Division of Agricultural Sciences UNIVERSITY O F C A L I F O R N Managing YOUNG DAIRY STOCK in California <-'.*v'..i*. S. W. Mead and Magnar Ronning CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station Extension Service CIRCULAR 497 A well-planned calf -raising program produces normal, healthy heifers. This circular discusses the general fundamental principles for suc- cessful raising of dairy calves. It also describes a few specific methods which, with slight alterations, may be adapted to vari- ous ranch conditions. Although the method for a given locality or even for a given ranch is determined largely by cost of feeds available and the selling price of milk and cream, successful calf raising actually depends less on the method than on the funda- mental principles of its application. CONTENTS Costs, Selection, Feed and Management 3 Handling the Young Calf 6 Feeding and Management During the Five Early Stages 10 Feeding and Management Before Calving 21 ( !ommon Ailments 22 Sanitation and Calf Quarters 21 Raising the Herd Sire 20 Veal Production 26 MARCH, 1961 tiii; \l TIIOKS S. W. Mead is Professor of Animal Husbandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experiment Station; Magnar Ronning is Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry and Assistant Animal Husbandman in tlic Experiment Station. Managing YOUNG DAIRY STOCK in California S. W. Mead and Magnar Ronninc I T is increasingly difficult to maintain and improve a dairy herd by purchasing milking cows. With purchased stock the dairyman is unable to follow an intelligent breeding program that will permanently improve the inherent productive capacity of his herd; he is also in constant danger of introducing infectious diseases, which would jeopardize the health of his herd and might also prohibit the sale of milk. For the average dairyman, therefore, herd improvement in milk production and protec- tion against disease must come through a well-planned breeding program. This means the raising of normal, healthy female calves (see photo page 2) sired by a carefully selected bull. Rigid attention must be given to all details of a sound calf- raising program. However, if you have a sound breed- ing program, you will save all calves and cull the poorest ones on the basis of their performance during the first lactation. This practice makes it possible to prove sires more accurately and, at the same time, determine definitely the productive capacity of each animal which remains in the herd. Any attempt to select at the time of birth the calves that might de- velop into the highest-producing cows is hazardous and will confuse results in es- timating the transmitting ability of the sire. Since low production is the biggest single reason for removing cows from your herd, use only the best available sires. California Napnick Ned (Bull 755A) shown on page 4 — a bull bred and owned by the University of Califor- nia — has had only a few daughters that would need to be culled because of low production (see chart on page 5). Re- ducing the number of culls decreases re- placement cost, increases average pro- duction for the herd, and thereby reduces production cost. COSTS, SELECTION, FEED AND MANAGEMENT Cost is an important consideration in a management program for dairy calves. There is no definite information on the cost of raising dairy heifers. The price of feeds and other expenses vary too much throughout the state to serve as a stable basis for cost prediction. You may, how- ever, estimate closely by applying local prices to the recommendations in this circular. SELECTION OF CALVES The life span of the average dairy cow is between five and six years. With most cows calving at a little over two years of age, the productive life is at best not more than four years. This means an an- nual loss from the milking herd of ap- proximately 25 per cent. With an antici- pated but variable calf mortality you should plan to save at least three calves for every 10 cows in the herd in order to keep the milking herd at constant size. [3] While low-producing cows can often be purchased for less than the cost of raising them properly from birth, high producers can seldom be purchased at any price. Dairymen should give less thought to the cost of raising a calf and more to the selection of breeding stock and to more rapid growth through better feeding methods. The return on invest- ment will be greater through earlier ma- turity and heavier milk production. The freemartin. At least 90 per cent of the female calves born twin to a male are sterile. These are called freemartins. All other twin calves may be raised with the assurance that twinning has not im- paired their breeding powers. FEED AND MANAGEMENT FOR MAXIMUM GROWTH Inheritance determines the amount of milk a heifer can produce, but unless she is properly fed and cared for she will be unable to reach her maximum inherited capacity. Studies carried on at the Agricultural Experiment Station, Davis, prove the close relationship between body size at the time of first freshening and the amount of milk a heifer will produce. The table on page 5 shows the milk fat records of daughters of 11 bulls. Each bull was used in two or more herds. Hence, there was opportunity to compare each bull's daughters in two or more herds on the basis of known methods of feeding before first freshening. The most striking difference in pro- duction is between the daughters of these 11 bulls in herds No. 1 and No. 2 and the daughters of the same bulls in any of the other herds. In some instances the differences are nearly 100 pounds of milk fat. There is unmistakable evidence that the difference in production was due to the much smaller size and poorer con- dition of the heifers at the time of first freshening in herds No. 1 and No. 2 than in the other herds. Production was great- est in the herds maintained with the best feeding and management methods. California Napnick Ned (Bull 755A) is an example of a well-selected herd sire. The chart on page 5 shows the milk fat records of his daughters. [4] Heifers raised in different herds, but sired by the same bull, show marked differences in producing ability due to size and finish at time of first calving. Sire number 62A 333C 370A 372A 372B 372C 374B 375B 375E 498B 572B 316 277 365 284 302 297 312 297 320 280 296 286 387 Herd number Heifers' producing ability* (pounds milk fat) 369 336 308 379 376 380 347 361 316 348 386 374 456 384 380 435 375 448 374 369 362 389 441 472 * All records are for junior two-year-olds; 305-day lactations; twice daily milking. Milk fat records of the daughters of the bull shown on page 4, compared with those of their dams. Only a few had to be culled because of low production. All records are for junior two-year-olds on 305 days lactations, milked twice daily. 