ARIES SEY GIFT or Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/ciuliicaesariscoOOcaesrich Plate I Statue of Caesar in Rome That Julius Caesar was a famous man; With what his valour did enrich his wit, His wit set down to make his valour live: Death makes no conquest of this conqueror; For now he lives in fame, though not in life. — Richard III. C. lULII CAESARIS COMMENTAKII RERUM GESTARUM CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES THE GALLIC WAR, BOOKS I-IV, WITH SELECTIONS FROM BOOKS V-VII AND FROM THE CIVIL WAR WITH AN INTRODUCTION, NOTES, A CCMPANIfiN 70 C4FS4R AND A VOCABULARY BY FRANCIS W. KELSEY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ALLYN AND BACON ISflston jN^eto gorit Ci)icas0 Copyright, 1918, by PAN PREFACE This edition aims to interest the High School pupil in Caesar, to assist him by notes adapted to his stage of progress, and to facilitate his accomplishment of the second year of Latin work with appreciation of and respect for the subject, and with a hrm foundation for further study. America's entrance into the world conflict has aroused uni- versal interest in warfare. Viewed in the light of the great struggle, Caesar's Commentaries take on a new interest. Modern armies have clashed on the battlefields of the Gallic War ; mod- ern camps are laid out in a way to suggest the manner of the Romans. The strategy of Joffre and of Hindenburg finds its prototype in that of Caesar, and modern armor, especially in types of helmet and breastplate, strikingly resembles that of ancient times. In countless ways — even to Caesar's statement, " Of all these the bravest are the Belgians " — the World War reproduces on a larger scale the campaigns of Caesar. Such points as these it has seemed worth while to attempt to bring out in the Introduction, the Notes, and the Companion to Caesar. In the Syntax a statement of a rule is accompanied by specific illustrations from Caesar ; the exercises in Latin Compo- sition are designed to strengthen the pupil's grasp of the Gram- mar. The Maps and Plans cannot fail to add definiteness to the study, and the pictures will aid the student to visualize the scenes and objects described or referred to in the text. In preparing the book my obligations have been greatest to the well-known works of Dr. H. Meusel and Mr. T. Rice Holmes; on the side of the illustrations, to the Manuel of Joseph Dechelette. Mr. George R. Swain allowed the use of his unique iii 459889 iv Preface series of photographs, and Mr. G. F. Hill, of the British Museum, furnished a number of casts of Roman coins. Many teachers have helped me with suggestions, of which I wish here to make acknowledgment; I am especially indebted to Miss Frances E. Sabin of the University of Wisconsin. Messrs. Allen and Phillips, of the Phillips Academy in Andover, have kindly permitted the use of their Latin Composition, and Dr. Gilbert H. Taylor rendered assistance in reading a part of the proof. FRANCIS W. KELSEY. Ann Arbor, Michigan. January 15, 1918. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION — I. Warfare, Ancient and Modern II. Caesar's Commentaries and the Great War III. The Civilization of-the Gauls IV. Caesar and the Historical Writers V. Caesar in Literature and Myth PAGE ix XX xxvii xxxiii xxxvii THE GALLIC WAR, TEXT AND NOTES — Book I Book II 129 Book III . 190 Book IV . . 232 Book V .287 Book VI, Selections: The Second Expedition into Germany The Customs of the Gauls and Germans Contrasted . The Hercynian Forest and the Wonderful Animals Found in It Book VII, Selections: Beginning of a General Uprising The Siege and Destruction of Avaricum The Siege of Gergovia ..... The Leadership of Vercingetorix and First Defeat The Siege and Fall of Alesia .... THE CIVIL WAR, SELECTIONS, TEXT AND NOTES — Book II. The Second Sea-fight off Massilia . Book III. Heroic Endurance of Caesar's Soldiers Caesar's Treatment of Two " Grafters" Last Operations about Dyrrachium The Battle of Pharsalus 338 340 358 364 374 381 390 396 425 431 435 438 440 vi Contents 1>AOB SELECTIONS FOR SIGHT READING — 1. The Pig's Last Will and Testament 463 (Petronli Satirae . . . Tertium edidit F. Buecheler. pp. 241-242) 2. Witticisms Attributed to Cicero 467 (M. Tulli Ciceronis Scripta . . . Recognovit C F. W. Mueller, IV. 3. 1910, pp. 343-347) 3. Legal Maxims 471 4. Fables 472 5. The First Psalm 474 (Biblorum Sacrorum iuxta Vulgatam Clementinam Nova Editio, 1914. p. 470) 6. The Twenty-third Psalm . . . .' . . . . 475 (Biblorum Sacrorum . . . Nova Editio, p. 481) A COMPANION TO CAESAR — Essentials of Latin Grammar for the Study of Caesar : Inflections 479 Word Formation . 525 The Derivation of English Words froni the Latin . . . 528 Syntax 531 Figures of Speech . 582 Expressions Relating to Time and Distance .... 584 Gaius Julius Caesar: Life of Caesar . 587 The Name Caesar 601 The Portraits of Caesar 602 Caesar's Commentaries 603 Caesar as an Orator 606 The Geography of Caesar's Commentaries 607 The Roman Art of War in Caesar's Time 615 EXERCISES IN LATIN COMPOSITION — Reprinted, by permission, from Latin Composition, by Bernard M. Allen and John L. Phillips : Points to be Noted in Writing Latin 641 Exercises 644 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. WITH REFERENCES . . .665 VOCABULARIES PLATES' The colored plates, and the plates illustrating the bridge across the Rhine, are from the designs of H. Rheinhard. PLATE I. Statue • of Caesar in Rome, in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (From a photograph) Frontispiece FACING PAGB II. Roman Officers, Standard-bearers, and Musicians (Colored) . 70 III. Roman Soldiers, Infantry and Cavalry (Colored) . . . 128 IV. Weapons, Standards, and Roman Camp (Colored) . . .216 V. Caesar's Bridge across the Rhine, Sections 256 VI. Caesar's Bridge across the Rhine, View 257 VII. Military Devices (Colored) . . .- 286 VIII. Chalk Cliffs near Dover (Photograph by George R. Swain) . 294 IX. Appliances for Siege and Defense (Colored) .... 364 X. Bust of Caesar in the Museum of Naples (From a photograph) 424 XI. An Ancient Sea-fight between Galleys {The English Illustrated Magazine, 1899, p. 449) 430 XII. Storming of a Besieged City (Colored) 636 MAPS The maps are based upon those in the Atlases accompanying the works of Napoleon III and Stoffel (p. xxxvii), with modifications from many sources, particularly, G. Veith's Geschichte der Feldzuge Caesars and, for Pharsalus, J. Kromayer's Antike Schlachtfelder in Griechenland. Gallia, General Reference Map, inside back cover. MAP PACING PAGE 1. Campaigns of 58 and 57 B.c 1 2. Caesar's Line of Works along the Rhone 20 1 A full List of the Illustrations, with references, will be found on pages 665-674. vii VIU Mi .ps MAP 3. The Battle with the Helvetians .... 4. The Battle with Ariovistus 5. The Battle at the Aisne (Axona) 6. The Battle at the Sambre (Sabis), First Phase . 7. The Battle at the Sambre (Sabis), Second Phase 8. Operations against the Stronghold of the Atuatuci 9. Operations of the Year 56 b.c. 10. Sea-fight with the Venetans 11. Operations of 55 and 54 b.c. 12. Map of Britain as conceived by 13. Operations of 53 and 52 e.g. 14. The Siege of Avaricum 15. The Siege of Gergovia 16. Victory of Caesar over Vercingetorix 17. The Siege of Alesia . 18. Second Sea-fight off Massilia 19. Operations of the Year 48 e.c. 20. Ihe Battle of Pharsalus Caes FACINO PACK . 60 . 120 . 144 . 164 . 172 . 180 . 198 . 208 . 232 . 300 . 338 . 374 . 384 . 392 . 400 . 426 . 438 . 448 INTRODUCTION i. Warfare Ancient and Modern Since the Eoman period the art of war has undergone great changes. These have resulted from the invention of gunpow- der and other explosives, from the use of field glasses, from the utilization of electricity, steam, and gasoline to provide means of communication and transportation, and finally, from Figure 1. — Wolf-hoies betore Alesia. Constructed by Caesar in 52 B.C., and discovered by excavation. At the left of the wolf-holes are rows of hedge entanglements. In front of the rampart are double trenches, and above we see the palisade and towers, the mechanical perfecting of every kind of weapon. Never- theless the most recent military operations have exemplified the use of means and methods of warfare devised by the an- cients and skillfully employed by Caesar in the campaigns of which he has left a record in the Commentaries. As a part of his defensive works when he was besieging Alesia Caesar made many wolf-holes. These are round holes with sloping sides, in the center of which a strong pointed ix Introduction stake is firmly implanted. A glance at the illustration (Fig. 1) will show how slow and difficult an advance would be, par- ticularly at night, over ground thus prepared ; for the soldier picking his way, no matter how carefully, would run the risk of slipping and impaling himself upon the projecting point. Precisely such wolf- >fisrt 'r*^ J : a holes have been used in the Great War, as, for example, along the German line near Ypres, in Belgium (Fig. 2). In front the line is protected by barb-wire entangle- ments. Correspond ing with these are the hedge entanglements used by Caesar (shown in Figure 1, behind the wolf-holes), which were made by firmly planting in rows, and closely interlocking, branches of trees with the projecting ends stripped of bark and sharpened to a point The Romans were the first nation to make trench-digging an essential part of warfare, but they limited it to the fortification of camps and to siege operations Since the Uoman trenches were not used as passageways, they were generally left V-shaped, as those seen in Figure 1 ; but occasionally trenches were made with perpendicular sides, as the long trench, or moat, 20 feet wide, before Alesi'a (Map 17). In modern warfare trenching has become still more important, Figure 2. Wolf-holes near Ypres, in Belgium. These wolf-holes were constructed by the German arnny in 1914. On the further side, near the left, the posts carrying the barb-wire entanglement are visible. (Courtesy of the Press Illustrating Company.) Warfare Ancient and Modern xi and now under many conditions soldiers are taught to " dig themselves in." But the process of digging is still the same, as may be seen from the comparison of a Roman trenching tool (Fig. 3) with the type of spade supplied as a part of the equipment of a soldier in the United States Army (Fig. 4). When digging within range of the enemy's missiles the Roman soldiers pro- tected themselves by movable shields, plu- tei (Plate IX, 4-5), and sappers' huts, vineae (Plate IX, 9). In trenching close to the Russian lines near Warsaw in 1914 the Germans used standing steel shields which were moved forward for the pro- ^ ' ^ . ^ trenching tool. tection of the trenchers. A curious parallel Discovered m the re- to the ancient sapper's hut is the armored mains of the Roman Camp "one-man tank," designed for exception- jt^Saa^burg, near Homburg, ally hazardous service in front of the lines The wooden handle has (Fig. 5). rotted away. The pacl^s, sarcinae, of Caesar's legionaries were fully as heavy as those of modern infantry, perhaps heavier. They were carried on a forked stick over the left shoulder (Fig. 6), while the soldier of to-day has his pack strapped on his back (Fig. 7). The day's march of a small body of United States Infantry over fair roads will average approximately the same as that of Caesar's legionaries, about fifteen Roman miles. On forced marcTies recently European armies, moving on excellent roads and utilizing medical science to conserve the soldier's strength, have -equaled, if they have not surpassed, Caesar's forced marches in the Gallic War. In fighting there has been a surprising return to the methods of Caesar's time. Caesar's legionaries held their weapons until they were within close range of the enemy, twelve to twenty yards ; then they hurled their pikes. To-day in trench fighting the place of the pike is taken by the hand grenade, thrown often at even closer range ; and soldiers are trained in the throwing of gre- Xll Introduction nades just as the legionary was in hurling the pike (Fig. 8). " Rifle tire in this warfare plays small part," wrote Owen John- son from the front in 1915 ; " cartridges are all very well for machine guns, but for men, hand grenades and the cold steel." Soon after the first soldiers from the United States arrived in France, in 1917, it was found that by reason of skill acquired in playing baseball, they surpassed the European soldiers in throwing grenades, in point of range as well as accu- racy. The "iron" of the Roman pike (Fig. 49, p. 61) finds a parallel in a late type of French bayonet (Fig. 9). The length is nearly the same. The pike iron has a four-grooved point, barbed ; the bayonet is grooved on the four f sides, so that it makes a wound very similar in character. But even the spear has not gone out of use ; in the Great War long lances have been used by divisions of cavalry on both sides. More remarkable still is the return of recent warfare to the use of the helmet as a protec- tion for the head, and of a metallic shield to protect the grenadier when exposing himself by throwing grenades (Fig. 8). In shape, however, the French helmet (Fig. 10) has as much in common with a certain type of ancient Gallic helmet (Fig. 11) as it has with the hel- met of the Roman legionary (Fig. 12). Modern armor seems to have reached its fullest development in the equipment of the Italian barlvwire cutter. His helmet (Fig. 13) is supplemented by a metallic veil, and his body is protected by a cuirass, his legs by greaves. This specialized armor, well designed for the purpose, is less flexible than the defensive equipment of the Roman legionary (Fig. 33, p. 19). The modern helmet has been found serviceable in protecting Figure 4. — Mod- ern trenching tool. This is the trench- ing tool supplied to soldiers of the United States army. Warfare Ancient and Modern Xlll the head against shrapnel ; hence we may well believe that the ancient helmet greatly reduced the casualties from the leaden bullets thrown by means of slings (Fig. 14), as well as those from blows. The Gaul, as is noted elsewhere (p. 638), in fighting used a spear or dart, shield and sword, but his spear (Figs. 40 and 43) was not so effective as the Roman pike, and his sword was of an altogether different type (Fig. 39). Oddly enough, recent fighting in France has revived the use of wickerwork shields somewhat like those of ancient Gaul (Fig. 48, p. 60). As a pro- tection against liquid fire French soldiers before Verdun in 1916 ^' carried big oblong shields of interwoven osier, covered with clay, against which the flaming liquid fell harmless," though the men, protected by masks, found "the smell terrible, almost suffocating." In the night attack of Caesar's men upon the Helvetian corral, in 58 b.c, some of the defenders hurled darts from behind the wheels of the carts (I. 26) ; in 1916 a provision train of motor trucks, conveying supplies to General Pershing's force in Mexico, was attacked in a ravine, whereupon " the truck men and their soldier guard took a position behind the steel wheels of the cars," and routed the Mexicans by the accu- racy of their fire. Though the contending armies are vastly greater than those of Caesar's time, the Great War affords striking illustrations of the principles of military formation, tactics, and strategy * which he knew and applied. 1 Under "Tactics" military men include the disposing of forces on land or sea in order of battle, and all manoeuvres in the presence of the enemy ; Figure 5. — "One-man tank." Designed for the protection of wire-cutters under fire. XIV Introduction In the battle with the Helvetians, and also in that with the Germans described in Book I, the more open formation of the smaller Roman force, whose soldiers were trained to fight with in- itiative, gave it a distinct advantage over the mass formation, called by- Caesar phalanx, to which it was opposed. The mass formation of the modern German army is altogether different from that of an- cient times ; but again and again, in the Great War, German ranks, ad- vancing with men almost touching elbows, have suf- fered much more heavily than British forces trained to attack in extended order and advancing against equally intensive fire. When Caesar first came into contact with the Ger- mans, he was so impressed with their arrangement of cavalry that he made spe- cial mention of it, and afterwards he employed German horsemen as mer- cenaries. Each horseman, he tells us (I. 48), was accompanied by a foot-soldier ; these foot-soldiers were swift runners, and " Strategy " refers to the larger operations of war ; it includes the laying out and conducting of campaigns as well as the execution of singly mQVQmQUta designed to outwit and thwart the enemy. Figure 6. — Roman legionary in march- ing order. His pack is suspended on a forked stick over the left shoulder. Warfare Ancient and Modern XV exceedingly brave. In our illustration, which pictures a charge of the Scots Greys in northern France in the autumn of 1914 (Fig. 15), nimble footmen are seen charging with the cavalry. The transportation of troops by train and auto truck has simplified the concentration of reserves to hold a threatened point ; yet no modern general has surpassed Caesar in insight and quickness of decision in moving troops in time of battle in order to forestall or checkmate the movements of the enemy. This was well illustrated in the Battle of Pharsalus, where his quick shift in forming a fourth line to support his greatly outnum- bered cavalry (C. III. 89, and Map 20) gained an initial victory and contributed in no slight degree to the sweeping success of the day. A typical stratagem of Caesar was that by which he accomplished the crossing of the Elaver (now Allier) in 52 b.c. (VII.. 35). Vercingetorix, on the opposite side of the river, had broken down all the bridges. Caesar encamped in a wooded spot near a place where the piles of a bridge had es- caped destruction. The next morning he concealed two legions in the forest and ordered the rest of his forces to march up the river, spreading them out so that the marching column seemed as long as usual. Thereupon Vercingetorix also marched up- stream, on the opposite side. When he was far enough away, Caesar brought the two legions out of con- cealment, quickly rebuilt the bridge, recalled the troops that had marched up the river, and transferred his entire army across before Vercingetorix could interfere. A similar stratagem was successfully employed in 1915. The German and Austrian commanders wished to cross the Vistula in Poland at a point northwest of Ivangorod. They moved Figure 7. — United States sailor stand- ing With heavy- ma r c h i n g-order equipment. The marching-order equipment of the United States soldiers is the same, whether in land or naval service. XVI Introduction their forces upstream in such a way as to lead the Russians to believe that they intended to force a crossing at some distance northeast of the city. At the point previously de- termined upon, material for pontoon bridges was brought to the bank of the river loaded on wagons which were covered over with straw, so that they were reported by the Rus- sian aviators merely as loads of straw; since the Russian commander had no information to the con- trary, slight attention was paid to them. The ruse made it possible for the pontooners to start build- ing the bridges before their presence or purpose was suspected. When the Russians finally brought their artillery to bear at the threatened point, it was too late to check the work ; the Teutonic forces completed four bridges over the river and marched across. In the naval Imttles described in the C'ommen- taries Caesar did not com- mand liis fleet in person, though in one instiince he and his army witnessed Copyright hy Undcricood and Underwood, Neir York. Figure 8. — French soldier hurling a hand grenade. He is standing in a trench. His head is pro- tected by a steel helmet. With thq l^ft fprearm he holds a shield. Warfare Ancient and Modern xvii the engagement from the land (III. 14). The tactics employed have analogies in modern warfare. On the Mediterranean Sea from a very early period there were two types of ships, those propelled by the wind, that is Figure 9. — French bayonet, with scabbard. The bayonet can either be fastened at the end of a gun and used for thrusting, or de- tached 'and handled as a long dagger. by a force outside the ship, and those propelled by a force in- side the ship, by oarsmen. Since the Mediterranean is rela- tively narrow and almost tideless, since also ships driven by oars could be manoeuvred more easily and with much greater steadiness of movement, the oar ship was developed into a war Figure 10. — French helmet, type of 1915, front and side views. This helmet was worn by Richard N. Hall, a graduate of the Ann Arbor high school and of Dartmouth college, who served in a volunteer ambulance corps in France and was killed by a shell on Christmas eve, 1915, when driving his ambulance in the Vosges mountains. xviii Introduction vessel and was highly specialized to this end (Fig. 146, p. 427), while low-decked sailing vessels were used for freight and ordi- nary passenger service. It was a freight ship on which St. Paul and his military escort sailed for Italy, suffering shipwreck at Malta ; the battleships, or galleys, of Caesar's time (p. 636) had ordinarily three banks of oars. The boisterous waves and high tides of the North Atlantic made impracticable, except under extremely favorable condi- Figure 11. — Early Gallic helmets, of bronze. Now in the British Museum. The neck-protector of the helmet at the right is orna- mented in relief. tions, the use either of galleys, which had to be built low in order to enable the oarsmen to dip their oars, or of the type of sailing vessel employed on the almost land-locked Mediterranean. Hence before Caesar's time the Venetans in northwestern Gaul (modern Brittany) had developed a strongly built high-decked sailing vessel, which, though small when compared with sea- going ships to-day, was able nevertheless to withstand the buf- feting of ocean waves and to outride the gales. From Caesar's description (III. 13) it is evident that the Venetan ship was not like the type of vessel used later by the Vikings, but in essential features resembled the famous Half-Moon with which Warfare Ancient and Modern XIX Henry Hudson in 1609 crossed the Atlantic, discovering the river which bears his name. Caesar found that he could not complete the conquest of northwestern Gaul without destroying the Venetan fleet. In the naval battle, of which we have a vivid account in Book III of the Gallic War, the two types of vessel were brought into hostile contact ; the light and fast Eoman galley, adapted for ramming and boarding, and carrying legionaries as its fighting men, was pitted against the Venetan sailer, which was so strong that it could not be rammed and so high that boarding was extremely difficult. Only quick ingenuity (III. 14), and sheer luck in the dying down of the wind at a crucial moment, gave to Caesar's men a complete victory. Altogether different were the tactics of the sea-fight off Massilia, described in the second book of the Civil War (pp. 425- 431). Just as on land at Pharsalus, and on both land and sea in the Great War, we find substantially the same military equipment on both sides, so in the sea- fight between Brutus and the fleets loyal to Pompey the type of battleship on both sides was the same, and victory rested with the side which had superior skill and fighting i30wer. Long after the nations of western Europe had developed to a high degree of effectiveness the wooden warship propelled by sails and armed with cannon, the galley continued to be used by the pirates of the Barbary States in northern Africa ; " the vessels employed by the Barbary Corsairs were essentially rowing-boats,"! though after the sixteenth century they in- creasingly used ships like those of the European powers. Mu- Figure 12. — Helmet of a Roman legionary. When not worn the helmet could be suspended by a cord passed through the ring at the top. The crest was fastened in the sanne ring before the soldier went into action. i African Shores of the Mediterranean, by C. F. and L. Grant (New York, 1912), p. 280. This work gives a graphic description of life on the modern galleys, and the lot of the galley-slaves, chained to the rowing-benches. The XX Introduction tual jealousies of the European states allowed the Barbary cor- sairs to flourish until the nineteenth century. For a time the United States paid blackmail to the masters of the Tripoli pirates in order to safeguard American sailing vessels from their swift galleys and frigates, and our country did not free itself from the menace until 1815. Like the galley, the modern battleship, with steam power replacing man power as propelling force, developed the tactic of ramming. This tactic had its best known exemplification in time of peace, in the accidental ramming and sinking of the battleship Victoria by her sister ship, the Camper down, at the British manoeuvres in the Mediterranean in 1893, in conse- quence of a mistake in orders. In recent years there has been a notable increase in the size and range of cannon mounted upon battleships, accompanied by a corresponding increase in the effectiveness of torpedoes ; decisive engagements are now ordi- narily fought at long range. Nevertheless in 1917 the British torpedo destroyer Broke rammed a German destroyer, and the marines, as in the olden time, tinally fought hand to hand, the British gaining the victory. ii. Caesar's Commentaries and the Great War In September, 1914, the German armies, retiring from the drive toward Paris, established a line of trenches across the northeastern part of France. One portion of this line passed north of the city of Soissons, whose name is derived from that of the Gallic people called Suessiones ; thence it ran eastward, not far from the river Aisne, which is so called from the river's ancient name, Axona. East of the village of Kerry -au-Bac the German line of works crossed the Aisne to the south and passed east of Reims, which takes its name from the ancient people called Remi, and occupies the site of the Gallic city of Durocortorum, or Bigfort. subject is more fully treated in The Barbary Corsairs, by S. Lane-Poole (New York, 1902); and G. W. Allen, Our Navy ami the Barbary Corsairf (Boston, 11)05). Caesar and the Great War XXI This part of France in antiquity was reckoned as belonging to Belgium ; for the southern boundary of Belgium, or Belgic Gaul, was along the rivers called by Caesar Matrona and Se- quana, which have given us the modern names Marne and Seine. In this region, as also in eastern France and in the countries east of the Adriatic Sea, we find many points of contact not only between ancient and modern names but also between the events re- corded in Caei-jar's Com- mentaries and those of the most recent history. The marshes along the Miette brook, near Berry- au-Bac, in 57 b.c, pre- vented a frontal attack by the Belgians upon Caesar's legions drawn up to receive them (Map 5). Across the same marshes when dry, in September, 1914, the Germans ran intrench- ments, which during the winter filled with water ; this caused inconven- ience, to be sure, but safeguarded that part of the German line from attack by either infantry or cavalry. When the Belgians tried to ford the Aisne, in the face of Caesar's archers and slingers, the stream was choked with dead (II. 10) ; dead and wounded again clogged the Aisne in 1914, when French and English troops near Berry-au-Bac built pontoon bridges within range of a murderous artillery fire. Figure 13. — Italian barb-wire cutter. His wire-clippers are on the end of a long pole. He stands in front of the entrance of a well-screened refuge. (Medem Photo Service.) xxii Introduction Caesar commends the bravery of the Belgians who attempted to cross the Aisne over the bodies of the fallen (II. 10). Of all the peoples of Gaul, he elsewhere declared (I. 1), "the Belgians are the bravest." In 1914, the bravery of the modern Belgians was lauded by friend and foe alike, when at Liege and other points, against overwhelming odds, they tried to stem the tide of German invasion. Thessaly, unlike the rest of Greece, has broad and fertile plains, well adapted to the raising of wheat. In 48 b.c, when Caesar was obliged to withdraw from Dyrrachium (now Du- razzo), he led his half-starved troops into Thessaly and encamped in the midst of ripening grain-fields (C. III. 81) ; thither Pompey came to find him (Map 19), and the battle of Pharsalus followed. In June, 1917, one reason assigned for hastening the abdication of Constantine, King of Greece, was that the allied forces wished to make sure that the ripening harvests of Thessaly should be subject to their control ; and immediately thereafter French and British troops occupied Pharsala (the ancient Pharsalus), as well as Larissa, on the site of the Larisa to which Pompey fled after the great battle. So it happened that the grain-fields of Thessaly were a factor in determining the site of the decisive battle between Caesar and Pompey, and, almost two thousand years later, in hasten- ing the downfall of a Greek ruler. The occurrence of similar events of war in the same locali- ties may be ascribed in part to the influence of geographical features upon military operations, in part to continuing antago- nism between adjacent populations of different stock. Broadly speaking, the military operations of the Germans in the western campaigns of the Great War have in no small degree been determined by the same physical conditions which first brought Caesar into hostile contact with Helvetians and Germans, and afterwards facilitated his conquest of northern Gaul. To the Helvetians, bent upon migrating to western Gaul, the Jura mountains (Map Gallia ^) presented an almost im- ^ A general map of Gaul has been placed at the end of this volume. Caesar and the Great War xxiii passable barrier, on the west side, while a northerly route would have exposed them to attack by Ariovistus. In con- sequence they were obliged to follow the exceedingly difficult route through the Mill-race gorge of the Rhone, Pas de I'^ficluse (Map 2), and at once aroused Caesar's apprehension ; for the Rhone was the boundary of the Roman Province. Between the Jura mountains and the Vosges (ancient Vose- gus) there is a broad opening in the mountain barrier along the east frontier of modern France. Through this gateway Ariovistus and his German hordes were pressing into Gaul, Figure 14. — Roman slingshot, of lead, shown in two views. Inscribed FERI POMP[eivm], ' Strike Pompey,' referring to