a different relation of women to education, 
 but promising, in its consequences, their school suffrage and 
 service on educational boards of control, are deserving of 
 attention. 
 
 Fifteen States California, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, 
 Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hamp- 
 shire, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
 Vermont, and Wisconsin, and the Territories of Idaho, 
 Montana, and Washington admit them to both these 
 privileges. 
 
 In Iowa the State Board of Examiners, created to en- 
 courage training in the science and art of teaching, is com- 
 posed of four ex-officio members and two others, one of 
 whom must be a woman. In Oregon the privilege among 
 women of voting upon school questions is confined to 
 widows. Twelve States extend their educational service to 
 25
 
 382 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 county superintendency, and six make women eligible to 
 any educational office in the State. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 "Intellectual Education for Women," by E. Sliireff, 1862; "The Col- 
 lege, the Market, and the Court," by Caroline H. Dall, 1 867 ; " The Lib- 
 eral Education of Women," by J. Orton, 1873; "Schools for Girls and 
 Colleges for Women" (English), by C. E. Pascoe, 1879; "Smith Col- 
 lege," Caroline E. Hilliard, "Education," September, 1887; "Welleslcy 
 College," Jean Kincaid, "Education," January, 1887; " Bryn-Mawr Col- 
 lege," " Education," September, 1886 ; " Women in Colleges," " Proceed- 
 ings of the New York University Convocation," 1883, p. 417; "Women 
 in English Universities," "Yale Review," July, 1886; "The American 
 Girl Graduate," T. W. Higginson, "Critic," December 4, 1886; "Women 
 of the Twentieth Century," F. K. Carey, "Princeton Review," September 
 and November, 1884; "Progress of Coeducation," "The Forum," Au- 
 gust, 1887, p. 631 ; "The Harvard Annex," G. C. Eggleston, "The Cent- 
 ury Magazine," September, 1884; also "Education," vol. vi, p. 668; 
 "Michigan School Report," 1879, p. 142, and "Education," May, 1886; 
 "Women as Professional Teachers," May Mackintosh, "Education," 
 April 4, 18S7. Consult, also, " Heredity," by W. K. Brooks, chap, x, 
 on " Intellectual Differences between Men and Women " ; " Female Edu- 
 cation from a Medical Point of View," T. S. Clouston, " Popular Science 
 Monthly," December, 1883, and January, 1884; "Higher Education of 
 Women " (adverse), by Mrs. E. Lynn Lynton, " Popular Science Month- 
 ly," December, 1886 ; and "Advanced Education for Women," by Kate 
 Stevens, " Forum," March, 1889. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 WHATEVER confidence one may feel in the general sound- 
 ness of the idea of education here sought to be sketched, or 
 however well satisfied one may be with the work of existing 
 schools, from this brief study of them no conclusion could 
 be less warranted tlian that this New World idea of educa- 
 tion is altogether the best, or that our school systems have
 
 CONCLUSION. 383 
 
 reached a final form. With three teachers in four having 
 no special fitness for the work ; schools but six months in 
 twelve ; the average school period less than five years ; hut 
 sixty-one per cent of minors over six years of age in school ; 
 and two million (sixteen per cent) illiterate voters in the 
 country, there is abundant room for criticism not, indeed, 
 upon the schools as such, but upon the general public senti- 
 ment which makes these things possible, and even common. 
 The schools come in for then 1 share of this responsibility. 
 
 Along with this deficiency, and perhaps the occasion of 
 it, are certain unsettled social and educational questions that 
 are of peculiar interest, and may well claim the most serious 
 attention of every one : 
 
 1. It betrays neither lack of confidence, nor want of ap- 
 preciation of what has been done, to say that no sufficient 
 means has yet been found to provide a supply of qualified 
 teachers. 
 
 2. How best to honor the complex nature of the child, 
 and, while shaping the understanding mind, to bring up 
 youth with sound bodies and a love for truth, is still in the 
 stage of personal opinion. 
 
 3. There is no general agreement among legislators or 
 educators as to the relation which the public schools should 
 sustain to industrial training, either manual or technical. 
 
 4. The supreme importance of infant and primary edu- 
 cation is only beginning to be appreciated by the commu- 
 nity, and this only in cities. 
 
 5. Free public higher, and professional education, has 
 still numerous opponents; as does anything like coercive 
 legislation in the interests of school attendance. 
 
 6. Closely related to this is the question of extra-school 
 training, which is daily assuming graver proportions. How 
 may the hundreds of thousands be reached who, too old for 
 school, or prevented by industry and poverty the day-labor- 
 er, the recent immigrant, the street Arab, the orphan, the 
 young offender are practically illiterate ? How accommo- 
 date the intelligent and willing, but half-educated workman,
 
 384 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS. 
 
 who seeks higher skill in his trade ? The uses to which, 
 public libraries, and lectures, and evening schools, and 
 university faculties, may be put for this extra-school edu- 
 cation, have been but recently tried outside the few centers 
 of cities where first introduced. 
 
 7. Finally, what constitutes a citizenship education 
 how to compass an education with special civic and ad- 
 ministrative aptitudes is only beginning to claim general 
 and systematic attention, and chiefly of the colleges. That 
 the common elementary schools have a definite citizen-mak- 
 ing function is by no means generally accepted. 
 
 Notwithstanding all this indecision, and sometimes dis- 
 agreement, and perhaps because of the fact, there is a wide- 
 spread public interest in education in all its phases, such as 
 has not been before for half a century. The public educa- 
 tion societies in large cities are only conspicuous exam- 
 ples of an impulse that is stirring rural as well as urban 
 communities alike. It means faith in the common school 
 as a civilizing and purifying agency ; it means a patriotic 
 interest in home industry ; an unselfish concern for the 
 next generations. 
 
 Much of this general activity may be ascribed to a com- 
 mon familiarity with the systems of other states and nations. 
 Acquaintance with one's neighbor's success is a great quick- 
 ener to home enterprise. A generation since, European 
 schools were chiefly known to Americans through a half- 
 dozen volumes. How great a service these few did ! But 
 now, what with the easier intercourse, the frequent intermi- 
 gration, the translation of foreign literature, the prominence 
 given to modern-language study, and the interchange of 
 views in international expositions and conferences, the 
 school systems of Europe are, in a general way, more fa- 
 miliar to many an American teacher than are those of his 
 own country. 
 
 This comparative study of educational institutions, very 
 elementary and very superficial it may be, gives a kind of per- 
 spective to the nearer views of one's own schools a chance
 
 CONCLUSION. 385 
 
 to look at them in their universal relations. This concern, 
 it has already been suggested, is not monopolized by the 
 profession ; but instances of it may be seen in every State, 
 and in all sections, among business men, and lawyers, and 
 the clergy, physicians, and laborers. Common-school ques- 
 tions are being studied by college presidents and professors, 
 as related to their own labors ; by economists and histo- 
 rians ; and the outlook is hopeful. 
 
 Only this comprehensive study of education in all its 
 relations can save our people from a national tendency to 
 run to extremes and ride hobbies. These problems and 
 others, with which the public is still experimenting, and in 
 whose presence wise men stand confounded, confronted 
 the early settlers also, with every subsequent generation. 
 Some of them have been settled before, but " are constant- 
 ly recurring," it has been said, " because of our ignorance of 
 that fact."
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abbott, Benjamin, 72. 
 
 Abderrahman I, 4. 
 
 Academe, the, 278. 
 
 Academia Virginiensis et Oxonien- 
 sis, 32. 
 
 Academic studies in normal schools, 
 136. 
 
 Academies, endowment of, 72 ; in 
 England, 71 ; in New England, 72 ; 
 in New York, 132. 364 ; of science, 
 285 ; of the revolutionary period, 
 70. 
 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences, 286. 
 
 Academy of Natural Science, 286. 
 
 Academy, the scientific, 286. 
 
 Acrelius", Israel, 55. 
 
 Adams, C. K., in Michigan Univer- 
 sity, 177 ; " Washington and High- 
 er "Education," 149. 
 
 Adams, Francis, 62, 64, 123. 
 
 Adams, H. B., 6, 36, 43, 177, 183. 
 
 Adler, Prof. Felix, Twenty -second 
 Street (N. Y.) Kindergarten, 336. . 
 
 Agassiz Association, 284. 
 
 Agassiz, Mrs. Elizabeth, President 
 of the Society for the Collegiate 
 Instruction of Women, 373. 
 
 Agassiz, Prof. Louis, 274. 
 
 Agricultural colleges, 233 ; curricu- 
 lum, 234; education, 227, 232; 
 land grant, 233; museum, 273, 
 schools, 234. 
 
 Alaska, education in, 262. 
 
 Albany (N. Y.) Normal School, 132. 
 
 Alcott, A. Bronson, 151, 278. 
 
 Alcott. William A., 151. 
 
 Alfred the Great, 4. 
 
 American Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science, 286 ; Asy- 
 lum for Deaf- Mutes, 245; Ento- 
 mological Society, 289 ; Ethno- 
 
 logical Society, 256 ; Geographical 
 Society, 286 ; Historical Associa- 
 tion, 291 ; idea of free schools, 1, 
 8 ; Institute of Instruction, 122 ; 
 Journal of Education, 6, 51, 60, 
 150, 152 ; Journal of Psychology, 
 153 ; Journal of Science, 292 ; Mis- 
 sionary Association, 353 ; Museum 
 of Natural History, 274; Philo- 
 sophical Society, 286, 294. _ 
 
 American history, instruction in, 
 178. 
 
 American Preceptor, the, 167. 
 
 Andover Normal School, 129. 
 
 Annex, Harvard, 373. 
 
 Ante-war period in the South, 348. 
 
 Antioch College, 371. 
 
 Apprenticeship schools, 231. 
 
 Architecture, education in, 227. 
 
 Arithmetic texts. 67. 
 
 Army Medical Museum, 273. 
 
 Art and design, schools of, 229. 
 
 Articulation in deaf-mute instruc- 
 tion, 245. 
 
 Artillery school at Fortress Monroe, 
 239. 
 
 Art, museums of, 272 ; normal 
 schools, 229. 
 
 Associates of Cooper Union, 290. 
 
 Associations, classification of, 118; 
 educational, 117 ; State, 121. 
 
 Astor Library, 298. 
 
 Astronomy, 158, 164. 
 
 Athenian education, 7, 326. 
 
 Atterbury quoted, 294. 
 
 Authority, withdrawal of, 186. 
 
 Awakening, educational, 182. 
 
 Bache, Prof. A. D., Superintendent 
 of Coast Survey, 317 ; visit to 
 Europe, 129, 149.
 