700\ 600 i 500 400 i! .tit* / "1 - / / / Calf starter — > 1 — "7 ~y • 1/ Growing mixture ~> ■ ■tfr :<:'■ 1 7" r m y' y 4. *■— ■ 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 Age (weeks) Feeding schedules, using dry calf -starter method for Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss, and Ayrshire calves. 12 10 <2 6 H< 3y ~^ 4 / Whole milk — > / / / _r \ ( lalf star ter -, 1 S 1 ' L5- y \-<-i • y ' i i Growing mixtu j -*- .-^' ^•** * s j 10 12 14 16 Age (weeks) 18 20 22 24 26 Feeding schedules for Jersey and Guernsey calves. (Drawings from New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University.) 14] AGE IN POUNDS OF MILK FED DAILY EEKS JERSEYS HOLSTEINS 1 3.5 4.5 2 4.0 5.0 3 4.5 5.5 4 5.0 6.0 5 5.5 6.5 6 6.0 7.0 7 6.5 7.5 8 7.0 7.5 9 8.0 8.0 10 9.0 10.0 11 10.0 12.0 12 10.0 12.0 13 9.0 10.0 Increases from week to week are made gradually. After the first two to three weeks a gradual change may be made to skim milk, either fresh or reconstituted; if this is done, the amounts shown in the milk-feeding schedule should be in- creased somewhat. The amounts for Holsteins should be satisfactory for Ayr- shires and Brown Swiss. The calves are induced to eat the con- centrate mixture at as early an age as possible. Usually the calves will begin to eat concentrates and hay in small amounts at seven to 10 days of age, al- though these feeds should be available to the calf soon after birth. Calves are allowed free access to both hay and con- centrates until they are eating 5 pounds of concentrates. They are always allowed free access to hay. Fine-stemmed, bright- green, leafy alfalfa hay with its high con- tent of protein, calcium, and carotene (pro-vitamin A) is best for calves. With the Experiment Station mini- mum-milk method, calves six to 10 months of age did well on rolled barley and alfalfa hay or rolled oats and alfalfa hay. The following concentrate mixture is used while the calves are receiving milk: FEED POUNDS Rolled barley 40 Rolled oats 25 Wheat bran or millrun 25 Linseed meal 9 Salt 1 Total 100 [15 You may use the same concentrate mixture after the calves are weaned, al- though the addition of 18 pounds of dry skim milk or 10 pounds of white fish meal to this mixture after the calves are weaned will induce greater growth dur- ing the next three months. With fish meal, here is a satisfactory mixture for use after calves are weaned: FEED POUNDS Rolled barley 35 Rolled oats 21 Wheat bran or millrun 21 Linseed meal 7 White fish meal 10 Soybean meal 4 Salt 1 Steamed bone meal 1 Total 100 WHOLE-MILK SUBSTITUTES Colostrum. This valuable food — the mother's first milk — is used immediately after the calf is born but may also be used at any time during the calf's life. It should not be wasted. It is normally rich in vitamin A, which is especially essential during the calf's early life. Ex- periments have shown that surplus colos- trum not used during the first day or two of the calf's life, or colostrum produced by cows whose calves are not to be raised, may be fed to other calves at any age. It may be substituted for a like amount of herd milk or may be mixed with herd milk to make up the total amount needed in a day. Dry skim milk is a satisfactory sub- stitute for fresh skim milk when recon- stituted in the proportion of 1 pound of dry skim milk in 9 pounds of water. The concentrate mixture given to calves weaned from liquid food at an early age can be improved through the addition of 15 per cent dry skim milk. Fresh buttermilk and whey are satis- factory if strictly fresh and not diluted with wash water or condensed steam — which is sometimes done. These foods should not be substituted for whole milk until the calf is at least four to six weeks old. Because of the greater acidity and laxative action of fresh buttermilk and whey more care is required in changing over to them from whole milk than from whole milk to skim milk. Since whey contains very little protein, the concen- trate mixture should contain more pro- tein than a mixture fed with skim milk. You will improve results if some whole or skim milk is fed along with the whey. Commercial whole-milk replacers. A number of commercial whole-milk re- placers are available. The most success- ful of the formulas tested usually contain about 60 to 80 per cent nonfat milk solids. Some formulas with less milk solids may be satisfactory if they contain relatively high levels of other high- quality ingredients such as blood flour, fish meal, soybean flour, and similar materials. These formulas should contain a source of vitamin A, as do the better products on the market. All replacers, being relatively low in fat, may furnish only about two-thirds as much energy as whole milk. Some formulas contain added vegetable fats, but these fats must be hydrogenated to be tolerated by calves. At present, prob- ably no more than 6 to 10 per cent (dry basis) of added vegetable fat can effi- ciently be utilized or tolerated by calves. Much work is being done to find ways of improving the utilization of vegetable fats in calf diets. In feeding commercial whole-milk re- placers, follow carefully and