PompeiusStrabo, against whose army it was hurled when he was besieging Asculum, in the southeastern part of Italy, during the Social War, in 91-90 b.c. having already seized upon the fertile plain now known as Alsace, between the Rhine and the Vosges mountains. The issue of the Helvetian campaign imposed upon Caesar the obligation to protect his Gallic allies against Ariovistus ; and his first step was to seize the natural stronghold of Vesontio, now Besanqon (I. 38), which he made a military base. In the last century France, fearing a German invasion by the same route, transformed Besanqon into a fortress of the first class. The victory over Ariovistus enabled Caesar to fix the upper Rhine as the boundary between the German territory and cen- tral Gaul. Secure against danger of attack from this side, he was free to carry his conquest northward into Belgium. In contrast with the highlands of central Gaul, and the moun- tainous country in the south, the greater part of ancient Bel- gium, corresponding with modern Holland, Belgium, and the northernmost corner of France, was low and fairly level. It xxiv Introduction was therefore an easy matter for Caesar, after the battles at the Aisne and the Sambre (Book II), to overrun the country, before western Gaul, or the mountain strongholds of the Arvernians in the south, had been conquered. The accessi- bility of ancient Belgium hastened its conquest by Caesar. When Caesar invaded Belgium he had not the excuse of a previous attack by Belgians. He had heard that they were arming, and forthwith marched into Belgic territory. In 1914, German armies marched across Belgian territory, and held it in subjection, not because there was the slightest prospect that Germany would be attacked by Belgians, but in order to secure a quick and easy route through that neutral country into France ; for along the line of direct contact between French and German territory the routes were more difficult, and other points of vantage besides Besanqon had been strongly fortihed on the French side. To Caesar the Rhine seemed the natural boundary of Gaul on the east. By the defeat of Ariovistus, and later by the destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri (IV. 1-15), he checked German invasions. All Gaul became Romanized. For a part of its course the Rhine formed the boundary of the Roman Empire ; " to maintain the frontiers of the Rhine and the Danube," said the historian Freeman, " was, from the first century to the fifth, the great object of Rome's policy and warfare." After the fall of the Western Empire Gaul was overrun by the German Franks, the " spearmen," whose name survives in that of the country France. After the defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Leipzig, in 1813, the Allies offered to leave to him "the natural bound- aries of France : the Rhine, Alps, Pyrenees, and Ocean." l^itter indeed since then have been the strifes over the lands lying west of the Rhine, arising from acceptance or rejection of the stream as a political boundary ; the " Watch on the Rhine " in preference to all other patriotic songs becjime the (terman national hymn. No element in the historical content of Caesar and the Great War XXV Caesar's Commentaries is more significant than this, that they disclose to us the age-long struggle between peoples of Celtic and Grermanic origin aligned along the Rhine, a struggle which has reached its awful culmination in our own time. Besides issues and events of larger significance, Caesar's Commentaries make mention of military practices, and in- stances of bravery, to which the Great War has furnished abundant parallels. Figure 15. — Charge of Scots Greys at St. Quentin, in 1914. Highlanders, holding to the stirrups, are keeping up with the horsemen. (Courtesy of (Collier's Weekly.) In his conquest of Gaul, Caesar exacted many hostages. Hostages have also been seized by the Germans in conquered cities. On September 12, 1914, at Reims, then in German hands, the names of eighty persons were posted, with the fol- lowing printed proclamation (translation from the French) : " In order adequately to assure the safety of our troops and quiet- ness on the part of the population of Reims, the persons named have been seized as hostages by the commander of the German army. These hostages will be shot if there is the least disturbance. On the xxvi Introduction other hand, if Ihe city remains absohitely quiet and free from dis- turbance, these hostages and inhabitants will be placed under the protection of the army." Regarding the fate of the hostages held by Caesar we have no information. Hostages taken by the (xermans, as the records show, were in some cases shot, in others carried off to prison camps. Among the most inspiring passages of the Commentaries are those in which Caesar makes note of the bravery of his men. Thus in describing the first expedition to Britain he tells us how the soldiers of the tenth legion, following their eagle-bearer, plunged into deep water, advanced against a storm of missiles from the shore, and drove the British back, effect- ing a landing (IV. 25). Less spectacular, Imt not less brave, was the advance of the Italian infantry across the Isonzo in the assault upon Goritz in August of 1916. " With water up to their necks," writes Lord Northcliffe, who witnessed the movement, " carrying their rifles high above their heads and ecstatically singing patriotic songs, they forded the broad stream and carried the eastern bank. The enemy's shrapnel, which, falling among them, churned the water into foam, failed utterly to check or even retard their charge. Those who fell wounded in the water insisted upon being helped to gain the eastern bank, saying, ' Then they won't send us back.' " Few modern officers have shown themselves more courageous and resourceful than the heroic Baculus, who was almost done to death in the battle at the Sambre (II. 25), but was restored to health and twice thereafter saved the day by his quick resolve and indomitable will (III. 5 ; VI. 38). No instance of individual bravery stands out so conspicuously, however, as that of the centurion Scaeva, who fought at his post, at the gate of a redoubt, though one eye was put out and he was wounded in shoulder and thigh ; in his shield, after the battle, 120 holes were counted where it had been struck by arrows Civilization of the Gauls xxvii (pp. 434-435). In June, 1916, E. A. Bigorne, machine gun oper- ator on the front in France, remained in an advanced position after every other man in his trench had been killed, when it was obvious that an assault of the enemy was preparing. He gathered the ammunition of his fallen comrades, and when the assault came he still held his post, using his machine gun so effectively that he repulsed charge after charge against his trench, accounting for 800 Germans in killed, wounded, and fleeing, before he was relieved. Caesar publicly commended Scaeva, and made him a present of money amounting to more than $8000; Bigorne received the decoration of the Legion of Honor, said to be the highest award ever given to a private soldier in France. iii. The Civilization of the Gauls Excavations and discoveries in France in recent decades have thrown new light upon the civilization of the Gauls in Caesar's time. To give an account of these within narrow limits is impossible. It may suffice to say that remains of city walls have been found on the site of Bibracte and other Gallic cities, so constructed as completely to verify Caesar's description of a Gallic wall in Book VII (chap. 23) ; that burial places and unearthed town sites in France, western Switzerland, Belgium, and England have yielded an incalculable number of objects of common life, now available for study in museums ; and that with the help of such objects it is permitted to picture to ourselves the varied and picturesque life of ancient Gaul and Britain in a way unknown to previous centuries. Disregarding the highest estimates, we may reckon the popu- lation of Transalpine Gaul in Caesar's time as twelve or thirteen millions ; there were perhaps a fourth as many inhabitants as are found in the same area to-day. There were in Gaul not a few cities, some of which, as Avaricum with its 40,000 souls, would be reckoned as important towns in modern times. The growth of towns implies advancement in both commerce and industry. In Caesar's time there was already developed xxviii Introduction in Gaul a system of roads, with })ri(lges across the rivers ; and there is reason to believe that in many cases the line of a Gallic road was followed later by a Eoman road, which in turn is now represented by a highway or railway. Raw materials for industry and commerce were furnished by farming, by stock raising, and by mining (III. 21, and VII. 22). The Gauls were particularly fond of horses (IV. 2), the quality of which improved under their care. It was therefore no accident which led the Romans to import Gallic horses, and which gave to the Gauls such a lead in the invention of vehicles that the Romans borrowed from them the names of two kinds of cart, carrus (I. 3) and carpentum. From the Celtic, through the Latin and French, come our words " car " and " chariot " ; and through the Anglo-Saxon, our word " cart." The horse is a constantly recurring figure on Gallic coins (Figs. 17, 18, etc.). The fine quality of the horses still raised on Gallic soil is indicated by the fact that in 1910 there were imported into the United States from France and Belgium more than 4500 horses, nearly four times as many as were imported in that year from all other European countries. The implications of Caesar's language about importations into Gaul, in Book I (chap. 1), Book II (chap. 15), and Book VI (chap. 24) are borne out by other evidence. The most convinc- ing proof of the influence of both Greek and Italian traders, and of the commercial progress of the country, is to be found in the extensive and varied coinage of the Gallic states ^ in Caesar's time. The Gauls minted their own metal, though they had not the skill to produce coins of so fine workmanship as those of the Greeks and Romans. Their coinage was still in the imitative stage, reproducing, often crudely, designs of foreign coins which circulated among them. Not a few Gallic coins were copied from a variety of widely 1 In the United States the word civitfts in passages relating to Gaul should not he translated " trihe," for the reason that in this country the word" tribe " is so closely associated with the American aborigines that to many it suggests a condition of savagery. Civilization of the Gauls XXIX Figure 16. Gallic coin, perhaps of the Ambarri. Gold. The Macedonian coins, from which this is copied, are of fine workmanship. The head is that of a youth. The two-horse chariot on Greek coins was associated with games. current Macedonian coins known as staters. An example is Figure 16, which is thought to have been struck by the Am- barri (I. 11). The head and the two-horse chariot are un- mistakable copies of the obverse and reverse designs of a stater ; and the unintelligi- ble letters on the reverse, underneath the chariot, are the work of a Gallic coin-maker who did not know Greek, and imitated, without understanding them, the letters of the Greek name ^lAIFFOY, "of Philip," which is found on the Macedonian coin. Just as clearly of Roman origin is the type of the two-headed Janus, found on a coin of the Mediomatrici (Fig. 17). On the reverse the Gallic designer has made a fanciful use of the chariot design, which appears on Roman cohis as well as Greek; the charioteer has been resolved into the graceful curves which we see above the horse, while the chariot seems to be repre- sented by a rosette underneath the horse, symbolizing a chariot wheel. The Gallic craftsman wished to make the horse prominent. It is not surprising that in Caesar's time the Greek alphabet was in common use in Gaul (VI. 14), employed, for example, in mak- ing up the census lists of the Helvetians (I. 29) ; for Massilia, established originally as a Greek colony and trading post, was already an old city, having commercial relations with many Gallic states (p. 611). Figure 17. — Coin of the Mediomatrici. Gold. Obverse, two-headed Janus. Reverse, design derived from a chariot type. XXX Introduction Figure 18. — Arvernian coin. Gold, alloyed with silver. Obverse, head of Vercingetorix, spelled VERCINGETORIXS, with helmet. Reverse, below the horse, two- handled wine jar; above, scroll- shaped ornament. Nevertheless we occasionally find Koman letters on Gallic coins, as in Figure 18, which reproduces a coin struck a short time before the downfall of Gallic power, in 52 b.c. The face on the obverse is intended to be a portrait of the Gallic leader Vercingetorix, but is highly conventional. Much more true to life is a later portrait of Vercingetorix on a Roman coin whose designer must have seen him when a captive in Rome (Fig. 145). In military matters Vercingetorix confessedly imitated the Romans (VII. 29). Various objects of metal, pottery, and other permanent mate- rials, of which a few examples are shown in the illustrations to the notes of this book, strengthen the conviction that while the northern parts of Gaul were more backward, the higher classes in the central and southern portions of the country in Caesar's time had adopted a more refined mode of life (I. 1) ; thus the terri- fied women of Gergovia threw down silverware to the Roman soldiers scaling the wall (VII. 47). The common people were housed in round thatched huts, but people of means had houses of stone. Notwithstanding their use of writing for ordinary purposes, in- cluding "documents public and private " (VI. 14), the Gauls did trumpet ends in a fanciful head with not develop a literature. This "'^rT. T'' ''°'"'l^h>M^t ^ crest. The bronze-covered shield is may be due in part to the insis- skillfully ImiUted in the marble. tence of the Druids that their body '^^\ f *«• I'' ^ ^°*;;;f °"«'-l"^- •^ erected by a Roman soldier, of Ori- Of doctrine, poetic and mystical ental birth, at Nemausus, now Nimes. Figure 19. Relief, on a marble altar. Discovered at Nimes. The war Civilization of the Gauls XXXI Figure 20. — Coin of the Treve- rans or Leuci. Bronze. Obverse, head copied from a coin of Augustus. Reverse, bull, and inscription GER- man[vs] indvtilli l[ibertvs], ' Ger- manus, freednnan of Indutillus.' though it was, should be transmitted only by memory (VI. 14). As the Druids were the intellectual leaders of the people, their practice in this respect must have discouraged literary effort. This all-powerful priesthood, regarding which Caesar in Book VI gives the earliest authentic information, in their teachings united a theory of the universe with the doctrine of transmigra- tion of souls. The power of the Druids in temporal affairs came from this fact, that while acting as arbiters and judges in dis- putes of every kind, they were enabled to enforce their deci- sions through the terrible penalty of excommunication (VI. 13). Outside the limited field of coins and minor objects the Gauls made almost no progress in art before the Roman Conquest. That they were ready for development in the fuller appreciation of art, if not also in expression, is evident from monuments of Gallic origin dating from the earlier years of the Roman occupation, in which an awakening of the artistic impulse is manifest. An example is the re- lief in Figure 19, showing a Gallic oval shield with metal covering and a war-trumpet with the head of a monster. Wind instruments with heads of animals or monsters, not of Gallic origin, may be seen in collections of musical instruments today. Gallic and British coins struck after the Conquest indicate to us the adoption of Roman fashions within a few decades after Caesar's death, not only in Gaul but even in Britain. On — Coin of Tascio- British ruler. Gold. Obverse, tablet inscribed TASCIO, for TASCIOVANUS, between ornaments. Reverse, horseman galloping to the right ; on some of the coins he seems to be holding a trumpet. The significance of the letters SEGO is not clear. XXXll Introduction the coin reproduced in Figure 20 we find a prominent man of the Treverans (or of the Leuci), designated in the Roman style as " Germanus, freedman of Indutillus." Figure 22. — Coin of Tascio- vanus. Silver. Obverse, winged horse, Pegasus, walking toward the left ; letters TAS, irregularly placed, an abbreviation for TASCIOVANUS. Reverse, winged Griffin, springing toward the right. Figure 23. — Coin of Cunobelinus. Bronze. Inscription. CUNOBELINI, TASCiOVANi f[ilii], 'of Cunobelinus, son of Tasciovanus.' On the reverse is a centaur with a mantle, blowing a trumpet. Inscribed with Roman letters also are gold coins of the British Virica (Fig. 140), as well as gold and silver coins of Tasciovanus (Figs. 21, 22). Tasciovanus was a contemporary of the Em- peror Augustus. He was the father of Cunobelinus, the hero of Shakespeare's drama Cymbeline, as a bronze coin of Cunobelinus shows (Fig. 23). Both the Griffin and the Pegasus of the silver coin (Fig. 22), and the Centaur of the bronze (Fig. 23), were designs taken from the Graeco-Roman mythology, and current in the Classical Art of the period. They may have been brought to Britain by skilled crafts- men directly from southern cities, or have been introduced by way of Gaul ; in either case they confirm the infer- ence, suggested by the Roman letters on the coins, that Roman influence was strong in Britain in the interval between Caesar's expedi- tions and the Roman Conquest of the island (p. 611). Figure 24. — Coin of Lug- dunum. Bronze. Reverse: prow of a galley with beak ; above, an obe- lisk, and a globe emitting rays. Inscription. COPIA ; the official name of the colony was COLONIA COPIA AUGUSTA LUGDUNUM. On the obverse of this coin the heads of Julius Caesar and Augustus are shown. Caesar and Historical Writers xxxiii Complete Romanization of at least a part of central Gaul is indicated by a coin struck soon after 31 b.c. at Lugdunum, modern Lyons, which was one of the first Roman colonies established in Gaul outside the Province (Fig. 24). iv. Caesak and the Historical Writers The historians have written more about Julius Caesar than about any other Roman. There are, nevertheless, wide differ- ences of opinion in regard to his motives and character. In the eyes of some Caesar was a monster of wickedness, a despot guilty of subverting the liberties of his country. Others have viewed him as a statesman and patriot of exalted aims. To others still his career has seemed to mark the culmination of the inevitable trend of the Roman state toward absolutism, and they have interpreted it as the opportune appearance of a will and personality powerful enough to dominate, and fuse into lasting union, the inharmonious elements of a political life rapidly drifting into anarchy. Men's views of Caesar have generally been colored by their attitude toward the type of government which he established. The extant Greek and Latin writings in which Caesar has a prominent place are now accessible in excellent transla- tions ; nearly all are included in the Loeh Classical Library} Accessible in English also, with few exceptions, are the most important modern works in foreign languages dealing with Caesar and his times. The earliest characterization of Caesar which we have, in Sallust's Catiline (chaps. 53, 54), forms part of a comparison between him and Cato. A biography of Caesar in Greek, together with biographies of Pompey, Crassus, Brutus, Cato, and Cicero, was included by Plutarch in his Lives, published near the end of the first century a.d. (translation by B. Perrin, 10 vols., Loeb Classical Library, 1913-). Plutarch records 1 The volumes of the Loeb Classical Library, established by James Loeb of New York, have the original text and the English translation on opposite pages (publishers, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York). xxxiv Introduction also a number of Caesar's sayings, with the incidents which called them forth, in his Moralia (Plutarch^s Essays and Miscellanies, translation revised by W. W. Goodwin, 5 vols., Boston, 1906 ; Vol. 1, pp. 246-248). In 120 a.d. Suetonius published a biography of Julius Caesar as the first of his Lives of the Caesars (translation by J. C. Rolfe, 2 vols., Loeb Classical Library, 1914). The closing period of the Roman Republic was treated with much detail by two late Greek historians, whose works in great part still survive. About the middle of the second century A.D. Appian wrote the Civil Wars (translation of Appian's works by Horace White, 4 vols., Loeb Classical Library, 1912- 13) ; and in the earlier part of the third century Dio Cassius composed his Roman History (translation by H. B. Foster, revised by E. Cary, 9 vols., Loeb Classical Library, 1914-). The ancient literary sources are well summarized and eval- uated in the Annals of Caesar, A Critical Biography with a Survey of the Sources, by E. G. Sihler, which follows the life of Caesar year by year (New York, 1911). To the ancient material relating to Caesar belong the coins struck by his order, and a number of portraits. The most im- portant coins are interpreted by H. A. Grueber in Coi7is of the Roman Republic in the British Museum (with 123 plates ; 3 vols., London, 1910). The portraits of Caesar are discussed at length, but without adequate critical preparation, in Por- traitures of Julius Caesar, by F. J. Scott (New York, 1903). The bust of Pompey in Copenhagen, three portraits of Cicero, and three of Caesar, are presented in Greek and Roman Por- traits, by A. Hekler (New York, 1912; plates 155-161). Several gems with the portrait of Caesar are published by A. Furtwaengler, Die Antiken Gemmen (3 vols., Berlin, 1899, plates 45, 46). Among the modern biographies the first place must be given to Julius Caesar and the Foundation of the Roman Imperial Sys- tem, by W. Warde Fowler (New York, 1892). Less satisfac- tory is Caesar, a Sketch, by J. A. Froude (New York, 1883). Caesar and Historical Writers " xxxv Interesting sidelights on Caesar's career are found in Cicero and his Friends, A Study of Roman Society in the Time of Caesar, by G. Boissier, translated from the French (New York, 1898) ; The Life of Cicero, by Anthony Trollope (2 vols., London and Nev- York, 1880) ; Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic, by J. L. Strachan-Davidson (New York, 1896) ; and Social Life in Rome in the Age of Cicero, by W. Warde Fowler (New York, 1909). Still of interest for the student of Caesar, though in most respects superseded by later works, are Lectures on the Histoi'y of Rome, by B. G. Niebuhr (3 vols., 3d edition, London, 1853) ; History of the Later Roman Commomvealth, by Thomas Arnold (2 vols., London, 1845) ; and The Decline of the Roman Republic, by George Long (5 vols., London, 1874). Of special importance are the interpretations of Caesar's career in the fifth volume of The History of Rome, by Theodor Mommsen (5 vols., New York, 1895) ; in the first portion of Tlie Romans under the Empire, by C. Merivale (reprinted in 8 volumes, New York, 1890) ; The Roman Triicmvirates, by C. Merivale, a volume of the series Epochs of Ancient History ; the third volume of the richly illustrated History of Rome, by V. Duruy (6 vols., London, 1883-86) ; the second volume of G. Ferrero's highly imaginative but suggestive Greatness and Decline of Rome (5 vols.. New York, 1907-09); and the third volume of The Roman Republic, by W. E. Heitland (3 vols., Cambridge, 1909). It would be interesting if to the diverse modern estimates of Caesar's character and life-work we could add a statement by himself regarding his aims and achievements. In default of the written word, however, we have not a few suggestions in the imagery of the coins issued by his authority, the types of which were suggested, or at least approved, by him. Thus we are warranted in believing that he wished men to recall the story of his lineage (Fig. 153) and the origin of the name Caesar (Fig. 164), as well as his victories in Gaul (Fig. 159), Spain (Fig. 161), the East, and Africa. XXXVl Introduction A suggestion of Caesar's attitude toward his task, or at least the attitude he assumed, may be conveyed by a gold coin struck in 49 B.C., after Pompey had fled across the Adriatic (Fig. 25). Here we find, on the reverse, a design symbolizing his victories in Gaul ; the design of the obverse shows the head of Pietas, the deified personification of loyalty to duty, particularly duty to the gods. Pietas in this connection has no relation to the Figure 25. — Coin of Caesar struck in 49 b.c Gold, aureus. Obverse, head of Pietas, wearing a wreath of oak-leaves ; the hair be- hind the head is gathered into a knot ornamented with jewels. The goddess is further adorned with an earring in the shape of a cross, and a necklace. The significance of the figure LII (52) is uncertain. Reverse, symbols of victories in Gaul ; cf. Fig. 1 59, p. 595. office of Supreme Pontiff (Fig. 157). It suggests that Caesar, like the Trojan Aeneas in the Virgilian epic (Aen. I. 378), was the instrument of heaven in the accomplishment of a mission. Illuminating studies relative to Caesar and the transforma- tion of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire, are Roman Imperialism, by J. R. Seeley, in his Roman Imperialism and Other Lectures and Essays (Boston, 1889) ; Seven Roman States- men of the Later Republic, by C. Oman, with four studies devoted to Crassus, Cato, Pompey, and Caesar (New York, 1902) ; Caesar and Alexander, in Lectures on Modeim Histoiy, to which are added two essays dealing with ancient history, by Friedrich Schlegel (London, 1849) ; by suggestion rather than by direct bearing, the essay entitled The Roman Empire and the British Empire in India, by James Bryce, in his Studies in History and Jurisprudence (Oxford and New York, 1901). Caesar in Literature xxxvii Indispensable for the study of Caesar's Commentaries on the historical side are Caesar^s Conquest of Gaul by T. Rice Holmes (2d edition, Oxford, 1911), and his Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar (Oxford, 1907). Very useful are the History of Julius Caesar, by Napoleon III, with the Atlas, on which have been founded most of the maps illustrating Caesar's campaigns in Gaul (2 vols., New York, 1866) ; two works by C. Stoff el. Guerre de C4sar et d^Arioviste et premieres operations de Cesar en Van 702 (Paris, 1890), and Histoire de Jules Cesar, Guerre civile (2 vols., with Atlas, Paris, 1887) ; and Histoire de la Gaule, by C. Jullian (4 vols., Paris, 1908-13). Both the historical and the literary significance of Caesar's Commentaries is estimated in The Commentaries of Caesar by Anthony Trollope, in Ancient Classics for English Readers (Philadelphia, 1871) ; in the History of Roman Literature by C. L. Cruttwell (London, 1878), History of Latin IJterature by C. A. Simcox (2 vols.. New York, 1883), and Literary Histoid of Rome ^ by J. W. Duff (London, 1914). The title of the Com- mentaries is treated by F. W. Kelsey in TJie title of Caesar^s tvork on the Gallic and Civil Wars (Trarisactions of the American Philological Association, vol. 36, 1905, pp. 211-238). V. Caesar in Literature and Myth ,0f deep human interest, and touching Caesar at many points, are the Letters of Marcus Cicero ; among them are included a few letters written by Caesar and others intimately associated with him (edition, with full notes, by R. Y. Tyrrell and L. C. Purser, 7 vols., in part 3d edit., Dublin and London, 1901 — ; translation of the Letters to Atticus by E. 0. Winstedt in the Loeb Classical Library, 2 vols., 1913.) About a century after Caesar's death Lucan, reacting against the absolutism of Nero, composed the Pharsalia, an epic poem in ten books having for its subject the struggle between Caesar and Pompey, commencing with the crossing of the Rubicon. The poet's sympathies were with Pompey and Cato ; but, even 80, from the very force of his personality Caesar is the domi- xxxviii Introduction nating character. (Text with notes by C. E. Haskins, London, 1887 : translation by Edward Ridley, New York, 1896.) In modern times the singular power of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar has apparently deterred other dramatists from attempt- ing the theme. The scene of the tragedy, The False One^ by Beaumont and Fletcher (first published in 1647), is laid at Alex- andria after the battle of Pharsalus ; the young King Ptolemy, Achillas, and Septimius (C. III. 104), who is " the False One," all appear, as well as Cleopatra, Labienus, and Caesar, who de- claims over the head of Pompey, presented to him by Achillas. Recently John Masefi^ld, in Tlie Tragedy of Pompey the Great (New York, 1911), has skillfully developed an interpretation of Pompey's actions altogether different from the view that will present itself to most readers of Caesar's Civil War. Bernard Shaw's Caesar and Cleopatra is an amusing caricature. Fewer historical novels concern themselves with the closing days of the Roman Republic than with the first century of the Empire. The best of them all is A Frie^id of Caesar, by W. S. Davis (New York, 1900). The hero of Tlie Wonderful Ad- ventures of Phra the Phmnician, by E. L. Arnold, son of Edwin Arnold (New York, 1890), in the first of his several eventful lives weds the daughter of a British ruler and joins with the natives in trying to prevent the landing of Caesar's forces. To the domain of the essay, containing much suggestive gen- eralization and psychological analysis, belong the sections and passages relating to Julius Caesar in The Tragedy of the Cae- sarsy A Study of the Characters of the Caesars of the Julian and Claudian Houses, by S. Baring-Gould (3d edit., London, 1895) ; Roman Days, by V. Rydberg (2d edit.. New York, 1887) ; /m- perial Purple, by Edgar Saltus (Chicago, 1892) ; Ave Roma Im,mortalis, by F. M. Crawford, New York, 1902) ; as well as the older works. Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, by Montesquieu (new translation by J. Baker, New York, 1894 ; chap. 11, with the translator's note) ; and The Caesars, by Thomas de Quincey (in vol. 6 of his Collected Writings, edited by D. Masson, Edinburgh, 1890). Caesar in Myth XXX IX Wonderful portents accompanying the death of Caesar are described by Virgil in the first book of the Georgics, while the transformation of his soul into a comet is set forth by Ovid at the end of the Metamorphoses ; thus within approximately a half cen- tury after his death the miraculous had gathered about his memory and had found literary expression. Other marvelous stories about Caesar were current in the Roman Empire, and were reflected in later writings. The Gesta Romanorum, a collection of edifying tales made about the end of the thirteenth century, tells us how, as Caesar started to cross the Rubicon, a huge ghost stood in his way, and how Caesar met the challenge (Latin text edited by H. Oesterley, Berlin, 1872 ; trans, by C. Swan, 2 vols., London, 1824, vol. 1, p. 99). The most persistent tale related to the safe-guarding of Caesar's ashes. In the earlier part of the first century a.d. a massive granite obelisk was brought to Rome from Egypt and erected in a circus near where St. Peter's church was after- wards built;- on the top a large ball, or sphere, of bronze was placed (Fig. 26). The obelisk re- mained standing to modern times ; until 1586, when the ball was taken down ancl found to be solid, many believed that it contained the ashes of Julius Caesar, placed there in order that, in the quaint language of a medieval guide-book, " as in his lifetime the whole world lay subdued before him, even so in his death the Figure 26. — Bronze ball sup- posed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. After the murder of Julius Caesar his body was taken to the Forum, and there burned. In the Middle Ages his ashes were supposed to be preserved in the large round ball on the top of the obelisk which, till 1586, stood at the side of St. Peter's church in Rome, and now stands in the Piazza in front of St. Peter's. (Illustration from an en- graving made in 1569.) xl Introduction same may lie beneath him forever " {Mirabilia Urhis Romae. Latin text, H. Jordan, Topographie der Stadt Rom, vol. 2, p. 625 ; translation by F. M. Nichols, London, 1889, pp. 71-72). One version of the Swan Legend, most commonly associated with Lohengrin, tells us how a sister of Julius Caesar eloped with a Belgian prince, and in her northern home had a beautiful white swan. Her husband joined forces with Ariovistus and fell at the battle of Vesontio. Now in Caesar's army was a hero, Salvius Brabon, who was descended from the Trojan Hector. Hunting near the Rhine he saw a snow-white swan, " playfully pulling at the rope which bound a small skiff to the shore. Salvius leaped into the boat and cast it loose from its mooring. Then the bird swam before him as a guide, and he rowed after it." The swan conducted him to the sister of Caesar, who made herself known to him ; he brought Caesar to her castle, and the conqueror embraced his sister with joy. Salvius asked Caesar for the widowed sister's hand; Caesar consented, and Salvius Brabon became the first Duke of Brabant (S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, second series, Philadelphia, 1868, pp. 332-335). MAP I , CaX^PAIGNS of 58 AND 57 B.C. 2upkX, ''2^i54V n, 'i-^33 \ ni, 1-6 To face page i SCALE OF ENGLISH MILU SCALE OF ROMAN MILES 5 60 iSo EXPLANATION The route of the Helvetians to the Arar is indicated by a broken black line ; thence their line of march and Caesar's coincide, to Toulon. COMMENTARIUS PRIMUS Geography of Gaul Divisions and peoples. 1. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam, qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, CommentSrius : ' Commentary.' 273.^ primus : 33, 36. 1. I . Gallia : 2, a, and 286. Gallia omnia : < Gaul as a whole,' contrasted with Gaul in the narrower sense, or Celtic Gaul ; Celtic Gaul also is often called Gallia. 287, b. omnis : 25, a, and 80, b. divisa : ' divided,' the perfect passive participle of divide used as a predicate adj. 1J^8, c. B. 337, 2; A. 495 ; H. 640, 3. in: 'into.' 124,a. partes : 'parts.' 17, b. trgs : 37, b, and 353, c. qua- rum : 'of which.' JP'. Why genitive? 97, a. B. 201, i; A. 346, a,i; H. 442. unam: sc. partem, *■ or\G^ (part).' 23, a. Lookup the three ' parts ' of Gaul on the Map at the end of this book. 2. incolunt: 'inhabit.' 55. Belgae: 19, e-, 287. aliam [partem] : 'another (part),' less precise than alteram (^partem), 'a second (part),' which might have been used. 23, a. Aqult&ni: sc. incolunt. 89, a. tertiam, qui : = tertiam partem et incolunt, qui, ' a third part is inhabited by those who,' lit. 'those inhabit who.' 16Jt., a. ipsorum : ' their own ' ; lit. ' of themselves.' Ii.6. ipsorum lingua : 'in their own language.' 131, a. B. 218; A. 409; H. 476. 3. Celtae : sc. appellantur. 88, and 287, b. nostra : nostra lingua, LsLtln. 157, c. appellantur: 'are called.' 53. lingua, institutis, ISgibus : ' in respect to language, institutions, and laws.' 142, a, and 234, a. B- 226 ; A. 418 ; H. 480. 1 References in Italic type are to the " Companion to Caesar " and " Points to be Noted in Writing Latin," in this book; B., A., and H. refer to the Latin gram- mars by Bennett, Allen and Greenough, and Harkness, respectively. For other abbreviations consult the list preceding the Vocabulary, 2 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 ' instit'utis^ legibus inter se differunt. Gall5s ab Aquitanis 5 Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. H5rum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod • a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant, atque ea, quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent, important ; proxi- lo mlque sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibus- cum continenter bellum gerunt. 4 inter s§ : 'from one another.' 159. B. 245; A. 301,/; H. 502, I . differunt : ' differ.' 69, b. 5. Garumna. sc. ^fz'/V///', ' separates.' flumen: 7^, ^, and 5/, «-. Derivation ? 74, d. Matrona : 292. dividit : singular number ; why? lis, a. B. 255, 3 ; A. 317, b ; H. 392, 4. 6. Horum: ^j^, b, and 57, a. B. 201, i ; A. 346, ^,2; H. 442. fortissimi : ' the bravest.' ^7, a. proptereS : adv. meaning * on this account ' ; closely connected with quod, the two words together being translated ' because.' Three reasons are given for the bravery of the Belgians ; what are they? 7. cultu : < mode of life,' referring to the outward appearances of civilization. 20. atque : 2S2, a. humanitate : '■ refinement ' in intellectual interests and in feeling. 10, f. provinciae : * of the Province.' 54, a, and 290. longissimS absunt: 'are furthest removed.' 54, a, and 66, a ; also, 183, a. 8. mimime — saepe : ' very rarely ' ; lit. ' least often.' 35. eos : 44, and 160, b. mercatorgs : * traders ' from the Province, especially from Massilia, followed the course of the Rhone, the Sa6ne, and the Loire, so that naturally they did not often go so far north as the Belgian country. commeant : ' make their way to ' ; lit. ' go and come.' 53. ea : ' those things,' object of important. 160, c. Caesar seems to have had in mind particularly the importation of wine (II. 15 ; IV. 2). 9. ad effSminandoB animos : 'to weaken the courage.' 230, (3). B. 339, 2 ; A. 503, 506; H. 628. animos : 6, a, and 92, a. per- tinent : 'tend.' 5/^. important: 'import.' 55, and /7<5, «. 10. proximique sunt: 'and they are nearest.' 33, and 233, b. Germanis: why dat. ? 108, a. B. 192, i; A. 384; H. 434, 2. trSns : here 'on the other side of.' 122, a. quibuscum : 125, c. 11. continenter: ' contiDuaJly.' bellum gerunt: 'they wage war.' 6y tz, and <5J, 1,1] Introduction 3 Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gall5s virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. 15 Figure 27. — Modern road in the Jura Mountains. In Caesar's time there were only trails, over which the migrating Helvetians with their carts could not pass ; no such barrier protected them from the Germans. 12. Qua de causa : ' For this reason.' 167. B. 251, 6 ; A. 308,/; H. 510. quoque: 'also.' reliquos: 'the rest of the.' 171, a. Gallos : only the inhabitants of Celtic Gaul are meant, as indicated in 1. 3 ; no comparison with the Belgians and the Aquitanians is implied. 113, a. virtute: 'in valor.' lJt2, a. B. 226 ; A. 418; H. 480. 13. praecedunt : 'excel.' 113, b. fere : 'almost.' cotidianis: ' every day ' ; lit. ' daily.' 22, b. proeliis : ' in battle ' ; lit. ' by means of battles.' 131, a. cum : the preposition aim is distinguished from the conjunction cum only by the sense and the connection. 14. contendunt: 'contend.' 55. cum: 185, a. aut . . . aut : ' either . . . or.' 235, b. suis : ' their own,' referring to the Helvetians. 158, a. finibus: 'country'; lit. 'boundaries.' H^ b, and 127, a. B. 214, 2; A. 400; H. 464, i. eos: translate as if Germdnos, 'the Germans,' in order to avoid using 'them' and 'they' with reference to two different peoples in the same sentence. pro- hibent : 'are keeping (the Germans) out.' ipsT: 'themselves,' 162, a. There is no detailed record of these border raids. 15. eorum: translate as if 6^^r»/<2«Jr«/«. finibus: 124, a. 4 Caesar's Gallic War (BC. 58 [Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodan5; continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum ; attingit etiam ab Se- quanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum ; vergit ad septen- 20 triones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur ; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani, quae est ad Hispaniam, pertinet ; spectat inter occasum solis et 25 septentri5nes.] The Campaign against the Helvetians. 2-29 Orgetorix, a Helvetian, persuades his countrymen to migrate. 2. Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit et ditissimus Orgetorix. Is, M. Messala, M. Pisone consulibus, regni 16-25. Eorum . . . septentri5n6s : there is reason for believing that this passage was not written by Caesar but was added after his time by some one who thought it worth while to give with greater detail the boundaries of the three divisions of Gaul mentioned by Caesar at the beginning of the chapter; the style is forced and difficult. If it is omitted, the transition from the statement about the Helvetians, in lines 12-15, to the activities of the Helvetian leader, Orgetorix, at the begin- ning of the second chapter, becomes easy and natural. Translation : • One part of Gaul taken as a whole ' (lit. * of them ') , ' which it has been said the Celts occupy, begins at the river Rhone ; it is bounded by the Garonne river, the Ocean, and the country of the Belgians ; on the side where the Sequanians and Helvetians are it extends also to the river Rhine ; it lies to the north. The country of the Belgians commences at the most distant borders of Celtic Gaul and extends to the lower part of the river Rhine ; it faces north and easl. Aquitania extends from the Garonne river to the Pyrenees mountains and that part of the Ocean which is off Spain ; it faces northwest.' 2. I. Apud: 122, a. long6 : 153yd. nSbilissimus : 'high- est in rank.' 27, a, and 353, a. ditissimus : 31. 2. Orgetorix: 10, c. M.: z= Mara. 19, a. M. . . . oSn- Bulibus: = 6i B.C. 144, b, (i), and 240, a. B. 227, i; A. \\^,a\ H. 489. rfignl ; * of kingly power,' objective genitive. 6', a, and 102. 1,2] The Campaign against the Helvetians 5 cupiditate inductus, coniurationem nobilitatis fecit, et civi- tatl persuasit, ut de flnibus suTs cum omnibus c5piis exi- rent ; perfacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestdrent^ totius s Galliae imperio potiri. Id hoc facilius eis persuasit, quod undique loci natura Helvetil continentur : una ex parte flumine Rhen5, latis- 3. cupiditate :' by a desire.' 10,/, ^nd 135, a. B. 219; A. 404, <^; H. 475, I. inductus: Med on.' 226, <^, and I48, b. coniura- tionem: 'conspiracy.' 12, c. nobilitatis: here used as a collective noun, lit. ' of the nobility ' ; trans. ' among the nobles.' 10, f, and 92, b. fScit: 57, b, civitSti: 10, f, and 105. B. 187, 11, «; A. 367; H. 426, 2. 4. persutsit: 'persuaded.' 79, b. ut . . . exirent : 'to go out,' *to migrate'; kind of clause? 199, a. B. 295, i; A. 563; H. 565. cum omnibus c5piis : ' with all (their) effects,' as we say, " bag and baggage." 137, a. exirent : plural because civitdti, ' (his) state,' to which the unexpressed subject refers, is thought of as if it were civibus, ' the people of (his) state.' 68, b\ 173, b, and 238, h. B. 254, 4,^; H. 389, I. 5. perfacile . . . potiri: indirect discourse, dependent on the idea of saying \n persuasit. 212, a, and c, (5) ; 213, b. B. 314, 2 ; A. 579, 580; H. 641-643. perfacile esse: '(saying) that it was exceed- ingly easy.' The subject of esse is potiri, 'to obtain possession of.' 222, b. Why is /^r/a;^/^ neuter? lJ^8,d. virtute: 74^,^. B. 226; A. 418; H. 480. omnibus: 107, a. B. 187, ni, i ; A. 370; H. 429. praestarent : ' they excelled.' 53, and 184, o,. B. 286, 2 ; A. 549 ; H. 598. totius: 23, a. 6. totius Galliae: 'of the whole (of) Gaul.' 102. imperio: 'sovereignty.' Why ablative? 131, c. B. 218, i; A. 410; H. 477. potiri: 60, and 61, a, (4). 7. Id: ace; 'that (course)'. 117, a, and 160, c. B. 176, 2, a-, A. 369; H. 426, 6. hoc: 'on this account,' referring to what fol- lows. 135,a,2Lndl61,a. B. 219; A. 404; H.475. facilius: 'the more easily.' 34, a. eis : 4-^, and i05. undique: ' on all sides.' loci natura : ' by natural features.' 131, a. How lit. ? 8. continentur: 'are hemmed in'; why indie? 183, a. iina ex parte : ' on one side,' the north side. 126, c. flumine : 131, a. latisslmo : ' very wide.' 153, a. 6 Caesar's Gallic War [B.c.sa simo atque altissimo, qui agrum Helvetium a Germanis lodividit; altera ex parte monte lura altissimo, qui est inter Sequanos et Helveti5s ; tertia, lacu Lemanno et flumine Rhodano, qui provinciam nostram ab Helvetils dividit. His rebus fiebat, ut et minus late vagarentur et minus Figure 28. — Long summit of the Jura range. This range formed a natural barrier between the country of the Helvetians and that of the Sequanians, and now carries part of the boundary between France and Switzerland. 9. altissimo: here 'very deep,' but in 1. 10 'very high.' qui: the antecedent is Rhcno. 163, a. agrum: here 'territory.' a Germanis : 'from (the territory of) the Germans.' 282, and 121, c. 10. altera : for secunda, ' second,' as often. monte luri : ' by the Jura range ' ; mons refers sometimes to a single mountain, some- times to a group or chain of mountains, or to a moderate elevation. 1 1 . tertia : sc. ex parte. lacd : 20, b. 12. Rhodan5 : the part of the Rhone just below Geneva ; see Map i. prSvinciam: 290. nostram: i.e. Romanam. 157, c. HelvS- tiis : 282. Caesar does not deem it necessary to give the boundary on the fourth or east side, in the Alps. 13. His rSbus : ' Because of these conditions ' (lit. •■ these things '). 135, a. fiebat : ' it came about.' 70, a. ut . . . possent : sub- ject o( fiebat. 203, (i). B. 297, 2; A. 569, i ; H. 571, i. et . . . 1, 2] The Campaign against the Helvetians 7 facile finitimis helium inferre possent ; qua ex parte, homi- nes bellandl cupidi, magno dolore afificiebantur. Pro multi- 15 tudine autem hominum et pro gloria belli atque fortitudinis angustos se fines habere arbitrabantur, qui in longitudinem miUa passuum ccxl, in latitudinem clxxx patebant. et : 233, a. minus late vagarentur : ' they were more restricted in their movements/ lit. ' wandered less broadly,' than they wished. 177, a. minus: 35. 14. finitimis : ' (their) neighbors.' 107, b, and 151^, a. B. 187, iii, 2; A. 370; H.429, 1. inferre; 'wage.' 69, b. possent: 66, b. qua ex parte : ' and on that account.' 167. homines : in apposi- tion to the subject oi afficiebanttir, ' (being) men.' 12, b, and 91, b. 15. bellandl: 'of waging war.' 53, and 230, (i). B. 204, i ; A. 349, «; H.451, I. cupidi: 'fond (of).' 22, b. magno dolore afficiebantur : ' they were sorely ' (lit. ' with great vexation ') ' troubled.' 57, b. dolore: 11, fi, ?inA 136, b. Pro: 'Considering.' 125, a. multitudine hominum : ' (their) population ' ; how lit. ? The num- ber was 263,000 (chap. 29). The Helvetian territory now supports a population of about 2,250,000. 16. autem: 236, b. gloria belli atque fortitudinis: '(their) reputation for war' (lit. 'of war') 'and for bravery.' 102. 17. angustos fines : ' too small ' (lit. ' narrow ') ' territories.' 113, a. se habere : ' that they had.' 178, and 213, a. arbitrabantur : ' they thought,' lit. ' were thinking.' 175, a. qui: \.q. fines. in longi- tudinem : 'in length.' 76. 18. mHia passuum: 'miles.' Length of the Roman 'pace' and Roman 'mile'? 243, b. mlMa.'. 38, a, dind 118, a. B. 181 ; A. 425 ; H. 417. passuum: 20, b, and 97, a. CCXL: 36, and 38, b. latitudinem: 'breadth.' 81. CLXXX: centum octogintd, sc. mtlia passtmm. 38, b. As the actual distance across the Helvetian terri- tory was about 80 Roman miles, it has been suggested that Caesar wrote Lxxx, octogintd, which was changed to clxxx by an error in copying. patebant: 'extended.' 5U- The territory occupied by the Helvetians comprised a large portion, or the whole, of the modern Swiss cantons of Vaud, Neuchatel, Basel, Freiburg, Bern, Solothurn, and Aargau. At an earlier period the Helvetians had lived north of the Rhine, but they had been forced to the south side by the Germans. 8 Caesar*s Gallic War IB.c.68 They make preparations ; Org etorix forms a conspiracy. 3. His rebus adducti, et auct5ritate Orgetorigis per- moti, constituerunt ea, quae ad proficiscendum pertinerent, comparare, iumentorum et carr5rum quam maximum nu- merum coemere, sementes quam maximas facere, ut in 5 itinera c5pia frumenti suppeteret, cum proximis civitatibus 3. I. His rSbus adducti: 'Prompted by these considerations.' adducti : agrees with the unexpressed subject oi. constituerunt. auc- toritate : ' by the influence.' IS5^ a. permoti : ' stirred to action.' 2. constitugrunt : 'they (i.e. Helvetii) determined'; followed by comparare, 'to make ready.' 221, a. B. 328, i ; A. 457 ; H. 607, i. ea : 'those things' ; after comparare. 113, a, and 160, c. ad pro- ficiscendum : 'for emigration'; lit. 'for setting out.' 230, (3). B. 338,3; A. 506; H. 628. pertinSrent: subjunctive as giving the thought of the Helvetians; 'were (as they thought) necessary,' lit. 'pertained (to).' 212, d. B. 323; A. 592: H. 649, i. 3. iumentorum: ' draft -ani mals ' ; horses, ntules, and oxen. 97, a. carrorum : two-wheeled ' carts,' drawn largely by oxen. A Helvetian ox yoke, which was strapped to the horns of the oxen, is shown in Fig. 29. Figure 29. — Helvetian yoke, of wood, found in 1910. Found near Lake Neuchatel, with a wooden shield, a spear, the remains of a cart and the skeleton of the driver, preserved by the water into which he had tumbled with his cart, perhaps at night. From the Helvetian cattle the hardy Alpine cattle of Switzerland are descended. quam maximum : 'the largest possible.' 153, c. B. 240,3; H. 159,2. numerum : 'number.' 113, a. 4. coemere : ' to buy up.' coemere, facere, cSnflrmare : after constituerunt. 221, a. sSmentSs quam mazimfts : 'as large sow- ings as possible.' IJ^, b, and 153, c. 5. initinere: 'on the way.' 18, c. cSpia frflmenti suppete- ret: 'there might be an adequate supply of grain/ lit. 'a supply of grain might be at hand.' 90, h. suppeteret : 196, a. B. 282 ; A. 531; H. 568. proximis: ' neighboring,' lit. * nearest.' 33. 1.3] The Campaign against the Helvetians 9 pacem et amicitiam confirmare. Ad eas res conficiendas biennium sibi satis esse duxerunt ; in tertium annum pro- fectionem lege confirmant. Ad eas res conficiendas Orgetorix deligitur. Is sibi legationem ad civitates siiscepit. In eo itinere persuadet lo Castic5, Catamantaloedis filio, Sequano, cuius pater reg- num in Sequanis multos annos obtinuerat et a senatu populi Romani amicus appellatus erat, ut regnum in civi- 6. ptcem et amicitiam : ' (relations of) peace and friendship.' confirmare: '(and) to establish.' 234, a. Ad . . . conficiendas: gerundive construction, 'to complete these preparations,' lit. 'for those things to be completed.' 230, (3). B. 339, 2; A. 503; H. 626, I. 7. biennium satis esse: 'that two years would be sufficient.' 212, d, and 214, a. biennium: 79, b. sibi: 'for them.' 40, b, and 158, a. duxgrunt : here a verb of thought; 'they reckoned.' 213, a. in: 'for.' profectionem : ' (their) departure.' 157, a. 8. confirmant: historical present; trans, by a past tense, 'they fixed.' 175^ b. Other historical presents which should be translated by a past tense are deligitur, 1. 9 ; persuadet, 1. 10 and 1. 17 ; dat, 1. 18 ; probat, 1. 19; confirmat, 1. 23 ; dant, 1. 25 ; sperant, 1. 26. 9. Ad . . . conficiend&s: 'to carry out these arrangements.' d§ligitur: 'was chosen.' sibi — suscSpit : 'took upon himself.' 104, a. B, 187, i; A. 362; H. 424. 10. legationem, etc. : ' the office of envoy to the states.' 150, d. 1 1 . Castico : 105. Catamantaloedis : 99. filio, Sgquano : 91, a. B. 169, 2; A. 282; H. 393. pater: 11, b. rSgnum : 'the chief authority ' ; at this time there was no hereditary or absolute monarchy among the Gauls. 1, and 289, a. 12. annos: 118, a. B. 181, i; A. 423; H. 417. obtinuerat: 'had held.' 79, b. senatu populi Romani: 'the senate of the Roman people,' instead of senatu populoque, ' the senate and the Roman people,' because the Roman senate had the right to confer honorary titles on foreign rulers without a popular vote. 13. amicus: 'friend.' 88. B. i68,2,<^; A. 284; H. 393, 8. Such titles were conferred as a recognition of services rendered, or as a means of gaining favor. 10 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 tate sua occuparet, quod pater ante habuerat ; itemque 15 Dumnorigl Aeduo, fratrl Diviciaci, qui eo tempore princi- patum in civitate obtinebat ac maxime plebi acceptus erat, ut idem conaretur, persuadet, eique filiam suam in ma- trimonium dat. Perf'acile factu esse illis probat condta perficere^ proptej^ed 20 quod ipse suae clvitdtis impexium obtentiirus cs-set ; non esse dubium, quln totlus Galliae plurimum Helvetil pos- 14. sua: 157, b. ut , . . occuparet: 'to seize.' 199, a, and 177, b. quod: not 'because.' item: 'also.' 15. Dumnorigl : ^0, <:, and 105. frStri: 11, e. Divici5ci: 19, d. eo tempore: 'at that time.' 11^7, a. principatum : 'the foremost place ' ; whether the dominant position of Dumnorix among the Aeduans was due wholly to his influence, or whether in 61 B.C. he had also a magistracy, is not indicated. 16. civitate: '(his) state,' i.e. the Aeduan state. obtingbat: force of the imperfect? 175, a. maxime acceptus : 'very accept- able.' SO. plfibl: 108, a. Our English expression coiTesponding with plebi acceptus is ' popular with the masses.' 17. ut idem conaretur : ' to attempt the same thing ' ; the construc- tion is similar to that of ut . . . occuparet above. 61, a, (i). idem : 45, SLXid 117, a. ei: IO4, a. in matrimonium : ' in marriage.' 18. dat: 67, a, and 175, b. 19. Perfacile . . . possent : indirect discourse depending on pro- bat. 213, a. Perfacile: in predicate after esse, as in chap. 2, 1. 5. 212, c, (5). factu : ' of accomplishment,' lit. ' in respect to the doing.' 2S2. B. 340, 2; A. 510, N. 2; H. 635, I. esse: 214, a. i^s probat: 'he (Orgetorix) showed them.' 104,a. conSta : '(their) undertakings.' 157, a. perficere : 'to carry through'; subject of esse. 57, b ; 79, b, and 222, b. 20. suae : ' his own,' emphatic. 157, b. imperium : ' the sover- eign power.' 74, b, obtentiirus esset : ' he was going to seize.' 6S. Why subjunctive? 214ia. n6n esse dubium : 'that there was no doubt.' 21. dubium: in predicate; neuter because the subject of ^jjt^ is a clause. quln . . . possent : ' that the Helvetians were the most powerful (people) in all Gaul,' lit. ' were able the most of the whole (of) Gaul.' 201, b. B. 298; A. 558, «; H. 595, i. Galliae: 97, b. B. 1.4] The Campaign against the Helvetians 11 sent ; se suls copiis sudque exercitii illis regna coiicilidtunim confirmat. Hac oratione adducti, inter se fidem et ius iurandum dant ; et, regno occupat5 per tres potentissimos ac firmissi- 25 mos popul5s, totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant. ThQ conspiracy is revealed; Orgetorix dies. 4. Ea res est Helvetiis per indicium enuntiata. Mori- bus suis Orgetorigem ex vinculls causam dicere coegerunt ; damnatum poenam sequi oportebat, ut Igni cremaretur. 201, I ; A. 346, a, 2; H. 442. plurimum : neuter ace. used substan- tively. 32, and 118, b. B. 176, 3, ^ ; A. 214, d\ H. 416, 2. 22. sS suis copiis : ' that he with his own means.' 157, b, and 131, a. exercitii : not ' army ' but ' armed retinue/ like that with which Orgetorix afterwards overawed the judges, as related in the next chapter. illls : 101^, a. illis regna conciliatiirum [esse] : ' that he would get kingships for them.' 89, c. 23. confirmat: ' he (Orgetorix) assured (them).' 24. Hac oratione adducti: 'Won over by this presentation.' inter se : 159. fidem et iiis iiirandum : trans. ' an oath-bound pledge of good faith,' lit. ' good faith and oath ' ; hendiadys. 238, d. 25. regno occupato : 'having seized the supreme power.' IJ^J^, a. B. 227,2; A. 420, i; H. 489. per: 'with the help of.' 123, a. potentissimos ac firmissimos : ' very powerful and very firmly established.' 153, a. 26. populos : the Helvetians, the Sequanians, and the Aeduans. Galliae: after potiri. 131, d. B. 212, 2; A. 410 a; H. 458, 458, 3. sesg posse sperant: 'they hoped that they would be able.' 213, a. potiri: 2ii\.eY posse. 221, a. 4. I. Ea res : ' The matter,' i.e. Orgetorix's scheme; lit. 'that thing.' 160, d. Helvetiis : why dat. ? per indicium : ' through (the agency of) informers"; lit. 'through information.' 92, b, and 123, a. est gnuntiata : 'was reported.' 172, a. Moribus suis: ' In accordance with their customs,' as distinguished from the Roman procedure. 136, c. B. 220, 3 ; A. 418, ^ ; H. 475, 3. 2. ex vinculis : 'in chains.' 126, c. causam dicere: *to plead his case.' 221, a. coegerunt: 'they compelled.' 79, b. 3. damnatum: agrees with ^«w understood as object of J cxT ^ d ^ -« *© v^^ t3 1 c: o tft ^ CJ ^ P^ £ -g D JN _bf ^ (U o O J5 "3 o 1 4 fo cl u -r1 i; , • •^ -^ »^ .2 "^ O *j >-i vO "3 o ag 1 00^ 05 > 2 ^ ^ o II 1 Vi 1 > s 1 \a. pontem faciendum cflrat : ' he (Caesar) had a bridge built,' i.e. by the me^ I. 13] The Campaign against the Helvetians 33 Helvetii, repentino eius adventu commoti, cum id, quod ipsi diebus xx aegerrime confecerant, ut flumen transirent, s ilium uno die fecisse intellegerent, legates ad eum mittunt ; cuius legationis Divic5 princeps fuit, qui bello Cassiano dux Helvetiorum fuerat. Is ita cum Caesare egit : Figure 38. — The Rhone below Geneva. chanics, fabrt, of whom there were a number enrolled in the legions ; it was doubtless a pontoon bridge. 229, b, and 210, b. B. 337, 8, /^, 2 ; A. 500,4; H. 622. in: ^ over.' 4. repentino: 'unexpected.' commoti: 'alarmed.* cum, etc. : trans, as if cum intellegerent ilium (Caesar) iind die fecisse ('had accomplished ') id quod, etc' 178, and 185, c. 5. XX: viginti. 38, b. ut flumen transirent: a substantive clause explaining id', trans, 'the crossing of the river.' 203, (4). 7. cuius legationis : ' and of this delegation.' 167. princeps : 10, b. bello Cassiano: 'in the war with Cassius.' 1J{7, b. As the defeat of Cassius took place in 107 B.C., at the time of which Caesar was writing, 58 B.C., Divico must have been between 70 and 80 years old. The Helvetians preferred to avoid a conflict with Caesar, but the tone of Divico's language made a mutual understanding impossible. 8. cum Caesare egit : ' treated with Caesar.' 137 » c. 34 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 Si pdcem populus Romdnus cum Helvetils faceret, in earn lo partem ituros atqne ibi futuros Helvetios^ ubi eos Caesar cons tituis set atque esse voluisset ; sin be lid perse qui perse- verdrety reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romdni et pristinae virtUtis Helvetiornm. Quod improviso Unum pdgum adortus esset, cum eiy qui 15 flUmen trdnsissent^ suis auxilimn ferre non possenty ne ob earn rem aut suae magnopere virtuti tribueret aut ipsos de- 9-13. Direct form: Si pacem populus Romanus cum HelvetiTs y&«>/, in earn partem Ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetit, ubi eos (/«) constiiueris atque esse volueris ; sin bello persequT perseverdbis, remintscere et veteris incommodi populi Roman! et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. 9. faceret, ituros [esse], futflros [esse] : 89, c^ and 218, (i), a. B. 314, i; A. 589; H. 642,643.^ 10. ubi: = in qua. 1 1 . constituisset, voluisset : in the direct form, future perfect indicative; the tense is influenced by the'tense of egit. 177, a. B. 319, B, «; H. 644, 2. bell6: ISl, a. persequi : sc. eos, 'to assail (them).' 61, a, (3), and 221, a. persevgrSret : < (Caesar) should continue.' 12. reminisceretur: 'he should remember.' 216. B. 316; A. 588; H. 642. veteris: 26, a. incommodi: the defeat of Cas- sius. Why genitive? 103, a. B. 206, 2 ; A. 350, c\ H. 454. 13. pristinae :' old-time.' virtutis: 75, c, 2iVid 81. 14-21. Direct form: Quod improviso unum pagum adortus «, cum el, qui flumen trdnsierant^ suIs auxilium ferre non possent, ndti ob eam rem aut tuae magnopere virtuti tribuere, aut nos despicere ; inos) ita a patribus maioribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virtute contenddmus quam dolo aut insidils nitdmur. Quare noli committer e ut is locus, ul)i constiterimus (future perfect), ex calamitate populi R5manl et internecione exercitus nomen capiat aut memoriam prodat. 14. Quod: 198, b. improvisS : 'suddenly.' pSgum : what canton? see chap. 12. adortus esset, translssent : 214', a- 15. suis: 'to their (countrymen).' 154, a. possent: subjunc- tive also in the direct form. 185, c. 16. rem : the 'fact' expressed by the clause Quod . . . adortus esset. magnopere : adv., takes the place of a direct object ; ' that he should not presume overmuch.' virtati: 104, b. tribueret: 216. B. 1. 14] The Campaign against the Helvetians 35 spiceret ; se ita a patribus maioribiisque siils didicisse, ut magis virtute contenderent, quant dolo aiit Insidiis nlteren- tur. Qiidre ne committeret, ut is locus, ubi constitissent, ex calamitdte populi Romdni et internecione exercitus nomen 20 caperet aut memoriam proderet. Caesar lays down conditions; the Helvetians scornfully reject them. 14. His Caesar ita respondit : Eo sibi mimis dubitdtionis dai'l, quod eds res, quds legdtt 316; A. 588, N. 2; H. 642. aut . . . aut: 2S5, a, and b. ipsos : < them,' i.e. Helvetios. 162, b. 17. ita ... ut: 197, b. maioribus : 'forefathers.' 15 J^, a. didicisse: 'had learned.' 178. ut . . . contenderent : 'to fight.' 197, a. B. 284, I ; A. 537, i ; H. 570. 18. magis: 'rather.' 35. quam [ut] niterentur : 'than to rely upon.' dolo aut insidiis: 'deceit or ambuscades.' ISl, c. B. 218,3; A. 431 ; H. 476, 3. 19. Quare : 237, a. ne oommitteret, ut is locus . . . caperet : 'he should not allow that place to take'; how lit.? committeret: cf. tribueret, 1. 16. ubi constitissent : ' where they should have taken their stand,' in order to fight the Romans. 20. internecione: 'annihilation.' exercitus: 'of an army,' i.e. Caesar's army. nomen : so the name Bloody Brook, in Massachusetts, commemorates an Indian massacre. 21. caperet: 56, and 203, (3). B. 297, i ; A. 568, N. i ; H. 571, 3. memoriam proderet: i.e. ?ne?noriam calaniitdtis poster is proderet ('transmit'). 14. I. His: legatts Helvetiorum. 