 388 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Baker, Mies Alice, 279. 
 
 Bancroft, George, 7 ; editor of New 
 York colonial MSS., 11, 241, 292 ; 
 History of the United States, 177, 
 198. 
 
 Baptist Western Educational Asso- 
 ciation, 119. 
 
 Barbarism, New England idea of, 17. 
 
 Bar, fitting for the, 213. 
 
 Barnard, Henry, 6 ; in Connecticut, 
 104 : in Rhode Island, 106 ; Prin- 
 cipal of Connecticut Normal 
 School, 132 ; American Journal of 
 Education, viii, 150, 152; Com- 
 missioner of Education. 309. 
 
 Barre (Mass.) Normal School, 131. 
 
 Bartram, John, 167. 
 
 Bates, Joshua, gift to Boston Libra- 
 ry. 298. 
 
 Battle Creek School, Md., 59. 
 
 Beecher, Miss C. E., 305. 
 
 Beers, Samuel, 106. 
 
 Bell, Andrew, 127. 
 
 Benefactions, educational, 206 ; of 
 George Peabody, 354 ; to Harvard, 
 29 ; to William" and Mary, 35 ; to 
 Yale, 41 ; to the South, 353. 
 
 Berkeley, Bishop, 14, 41 ; donation 
 to Newport Library, 279 ; founds 
 the New Haven Club, 286. 
 
 Berkeley, Governor of Virginia, 59. 
 
 Bermuda Islands, school on, 14. 
 
 Bible study in elementary schools, 
 66 ; in Harvard ? 25. 
 
 Bibliography ot early colonial 
 schools. 19 ; colonial colleges, 42 ; 
 colonial s_chool systems, 60 ; col- 
 lege curricula, 184 ; compulsory 
 education, 330 ; education for 
 women, 382 ; education in the 
 South, 361 ; education of depend- 
 ent classes, 263 ; elective courses, 
 208 ; elementary and secondary 
 instruction, 346 ; learned societies 
 and libraries, 307 ; national edu- 
 cation, 325; normal schools and 
 institutes, 141 ; professional edu- 
 cation, 221 ; Revolutionary period, 
 18 ; school funds, 93 ; school su- 
 pervision, 116 ; supplementary 
 agencies, 284 ; technological train- 
 ing, 242 ; university pedagogy and 
 educational literature, 157. 
 
 Bic-kmore, Dr., 274. 
 
 Bu-knell, T. W., 94. 
 
 Billings, Dr., 301. 
 
 Bingham, Caleb, The American Pre- 
 ceptor, 67 ; The Columbian Ora- 
 tor, 67 ; girls' school, Boston, CD ; 
 Young Ladies Accidence, 68. 
 
 Biological studies, 166. 
 
 Bishop, Nathan, superintendent of 
 Boston schools, 110 : superintend- 
 ent of Providence schoob, 110. 
 
 Blackboard used by Christopher 
 Dock, 56. 
 
 Blair, Rev. James, 33. 
 
 Blackstone on deaf-mutes and blind, 
 244; sale of "Commentaries" in 
 America, 214. 
 
 Blackwell, Dr. Elizabeth, 375. 
 
 Blanqui, J. A., quoted, 275. 
 
 Blind, education of the, 246 ; indus- 
 trial training of the, 247 ; methods 
 of instruction, 248 : occupations of 
 the, 248 ; work at the New Orleans 
 Exposition, 247. 
 
 Blow, Susan E., 334. 
 
 Blue Laws of Connecticut, 49. 
 
 " Boarding 'round," 64. 
 
 Board of Education, Connecticut, 
 105 ; functions of, 108 ; Massachu- 
 setts, 104. 
 
 Bocltc, Miss (Kraus), 334. 
 
 Bopp's Indo-Germanic studies, 173. 
 
 Boston Academy of Science, 288. 
 
 Boston evening schools, 270 ; Latin 
 School, 9, 14, 338 ; lectures in 
 pedagogy, 146; primary schools, 
 origin o'f, 332; Public Library, 
 297; school superintendent, 110; 
 training-school, 140. 
 
 Botanical science, 167 ; in Harvard, 
 
 . 25, 167. 
 
 Botany, museum of ? 273. 
 
 Boucher, characterization of early 
 Maryland teachers, 64. 
 
 Bowdoin teachers' class, 130. 
 
 Bowen, Francis, 179. 
 
 Boyle fund for educating Indians, 
 254. 
 
 Bridgewater (Mass.) Normal School, 
 131. 
 
 Bridffman. Laura, 249. 
 
 Broadhead's Documentary History 
 of New York, 5, 292. 
 
 Brooklyn school-tax, 10. 
 
 Brooks, Rev. Charles, 129. 
 
 Brooks, Rev. PhillinSj 9. 
 
 Brothers of the Christian Schools, 
 268. 
 
 Brown, Goold, 122.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 389 
 
 Browning clubs in the United States, 
 278. 
 
 Browning, Oscar, 150. 
 
 Brown University, 94. 
 
 Bryant and Stra'tton Business Col- 
 leges, 266. 
 
 Bryn Mawr College, 369 ; group sys- 
 tem of, 200, 370. 
 
 Buffalo, school supervision, 109. 
 
 Bureau, Indian schools, 258 ; of Ag- 
 riculture, 323 ; of Education, 308 ; 
 museum, 311 ; library, 310 ; of 
 collegiate information, 374 ; pub- 
 lications, 310. 
 
 Burlington (N. J.) school-funds, 56. 
 
 Business scnools, 265. 
 
 Cabell and Jefferson, 190. 
 
 Cadets in the United States Military 
 Academy, 237. 
 
 California, exploration of, 319; his- 
 tory of education in, 150 ; Lick 
 Observatory, 1G6 ; naval training- 
 ship, 242. 
 
 Calvhij John, 6, 7. 
 
 Calvinism in New England, 28. 
 
 Cambridge, England, 8. 
 
 Cambridge (Mass.) early school, 16. 
 
 Carlisle Indian School, 261. 
 
 Carol us.Alexander, 11. 
 
 Carter, Rev. James G., 130. 
 
 Catalogue, of students, -alphabetic, 
 76 ; of Philadelphia Pedagogical 
 Library, 151. 
 
 Catalogues, library, 306. 
 
 Catechism, Mather's, 52. 
 
 Catholic, estimate of public schools, 
 98 ; Indian missions, 253 ; parish 
 schools, 267 ; university, 268. 
 
 Census, schoolj 154. 
 
 Centralization in education, 44. 
 
 Centralizing tendencies, 79, 83. 
 
 Chaldee in Harvard, 28. 
 
 Chandler Scientific School, 226. 
 
 Charity schools in Pennsylvania, 
 55-63 ; in England, 62. 
 
 Charlemagne, 3, 4. 
 
 Charles X, 4. 
 
 Charter. Harvard, 27 ; Peun Colonv, 
 54; William and Mary, 34; Yale, 
 39. 
 
 Chase, Dr. P. E., 188. 
 
 Chauncy, President of Harvard, 26. 
 
 Chautauqua, 281 ; Teachers' Reading 
 Union, 284; University, 281. 
 
 Chauvenct, Prof., 241. 
 
 Cheever, Ezekiel, 18, 51, 68. 
 
 Chemistry, in, college, 158, 162 ; a 
 branch of medicine. 162. 
 
 Chicago High-School, 339 ; Kinder- 
 garten, 335, 336; library, 298; 
 school reports, 155 ; supervision, 
 111, 112. 
 
 Child labor, legislation on, 329. 
 
 Children's reading circles,*284. 
 
 Chipman's" American Moralist," 67. 
 
 Christian Brothers, 126, 268. 
 
 Church, lotteries, 88; schools, 266. 
 
 Cincinnati school reports, 155. 
 
 Circulating libraries, 294. 
 
 Citizenship education, 384. 
 
 City, reports, 155 ; school histories, 
 150; supervision, 119-123; teach- 
 ers' institutes, 140 ; training- 
 schools, 140. 
 
 Civilization fund. Indian, 255. 
 
 Civil Liberty ana Self- Government, 
 175. 
 
 Clark Institution for the Education 
 ofDeaf-Mutes, 246. 
 
 Clark University, Worcester, 206. 
 
 Class distinctions at Harvard, 195. 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio, supervision in, 
 110. 
 
 Clubs and circles, 275. 
 
 Coast Survey, 316. 
 
 Coeducation of races, 262, 360, 370 ; 
 of sexes, 69. 131, 339, 370. 
 
 Cokesbury College, 267. 
 
 Colburn, Warren, 122. 
 
 Collections, art, 272 ; scientific, 274. 
 431 ; of Massachusetts Historical 
 Society, 291. 
 
 College-bred colonists, 20. 
 
 College Corner Club, 278. 
 
 College, curricula, 158 ; histories, 
 150 ; journals, 153 ; libraries, 304 ; 
 of professional teachers, 121 ; or- 
 ganization, 202 ; reports, 157 ; 
 training in pedagogy, 144. 
 
 Collegiate Alumnse, Society of, 374. 
 
 359 ; Western, 195. 
 
 College Society of Yale, 119. 
 
 Colonial school systems, 43; libra- 
 ries, 293 ; period, 9. 
 
 Colonists, early English, 7. 
 
 Colorado Agricultural College, 235. 
 
 Colored schools in the South, 356- 
 860.
 
 390 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Columbia College t 53, 73 ; elcctives, 
 197 ; examinations for women, 
 373 ; French in, 171 ; graduate 
 courses, 201 ; history in, 175 ; le- 
 gal studies in, 215, 216 ; Lieber in, 
 176 ; School of Library Economy, 
 306 : School of Political Science, 
 180. 
 
 Columbian Orator, the, 67. 
 
 Common-school controversy, 154. 
 
 Common - school system, principles 
 of, 43. 
 
 Commissioner of Education, United 
 States, yii, 309. 
 
 Comparative Zoology, Museum of, 
 274. 
 
 Compulsory education, 7, 326. 
 
 Concord School of Philosophy, 278. 
 
 Concord Teachers' School,_Hall, 123. 
 
 Congregationalism, 28 ; in South 
 Carolina, 59 ; schools of, 267. 
 
 Congress, land grants of, 83 ; Library 
 of, 304; Merrill Act of 1862, 233 ; 
 act of 1841, 90. 
 
 Connecticut Asylum for Deaf-Mutes, 
 245; Code of 1650, 47, 327; fee 
 bills, 64; first schools, 18; normal 
 school^ 132 ; school-fund, 85 ; su- 
 pervision in, 104 ; union of colo- 
 nies of, 48. 
 