exactly the directions on the label. Feeding more than the recommended levels may cause serious digestive upsets. Feed a high- quality, high-energy starter along with replacers to supplement the energy in- take of the calves. Such starters should not contain added vegetable fat if they are to be fed with replacers containing as much as 6 to 10 per cent vegetable fat. Calves cannot tolerate high levels even when vegetable fats are hydrogenated. ROUGHAGES AND CONCENTRATES Mixtures of grains, grain by-products, and other by-products of the oil and mill- ing industries are often incorrectly called "grain mixtures." These should be called "concentrate mixtures." Such feeds as hay, pasture, forage, and silage are called "roughages"; they differ from the concentrates in greater bulkiness and usually in a higher percentage of fiber. Roughages vary considerably in protein content; and since they are generally the cheapest source of food nutrients, the basis for selecting a concentrate mixture depends largely on the roughage avail- able. Classes of roughage. Generally speak- ing, there are three classes of roughage. The first includes the high-protein roughages, or legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, vetch, cowpea and soybean hay, and green pasture. The second consists of the low-protein or carbonaceous roughages, such as the grain and grass hays and dry pastures and nonlegumi- nous silages. The third, known as mixed roughages, contains any mixture of high- and low-protein roughages, such as alfalfa hay and corn silage; oat and vetch hay ; or dry pasture, supplemented with a limited amount of a leguminous hay. Suitable concentrate mixtures supply, at lowest cost, those characteristics and constituents in which the particular roughage may be deficient. They must of course be palatable, highly digestible, and provide variety, bulk, and common salt. For best results, feeds such as barley, oats, wheat, milo. and corn should be rolled or crushed rather than finely ground. Calves prefer coarse feeds. Pel- leting of calf starters, and even of grow- ing mixtures, gives an advantage through greater consumption, more uniform mix- ing of ingredients, and less wastage. MINERALS Such minerals as calcium, phosphorus. [ 16 1 and iron are necessary for regulating the body processes and for developing the skeleton. Milk contains relatively large amounts of various minerals, which must come originally from the feed. An ade- quate supply of minerals is therefore extremely important for the rapidly growing calf and the high-producing cow. Calcium and phosphorus are the min- erals most frequently discussed. The legumes are particularly rich in calcium, whereas the concentrates are high in phosphorus and relatively low in cal- cium. Hence, calves and older heifers receiving generous amounts of a legumi- nous hay or pasture and of concentrates will have sufficient calcium and phos- phorus. On the other hand, the grain hays and grasses are relatively low in both of these minerals. Concentrates will supply the phosphorus, and oyster-shell flour — added to the concentrates at the rate of 1 or 2 per cent of the mix — will supply the calcium. Range feed in the foothills and other nonirrigated pastures becomes leached and bleached as the season advances. Under such conditions, heifers should receive concentrates to supplement the phosphorus intake as well as that of protein, and total digest- ible nutrients. Feeding some hay may also be necessary. Some soils may pro- duce mineral-deficient feeds. If this con- dition is indicated by bone chewing, wood gnawing, or any other form of depraved appetite, add to the concen- trate mixture 1 or 2 per cent of a high- grade supplement, such as steamed bone meal or spent bone black. Iodine. In certain restricted districts iodine deficiency is indicated by cases of "big neck" or goiter. Hairless pigs may also be found in such districts. However, the only area in California known to be deficient in iodine is a small area in Shasta County around Hat Creek. Preg- nant cows in such areas should receive stabilized iodized salt to protect the calves they are carrying. Salt. Make common salt available as soon as the calf begins to eat concen- trates and hay. To each 100 pounds of concentrates add 1 pound of salt. In addition give the calf access to salt at all times, whether in the corral or on pasture. Except as noted, mineral supplements are not necessary; nor are they, as many people believe, a cure-all for common ailments. Since complicated mineral mix- tures are unnecessary and expensive, do not use them. VITAMINS Although several vitamins are needed by the calf for normal growth and devel- opment, these are supplied by natural feeds, such as milk from properly fed cows, fresh and dried green roughages, and sunshine. Multiple-vitamin capsules or pills are unnecessary. The claim that such prepa- rations will prevent or cure scours in calves receiving a normal diet is un- founded. There is no substitute for good feeding and management. Vitamin A. Under conditions of im- proper nutrition, however, calves have been found to suffer from vitamin A deficiency. This is indicated by sore eyes (resembling pinkeye), weakness, un- thriftiness, scours, and pulmonary com- plications. You can prevent such vita- min A deficiency if you make use of the natural feeds that are rich in this vitamin. If the cow has received a normal ration of green hay or pasture during her dry period, her colostrum will contain far more vitamin A than at any other time during her lactation period. Since all calves are born with little or no reserve of vitamin A, be certain that the cow is properly fed before calving and that the calf receives the colostrum as soon as possible after birth. Calves receiving milk from cows fed bleached hay and no green pasture may require a vitamin A supplement until they are consuming enough hay of a bright green color. [17] Calves being raised on a minimum amount of milk