104, b. 2-7. Direct form : Eo mihi minus dubitationis datur, quod eas res, quas cotnmemordvistis, memoria teneo, atque eo gravius fero, quo minus merlto populi Roman! acciderunt ; qui si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuit difficile cavere ; sed e5 deceptus est, quod neque commissum [esse] a se intellegebat, quare timeret, neque sine causa timendum [esse] putdbat. 2. Eo : 'for this reason,' explained by the following ^?^6>^-clause. 135, a, and 160, c. sibi . . . dari : ' that he had less hesitation,' lit. 'that less of hesitation is given to him.' 97, b. B. 201, 2; A. 346, a, 3; H. 442. sibi: 158, a, and IO4, a. 36 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 Helvetil contmemordssent^ memorid teneret, atque eo gravius ferre^ quo minus merito populi Romdni accidissent ; qui si salicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse difficile cavere ; sed eo deceptum, quod neque commissum d se ifttel/e- gerety qudre timerety neque sine causa timendum putdret. 3. commemorlssent : 61^^ a, (i). memoria teneret: \{ propter quod. 104, a. B. 283, 1 ; A. 535, a; H. 591, 4. timendum [esse] : impersonal, lit. ' it ought not to be feared.' 73, e. Figure 39. — Rusted Gallic swords and scabbards, found in France. 1, 14] The Campaign against the Helvetians 37 Quod SI veteris coiitiimeliae obliviscl vellet, niim etiain recentiiim iniuridrum, quod^ eo invito, iter per provinciam per vim temptdssent, quod Aedtios, quod Ambarros, quod lo Allobrogas vexdssent, nicmoriam deponere posse ? Quod sud victorid tain Insolenter gloridrentur, quodque tain diu se impune iniurids tulisse adnilrdrentur, eddent 8-1 1. Direct form : Quod sT veteris contumeliae oblivIscI void, num etiam recentium iniuriarum, quod, t}ie invItS, iter per provinciam per vim temptdvistis, quod Aeduos, quod Ambarros, quod Allobrogas vexdvistis, memoriam deponere possum ? 8. Quod: lit. 'as to which,' referring to the thought of the preced- ing sentence ; trans. ' Even.' 118, d. ^retexia: 28, b. contume- liae : ' indignity,' the destruction of Cassius's army, in 107 B.C. 103, a. B. 206, 2; A. 350, b\ H. 454. vellet: 218, (i), a. num . . . posse: 179, b, {i). 9. recentium iniuriarum: dependent on inemoriain in 1. 11 ; 'of fresh outrages,' specified in the following appositional clauses intro- duced by quod, 'that.' 198, b, and 211^, a. B. 299, i, « ; A. 572 ; H. 588, 3. eo: = Caesare; 'in despite of him,' lit. 'he (being) unwill- ing.' lU, b, (5). B. 227, I ; A. 419, a ; H. 489. 10. temptassent: 6Ji., a, (i). quod, quod: sc. vexdssent. 239, a, and 89, a. 11. Allobrogas: 19, f. depSnere : 'put aside.' 221, a. 12-17. Direct form: Quod vestrd victSria tam insolenter gloridmini, quodque tam diu vos impune iniurias tulisse admlrdmini, eodem periinet. Consuerunt enim dl immortdles, quo gravius homines ex commutatione rerum doleant, quos pr5 scelere eorum ulclscl volunt, his secundiores interdum res et diuturniorem impunitatem concedere. 12. Quod: 'The fact that'; the two clauses introduced by quod stand as subject oi pertinere. 198, b, and 214, a- s"^ victoria: 'of their victory' over the Romans under Cassius, 107 B.C. 136, a, and 5i. insolenter: 'arrogantly.' 34, a. gloriarentur : 'they were boasting.' 214, ^• 13. tam . . . tulisse: 'that they so long had kept on perpetrating wrongs without punishment.' How lit.? admirarentur : 'they marveled.' 61, a, (i). eodem pertinere: 'pointed in the same direction,' toward impending retribution for the wrongs committed by the Helvetians. 38 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 pertinere. Consuesse enint deds immortdles^ quo gravius xs homines ex commutdtione rerum doleant, quos pro scelere eorum tdclscl velint^ his secundiores interdmn res et diutumi- orem impunitdtem concedere. Cunt ea ita sinty tainen, si obsides ab els sibi dentnr, uti ea^ quae polliceanttir, fac turds intellegat, et si Aeduls de 20 iniurilSy qiids ipsis socilsque eorum intulerint, item si Allo- brogibus satisfaciant^ sese cum els p deem esse facturum. Divico respondit : Ita Helvetios d maioribus siils Institutos esse^ utt obsides 14. Consuesse: 'are wont.' 6Ui (J"> (2), and 176^ b\ also, ;?i4? ^• deos: <9, d. quo: 19S, b. B. 282, i, (7) • accurrit :' hastened.' How lit.? 6. occuparl: occupo, meaning 'seize,' 'take possession of,' is 56 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 CIS armzs atqne insignibus cognovisse. Caesar suas copias in proximum collem subducit, aciem instruit. Labienus, ut erat ei praeceptum a Caesare, ne proelium lo committeret, nisi ipsius copiae prope hostium castra visae essent, ut undique uno tempore in hostes impetus fieret, monte occupato, nostros exspectabat proelioque abstinebat. Multo denique die per exploratores Caesar cognovit, et montem a suis tenerl et Helvetios castra movisse et Con- is sidium, timore perterritum, quod non vidisset, pr5 vlso sibi renuntiavisse. Eo die, quo consuerat intervallo, hostes sequitur, et milia passuum tria ab e5rum castris castra ponit. generally much stronger than its English derivative "occupy." • 81. voluerit : 211^, a. Gallicis armis : SJfB. 7. insignibus: 'decorations,' used especially of the crests of hel- mets. Two Gallic helmets are shown in Fig. 46. 8. collem : ' hill. ' 14, b. subducit : * led up.' aciem In- struit : 'drew up a line of battle." 337, a. 9. erat ei praeceptum : ' he had been ordered ' ; lit. ' it had been ordered to him'; the subject is ne proelium committeret. 73, d, and 199s b. B. 295, i ; A. 566; H. 565. 10. nisi . . . visae essent: 218, (i),b. prope: 'near.' 122, a. 11. impetus: 'an attack.' 20, a, b. fieret: subjunctive of purpose. 12. nostros : the troops with Caesar. 154, a. proelio : 127, a. B. 214, 2; A. 401 ; H. 464. 13. Mult5 di6 : ' Late in the day ' ; ablative of time. per : 12S, a. 15. timSre: 'fear,' used especially of a cowardly fear. 11, d. perterritum : ' thoroughly frightened.' 79, b. quod : as antece- dent supply id, object of renfintiavisse. 160, c. pro vlso : ' as seen.' 1^4, <^' 17. quo consufirat interv&llo : = eo i titer valid, quo sequi cdn- Figure 46. — Gallic helmet; 1,23] The Campaign against the Helvetians 57 Caesar turns to go to Bibracte for supplies ; the Helvetians attack his marching column on the rear. y 23. Postridie eius die!, quod omnino biduum supererat, cum exercitui frumentum metlri oporteret, et quod a Bibracte, oppido Aedu5rum longe maximo et c6pi5sissimo, non amplius milibus passuum xviii aberat, rei frumentariae prospiciendum existimavit ; iter ab Helvetiis avertit acs Bibracte ire contendit. Ea res per fugitives L. Aemilii, decurionis equitum Gallorum, hostibus nuntiatur. Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Roman5s discedere a se existimarent, eo magis quod pridie, superioribus locis occupatis, proelium non lo suerat (consi^ever at), hut trans, 'at the usual interval'; this was five or six miles (chap. 15, 11. 15-16). 138, and 165, c. milia pas- suum : 118, a, and 2Ji.S, a. 23. I . Postridie eius diei : ' the next day.' dJ^, c. biduum supererat: ^two days remained.' 79, b. 2., cum: trans, freely, 'before.' 185, c. metiri : 61, a, (4). oporteret : 73, a, b. 3. Bibracte: 16, c, and Vocab. ; also Fig. 41. oppido: 91, a, and 293, b. longe: 153, b. copiosissimo : 'wealthiest.' 75, f. 4. milibus : 129, a, and 2^3, b. How many English miles ? rei frumentariae: 'the supply of grain,' or 'supplies.' 105. 5. prospiciendum [esse]: 'that he ought to provide for.' How lit. ? 73, e. 6. Bibracte: here accusative. 119, a. B. 182, \,a', A. 427, 2 ; H. 418. 7. fugitives: 'runaway slaves'; deserters from an army were called perfugae (I. 28, 1. 4). lI^,g. L. : 19, a. Lucius Aemilius was a Roman officer in charge of a squad of Gallic horsemen. decuri- onis : ' decurion.' 309, c. 9. existimarent: 183, a. B. 286, i; A. 592, 3; H. 588, II. eo magis : ' all the mor« on this account,' eo being explained by the following ^z/<7^-clause. 135, a. B. 219; A. 404; H. 475. 10. pridie: 'on the day before.' superioribus locis occu- patis : ' having seized a higher position,' referring to the exploit of Labienus with two legions (chap. 21, 11. 5-8). How lit.? IJ^I^, b, (5). 58 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 commlsissent, sive c5, quod re frumentaria intercludi posse c5nfiderent, commutato c5nsili6 atque itinere converso, nostr5s a novissimo agmine insequi ac lacessere coeperunt. Romans and Helvetians prepare for battle, the Romans on sloping groimd. The Helvetians advance. 24. Postquam id animum advertit, copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit equitatumque, qui sustinerel hostium impetum, misit. Ipse interim in coUe medio triplicem aciem Instruxit s legionum quattuor veteranarum ; atque supra se in summo iugo duas legiones, quas in Gallia citeri5re proxime c5n- 11. rg: 127, a. intercludi: 'be cut off from.' posse: sc. Romanos. 12. confiderent : 'were confident.' commutato, converso: trans. ' having changed,' ' having reversed ; ' or, ' changing,' ' reversing.' How lit. ? IH^ a, and 239, c. 13. Si: 126, c. agmine : derivation ? 74, d, and Vocab. 24. I. Postquam: 'After.' 188. id: why accusative? 113, c. 2. collem: the hill of Armecy (ar'me-ci), about 16 English miles southeast of Mt. Beuvray, the site of ancient Bibracte, and not far from the village of Montmort. See Map 3, A. sustineret : 193, a, and S28. B. 282, 2 ; A. 531, 2 ; H. 590. 4. interim : ' meanwhile,' while the cavalry were holding back the enemy ; it must have taken Caesar at least two hours to change over his marching column, which was five or six miles long, into battle lines. in coUe medio : 152, a. B. 241, i ; A. 293 ; H. 497, 4. triplicem aciem : the four legions stood side by side, with the cohorts of each legion arranged in three lines {337, a). The triple line was not straight, but followed the contour of the hillside, and was about an English mile in length ; see Map 3, B-B. 5. legionum: 98, a. veteran5rum« 'veteran.' What four legions are meant ? 507, e. supra s6 : Caesar was near the front. 8umm5: 162, a. 6. Iegi5n6s . . . cSnscripserat : the nth a\|d 12th legions; see chap. 10, 11. ID- II, and 28^. proximg : 36. 1, 24] The Campaign against the Helvetians 59 scripserat, et omnia auxilia coUocarl ac totum montem hominibus compleri, et interea sarcinas in unum locum conferri et eum ab eis, qui in superiore acie constiterant, munirl iussit. Figure 47. — Site of the battle with the Helvetians. View from the hill where Caesar's army was posted, looking toward the right. The hill on which Caesar took up his position, and the height to which the Helvetians retreated, are similar to this hill in formation and appearance, 7. auxilia: 308. ac : 'and (thus).' totum montem: 'the entire upper part ' of the hill ; see N. to chap. 2, 1. 10, ynonte lurd. 8. hominibus : 131^ b. compleri : ' be completely filled.' By occupying the gently rounding crest of the hill (cf. Fig. 47) Caesar strengthened his position in case his battle lines, posted halfway up the slope, should be forced back. interea: 'in the meantime,' while the troops were taking their positions. sarcinas : 'packs.' 330. 9. els : the two raw legions mentioned in 1. 6. 10. munirl: 'be fortified,' by a trench and a rampart formed from the eart,h thrown out of the trench. The trench, which for a part of the distance was double, has been traced by excavations ; the earthen rampart has disappeared. The line of defense thus hastily made on the highest part of the hill was semicircular in shape (Map 3, A). 60 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 Helvetii, cum omnibus suis carris secuti, impedimenta in unum locum contulerunt; ipsi, c5nfertissima acie reiecto nostro equitatu, phalange facta sub primam nostram aciem successerunt. The Romans charge, forcing the Helvetians hack. 25. Caesar, primum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu rem5tls equls, ut, aequato omnium periculo, spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus su5s proelium commisit. II. secuti: 226, c. impedimenta: 'baggage.' After the Helvetian fighting men turned back in order to attack Caesar, the long line of carts turned and came back also and formed a great corral, or laager, probably at the spot marked " Helvetian Corral " on Map 3. 74, d. 12. ipsi: the fighting men, as distinguished from the old men, women, and children with the baggage, confertissima aci6 : '■ by (their) very close forma- tion.' 131, a. reiecto: < hurled back and.' How lit.? i44, ^, (2). 13. phalange facta: the Gauls, forming in *a compact mass,' probably fifteen to twenty men deep, moved forward slowly but with almost irresistible momentum ; those in the front rank held their large shields (Fig. 48) so that these would overlap, pre- senting a firm barrier to the enemy. 18, f. sub : the Helvetians advanced uphill, and so ' up against ' the first line. 121^, a. 14. Buccessgrunt : ' pressed forward ' ; see Map Figure 48. — Gallic shield. Of wickerwqrk, with metallic boss ; about four and a half Eng- lish feet in height and twenty-five Inches wide. Shown on a life-size statue of a Gallic warrior. 3, E-E. 25. I. 8u6: sc. eqiio remold. 144y ^? (2). deinde : 237, b. omnium equis : ' the horses of all ' the mounted officers and Caesar's staff, not of the cavalry. According to Plutarch Caesar said that after he had won the victory he should need the horse for the pursuit of the enemy. 2. aequato: 'by equalizing.' i^^ '^< (6). 3. tolleret: 196, a. cohortatus: 'having harangued,' or ' harangued and.' It was customary for Roman commanders to address their soldiers just before going into action. 228, a. MAP 3 The Batixe with the Helvetians Book I, 24-26 To face page 60 SCALE OF ROMAN MILES SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 0J1§2 il h 2 EXPLANATION On the day before the battle the Helvetians probably crossed the Arroux at Toulon and encamped near Montmort ; a part of the site of the camp is now covered by a pond. Caesar, following, encamped near the Arroux. A. Semicircular trench hastily dug by the XD'^ and XH^^^ legions on the hill (chap. 24, 11. 5-10). B-B. The four veteran legions in battle order, three lines, first position. C-C. First and second Roman lines, second position (chap. 25, 11. 21-23). D. Third Roman line, second position, facing the Boians and Tulingians. EJ-E. First position of the Helvetians (chap. 24, 11. 12-14). F-F. Second position of the Helvetians, on a height (chap. 25, 11. 12-15). Gr-6. Third position of the Helvetians, resuming the attack (chap. 25, 11. 18-20). H. Boians and Tulingians (chap. 25, 11. 15-18). 1,25] The Campaign against the Helvetians 61 Milites, e loco siiperidre pilis missis, facile hostium phalangem perfregerunt. Ea disiecta, gladiis destrictis in 5 eos impetum fecerunt- Gallls magno ad pugnam erat impedimento, quod, pluribus eorum scutis uno ictu pilorum transfixis et colligatis, cum ferrum se inflexisset, neque evellere neque, sinistra impedita, satis commode pugnare poterant, multi ut, diu iactat5 brae- 10 4. pilis missis : ' hurling their pikes,' with precision and terrible effect, ^ from their higher position ' on the slope. 322, d, and 144i b, (6). 5. perfregerunt: 'broke up.' Ea . . . destrictis: < Having thrown this (formation) into disorder they drew their swords and.' How lit.? 322, {e). 6. impetum fecerunt : 'charged.' The first-line soldiers probably allowed the Helvetians to approach within 60 feet before hurling their pikes and charging. 7. Gallis . . . impedimento : ' a great hindrance ' (lit. ' for a great hindrance '), ' to the Gauls.' 112, b. B. 191, 2, ^ ; A. 382, i ; H. 433. ad pugnam : ' in fighting.' erat : the subject is the following ^7^(?^-clause. 198, b. 8. scutis: 'shields' (Fig. 48). uno ictu pilorum: 'by the blow of a single pike,' we should say. 92, a. transfixis et colli- gatis : ' pierced and pinned together.' lJf.1^, b, (2). 9. ferrum: the 'iron' of the pike {322, d) was long enough to pierce two or more overlapping shields, and was of soft metal, so that it Figure 49. — The " iron " of a pike. The pike was carried by one of Caesar's soldiers, and the iron was bent in action ; it was found at Alesia. The length is 22| inches, including the barbed point. would bend easily; the hard barbed point also hindered withdrawal (Fig. 49). se inflexisset: ' had become bent.' 185, c. 6vellere : ' to pull (it) out.' sinistra impedita : ' since the left hand,' which carried the shield, 'was hampered.' 144, b, (3). 10. satis commode: 'to advantage.' How lit.? multi: em- phatic position ; subject of praeoptdrent. 353, d. ut : ' so that.' iactato bracchio : ' having jerked their arms back and forth ' in the effort to pull the bent pike iron out of their shields. How lit.? 62 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 chio, praeoptarent scutum manu emittere, at nudo corpore pugnare. Tandem vulneribus defessi, et pedem referre et, quod m5ns suberat circiter mille passuum spatio, eo se recipere coeperunt. 5 Capto monte et succedentibus nostrls, Boii et Tulingi, qui hominum milibus circiter xv agmen hostium claude- bant et novissimis praesidi5 erant, ex itinere nostrds ab 11. praeoptarent: 'preferred.' manH : 127, a. Smittere : *to drop.' nudo: 'unprotected' by a shield. corpore: 13, f. and lU, b, (7). 12. vulneribus: 13, e, and 135, a. defessi: 'exhausted.' pedem referre : ' to fall back.' 69, b, and 75, d. 13. mons suberat: 'there was a height near by,' southwest of the hill of Armecy; see Map 3. 66, a. mille : 38, a. spatio: 'at a distance.' llff, c. eo : adverb. s6 recipere: 'to retreat.' 15. Capto : ' reached,' i.e. by the Helvetians ; Map 3, F-P. 144, b, (2). Boii et Tulingi: see chap. 5, 11. 10-14. 16. hominum : 91, a. milibus : 131, a. agmen hostium claudSbant : 'were at the end of the enemy's marching column.' 17. novissimis {— novissimo agmini), praesidio : 112, b. B. 191, 2, «; A. 382, I ; H. 433. ex itinere: 'directly after march- ing,' changing from marching order to fighting order as they came up. In the morning as the long column of emigrants started out. the 15,000 Boians and Tulingians formed the vanguard. When the order passed along the column to halt and turn back (chap. 23, 1. 12), they became the rearguard, and were several miles away when the battle commenced. As the host of non-combatants were forming a corral with the carts, they marched by it and reached the field of battle just as the Romans were following the retreating Helvetians. ab latere aperto : ' on the exposed flank.' 126, c. Since the shield was carried on the left arm, ' the exposed side ' of the soldier was the right side, whence the expression was carried over to a body of soldiers in action. In the present instance, the three Roman lines, still retaining, in the confusion of battle, their distinct formation, were following the stubbornly resisting Helvetians toward the southwest from their original position, when the Boians and Tulingians came against them from the west, thus 'attack- ing ' the Romans on the right flank. See Map 3, H. I, 26] The Campaign against the Helvetians 63 latere aperto aggressi circumvenire ; et, id conspicati, Hel- vetii, qui in montem sese receperant, rursus instare et proelium redintegrare coeperunt. Roman! conversa signa bipertito intulerunt; prima et secunda acies, ut victis ac summotis resisteret, tertia, ut venientes sustineret. The Helvetians are totally defeated. Caesar pursues thejleeing. 26. Ita ancipiti proelio diu atque acriter pugnatum est. Diutius cum sustinere nostrorum impetus non possent, 1 8. circumvenire : ' to move around them,' so as to fall upon the Romans in the rear; sc. <: (Map 3, C-C). 228^ «, an<^^ S25. / 22. victis ac summOftis : 'those who had been beaten Figure 50. — Roman pike irons, found at and driven back.' 154, cl and Alesia. 227, a, (4). tertia: 4c. acies. 91, c. 26. I. ancipiti proleiio : 'in two battles,' we should say. How lit.? 131, a. anciikiti: 26, b. diu: S5. acriter: 3^, a. pugnatum est : 75, d. j 2. possent: sc. /losjtes. 185, c. B. 288, i, b; A. 546; H. 600, n. 64 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 alter! se, ut coeperant, in montem receperunt, alterl ad impediments, et carr5s su5s se contulerunt. Nam hoc toto 5 proelio, cum ab hora septima ad vesperum pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit. Ad multam noctem etiam ad impedimenta pugnatum est, propterea quod pro vallo carr5s obiecerant et e loco superiore in nostros venientes tela coniciebant, et non null! lo inter carros rotasque mataras ac tragulas subiciebant nostrosque vulnerabant. Diu cum esset pugnatum, im- 3. alteri, alter! : 'the combatants on one side' (i.e. Helvetit)^ * those on the other ' {Boil et Tulingi). How lit. ? 91^ c^ and 15 J^ a. 4. carros: arranged for defense around the corral (Map 3). Cf. chap. 3, 1. 3 and N. s6 contulgrunt : 'retired,' still fighting; there was no disorderly rout. Nam : 237, a. 5. proelio: i47, <^. cum: 'although.' 187. hora: 21^2, a. vesperum : ' evening.' 7, b. 6. aversum : ' turned to flight.' Caesar speaks with evident admi- ration of the bravery of the enemy. nemo : 12, d. 7. Ad multam noctem : ' Until late at* night.' 17, b, and 152, a. ad: here 'at,'u*- 'by.' 8. pro v5116 carros obiScerant : 'had made a rampart of the .. carts' (Fig. 51). How lit.? y / / / / / loco superiore : the top of /7 /f r-/ /^ r>/ / *^^ carts. /?^ ^^ W^ W M W3 ^^/^ 9" ^O'^iciSbant : 'kept // S#-^-- -^^C^ hurling.' 175, a. ^^""' ~--, 10. rotas : 'wheels.' These Figure 51. - Carts about a corral. '^ "^^"^ ^^^^^ ^^*"^ doubtless ^ , J , solid disks of wood, which Arrangement of two-wheeled carts to form a p rampart for defense about an encampment. ^0»ian weapons would not pierc<3. matarSs ac tr&gu- laa: 'spears and darts.' 349, and Fig. 40. subiciSbant: notice the force of sub-, ' kept throwing from below ' as the Roman soldiers attacked the rampart of carts. II. vulnerabant :' were wounding.' The^e must have been moon- light, or at least clear starlight, else the Gaul, could not have aimed their weapons so well. I, 26] The Campaign against the Helvetians 65 pedimentis castrisque nostri potiti sunt. Ibi Orgetorigis filia atque Onus e filiis captus est. Ex e5 proelio circiter hominum milia cxxx superfuerunt eaque tota nocte continenter ierunt ; nullam partem noctis is itinere intermisso, in fines Lingonum die quarto perve- nerunt, cum et propter vulnera mllitum et propter sepul- turam occisorum nostri, triduum morati, eos sequi non potuissent. Caesar ad Lingonas litteras nuntiosque misit, ne eos fru- 20 12. castris : * encampment,' i.e. the corral. 131, c. B. 218, i ; A. 410 ; H. 477. Here were the old men, the women, and the children, of whom a large number were immediately slaughtered. 13. e filiis: trans, as if/f//^r«/??. 97, d. captus est : 172, b. 14. CXXX : centum trlgintd. 86, and 38, b. 15. nocte: 147, c. igrunt: 68, a. partem: 118, a. 16. intermisso: 'breaking.' How lit.? As the survivors seem- ingly traveled at night only during the first night, the thought in nfdlam . . . intermisso is substan- tially the same as that in ea . . . ierunt ; such repetitions are characteristic of dictated matter. 275. fines Lin- gonum : more than fifty miles north of the battlefield. 17. cum: 184f a. vul- nera mllitum : the victory must have cost the Romans dearly. Roman soldiers car- ing for wounded companions are shown in Fig. 52. se- pulturam : ' burial.' 18. occisorum: 'the slain,' chiefly Gauls. 154, a. Figure 52. — Care of the wounded. At the left a legionary, seriously wounded, sits on a rock and two comrades are helping him to get up. At the right another sits while his companion binds up a wound on his leg. Ancient relief. The number of Gauls that perished in this battle has been estimated by some as high as 100,000, or even higher. Prompt burial was necessary for the health of the friendly Aeduans, in whose country Caesar was. triduum : ' three days.' 20. Lingonas : 19, f. litteras : <■ letters,' nuntios : ' mes- 66 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 58 mento neve alia re iuvdrent ; qui si ifivissent, se eddcm loco, quo HelvetioSy habiturum. Ipse, triduo intermisso, cum omnibus copiis eos sequi coepit. The, Helvetmns beg for terms; one division tries to escxvpe. 27. Helvetii, omnium rerum inopia adducti, legates de deditione ad eum miserunt. Qui cum eum in itinera con- venissent seque ad pedes proiecissent suppliciterque locutl flentes pacem petlssent/atque eos in e5 loc5, quo turn 5 essent, suum adventum exspectare iussisset, paruerunt. E5 postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides, arma, servos, qui ad eos perfugissent, poposcit. Dum ea conquiruntur et c5nferuntur, circiter hominum milia vi eius pagi, qui Verbigenus appellatur, sive timore perterriti, ne, armis sages,' to be delivered orally. n6 : * (saying) that they should not.' 213, by and 212, a, eos : trans, as if Helvetios. 21. iuvarent: 'supply,' ht. 'aid.' 216. B. 316; A. 588; H. 642, 4. qui: 167. iuvissent : sc. eos, = Helvetios. 218, (i), b. b6 . . . habiturum : in full, se eos (= Lingonas) eodem loco, quo Hel- vetios haberet, habiturum esse, but trans. * he would consider them in the same light as the Helvetians.' lJi5, c. 27. 1. inopiSl: 'lack.' Why ablative ? IggStos : 'envoys.' 2. deditione: 'surrender.' Qui: 167. convgnissent : 113, b. 3. 86 proiScissent : ' had prostrated themselves.' suppliciter : 'in suppliant fashion.' 4. flentgs : 227, b. eos : = Helvetios, not legdtos. 5. essent: See N. to vellent, chap. 28, 1. 2. iussisset: 185y c, and 200, b. parugrunt : ' they obeyed.' 6. postquam: 188, a. servSs : 'slaves.' qui perfugissent: ' who (as he said) had fled.' 214, b. 7. poposcit: 'he demanded.' ea : comprising obsides, arma, {fugitivos) servos of 1. 6; neuter plural under the same rule of agree- ment as predicate adjectives. 160, b. conquiruntur : ' were being sought for.' Why present? 190, a. 8. cSnferuntur : 69, b. VI : = sex. 36. 9. perterriti: with wf/m. 150, c, (2). 1. 28] The Campaign against the Helvetians 67 traditis, supplicio afficerentur, sive spe salutis inducti, quod lo in tanta multitudine dediticiorum suam fugam aut occultari aut omnino ignorari posse existimarent, prima nocte e castris Helvetiorum egressi ad Rhenum finesque Germanorum contenderunt. Caesar deals with the fugitive Verbigens, and sends the rest (except- ing the Boians) back to the country whence they migrated. 28. Quod ubi Caesar resciit, quorum per fines ierant, his, uti conqulrerent et reducerent, si sibi purgati esse vellent, im- peravit; reductosin hostium numer5habuit; reliquosomnes, obsidibus, armis, perfugis traditis, in deditionem accepit. Helvetios, Tulingos, Latobrigos in fines suos, unde erant^ profecti, reverti iussit ; et, quod, omnibus frugibus amissis, 10. salutis: 'of safety.' 10, f. 11. in tanta multitudine: i.e. ami (^since') tanta multitildd dediticiorum esset. dediticiorum : ' of those who had surrendered.' occultari : ' be kept hidden.' 12. ignorari: 'remain unnoticed.' How lit.? existimarent: 18S, b. prima: 152, a. 28. I . Quod . . . resciit : ' Now when Caesar found this out,' referring to the flight of the Verbigens. 167. ubi:15<9, ^. quo- rum': precedes its antecedent his, which is in the dative after itn^era- vit. 106. 2. rediicerent: 'bring (them) back.' 199, a. sibi: 'in his sight.' 109, a. B. i88, i, n. ; A. 376; H. 425,4- purgati: 'free from guilt.' How lit.? 221, b. B. 328, 2 ; H. 612, i. vellent : in indirect discourse as a part of the order ; in the direct form, st vultis. 71 . 3. reductos : sc. eos, 'after they had been brought back.' How lit.? 227, a, (4). in hostium numero : 'as enemies' The 6000 Verbigens were probably massacred, as a terrible warning ; but they may have been sold into slavery. reliquos : 171, a. 4. perfugis: 'deserters.' accepit: 57, a. 5. suos: 157, b. unde: = e quibus. erant prof ecti : 61, a, (3). 6. frugibus amissis : ' since all the produce of the fields was gone ' ; no crops had been planted this season. How lit.? 144yb,{i). 68 Caesar*s Gallic War (B.C. 58 domi nihil erat, quo famem tolerarent, Allobrogibus impera- vit, ut els frumenti copiam facerent ; ipsos oppida vlcosque, quos incenderant, restituere iussit. lo Id ea maxime rati5ne fecit, quod noluit, eum locum, unde Helvetil discesserant, vacare, ne propter bonitatem agrorum German!, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, e suis finibus in Helvetiorum fines translrent et finitimi Galliae provinciae Allobrogibusque essent. 15 Boios, petentibus Aeduis, quod egregia virtute erant cogniti, ut in finibus suis collocarent, concessit ; quibus iili agros dederunt, quosque postea in parem iuris libertatisque condicionem, atque ipsi erant, receperunt. 7. domi: i.e. in their own country. 1^6. erat: sc. eis. famem: 'hunger.' 15, b. tolerarent: 'satisfy.' 194, a. 8. facerent: 'furnish.' Why subjunctive? oppida, vicos : how many? See chap. 5, 11. 3-4. 9. quos: 163, c. incenderant: when? See chap. 5. 10. eS maximS ratione : 'especially for this reason.' 161, a. noluit: 71, and 223, a. unde: =e qjto. 11. vacSre : 'remain unoccupied.' bonitatem: 'good quality.' 76, a. 13. trSnsTrent : 196, a. As the Helvetians were now reduced to about one third of their former number, much of their land must have been left unoccupied, and was probably soon seized upon by German immigrants. provinciae : 290. The northernmost part of the Province was held by the Allobroges ; see Map i . 15. Boios: emphatic position; Aeduis (dative after concessit), petentibus ut Boios in finibus suis collocarent, quod {Boil) eg}egid virtate cogniti erant, {Caesar) concessit. The Aeduans, hard pressed in their strifes with the Sequanians, desired an accession of strength. 353, d. virtute : 1J^3, a. 16. collocarent: 199, a. concessit: ' he granted ' the request, quibus : trans, as if et eis. 167. 17. quosque: = et eos. postea: after the great uprising in Gaul, narrated in Book VII. parem . . . atque: 'the same' (lit. 'like') *as.' 833, c. B. 341, i, c; A. 324, c; H. 657, i, n. I, 29] The Campaign against the Helvetians 69 The number of the Helvetians and their allies. 29. In castris Helvetiorum tabulae repertae sunt, litterls Graecis c5nfectae, et ad Caesarem relatae, quibus in tabulls nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui numerus domo exisset eorum, qui arma ferre possent, et item separatim pueri, senes mulieresque. Quarum omnium rerum summa erats capitum Helvetiorum milia cclxiii, Tulingorum milia xxxvi, Latobrigorum xiiii, Rauracorum xxiii, Boiorum xxxii ; ex his, qui arma ferre possent, ad milia nonaginta duo. 29. I. castris: the corral, indicated on Map 3. tabulae: ' tablets,' such as those generally used for business documents (Fig. 53). These were of light-colored wood, and made with a rim like that of a slate. The surface inside the rim was coated with a thin layer of wax, on which writing was done with a pointed stilus. The writing appeared on the wood, which showed through wherever the stilus pene- trated the wax. litterls Graecis confectae : ' written in Greek characters,' which were used also by the Druids (VI. 14). On account of the antiquity of Massilia {293, a), the Greek alphabet must have become familiar to the in- habitants of southern Gaul at an early date. 2. relatae : sc. sunt. 69, b. tabulis : 165, a. ratio : 130, b. 