Hd 
 
 ^■708 
 
 The Aascssment of Income Tax 
 
 by 
 William Schooling
 
 FHE ASSESSMENT OF 
 INCOME TAX 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM SCHOOLING 
 
 AUTHOR OF " INVVOODS TABLES," " LIFE ASSURANXE EXPLAINED," ETC 
 
 Reprinted from The Daily Telegraph 
 
 • * ' » • > ' • 
 
 LONDON 
 
 CONSTABLE & CO., Ltd. 
 
 1910
 
 Richard Clay and Sons, Limited 
 
 bread street hill, e.c., and 
 
 bungay, suffolk,
 
 HJ 
 
 4'706 
 
 A8S3 
 
 THE 
 ASSESSMENT OF INCOME TAX 
 
 The Income-tax Regulations in the Finance Bill 
 
 of 1909 are of an exceedingly complicated character. 
 
 They involve four different rates of tax, five different 
 
 amounts of abatement, eleven sudden jumps in the 
 
 rate of tax payable, and the method adopted is such 
 
 f2 as to call for a rearrangement of the whole system in 
 
 to the event of the income-tax being raised or lowered 
 
 ^ in the future. 
 
 2 In this article I am in no way concerned with the 
 
 ~ justice or wisdom of the provisions of this or of 
 subsequent Budgets. My object is simply to propose 
 ^ a method of assessing income which 
 
 -^ I . Requires only one rate of income-tax. 
 
 ^ 2. Avoids the sudden jumps that occur at present. 
 
 3. Allows for future variation in the rate of tax 
 o without any change in the method of assessment. 
 
 ^ The general method which I suggest for accom- 
 
 ^ plishing these objects is to make abatements of 
 specified amounts, and add to, or subtract from, the 
 income, less the abatement, certain simple propor- 
 tions. Apart from the particular applications of the 
 method, which I give below, and which approxi- 
 mately conform to the provisions of the 1909 Budget, 
 
 433314
 
 the point that I desire to make is that this "abatement 
 and proportion " system can be adjusted to any re- 
 quirements which, if they were recognised as fair and 
 appropriate, could become permanent, and the rate of 
 income-tax could be varied without in any way dis- 
 turbing the relative burdens upon incomes of different 
 amounts. 
 
 The adoption of the method I propose, which is 
 quite a different matter from the adoption of the 
 details which I give, would bring us back to the sweet 
 simplicity of former times, when the yield from each 
 penny in the pound of income-tax was a known 
 quantity, subject only to such fluctuation as might 
 result from evasion of tax when the rate was excessive. 
 
 INCOMES UP TO i;i,000. 
 
 It is convenient to consider the application of this 
 method in three stages, dealing first with incomes not 
 exceeding ;^i,ooo. In regard to these, the provisions 
 of the 1909 Budget (A) and the plan I propose (B) are 
 as follows : 
 
 A^ 
 
 For the ten plans of the Budget I would substitute 
 two. In place of four different abatements, and two 
 rates of tax, I would have one abatement, one tax, 
 and two proportions. 
 
 How this method works out in the case of unearned 
 incomes may be seen from the following examples : 
 
 
 
 
 Earned 
 
 A 
 
 
 Ur 
 
 learned. 
 *- 
 
 Income. 
 
 Abatement. 
 
 Subtract. Tax in £. 
 
 Add. 
 
 Tax in £. 
 
 ^0- 
 
 - 400 . 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 9d. 
 
 
 
 l^d. 
 
 400— 
 
 - 500 . 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 9d. 
 
 
 
 14d. 
 
 500— 
 
 - 600 . 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 9d. 
 
 
 
 I4d. 
 
 600— 
 
 • 700 . 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 C)d. 
 
 
 
 i^d. 
 
 700— 
 
 -1,000 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 9d. 
 
 
 
 I4d. 
 
 0— 
 
 1,000 . 
 
 200 
 
 One 6th 
 
 i^d. 
 
 One 4t 
 
 1 14^.
 