 Contract Indian schools, 261. 
 
 Controversial spirit of New England, 
 29, 30. 
 
 Cooper, Peter, 271. 
 
 Cooper Union, 271, 290. 
 
 Copeland, Rev. Patrick, 13, 31. 
 
 Corcoran Art Gallery, 273. 
 
 Corlett and Cheever, 51. 
 
 Cornell University, elective courses 
 in, 196; graduate courses, 196, 
 202; organization of, 196; School 
 of Political Science, 181 ; science 
 and art of teaching in, 146. 
 
 Correspondence University, 281. 
 
 Council of education. 123. 
 
 County superintendent, election of, ' 
 115; duties of, 116. 
 
 County supervision, 113-115. 
 
 Courses of study, in colonial schools, 
 52 ; early colleges, 24, 35, 41 ; high- 
 school. 343; law-school, 216; medi- 
 cal school, 220; normal school, 
 136 ; pedagogy, 147; recent colleges, 
 158; technological schools, "2:27; 
 theological schoolSj 211. 
 
 Current educational interests, 326. 
 
 Curriculum of agricultural schools, 
 234 ; Columbia College, 74 ; Cooper 
 Union, 272 ; Harvard Annex, 373 ; 
 Naval Academy. 241; night-schools, 
 270 ; reform schools. 252 : schools 
 of science, 228; United States 
 Military Academy, 238; University 
 of Virginia, 189. 
 
 Cutler, Dr. Mauasseh, 203. 
 
 Cutler, Timothy, rector of Yale, 42. 
 
 Cuttings Museum, 273. 
 
 Cyclopaedia of Education, 150. 
 
 Daboll's Arithmetic, 67. 
 
 Dana, James D., 103. 
 
 Dana, James F., 161, 163. 
 
 Darlington, William, estimate of 
 early teachers, 64. 
 
 Dartmouth College case, 75. 
 
 Dartmouth College, origin of, 75, 
 254; physics in, 160. 
 
 Davenport, John, 8, 37 ; 40. 
 
 Davenport (Iowa) Training- School, 
 141. 
 
 Dawson, N. H. R., United States 
 Commissioner of Education, 309. 
 
 Deaf-Mute College, 246. 
 
 Deaf-mute education, 244; schools, 
 245. 
 
 Deaf-mutes at New Orleans Exposi- 
 tion. 246; legal status of, 244; 
 public education, 245. 
 
 De Bow, J. B., 60, 348, 349. 
 
 Decentralization, 98. 
 
 Dedharn High-School case, 341. * 
 
 Degrees, collegiate, 25, 199, 367. 
 
 Delaware, convention of 1843, 349 ; 
 State control of, 107 ; prior to the 
 Revolution, 57, 58; school-fund, 
 86. 
 
 Democratic tendencies of Revolu- 
 tionary period, 76. 
 
 Denman, J. F., 124. 
 
 Denominational agencies in educa- 
 tion, 266, 352. 
 
 Department Libraries of Govern- 
 ment, 304. 
 
 Departments, collegiate, in Harvard, 
 29 ; of National Educational Asso- 
 ciation, 123. 
 
 De Pauw University Normal School, 
 144. 
 
 Dependents, education of, 243. 
 
 Depot of charts for the navy, 322. 
 
 Design, schools of, 272, 361, 363. 
 
 Dewey, Chester, 163, 167.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Dexter, F. B.. 177. 
 
 Dickinson College, physics in, 100. 
 
 Didactics in college courses, 143, 
 145 ; in Iowa University, 145. 
 
 Dillaway, C. K., history of Koxbury 
 free school, 16. 
 
 Dill worth, Schoolmaster's Assistant, 
 67 ; Speller, 66. 
 
 Dissenters, influence on colonial edu- 
 cation. 54. 
 
 District libraries, 299. 
 
 District system, 84, 96, 99, 115. 
 
 Dix, John A., 101. 
 
 Dock, Christopher, 56, 149. 
 
 Doddridge, Master, 65. 
 
 Domestic economy, 230. 
 
 Dorchester, early schools of, 15. 
 
 Dorchester (S. C.) Seminary, 59. 
 
 Dordrecht Latin School, 5. 
 
 Dorr, Thomas W., 110. 
 
 Dort, Synod of, 5. 
 
 Double-headed school system, 70. 
 
 Drawing, industrial, 229. 
 
 Drew Theological Seminary, 267. 
 
 Dudley, Joseph, 28. 
 
 Dummer School, 71. 
 
 Dunshee, H. W., 11. 
 
 Dunster, Henry, 23-26. 
 
 Durant, Henry F., 368. 
 
 Dutch, the, in New York, 58 ; West 
 India Company, 9. 
 
 Dwight, Edmund, 131. 
 
 Dwight, Nathaniel, geography, 63. 
 
 Dwight, Timothy, 21, 65. 
 
 Earlham College, 372. 
 
 Early colleges, table of, 77. 
 
 Eaton, Amos, 163 ; Survey of New 
 York, 320. 
 
 Eaton, John, United States Commis- 
 sioner of Education, 309. 
 
 Eaton, John, 8. 
 
 Eaton, Nathaniel, 23. 
 
 Ecclesiastical history in early col- 
 leges, 175 ; societies, 97. 
 
 Economic associations, 291 ; studies, 
 179. 
 
 Edinburgh High-School, 71. 
 
 Educational associations, 117 ; his- 
 tories, 150 ; journalism in New 
 England, 151 ; literature, 148 ; 
 periods, 347 ; reports, 154 ; revival, 
 149. 
 
 Education and sovereignty, 3 ; and 
 the General Government, 307 ; in 
 the South, 347; of defective classes, 
 
 243 ; of girls, 68 ; of women, 362 ; 
 universal, 4. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, 30, 42. 
 
 Elective courses, 186, 198. 
 
 Elementary instruction a private in- 
 terest, 59. 
 
 Elementary schools of Europe, Stowe, 
 130. 
 
 Eliot, John, the Indian teacher, 
 254. 
 
 Elizabeth Aull Seminary, 231. 
 
 Elmira Female College, 366. 
 
 Emerson, G. B.. 18. 
 
 Endowed libraries, 298. 
 
 Endowment of colleges, 35, 76, 204, 
 207, 208. 
 
 Engineering, instruction in, 227. 
 
 English academies, 71, 72 ; ele- 
 mentary schools, 62 ; local govern- 
 ment, 3 ; occupation of New York, 
 53 ; origin of American schoolsj 1 ; 
 schools for women, 362 ; technical 
 training, 223 : youth in Harvard, 
 26. 
 
 English High School, Boston, 338. 
 
 English Header, the, 67. 
 
 English, the study of, in colleges, 
 173. , 
 
 Episcopacy in New York, 54, 73 ; in 
 Virginia. 13. 
 
 Erasmus Hall, 72. 
 
 Erie Canal, geology of, 1 64. 
 
 Essays on popular education, 130. 
 
 Essential studies, 194. 
 
 Essex County Teachers' Association, 
 121. 
 
 European schools (Bache), 129. 
 
 European university pedagogy, 144. 
 
 Evening schools. 269, 271. 
 
 Everett, Edward, oration on John 
 Harvard, 22. 
 
 Examinations, Harvard, for women, 
 372. 
 
 Expenditures for education in the 
 United States, 92. 
 
 Expositions, industrial, 123, 274; 
 and education, 274. 
 
 Factory legislation, 329. 
 
 Featherstonhaugh's survey of Ar- 
 kansas, 320. 
 
 Feeble-minded, education of the, 
 249. 
 
 Fees, school, 63. 
 
 Bellows, Dr. S. N., 145. 
 
 Felt, J. B., 46.
 
 392 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Female academics, Boston, 339, 362 ; 
 
 Hartford, 364: Ipswich, 366; 
 
 Mount Holyoke, 366; Phila- 
 delphia, 69 ; Waterford ; 364. 
 Female teachers in the United States, 
 
 table of.380. 
 Field, D. D., 212. 
 Fiftieth Report of Massachusetts 
 
 Board of Education, 155. 
 Finance and Economy, Whartou 
 
 School of, 180. 
 Fine-art schools, 229. 
 Finney, Kev. Charles G., 370. 
 " First Fruits of New England," 25. 
 Fisk, John, 22. 
 Fitting for the bar, 213. 
 Fitting-schools, 344. 
 Five Nations, schools of the, 261. 
 Flatbush Academy, 71. 
 Fleming's Spelling-Book, 66. 
 Fortieth parallel, survey of, 319. 
 Framingbam Normal School, 131. 
 Francke, Hermann August, 126. 
 Frankfort, University of, 5. 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 55, 277, 294. 
 Fraser, Kev. James, 62, 94, 204. 
 Free, early academies not, 73. 
 Freedmen's Aid Society, 351 ; of the 
 
 Methodist Episcopal" Church, 353. 
 Freedmen's Bureau, 351. 
 Freeman, Edward A., 181. 
 Free schools. 46. 
 " Free schools of the United States," 
 
 62. 
 Free School Society of New York, 
 
 119. 
 Free school system in the South, 
 
 58. 
 
 Fremont, explorations of, 819. 
 French language, instruction in, 171. 
 Friends' school in Philadelphia, 55. 
 Froebel, 2. 332. 
 Froebel Kindergarten, 333. 
 Frothingham, 3. 
 Froude, J. A., 181. 
 
 Gallaudet, Rev. T. H., 12S, 244. 
 Garfield, J. A., 266. 
 Geneva, education in, 7. 
 Geographical surveys, 318. 
 Geographies, 68. 
 Geological surveys, 319. 
 Geology, 158, 163. 
 German immigration, 171. 
 German influence in Pennsylvania, 
 55. 
 
 <;.-nii:in I'.cal self-government, 8. 
 
 Germantown Academy, 56, 72. 
 
 (ii-rniany, parochial schools of. 6. 
 
 Gilman, D. C., 1, 106, 285 ; classifi- 
 cation of universities, 202. 
 
 Girls, education of, 4, 68 ; High-School 
 of Boston, 339, 362 ; in Boston 
 schools, 108 ; in Pennsylvania 
 Charter School, 69. 
 
 Goldsmith, Roman history, 67. 
 
 Goths, the, 3. 
 
 Government, the, and education, 307; 
 Indian schools of, 255 ; libraries 
 of, 303 ; publications, 324. 
 
 Grading schools, 331 ; colonial 
 schools, 52. 
 
 Graduate courses, 200. 
 
 Graduates of Harvard, 26; of Will- 
 iam and Mary, 36. 
 
 Grammar in Boston schools, 68. 
 