'chil- lU c. f^ n 1 ! ! « 1 ■; 0. 1 1 I m 1 ^j N h 3. nominatim : 'by name.' 77. 'statement.' qui: 48, b. domo exisset : 68, b, and 204, (2) • 4. possent: 194, a. pueri dren.' 7, a. 5. senes: 18, b. mulieres Quarum: 167. rerum: 'items,' here Figure 53. -Writing tablets used of persons ; Caesar was thinking of the numbers rather than the personality. summa: * the aggregate.' 6. capitum Helvetiorum : trans, as if Helvetiortwi ; we say " so many head" of stock, not of human beings. CCLxm : ducenta sexdginta tria. 37, b, and d, and 38, b. XXXVI, etc. : read in the Latin. 36, and 37, b. 8. qui, etc. : i.e. ei, qui arma ferre possent {19 4-, a), erant, etc. ad : adverb, ' approximately.' The four tablets contain six pages for writing, in addition to tile two outside covers. 70 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 Summa omnium fuerunt ad milia ccclxviii. lo Eorum, qui, domum redierunt, censu habito, ut Caesar imperaverat, repertus est numerus milium c et x. The Campaign against Ariovistus. 30-54 The Gallic leaders congratulate Caesar, request a conference. 30. Bello Helveti5rum conf ecto, tdtius fere Galliae legatl, principes civitatum, ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt : Intellegere sese, tarnetsl pro veteribus Helvetidriim iniuriis popiill Romdni ab his po ends bello I'epetisset^ tameti earn rent 5 non minus ex usu terrae Galliae quant popull Romdni acci- disse, proptered quod eo cdnsilioy florentissimis rebus ^ domos 9. fugrunt : plural on account of the influence of the predicate noun milia. 173, b. ad: adverb modifying ccclxviii (Jrecenta duode- septudgintd) . ID. domum: 119, b. redigrunt : 'returned/ 68, b. cgnsu : *a census.' 80, b. How many of the Helvetian host failed to return? 30. I. Galliae : Celtic Gaul. 287, b. 2. principSs : 10, b. civitStum : 10, f, and 288, a, and b. gratulatum : 231, a. 3-1 1. Direct form : Tntellegimtis, tametsT pro veteribus Helvetiorum iniuriis populT Roman! ab his poenas bello repetierls, tamen earn rem non minus ex usu terrae GaUiae quam populT Roman! accidisse, propterea quod eo consilio, fl6rentissim!s rebus, dom5s suas Helveti! rellquerunt, ut! tot! Galliae helium Inferrent, etc. 3. Intellegere s6s6, tametsi : '(Saying) that they understood that, although.' 212, a, b, and c, (i); also .^i^, b. iniuriis: with two genitives, Helvetiorum (95) and populi (102) ; trans. ' wrongs done to the Roman people by the Helvetians.' 4. poen&s : ' punishment.' 92, a. repetisset : = repetivisset, 'had exacted.' 61^, a, (3), and 211^, a. rem : ' achievement.' 5. ex Clsu terrae: *to the advantage of the country.' How lit.? accidisse : ' had turned out.' 6. e6 consilio: 'with this (lesign,' explained by the following ////-clause. 138. florentissimis rgbus : 'though their circum- Plate II Officers, Standard-bearers, and Musicians I. Commander, imperator. 2. Lieutenant-general, legatus. 3. Centurion, centurio. 4. Lictor. 5. Standard-bearers, signiferi. 6. Eagle-bearer, aquilifer. 7. Trumpeter, tubicen. 8. Hornblower, cornicen. 9. Eagle, aquila. lo. Banner, vexillum. I. 30] The Campaign against Ariovistus 71 suds Helvetil reliquissent^ iitl tdtl Galliae belliim inferrent imperioque potirentur, locumque domicilio ex magna copid deligerenty quern ex omnl Gallia opportunissimum ac fruc- tuosissimum iudicdssent, reliqudsque clvitdtes stipendidrids lo haberent. Petierunt, uti sibi concilium totius Galliae in diem certam indicere idque Caesaris voluntate facere liceret ; sese habere qudsdam reSj quds ex communl consensu ab eo petere vel- lent. Ea re permissa, diem concilio constituerunt et iure 15 iurando, ne quis enuntiaret, nisi quibus communl c6nsili5 mandatum esset, inter se sanxerunt. (Fig. 54). lU, b, (5), and A. 531 ; H. 568. Figure 54. — Helvetian coin. Reverse, boar. In- NINNO, probably a Silver scription, name. stances were exceedingly prosperous 153, a. domos : 20, c. 7. uti . . . haberent : 196, a, B. 282, i 8. imperio: 74, (^, and /5i, <;. domi- cilio: '■ for habitation.' 112, a. B. 191, i ; A. 382; H. 425, 3. copia: sc. locoruin. 9. opportunissimum : ' the most suit- able.' friictuosissimum : ' the most pro- ductive.' 75, f. 10. iudicassent : 61^, a, (i). sti- pendiS.rias : predicative, * tributary (to them).' 115, b. 12. Petigrunt, uti sibi . . . licgret : ' they asked permission.' How lit. ? sibi : plural ; after liceret. in: 'for.' 13. indicere: < to appoint.' 222, a. id: 160, c. 138. licgret : 73, b. sese habere : 213, b. 14. ex communl consensu: 'in accordance with a general un- derstanding.' ab eo : 116, b. 15. permissa: 'granted.' iure iurando: 13, h. 16. ng quis: 'that no one. How lit.? 49, a, and 168. gnun- tiaret: 'should make known (its proceedings).' nisi quibus: i.e. nisi ut ei enilntidrent, quibus . . . mandatum esset (impersonal), ' except those to whom the task should have been assigned.' 73, d. 17. inter sg sanxerunt: 'they mutually bound themselves.' 159. 105. voluntate : 72 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 In secret session they beseech Caesar to defend Gaul against Ariovistus, Diviciacus stating their case. 31. Eo concili5 dimisso, idem principes civitatum, qui ante fuerant, ad Caesarem reverterunt petieruntque, ut sibi secreto,.in occult5, de sua omniumque salute cum e5 agere liceret. Ea re impetrata, sese omnes flentes Caesari ad 5 pedes proiecerunt : Non minus se id contendere et labdrdre, ne ea, quae dlxissent^ enuntidrentiir, qiiam tUi ea, quae vcllent, impctrdrenty proptered quod, si enuntidtum esset, summum in crucidtum se vent tiros viderent. Locutus est pro his Diviciacus Aeduus : 31. I. concilio: where the council of the leading men of Celtic Gaul was held we are not informed ; perhaps at Bibracte. idem : = eldem. 1^5. 2. fuerant: i.e. with Caesar. petigrunt . . . licgret : as in chap. 30, 1. 12. 3. sScrSto : 'privately,^ as a protection against betrayal. in oc- culto : ^in a secret place,' as a precaution against spies. cum eo : 127, c. agere : ' to confer.' 4. flentes : 227, b. Caesari : trans, as if Caesaris. 109, a. B. 188, i,N.; A. 377; H. 425, 4, N. 5-8. Direct form : Non minus id contendimus et labor dm us, ne ea, quae dtxerlnius, enuntientur, quam uti ea, quae vellmus {226), impetremus, prop- terea quod, si enuntiatum erit, summum in cruciatum nos venturos (esse) vidimus. 5. N6u . . . vidSrent: 213, b. s6 id contendere et labd- rSre : ' that they strove and toiled (for) this/ explained by the follow- ing ;/. 2i'&\i Sequanorum. dioione : 'sway.' 29-33- Direct form : Unus ego sum, ex omni cTvitate Aedu5rum, qui ad- duci n5n potuerhn {194, ^)> ut ifirdrem (*to take the oath'; 199, a) aut Kberos r?ieds obsides {115, a) daretn, Ob earn rem ex civitate profiigi, et Romam ad senatum venT auxilium postulatum, quod solus neque iure iurandS neque obsidibus tetiebar. 29. Unum se esse : ' That he (Diviciacus) was the only one.' 31. profugisse: 'had fled.' Romam: 119, a. At Rome Diviciacus met Cicero, who was much interested in him and in what he had to say about nature ; for Diviciacus was a Druid, and the Druids professed knowledge of the Universe (VI. 14). 32. postulatum: 'to demand'; a strong word, justified by the urgency of the cause and the friendly relations between the Aeduan state and Rome. 231, a, and b. 34-44. Direct form: Sed peius victoribus Sequanls quam Aeduis victTs accidit, propterea quod Ariovistus, rex Germanorum, in eorum finibus consedit {183, a), tertiamque partem agri Sequani, qui ^j/optimus totlus Galliae, occupa- vit ; et nunc de altera parte tertia Sequanos decedere iubet, propterea quod, panels mensibus ante, Flarudum milia hominum XXiiii ad eum venerunt, • quibus locus ac sedes parentur. Paucis annis omnes ex Galliae finibus pellen- tur, atque omnes German! Rhenum trdnslbunt ; neque enim confer endus est Gallicus {ager) cum Germanorum agro, neque haec consuetudo victus cum ilia comparanda {est). 34. peius : ' a worse fate.' 154, ^, and 32. victoribus : here an adjective, 'victorious.' victoribus . . . victis : 239, c. 76 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 isdisse, proptered quod Ariovisttis, rex Germdnorum, in eorum ftnibus consedisset tertiamqiie partem agri Seqiianl^ qui esset optimus totliis Galliae^ occupdvissetj et nunc de altera parte tertid Sequanos decedere iuberety proptered quod, paucts mensibus ante, Harudicm mllia hominnm xxiiii ad eum ve- x^nissent, quibiis locus ac sedes pardrentur. Futurum esse Figure 56. — View across the Rhine valley, in Alsace. From the site of Ariovistus's camp, Zellenberg (Map 4), looking east toward Ostheim. In the distance the hills east of the Rhine are visible. 35. rex: 91, a. Germ^norum : apparently Swabians (chap. 37, I. 6). Ariovistus probably crossed the Rhine as early as 72 or 71 B.C. 37. occupavisset : ' had seized,' in the rich level country west of the Rhine, in modern Alsace. altera parte tertia : * a seconr . third-part.' 38. dgcgdere : ' to withdraw.' 200, b. 39. mgnsibus: 11^0. B. 223 ; H. 488, i. Hartidum : 19, e. 40. locus ac aSdSs: 'places of habitation.' How lit.? 15, b. parSrentur: 'were to be provided.' 193, a. Futtirum esse: 'it would come about' ; the subject is the following «/f -clause. 203, (i). I, 31] The Campaign against Ariovistus 77 panels annls, nil onines ex Galliae flnibns pellerentiir atqiie omnes Germdni Rhenum trdnsirent ; Jieqne enim eonferen- dum esse Gallicum cum Germdnoriim agro, neque hanc consiietudinem victus cum ilia comparandam. Ariovistum autemy ut seme I Gallorum copids p7'oelid vi- 45 cerity quod proelium factum sit Admagetobrigae ^ superbe et crudeliter imperdre^ obsides nobilissimi cuiusque llberos poscere, et in eos omnia exempla crucidtusque edere, si qua 41. annis : lJi.7, a. omnes: sc. Galli. 43. conferendum esse : 229^ c. Gallicum : sc. agrum. Caesar means that the land in Gaul is incomparably better than that in Ger- many ; we usually state such comparisons in the opposite way. 44. consuetudinem victus: 'standard of living.' ilia: 'that (of the Germans).' The civilization of the Gauls was at this time far superior. comparandam : 89, c. 45-55. Direct form : Ariovistus autem, ut semel Gallorum copias proelio vicit, quod proelium factum est Admagetobrigae, superbe et crudeliter im- perat, obsides nobilissimi cuiusque llberos poscit, et in eos omnia exempla cruciatusque edit, si qua res non ad nutum aut ad voluntatem eius facta est. Homo est barbarus, trdcundus, temerdrius ; non />ossunt tias imperia diutius sustinerl. Nisi quid in te populoque Romano e?'it auxilii, omnibus Gallls idem est faciendum, quod Hulvetu fecerunt, ut domo emigrent, aliud domici- lium, alias sedes, remStas a Germanis, petant, fortunamque, quaecumque accidat, experiantur. 45. Gallorum : the Aeduans and their allies. vicerit, imperare, etc. : representing perfects and presents in the direct form, used for vividness ; the pluperfect and perfect or imperfect in the direct form might have been expected, and in translation past tenses should be used. 46. quod proelium: 'a. battle which.' 165, a. Admageto- brigae: according to the probable meaning of the Gallic name, 'at the stronghold of Admagetos ' ; where the place was we do not know. The battle was perhaps fought in 61 or 60 B.C. llfi. superbe et crudeliter: 'with arrogance and cruelty.' 47. nobilissimi cuiusque: 'of every man of rank.' 170, a. B. 252, 5, c\ A. 313, b\ H. 515, 2. 48. in: 'upon.' exempla: 'kinds of punishment,' as warning examples to others. cruciatus : ' tortures,' as indicating one kind of punishment resorted to by Ariovistus. edere : ' inflicted.' qua: ^5, a, and 168. 78 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 res non ad nutiim ant ad voluntdtem eiiis facta sit. Honti- 50 nem esse barbariim, Irdciindum^ temerdrium ; non posse eins imperia diutius sustinerl. Nisi quid in Caesare populoque Romdno sit auxilizy omnibus Gallls idem esse faciendum ^ quod Helvetit fecerint, ut do mo emigrent, a Hud domiciliumy alias sides y remotds d GermdniSy petant^ fortunamque, quae- ss cumque accidat^ experiantur. Haec SI enuntidta Ariovisto sinty non dubitdre, qufn de omnibus obsidibuSy qui apud eum sinty gravissimum suppli- cium sumat. Caesaremy vel auctoritdte sud at que exercituSy vel recentl victorid, vel nomine populi Romdniy deterrere 60 posse y ne maior m,ultitudd Germdnorum Rhenum trdducdtury Galliamque omnem ab Ariovisti iniurid posse defendere. 49. ad nutum : ' at his beck,' at the slightest intimation of his desires. 50. iracundum: * quick-tempered.' temerSrium : 'reckless.' 52. quid — auzilii: 'some help.' 97, b, Gallis, etc.: *all the Celts would have to do the same thing.' 110, and 229, c. B. 189, I ; A. 374; H. 431. idem: subject oi faciendum esse, explained by the appositive clause jit . . . experiantur . 203, (4). 53. domo : 130, d. §migreiit : 'migrate.' 54. quaecumque : indefinite relative ; trans. ' endure whatever fortune might befall them.' 60, a. 56-61. Direct form: Haec sT envintiata Ariovisto erunt, n5n dubito, quin de omnibus obsidibus, qui apud eum sint, gravissinium supplicium sumat. Tii, vel auctoritate tud atque exercitus, vel recenti victoria, vel nomine populi Roman!, deterrere potes, ne maior multitudo Germanorum Rhenum traduca- tur, Galliamque omnem ab Ariovisti Iniuria potes defendere. 56. Haec : the utterances at the conference, and appeal to Caesar, non dubit&re : sc. se, 'he (Diviciacus) had no doubt.' quia . . . sumat: ' that he (Ariovistus) would inflict.' 201, c. B. 298; A. 558, rf; H. 595, I. d6: 'upon.' 58. exercitus : ' (that) of his army.' 157, d. 59. deterrSre nS, etc. : 'prevent^ a larger host of Germans from being brought across the Rhine.' How lit.? 201, a. 60. RhSnum: why accusative? 114,t). B. 179,3; A. 395, N. 2 ; H.413. 61. Galliam: as in 1. 10. Ariovisti: 95. 1. 32] The Campaign against Ariovistus 79 Tlie lot of the Sequanians, showing what might happen to all. 32. Hac 5rati5ne ab Diviciaco habita, omnes, qui ade- rant, magn5 fletu auxilium a Caesare petere coeperunt. Animadvertit Caesar, unos ex omnibus Sequanos nihil earum rerum facere, quas ceteri facerent, sed tristes, capite demisso, terram intueri. Eius rei quae causa esset, miratus, 5 ex ipsis quaesiit. Nihil Sequani respondere, sed in eadem tristitia taciti permanere. Cum ab his saepius quaereret, neque ullam ommn5 vocem exprimere posset, idem Diviciacus Aeduus respondit : Hdc esse miseriorem et graviorem fortunam Sequanorunt 10 32. 2. fletu: 'weeping.' Shedding of tears by men was much more common among the Gauls and Romans than among us. 3. unos: 'alone.' 23^ a. nihil: 'none.' How lit.? 4. ceteri: 171, a. facerent: 214, a, and 213, a. tristes: 'disconsolately.' 151. capite demisso: 'with bowed heads.' How lit.? lU, b, (7). 5. intugri: 'looked upon.' quae: J^S, b. esset: 201^, (2). miratus: 226, c. 6. quaesiit: 116, c. respondere, permanere: 'answered,' 'remained.' 182. 7. tristitia: 'state of dejection.' taciti: 'silent.' I48, c, 8. saepius: ' again and again.' How lit. ? 153, a: quaereret: 185, c, and 116, c. neque : = et non. 233, a. vocem : ' utter- ance.' 10, c. 9. exprimere : ' to force out.' Aeduus : an Aeduan is now speaking for the Sequanians, who were formerly bitter enemies of the Aeduans. 10-16. Direct form: Yioz est miser ior ^\. gravior fortuna Sequanorum quam reliquorum, quod soli ne in occulto quidem querl neque auxilium im- plSrare audent, absentisque Ariovisti crudelitatem, velut si coram adsU, horrent^ propterea quod reliquls tamen fugae facultas datur, Sequanis vero, qui Intra fines suos Ariovistum receperunt, quorum oppida omnia in potestate eius sunt, omnes cruciatus sunt perferendT. 10. Hoc : ' On this account,' explained by the following quod-&3M%^. 135, a. miseriorem: ' more wretched.' 22, d. 80 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 qiiam reliquoriim, quod soli ne in occulto quidem qiieri neque auxilmm implordre auderent, absentisque Ariovisti crudeli- tdUniy velut si coram adesset^ horrerent, proptered quod reliquis tamen fugae facultds daretur, Sequanis vero^ qui :s intra fines suds Ariovistum recepissent, quorum oppida omnia in potestdte eius essenty omnes crucidtus essent perferendi. Caesar, for reasons of state, promises his help against Ariovistus. 33. His rebus cognitis, Caesar Gallorum animos verbis confirmavit pollicitusque est, sibi earn rem curae f uturam ; magnam se habere spem, et beneficid sud et auctoritdtc adduc- turn Ariovistum finem iniiiriis facturum. Hac oratione 5 habita, concilium dimisit. Et secundum ea multae res eum hortabantur, quare sibi 11. nS . . . quidem: 237, c. B. 347; H. 656, 2. 12. audSrent: 62. absentis : 'in. his absence.' How lit.? crudglitatem : ' cruelty.' 13. velut: 'just as.' coram: 'in person.' adesset : sub- junctive also in the direct form. 210. B. 307, i; A. 524; H. 584. horrSrent : ' they shuddered at.' 14. reliquis: 'to the rest ' of the Celts. Ill, a. tamen: 'at any rate,' as a last resource. Sequanis . . . essent perferendi: Hhe Sequanians . . . had to endure.' How lit.? 229, c, and 110. B. 189, i; A. 374; H. 431. 15. oppida omnia: exaggeration; for the Sequanians still held Vesontio (^Besanqoti), which was their strongest fortified place (chap. 38). 16. omnSs : as we say, 'all possible.' 33. 2. sibi . . . futuram [esse] : 'that this matter should have his attention.' How lit. ? 112, b. 3. magnam, etc. : 213, b. beneficio su6 : Caesar's kindness when he was consul (59 Bc), in helping secure a recognition of Ariovistus by the Roman senate {255) ; Caesar reminds Ariovistus of this later (chap. 35, 11. 3-8 ; chap. 43, 11. 9-15). 4. iniuriis : 104, a. facturum [esse] : after habere spem, used in place oi sperdre. 213, a. 6. secundum: preposition; ' besides those considerations.' 122, ay and 160, c. qu&r6 : trans, as if propter qtids. sibi : 110. 1. 33] The Campaign against Ariovistus 81 earn rem cogitandam et suscipiendam putaret ; in primis, quod Aeduos, fratres consanguineosque saepe numero a senatu appellatos, in servitute atque dicione videbat Ger- manorum teneri, eorumque obsides esse apud Ariovistum lo ac Sequanos intellegebat ; quod in tanto imperio popull Roman! turpissimum sibi et rei publicae esse arbitrabatur. Paulatim autem Germanos consuescere Rhenum transire, et in Galliam magnam eorum multitudinem venire, populo Roman5 periculosum videbat ; neque sibi homines feros ac 15 barbaros temperatures existimabat, quin, cum omnem Gal- liam occupavissent, ut ante CimbrI Teutonique fecissent, in 7. cogitandam [esse] : ' ought to be taken into consideration.' putaret: 194, a. in primis : 'first of all.' How lit. ? 8. quod . . . videbat : 198, b. fratres : predicate accusative after appellatos. 88, b. o5nsanguineos : ' kin,' implying blood- relationship, while /r^/r/j, like our " brethren," might be used as a title implying intimacy of relations without kinship. The use of the title here may imply that the Aeduans claimed descent from the Trojans,, as did the Romans, and Caesar himself. ;^4-4> and Fig. 153. numero: with saepe, '• repeatedly.' 1^2, «, and 85. 11. quod : ' (a state of affairs) which ' ; the antecedent of quod is the thought expressed by the infinitive clauses depending on videbat and intellegebat . in . . . Roman! : 'in view of the greatness of the power of the Roman people.' How lit.? 12. turpissimum: ' exceedingly disgraceful.' I48, c, a.nd 153, a. sibi : 108j a. 13. Paulatim, etc. : 'for the Germans gradually to become accus- tomed ' ; Gennanos consuescere and multitudinem ventre are the sub- ject of esse, ' was,' understood after videbat. 213, a. autem : ' more- over.' 236, a. 15. periculosum: ' full of danger.' I48, d \ 75,/, 2ind 84. sibi . . . temperatures [esse] : ' would hold back,' lit. ' restrain them- selves.' 105. 16. quin . . . exirent : 'from passing over.' 201, a. 17. ut : ' as.' 188, b, and 214, ^- ut . . . fecissent : related in thought with exirent and contenderent. Cimbri Teutonique : the terrible hordes of the Cimbrians and Teutons in the closing years of the second century B.C. swept over Celtic Gaul and passed into the 82 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 58 provinciam exTrent atque inde in Italiam contenderent, prae- sertim cum Sequanos a provincia nostra Rhodanus divi- aoderet ; quibus rebus quam maturrime occurrendum putabat. Ipse autem Ariovistus tantos sibi splritus, tantam ar- rogantiam sumpserat, ut ferendus non videretur. Caesar invites Ariovistus to a conference ; he is rebuffed. 34. Quam ob rem placuit ei, ut ad Ariovistum legates mitteret, qui ab eo postularent, uti aliquem locum, medium utriusque, colloquio deligeret : Ve//e sese de re publicd et suminls titriHsqiie rebus aim eo agere. s Ei legationi Ariovistus respondit : Province, whence the Cimbrians made their way into Cisalpine Gaul. Finally the Teutons were annihilated in a fierce battle at Aquae Sextiae (now Aix), about 20 miles north of Massilia, by Gains Marius in 102 B.C. ; and a year later the Cimbrians met a similar fate at Vercellae, in Cisalpine Gaul, northeast of Turin. See Map Gallia. 18. Italiam: here including Cisalpine Gaul. 283^ b. praeser- tim cum : 184i b. 19. Sgquands : 282. Rhodanus : ' (only) the Rhone,' a slight protection against an invading host. 20. quibus rebus: 'and these conditions.' 107., a. quam mSturrimS: 'at the earliest possible moment.' SI^., «, and 15S, c. occurrendum [esse] : sc. sibi., 'that he ought to meet.' How lit.? 21. tantos splritus: 'such insolent airs.' 20., b. 22. arrogantiam : 'arrogance.' ferendus non: 'unbearable.' How lit.? 34. I. placuit ei: 'he (Caesar) resolved.' How lit.? ut . . . mitteret: \\\i\\ p/acuit ; 'to send.' Ui!),a,{j). 2. postul&rent : 193., a. aliquem: 49,a. medium utriuaque : 'midway between them.' How lit.? ^/, and /^^. 3. colloquiS : ' for a conference.' 112., a. Velle s6s6 : '(stat- ing) that he wished.' 213^ b. 4. Bummis utriusque rSbus : 'affairs of the utmost importance to both.' How lit.? 6-13. Direct form : SI quid mihi a Caesare opus esset, ad eum venissem ; sT quid ille m? vult, ilium ad vt? venire oportet. t, 34] The Campaign against Ariovistus 83 Si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset^ sese ad eum venturum fuisse ; si quid ille se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere, Praetered^ se neque sine exercitt{ i^i eds partes Galliae venire audere^ quds Caesar possideret^ neque exercituin sine magno conimedtu atque mdllniento in unum locum contrahere lo posse. Figure 57. — Pottery found at Bibracte ; Museum of St. Germain. Praeterea, neque sine exercitu in eas partes Galliae, quas Caesar possidet, venire audeo, neque exercitum sine magno commeatu atque mollmento in iinum locum contrahere /(Jwmw. Mihi autem mirum videtur, quid in nied Gallia, quam bello vict^ aut Caesari aut omnino populo Romano negotil sit. 6. Si . . . fuisse : 208, c. quid, etc. : ' he himself had wanted anything.' How lit.? 132, b. ipsi:^^. 7. quid se : ^anything of himself,' Ariovistus. 116, d. 8. Praeterea: 'furthermore.' Ariovistus was seemingly over near the Rhine, a long distance from Caesar, who was probably in the vicinity of Bibracte. 9. possideret : 'was occupying.' 10. commeatu: ' store of supplies.' molimento : 'trouble 'in 84 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 Sibi autem mirum videri, quid in sua Gallia, qiiam bellb viciissetf aut Caesari aut ommnd populo Romano negotii esset. Caesar through envoys ynakes demands of AriovistuSj and threatens. 35. His responsis ad Caesarem relatis, iterum ad eum Caesar legat5s cum his mandatis mittit : Quoniam, tanto sud popullque Romdnl beneficio affectuSy cum in consiildtu sud rex atque amicus a sendtti appelldtus accumulating supplies as well as in mobilizing his forces ; for the army of Ariovistus, so long as it was scattered in small detachments, could live off the country. contrahere : < bring together.' 12. mirum: 'a cause for wonder.' i>^, d. bello : ISi, a. quid . . . esset : subject of vidert, ' what business either Caesar or,' etc. 20Jf, (2). 13. aut . . . aut: 236, a. Caesari, populo: 111. negotii: 97 yb, 35. 2. his mandatis: ^7^/5j, 'Black River') here bends into the form of a loop, leaving only one side of the town {reliquu7n spatiuiri) not surrounded by it ; and this space is taken up by a high hill, the top of which forms an irregular plateau (Fig. 60) . 11. pedum sezcentorum : ' than six hundred feet ' in breadth ; a genitive of measure is here used instead of a comparative ablative, quam being omitted after amplius. 100, a, and 129, b. sexcen- torum : the distance across the neck of the loop from the river to the river again is about 1600 Roman feet ; but the distance which needed to be fortified, measured across the top of the plateau, was only 600 feet. intermittit : * leaves a neck ' of land. How lit. ? 12. mons: n. to chap. 2, 1. 10. above the river. 7^5, a. B. 224; ut : 197, b. radlcea : object of {eos, = Guilds) desperantes iam de pugna et dispersos subito adortum {226, c), magis ratione et consilio quam virtute vicisse. Cui rationi contra homines barbaros atque imperltos locus fuit, hac ne ipse quidem sperat nostros exercitus capl posse. 26. quos : 168, and 4^, a. adversum proelium : ' defeat ' at Admagetos's stronghold ; see chap. 31, 11. 45-46. commoveret : 112, b. 27. diuturnitate, etc. : 'when the Gauls had become exhausted by the length of the War.' lU, b, (2). 29. paludibus : ' marshes,' added to explain how the encampments were shut off from approach. 131, a, se tenuisset: 'had kept himself secluded.' neque sui, etc.: 'and had given (them) no chance to attack him,' lit. b, (6). 17. Galloruin equitatui: see chap. 15, 11. 1-4. 18. esse: the subject is imponere, with commodissimum, 'the most expedient (thing),' in predicate. 222, b, and 11^8, d. Gallis equi- tibus : ' from the Gallic horsemen.' 109, b. 19. dgtractis : II^J^, b, (2). eo : = in eos, 'on them.' 20. cui: 'in which.' 105. quam: 153, c. imponere: *to mount.' 21. SI . . . esset: 'if there should be any need of action.' quid: 118, b. facto: 132, a. B. 218, i,c\ A. 411, ^; H. 477, III. 22. Quod cum fieret: 'While this was being done.' 185, c. non irridicule : ' not without wit.' 239, g. quidam: 168. 23. Plus : object Qi facere; 'was doing more' for the legion. 24. poUicitum : ' having promised ' ; sc. eum, referring to Caesar, subject of rescribere. in, etc : ' that he would consider ... as a body guard.' 25 ad equum rescribere : the phrase has a double meaning, 'enroll as cavalrymen,' "demotion" for a legionary, or 'enroll as knights,' a rank of nobility ; in the contrast lies the point of the joke. 106 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 5a Caesar and Ariovlstus meet. Caesar justifies his demands. 43. Planities erat magna et in ea tumulus terrenus satis grandis. Hie locus aequo fere spati5 a castris Ariovisti et Caesaris aberat. Eo, ut erat dictum, ad colloquium vene- runt. Legi5nem Caesar, quam equis devexerat, passibus sducentis ab eo tumulo constituit. Item equites Ariovisti pari intervallo constiterunt. Ariovistus, ex equis ut collo- querentur et praeter se denos ut ad colloquium adducerent, postulavit. Figure 65. — Hill of Plettig. Here the conference between Caesar and Ariovistus probably took place. In the distance are the Vosges mountains. 43. I . PlanitiSs : * plain ' of Alsace, between the Vosges ( Vosegus) mountains and the Rhine (Fi<;. 64). 21. a. erat : 90, a. tumulus terrSnus : 'an earthy mound/ whose sides, free from rocks and ledges, furnished an easy ascent for horsemen. This is identified by Colonel StoflFel with the hill of Plettig, an elevation of oval shape about 24 miles southwest of Strassburg, between the villages of Epfig and Dambach ; it rises in isolation more than 160 feet above the surrounding plain (Fig. 65). 2. aequ5 ferS spatio aberat: ' was about equally distant.' How lit.? 147y€. 3. ut erat dictum : 'as agreed.' How lit.? 4. equis dgvexerat: * had brought on horseback,' lit. 'by means of horses.' IHl.a. passibus: 1Jt7,c. 5. duoentis : ,%\ and S7, d. How many feet in 200 paces ? ;?45, b. 6. intervailS : IHS. ez equis : 'on horseback.' 126^ c. 7. dfinSs : ' ten men each.' .^6", and ^5. adddcerent : 199, a. I, 43] The Campaign against Ariovistus 107 Ubi e5 ventum est, Caesar initio orationis sua senatus-^^ que in eum beneficia commemoravit, quod rex appellatus lo esset a senatu, quod amicus, quod munera amplissime missa; quam rem et paucTs contigisse et pro rnagnis homi- num officiis c5nsuesse tribui docebat : ilium, cum neque aditum neque causam postulandl iustain haberet, beneficio ac llberdlitdte sua ac sendtus ea praemia consecutum. 15 Docebat etiam, quam veteres quamque iustae causae ne- cessitudinis ipsis cum Aeduis intercederent, quae senatus consulta, quotiens quamque honorifica, in eos facta essent, ut omni tempore totius Galliae principatum Aedui tenuis- 9. Ubi eo ventum est : ' when they (had) come thither.' 73, d. initio : 1^7, b. sua senatusque : 157^ d. 10. beneficia: explained by the appositional ^//(7<^-clauses follow ing ; see chap. 35, 11. 3-5 and Notes. rex : 88, a. 11. amicus: 89, a. munera: what these ' presents * were, we do not know. Gifts considered suitable for a ' king ' were a golden crown, an ivory scepter, a chair of state, and embroidered robes. am- plissime : * in richest measure.' 2 If., a. 12. missa [essent]: 214, b. quam rem : 'and that this recog- nition.' 167. et . . . et: 233, a. panels: 105, 154, «• pro magnis officiis : 'in return for great services.' 13. docebat: 'he stated.' ilium . . . consecutum [esse]: 213, b. 14. aditum: '(way of) approach' to the Senate. 15. sua: 157, b. praemia: 'distinctions.' No special reason is known why Ariovistus, as implied by Caesar, should have sought the recognition of Rome. 16. veteres: 26, a. necessitudinis : 'of close relationship.' 12, d. 17. ipsis : i.e. Rdmdnis ; we should say 'existed between the Romans and the Aeduans.' intercederent : 204, (3) • quae : 48, b. 18. consulta: 'decrees.' quamque := ^/ ^?/«;//. honorifica: ' compHmentary.' 31. in eos facta essent: 'had been passed in their behalf.' 204, (2). 19. ut: 'how.' 204^ (3). omni tempore; see n. to chap. 11, 1.6. 108 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 68 20 sent, prius etiam quam nostram amicitiam appetissent : Popull Rontdni lianc esse constietudinem^ nt socios atque anticos non modo sul nihil deperdere, sed gratia, dignitdte, honore audio res velit esse ; quod vero ad amicitiam popult Romdnl attiilissent, id ets eripi quis patl posset f 25 Postulavit deinde eadem, quae legatis in mandatis dede- rat: ne aut Aeduls aut eorum socils belluin inferret ; ob- sides redderet ; si nullam partem Germdnonim domum remitter e posset, at ne quos amp litis Rhenum trdnslre pateretur. The attitude of Ariovlstus is uncompromising and defiant. 