 5 
 
 Actual income .... ./"360 ;!^42o ^560 ^{^640 / 1,000 
 Abatement 200 200 200 200 200 
 
 Result ^160 ^220 £2>(iO ^440 ;{;8oo 
 
 Add one-fourth .... 40 55 go 110 200 
 
 Income for assessment ;/^200 £'2.7S i^450 £SS'^ ;^iiOOO 
 Under 1909 Budget . 200 270 440 570 1,000 
 
 In regard to earned incomes, I proceed on the 
 assumption that the rate of tax is two-thirds of the 
 rate charged upon unearned income. I therefore 
 reduce the earned income to two-thirds of the corre- 
 sponding unearned, and charge one rate of tax for 
 both. 
 
 Two-thirds of is. 2d. is 9 i-3d., as compared with 
 the actual tax of gd. imposed by the Budget of 1909. 
 It is not improbable that future rates might be I2d. 
 and 8d., or i5d. and lod. It is this assumption of the 
 "earned" rate being two-thirds of the "unearned" 
 rate of tax that produces the rule of deducting one- 
 sixth from earned incomes in place of adding one- 
 fourth, as is done on unearned incomes. Take an 
 example, and assume the rates of tax to be 8d. and 
 IS. respectively : 
 
 Actual Income ^584 ^584 
 
 Subtract 200 200 
 
 Result £2,?>A £2>H 
 
 Add one-fourth 96 — 
 
 Subtract one-sixth .... — 64 
 
 Assessable income .... ^^480 £y^o 
 
 Rate of Tax 8</. i2d. 
 
 Amount of Tax £\b ^16 
 
 It is seen to give exactly the same result to charge 
 the higher tax on the smaller income as to charge the
 
 lower tax on the larger income. This method gives 
 the advantage that an increase or decrease in the rate 
 of tax leaves the relative burdens of different classes of 
 incomes absolutely unaltered. To change the rate 
 from gd. to lod. is to increase the amount payable by 
 one-ninth ; to change it from i4d. to i5d. is to increase 
 the amount payable by the smaller proportion of one- 
 fourteenth ; hence it seems a better plan to have a 
 permanent method of assessment, settling once for all 
 the relative burdens of different incomes, and causing 
 all incomes to be affected in equal proportion when 
 the rate of tax is changed. 
 
 Since the great majority of incomes are under 
 ;^'i,ooo, it appears especially desirable to have two 
 rules for dealing with these incomes instead of ten. 
 
 There are other benefits as well. One of these is the 
 avoidance of sudden jumps in the amount of tax 
 payable on incomes that differ but little from one 
 another. Although under the Budget ;^5oo pays on 
 one scale and ^501 on a higher scale, it is convenient 
 to show the jumps on the same incomes when 
 calculated on the two scales. These are seen below : 
 
 Actual Income ^400 ^500 ;^6oo ^700 
 Earned — 
 
 Tax on higher scale /9 7 6 £iiX 5 o £ic) 17 6 ^26 5 o 
 
 „ lower „ goo 1326 1800 23126 
 
 Amount of jump ^o 7 6;^i 2 6 ^117 6 £2, 12 6 
 Unearned — 
 
 Tax on higher scale 14 11 8 22 3 4 30 18 4 40 16 8 
 
 „ lower „ 14 o o 20 8 4 28 o o 36 15 o 
 
 Amount of jump ;^o 11 8 ;^i 15 o ^2 18 4 ^{^4 i 8 
 
 Any man is likely to persuade himself that his 
 income is ;^7oo subject to an effective tax of i2|d.,
 
 rather than £701 subject to 140!. The Budget plan 
 is obviously foolish, irregular, and unfair. Under the 
 plan I suggest the amount of tax payable on incomes 
 at the changing points is identical by the lower and 
 the higher scales. There are no jumps at all. 
 
 On the diagrams the thick continuous lines repre- 
 sent the amount of income-tax payable under the 1909 
 Budget; the dotted lines show the working of the 
 method I suggest. In each case the upper lines refer 
 to unearned income, and the lower lines to earned 
 income. (See plate at end.) 
 