or taken off milk at an early age may be benefitted by supple- mental vitamin A. Vitamin I). A deficiency of vitamin D can cause rickets or abnormal bone for- mation. Under most weather conditions in California no vitamin D supplement will be needed, since sunshine provides enough of this vitamin. Sun-cured hay is also a good source of vitamin D. This is another reason why calves should be taught to eat bright-green sun-cured hay at an early age. During the season of minimum sunshine, particularly along the coastal areas, it may be desirable to supply young calves with a vitamin D supplement until they are eating daily about 2 pounds of sun-cured hay. // vitamin A or D supplements are needed, use commercial preparations. The vitamin content is given on the label in terms of International Units (I.U.) or in milligrams. Following are the daily recommendations for supplying vitamin A or its precursor (carotene) and vita- min D for each 100 pounds of body weight of the calf: Vitamin A 7000 I.U. or Carotene 4 mg or Vitamin A alcohol 2 mg or Vitamin A esters 2.2 mg Vitamin D 300 I.U. FROM SIX MONTHS TO ONE YEAR OF AGE Importance of hay and concentrates. After caring for the young heifers con- scientiously from birth to six months, dairymen often make the mistake of as- suming that the heifers can now take care of themselves. They give no concentrates during the pasture season and little more than roughage during the winter. Many dairymen mistakenly suppose that grass is a perfect food for young stock. As a matter of fact, immature grass contains about 80 per cent water, and the digestive organs of a calf under 10 months of age are not capable of handling enough of this bulky food for [ normal growth. One must therefore feed concentrates to keep the heifer growing rapidly. A heifer underweight at six months of age should receive somewhat larger quantities of concentrates. You can determine the amount to feed by weighing the heifer, or by estimating her weight by drawing a tape measure securely around her chest just behind the shoulders and elbows. See that she stands squarely on all four feet with her head in a normal position. The circum- ference of the chest in inches may then be compared with the figures presented in the table on page 19. In those parts of California where the pastures dry up during the latter part of the summer, hay as well as concentrates must be supplied. The poor growth made by dairy heifers turned onto dry, bleached pas- tures in summer is due to insufficient feed, particularly protein, and possibly calcium and phosphorus. Such pastures will also be low in vitamin A and may result in a deficiency, especially if the heifers have previously received a low- grade hay. The best supplement is a good-quality alfalfa hay (to supply pro- tein, vitamin A, calcium, and part of the energy needed), and a grain such as barley or oats (to supply additional energy and phosphorus). In winter, and when there is no pas- ture, the heifer six to 12 months old should receive her fill of the best-quality hay available, together with concentrates sufficient for normal growth. FROM ONE YEAR OF AGE TO FIRST CALVING With cost the principal argument against raising dairy heifers, and the period from birth to first calving unpro- ductive, the advantage of early calving is evident. To sacrifice size of animal for early calving is, however, a serious mis- take. The undersized heifer, after fresh- ening for the first time, is limited in her ability to produce milk by the fact that Normal body weight and heart girth- of heifers during the growing period. Age (in months) Ayrshire Guernsey Holstein Jersey Weight (in pounds) Girth (in inches) Weight (in pounds) Girth f (in inches) Weight (in pounds) Girth (in inches) Weight (in pounds) Girth (in inches) Birth 72 29 65 28 90 31 53 27 1 89 31 77 30 112 34 67 30 2 119 34 102 34 148 37 90 33 3 158 38 133 36 193 40 121 35 4 198 41 173 39 243 43 158 38 5 245 43 216 41 297 46 199 41 6 293 45 260 43 355 49 243 44 7 344 48 305 46 410 51 286 46 8 389 50 350 48 462 53 324 48 9 433 51 389 50 509 55 360 50 10 469 53 427 51 552 56 393 52 11 502 54 459 53 593 58 420 53 12 538 56 490 54 632 59 450 54 13 577 57 524 55 671 60 479 55 14 611 58 556 57 705 61 507 56 15 638 59 584 58 746 63 530 58 16 669 60 605 59 782 64 558 59 17 697 61 634 59 809 64 580 60 18 725 61 663 61 845 65 601 60 19 758 61 686 61 878 66 622 61 20 793 63 712 63 912 67 642 62 21 818 63 737 63 952 68 665 63 22 844 65 763 64 986 69 684 64 23 871 65 788 64 1,024 70 708 65 24 902 66 818 66 1,069 71 733 65 27 909 68 876 67 1,151 74 816 67 * Data from: Ragsdale, A. C. Growth standards for dairy cattle. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 336:1-12. Reprinted 1942. (Heart girth measurements have been rounded off to the nearest inch.) t Heart girth measurements for Guernseys have been adapted from Nebraska Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 91:1-29. 1937. she is still growing. A cow cannot con- sume enough food for both maximum production and the growth that should have been made before first freshening. Obtaining normal growth. Growth is most economical when most rapid. It is accomplished more easily between birth and two years of age — when the animal's urge to grow is strongest — than at any other period. Although the normally de- veloped heifer at one year will do fairly well on good pasture alone, pasture feed usually becomes less abundant as the summer advances. The practice — all too common in California — of neglecting to supplement such feed with concentrates or with first-class hay has resulted in a high percentage of undersized heifers. In winter, or whenever pasture is not available, heifers between one year of age and first calving should receive, pre- ferably, high-grade alfalfa hay, and de- pending on the heifers' condition, from 3 to 5 pounds daily of either rolled barley, oats, ground corn, or the milking- herd mixture. Cereal silage, a very good feed for heifers