 Grammar-schools, 18, 46, 52, 72, 331. 
 
 Gray, Asa, 167. 
 
 " Great schools" of Holland, 5. 
 
 Greek Societies, origin of, in United 
 States, 76. 
 
 Greeley Arctic Expedition, 322. 
 
 Green, Prof. S. S., in Brown Uni- 
 versity, 145. 
 
 Gregory, J. M., lectures on pedagogy, 
 145. 
 
 Grimke's arraignment of the classics, 
 121. 
 
 Grimm brothers, 171. 
 
 Group system of studies, 199. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, 4. 
 
 Guvot, Arnold, lectures on geogra- 
 phy, 201. 
 
 Hall, James, 1 64. 
 
 Hall, expedition to the Arctic, 322. 
 
 Hall, G. S., 249; bibliography of 
 education, 150 ; Boston lectures 
 on pedagogy, 146 ; resignation of, 
 147 : university lectures at Johns 
 Hopkins, 146. 
 
 Hall, S. R., 128 ; the American 
 Ilccker, 129. 
 
 Hamilton College, origin of, 254. 
 
 Hammond, Charles, 72. 
 
 Hammond, Governor of South Caro- 
 lina, 62. 
 
 Ilampden, 8. 
 
 Harris, W. T., exposition of the 
 Kindergarten, 156 ; lectures on 
 pedagogy, 146; school reports of, 
 156 ; Summer School of Philoso-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 893 
 
 phyj 278 ; Superintendent of St. 
 Louis Schools, 111. 
 
 Hartford, first schools in, 18 ; Teach- 
 ers' Institute, 124. 
 
 Harvard College, 20; and William 
 and Mary, 35 ; charter, 28 ; cur- 
 riculum, 24, 25, 28, 194; elective 
 courses, 191; graduate courses, 200, 
 201 ; hastens the Revolution, 30 ; 
 instruction in economics, 183 ; in- 
 struction in history, 174 ; lectures 
 in pedagogy, 146 ; lotteries of, 88 ; 
 museum of j 274; opposes the found- 
 ing of Williams College, 75 ; phys- 
 ics in, 160. 
 
 Harvard, John, 21-23. 
 
 Hassler, Prof., Superintendent of 
 Coast Survey, 317. 
 
 Hawley, Gideon, 101. 
 
 Haworth, J. M., superintendent of 
 Indian schools, 257. 
 
 Hayden, F. V., survey of Rocky 
 Mountains, 320 ; United States 
 geologist, 320. 
 
 Hay good. Rev. A. G., 356. 
 
 Hecker, J. J., 126. 
 
 Henrico College, Virginia, 15, 81. 
 
 Henry, Prof. Joseph, at Princeton, 
 161 ; Secretary 01 the Smithsonian 
 Institution, 314. 
 
 Herriot, Thomas, 167. 
 
 Heterogeneous population of Penn- 
 sylvania, 56. 
 
 Hunt, Helen, work among Indians, 
 253. 
 
 High-School, Edinburgh, 71. 
 
 High-schools, evening, 270 ; list of, 
 noticed, 339 ; commissioned, 346 ; 
 of Michigan, 345; of Minnesota. 
 34G. 
 
 High-School, the, for girls, 339 ; func- 
 tion of, 343 ; legal aspect of, 340 ; 
 objections to, 340 ; of Michigan, 
 345 ; of Minnesota, 346. 
 
 Hill, Thomas, 193. 
 
 Historical libraries and seminaries, 
 183. 
 
 Historical societies, 291. 
 
 Historical transactions, Webster, 67. 
 
 Histories of education, State, 150. 
 
 History, a branch of philosophy or 
 language, 175 ; in American col- 
 leges, 175 ; in Harvard (early). 
 174; of education in the Unitea 
 States, 176, 178, 184. 
 
 Hobart College, physics in, 160. 
 
 Hoddcr's Arithmetic, 67. 
 
 Holland, idea of free schools, 1, 6 ; 
 and Dutch West India Company, 
 10. . 
 
 Hollis, Thomas, benefactions to Har- 
 vard, 29 ; professorship of Natural 
 Philosophy, 160. 
 
 Holmes' s American Annals, 81. 
 
 Homes, children's, 251. 
 
 Horn-book, the, 52. 
 
 Houses of refuge, 250. 
 
 Howe, Dr. S. G., 247, 249. 
 
 Howgate Arctic Expedition, 322. 
 
 Howland, John. 49, 62. 
 
 Hubbard's " History of New Eng- 
 land," 23. 
 
 Illinois College, 119. 
 
 Illinois Industrial Convention, 232 ; 
 University, 145 ; high-school de- 
 cisions, 342 ; petition to Congress. 
 232 ; reading circle, 283 ; school 
 reports, 155. 
 
 Improvement of colleges, 149; of 
 schools, 118 ; of teachers, 120. 
 
 Indiana lotteries, 87 ; normal school, 
 138 ; School Journal, 152 ; Teach- 
 ers' reading circle, 283 ; Teachers' 
 Seminary, 130 ; University, 200. 
 
 Indiana University; 371 ; chair of 
 Pedagogy, 145 ; co-education in, 
 371 ; group system of studies, 200. 
 
 Indian agency], 256 ; bureau, 255, 
 260 : education in Virginia, 14 ; 
 land in severally bill, 256 ; mas- 
 sacre in Virginia, 13, 31 ; missions, 
 253 ; school of William and Mary, 
 35 ; schools, 258, 260. 
 
 Indians, education of, 15, 253, 259 ; 
 Government control of, 255 ; in- 
 dustrial education of, 260 ; normal 
 training - school. 259 j table of 
 schools, 260; theological educa- 
 tion, 211. 
 
 Indian Territory, schools of, 261. 
 
 Industrial education, nomenclature 
 of, 222; of Indians, 260; begin- 
 nings of, 223 ; lor teachers, 141 ; 
 of deaf-mutes, 246. 
 
 Industrial expositions, 274. 
 
 Infantry and Cavalry School, 239. 
 
 Infant School Society, New York, 
 332. 
 
 Information bureaus, 184. 
 
 Institutes, at Hartford, 124 ; compul- 
 sory attendance at, 125 ; in New
 
 394 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 York, 124 ; mechanics, 282 ; of 
 civics, 291 ; of technology, 290. 
 
 Institutional history, 174. 
 
 Instruction of the blind t ^7. 
 
 Iowa University, didactics iu, 145. 
 
 Ipswich, early schools of, 15. 
 
 Jackson, Mrs. H. H., 253. 
 
 Jackson, " Stonewall," 239. 
 
 James I, letter to English bishops, 
 30. 
 
 Jamestown(New York) schools, 228. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, 30, 5<J, 81 ; and 
 the University of Virginia, 190; 
 essay on instruction in Anglo- 
 Saxon, 174 ; interest in science, 287. 
 
 Jersey City, supervision, 111. 
 
 John 0. Greene School of Science, 
 227. 
 
 John of Nassau, 4. 
 
 Johns Hopkins University, history 
 in, 183 ; pedagogy in, 140 ; the 
 group system of, 199. 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, 54. 
 
 Johnson, W. R.. 128. 
 
 Jones, Miss M. E. M., 137. 
 
 Jones, Prof. Hugh. 65. 
 
 Jones, Dr. Hiram K., 279. 
 
 Jordan. Dr. D. S., 149, 187. 
 
 Journalism, educational, 151. 
 
 Journal of Biology, 153 ; of Chem- 
 istry, 153 j of Lconomics, 153 ; of 
 Mathematics, 153 ; of Philadelphia 
 Academy of Science, 292 ; of Phi- 
 lology, 153 ; of Psychology, 153 ; 
 of Speculative Philosophy, 278. 
 
 Journals, school, 150, 152. 
 
 Julian, M., idea of central bureau, 
 309. 
 
 "Junto," The, 277, 294. 
 
 Kalamazoo College, 145 ; high-school 
 case, 342. 
 
 Kane Arctic Expedition, 322. 
 
 Kansas Normal ischool, 137 ; Univer- 
 sity, 198. 
 
 Keller, Helen, 249. 
 
 Kent, Chancellor, 81, 82, 215 ; lect- 
 ures in Columbia College, 214; 
 Commentaries, 215. 
 
 Kentucky school-lands, 87. 
 
 Kindergarten, The, 2, 332 ; train- 
 ing-schools, 141, 336; associa- 
 tions, 836 ; table of, 837. 
 
 King, Clarence, survey of fortieth 
 parallel, 319. 
 
 King's College, 53, 73. 
 
 Kitchen Ciinlen in New York, 231. 
 
 Knox, John, 7. 
 
 Krieges, the, Kindergarten of, 334. 
 
 Kriisi, Hermann, 122. 
 
 Laboratory practice, 160-162, 166. 
 
 Labpulaye, 176. 
 
 Ladies excluded from early teach- 
 ers' associations, 121 ; seminaries, 
 863. 
 
 Lafayette College, language studies 
 in, 172. 
 
 Laissezfaire in education, 330. 
 
 Lancaster, Joseph, 127, 132. 
 
 Lancasterianism, 127. 
 
 Land grants for education, 88, 90, 
 233, 240, 245. 
 
 Land in Severally Bill for Indians, 
 256. 
 
 Lane Theological Seminary, 120, 267. 
 
 Langley, J. P., Ifil. 
 
 La Salle, Abbe J. B. de, 126. 
 
 La Salle Seminary, 231. 
 
 Latin accidence, Bmgham, 68 ; Chee- 
 ver, 51, 68. 
 
 Latin in early Harvard, 25. 
 
 Latin schools, 5, 11, 18, 51. 
 
 Laurie, S. S., 150. 
 
 Law a learned profession, 209, 216 ; 
 libraries, 301. 
 
 Law of 1642 in Massachusetts, 16; 
 of 1647, 44; of 1650, in Connecti- 
 cut, 47. 
 
 Lawrence, Eugene, 2. 
 
 Lawrence Scientific School, 226. 
 
 Law schools, early, 214. 
 
 "Laws" of Plato, 7. 
 
 Lawyers in Revolutionary period, 
 214. 
 
 Learned societies, 285; publications 
 of, 291. 
 
 Learned professions.209, 221. 
 
 Lectures on School-Keeping, 129. 
 
 Legal aspect of high-schools, 340. 
 
 Legal education, 212 ; of women, 
 378. 
 
 Leibnitz, 173. 
 
 Lending Library, The, 280. 
 
 Leverett, President of Harvard, 28. 
 
 Lewis and Clark Expedition, 318. 
 
 Lewis, Samuel, 121. 
 