44. Ariovistus ad postulata Caesaris pauca respondit, de suis virtutibus multa praedicavit : 20. prluB etiam quam : ' even before.' 189, a, and 2W. nostram : 167, c. 21. banc: iox hoc. 164, c. ut . . . velit: ^ to desire ;' explain- ing hanc. 203, (4) . 22. n6n modo — Bed: 236, d. sul nihil dSperdere : ^should lose nothing of what they had,' lit. •< of their own.' 97, a, and 154, a. dignitate : ' in prestige.' I42, a. 23. auctiorgs : 'the more abounding.' quod . . . posset: i.e. quis posset patl id, quod . . . attulissent, els eripl f The reference is to the power and independence of the Aeduans in former times. 24. attulissent : * had brought.' 69, b. eis : dative, ' from them.' 109, b. B. 188, 2, d \ A. 381 ; H. 427. posset: possit in the direct form. 179, b, (2). 25. Postulavit eadem: 'he made the same demands.' 117, a. dederat : ' he had intrusted ' ; see chap. 35. 67, a. 26. N6 . . . Inferret, redderet, paterfitur : explaining eadem. ei6. B. 316; A. 588; H. 642. 28. remittere: ' send back.' posset: 218, (i), Si. at: 'at any rate.' 236, a. qu6s : 168. 44. I. postulata: 'demands.' pauca: object of respondit. 164, a. 2. suls : emphatic. 167, b. virtfltibus: 'merits.' multa praedioAvit: 'had much to say.' 84. How lit..^ I, 44] The Campaign against Ariovistus 109 Trdnsisse Rhemim sese non sua spout e, sed rogdtum et arcessltum a Gallis ; non sine magna spe magmsque prae- mils domum propinquosque reliquisse ; sedes habere ins Gallia ab ipsls concessds, obsides ipsorum voluntdte datos ; stlpendiutn capere iure belltj quod victores victls imponere consuerint. Ndn sese Gallis ^ sed Gallos sibi bellum intiilisse ; omnes Galliae civitdtes ad se oppugna^idtim venisse ac contrd se \o castra habiiisse ; eds omnes copids d se uno proelio pulsds ac superdtds esse. Si iterurn experlrl velint^ se iteruTU pard- tum esse deccrtdre ; si pdce utl velint, inlquum esse de s tip en- did recusdre^ quod sud voluntdte ad id tempus pependerint. 3-8. Direct form: Trdnsil Rhenum non med sponte, sed rogdtus et ar- cessitus a GallTs; non sine magna spe magmsque praemiis domum propin- quosque retiqui ; sedes habed in Gallia ab ipsTs concessas, obsides ipsorum voluntate datos; stlpendium capio iure belli, quod victores victls imp5nere consuerunt. 3. rogatum et arcessitum: 'because he had been asked,' etc. 227, a, (I). B. 337, 2,/; A. 496; H. 638, i. 4. non sine : 239, g. 6. ipais : the Gauls. concessas: 'which had been ceded.' 227, a, (4). obsidSs : i.e. se habere sedes et obsides. 238, a. voluntate: 138. 7. iure : 'in accordance with the rights ' (lit. 'right') ' of war.' 13, g, and 136, c. quod : the antecedent is stlpendiutn. victia : 'the vanquished.' 227, a, (4). 9-14. Direct form: Non ego GallTs, sed Galll niihi bellum intulerunt ; omnes Galliae civitates ad me oppugnandum venerunt ac contra me castra' habuerunt; eae omnes copiae a me uno proelio pulsae ac superdtae sunt. Si {Galll) iterum experlrl volunt, iterum pardtus sum decertare; si pace uti volunt, iniquum est de stlpendi5 recusare, quod sua voluntate adhuc pepen- derunt. 9. sSsg GallTs . . . Gallos sibi : 239, b. 11. castra habuisse : 'had fought.' How lit.? uno proelio : see chap. 31, 1. 46, and n. 12. paratum decertare : 'ready to fight it out.' IIS^ c, and 221, c. 13. uti: 'to enjoy'; followed by what case ? 131, c. iniquum: 110 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 58 IS Amicitiam populi Romdnt sibi drndmento et praesididy noil detrlmento, esse oportere, atque se lidc spe petlsse. Si per popiilum Rdmdn?im stlpeiidmm remittdtur et dediticii stibtrahantur, non minus lib enter sese recusdiurum populi Romdni amicitiam, quain appetierit. 20 Quod multitudinem Germdnorum, in Galliam trddticat, id se sui muniendi, non Galliae impugnandae causa, facere ; eius rei testimonium esse, quod nisi rogdtus non venerit, * et quod bellum non intulerit, sed defenderit. ' unfair.' Why neuter ? lltS, d. dS stipendio rectlaare : ' to re- fuse to pay the tribute.' How lit. ? 14. su5: i.e. of the Gauls; they, however, told a different story, as we learn from chap. 31, 11. 34-40. 15-19. Direct form: Amicitiam populi Romanl mihi umamento et prae- siclio, non detrTmentn, esse oportet, atque {earn) hac spe petit. SI per popu- lum Romanum stipendium remiUetur et dediticii subtrahentur, non minus libenter recusdbo {206) populi Romanl amicitiam, quam appetii. 15. sibi orn&mentS: 112, b. B. 191, 2., a\ A. 382, i; H. 433. 5rnameuto, etc. : ' ought to be a source of prestige and a protection, not a loss.' 16. oportfire : the subject is amicitiam . . . esse. 17. per: 123, a. 18. subtrahantur : 'should be taken from under' his control. The dediticii were ' prisoners of war,' held as hostages to force the payment of tribute. 20-23. Direct form : Quoil multitudinem Germiinorum in Galliam trdduco, id tnei (3U) muniendl (causa), non Galliae impugnandae causa, facio ; eius . rei testimonium est^ (juod nisi rogatus non veni, et quod bellum non intuli, sell defendi. 20. Quod, etc.: 'In regard to his bringing over,' etc. 198^ c. multitvldinem : 120,000, according to chap. 31, 1. 17. 2 1 . Bul maniendi [causa] : ' in order to protect himself.' 230, ( i ). 22. teBtimSnium: 'proof; in predicate with esse, to which the ^w^;f/-clauses stand as subject, quod : 'the fact that.' 19S, b. nisi rogStus : ' without being asked.' 23. defenderit: 'had acted on the defensive,' lit. 'warded off (wai;.' 1,44] The Campaign against Ariovistus 111 Se prills in Galliam venisse qtiain popiilum Romdnum. Ninnqtiam ante hoc tempus exerciticm populi Romdni Galliae 25 prdvinciae finibiis egressnm. Quid sibi vellet f Cur in suds possessiones veniretf Provinciam suam hanc esse Galliam^ slcut illam nostram. Ut ipsl concedi non oporteret, SI in nostras fines impetuin faceret^ sic item nos esse iniquos^ quod in suo iure se interpelldremus. 30 Quod frdtres a sendtu A e duos dppelldtos dice re t^ non se tarn barbarum neque tarn imperitum esse rerunt^ ut non sciret, neque be lid A Hob rogum proximo A e duds Romdnis auxilium tulisse, neque ipsos in his contentionibus^ quds Aedui secum 24-30. Direct form: Ego prius in Galliam vent quam populus Romdnus. Numquam ante h5c tempus exercitus populi Roman! Galliae provinciae flnibus egi-essus est. Quid tibi vis? Cur in meds possessidnes vents? Provincia mea est haec Gallia, sTcut ilia (^Gallia) vestra {provincia esi). Ut mihi concedi non oporteat, sT in vestros fines \vcvi^^\.\xvs\ faciam {207, l), sic item vos estis iniqui, quod me in nud iure interpelldtis. 24. Galliam: Celtic Gaul {287^ b), as in 1. 28; the Province, men- tioned in 1. 26, as stated elsewhere, had been under Roman control since 121 B.C. 290. 26. finibus : 127, a. Quid sibi vellet : ^ what did Caesar mean?' How lit.? 217, a. 27. hanc Galliam : ' this (part of) Gaul,' toward the Rhine. 28. Ut: 'As.' ipsi: Ariovisto. concedi non oporteret : ' no concession ought to be made.' How lit.? 30. se interpellaremus : 'we were interfering with him.' 31-36. Direct form : Quod fratres a senatu Aeduos appellatos {esse) dicis, non tam barbarus neque tam imperitus rerum sum, ut non sciam, neque hello Allobrogum proximo AeHuos Romanis auxilium tulisse, neque ipsos in his contentionibus, quas AeduI mecum et cum Sequanis habuirunt, auxilio populi Roman! usos esse. 31. Quod — diceret: * with reference to his saying.' fratres: 88, a. Cf. chap. 33, 1. 8. 32. imperitum rerum: ^unversed in affairs.' 102. B.204, i ; A. 349, «; H. 451, I. vX\ 197,b. 33. bello : only three years before, in 61 B.C. 1J^7, b. 34. ips5s, Aedui : trans, as if Aeduos, ei, contentionibus ° struggles.' 112 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 35 et cum Sequanls hahuissent, auxilio popull Romdnl usos esse. Debere se suspicdrty simuldtd Caesarem amlcitid^ quod exercitiim in Gallid habeat^ sui opprime7tdl causd habere. Qui nisi decedat^ atque exercitum deducat ex his regidnibus^ 40 sese ilium non pro amlcd, sed pro hoste^ habituriim. Quod si eum interfecerity multls sese nobilibus prlncipibusque popull Romdnl grdtum esse facturum {id se ab ipsls, per eorum nuntids, compertum habere), quorum omnium gi'dtiatn atque amlcitiam eius morte redimere posset. Quod si dicessisset 45 et llberam possessionem Galliae sibi trddidissety magno se 37-47. Direct form : Debed suspicarT, simulata te amlcitia, quod exercitum in Gallia habes, inel opprimendi habere. Nisi decedes, atque exercitum de- duces ex his regionihus, te non pro amlco, sed pro hoste, habeho. Quod sT te interfecerOy multis nobilibus prlncipibusque popull Romani gratum faciam (id ab ipsTs, per eorum nuntios, compertum habed)^ quorum omnium gratiam atque amlcitiam iud morte redimere possum. Quod si decesseris et llberam possessionem CJalliae mihi trddideris, magno te praemio remunerdbor et, quaecumque bella gerl voles, sine ullo tuo labore et periculo conficiam. 37. DSb5re s5 suspicSri: 'that he had good reason to suspect.' How lit..? simulata amlcitia: 'under the guise of friendship.' W, b, (5). 38. Bul opprimendi causa: 'in order to crush him.' 230, (i). habSre : sc. euni, ' was keeping (it there).' 39. Qui: Caesar. 167. dfiducat : 'withdraw.' regiSnibus : 'regions.' 81. 40. habitilrum : sc. esse. Quod : ' Moreover.' 118, d. 42. gratum: 'a kindness.' id: 'that fact.' IGO^c. 43. niintids: 'agents' rather than 'messengers.' compertum habere: trans, as if compcrisse. 229, a. B. 337, 7; A. 497, b\ W. 431, 3. quSrum omnium: 'of all of whom.' 97, c. 44. eius : Caesar's. It is not impossible that Ariovistus had been in communication with Caesar's enemies ; but whether he spoke the truth or not, he was evidently familiar with the party strifes and jealousies at this time in Roman politics. Quod : 'On the other hand.' 118, d. 45. llberam: i.e. 'without interference.' Galliae: Celtic Gaul. a3 in 1. 24. I, 45J The Campaign against Ariovistus 113 ilium praeniio reniuneraturum et, quaecumqiie bella gen vellet, sine fillo eius labore et periculo cdnfecturiim. Caesar declines to make any concessions. 45. Multa a Caesare in earn sententiam dicta sunt, quare neg6ti5 desistere non posset : Figure 66. — The conference between Caesar and Ariovistus. 46. ilium : trans, as if Caesarem. remuneraturum [esse] : * he would compensate.'' 61, a, {\). quaecumque : 50, a. 47. eius: 'on the part of Caesar.' How lit.? confectiiruin [esse] : if Caesar will withdraw, Ariovistus will fight his battles for him. The attitude of Ariovistus seems somewhat less defiant than in his former reply, sent by messengers and summarized in chap. 36. The conference between Caesar and Ariovistus, as conceived by a German designer, is shown in Fig. 66. 45. I. in earn sententiam: lit. 'to this purport'; we should say ' to show.' 2. negotio: 12^, a. posset: 20Jt. (3). B, 300, i; A. 574; H. 649, II. 3-8. Direct form : Neque mea neque populT Roman! consuetudo patitur.^ utl optime meritSs socios deseram, neque iiidico, Galliam potius esse tuam 114 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 58 Neqiie suam neqtie poptill Romdnl consuetudinem patl, uti optime meritos socios desereret, neque se mdicdre, s Galliam potius esse Ariovisti quam populi Romdnl. Bello superdtos esse Arvernos et Rutenos d Qtimto Fabio Maximo^ quibus popidus Romdnus ignovisset neque in provinciam redegisset neqiie stlpendhmt imposuisset. Quod si antiquisstmum quodque tempus spectdri oporteret^ lopopuli Rdmdni iustissimum esse in Gallid imperium ; si indicium sendtus observdri oporterety liberam debere esse Galliam^ quam, bello victam, suis legibus uti voluisset. quam populi Roman!. Bell5 superdtl sunt Arverni et Ruteni a Quinto P'abio Maximo, quibus populus Romanus ignovit, neque ( 3- poterant ; ' would be able.' II, 2] Campaign against the Belgians 131 He raises two 7ieiv legions, marches to their territory. 2. His nuntiis litterisque commotus, Caesar duas legi- ones in citeri5re Gallia novas conscripsit et inita aestate, in ulteri5rem Galliam qui deduceret, Q. Pedium legatum misit. Ipse, cum primum pabuli copia esse inciperet, ad exercitum venit. Dat negotium Senonibus reliquisque s wm% Figure 68. — Scene in Belgium: the Meuse, below Nannur. 2. I. nuntiis litterisque: cf. I, 26, 1. 20, and N. duSs le- giones : the thirteenth and fourteenth. Caesar now had eight legions, numbered vii to xiv. 307, a, e, f. 2. inita aestate : *at the beginning of the warm season,' probably the latter part of May. How lit. ? 68, b, and IJ^Jf, b, (i). 3. ulteriorem Galliam: 286. qui [eas] deduceret: 'to lead them,' probably over the Great Saint Bernard pass. 193, a. B. 282, 2 ; A. 531, 2; H. 590. legatum: 313, a. Pedius was a son of Caesar's sister Julia ; see Vocab. 4. pabuli copia : forage was needed for the numerous draft animals used for the transportation of military stores, as well as for the horses of the cavalry and the officers. inciperet : 185, c. 5. exercitum : probably stationed at or near Vesontio ; see Map i, Dat negotium: 'Redirected.' 175, b. reliquis : 171, a. 132 Caesar's Gallic War (B.C. 57 Gallis, qui finitimi Belgis erant, uti ea, quae apud eos gerantur, cognoscaiit seque de his rebus certiorem faciant. Hi constanter omnes nuntiaverunt, maiius cogi, exer- citum in unum locum conduci. Turn vero dubitandum non loexistimavit, quin ad eos proficisceretur. Re frumentaria comparata, castra movet diebusque circiter quindecim ad fines Belgarum pervenit. The Remi submit^ and give information about the other Belgians. 3. Eo cum de improviso celeriusque omni opinione venisset, Rem!, qui proximi Galliae ex Belgis sunt, ad eum 6. Belgis: 108, a. uti . . . faciant: 199, a. y. gerantur: 220. B. 324; A. 593 ; H. 652. 86: 158, a. 8. constanter: ^uniformly,' with perfect agreement between the reports. manus : ' bodies of troops ' among the Belgians. 9. locum : why not ablative ? 124^ a. dubitandum non [esse] : sc. sibi, ' that he ought not to hesitate.' 73, e. 10. ad: * against.' eos: Belgds. proficiscerStur : 201^ c. R6 frilmentaria comparSt^ : ' Having provided for a supply of grain.' l^,b,{2). How lit.? 11. castra movet: ' he broke camp.' 175, b. diSbus : 1^7, a. circiter : adverb with quindecim. ad finSs pervenit : *■ he reached the terri- tories.' The probable route is indicated on Map I. 3. I. E6 : = ad fines Belgarum. improvisd : ablative singular neuter of Figure 69. — Coin of the Remi. ^, ,. ,. , r • *• the adjective used as a noun, forming Bronze. The three heads of the • 1 a- 1 1 • 1 1 im x« obverse perhaps belong to a three- ^^^^ d6 an adverbial phrase like the headed divinity : inscription, remo. English colloquial phrase " of a sudden," Reverse, horses and chariot, copied u ^H of a sudden," i.e. 'unexpectedly.' fronn a Greek coin. , . , • i- . • 11 celerius omnI opinione : ' more quickly than any one had expected,' lit., * than every expectation.' 129, a. B. 217, 4; A. 406; H. 471. 2. vSnisset: 185, c. RSmI : the name survives in Reims, modern name of the city occupying the site of the ancient capital of the Remi, Durocortorum. Galliae : Celtic Gaul. 287yb. Why dative? 108, a. ex Belgis : trans, as \( inter Belgds. II, 3] Campaign against the Belgians 133 legates Iccium et Andecumborium, prim5s civitatis, misc- runt, qui dicerent : Se suaque omnia in fidem atque potestdtem populls Romdnl permittei'e, neque se cum reliquls Belgis consensisse^ neque contra populiim Romdmim coniurdsse, pardtosqiie esse et obsides dare et imperdta facere et oppidls recipere et fru- mento ceteris que rebus iuvdre. Reliquos omnes Belgds in armts esse, Germdndsque^ quixo cis Rhenum incolant, sese cum his coniunxisse, tantumque esse eorum omnium furdrem, ut ne Suessiones quidem, frdtres 3. Iggatos : 'as envoys.' 115, a. primes: 'the leading men.' 154, a. civitatis : of the Remi. 4. qui dicerent: 'to say.' 193, a. B. 282, 2; A. 531, 2 ; H. 590. 5-9. Direct form : Nos nostraque omnia in fidem atque potestatem populi Roman! permittimus ; neque cum reliquls Belgis consensitnus, neque contra populum Romanum coniiirdvimus, pardtlqne: sumus et obsides dare et impe- rata facere et (/(?) oppidls recipere et (^, which \\vci\X.s> imperium. Britanniae: not the whole of Britain — probably only a portion of the island along the southeast coast. 29J^. 22. esse, etc. : trans, as if Galbam esse regem. 19, d. ad huno — dfiferrl : * that upon him — was conferred.' 69, b. 23. prfldentiam : * good judgment.' summam : * the .supreme command.' 24 voluntate: 1S8. habfire, pollic6rI: sc. eos {Suessidnis). numerd : U2, a, and 85. Xll, L, etc. : 38, A and 36. II, 51 Campaign against the Belgians 137 licetl mtlia armdta l; totidem Nervios, qui maxime feri^i inter ipsos habeantur longissimeque absint ; xv milia Atre- ^ bates, Ambidnos x mtlia , Morinos xxv mtlia, Menapios vii milia, Caletos x milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XV nil milia ; CondrUsos, Ebnrones, Caerosos, Paemdnos, qui uno nomine Germani appellantur, arbitrdri^a se posse arrndre ad xl milia. Caesar, taking hostages from the Remi, crosses the Aisne, and encamps. 5. Caesar, Remos cohortatus liberaliterque oratione pro- secutus, omnem senatum ad se convenire principumque liberos obsides ad se adduci iussit. Quae omnia ab his diligenter ad diem facta sunt. 35 25. milia armata : n. to 1. 15. totidem: sc. miti'a armdta pol- licerl. Nervios : locate the Nervians, and the other peoples named, upon Map i . maxime feri : in predicate. SO. 26. ipsoa : the Belgians in general, not the Nervians. habean- tur, absint : vivid use of the present tense where the imperfect, after co^noverint, in 1. 13, might have been expected. absint : from the country of the Remi. Atrebates : sc. polliceri. 27. Ambianos : in the region of modern Amiens (Fig. 71). 29. XVIIII: Mndeviginti. 36. Figure 71.— Coin of the 30. qui . . . appellantur: 214, c. Ambiani. German!: perhaps so called because, Bronze. Obverse, figure with although of Celtic stock, they had been "P''"«^ hands, wearing: a necklace , , ° . , ^ , . -^ . and bracelets ; perhaps a divinity the last of the Belgians to remove from the east side of the Rhine to the Belgian country, uno : ' a common.' 31. se: 158, a. ad: adverb, 'about.' 5. I . Remos . . . prosecutus : ' encouraging the Remi and ad- dressing (them) in gracious words.' How lit.? 226, c. 2. senatum : 289, b, and 75, b. principum : 10, b. 3. obsides: 'as hostages.' 88, a. iussit: ' gave orders (that) .' Quae . . . facta sunt: 'these instructions . . . were carried out.' 4. diligenter : ' carefully.' S^, a. ad diem : ' promptly.' 13S Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 67 5 Ipse, Diviciacum Aeduum magnopere cohortatus, docet, quanto opere rel publicae communisquc salutis intersit, manus hostium distineri, ne cum tanta multitudine uno tempore confligendum sit: Id fieri posse ^ si suds copids Aedul in fines Bellovacorum introdtixerint et eorum agros xopopnldri coeperint. His mandatis eum ab se dimittit. Postquam omnes Belgarum copias in unum locum coactas ad se venire vidit, neque iam longe abesse, ab els, quos miserat, exploratoribus et ab Remis cognovit, flumen Axo- nam, quod est in extremis Remorum finibus, exercitum IS traducere maturavit atque ibi castra posuit. Quae res et 5. Diviciacum : n. to chap. 4, 1. 20, and Book I, chapters 18, 20, 31, etc. 6. quanto opere, etc. : ^ how important it was for the State and for their mutual welfare.' How lit.? lOS, e. B. 21 1, i ; A. 355 ; H. 449. rel publicae : Romanorum. commdnis : of Romans and Aeduans. intersit: 20/^, (3). 7. manfls distinSrl: subject oi intersit ] 'that the enemy's forces he kept apart.' 222^ c, and 79, d. n6 . . . confligendum sit : ' that it might not be necessary to fight.' 75, e. 8. Id: refers to mantis distineri^ 'that (object).' 213y b, and 160, c. 9. in -^ intrSdaxerint : 'should have led — into'; future perfect indicative in the direct form. 218, (i), b. 11. coactas . . . venire: 'had been brought together and were coming.' 228, a. 12. vIdit : more vivid than intellexit ; so we use the word '' see " of things understood but not perceived with the eyes. 188, a. neque : trans, as if et non. abesse: sc. eds (= cdpids) ; dependent on cog- noifit, els : with exploratoribus. 13. expl6rat6ribus : S2ni . flttmen, exercitum: //^ a. B. »79' I ; A. 395 ; H. 413. Axonam: now Aisne. See Map i. 14. quod: the antecedent \s> flumen. extrCmls finibus: 'the most remote part of the country.' 152, a. 15. ibi castra posuit : Caesar ' encamped ' on the north side of the Axona, about a mile and a half northeast of the present village of Berry-au-Bac. See Map 5. Quae rfis :' Now this movement.' l&T, et . . . et : 2SS, d. 11,51 Campaign against the Belgians 139 latiis uuuni castrorum ripis fluminis muniebat et, post cum quae erant, tuta ab hostibus reddebat et, commeatus ab Remis reliqulsque civitatibus ut sine periculo ad eum por- tari possent, cfficiebat. In eo flumine pons erat. Ibi praesidium ponit et in 20 1 ■ 1 1 1 I"" Figure 72 — View across the Aisne from the site of Caesar's camp. The present course of the Aisne is marked by the nearer line of trees. 16. rIplB : 131^ a. poat . . . reddBbat : * made the rear secure against the enemy.' 331, b. How lit. ? 17. quae: i.e. ea {loco) quae. ttlta: 115, b. commeStuB . . . efficigbat: )- natura: 'naturally.' How lit.? atque: 233, a. 7. quod . . . redibat : explains why the ground in front of the camp was well adapted for forming a line of battle. ubi : ' on which.' castra : Map 5, A. paululum editus : 'gradually rising.' How lit. ? 8. tantum, etc. : 'on the side toward the enemy extended in width (far enough to provide) just the amount of space that a line of battle would require.'^ How lit. ? tantum: 118, a. adversus: adjec- tive, agreeing with col/is. quantum : correlative with tantum, and object oi occupdre, having loci dependent on it. 144 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 57 loci acies fnstructa occupare poterat, atque ex utraque 10 parte lateris delectus habebat, et in f rontem Teniter fastiga- tus paulatim ad planitiem redibat, ab utr5que latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum quad- ringentorum et ad extremas fossas castella c5nstituit ibique tormenta collocavit, ne, cum aciem instruxisset, hostes, quod istantum multitudine poterant, ab lateribus pugnantes, suos circumvenire possent. 9. loci: trans, as if dependent on tantum. 97, a. The long, gently sloping hillside, broad enough to afford room for a Roman triple line, is shown on Map 5, between the Miette brook and the narrowing crest of the hill southwest of Caesar's camp; six legions are there shown in order of battle. ex utr§que parte : = ' on either side,' the side of the camp toward the river, and the opposite side. 10. lateris dSiectus : 'steep slopes.' How lit.? 13, e. in frontem: 'in' (lit. 'into') 'front' of the camp, on the southwest side. Igniter fastigatua : 'with gentle slope.' How lit.? 11. planitiem: the level ground between the hill and the river above and below Berry-au-Bac. redibat: here 'descended.' 12. transversam fossam obduxit: 'he extended a trench cross- wise,' that is, at right angles with the length of the hill. Starting from opposite corners of the camp, Caesar prolonged two lines of intrench- ments at right angles to the sides, each about a third of a mile in length. One ran down the south slope of the hill, toward the Aisne, the bed of which in Caesar's time is indicated on the plan by the broken line. The other ran down the north slope, toward the Miette brook; both are indicated on Map 5 by red lines (a, b). At the ends of these intrenchments he constructed ' redoubts ' (B B), where he stationed troops, with military engines. His purpose was to guard against a flank movement on the part of the enemy, by which they might reach the rear of the camp, and attack from behind while his forces were engaged in front, passuum quadringentorum : ' four hundred paces ' in length. How lit. ? 100, a. How far by our measurement? 21^3, b. 13. ad extrSmSs fossfts : bj (2). 2. Galbae : chap. 4, 11. 22-24. 4. BellovacSs: ir^n?>. ^9, \{ in fines Bellovacorum. 282. 5. Qui cum: < when they.' 167. suaque omnia : 'with every- thing they had.' How lit.? tBIt^a. oppidum: 'stronghold'; not a city but a fortified place of refuge, occupied only in time of danger. 7. maiOrfis nftttt : 'the old men.' How lit.? 11,2, a. B. 226, i ; A. 418; H. 480. 8. 8gres8l: ' came out and.' 228, a. tendere: ' to stretch out.' 9. In eius fidem: 'under his protection.' 124,a. venire: 213. b. 10. neque: trans, as if ^/ . . . non. contendere: 'struggle' any longer. 11. aocesBisset: lHn,c. puerl: * children,' not ' boys ' merely. 12. passTs manlbui: 'with hands outstretched.' lU^ b, (2). Principal parts of pandd and patior f mOre : with passis. 136, c II, 14] Campaign against the Belgians 155 Diviciacus 2^rese7its the case of the Bellovaci. 14. Pro his Diviciacus (nam post discessum Belgarum, dimissis Aeduorum copiis, ad eum reverterat) facit verba: Bellovacos omnl tempore in fide atque amicitid civitdtis Aediiae fnisse ; impiUsos ab siils prmcipibiis, qui dlcerent^ Aediws, a Caesare in servitutem i^eddctos, omnes indignitdtes s contumelidsque perferre, et ab Aeduis defecisse et populo Romdno be Hum intulisse. Qui eius consilil principes fuis- sent, quod intellegerent, quantam calam^itdtem clvitdti in- tulissent, in Bntanniam, profugisse. Petere non solum Bellovacos, sed etiam pro his Aeduos, lo tit sua dementia ac m^dnsuetudine in eos utdtur. Quod si 14. I. his: BellovacTs. discessum: 'retreat'; chap, ii, 11. 1-5. 2. Aeduorum copiis: chap. 5, 11. 5-10, and chap. 10, 11. 19-20. eum : Caesar. facit verba : '■ made a plea.' How lit. ? 3-9. Direct form: B ellovad ovam tempore in fide atque amlcitia civitatis A.cd.\xdiG fuerunt ; impulsi ab suls principibus, qui dicebant, Aeduos, a te in servitutem redactos, omnes indignitates contumeliasque perferre, et ab Aeduis defecerunt et populo Romano bellum ititulerunt. Qui eius consilil principes fuerant, quod intellegebant, quantam calamitatem civitati intulissent (^204-, 3), in Britanniam profugerunt. 3. Bellovacos, etc.: 21S^ b, and 212, c, (i). omnl tempore: N. to I, II, 1. 6. 4. dicerent : ' kept saying.' 175, a. 5. in: 'to.' servitutem: 10, f. omngs, etc.: 'every kind of ill-treatment and insult.' 92, c. 6. et . . . et : 2SI^, a. defecisse : ' had revolted.' 51, b. 7. Qui : as antecedent supply eos with profugisse. principes : here = atictores, 'advisers.' 10-14. Direct form : Petunt non solum Bellovaci^ sed etiam pro his Aedut, ut tud dementia ac mansuetudine in eos iitdris. Quod %\ feceris (future per- fect), Aeduorum auctoritatem apud omnes Belgas amplificdbis ; quorum auxi- lils atque opibus, si qua bella inciderunt, sustentare consuerunt (176, b). 10. petere, utStur : vivid use of present tenses where past tenses might have been expected. 11. ^ua: 'his well-known.' 157, e. dementia: 'mercifulness,' 156 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 57 fecerit^ Aeduorum auctoritdtcm apud omnes Belgds ampli- ficdturiim^ quorum aiixilils atque opibus^ si qua bella iticiderinty sustentdre consuerint. Cciesar makes terms with the Bellovaci and Ambiani, learns about the Nervians. 15. Caesar, honoris Diviciaci atque Aeduorum causa, sese eos in fidem recepturum et conservaturum dixit; et quod erat civitas magna inter Belgas auctoritate atque hominum multitudine praestabat, dc obsides poposcit. s His traditis omnibusque armis ex oppido collatis, ab eo loco in fines Ambian5rum pervenit ; qui se suaque omnia sine mora dediderunt. the quality which leads a man to treat with kindness those against whom he has grounds of offense. Near the close of his life a temple was ordered built to 'Caesar's Mercifulness.' 268, and Fig. 163. mfinsuetadine : ' conapassionateness,' the quality that makes one able to realize the sufferings of others. in : 'toward.' Quod ; 118, d. •I, etc.: 218, {i), b. 13. bI . . . sustentSre : ' to carry through any wars that had arisen.' How lit.? 168, 2iv\d J,9, a. 15. I. honSris : dependent on causa; 'out of regard for Divici- acus,' etc. 94^ b. Diviciaci : dependent on honoris. 102. 2. in fiden^: as in chap. 13, 1, 9. 3. civitfis : Bellovacorum. auc- toritate : ' prestige.' 1^3, a. 4. multitudine: I42, a. B. 226; A. 418 ; H. 480. DC : sescentos. 36. The fact that for the sake of his Aeduan supporters Caesar had spared the Bel- Figure 79. — A Nervian coin. lovaci did not prevent him from exact- Cold, with crude designs. i"g ^ ^^^S^ number of hostages to bind them in their pledge of submission. 5. oollfttb:. 69, b. e6 loc6 : Bratuspantium. For Caesar's route, see Map i. 7. mori: 'delay.' dftdidCrunt : 'surrendered.* II, 15] Campaign against the Belgians 157 E5rum fines Nervil attingebant; quorum de natura moribusque Caesar cum quaereret, sic reperiebat : Nulhim aditum esse ad eos mercdtoribtis ; nihil pati vlnlxo reliqudrumque rerum ad luxuriam pertinentium Inferrl^ quod his rebus relanguescere animos eorum et remittl vir- Figure 80. — A characteristic bit of the country through which Caesar made his three-day march. 8. Eorum: the Ambiani. Nervii attingebant: 'the country of the Nervians adjoined' (Fig. 79). 282. de nStura: 116, c. 10-17. Direct form: iViJ7//«j a^/?V«j ^j^ ad eos mercat5ribus; nihil /«/«««- iur vinl reliquarumque rerum ad luxuriam pertinentium inferrl, quod his rebus relanguescere animos eorum et remitti virtu tem existimant. Sunt homines y^rf magnaeque virtutis; increpitant 2X0^^ incusant reliquos Belgas, qui se populo Romano ^ repeated (1. 12) for clearness. These details are expressed in part by infinitives with subject-accu- satives dependent on vidit, in part by ablatives absolute, and in part by the minor clauses ut . . . posset (1. 8) and quod . . . posset (1. 13). In translating, the sentence may be broken up into three or four English sentences; most of the ablatives absolute are best rendered by clauses. 1. ab . . . cohortatione : = «(^ decmtd legione, qiiam cohortdtus erat. Caesar's account of his personal part in this battle, which was interrupted by his description of the progress of the fighting (chaps. 22-24) is here resumed from chap. 21, 11. 1-9. X: 38, b, and 36. 2. suosurgeri: ' that his men were hard pressed.' signis : 'the standards ' of the maniples. 324, b<, (2). 3. XII: duodecimae. The crowding together of the soldiers of the 1 2th legion, which exposed them all the more to the missiles of the enemy, and their consequent losses, were no doubt in part due to their 174 Caesar's Gallic War (B.C. 57 impedimento vidit, quartae cohortis omnibus centurionibus soccisis signiferoqiie interfecto, signo amisso, reliquarum cohortium omnibus fere centurionibus aut vulneratis aut occisis, in his primipilo P. Sexti5 Baculo, fortissimo viro, multis gravibusque vulneribus confecto, ut iam se sustinere non posset, reliquos esse tardiores et non nullos ab novis- losimis, deserto loco, proelio excedere ac tela vitare, hostes neque a fronte ex Inferiore loco subeuntes intermittere et ab utroque latere instare et rem esse in angusto vidit, lack of experience in fighting ; for this legion, raised in 58 B.C. (I, chap. 10, 1. 