 The tigures at the bottom of the diagram show the 
 amount of income; the figures at the side indicate the 
 amount of tax. The sloping lines show the effective 
 rate of tax. Thus an earned income of ;^8oo is seen 
 to pay, under the Budget regulations, a total of ^30, 
 and to be at the effective rate of 9d. in the pound. 
 
 The diagrams exhibit the jumps or irregularities in 
 the Budget arrangements, and the absence of these 
 jumps in the dotted lines which represent the method 
 I propose. These dotted lines are straight from point 
 to point. In the main, for incomes under ^1,000, the 
 suggested plan merely smooths out the irregularities 
 of the Budget. There are three points to notice in 
 connection with it. 
 
 The first is that incomes under ;^200 are exempt, 
 instead of under ^160 as at present. There seems 
 much to be said for such exemption, but if it were 
 not considered desirable, it is quite simple, by the 
 "abatement and proportion" method, to charge tax 
 on all incomes exceeding ;^i6o. If this were to be 
 done the rule for unearned incomes would be, as in 
 the Budget, an abatement of ;^i6o and tax at is. 2d. 
 for incomes up to £360, and for incomes from ;^36o
 
 to ;^i,ooo the rule I gave above. A change at this 
 point involves no jump. An abatement of ;£i6o from 
 ;^36o gives an assessable income of ;^20o; an abate- 
 ment of ;^2oo and an addition of one-fourth of the 
 balance also gives an assessable income of ;^200. For 
 earned incomes up to ;£s6o there would be, as at 
 present, an abatement of ;^i6o, and a subtraction of 
 one-third from the balance, in order to charge the 
 higher rate of tax on the smaller income; in this case 
 also there is no jump. 
 
 The second point to notice is that unearned incomes 
 from ;^7oo to ^i,ooo, and earned incomes from ;^7oo 
 to ^875, pay less than under the 1909 Budget. Con- 
 sidering that a man with ;;6700 is not so well off now as 
 a man with the same income was formerly, this slight 
 relief seems by no means inappropriate ; but if it is 
 not thought advisable the existing conditions can be 
 adhered to more closely by a modification of the abate- 
 ment and proportion suggested. 
 
 The third point which calls for comment is that my 
 suggestions for earned incomes up to ;^i,ooo are, on 
 the whole, slightly less favourable to income-tax 
 payers than the conditions of the Budget. This is 
 due to the assumption that the tax on earned incomes 
 should be two-thirds of the rate on unearned incomes; 
 consequently, as I am working on the basis of the 
 current Budget, I am dealing with a tax of 9 i-3d., 
 instead of 9d. This accounts for the amount of tax 
 payable on incomes from ;^875 to ;;^i,8oo being 
 more than the amount charged under the Budget. 
 For incomes within these limits my suggestion is 
 based on a tax of 9 1-36., while the Budget rate is 9d. 
 This discrepancy might disappear or be reversed with 
 a change in the rate of tax.
 
 It remains to show the effective tax payable under 
 the Budget and in accordance with my suggestions. 
 
 Effective 
 
 Earned Ij 
 
 ncome. 
 
 Unearned ] 
 
 Income. 
 
 Tax in £,. 
 
 Budget. 
 
 Proposed. 
 
 Budget. 
 
 Proposed. 
 
 Id. 
 
 ^180 
 
 Z219 
 
 £^7^ 
 
 ^212 
 
 2d. 
 
 206 
 
 241 
 
 187 
 
 226 
 
 yi. 
 
 240 
 
 269 
 
 204 
 
 241 
 
 4d. 
 
 288 
 
 304 
 
 224 
 
 259 
 
 Sd. 
 
 360 
 
 350 
 
 249 
 
 280 
 
 6d. 
 
 450 
 
 412 
 
 280 
 
 304 
 
 Id. 
 
 540 
 
 500 
 
 320 
 
 333 
 
 %d. 
 
 None 
 
 636 
 
 373 
 
 368 
 
 9d. 
 
 700-1,000 
 
 875 
 
 420 
 
 412 
 
 lod. 
 