 Leyden, University of, 5. 
 
 Liberal education, 159, 188. 
 
 Libraries, 293 ; and learned socie- 
 ties, 285 ; colonial, 293 ; college,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 395 
 
 304 ; congressional, 304 ; circulat- 
 ing, 294 ; departmental, 304 ; Econ- 
 omy, School of, 306 ; endowed, 
 298 ; governmental, 303 ; histori- 
 cal, 184; mercantile, 296; of Bu- 
 reau of Education, 310 ; profes- 
 sional, 301 : public, 297 ; recent, 
 296 ; school district, 299 ; State, 
 302 ; town, 300. 
 
 Lick Observatory, 1C6. 
 
 Lieber, Francis, 1, 175, 179. 
 
 Lincoln, President, 233. 
 
 A41W1.CUJ VUUV) \_/ill\ji.LlJJ.UtIj ^ 1 I 
 
 Literary Fund of Virginia, 62, 86. 
 
 Literature funds, 85 ? 86. 
 
 Literature of education, 148. 
 
 Local taxes, 92. 
 
 Locke, John, 8. 
 
 Lodge, H. Cabot, 178. 
 
 Logan, James, 167 ; library, 293. 
 
 " Log College," New Jersey, 58, 73. 
 
 Longfellow at Bowdoin, 172 ; at Har- 
 vard, 189. 
 
 Long, Major, explorations, 318. 
 
 Lotteries, 87. 
 
 Louisiana school lands, 87 ; State 
 University, 204. 
 
 Lowell Institute Lectures, 18. 
 
 Luther, Letter to Magistrates, 6, 7. 
 
 Lynch Expedition to Africa, 322. 
 
 Lyon, Mary, 366. 
 
 MacAlister, James, Superintendent 
 of Schools. Philadelphia, 111 ; Ped- 
 agogical Catalogue, 151. 
 
 Maclean, John ; 162. 
 
 McClure, William, Geological Sur- 
 vey, 320. 
 
 McCormick Observatory, 165. 
 
 McMastcr's " History of the People 
 of the United States," 65, 178. 
 
 Maine, school system, 50 ; school- 
 funds, 86. 
 
 Mann, Horace, 2, 18, 43; and the 
 Massachusetts system, 96, 103, 
 122 ; controversy with the thirty- 
 one Boston schoolmasters, 154 ; 
 reports, 104, 154. 
 
 Manual-labor schools, 223, 224. 
 
 Manual-training schools, 228, 230. 
 
 Marenholtz-Bulow, Baroness, 333. 
 
 Marietta College, 120. 
 
 Marine zoology 168. 
 
 Marsh, George P., 201. 
 
 Maryland. Act of 1723, 62 ; teachers 
 of Revolutionary period, 64. 
 
 Massachusetts Agricultural School, 
 235 ; Board of Education, Fiftieth 
 Report of, 103; supervision, city, 
 111 ; supervision, State, 103 ; co'l- 
 ony, 8 ; Historical Society, 291 ; 
 law of 1642, 16 ; law of 1647, 44. 
 327 ; nautical schools, 242 ; normal 
 schools, 125, 130, 133 ; school-fund, 
 history of, 85 ; school system. 4 ; 
 Teachers' Institute, 123 ; Teacher, 
 the, 152. 
 
 Mather, Cotton, 51. 
 
 Mather, Increase, 28. 
 
 Maude, Danyell, 15, 265. 
 
 Mechanics, education in, 227. 
 
 Medical Colleges admitting women, 
 377. 
 
 Medical education, 217 ; of women, 
 375. 
 
 Medical instruction in Columbia, 
 219 ; in Michigan, 220. 
 
 Medical libraries, 301. 
 
 Medical Museum, Army, 273. 
 
 Medical schools, curriculum of, 220; 
 distribution of, 219, 377 ; early, 218. 
 
 Mennonites in Pennsylvania, 56. 
 
 Mercantile libraries, 296. 
 
 Metallurgy, instruction in, 227. 
 
 Methodists, schools of, 267. 
 
 Michigan, high-school system, 345; 
 history of education in, 150 ; lot- 
 teries in, 87 ; normal schools, 133, 
 137 ; school reports, 155. 
 
 Michigan University, co - education 
 in, 372 ; electiyes, 195 ; graduate 
 courses, 201 ; history in, 176 ; law 
 lectures in. 215; School of Politi- 
 cal Science, 181 ; science and art of 
 teaching in, 146 ; seminaries, 183 ; 
 special courses, 196. 
 
 Middlesex County Teachers' Associ- 
 ation, 121. 
 
 Military academies ; 237, 239; edu- 
 cation, 237 ; Institute of Virginia, 
 289 ; post schools, 240 ; tactics in 
 schools, 233, 240. 
 
 Millersville (Pa.) Normal School, 
 136. 
 
 Milton, John, 71. 
 
 Minimum school term, 328. 
 
 Minnesota high-school system, 346. 
 
 Missouri, coeducation in, 372 ; Uni- 
 versity Normal School, 144 ; visit- 
 ors to schools, 114.
 
 396 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mitchell, Miss Maria, 165. 
 
 Mitford, 3-_'t>. 
 
 Mo.M schools of S. K. Hall, 129, 
 138 ; recent, 138. 
 
 Modern I:IIIL;\I;IL.^ studies, 1<I9, 170. 
 
 Modern normal schools, 138. 
 
 Moravian schools for girls, 69 ; theo- 
 logical education, 210. 
 
 Morse, S. F. B., 161. 
 
 Morse, Jedediah, Geography, 68. 
 
 Motley, 4, 5. 
 
 Mount Holyoke Seminary, 366. 
 
 Murray, English Grammar, 68 ; Eng- 
 lish "Reader, 67. 
 
 Museum, National, 274, 315: New 
 York, 431 ; of Comparative Zoolo- 
 gy, 274 ; of Science and Art, 272 ; 
 Pedagogical, 274. 
 
 Music- Teachers' Institute, Boston, 
 124. 
 
 National Educational Association, 
 ] -_'2 : recommends a Bureau of Ed- 
 ucation. 309. 
 
 National land grant, 83, 232 ; Muse- 
 um, 274, 315; Observatory, 322; 
 University proposed, 308. 
 
 Natural history, 100, 176, 194. 
 
 Naval Academy, 241 j architecture 
 in University of Michigan, L'42 ; 
 education, 240 ; expenditures in the 
 United States, 322 ; observatory, 
 822; war college, -J42. 
 
 Nautical training, -'in. 
 
 Navy, department of the, 241. 
 
 Nebraska school lands, 91. 
 
 Necf, Joseph, " Plan of Education," 
 149. 
 
 Negative compulsory legislation, 
 328-330. 
 
 Neill, E. D., 13, 19, 31, 32. 
 
 Neshaminy, Log College, 58. 
 
 Netherlands, idea of free school, 6. 
 
 New Amsterdam, 10. 
 
 Newberry Library, 299. 
 
 New Britain Normal School, 106, 
 132. 
 
 Newburyport high-school case, 341. 
 
 New Connecticutj 89. 
 
 New England Primer, 52, 66. 
 
 New England I'sahn-Book, 66. 
 
 New England, early schools in, 14. 
 
 New Hampshire, early schools in, 
 50 ; school-fund, 85. 
 
 New Harmony (Indiana) Community 
 School, 149. 
 
 New Haven colony, 18, 51 ; Training 
 School, li-Jl. 
 
 New Jersey, College of, 73 ; fee bills, 
 04 ; Newark, early schools, 57 ; 
 pauper-tax, 62 ; prior to the Revo- 
 lution, 57 ; reading circle, 283 ; 
 school-fund. s'.. 
 
 New Mexico, State school officer, 
 107. 
 
 New Orleans, supervision in, 110. 
 
 New World, the, 2. 
 
 New York, colonial, 53 ; city super- 
 vision, 109: county supervision, 
 114 ; fee bills, 64 ; high-school 
 system, 338 ; history of education 
 in, 9, 150; Industrial Training- 
 School, 141 ; lotteries. 87 ; school- 
 funds, 85 : school lands. 85 ; school 
 reports, 155 ; Society Library, 295 ; 
 State system, 101 ; vs. New Eng- 
 land, 59. 
 
 Night-schools, 2C9. 
 
 Nomenclature of industrial educa- 
 tion, 2-_'iJ. 
 
 Non-sectarianism in colleges, 77, 
 203, 206 ; in schools, 104. 
 
 Normal schools, 125 ; art, 141 ; Con- 
 necticut, 132 ; curriculum of, 136 ; 
 early promoters of, 128 ; idea in 
 the United States, 127; in the 
 South, 358 ; in New York, 132 ; in 
 the university, 143 ; modern, 133 ; 
 objected to, in Boston, 132 ; of the 
 University of North Carolina, 145 ; 
 origin of, 126; private, 134; pub- 
 lic. 133 ; State, 130; table of, 135. 
 
 North American Review, 80. 
 
 Northend, Charles, 122. 
 
 Northwestern Educational Associa- 
 tion, 122. 
 
 Norwood, teacher on Somers Island, 
 14. 
 
 Nott, Dr. E., 188. 
 
 Nurses' schools, 231. 
 
 Oberlin College, 870. 
 
 Objections to free schools, 58; to 
 
 high-schools, 340 ; to the Normal 
 
 School in Boston, 131. 
 Observatories, 1*54. 
 "Odious Kate Bill," 63. 
 O'Fallon Polytechnic Institute, 225. 
 Officers, civil, as school officers, 102. 
 Ohio, charity education clause, 63 ; 
 
 school agent, 121 ; School Journal, 
 
 152 ; school system, origin of, 102 ;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 teachers' institutes, 124; teachers' 
 reading circle, 282 ; university, 
 203. 
 
 "Old South" movement, 279. 
 
 Olmstcd, Denison, 81, 122, 164 ; grad- 
 uating thesis, 128. 
 
 Open system, the, 188. 
 
 Ordinance of 1785, 88, 89 ; of 1787, 
 89. 
 
 Organization of Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion, 313 ; of universities, 202. 
 
 Origin of normal schools, 126. 
 
 Oswego Training-School, 137, 141. 
 
 Ottawa University, Kansas, peda- 
 gogics in, 145. 
 
 Owen. D. D., survey of mineral 
 lands, 320. 
 
 Page, David P., 132. 
 
 Palmer, Edward, island school of, 
 32. 
 
 Palmer, Prof. G. H., concerning elec- 
 tive*, 198. 
 
 Pamphlet literature in college libra- 
 ries, 306. 
 
 Parallel courses in college, 189, 199. 
 