of this age, may be substi- tuted for part of the hay. In such a case, however, the heifers will not get enough protein; therefore a mixture is required [19 I () supply the needed protein — 80 per cent rolled barley and 20 per cenl cotton- seed meal, for example. If legume or grass silage is fed a protein supplement would be unnecessary. A still larger per- centage of a protein concentrate will be needed if only low-protein roughages are fed, such as grain or Sudan grass hays. A mixture of 65 per cent rolled barley and 35 per cent cottonseed meal will suffice. In either case make available at all times a block of salt or a box of ground salt. Also, add 1 per cent of salt to the concentrate mix. A survey of the calf-raising methods used by members of the State Dairy Herd Improvement associations explains why there are so many undersized heifers, especially at the age when heifers of normal size should be calving for the first time. Experience has shown that growth can- not be normal on roughage alone, yet 40 per cent of the dairymen feed only hay as a supplement to milk. Fully 70 per cent of the dairymen wean their calves at an average of 5% months of age, while 30 per cent wean at slightly under four months of age. Either method is satis- factory if sufficient concentrates, as well as hay, are fed. Fully 80 per cent of the dairymen turn their calves out to pasture before the animals are six months old; and approximately 50 per cent feed no supplements of any kind, either concen- trates or hay, after turning the calves out to pasture. In other words, many of the calves raised in California apparently must depend on pasture alone after they are six months old. This method of rais- ing dairy heifers will not permit normal growth, particularly when the dairymen feed no concentrates during the milk- feeding period. Determining age of breeding. The sur- vey also showed that 18 per cent of the dairymen who own Holsteins breed them at 12 to 15 months of age; 38 per cent, at 16 to 18 months; 25 per cent, at 19 to 21 months; and 19 per cent, at 22 to 27 months. Since the recommended age for breeding normally grown Holstein heifers is 18 to 20 months, nearly 65 per cent of the Holstein dairymen breed their heifers too young or delay beyond the normal age. Opinions differ as to when a Jersey heifer should be bred. If she makes normal growth she is usually considered ready at 15 to 17 months of age. Many breeders, however, believe that body weight is a better index than age. For instance, if dairy heifers are underfed and therefore grow at less than the normal rate, it is poor management to breed such small animals so early. In con- trast, some believing that the smaller ani- mals are more refined in conformation than large animals, prefer to have their heifers calve before they get too large. No doubt this belief is true, but such heifers are almost invariably below normal in body size. Since body size is directly re- lated to milk production, especially in first-calf heifers, this practice is probably not sound. The survey of calf-raising methods shows that, of dairymen owning Jersey and Guernsey cattle, 40 per cent breed their heifers at 12 to 15 months of age: 38 per cent, at 16 to 18 months; 19 per cent, at 19 to 21 months; and 3 per cent, at 22 to 24 months. Since normally grown Jersey heifers may be bred at 15 to 17 months, nearly 60 per cent of these dairymen either breed their heifers too young or delay beyond the normal age. In view of the reports received on feeding methods, it is doubtful whether the heifers bred between 12 and 15 months are normal in size for their age. It is also doubtful whether the 22 per cent who breed their heifers at 19 to 24 months would delay breeding until this age if their heifers were large enough to breed at the customan age. It may therefore be safely said that about one- half of the members of the State Dairv Herd Improvement associations who re- plied to the questionnaire either are [20] wasting time in getting heifers into milk production or are producing numerous undersized first-calf heifers. If you have abundant, cheap pasture, you may profitably feed only roughage and delay breeding until the heifers have reached the normal size for breeding. If you don't have abundant, cheap pasture, the increased cost of feeding concentrates up to eight to 10 months of age and of supplementing poor pastures with hay will be fully repaid by bringing heifers into milk production at an earlier age, unhampered by small size. With growth so greatly affected by feeding conditions, therefore, heifers should be bred according to body weight rather than age. Here is the proper rela- tion between body weight and breeding age when heifers make normal growth: AGE TO BREED NORMAL WEIGHT BREED (in months) (in pounds) Holstein 18-20 845-912 Ayrshire 17-19 697-758 Guernsey 16-18 605-663 Jersey 15-17 530-580 Normal growth data are not available for Brown Swiss cattle; they are com- monly bred at about 21 months of age. FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT BEFORE CALVING Feeding. Fit the heifer for lactation two or three months before calving. Dur- ing the first part of the lactation period the high-producing heifer cannot con- sume enough food to supply the materials needed to maintain a high level of milk production. Before calving, therefore, her body must store a reserve of food materials to draw on during this period of heavy production. When good pasture is available, no additional roughage is needed. The amount of concentrates to be fed varies with the condition of the heifer. Usually it is well to start with about 2 pounds daily and increase in 10 days to 5 to 8 pounds daily. When no pasture is avail- able, hay must be supplied. Apply the feeds and feeding methods suggested under "From One Year of Age to First Calving," but increase the amounts of concentrates. Management. Fasten the heifers in the stanchions with the milking herd for the feeding of