 — 
 
 
 None 
 
 467 
 
 lid. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 560 
 
 538 
 
 i2d. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 None 
 
 636 
 
 13d. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 None 
 
 778 
 
 \^d. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 700-1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 This table, of course, means that an earned income 
 of ;^240 pays, according to the Budget of 1909, 
 exactly 3d. in the pound, which, since there are 240 
 pence in the £1, is £2 in all. The abatement on an 
 income of ^240 is £160, leaving an assessable income 
 of ;^8o, which, when tax is charged at the rate of gd., 
 gives £2) as the amount payable. It is a consequence 
 of the jumps in the Budget that there is no earned 
 income which pays exactly 8d., and no unearned 
 income which pays exactly lod., i2d,, or 13d. 
 
 Perhaps it will not be any consolation to income-tax 
 payers to know that under the "abatement and pro- 
 portion " method the incomes which pay tax at the 
 effective rates of id., 2d., 3d., &c., in the pound are 
 in harmonica! progression ; in other words, the 
 relations between them have the same sort of character 
 as the numbers of the vibrations in the notes of the 
 musical scale. If unity were divided by each of these 
 numbers in succession, the differences between the
 
 lO 
 
 successive quotients would be a constant quantity. It 
 may, however, be unseemly to refer to income-tax and 
 harmony in the same sentence. 
 
 Such points as the rebate of income-tax on pre- 
 miums paid for life assurance, and the methods of 
 dealing with incomes that are partly earned and partly 
 unearned lend themselves to simpler treatment by the 
 method of abatement and proportion than by the rules 
 of the Budget. 
 
 INCOMES FROM ^^1,000 TO ^3,000. 
 
 For unearned incomes from ^i,ooo to ;^3,ooo the 
 1909 Budget makes no abatement, and charges tax at 
 IS. 2d. in the pound. I do not suggest any change in 
 this plan. On the diagram it is a straight line from 
 the ;^i,ooo to the ;^3,ooo point; this is, perhaps, the 
 one really rational feature of the present income-tax 
 regulations. 
 
 On earned incomes from ^1,000 to ;^2,ooo the 
 Budget charges 9d. in the pound; on earned incomes 
 from ;^2,ooo to ^3,000 the tax is is. in the pound; 
 and on earned incomes above ;^3,ooo the tax is i^d. 
 This involves two big jumps; there is a sudden in- 
 crease of 3d. in the pound when the income exceeds 
 ^2,000 : on the lower scale the amount payable is 
 ;^75, on the higher scale it is ;^ioo; the jump is £2$, 
 The jump at £3,000 is also £2$, since it is 2d. in the 
 pound on ^3,000. This, as the partially discredited 
 Euclid would have said, is absurd. I am by no means 
 sure that this is not immoral, or at least conducive to 
 the frigid and calculated lie. If a man's income is 
 ;^2,ooi he is greatly tempted to return it as ;^2,ooo, 
 and save about £2$ by doing so.
 
 II 
 
 There are various ways of meeting these points, and 
 the suggestions that 1 make are that for earned 
 incomes from ^i,ooo to ;^i,8oo there should be no 
 abatement, but that one-third should be subtracted 
 and the uniform high rate of income-tax be charged. 
 If the income is ;^i,8oo and we subtract one-third, the 
 assessable income is ;^i,200. A tax of is. in the 
 pound on ;^i,200 is equivalent to 8d. in the pound on 
 ;^i,8oo; similarly a tax of is. 2d. on ;^i,200 equals a 
 tax of 9 I -3d. on ;^ 1,800. It is because I have sup- 
 posed that the tax on earned incomes should be two- 
 thirds of that on unearned that the tax comes to 
 9 i-3d., and the dotted line on the diagram, which 
 shows the working of my proposals, is higher than the 
 continuous line which shows the Budget tax of gd. 
 
 For incomes from ^1,800 to ;i^3,ooo I suggest an 
 abatement of ;^ 1,000 and an increase of the balance 
 by one-half. It is necessary to have a large abate- 
 ment and a large proportion in order to fit in approxi- 
 mately with the present Budget, which charges 9d. 
 in the pound on incomes of ;^'2,ooo, and is, 2d. on 
 incomes that exceed ;^3,ooo. We have to avoid two 
 big and sudden jumps. 
 