 Pardee School of Science, 227. 
 
 Parishes in Connecticut, 97, 98. 
 
 Parish schools in the United States, 
 268 ; of Germany, 6. 
 
 Parton, James, 294. 
 
 Pauper schools. 62. 
 
 Patroons, Dutch, in New York, 10. 
 
 Payne, Joseph, 150. - 
 
 Payne, W. H., 124. 
 
 Peabody fund, 354 ; distribution of, 
 356. 
 
 Peabody, George, benefactions of, 
 354. 
 
 Peabody Library, Baltimore, vii, 
 298. 
 
 Peabody, Miss E., and the Kinder- 
 garten, 333. 
 
 " Peace policy " with the Indians, 
 255. 
 
 Pedagogical library, 310 ; museum, 
 274 ; literature, 148. 
 
 Pedagogy, college training in, 144 ; 
 in European universities, 145 ; in 
 University of City of New York, 
 147 : in Johns llopkins, 146 ; in 
 Michigan, 146. 
 
 Peers, B. O., 121. 
 
 Penalty under Massachusetts law of 
 1647, 46 ; in New Hampshire, 1693, 
 50. 
 
 26 
 
 Penn Charter School, 55, 63, 69. 
 
 Pennsylvania, county supervision, 
 115 ; history of education in, 54, 
 150 ; Historical Society, 287 ; pau- 
 per schools, 62, 63 ; prior to the 
 Devolution, 54 : school-funds, 86 ; 
 School Journal, 152 ; school-tax, 
 92 ; university of, 74. 
 
 Periodicals, educational, 151 ; in col- 
 leges, 153. 
 
 Perkins's Institution for the Blind, 
 249. 
 
 Permanent funds and local taxes, 92. 
 
 Permissive school legislation, 328. 
 
 Perry, Captain, expedition to Japan, 
 322. 
 
 Phi Beta Kappa Fraternity, 76. 
 
 Philadelphia, academy founded, 74 ; 
 Academy of Natural Sciences, 286, 
 292; city school system, 111 ; nor- 
 mal school, 132; pauper schools, 
 63 ; public library, 294. 
 
 Philbnck, J. D., 112, 117, 155. 
 
 Phillips Academics, 71. 
 
 Philological studies, 173. 
 
 Philosophical clubs, 277; societies, 
 287. 
 
 Philosophy, as related to education, 
 148 ; in American colleges, 169. 
 
 Physical sciences, 159. 
 
 Physics, 160 ; in early Harvard, 24, 
 29. 
 
 Physics and Chemistry in the 
 Schools of the United States, 
 159. 
 
 Pickering, Prof., laboratory of, 161. 
 
 Pickett, Albert, 121. 
 
 Pierce, spelling-book, 66. 
 
 Pierce, J. D., Superintendent of 
 Michigan, 104. 
 
 Pierson, Rev. A., Rector of Yale, 39. 
 
 Pike. Major, expedition of, 318. 
 
 Pike's Arithmetic, 67. 
 
 " Plan of Education" (Neef), 149. 
 
 Plato, 3, 7. 
 
 Plymouth Colony schools, 15. 
 
 Plymouth masters, 50. 
 
 Political education. 179. 
 
 " Political Ethics" (Lieber), 175. 
 
 Political Science, Columbia School 
 of, 180 ; Johns Hopkins School of, 
 183 ; Michigan School of, 181 ; 
 Quarterly Journal, 153 ; White 
 school of, 181. 
 
 Politics in early Harvard, 30. 
 
 Polytechnic schools, 228.
 
 398 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Population, growth of, 79. 
 
 Porter, Noah, 169. 
 
 Powell, Major J. W., Director of 
 Geological Survey, :w. 
 
 Practice schools for teachers, 139. 
 
 Pratt, Captain K. II., 260. 
 
 Praying towns, 254. 
 
 Preparation of teachers, 117, 142. 
 
 Preparatory schools, 70, 338, 369. 
 
 Presbyterian Board for Frccdmen, 
 353. 
 
 Presbyterian schools, 267. 
 
 Prescribed course, the, 199 ; of Har- 
 vard, 194. 
 
 Primary schools, 331 ; of Boston, 82, 
 132, 332. 
 
 Prince, J. T., "Courses and Meth- 
 ods," 113. 
 
 Prince Library, the, 293. 
 
 Princeton College, 73, 227 ; first 
 chair in chemistry, IG'J ; graduate 
 courses, 2"-J. 
 
 Principles of the common-school 
 system, 43. 
 
 Printing press, the, at Harvard, 
 27. 
 
 Privately endowed universities, 202, 
 204, 208. 
 
 Private schools, 264 ; normal schools, 
 134. 
 
 Professional libraries, 301 ; educa- 
 tion of women, 375 ; schools in the 
 South, 359 ; studies, 136. 
 
 Professions, the, 209 ; liberal, 221 ; 
 women in, 375. 
 
 Pofessorships of pedagogy in col- 
 leges, 144. 
 
 Protestantism and free schools, 2. 
 
 Protestant Reformed Dutch Church, 
 school of, 10. 
 
 Providence, R. I., school report of, 
 155; supervision in, 110. 
 
 Provinces, Catholic, 2fi8. 
 
 Prussian school system, 129. 
 
 Psalm-Book, the .New England, 
 66. 
 
 Psycholocry in normal schools, 139, 
 148; Journal of, 158 ; pedagogical, 
 140; school of, in the University 
 of the Pacific, 144. 
 
 Publications of Bureau of Education, 
 310; of Smithsonian Institution, 
 315. 
 
 Public Education Society of Phila- 
 delphia, 111. 
 
 Public (free) Kindergarten, 535. 
 
 Public, libraries 297 : normal 
 schools. 133 ; schools in the South, 
 357 ; libraries in the South, 860. 
 
 Public School Society of New York, 
 82, 127. 
 
 Puritans, 2. 
 
 Punuont, Philemon, 14, 16, 2C5. 
 
 Quakers, the, in Pennsylvania, >>. 
 Qualifications of teachers, 5<>, 04, 117, 
 
 IL'O, 136, 147. 
 
 Quarterly Journal of Economics, 184. 
 Queen's College founded, 75. 
 Quick, R. H., 144, 150. 
 Quincy, Joeiah, 21, 61. 
 
 Rafinesquc, 149. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir W., 8. 
 
 Rate bills, 15, 19, 45, 55, 63. 
 
 Reading books, 67. 
 
 Reading circles, 279, 284. 
 
 Reading schools, IJoston, 70. 
 
 Recent colleges, 158, 186. 
 
 Redwood Library, 294. 
 
 Reformation, the, and tree schools, 2. 
 
 Reformatories, 250 ; industrial train- 
 ing in, 252. 
 
 Reformed Dutch Church, 10. 
 
 Reform schools, 251 ; curriculum of, 
 252. 
 
 Regents of the University of the 
 State of New York, 202. 
 
 Regulations in early Harvard, '25 ; 
 in William and Mary College, 36. 
 
 Religious tests in Yale, 42. 
 
 Renaissance, the American, 82. 
 
 Rensselaer School, the, 224. 
 
 Reorganization, period of, 79 ; in the 
 South, 347. 
 
 Reports, of educational institutions, 
 154 ; of city systems, 155 ; of col- 
 leges, 157 : of Horace Mann, 154 ; 
 of St. Louis, 155. 
 
 Representative town government in 
 New England, 14, 16. 
 
 "Republic," the, of Plato, 7. 
 
 Reservation Indians, 256. 
 
 Review courses in college, 143. 
 
 Revolutionary period, 61. 
 
 Rheims, normal school at, 126. 
 
 Rhode Island, first schools in, 19, 
 49; history of education in, 150, 
 295 ; lotteries in, 88 ; early idea 
 of education, 62; School Co'mmis- 
 sioner, 106; school fees, 64; school- 
 funds, 86; school reports, 155;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 399 
 
 school system, 49, 58; teachers' 
 institutes, 124; reading circle, 
 '283. 
 
 Richards, Zalmon. 122. 
 
 Rickoff, A. J., ana the Ohio schools, 
 112. 
 
 Rilcy, J. B., 258. 
 
 Riparian lands, New Jersey, 91. 
 
 Rittcnhouse, David, 287. 
 
 Ritter, 158. 
 
 Boebling, W. A., 224. 
 
 Robinson, John, 8. 
 
 Roelandsen, A., 10. 12. 
 
 Roman history, Goldsmith, 67. 
 
 Round Table, the, of the West, 279. 
 
 Roxbury School, the, 16; early teach- 
 ers of, 50. 
 
 Royal Society of London, 28, 40 ; 
 origin of. 286. 
 
 Ruuit'ord chair of Science, 225. 
 
 Russell, J. Scott, 223, 234. 
 
 Russell, William, 128, 158. 
 
 Rutgers College, 75. 
 
 St. Louis philosophical club, 277; 
 
 school reports, 155, 156 ; traiuing- 
 
 school, 140. 
 
 St. Alary' s Nautical School, 241. 
 Salaries of early college presidents, 
 
 29; of teachers, 12, 15, 52. 
 Salem, early schools of, 15 ; library, 
 
 295. 
 
 Saline lands, 91. 
 Sandys, Sir Edwin, 12, 31. 
 San Francisco Training-School, 141. 
 Saracens, the, 2. 4. 
 Saybrook school, 39. 
 Scharf, Thomas, 64. 
 Schmidt's " History of Education," 
 
 5. 
 
 School-books, 66. 
 School district libraries, 299. 
 School fees, 13. 
 School-funds, 83 ; Burlington, New 
 
 Jersey, 57 ; commissioner of, in 
 
 South Carolina, 8>. 
 School journals, 151. 
 School lands unsold, 91. 
 Schoolmasters' Club, the, 279. 
 School of Design, the, for Women, 
 
 225. 
 
 School of library economy, 306. 
 School of Mines Quarterly, 153. 
 School of psychology, 144. 
 School societies, 96, 98, 100. 
 School suffrage for women, 3S1. 
 
 School system, American, 1 ; State, 
 
 101. 
 
 School-tax, 10, 92. 
 School term. 19, 49, 329. 
 " Schul-ordnung" 56, 149. 
 Schurz, Mrs. Carl, 333. 
 Science and the arts, 225 ; in early 
 Yale, 41 ; in the college course, 
 168; museums of, 272 ;' teachers' 
 class in, 274. 
 
 Scientific academies, 285 ; depart- 
 ments in colleges, 225 ; journals, 
 153 ; work of government, 316. 
 Scotland, education in, 7. 
 I Sears, Barnas, agent of Peabody 
 
 fund, 355. 
 