concentrates. The feeder can then see the condition of each heifer and can feed more intelligently. The heifer will also form the habit of coming to the barn at milking time, and in this way will soon become accustomed to the sur- roundings. This will make her easier to handle after freshening. At least a week before the calculated date of calving, watch the heifer closely: at the first sign of approaching birth give her a clean, comfortable place in which to calve. After calving, protect her from cold drafts and feed her lightly for the first few days. Later gradually in- crease the amount of concentrates until you have determined her potential pro- ducing ability, then feed concentrates in proportion to milk production. Heavy feeding for early calving. Since the period between birth and first fresh- ening is unproductive, the possibility of shortening this without sacrificing body size deserves investigation. As shown by experiments at Davis, heavy feeding will increase the growth of Jersey heifers sufficiently for them to be bred four to five months younger than heifers making only normal growth. Heavily fed heifers received whole milk for the first three weeks and skim milk thereafter to three months of age. In addition, they had all the concentrates and alfalfa hay they would eat, from one week of age to the time of freshening, at an average of 22 months. From one week to three months of age the following concentrate mixture was fed: FEED POUNDS Rolled barley 400 Rolled oats 300 Wheat bran 300 Linseed meal 100 Salt 13 [21 \\ ERAGE W KIGHTS OF HEIFEKS (IN POUNDS) AGE (IN MONTHS l HEAVILY FED STANDARD METHOD NORMAL (table ON PAGE 19) Birth 57 54 53 6 336 274 243 12 584 489 450 18 806 648 601 22 906* 748 684 Weight after freshening. If other protein-rich feeds are more favorably priced they may be substituted for linseed meal. During the fourth, fifth, and sixth months, 18 per cent of dry skim milk was added to this mixture; but it was omitted during the seventh, eighth, and ninth months. From the tenth month to the time of freshening, at an average age of 22 months, rolled barley only was used to supplement the alfalfa hay. By the time the average heifer freshened, she had consumed 3,900 pounds of concentrates and 3,700 pounds of alfalfa hay; at this time no pasture was available. The average body weights of the first 24 Jersey heifers raised by this program are compared above with heifers previ- ously raised in the University herd. Thirty-seven such heavily fed heifers have completed their first lactation. Calv- ing at 22 months, they have averaged, under Advanced Registry supervision, 6,385 pounds of milk and 381 pounds of milk fat in 305 days. All were milked twice daily. Had these heifers had access to pas- ture, the amounts of concentrates and hay would have been greatly reduced and the cost of raising correspondingly lowered. If, however, heifers are to be bred at this early age without sacrificing size, they must be heavily fed from birth to freshening. Early calving without pre- vious heavy feeding during the growing period leads to undersized heifers which cannot produce to the full extent of their inherited capacity. COMMON AILMENTS Scours. The most common ailment of calves is scours, or extreme looseness of the bowels. Until proved otherwise, scours can either be infectious or nonin- fectious. So many variations and condi- tions accompany scours that this circular cannot discuss the subject in detail; only general recommendations can be made. Where losses persist, call a veterinarian for advice on prevention and treatment of the calves. Noninfectious scours is usually due to digestive disturbances and may be caused by overfeeding, sudden changes in quantity or quality of milk, feeding milk too rich in fat, variations in tem- perature of milk, irregularity in feeding time, or feeding milk alternately sweet and sour. The trouble is more easily pre- vented than cured. A calf receiving a set- back by scours can be restored to normal growth only with great difficulty. Naturally not all attacks of scours are due to the same cause; often the cauee is unknown. Few, if any, of the numer- ous advertised medicines for calf scours will cure all cases. It is unwise to de- pend on medicines to prevent losses. At the first sign of indigestion or scouring, isolate the calf, withhold milk for a day, and gradually return to normal feeding. In addition, give one treatment of 2 to 4 tablespoons of castor oil in ] /2 pi"t of mineral oil. This treat- 1 This section has been read and approved by John W. Kendrick, associate professor, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis. [22] merit may be followed twice daily with about Y2 ounce of bismuth subnitrate mixed with a very small amount of water until the calf is well. Some dairymen add V2 P Hlt of lime- water to the milk fed to all calves at each feeding for the first month. Limewater is made either from unslaked lime or from commercial hydrated lime (plaster lime) . Place a lump of unslaked lime the size of an egg or 2 ounces of commercial hydrated lime in a pail of water and, at short intervals, stir vigorously several times. When the lime has settled, use the clear solution. In some cases scouring has been controlled by pasteurizing the milk. Certain outbreaks in calves under six weeks of age may be successfully treated by substituting warm barley water for milk for two days. On the third day feed equal parts of barley water and milk, and bring the animal gradually back to milk by the fifth to the eighth day. The barley water is prepared by boiling rolled barley in the proportion of 1 part grain to 5 parts water. The grain is then strained out through cheesecloth, and the liquid fed at a temperature of about 100°F. When the calves are hungry they drink it as readily as they do milk. Infectious scours, often called "white scours," usually attacks calves at or shortly after birth and causes death be- fore the end of the week. The symptoms