10 and N.), had been in service only a year. During the battle with the Helvetians it guarded the baggage, having no part in the fray. sibi . . . impedimentd : 'were hindering one another in fighting.' How lit.? 17S, und 112, d. 4. quartae cohortiB : at the front, perhaps at the end of the first line. 387, a, and Fig. 186. 5. signiferS: ' the standard-bearer.' Each cohort had three stand- ards, of which there were thirty in the legion. Here the reference probably is to the standard-bearer who carried the standard of the first maniple of the cohort, which was looked upon as the standard of tlie cohort. 824, b, (2). 7. prImipIlS: 'thefirst centurion 'of the first cohort, hence regarded as the first centurion of the legion. S15, b. 8. multla gravibusque: ' many severe wounds.' 152, c. con- feotO : ' exhausted ' ; with primipilo. liaculus did not die, but lived to establish the reputation of being one of the bravest, if not the most brave, among Caesar's men. ut : <.so that.' 9. tardiSrfis : ' less active,' having lost their initiative. ab no- vissimls : < in the rear ranks.' 126, c. 10. d6sert5 locO . . . ezcfidere : * had abandoned their position and were withdrawing.' How lit.? proeliS : 127, a. hostSs, etc. : *that both in front the enemy did not cease coming up — and on both flanks,' etc. ; see Map 7. The Nervians outnumbered the men of the 1 2th and 7th legions five or six to one. 1 1 . neque . . . et : 2SS. d. ex inferifire locC : < from the lower ground ' along the river. 12. rem, etc.: 'that matters had reached a crisis.' How lit.? 154, ^ II, 25] Campaign against the Belgians 175 neque uUum esse subsidium, quod summittl posset; scut5 ab novissimis uni mlliti detracto, quod ipse eo sine scuto venerat, in primam aciem pr5cessit centuridnibusque xs nominatim appellatis, reliquos cohortatus, milites signa In- ferre et manipulos laxare iussit, qu5 facilius gladils uti possent. Figure 87. — Typical hedges near the site of the battle at the Sambre. 13. subsidium: 'reserve force'; the 13th and 14th legions were not yet available, because too far off. posset: 194, a. B. 283, 2; A- 535, «:; H. 591, i. scuto, etc.: 'snatching a shield from a sol- dier in the rear rank.' How lit.? 144, d, (2). 14. uni : here ' a,' weaker than ' one ' ; in English " an " and " one " were originally the same word. 23, a. militi : 109, b. B. 188, 2, d\ A. 381 ; H. 427. eo : adverb. sine scuto: in battle even com- manders may have carried shields, for protection in an emergency. 16. nominatim: Caesar's personal knowledge of his men was always an important factor in his success. signa inferre : 'to advance.' S25. 17. manipulos laxare: 'to open up the ranks,' we say; lit. 'to spread out the companies.' quo: 19S, b. Longfellow in "The 176 Caesar's Gallic War fB.c. 57 Cuius adventu spe illata militibus ac redintegrate animo, 20 cum pro se quisque in conspectu imperatoris etiam in ex- tremis suis rebus operam navare cuperet, paulum hostium impetus tardatus est. 26. Caesar, cum vii legidnem, quae iuxta c5nstiterat, item urgeri ab hoste vJdisset, tribunes militum monuit, ut paulatim sese legiones coniungerent et conversa signa in hostes inferrent. Quo facto, cum aliis alii subsidium sferrent, neque timerent, ne aversl ab hoste circumveni- rentur, audacius resistere ac fortius pugnare coeperunt. Hie Romans gain a complete victory, though the enemy fight with the courage of despair. Interim milites legionum duarum, quae in novissim5 agmine praesidio impedimentTs fuerant, proelio nuntiato, Courtship of Miles Standish " has portrayed the course of the batde in verse : He seized a shield from a soldier, Put himself straight at the head of his troops, and commanded the captains. Calling on each hy his name, to order forward the ensigns; Then to widen the ranks, and make more room for their weapons; So he won the day. 19. Cuius: 167. ilUta : 69, b. mllitibua : why dative? 20. pr6 s6 quisque : 170, b. in extrgmis suls rfibus : * under conditions of the utmost peril to himself.' How lit. } 21. operam nSvare : 'to do his best.' 22. tardatus est: * was checked.' 26. I. ittxta: the 7th legion was *near by' the 12th, on the right wing ; see Map 6. 2. vidisset : 186y c. ut . . . Inferrent : < that the (two) legions gradually draw together, face about, and advance against the enemy.' Probably one legion simply took up a position behind the other, facing in the opposite direction, so that the rear of both was secure. 199, a. 3. bonversa signa : S25, and 228, a. B. 337, 2 ; A. 496, N. 2 ; H. 639. 5. ferrent : IS/,, a. neque : trans, as if ^ 5^4 i i.k i'« MAP 10, A Ill, 13] Campaign against the Venetans 209 perferendam ; transtra, ex pedalibus in altitudinem trabibus, confixa clavis ferrels digit! pollicis crassitudine ; ancorae pro f unibus ferreis catenis revinctae ; pelles pro veils alu- taeque tenuiter confectae, sive propter lini inopiam atque lo eius usus inscientiam, sive eo, quod est magis verl simile, quod tantas tempestates Oceani tantosque impetus ven- torum sustineri ac tanta onera navium regl veils non satis commode posse arbitrabantur. Cum his navibus nostrae classi eius modi congressus is erat, ut una celeritate et pulsu remorum praestaret ; reliqua pro loci natura, pro vi tempestatum illis essent aptiora et 7. transtra, etc. : 'the cross-timbers, (made) of beams a foot thick ' (lit. * in height '), were ' fastened (to the sides) with iron bolts of the thickness of a thumb.' trabibus : 17, c. 8. crassitudine: 143,a. ancorae :' anchors,' like those in use to-day. 9. pro: 'instead of.' funibus : 'ropes.' As the Romans used only cables of rope, the chain cables of the Venetans seemed note- worthy, revinctae: were 'held.' pelles: 'hides.' vglis : 'sails' of canvas. 10. alutae tenuiter confectae: 'leather dressed thin.' sive . . . sive: 235, a, d. linl: 'flax.' 11. eius: lim. eo : 'on this account,' explained by ^«^^ (1. 12) . . . arbitrabantur . 135, a. quod : relative, refers to the thought of the following guad-cla.use. veri : 108, b. 12. impetus: 'gusts.' 13. tanta onera navium: trans, 'so heavy vessels.' How lit.? onera: 13, e. regi: 'be managed.' veils: 'with (canvas) sails.' 15. nostrae classi congressus: 'the encounter of our fleet.' How lit.? 111. eius modi: 'such.' How lit.? 100, b. 16. erat: 'would be.' una: 'only.' pulsii remorum: 'pro- pulsion by oars,' which gave to the galley a rapidity and freedom of movement comparable with that of a modern steamship. reliqua : 'other conditions.' 154, a. 17. pro: ' in regard to.' illls : the Venetan ships. aptiora: 'better suited ' 210 Caesar's Gallic War [B.a 56 accommodatiora. Neque enim his nostrae r5stro nocere poterant (tanta in eis erat firmitudo), neque propter altitu- 2odinem facile telum adigebatur, et eadem de causa minus commode copulis continebantur. Accedebat, ut, cum saevire ventus coepisset et se vento dedissent, et tempestatem ferrent facilius et in vadis con- sisterent tutius et, ab aestu relictae, nihil saxa et cautes 25 timerent; quarum rerum omnium nostris navibus casus erat extimescendus. Caesar's fleet, commanded by Brutus, arrives ; desperate sea^ fight. 14. Compluribus expugnatis oppidis, Caesar, ubi intel- lexit, frustra tantum laborem sumi, neque hostium fugam, captis oppidis, reprimi neque eis noceri posse, statuit ex- spectandam classem. i8. hia: 105. nostrae: sc. naves. rostro ; 'by ramming,' lit, ' with the beak.' 3^6, c, and SJ^7. nocSre : ' do injury.' 19. firmitudo: 'soHdity.' 20. tglum adigebatur : ' could a missile be thrown up ' on to them. The galleys were built relatively low, and light. 21. copulis continebantur: 'could they be held with grappling hooks,' thrown out from a galley to catch and hold a hostile ship so that the Romans could board it. 547. 22. Accedebat, ut: * There was the further advantage, that.' 20s, (i). saevire: 'to blow a gale.' How lit..? sS vento de- dissent : ' they ran before the wind.' 220. How lit. ? 23. ferrent: ' they would weather.' consisterent : 'would ride.' 24. tfitiuB : SI^, b. aestti : personified, hence with ab. 126, b. relictae : the Venetan ships, being flat-bottomed, when left by the tide settled easily and safely on the ground. nihil : = emphatic non. lis, c. B. 176, 2, b\ A. 390, d, and N. 2 ; H. 416, 2. 25. navibus: 110, and 2S9, h. B. 189, i; A. 374; H. 431. cSsus, etc. : ' the occurrence was greatly to be feared.' 229, c. 14. 3. captiB, etc. : ' could be checked by taking the towns.' li^J^ b, (6). eis nocSri posse: 'harm could be done them.' 106, b^ and 105. exspectandam : in full, sibi exspectandam esse. Ill, 14] Campaign against the Venetans 211 Quae ubi convenit ac primum ab hostibus visa est, s circiter ccxx naves eorum, paratissimae atque omni genere armorum ornatissimae, profectae ex portu nostris adversae constiterunt ; neque satis Bruto, qui classi praeerat, vel tribunis militum centurionibusque, quibus singulae naves erant attributae, constabat, quid agerent aut quam rationem lo pugnae insisterent. Rostr5 enim noceri n5n posse cogno- verant ; turribus autem excitatis, tamen has altitud5 pup- pium ex barbaris navibus superabat, ut neque ex inferiore 5. Quae: 167. convenit: ^arrived.' 6. CCXX: ducentae et vlginti. 38, b, and S6 < fully ready.' 153, a. genere: 133. 7. armorum : ' of equipment,' including everything needed to make paratissimae : completely fitted out.' a ship ready for action. ornatissimae ex portu, etc. : the sea-fight probably took place in the bay of Quiberon, Caesar's army being drawn up in sight on the heights of St. Gildas. The courses of the fleets may be traced on Map 10. 8. neque . . . constabat: ^ and it was not quite clear to Brutus,' etc. After the Roman mint, struck a coin commemorating Gallic victories (Fig. 96). 73, c. 9. tribunis, etc. : the legionaries on the Roman galleys were under their regular officers. How many galleys participated in the battle we do not know. 10. quid agerent: '•what they were to do.' 217, b. B. 315, 3 ; A. 587 ; H. 642, 3. 11. Rostr5: as in chap. 13, I. 18. noceri : sc. els, the enemy's ships. 12. turribus ezcitttis : 'even though the towers had been erected ' on the Roman ships. i44? b, (5), and 3Ii.6, d. 13. 'ex: 'on.' 126, c. inferiore loco: the decks and towers of the Roman vessels. Figure 96. — Coin of Decimus Brutus. Silver, denarius ; struck in 49 or 48 b.c. Oval Gallic shield and round shield between two Gallic war trumpets: inscription, albinus bruti f[ilius], 'Albinus, son of Brutus,' Decimus Brutus was named Albinus after A. Postumius Albinus, who adopted him. 212 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 56 loco satis commode tela adigi possent et missa a Gallis IS gravius acciderent. Una erat magno usui res praeparata a nostris, falces praeacutae insertae aff ixaeque longuriis, non absimili forma muralium falcium. His cum funes, qui antemnas ad malos destinabant, comprehensi adductique erant, navigi5 remis 2oincitat6, praerumpebantur. Quibus abscisis, antemnae ne- cessario concidebant ; ut, cum omnis Gallicis navibus spes in veils armamentisque consisteret, his ereptis, omnis usus navium uno tempore eriperetur. Reliquum erat certamen positum in virtute, qua nostri 25 milites facile superabant, atque eo magis, quod in conspectu Caesaris atque omnis exercitus res gerebatur, ut nullum 14. adigi possent: cf. chap. 13, 1. 20, and N. missa: sc. tela. 1 5 . gravius : < with greater force,' because thrown from a considera- ble height down upon the decks of the galleys. 16. magno usui: 'very useful.' How lit.? 112^ a. praepa- rata: * made ready beforehand.' falogs, etc. : 'hooks sharpened at the ends, let into (the ends of) long poles and fastened to (them).' falcSs : n^c, and 91^ a, 17. non, etc.: —forma non absimili for mae mUrdlium falcium, * of a shape not unlike that of wall hooks.' I4S, a, and 238, b. 18. muralium falcium: used on long poles to pull stones out of walls. SJ^2,c. HIb: 131,a. cum :' whenever.' 186, a. B. 288, B, 3 ; H.601,4. antemnSs : 'sail-yards.' mSlos : 'masts.' 19. dSstinSbant: 'fastened.' adducti erant: 'had been pulled taut.' nSvigio incitSto : ' when the ship,' that had caught its hook in the enemy's rigging, 'was driven forward,' etc. 144j ^1 (2). 20. praerumpebantur : ' they were severed.' abscisis : ' cut off.' 21. concidebant: 'fell down.' cum: 184, a. Gallicis nS- vibus : ' in the case of the Gallic ships ' ; dative. 109, a. B. 188, i,N. ; A. 376; H. 425, 4, N. 22. armftmentls: 'rigging'; they had no oars. usus: 'control.' 23. (in6 : trans, as Meddem. 24. Reliquum: emphatic position. 863, d. certamen: 'con- test.' erat positum in: ' depended on.' How lit.? 26. rfis; ' the struggle.' gergbatur: force of the imperfect? Ill, 15] Campaign against the Venetans 213 paulo fortius factum latere posset; omnes enim colles ac loca superiora, unde erat propinquus despectus in mare, . ab exercitu tenebantur. Roman courage, ingenuity, and good luck win the day. 15. Deiectis, ut diximus, antemnis, cum singulas binae ac ternae naves circumsteterant, mllites summa vi tran- scendere in hostium naves contendebant. Quod postquam barbari fieri animadverterunt, expugnatis compluribus navi- bus, cum ei rei nullum reperlretur auxilium, fuga salutem c petere contenderunt. Ac iam conversis in earn partem navibus, quo ventus 27. paulo fortius: 'unusually brave,' lit. 'a little braver (than usual).' factum: 'deed.' latere: 'be unobserved.' colles, etc. : heights of St. Gildas ; see Map 10. 28. despectus in mare: 'view over the sea,' de implying a view from an elevation. 15. I. cum : 186, a. singulas, etc.: 'two or' (lit. 'and') ' three galleys had surrounded a single ship ' of the enemy. We are not to suppose that Caesar's fleet outnumbered that of the Venetans ; the Romans simply concentrated their forces on one vessel at a time, in- stead of engaging the whole line of the enemy at once. singulis : sc. naves. binae : S6. 3. transcendere in: 'to board,' in the nautical sense. con- tendebant: 'would hasten.' 175, d. B. 260, 2; A. 470; H. 534,3. Quod : trans, as \i et hoc. 5. 61 auxilium: 'no remedy,' i.e. counter-tactic, 'was discovered against this,' the boarding of their vessels by the legionaries. 5-6. Historical Significance : " Thus was this naval battle," says Mommsen (History of Rome, Vol. V, p. 57) — "so far as historical knowl- edge reaches, the earliest fought on the Atlantic Ocean — just like the en- gagement at Mylae two hundred years before, notwithstanding the most unfavorable circumstances, decided in favor of the Romans by a lucky inven- tion suggested by necessity." 7. quo: trans, as \iin quam. ventus ferebat : 'the wind was blowing,' we should say. 214 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 56 ferebat, tanta subito malacia ac tranquillitas exstitit, ut se ex loco movere non possent. Quae quidem res ad negotium loconficiendum maxime fuit opportuna; nam singulas nostri consectati expugnaverunt, ut perpaucae ex omni numero noctis interventu ad terram pervenerint, cum ab bora fere iiii usque ad solis occasum pugnaretur, Tlie captive Venetans are sold into slavery as a warning. 16. Qu5 proelio bellum Venetorum totlusque orae mari- timae confectum est. Nam cum omnis iuventus, omnes etiam gravioris aetatis, in quibus aliquid c5nsilii aut digni- tatis fuit, eo convenerant, tum, navium quod ubique fuerat, sin unum locum coegerant; quibus amissis, reliqui neque quo se reciperent, neque quem ad modum oppida de- 8. malacia ac tranquillitas: 'calm and stillness.' exstitit : • ensued ' ; in the latter part of summer a morning wind in these regions is usually followed by a calm in the afternoon. 176, a, and 173, a. 9. non possent : relying entirely on sails, the Venetans were help- less when the wind failed them. r6s : 'circumstance.' 10. singulas: ; amque opinionem timoris praebuit, ut iam 5. exerc' am: 'an army,' trained and equipped, as distinguished from copi§s, ' forces ' hastily levied and organized. 6. his paucis digbus : ' within the few days ' after the arrival of Sabinus. I47, a, and 160, d. 7. Aulercl EburovicSs : one name ; see Map 9. 8. auctorSs :' favorers '; why nominative ? 221, b. nolgbant: plural because senatu is thought of as sendtoribus. 173, b. portSa clausSrunt : the shutting of city gates on the approach of an army was a virtual declaration of war. 10. perditorum: 'desperate.' latronum : 'bandits.' 12. agri cultura : 'farming.' sSvocSbat : lured away. How lit. ? 79, d. 13. omnibus r6bus : 'in all respects.' 11^2, a. loc6 : 1J^5, c. castrla: 131, a. The camp of Sabinus was probably near the small river S^e, in the southern part of the Venellan territory (Map 9). 14. cum : 187. duorum, etc : * (only) two miles away.' spatio : 147, c. 16. ut: 'so that.' hostibus: 'in the eyes of the enemy.' 109, a. B. 188, I, N. ; A. 377 ; H. 425, 4, N. contemptionem: 'contempt.' 17. non nihil: 'rather sharply.' How lit.? 118. c. 18. carperStur: 'was criticized.' opinidnem : 'impression.' 81. praebuit: 'produced.' Plate IV Weapons, Standards, and Roman Camp POstitom i 1 1 i vu q L' ,r,fc I M a For^^ 1 <- y^^^'-,,,:^, ' 10 I. Oval Shield, clipeus. 2, 2. Eagle of the Legion. 3. Oblong Shield, scutum. 4. Light Shield, /arwa. 5,5. Cavalry Helmet, mjj'z.y. 6. Y^q, pilum. 7. Bow, arcus ; Arrow, sagitta. 8. Shrine for the Eagle, sacellum. 9,9. Sword, ^/aa'iaj,- Scabbard, m^ma. 10. Roman Camp. II. Sling, /unda. Ill, 18] Expedition of Sabinus against the Venelli 217 ad vallum castrorum hostes accedere auderent. Id ea de causa faciebat, quod cum tanta multitudine hostium, prae- 20 sertim eo absente, qui summam imperii teneret, nisi aequo loco aut opportunitate aliqua data, legato dimicandum non existimabat. By a ruse he leads the enemy to attack him. 18. Hac confirmata opinione tim5ris, id5neum quendam hominem et callidum delegit, Galium, ex eis, quos auxilii causa secum habebat. Huic magnis praemiis pollicita- tionibusque persuadet, uti ad hostes transeat, et, quid fieri velit, edocet. 5 Qui ubi pro perfuga ad eos venit, timorem Romanorum prdponit ; quibus angustiis ipse Caesar a Venetis prematur, docet, neque longius abesse, quin proxima nocte Sabinus clam ex castris exercitum educat et ad Caesarem auxilii ferendi causa proficiscatur. Quod ubi auditum est, con- 10 clamant omnes, occasi5nem neg5tii bene gerendi amit- tendam n5n esse ; ad castra iri oportere. 19. Id : the holding of the Roman soldiers in camp. 21. eo absente, qui: <^? (3)- teneret: 21 4, a. nisi: i.e. nisi dimicaret. aequo loco: ' advantageous position ' ; sc. data. 144ib,{2). 22. dimicandum [esse], etc. : 'a lieutenant ought not,' etc. 110. 18. 2. callidum: 'tactful.' ex eis : 97, d. 5 . velit, prematur (1. 7) : 20^, (2). edocet : ' explained.' 175, b. 6. Qui, Quod (1. 10): 167. pro perfugS: 'as if a deserter.' vgnit: 188, a. 8. neque, etc. : neque longius abesse proxima nocte, quin . . . pro- ficiscatur, ' and that no later than the following night Sabinus would stealthily lead,' etc. 201, b. B. 298 ; A. 558 ; H. 595, i. 11. occasionem, etc: 'the chance to score a notable success.' How lit.? 12. iri, etc. : ' that they ought to attack the camp.' How lit. ? 68^ dj and 73, d. B. 138, iv ; A. 208, d; H. 302, 6. 218 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 56 Multae res ad hoc consilium Gallos hortabantur : superi- orum dierum Sabini cunctati5, perfugae confirmati5, inopia IS cibariorum, cui rei parum dlligenter ab eis erat provisum, spes Venetici belli, et quod fere libenter homines id, quod volunt, credunt. His rebus adducti, non prius Viridovicem reliquosque duces ex concilio dimittunt, quam ab his sit concessum, 20 arma uti capiant et ad castra contendant. Qua re concessa, laeti, ut explorata victoria, sarmentis virgultisque collectis, quibus fossas R5man6rum compleant, ad castra pergunt. He surprises them, and wins a decisive victory. 19. Locus erat castrorum editus et paulatim ab imo acclivis circiter passus mille. 'Hue magno cursu contende- runt, ut quam minimum spatii ad se colligendos armandos- que Romanis daretur, exanimatlque pervenerunt. 14. superiorum : 'preceding.' cunctatio : < inaction.' 91, a, and 74y b. confirmatio : ' the assurance.' 16. quod . . . crSdiint: appositive of res. 198, b, and 175, c. fer6 : ' as a rule.' Caesar's keen insight into human nature was an important factor in his success. i8. prius quam sit concessum : 'until permission had been granted.' 189, b. B. 292; H. 605, i. 21, laeti: 'joyfully.' 151. ut explorSta victoria : 'as if victory were (already) assured.' sarmentis: • brushwood,' cut from trees. virgultis : ' fascines,' bundles of shoots and bushes tied together for convenience in handling. collSctis : 'they gathered and.' How lit..? 22. quibus . . . compleant : trans, as if /// els . . . compleant. 193, a, and 131, a. 19. I. Locus: 's'te.' ab Imo : 'from the bottom ' of the hill. 15It, a. 2. passus: 118, a. Hue: up the slope to the camp. magno cursu: 'at full speed.' 3. quam minimum spatii: 'as little time as possible.' 97, b, and 153, c. Ill, 19] Expedition of Sabinus against the Venelli 219 Sabinus, suos hortatus, cupientibus signum dat. Im-s peditis hostibus propter ea, quae ferebant, onera, subito duabus portis eruptionem fieri iubet. Factum est oppor- tunitate loci, hostium inscientia ac defatigatione, virtute militum et superiorum pugnarum exercitatione, ut ne unum quidem nostrorum impetum ferrent ac statim terga ver-io terent. Quos impeditos integris viribus milites nostri con- secuti, magnum numerum e5rum occiderunt; reliquos equites consectati, paucos, qui ex fuga evaserant, relique- runt. Sic, un5 tempore, et de navali pugna Sabinus et de is •Sabini vict5ria Caesar certior factus est, civitatesque omnes se statim Titurio dediderunt. Nam ut ad bella suscipienda Gallorum alacer ac pr5mptus est animus, sic mollis ac minime resistens ad calamitates perferendas mens eorum est. 20 5. hortatus : n. tq I, 25, I. 3. 226, c. cupientibus: sc. eis. 7. duabus portis : sc. casirorum ; probably the gates on the right and left sides of the camp. S3J^, a, and ISJ^, a. Factum est : ' the result was.' How lit.? opportunitate : 135, a. 8. inscientia: 'lack of skill.' defatigatione: 'exhaustion.'' ID. ferrent: sc. hostes. 203, {i). ac : 'but.' 234, b. 11. viribus: 135, a, and 18, a. consecuti: 226, c. 12. reliquos: 'the rest' of the Gauls not slain by the legionaries. 13. equites : - equites nostri. paucos : ' (only) a few.' 154, a. 17. Titurio: for the full name see chap. 11, 1. 10. 19, b. ut: 'just as.' The subjugation of these states was now complete ; the sub- mission reported the previous year (II. 34) had been only nominal. 18. alacer: 'impetuous.' 24- promptus : 'ready.' animus: ' temperament.' 19. mollis: 'yielding.' resistens: adjective; with tninime, 'not at all capable of resistance.' Caesar again comments on the fickleness of the Gauls (cf. III. 8,11. io-ii,and 10, 11. 7-8; IV,5,11. 5-13)- 'At the beginning of a battle,' says Livy, ' the fighting of the Gauls is more than that of men ; at the end, less than that of women.' 20. mens: 'character.' 220 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 66 Conquest of Aquitania by Crassus. 20-27 CrassuSf entering Aquitaniu, meets a force of the Soiiates. 20. Eodem fere tempore P. Crassus, cum in Aquitaniam pervenisset, quae, ut ante dictum est, tertia pars Galliae est, cum intellegeret, in els locis sibi bellum gerendum, ubi paucis ante annis L. Valerius Praeconinus legatus, exercitu s pulso, interfectus esset, atque unde L. Manlius proconsul, impedlmentis amissis, profugisset, n5n mediocrem sibi diligentiam adhibendam intellegebat. Itaque re frumentaria provisa, auxiliis equitatuque com- 20. I. P. Crassus : with twelve cohorts and a large body of cavalry (chap. II, 11. 6-9). The cavalry would have been of no use to Caesar in the campaign against the Venetans, but could be employed by Crassus to advantage in the moun- tainous regions of Aquitania (Fig. 98). 3. cum: 184, ge- ubi: Figure 98. — Cavalryman. This cavalryman has helmet and spear; sword is not shown. his rendum : sc. esse. = ill quibus. 4. pauciB ante twenty-two years before, in 78 B.C. In that year Prae- coninus, mentioned only here, and Lucius Manlius, pro- consul of the Province, were routed by Hirtuleius, the quaestor of Sertorius. Cf. chap. 23, 1. II, and N. I40. 5. unde : = e quibus, L. : /.9, a. 6. non mediocrem: i; A. 410; H. 477, I. 5. amicitiae: dative. dediderint : ^^0. si quid, etc. : cf. 1, 18, 1. 24, and N. 6. vim : '• violence.' eundem casum una : ^ the same fate at the same time.' ferant: sc. ut. sibi, etc. : cf. I, 4, 1. 12, and N. 7. adhuc: ' up to this time.' memoria: 11^7, b. 9. recusaret: i5^«. B. 283,2 ; A. 535, a; H. 591, i. his : = ^Z- votls in 1. 3, resuming the narrative interrupted by the long explanation. 12. uti, etc. : 199, a. eadem : ' the same ' as the rest. 23. 3. oipYti^^i^'- oppidum Sotidthim, chz^. 21, \. 7. manu: the natural defenses of the town had been strengthened by fortifications. 4. quibus: 'after,' lit. 'within which.' 1^7, a. ventum erat: 73, d. expugnatum : sc. esse. 224 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 56 5 verant, legates quoque versus dimittere, coniurare, obsides inter se dare, copias parare coeperunt. Mittuntur etiam ad eas civitates legati, quae surtt citerioris Hispaniae fi- nitimae Aquitaniae; inde auxilia ducesque arcessuntur. Quorum adventu magna cum auctoritate et magna lohominum multitudine bellum gerere conantur. Duces vero el deliguntur, qui una cum Q. Sertorio omnes annos fuerant summamque scientiam rei militaris habere exlsti- mabantur. Hi consuetudine populi Romani loca capere, castra munire, commeatibus nostros intercludere instituunt. 15 Quod ubi Crassus animadvertit, suas copias propter exiguitatem non facile diduci, hostem et vagari et vias obsidere et castris satis praesidii relinquere, ob earn causam minus commode frumentum commeatumque sibi suppor- 5. quoque versus: Mn all directions.' 7. citerioris Hispaniae : 94. d, and 296. finitimae : agrees with quae. 9. adventu: I47, b. magna, etc.: to be taken closely with adventu. auctoritate : ' prestige.' 10. hominum : 98, a. DucSs : In predicate. 5 pugnantium: 'the appearance and impression of combatants,' Ill, 26] Conquest of Aqultania by Crassus 227 pugnantium praeberent; cum item ab hostibus constanter ac n5n timide pugnaretur telaque ex loco superiore missa non frustra acciderent, equites, circumitis hostium castris, Crasso renuntiaverunt, non eadem esse diligentia ab de- cumana porta castra munita facilemque aditum habere. lo Surprising the enemy by a rear attack, he routs them. 26. Crassus, equitum praefectos cohortatus, ut magnis praemiis poUicitationibusque suos excitarent, quid fieri velit, ostendit. nil, ut erat imperatum, eductis els cohortibus, quae, prae- sidio castris relictae, intrltae ab labore erant, et longiorej itinere circumductis, ne ex hostium castris conspicT possent, omnium oculis mentibusque ad pugnam intentis, celeriter ad eas, quas diximus, munitiones- pervenerunt, atque, his prorutis, prius in hostium castris constiterunt, quam plane ab his videri aut, quid rei gereretur, cognosci posset. i< 7. loco superiore : the top of the rampart of the camp ; the camp lay in a plain (chap. 26, 1. 16). 8. circumitis hostium castris: Miaving ridden about the enemy's camp.' 334, a. 9. ab decumana porta : 'on the side ot the rear gate.' 126, c. 26. I. equitum praefectos: 309, c. ut, etc. : 199, a. 2. suos: the cavalrymen, on whom the success of the surprise depended. 4. nil : the cavalry prefects, who guided cohorts of infantry to the rear of the enemy's camp. It is possible that the cavalrymen took the legionaries with them on their horses in order to transport them quickly thither by a roundabout way. praesidio castris: 112, b. 5. intritae: ' unfatigued.' longiore : 153, a. 7. omnium: hostium. oculis, etc.: IH, b, (2). 8. eas — munitionSs: at the rear of the enemy's camp; chap. 25, 11. 9-10. 9. prorutis: demolished.' prius — quam: 189, b. plane: 'clearly.' 10. videri: sc. possent, ' ihty co\x\d be seen.' quid, etc. : 'what was going on.' How lit. ? 228 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 56 Turn vero, clamore ab ea parte audito, nostrl, redinte- gratis viribus, quod plerumque in spe victoriae accidere consuevit, acrius impugnare coeperunt. Hostes undique circumventi, desperatis omnibus rebus, se per munitiones IS deicere et f uga salutem petere contenderunt. Quos equi- tatus apertissimis campis consectatus, ex milium l numerd, quae ex Aquitania Cantabrisque convenisse constabat, vix quarta parte relTcta, multa nocte se in castra recepit. Crassus receives the submission of other Aquitanian states; 27. Hac audita pugna, maxima pars Aquitaniae sese Crasso dedidit obsidesque ultro misit ; quo in numero fuerunt Tarbelli, Bigerriones, Ptianil, Vocates, Tarusates, Elusates, Gates, Ausci, Garumni, Sibusates, Cocosates ; 5 paucae ultimae nationes,'anni tempore confisae, quod hiems suberat, hoc facere neglexerunt. 11. clSmdre, etc. : from the shouting at the rear of the camp the Romans fighting in front knew that the attack there was in progress, and were inspired to greater efforts. 12. quod: relative, refers to the thought in redintegratis viribus; trans., w'lih plerumque y 'as generally.' 14. despgrttis omnibus rgbus: 'in utter despair.' How lit.? per: 'over.' 16. apertissimis: 'wide and open.' Cf. 153, a. campis: 14S,c. consectatus : 226, c. 17. quae: subject accusative of convenisse; the antecedent is milium. 18. rnult^ nocte: 'late at night.' 152, a. 27. 2. quo in numero: we should say 'in the number of whom,' 'among whom.' 3. Tarbelli, etc. : see Map 9. The Tarbelli have left a trace of their name in modern Tarbes ; the Bigerriones, in Bagn^res de Bigorre, a watering-place in the Pyrenees ; the Elusates, in Eauze ; the Ausci, in Auch ; the Sibusates, in Saubusse. 5. paucae ultimae nStionSs: i.e. paucae nationes ^ quae ultimae erant ; 'a few remote peoples.' tempore: 135, a. B. 219, i ; A. 431 ; H. 476, 3. Ill, 28] Expedition against Morini and Menapii 229 Expedition of Caesar against the Morini and the Menapii. 28, 29 Caesar proceeds against the Morini and the Menapii. 28. Eodem fere tempore Caesar, etsi prope exacta iam aestas erat, tamen, quod, omnT Gallia pacata, Morini Mena- piique supererant, qui in armis essent neque ad eum umquam legates de pace misissent, arbitratus id bellum celeriter c5nfici posse, eo exercitum duxit ; qui longe alia 5 ratione ac reliqui Galli bellum gerere coeperunt. Nam quod intellegebant, maximas nationes, quae proeli5 conten- dissent, pulsas superatasque esse, continentesque silvas ac paludes habebant, eo se suaque omnia contulerunt. 28. I. Eodem fere tempore : 'About the same time 'that Crassus completed the reduction of Aquitania, perhaps in the latter part of August. The narrative of Caesar's own military operations, inter- rupted at chap. 16, is here resumed. prope ex&cta : * almost over.' 2. omni Gallia: 'Gaul as a whole.' 