 It will be seen that an income of /^ 1,800 pays 
 exactly the same amount of tax whether there is no 
 abatement and a deduction of one-third, or an abate- 
 ment of ;^i,ooo and an addition of one-half; the 
 assessable income is ^1,200 in both cases. 
 
 It is the same with earned incomes of ;^3,ooo, 
 which, in order to conform with Budget regulations, 
 I have made to coincide with unearned incomes. In 
 the case of the latter the tax is assessable on the actual 
 income of ;^3,ooo; in the case of earned incomes the 
 deduction of ;^ 1,000 from ;^3,ooo and the subsequent
 
 12 
 
 addition of one-half, brings us to an assessable income 
 of £3,000, which is identical with the arrangements 
 for unearned incomes. 
 
 The diagram makes it clear that my suggestions 
 involve a higher rate than the Budget for incomes 
 from ;^i,8oo to ;^2,ooo ; a lower rate for incomes from 
 ;^2,ooo to ;^2,333 ; and a higher rate from that point 
 
 up to ;^3,000. 
 
 It should be remembered that I am arguing for a 
 method which seems to me to have many advantages, 
 and not for a Budget, with the merits of which I am 
 not concerned. I am simply trying to show that 
 rational methods can be substituted for irrational 
 without deviating greatly from the results proposed 
 in the Budget. 
 
 The effective tax charged under the Budget is 9d, 
 in the pound from ;^ 1,000 to ;^2,ooo; is. on incomes 
 from ;^2,ooo to ;^3,ooo; and is. 2d. on incomes ex- 
 ceeding ;^3,ooo. There is no earned income which 
 pays an effective tax of lod., iid. or 13d. Under the 
 proposed plan the effective tax is lod. on incomes of 
 ;^i,909; it is iid. on ^2,100; the tax is is. in the 
 pound on incomes of ;^2,333; it is is. id. on ;^2,625, 
 and IS. 2d, on ;^3,ooo. This again is a harmonica! 
 progression. 
 
 INCOMES ABOVE ;^3,000. 
 
 For incomes above ;^'3,ooo no distinction is made 
 in the Budget between earned and unearned incomes, 
 and therefore I suggest no distinction between the 
 two. The Budget provides that from ;^3,ooo to 
 ;^5,ooo the tax is is. 2d. in the pound on the actual 
 income; above ;^5,ooo there is a super-tax of 6d. in 
 the pound on the amount by which the income exceeds
 
 13 
 
 ;i^3»ooo. In other words, the tax on incomes above 
 ;^5,ooo is IS. 8d. in the pound, subject to an abate- 
 ment of income of ;^900. A tax of 6d. in the pound 
 on ^3,000 is 18,000 pence, and 18,000 pence is 
 equivalent to a tax of twenty pence in the pound on 
 an income of ;^900. It would have been more in 
 accordance with the arrangements adopted for smaller 
 incomes had the Budget provided that the tax on in- 
 comes exceeding ;^5,ooo should be is. 8d. in the 
 pound, subject to an abatement of ;^900 from actual 
 income. 
 
 The super-tax regulations of the Budget can be 
 stated in terms of abatement and proportion^ with 
 one rate of tax. We have just seen that the exclu- 
 sion of the first ;i^3,ooo from super-tax is equivalent 
 to an abatement of ;^900 from income. The super- 
 tax is an increase from fourteen pence to twenty 
 pence, w'hich is an addition of six-fourteenths to the 
 normal tax. It is immaterial whether the income 
 or the income-tax is increased by this six-fourteenths 
 so far as the result is concerned. Take, for example, 
 an income of ;^io,ooo. A tax of i4d. on ;^3,ooo, plus 
 2od. on ;^7,ooo, gives the amount payable as 
 ;^758 6s. 8d. Identical results would be obtained by 
 making an abatement of ;^900 and adding six- 
 fourteenths, which gives an assessable income of 
 ;^i3,ooo at I4d. in the pound. The abatement that 
 would exactly suit the Budget regulations, however, 
 is the awkward fraction of six-fourteenths or three- 
 sevenths, and the Budget increase in tax starts with a 
 sudden jump at incomes exceeding ;^5,ooo. An 
 additional £\ of actual income calls for an additional 
 ;^50 of income-tax. This jump is clearly shown in the 
 smaller diagram. (See plate at end.) 
 