are weakness, dullness, sunken eyes, and a profuse discharge of dirty or yellowish- white feces of a pasty or watery con- sistency with an offensive odor. Unless drastic measures are taken, every calf will be affected. Remove dead animals immediately and burn or bury them; burn the bedding and thoroughly disin- fect all the quarters occupied by calf and cow, as well as adjacent surround- ings. On farms where scours has recently existed, clean and disinfect the maternity stall thoroughly before allowing the cow to enter for calving. Immediately after calving remove all bedding and thoroughly clean and disinfect the stall again. After calving be sure to also wash the udder and teats of the cow with soap and water before permitting the calf to suckle. Since the specific causes of infectious scours are unknown, the commercial anti- serums and vaccines often recommended are rather unreliable as a means of com- bating this very serious illness. The most successful method of handl- ing an outbreak of infectious scours is to select an entirely new calving location (box stall or pasture) that has not been used by cows or calves for some time (see also section on sanitation and calf quarters, page 24). Move the cow to these quarters just before calving, and, with soap and water, thoroughly wash the external reproductive organs and the rear quarters. Then before the calf nurses, also wash the udder and teats with soap and water. Do not move the calf to the regular calf quarters until it is three to four weeks old, when the danger of scours is largely past. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the value of two or more feedings of the mother's first milk — colostrum — in aid- ing the calf's resistance to the infectious diseases of early life. Calf pneumonia causes heavy losses in calves. Susceptibility is greatly influenced by the conditions under which the ani- mals are maintained. Resistance is low- ered and the infection encouraged by overcrowding, dampness, poorly venti- lated quarters, insufficient bedding, es- pecially on concrete or stone floors, and exposure to extreme variations in atmos- pheric conditions. Calf pneumonia may follow an attack of scouring; or it may be entirely unassociated with scouring, being contracted by calves two to three months of age. Pneumonia is character- ized by a profuse discharge from the nose, heavy breathing, and a considerable rise in body temperature. Calves show- ing these symptoms should be isolated, [23 blanketed, and placed in a dry, well- bedded pen away from drafts. Call a veterinarian immediately. Use of sulfonamides and antibiotics. Certain of the sulfonamides and anti- biotics such as penicillin, streptomycin, and aureomycin have been used success- fully in treating some cases of scours and calf pneumonia. No recommendations for their use are made in this publica- tion. Sulfonamides and antibiotics should be prescribed only by a veterinarian. Lice. As a rule, dairy calves are not in- fested with lice during the summer and fall. In winter and early spring, however, they are often attacked, especially around the muzzle, eyes, withers, and along the back line. Control lice with rotenone or malathion, following the di- rections for their use on the container. Pinkeye, or infectious keratitis is char- acterized by an inflammation of the membrane of the eye. The cornea finally becomes a hazy blue and eventually changes to an opaque milky white. Occa- sionally ulcers form on the cornea. Im- mediately isolate calves so affected in a shaded or dark area. Use penicillin oint- ment (ophthalmic) or a combination of antibiotics and sulfa drugs, especially prepared for treatment of pinkeye. Ringworm. This infection of the skin is indicated by round spots of rough skin devoid of hair, commonly around the head, but occasionally also on other parts of the body. Without treatment, the dis- ease tends to spread. Wash the spots with soap and water, scrape to remove all scaly material, and treat with tincture of iodine. Lead Poisoning. Never use lead paints on buildings or on fences around yards where calves are confined. Such paints when consumed in any appreciable amounts are known to be poisonous and to cause death. Brucellosis. The California State Law requires that all dairy heifer calves must be vaccinated between four and 12 months of age. Consult your veterinarian. [24 SANITATION AND CALF QUARTERS Sanitation. Preventing infectious dis- eases is usually easier than curing them. Keep the calf quarters and feeding uten- sils scrupulously clean at all times. Give the quarters a very thorough cleaning at frequent intervals. Scrub the walls, parti- tions, stanchions, floors and mangers; then sanitize with a solution of hot lye or another strong disinfectant. When any calves appear to be even slightly abnor- mal, isolate them at once and have their condition carefully diagnosed, if neces- sary, by a veterinarian. If an infectious disease is suspected, consult a veterin- arian immediately. Calf quarters. It is unwise to invest in an elaborate barn for calves under two months of age. Several small structures, which may be moved readily and dis- mantled in an outbreak of infectious dis- ease, are more suitable. Individual pens of this type placed so that calves will not come in contact with one another help to prevent the spread of diseases, materially reducing calf losses. Their use is now a common practice on many dairy ranches. The type and number of such struc- tures depend on climate and size of the herd. In most parts of California, tem- peratures are seldom low enough to make the calves uncomfortable. Give them quarters that are dry during rainy weather, and admit plenty of sunshine. While the type of structure may be varied somewhat to suit the local climate, that shown on the opposite page is being used successfully at the University of California, Davis. Even when calf losses have not oc- curred, move each pen to new ground as soon as a calf has