 : Secondary schools, 338 ; of the Revo- 
 lutionary period, 70. 
 Sections of National Educational As- 
 sociation, 123. 
 I Seclcy, Prof., 170. 
 : Seminaries, ladies', 363 ; in the uni- 
 I vcrsity, 183. 
 Seventeenth century, 2. 
 Sewing, instruction in, 230. 
 Seymour, Attorney-General, 34. 
 Sharp Library of New York, 293. 
 Shaw, John A., Superintendent of 
 
 New Orleans Schools, 110. 
 Shaw, Mrs. Q. A., Kindergartens 
 
 supported by, 336. 
 
 , Sheffield Scientific School, 197, 226. 
 i Shepard, Thomas, 20. 
 Sherman, General W. T., 239, 256. 
 Sibley Scientific School, 227. 
 Signal Service ? 321. 
 Sign-method m deaf-mute instruc- 
 tion, 245. 
 
 Sigourney, Mrs. L. II., 121. 
 Sillhnan,* Benjamin, 65, 162 ; Jour- 
 i nal, 292. 
 Slater fund, 356. 
 " Small schools " of Holland, 5. 
 Smart, J. II., 124. 
 Smith Colleire. 369. 
 Smith, Goldwin, 181. 
 1 Smith, Prof. Walter, 229. 
 j Smithson bequest, the, 311. 
 i Smithson, James, 311. 
 ; Smithsonian, the, 285, 311, 312; 
 museum, 274, 315; Prof. Henry 
 in, 814 ; the publications of, 
 315. 
 
 Societies for the promotion of 
 schools, 118; general, 285; scien- 
 tific, 286; teachers', 120.
 
 400 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel, 53, 74. 
 
 Society tor the Collegiate Instruction 
 of Women, 872. 
 
 Society of Arts in Massachusetts In- 
 stitute of Technology, 290. 
 
 Society to encourage Studies at 
 Home. 280 ; for home culture, 280. 
 
 Soldiers' orphans' homes, 252. 
 
 Somers Island, school on, 14. 
 
 South Carolina, College of, 163, 171, 
 176, 179, 202, 204; colonial edu- 
 cation, 58, 59 ; colonization of, 
 58 ; modern languages in, 171 ; 
 normal schools in, 135 ; public 
 schools in, 858; recent education 
 in, 360 ; school-funds of, 86. 
 
 South, J., introduction to English, 
 68. 
 
 South, the colonial, 58 ; ante-war 
 period, 348 : education in, 347 : 
 general condition of, 359 ; period 
 of reorganization, 350 ; public- 
 school system of, 357. 
 
 Spanish, instruction in, at Colum- 
 bia, 172. 
 
 Sparks, Jared, 175. 
 
 Special Indian schools, 260. 
 
 Specializing in normal training, 140. 
 
 Spelling-books, 66. 
 
 Springfield, supervision of, 111. 
 
 Spring Garden Institute, 225. 
 
 Squadrons in Rhode Island, 96. 
 
 Stages in the development of school 
 systems, 94. 
 
 Stanford, " The Art of Reading," 67. 
 
 State Control, Boards of, 10V ; gen- 
 eral view of, 107. 
 
 State Libraries, 302. 
 
 State Normal Schools, 130. 
 
 States of Northwest Territory, 89. 
 
 State Universities, 203, 207, 208. 
 
 Statistics, school, 154. 
 
 Stiles, Ezra, 65. 
 
 Story, Joseph, 122, 175, 188. 
 
 Stoughton, 20. 
 
 Stowe, Prof. C. E., 121, 130. 
 
 Studies in history and political 
 science, 179, 184. 
 
 Stuyvesant, 11. 
 
 Subscription schools, 265. 
 
 Sully, J., 150. 
 
 Sumner, W. G., 257. 
 
 Superintendent of Schools, 103 ; 
 Boston, 110; Indian, 257; mode 
 of choosing, 115. 
 
 Supervision of schools, 94, 101, 109, 
 113 ; city, 109 ; county, 113 ; early, 
 102, 113; forms of, 96; in New 
 York, 101, 114; State, 101, 107, 
 109. 
 
 Supervisory university, 202. 
 
 Surplus revenue, 91, 348. 
 
 Survey, Coast, 816; geographical, 
 318 ; geological, 319. 
 
 Swamp-land grant, 90. 
 
 Swarthmore College, co-education in, 
 372. 
 
 Sweden, education in, 4. 
 
 Swedes in Pennsylvania, 55. 
 
 Swiss Cross, the, 284. 
 
 Switzerland, early schools of, 6. 
 
 Symmes, Benjamin, 14. 
 
 Svriac, instruction in, at Harvard, 
 "25. 
 
 Systems, colonial school, 43. 
 
 Table of State Universities, 204. 
 
 Tappan, David, 72. 
 
 Tappan, Henry T., President of 
 Michigan University, 195, 201. 
 
 Taxes, local school, 92. 
 
 Teachers, colonial, 50 ; female, 380 ; 
 efficient, 127 ; Institute of, in Ohio, 
 124 ; of the Revolutionary period, 
 64; preparation of, 117, 120,136, 
 142 ; proportion of the sexes, 380 ; 
 reading circles, 282 ; respect for, 
 50 ; services and pay, 12. 
 
 Technological education, 221 ; socie- 
 ties, 289. 
 
 Tcnncnt, Kev. William, 57, 73. 
 
 Tennessee land grants for colleges, 
 86 ; University of, 204. 
 
 Terms, school, 19, 49, 52, 329. 
 
 Territorial claims of the colonies, 88. 
 
 Territory, growth of, in the United 
 States, 79. 
 
 Texas school lands, 91. 
 
 Text-books, elementary, 52, 66. 
 
 Theological curriculum, 211 ; edu- 
 cation, 210 ; libraries, 801 ; train- 
 ing for women, 375 ; Chautauqua 
 School of, 281. 
 
 Theology as a learned profession, 
 209, 211 ; in early colleges, 29, 35. 
 39, 41, 7G. 
 
 Theory of education, Plato, 6. 
 
 Thirty-one Boston schoolmasters, 
 154. 
 
 Three-per-cent fund, 91. 
 
 Ticknor, Elisha, 127.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 401 
 
 Ticknor, Miss A. E., 280. 
 Ticknor, George, 188, 189. 
 Tillinghast, 338. 
 Tompkins County (N. Y.) Institute, 
 
 124. 
 Topography, changed meaning of, 
 
 321. 
 
 Towne Scientific School, 227. 
 Town meeting, the, 16. 
 Township system, the, 99, 115. 
 Town, the, in New England, 97 ; 
 
 libraries, 300. 
 Town, Salem, 124. 
 Tractate, Milton, 71. 
 Trade, growth of, in the United 
 
 States, 80. 
 Trade-schools, 231. 
 Transition, period of, 79. 
 Translation of pedagogical works, 
 
 150. 
 
 Treaties with Indians. 256. 
 Trinity School, New York, 53, 74. 
 Troy Female Seminary, 364. 
 Truant laws, 328. 
 Tulane University, 200. 
 Types of university, 202. 
 
 Unfortunate classes, education of, 
 243. 
 
 Union of Connecticut colonies, 48. 
 
 Union of Utrecht, 5. 
 
 Union College, engineering in, 226 ; 
 French in. 171 ; physics in, 160. 
 
 University Convocation, 121. 
 
 University, Chautauqua, 281 ; nor- 
 mal schools in, 143 ; of North Car- 
 olina, 145, 160; of Pennsylvania, 
 77, 178, 180 ; of the city of New 
 York, 145, 189 ; of the Pacific, 144; 
 of the State of New York, 74, 202 ; 
 of Virginia, 189; organization, 24, 
 202 ; privately endowed, 204, 208 ; 
 the function of, 77. 
 
 Unsettled educational questions, 383. 
 
 Unsold school lands, 91. 
 
 Utica Convention, 121. 
 
 Utility of modern languages, 170. 
 
 Utrecht, Union of, 5. 
 
 Vassar College, 367. 
 
 Vermont, colonial system, 50 ; fee 
 
 bills, 50; local supervision, 114; 
 
 University of, 204. 
 Veterinary schools, 220, 234, 236. 
 Virginia, colonial university, 13, 30 ; 
 
 early schools, 12, 14 ; land cession, 
 
 89 ; literature fund, 86 ; University 
 of, 189, 208, 215. 
 Virginia Company, 12, 32. 
 
 Wabash College, 120. 
 
 Wade, L. S., 113. 
 
 Wagner Free Institute, 225. 
 
 Wait, Green & Co., Journal of, 
 151. 
 
 Wallace, S. T., 222. 
 
 Warner Observatory, 160. 
 
 War of 1812, 79. 
 
 Washington Academy, 72. 
 
 Washington, George, 308 ; Chancel- 
 lor of William and Mary College, 
 34, 77 ; on higher education, 149, 
 308. 
 
 Watts, Isaac, 65. 
 
 Wayland, Francis, 149, 151. 
 
 Weather predictions, 321. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, 44. 
 
 Webster, Noah, 127 ; text-books of, 
 66. 
 
 Wellesley College, 368. 
 
 Western Academic Institute, 121. 
 
 Western Baptist Educational Asso- 
 ciation, 119. 
 
 Western colleges, 195. 
 
 Western College Society, 119. 
 
 Western Literary Institute, 121. 
 
 Western Eeserve, 85, 89 ; College of, 
 120. 
 
 Westfield Normal School. 131. 
 
 West Point Military Academy, 237. 
 
 Wharton School of Finance and 
 Economy, 180. 
 
 Wheaton, " International Law," 324. 
 
 Whecdon, Professor. 176. 
 
 Wheelock, Eleazar, 75, 254. 
 
 White, Andrew D., 176, 181, 184. 
 
 White, E. E., 3, 8. 
 
 Whitcfield, 30, 42. 
 
 White School of History and Politi- 
 cal Science, 181. 
 
 Wigglesworth, 30. 
 
 Wurhtman, Joseph, 232. 
 
 Wilkes (Captain) Expedition, 322. 
 
 Willard, Mrs. Emma. 121, 264. 
 
 Willard, President of Harvard, 29. 
 
 William of Holland, 5. 
 
 William and Mary of England, 33. 
 
 William and Mary College, 30; Chan- 
 cellor of, 34; curriculum of, 35, 
 160 ; French in, 171 ; marriage of 
 professors, 37 ; physics in, 160 ; 
 vs. Harvard, 35.
 
 402 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Williams College founded, 75 ; ex- 
 ploring parties, 164 ; history in, 
 175 ; language chairs, 171 ; phys- 
 ics in, 160. 
 