 433314
 
 14 
 
 Surely conditions of this sort are better avoided, 
 and they can be eliminated by the abatement and pro- 
 portion method in a variety of ways. The plan shown 
 in the diagram is to make an abatement of ;i^ 1,400 
 from ;^4,200 upwards, and then increase the balance 
 by one-half, and charge the one rate of fourteen pence 
 in the pound throughout. This plan gives a result 
 identical with that of the Budget at ^4,200, and in- 
 volves no jump. The subtraction of ;^ 1,400 from 
 ^4,200 leaves ;i{^2,8oo, the addition to which of one- 
 half brings us back to the ;^4,20o. This plan involves 
 the payment of a slightly increased amount as com- 
 pared with the Budget, for incomes from ^4,200 to 
 ;/C5^ooo; thereafter the amount payable is less than 
 under the Budget until we come to ;^i 1,400, after 
 which point the suggested plan yields more than the 
 Budget. The difference between the Budget and this 
 proposal is very slight at all points. 
 
 THE CONCLUSION OF THE WHOLE 
 MATTER. 
 
 Without repeating the conditions of the Budget, 
 which are well known and have already been described 
 in this article, it may be well to summarise the 
 particular methods which I suggest for dealing with 
 all incomes, from the lowest to the highest. They are 
 as follows : 
 
 tCnEarned . 
 
 l/tnEarned 
 Both . . 
 y«earned 
 y«£arned 
 y*»earned 
 y«earned 
 
 Income. 
 
 Abatement. 
 
 Proportion. 
 
 Tax in £. 
 
 ^O-IOOO 
 
 /;2oo 
 
 plus One 4th 
 
 l/i,d. 
 
 IOCX3-4200 
 
 
 
 
 
 ij,d. 
 
 4200-Up 
 
 1400 
 
 pkis One half 
 
 li,d. 
 
 O-ICXX) 
 
 200 
 
 less One 6th 
 
 i^d. 
 
 1 000- 1 800 
 
 
 
 less One 3rd 
 
 I Ad 
 
 1800-3000 
 
 1000 
 
 plus One half 
 
 I4d. 
 
 3000-4200 
 
 
 
 
 
 14</.
 
 15 
 
 The amounts of the abatements and proportions 
 suggested can be varied to an unlimited extent and 
 arranged to suit any conditions that are considered 
 desirable. The above results approximate to the con- 
 ditions of the somewhat elaborate arrangements of 
 the Budget for 1909, and it may be said that a method 
 that will fit that will fit anything. 
 
 The important thing, however, is the advantages 
 presented by the abatement and proportion method 
 of assessment of income. 
 
 1. There is one rate of tax for all incomes. 
 
 2. The tax can be changed without altering the 
 relative burden upon different classes of income. 
 
 3. The yield from each penny in the pound of 
 income-tax again becomes a known amount. 
 
 4. There are no sudden jumps such as occur 
 under the Budget. 
 
 5. The absence of jumps tends to the accuracy of 
 income-tax returns. 
 
 6. There are two methods for dealing with 
 incomes under ;^ 1,000, in place of ten methods 
 under the Budget; and for the whole range of 
 incomes six plans instead of twelve plans. 
 
 7. The method of assessment could be perma- 
 nent, whatever changes were made in the rate of 
 tax. 
 
 8. The method is rational, instead of empirical. 
 
 9. It probably facilitates estimates of revenue. 
 
 I hope I may claim to have established the 
 superiority of the method I advocate. Perhaps the 
 last two advantages mentioned will tell against its 
 adoption by Chancellors of the Exchequer. 
 WILLIAM SCHOOLING, 
 81, Page Street, Westminster, S.W.
 
 TOCVERSTTY^CAUFORNU 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
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