been removed, at four to six weeks of age. Most calf losses occur during the first month. The practice of moving the pens will reduce the hazard of infection from the previous calf. Even better, leave each pen unoccupied for a week or two. If the previous calf had am kind of sickness, scrape the entire pen ., *' "' /;> "., The type of individual calf pen shown on this page is being used successfully at the University of California, Davis. free of all manure, scrub the inside walls and floors with lye solution, and leave the pen exposed to sunlight for a few days. Then move the pen to new ground away from the site of any infection. A shed structure with community pens for grouping calves according to age is more suitable for calves over one month old. At least one of the community pens should be equipped with stanchions so that calves still receiving milk can be fed individually. Plans for calf barns with both com- munity and individual pens are obtain- able from the Agricultural Extension Service, University of California, Davis. RAISING THE HERD SIRE Feeding and care of the future herd sire and the heifers are almost identical. During the growing period, however, the males should be fed liberally to induce maximum growth; otherwise the ani- mal's inherited size cannot be judged. When the bull calf is between four and five months of age, separate it from the heifers. Continue to feed milk to five or six months of age. Feed liberally the con- centrates and roughage recommended for heifers. Well-grown bulls may be used in service once or twice a week from 12 to 13 months of age, and the number of services increased gradually thereafter. VEAL PRODUCTION Feeding for veal production. The methods used in hand-feeding the veal calf do not differ markedly from those used in raising the dairy calf for breed- ing, except as outlined below. Whole milk alone, without supple- ments of grain or hay, is most satisfac- tory for producing the best grade of veal. Considerable experience is required for producing the most rapid growth without causing the calf to go off feed. As a rule, the one- to two-week-old calf will take approximately 1 pound of milk per day for each 10 pounds of body weight. Later the amount of milk should be increased gradually according to the judgment of the feeder. Calves raised by nurse cows usually grow faster, with fewer digestive disturbances, than bucket-fed calves. While whole milk alone is required for the production of best-quality veal, it may pay to feed calves to an older age for meat production if you have an abundance of skim milk. Supplement the skim milk with grain, such as rolled bar- ley, rolled oats, or ground corn, and with good-quality hay. Such calves are then marketed at eight to 10 months of age. Condition at marketing. Most veal calves are marketed between four and eight weeks of age. They are first classi- fied according to weight and further classified as to conformation, finish, or smoothness of fleshing. Calves of 110 pounds or less are referred to as light weight, 110 to 180 pounds as medium weight, and more than 180 pounds as heavy weight. Vealers weighing 140 to 155 pounds and occasionally up to 180 pounds, which are marketed at six to eight weeks of age, are in greatest de- mand if they are well finished. The quality of the veal is the most important factor in determining the price the pro- ducer will get for his calf. The beef breeds as a rule make the best veal; dairy calves often bring 1 to 3 cents less per pound. Estimating profit or loss. While it is impossible to predict the future market price of milk or veal, the dairyman can determine for himself whether or not veal production will be profitable under his conditions. The cost of raising veal to the desired weight is estimated on the calf's weight at birth and the requirement of about 10 pounds of whole milk per pound of gain. For example, a calf weighing 80 pounds at birth, to be marketed at 150 pounds, will require 700 pounds of whole milk (70 pounds increase in weight times 10 26 pounds of milk for each 1 -pound increase calf, minus labor, equipment, etc. The in weight). Multiply this figure of 700 difference between this figure and the pounds by the market price of milk, and market price of veal will show the profit you will obtain the cost of raising the or loss. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes neces- sary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Co-operative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture co-operating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. George B. Alcorn, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 25m-3,'61(B5994)j.F. al^^^ui CAREERS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY You may decide that your best opportunity for a useful and happy life will be in finding a place in the prosperous animal industry— one of the major sections of America's vital agriculture. Leadership in the animal industry has its beginning in a basic education in all aspects of animal agriculture. Ability to grow with the industry is founded on a thorough knowledge of animal nutrition, management, genetics, and physiology— and on the ability to think and act with vigor. The animal industry owes its success to men and women with such training and abilities. Animal Husbandry as a field of study prepares a student for a large and diverse industry. The graduate with a real interest in animals and ambition for active advancement in a vigorous industry will have many opportunities for a career. Recent graduates have entered livestock ranching and management, feed manufacturing, agricultural sales, feed lots, dairying, agriculture extension, foreign agriculture, livestock marketing, research, and teaching. For more information write to the Chairman of the Depart- ment of Animal Husbandry, University of California, Davis; or see the College Entrance Advisor, University of California Farm Advisor's Office in your locality. 1