 Wilson, John, 20. 
 
 Windsor, .Ju-tin. Narrative and Crit- 
 ical History of America, 178. 
 
 Winterbotham, 72. 
 
 Winthrop, John, 8, 20. 
 
 Wisconsin University, training in 
 pedagogy, 145. 
 
 Woodbridge, W. C., 151. 
 
 Woolman's " First Book," 66. 
 
 Woolsey, T. D., 197. 
 
 Women, colleges for, 365 ; excluded 
 from early teachers' associations, 
 121 : higher education of, 362 ; 
 theological education of, 375 ; med- 
 ical education of. 375 ; in normal 
 schools, 379 ; in European schools, 
 862 ; as teachers, 51, 378 ; legal 
 
 education of, 378 ; school suffrage 
 
 for, 381. 
 
 Wouter Van Twiller, 10. 
 Writing-schools, Boston, 69. 
 
 Yale College, founding of, 37 ; aided 
 by the State, 77 ; chemistry in, 
 162 ; courses in economics, 183 ; 
 early embarrassments of, 39 ; elec- 
 tions in, 197 ; graduate instruc- 
 tion, 201 ; history in, 175 ; modern 
 languages 5n ? 172; physics in, 160, 
 161 : theological instruction in, 163. 
 
 Yale College Society, 119. 
 
 Yale, Elihu, 40. 
 
 Zealand school law, 3. 
 
 Ziiiiiiu rniann. Comparative Gram- 
 mar, 173. 
 
 Zofilogy instruction, 1C6 ; Museum 
 of, 274. 
 
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 reading new words as well as in acquiring a distinct articulation. 
 
 Spelling. Words ("elected from the lessons are given for spelling with 
 each piece, thus affording the best opportunity for oral and written spelling- 
 lessons as well as for definitions. lu the Third. Fourth, and Fifth Readers, 
 graded exercises in spel.ing analysis, together with daily lessons of words often 
 misspelled or mispronounced, are placed in the Appendix for constant study. 
 With these Readers no " Speller 11 will be needed. 
 
 Illustrations. The illustrations are beautiful and attractive, and are well 
 adapted to serve as a basis for the language and thought lessons that are to 
 prominent in these books. 
 
 Helps for Teachers. Teachers will find in these books a simple plan that 
 xv ill greatly aid them; while the notes, questions, and suggestions will help the 
 teacher to impart the most instruction and the best culture, which makes the 
 reading-lesson something more than a mere naming of words. 
 
 Oral Bsadingf. Proper oral expression depends on the sense. Get the sence 
 of each extract and the correct oral expression will be an easy matter. This is 
 the key-note to Professor Bailey's excellent lessons on accent, emphasis, inflec- 
 tion, and genera] vocal expression, that are placed as reading-lessons in the 
 Third, Fourth, and Fifth Readers. 
 
 Selections. The selections embrace gem of literature from leading authors. 
 No other readers include such a wide range of thought, showing from the sim- 
 ple stories for children in the earlier books, to the extracts from the best authors 
 in the Fourth and Fifth, unity of design and a just appreciation of the needs ot 
 pur schools. 
 
 Great Success. Since the publication of these Readers, their sale has aver, 
 aged nearly a million copies a year. 
 
 Indorsements. These Readers have received the indorsement of nearly 
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 Comprehensive, Attractive, up to Date. 
 
 THE SERIES: 
 
 Appletons' Elementary Geography. 
 
 This book treats the subject objectively, makes knowledge precede 
 definitions, and presents facts in their logical connections, taking 
 gradual steps from the known to the unknown. The work is designed 
 to be elementary, not only in name and size, but also in the style 
 and quality of its matter and development of the subject. The illus- 
 trations have been selected with great care, and the maps are distinct, 
 unencumbered with names, accurate, and attractive. 
 
 Introduction price, 55 cents. 
 
 Appletons' Higher Geography. 
 
 This volume is not a repetition of the Elementary, either in its mat- 
 ter or mode of developing the subject. In it the earth is viewed as a 
 whole, and the great facts of political as depending on the physical 
 geography are fully explained. Great prominence is given to com- 
 merce and leading industries as the result of physical conditions. The 
 maps challenge comparison in point of correctness, distinctness, and 
 artistic finish. Special State editions, with large, beautiful maps and 
 descriptive matter, supplied without additional expense. 
 
 Introduction price, $1.25. 
 
 Appletons' Physical Geography. 
 
 The new Physical Geography stands unrivaled among text-books on 
 the subject. Its list of authors includes such eminent scientific 
 specialists as Quackenbos, Newberry, Hitchcock, Stevens, Gannett, 
 Dall, Merriam, Britton, Lieutenant Stoney, George F. Kunz, and 
 others, presenting an array of talent never before united in the mak- 
 ing of a single text- book. 
 
 Introduction price, $1.60. 
 
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 An Arithmetic for Primary Schools. By ANDREW J. 
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 Introduction price, 36 cents. 
 
 II. Numbers Applied. 
 
 A Complete Arithmetic for all Grades. Prepared on the 
 Inductive Method, with many new and especially practical 
 features. By ANDREW J. RICKOFF, LL. D. 
 Introduction price, 75 cents. 
 
 III. Numbers Symbolized. 
 
 An Elementary Algebra. By DAVID M. SENSENIG, M. S., 
 Professor of Mathematics in the State Normal School at 
 West Chester, Pa. 
 
 Without Answers Introduction price, 81.08. 
 With Answers Introduction price, $1.16. 
 
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 APPLETONS' SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 In response to the growing interest in the study of the Natural Sci- 
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 widening field of investigation, arrangements have been made for the 
 publication of a series of text-books to cover the whole field of science- 
 -luiiy in High Schools, Academies, and all schools of similar grade. 
 
 The following are now ready. Others in preparation. 
 
 "THE ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. By Professor F. w. 
 
 CLARKE, Chemist of the United States Geological Survey. 12mo, 
 369 pages. 
 
 THE ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, 
 AND HYGIENE. By ROGER S. TRACT, M. D., Sanitary In- 
 spector of the New York Board of Health. 12mo, 299 pages. 
 
 ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY. By C. F. HOLDER, Fellow of the 
 New York Academy of Science, Corresponding Member Linna?an 
 Society, etc. ; and J. B. HOLPKR, M. D., Curator of 7x>61oj;y of 
 Americarf Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New York. 
 12mo, 385 pages. 
 
 A COMPEND OF GEOLOGY. By JOSKPH LK COSTE, Professor 
 of Geology and Natural History in the University of California ; 
 author of "Elements of Geology," etc. 12mo, 399 pages. 
 
 APPLIED GEOLOGY. A Treatise on the Industrial Relations of 
 Geological Structure. By SAMUEL G. WILLIAMS, Professor of Gen- 
 eral and Economic Geology in Cornell University. 12mo, 386 pages. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. A Practical Guide to the Classifi- 
 cation of Plants, with a Popular Flora. By ELIZA A. YOUMANS. 
 12mo, 336 pages. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. By ROBERT BENTLET, F. L. S, 
 Professor of Botany in King's College, London. Adapted to Amcrl 
 can Schools and prepared as a Sequel to " Descriptive Botany," b) 
 ELIZA A. YOCMANS. 12mo, 292 pages. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. By J. 
 LAURENCE LACGHLIN, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Political Econ. 
 omy in Harvard University. 12mo. 
 
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 APPLETONS' 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
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 gravings, diagrams, and maps in color, and including a separate chapter 
 on the geological history and the physical features of the United States, 
 
 JOHN D. QUACKENBOS, A.M., M. D., 
 
 Adjunct Professor of the English Language and Literature, Columbia College, 
 New York, Literary Editor. 
 
 JOHN S. NEWBERRY, M. D., LL. D., 
 
 Professor of Geology and Palaeontology, Columbia College. 
 
 CHARLES H. HITCHCOCK, Ph. D., 
 
 Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, Dartmouth College. 
 
 W. LE CONTE STEVENS, Ph. D., 
 
 Professor of Physics, Packer Collegiate Institute. 
 
 HENRY GANNETT, E. M., 
 
 Chief Geographer of the United States Geological Survey. 
 
 WILLIAM H. DALL, 
 
 Of the United States National Museum. 
 
 C. HART MERRIAM, M. D., 
 
 Ornithologist of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 NATHANIEL L. BRITTON, E. M., Ph. D. f 
 
 Lecturer in Botany, Colombia College. 
 
 GEORGE F. KUNZ, 
 
 Gem Expert and Mineralogist -vrith Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New York. 
 
 Lieutenant GEORGE M. STONEY, 
 
 Naval Department, Washington. 
 
 The unique and valuable features embodied in Appletons' New 
 Physical Geography place it, at once, in advance of any work of the kind 
 heretofore issued. The corps of scientific specialists enlisted in the 
 preparation of this book presents an array of talent never before 
 united in the making of a single text-book. The confidence of teachers 
 everywhere must at once be secured when it is known that such a work 
 is on the market. 
 
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 SULLY'S TWO GREAT WORKS. 
 
 Outlines of Psychology, with Special Reference 
 to the Theory of Education. 
 
 A Text-Book for Colleges. By JAMES SULLY, A. M., Ex- 
 aminer for the Moral Sciences Tripos in the University of 
 Cambridge, etc., etc. 
 
 " A book that has been long wanted by all who are engaged in the 
 business of teaching and desire to master its principles. In the first 
 place, it is an elaborate treatise on the human mind, of independent 
 merit as representing the latest and best work of all schools of psycho- 
 /ogical inquiry. But of equal importance, and what will be prized as a 
 new and most desirable feature of a work on mentabscience, are the 
 educational applications that are made throughout in separate text and 
 type, so that, with the explication of mental phenomena, there comes at 
 once the application to the art of education." 
 
 Crown 8vo. Price, $3.00. 
 
 Teacher's Hand-Book of Psychology. 
 
 On the Basis of "Outlines of Psychology." By JAMBS 
 SULLY, M. A. 
 
 A practical exposition of the elements of Mental Science, with spe- 
 cial applications to the Art of Teaching, designed for the use of Schools, 
 Teachers, Reading Circles, and Students generally. This book is not a 
 mere abridgment of the author's "Outlines," but has been mainly re- 
 written for a more direct educational purpose, and is essentially a new 
 work. It has been heretofore announced as " Elements of Psychology." 
 
 NOTE. No American abridgments or editions of Mr. Sully' a works 
 we authorized except those published by the undersigned. 
 
 12mo, 414 pages. Price, $1.50. 
 
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