3. supererant, etc. : 'were the only remaining (peoples) that were.' The Morini and Menapii were more backward than most of the Gauls, but were good fighters (Fig. 100). essent: 19J!^, a. neque: trans, as if et non. 4. arbitratus : 226, c. 5 . exercitum duzit : the distance traversed in the march from the sea- f^ig^^^e 100. — Coin of the Morini. coast of the country of the Venetans ^to'^- but of rude workmanship, par- could hardly have been less than ticularly in the fanciful representation of a -' horse appearing disjointed. 400 English miles. qui: 'but they.' 167. longe, etc.: 'in away far different from that of the rest of the Gauls.' How lit. ? 2SS, c. 8. continentgs : 'continuous.' 9. habebant: coordinate with intellegebant', sc. quod. eo : in eds [silvas ac paludes'] . 230 ^ Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 5t [o Ad quarum initium silvarum cum Caesar pervenisset castraque munire instituisset, neque hostis interim visus esset, dispersis in opere nostris, subit5 ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt et in nostros impetum fecerunt. Nostri celeriter arma ceperunt e5sque in silvas reppulerunt et, ts compluribus interfectis, longius impeditioribus locis secuti, pauc5s ex suis deperdiderunt. Hiding in forests, favored by rains, they elude him. 29. Reliquis deinceps diebus Caesar silvas caedere In- stituit et, ne quis inermibus imprudentibusque militibus ab latere impetus fieri posset, omnem earn materiam, quae erat caesa, conversam ad hostem collocabat et pro vallo ad 5 utrumque latus exstruebat. Incredibili celeritate magn5 spatio panels diebus c5nfect5, cum iam pecus atque ex- trema impedimenta a nostris tenerentur, ipsi densiores silvas peterent, eius modi sunt tempestates consecutae, uti 13. Svolaverunt : ' rushed forth.' How lit.? 15. longius: 'too far.' 153, a. impeditioribus locis : 'in places (that were) much obstructed' by trees and marshes. 29. I. deinceps: 'without interruption.' caedere: "to cut down.' 2. quis: 40, a. imprudentibus : ' off their guard.' 144y^y('2)- 3. materiam: 'timber,' here u.sed of untrimmed trees. 4. conversam, etc. : ' turned toward the enemy and laid in order and built up as a rampart.' How lit.? As the Romans advanced they felled trees, and placed them, with the tops outwards, at either side of the space which they cleared, thus forming an effective defense against the lurking foe. 6. confecto : 'cleared.' iam. . . tengrentur: 'were already in our hands.' pecus: 'cattle.' 13,/. extrgma impedimenta : *the rear of their baggage-train.' 152, a. 7. ipsI: the people themselves, as distinguished from their posses- sions ; as Caesar cut his way through the woods, they retreated further and further into the forest fastnesses. ;^3S, a. Ill, 29] Expedition against Morini and Menapii 231 opus necessario intermitteretur et continuatione imbrium diutius sub pellibus milites contineri non possent. Itaque vastatis omnibus eorum agrls, vicis afedificiisque incensis, Caesar exercitum reduxit et in AulercTs Lexoviis- que, reliquTs item civitatibus, quae proxime bellum fecerant, in hibernis coUocavit. 9. contdnuatidue : 'continuation.' 135, a, and 81. imbrium: 'rainstorms.' 15, c. 10. sub pellibus: 'intents.' How lit.? 335, a. 12. Aulercis, etc.: see Map 9. Lexoviis: chap. 11, 11. 10-12. 13. reliquis civitatibus: Venetans (chapters 12-16), Venellans (17-19), and Sotiates (20-27). COMMENTARIUS QUARTUS Destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri. 1-15 Pressed by the Suebij the Usipetes and Tencteri enter Gaul. 1. Ea, quae secuta est, •hieme, qui fuit annus Cn. Pom- peio, M. Crasso consulibus, Usipetes Germani et item Tencteri magna cum multitudine hominum flumen Rhenum transierunt, non longe a man, quo Rhenus influit. Causa 5 transeundi fuit, quod, ab Suebis complures annos exagitati, bello premebantur et agri cultura prohibebantur. CiistomSf hardihood, and prowess of the Suebi. ^ Sueborum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima uer- man5rum omnium. Hi centum pagos habere dicuntur, ex 1. I. hieme: 12, a, and I/1.7, a. qui: in agreement not with the antecedent hieme, but with the predicate noun annus. 164j c. B. 250, 3; A. 306; H. 396, 2. annus: 55 B.C.; Pompey and Cras- sus entered upon their consulship January i of that year. The winter of 56-55 B.C., according to the calendar in use, fell wholly in 55 B.C. ; for the old Roman calendar, which was still used, had fallen so far be- hind, that January i of the official year came on November 30 of the solar year. A corrected calendar was introduced later by Julius Caesar. 2. consulibus: 24O, a. GermSni: appositive of both Usipetes and Tencteri. ^ 4. quo : *= in quod. The horde of Usipetes and Tencteri is thought to have crossed the Rhine near Xanten or Emmerich, below Cologne, in the region where the Rhine receives the Lippe as tributary. (Map II, and Fig. loi.) 5. transeundi: G8, b. Su6bis : ancestors of the modern Swa- bians ; see Map at the end of this volume. annos : 118, a. 6. premgbantur : force of I mperfect ? 175, a. cultarft : 12^7, a. 232 MAP II Operations of 55 and 54 B.C. Books IV, V. To face page 232 SCALE OFTNGLISH MILES SCALE OF ROMAN MILES.. EXPLANATION MAP I] I, 2. Winter quarters, 56-55 B.C. (III. 29). 3. Expedition into Germany, 55 B.C. (IV. 19). 4. March into Britain, 54 B.C. (V. 21). MAP II, A Heavy broken red line, route of main fleet in 55 B.C. (IV. 23). Light broken red lines, route of transports with cavalry, part driven back, part driven down the channel (IV. 28). Unbroken red Hne, route of fleet in 54 B.C. (V. 8). ( .*-^W.t 1 ^^^18 Ulterior ^•w ^^ MAP II, A Detail of Caesar's crossings to Britain. IV, 1] Destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri 233 quibus quotaiinis singula milia armatorum bellandi causa ex finibus educunt. ReliquI, qui domi manserunt, se atque lo illos alunt ; hi rursus in vicem anno post in armis sunt, ill! domi remanent. Sic neque agri cultura nee ratio atque usus belli intermittitur. Sed privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est, neque longius anno remanere uno in loco colendi causa licet. ' is Figure 101. — A typical landscape on the Lower Rhine. 9. singula milia : ' a thousand each ' ; if each clan furnished a thousand warriors, the armed force of the Swabians must have reached a total of 100,000 men. bellandi: 230, (i). 10. ex finibus educunt: invasion of neighboring territory is im- plied, qui domi manserunt : < who (each year) have remained at home.' 11. illos: (2). equitata : lSl,a. inscios: 'be- ing in ignorance' of what the Germans were doing. 17. tr&ns : to the east side. remigraverant : ' had moved back.' 19. fieret: 189, b. B. 292, i, b\ A. 551, b\ H. 605, 11. 21. partem: 118, a. eorum: the Menapii on the west side of the Rhine. eorum copiis : 'with their supplies.' 5. I. infirmitatem : ' fickleness.' Cf. Ill, 19, 11. 17-20, and Notes. 3. nihil his committendum [esse]: 'that no reliance whatever ought to be placed on them.' 73, e. nihil : = emphatic non. 118, c. B. 176, i,b\ A. 390, d, N. 2 ; H. 416, 2. 5. Est . . . cogant: 'For it is a custom of the Gauls to compel,' etc. How lit. ? consugtudinis : 100, b. uti cogant. quaerant, circumsistat, cogat : explain hoc. 20S, (4). viatorfis : ' travel- ers,' on country roads. 6. invItSa: 151. cogant: the subject is supplied in thought from Gallicae, 2i^\i\iyttre Gallorum. quid: 204,(2). efirum : 97, a. IV, 5] Destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri 239 quaque re audierit aut cognoverit, quaerant, et mercatorcs in oppidis vulgus circumsistat, quibusque ex regi5nibus veniant quasque ibi res cognoverint, pronuntiare cogat. His rebus atque audltionibus permoti, de summis saepe lo rebus consilia ineunt, quorum eos in vestTgio paenitere necesse est, cum incertis rumoribus serviant et plerique ad voluntatem eorum ficta respondeant. Figure 103. — Falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen. 7. quSque: 49-, a. audierit: ^^ ^, (3). 8. vulgus : 6, b. quibusque : = quibus (4^, b) + -giie. 9. quasque: = quds + -que. 204, (2)- pronuntiare: '(them) to declare.' 10. rebus atque audltionibus: 'reports and mere hearsay.' How lit. ? summis : ' of the utmost importance.'' 11. quorum: ' of which they must immediately repent.' How lit. ? 103, c. B. 209, I ; A. 354, b; H. 457. paenitere: subject of est. 73, a. 12. incertis: 'indefinite.' serviant: 'they subject themselves.' 184, a. plerique : ' most men,' when questioned. ad, etc. : ' make up answers to gratify them.' How lit. ? 240 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 He resolves to fight the Usipetes and Tencteri. 6. Qua c5nsuetudine cognita, Caesar, ne graviori bello occurreret, maturius, quam consuerat, ad exercitum profi- clscitur. Eo cum venisset, ea, quae fore suspicatus erat, facta cognovit ; missas legati5nes ab non nullis clvitatibus 5 ad Germanos invltatosque e5s, uti ab Rheno discederent ; omniaque^ quae postuldssent, ab se fore pai'dta. Qua spe adducti, German! latius iam vagabantur et in fines Eburo- num et Condrusorum, qui sunt Trever5rum clientes, per- venerant. lo Principibus Galliae evocatis, Caesar ea, quae cognoverat, dissimulanda sibi existimavit eorumque animis permulsis et confirmatis, equitatuque imperato, bellum cum Germanis gerere constituit. 6. I. graviori: < quite serious,' in case the fickle Gauls and the Germans should unite against him. 15S, a. bello : 107, a. 2. maturius: 'earlier' in the spring, perhaps in the first part of April. 54? «• exercitum: divided up for winter quarters, among the Lexovii and other states, in the autumn of 56 B.C. (Ill, 29, 11. 12- 14) ; now probably brought together again, near the lower Seine, in advance of Caesar's arrival. 3. E6 : ad exera'tum. fore: 'would take place.' 4. facta, missas, invitStos : sc. esse. 5. uti, etc. : i.e. to proceed toward the interior of Gaul in order to help drive the Romans out. 6. omniaque: 'and (with the promise) that everything.' 213, b., postuldssent : future perfect indicative in the direct form. 64^ a, {\). fore parSta : a substitute for the fijture infinitive passive. Qu5 sp6 : 'by this prospect.' 107. 8. Eburonum, Condrusorum, etc. : see Map at the end of the volume. II. dissimulanda [esse]: 'ought to be kept secret.' permul- sis : ' having soothed.' How lit. ? 13. cSnstituit : here not ' determined,' but 'announced his inten- tion' ; he had previously made up his mind. IV, 7] Destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri 241 He marches near; the Germans parley, assert their rights in Gaul, and request lands. 7. Re frumentaria comparata equitibusque delectis, iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat. A quibus cum paucorum dierum iter abesset, legati ab his venerunt, quorum haec fuit oratio : Germd7ids neque priores popiilo Romano belhirn Inferre^ 5 neque tamcn recusdre, si lacessantur, qntn armis contendant, qiiod Gcrmd7idrum consuetudo sit a maioribus trddita, qul- cumqiie belhim Inferant^ resistei'e neque deprecdrl, Haec tame7i dicere, venisse invitos, eiectos domo ; si siiam grdtiam Romdni velinty posse els utiles esse amicos ; vel ic sibi agros attribuant vel patiantur eos tenere, quos armis possederint : sese unis Suebis concedere, quibus ne di quidem 7. 2. iter facere : ^ to march.' locis : 165, a. 3. quibus: 'these (places).' 161. digrum : 100, a. iter: 118, a, and 21^3, c. 4. quorum, etc. : ' whose plea was as follows.' 161, a. 5. Germanos, etc.: 'that the Germans did not take the lead in making war . . . and that, nevertheless, they would not refuse to fight.' How lit. ? priores : 152, b. 6. laoessantur : present, used for greater vividness, where a past tense might have been expected. 218, (i), a. contendant : sub- junctive also in the direct form. 201, a. 8. quicumque : 5b, a. resistere : sc. ^/i" (-/ 05), as antecedent of qulcutnque. 79, d. neque deprecari: 'and not to beg for mercy.' 9-14. Direct form: Haec tamen duimus, (nos) venisse invltos, eiect5s dom5; si (vos Romdni^ nostram gratiam vultis, possu?nus vobTs utiles esse amicos; vel nobis agros aUribuite {216) vel patiminT (nos) eos (^agros) tenere, qu5s armis possedimus ; unis Suebis concedimus, quibus ne di quidem immortales pares esse possint {194, «); reliquus quidem in terris est nemOy quem n5n superare posstmus. 9. dicere, venisse, posse, tenere (1. 11): sc. se. 215. Siectos : 'because they had been driven forth.' 227, a, (i). domo : 127, a. 12. possSderint: irom possfdo. unis: 'alone.' 23, a. di: 8, d, and 237, c. concedere : ' admitted inferiority.' 242 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 immortdles pares esse possent ; reliquwn quidem in terris esse neminem, quent non superdre possint. Caesar insists that they go hack to Germany; parleying continues. 8. Ad haec Caesar, quae visum est, respondit ; sed exitus f uit orationis : Sibi nullam cum his amlcitiam esse posse, si in Gallia remanerent ; neque venim esse, qui suds fines tiieri. non spotuerint, alienos occupdre ; neque ullos in Gallid vacdre agrvs, qui dari, tantae praesertim multitudini, sine iniurid possint ; sed licere, si velint, in Ubiorum finibus considere, quorum sint legdti apud se et de Sueborum iniuriis queran- tur et d se auxilium petant ; hoc se Ubiis imperdturum. 9. Legati haec se ad su5s relaturos dixerunt et, re deli- berata, post diem tertium ad Caesarem reversuros ; interea ne propius se castra moveret, petierunt. Ne id quidem 13, reliquum nSminem : ' no one else.' 12^ d. in terris : ' on earth ' ; why is terris plural ? 8. I . visum est : sc. respondere. Caesar does not give the whole of his answer, which perhaps followed the same line of argument as his statement to Ariovistus (I, chap. 45). 3. Sibi, etc. : in the direct form, Mihi mllla cum vobls amlcitia esse potest, ' I can have no friendly relations with you.' Ill, and 212, c, (i). 4. v6rum : consistent with what is true, * a fair thing.' qui : for antecedent supply eos as subject-accusative with occupdre. 5 . aliguos : sc. fines ; ' of others.' 7. possint, etc. : the present tense is used for the sake of vividness, licgre : sc. eis. 73, a, b. 8. apud sS : ' with him.' Sugborum iniuriis : chap. 3, 11. 6-14. 9. hoc, etc. : 'that he would order the Ubii (to allow them to do) this,' lit. 'he would command this to the Ubii.' Caesar could * order' the Ubii because he held hostages from that people (chap. 16, 11. 19-20). 9. 2. post diem tertium: *in three days,' i.e. 'the next day but one ' ; in such expressions the Romans included the days with which a period began and ended. 3. propius s6: 123, d. movgret : 199, a. IV, 9] Destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri 243 Caesar ab se impetrari posse dixit. Cognoverat enim, magnam partem equitatus ab eis, aliquot diebus ante, prae- s dandi frumentandique causa ad Ambivaritos trans Mosam missam ; hos exspectarl equites atque eius rei.:f ausa moram interponl arbitratur. Figure 104. — Along the Meuse, below Namur. Women are unloading day from a canal boat. 4. ab: 'from.'' 5. diebus: IJ^O. B. 223 ; A. 424,/; H. 488, i. 6. frumentandi causa : ' to forage."' How lit. ? trafts : ' across ' to the west side of the Meuse (Fig. 104) ; the main body, and Caesar, were on the east side, between the Meuse and the Rhine. 7. hos exspectarl, etc. : in order that an attack with all their forces might be made upon the Romans. rei: the return of the cavalry. 244 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 Description of the Rhine region. [10. Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, qui est in finibus Lingonum, et parte quadam ex Rheno recepta, quae appel- latur Vacalu^ insulam efficit Batavorum, neque longius ab e5 mllibus passuum lxxx in Oceanum influit. 5 Rhenus autem oritur ex Lepontiis, qui Alpes incolunt, et longo spatio per fines Nantuatium, Helvetiorum, Se- quan5rum, Mediomatricoruni, Triboc5rum, Trever5rum cita- tus fertur et, ubi Oceano appropinquavit, in plures diffluit partes, multis ingentibusque insulis effectis, quarum pars lo magna a feris barbarisque nati5nibus incolitur (ex quibus sunt, qui piscibus atque ovis avium vivere existimantur), multisque capitibus in Oceanum Influit.] 10. I-I2. On account of certain difficulties and inconsistencies in this chapter many think that it was not written by Caesar, but added later by some one who wished to supply a geographical background for this part of the narrative ; the Meuse, for example, does not rise in the Vosges mountains, and the Rhine could hardly have flowed through the country of the Nantuates. Nevertheless the rapid current of the Rhine is referred to, which is particularly noticeable in the upper part of its course, as at Schaflfliausen (Fig. 103) ; and we cannot assume that Caesar had accurate knowledge of regions so far from those which he himself had visited. If the chapter is omitted, there is an easy transition from chap. 9 to chap. II. Translation: — ' The Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are in the country of the Lingones; receiving from the Rhine an affluent, which is called the Waal, it forms (with this) the island of the Batavians, and not further from this than eighty miles it flows into the Ocean. 'The Rhine, moreover, rises in the country of the Lepontii, who dwell in the Alps, and in a long course flows rapidly through the territories of the Nantuates, the Helvetians, the Sequanians, the Mediomalrici, the Triboci, and the Treverans; where it approaches the Ocean it divides up into several branches, forming many large islands. Of these (islands) a considerable portion are inhabited by wild and savage tribes, some of whom are believed to live on fish and birds' eggs. (The Rhine) flows into the Ocean through many mouths.' IV, 11] Destruction of the Usipetes and Tencteri 245 The parleying, Caesar concludes, is continued merely to gain time. 11. Caesar cum ab hoste non amplius passuum xii mlli- bus abesset, ut erat constitutum, ad cum legati revertuntur ; qui in itinere congress! magnopere, ne longius progredere- tur, orabant. Cum id non impetrassent, petebant, uti ad eos equites, qui agmen antecessissent, praemitteret eosque s pugna prohiberet, sibique ut potestatem faceret in Ubios legates mittendl ; quoriim si principes ac sendtus sibi iure iurando fidem fecisset, ed condicione, quae d Caesare ferre- tur, se usuros ostendebant; ad hds res conficiendds sibi tndul spatium daret. ic Haec omnia Caesar eodem illo pertinere arbitrabatur, ut, trldul mora interposita, equites eorum, qui abessent, rever- terentur ; tamen sese non longins niilibiis passunm iiii, aqudtionis causd^ processurum ed die dixit ; Jiuc postero die 11. I. cum ab hoste, etc.: after denying the request of the Ger- mans (chap. 9, 1. 3), Caesar evidently had marched toward them. XII : S8, b, and 36. milibus : 129, a. 2. ut erat constitutum : the agreement was that the envoys should return in three days (chap. 9, 1. 2). 73, d. 3. congress!: sc. cum ed, 'meeting him.' 57, c, and 226, c. pr6greder§tur : 199, a. 5. antecessissent : 220, and 328. praemitteret : here without an object ; with ad eos equites, '■ that he send forward to,' etc. 6. pugna: 127, a. sibi, etc. : Uhat he would give them permis- sion to send.' How lit.? 8. iure iurandd fidem fgcisset : '■ should have bound themselves by an oath.' 13, h. How lit.? fecisset : agrees with the nearer subject. 172, b. ea, etc.: 'that they would accept the terms pro- posed by Caesar.' 131, c. How lit. ? 10. daret : da in the direct form. 216. 11. eodem illo pertinere: 'had the same end in view.' How lit.? ut, etc. : explaining ^<7^ b, (2). 4. SI . . . premerentar: indirect, from the idea of "saying" in pollicttus ; future indicative in the direct form. 213, b. 5. postea quam : with the indicative in the direct form. 188, a. 6. more: 136, c. nuntios: 'messengers.' 7. uti, etc. : ' (directing the people) to move away from the strong- holds,' etc. ; the substantive clauses give the gist of the instructions conveyed by th't messengers. 199, a. 9. hunc : predicative after delictum esse, with which locum is to be supplied as subject; 'that there had been chosen, as this (mustering point), a place.' 260 Caesar's Gallic War (B.C. 66 lo medium fere regiomim edrum, qiids Suebt obtinerent ; hie Romdndrum adventum exspectdre atque ibi decertdre eojt- stittiisse. Quod ubi Caesar comperit, omnibus eis rebus c5nfectis, quarum rerum causa traducere exercitum constituerat, ut IS Germanis metum iniceret, ut Sugambros ulcisceretur, ut Ubios obsidione liberaret, diebus omnino xviii trans Rhe- num consumptis, satis et ad laudem et ad utilitatem pr5- fectum arbitratus, se in Galliam recepit pontemque rescidit. First Expedition to Britain. 20-38 Caesar resolves to invade Britain ; he lacks information. 20. Exigua parte aestatis reliqua, Caesar, etsi in his locTs, quod omnis Gallia ad septentriones vergit, maturae sunt hiemes, tamen in Britanniam proficlsci contendit, quod, 10. medium ferS : ' nearly (at) the center.' regionum : 102. 11. exspectare: sc. eos {Suebos). ibi': 'at that point.' 13. Quod: 'this fact.' 167. eis rebus confectis : 'having accomplished the objects,' explained by the appositive /^/-clauses follow- ing. l/fJf, b, (3). In reality Caesar accomplished very little by the march into Germany. The formal enumeration which follows seems intended to justify an expedition barren of tangible results. 14. rSrum : 165, a. ut, etc. : 199, a. 16. obsidione : ' from oppression ' ; the Ubii had been forced to pay tribute to the Swabians (chap. 3, 11. 11-14). 127, a. ut . . . llbe- rSret : ' to free.' xvni : 38, b, and 36. 17. profectum [esse] : the subject is satis. "57, b. 20. I Exigua . . . reliqua : ablative absolute ; ' As a small part,' etc. ; it was now near the end of July. 2. omnis Gallia: cf. I, i, 1. i, and N. ad . . . vergit: Mies toward tlie north,' in relation to the latitude of Italy ; cf. Map 12. 3. Biitanniam : 29Ii. quod . . . intellegSbat : the aid given by the Britains to the Venetans (III, 9, 11. 30-31) and to the other Gauls, as for example to refugees from the Bellovaci (II, I4> 11- 3-9) > seems to have been of slight account ; it furnished, however, a plausible pretext for the invasion of Britain. IV, 20] First Expedition to Britain 261 omnibus fere Gallicis bellis, hostibus nostris inde summinis- trata auxilia intellegebat et, si tempus anni ad bellum ge- 5 rendum deficeret, tamen magno sibi usul fore arbitrabatur, si modo insulam adisset, genus hominum perspexisset, loca, portus, aditus cognovisset; quae omnia fere Gallis erant incognita. Neque enim temere, praeter mercatores, illo -^>4%- m^m^^ Figure 107. — Foot of chalk cliffs north of Dover, at low tide. 4. bellis: 147,6. inde: e Britannia. sumministrata : sc. esse. 6. deficeret: ^ was insufficient.' sibi usui fore: 112, b. ar- bitrabatur: 183, a. 7. adisset: adiret might have been expected; Caesar conceives of the expedition as an accomplished fact. 218, (i), b. 8. aditus : ' approaches ' ; points, outside the regular harbors, where a landing could be made. quae omnia fere : ' for nearly all of these things.' 161, and 97, c. 9. incognita : the Venetans at least must have been informed about Britain (III, 8, 11. 1-3), but they had been well-nigh exterminated ; and it was not to be expected that Gauls having the knowledge desired by Caesar would be free in imparting it to him. Neque enim — quisquam: 'for no one.' 168. temere: < without good reason'; only traders and students of Druidic theology (VI, 13, 11. 34-37) had occasion to go to Britain. illo : adverb. 262 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 55 10 adit quisquam, neque eis ipsis quicquam praeter oram maritimam atque eas regiones, quae sunt contra Gallias, notum est. Itaque vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus, neque quanta esset insulae magnitude, neque quae aut c uantae nationes IS incolerent, neque quern usum belli haberent aut quibus Institutis uterentur, neque qui essent ad maiorem navium multitudinem idonei portus, reperire poterat. He sends Volusenus to Britain and makes preparations ; he re- ceives British envoys, and sends Comniius also to Britain. 21. Ad haec cognoscenda, prius quam periculum face- ret, idoneum esse arbitratus C. Volusenum cum navl longa praemittit. Huic mandat, ut, exploratis omnibus rebus, ad se quam primum revertatur. 5 Ipse cum omnibus c5piis in Morinos proficiscitur, quod inde erat brevissimus in Britanniam traiectus. Hue naves 10. neque . . . quicquam: < and nothing.' eis : 108, a. 11. Gallias: plural because referring to the different divisions; we should say, ' the (several) parts of Gaul.' 15. incolerent: sc. earn. 204, (2) and (3). quem : 48, b. usum belli : ' methods of warfare.' How lit. ? 16. ad . . . multitudinem: i.e. for a fleet, whose requirements were very different from those of trading vessels coming to port singly or in small numbers. 21. I. prius . . . faceret: - before making the attempt.' 189„b. 2. idoneum: adj. in predicate ; trans. ' a suitable person.' n&vl longa : 34G, a. 3. praemittit : sc. eum. ut, etc. : 199^ a. 4. quam primum : 15S, <:. 6. inde: 'from their country.' How lit.? See Map 11. in Bri- tanniam : ?i{X^x traiectus. 150, d. traiectus : 'passage.' Hflc : to the vicinity of modern Boulogne. 7. quam — classem : = earn classem, quam. 165, c. B. 25 1, 4, « ; k. 2,07, b\ H. 399,3. IV. 21] First Expedition to Britain 263 undique ex finitimis regionibus et, quam superi5re aestate ad Veneticum bellum effecerat classem, iubet convenire. Interim, consilio eius cognito et per mercatores perlat5 ad Britannos, a compluribus insulae civitatibus ad eum lo legati veniunt, qui poUiceantur obsides dare atque imperio populi Romani obtemperare. Quibus auditis, liberaliter pollicitus hortatusque, ut in ea sententia permanerent, eos domum remittit ; et cum eis una Commium, quern ipse, Atrebatibus superatis, regem ibi constituerat, cuius et vir- 15 tutem et consilium probabat et quern sibi fidelem esse arbitrabatur, cuiusque auctoritas in his regionibus magni habebatur, mittit. Huic imperat, quas possit, adeat clvita- tes horteturque, ut populi Romani fidem sequantur, seque celeriter eo ventiirum nuntiet. 20 Volusenus, perspectis regionibus omnibus, quantum el facultatis dari potuit, qui navi egredl ac se barbarls com- mittere non auderet, quinto die ad Caesarem revertitur, quaeque ibi perspexisset, renuntiat. 8. ad Veneticum bellum: III, 11, 11. 13-16, and chaps. 14, 15. II. poUiceantur: 193, a. dare: i.e. se datiiros esse. 178. imperio obtemperare : ^submit to the authority.' 105. 15. Atrebatibus : conquered in the battle at the Sambre, two years previously (II, 23, 11. 1-8). regem: 115, a. ibi: among the Atrebatians. virtutem et consilium: 'energy and discretion.' 16. probabat: ' he appreciated.' fidelem: 'loyal.' Afterwards Commius was disloyal to Caesar; cf. VII, chap. 75, 11. 22-26. 17. magni habebatur: 'was considered great,' lit. 'of great (value).' 101. B. 203, 3; A. 417; H. 448, I. 18. possit: sc.adtre. Why subjunctive? 220. adeat: 200, a. B. 295,8; A. 565, «;; H. 565,4. 19. populi . . . sequantur: 'fix their confidence in the Roman people.' How lit.? 199, a. se : Caesar. 21. quantum facultatis: ' so far as opportunity.' 97. b. 22. qui: 'since he.' 194, <^- nSvi : i^ b, and 127, a. 264 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 56 Opportunely he receives the submission of the Monni. He assem- bles a fleet. 22. Dum in his locis Caesar navium parandarum causa moratur, ex magna parte Morinorum ad eum legati vene- runt, qui se de superioris temporis consilio excusarent, quod, homines barbari et nostrae c5nsuetudinis imperiti, sbellum populo Romano fecissent, seque ea, quae impe- rasset, factur5s pollicerentur. Hoc sibi Caesar satis opportune accidisse arbitratus, quod neque post tergum hostem relinquere volebat neque belli gerendi propter anni tempus facultatem habebat neque lohas tantularum rerum occupationes Britanniae anteponen- das iudicabat, magnum els numerum obsidum imperat. Quibus adductis, e5s in fidem recepit. Navibus circiter lxxx onerariis coactis contractisque, 22. I. his locis: in the country of the Morini, probably in the vicinity of modern Boulogne. 2. moratur: J90, a. B. 293, i ; A. 556; H. 533, 4. 3. qui sS . . . excusSrent, pollicSrentur : 'to offer excuse,' lit. * excuse themselves,' etc. 193, a. de . . . consilio: 'for their con- duct the previous season,' 56 B.C. (Ill, chap. 28). 4. quod . . . f§cissent : ' because (as they said) they had made.' 18Sj a. homines barbari : * (being) uncivilized people.' 91, b. consuStudinis : sing., but trans, 'usages'; the reference is particu- larly to the Roman practice of treating with consideration peoples that submitted to Roman rule. 102. 5. imperSsset : 61^, a, (i), and 21 1^, a. 9. anni tempus: it was already August, too late in the season to enter upon an extended campaign. neque, etc. : ' and he judged that the exactions of so trivial affairs ought not to have precedence over (the invasion of) Britain.' How lit.? 10. has: 100, d. tantularum: 76, c. Britanniae: 107, a. 13. Navibus onerariis: 'transports'; these were sailing vessels, while the galleys were propelled by oars. 346, a. LXXX: Oitds^'ntd. 38, b. coactis contractlsque : ' pressed into service and brought together' in a single harbor. IV, 22] First Expedition to Britain 265 quot satis esse ad duas transportandas legiones existimabat, quod praeterea navium longarum habebat, quaestori, lega- 15 tis praefectisque distribuit. Hue accedebant xviii onera- riae naves, quae ex eo loco a mllibus passuum viii vento tenebantur, quo minus in eundem portum venire possent; has equitibus distribuit. Reliquum exercitum Q. Titurio Sabino et L. Auruncu- 20 leio Cottae legatis in Menapios atque in eos pagos Mori- norum, a quibus ad eum legatl non venerant, ducendum dedit; P. Sulpicium Rufum legatum cum eo praesidi5, quod satis esse arbitrabatur, portum tenere iussit. 14. quot: ^ as many as.' duSs legiones: the 7th and the loth. The smallness of the force is consistent with Caesar's statement that the purpose of the expedition was not conquest but the obtaining of information. If the two legions, after three years of hard fighting, con- tained each about 3600 men (307, b) fit for service, the total of 7200 men divided up among the 80 transports would have averaged 90 men to a ship. The vessels were not large; and the supplies, not merely provisions but tents and other equipment, must have taken up much room. 15. quod navium longarum: 'the galleys which ' ; lit. ' what of long ships.' 97, b. quaestori : S13, b. 16. praefeotis : 'subsidiary officers..' The galleys seem also to have carried slingers, bowmen, and artillery (chap. 25). Hue ac- . cedebant : ' In addition to this number there were.' How lit. ? 90, b. 17. eo loco: portus Itius, now Boulogne; see Map 11. 5: 'off.' The small harbor eight Roman miles up the coast, where the 18 trans- ports were detained, is now called Ambleteuse. Map 1 1 A. 18. quo minus : 'so that. . .not.' 201, a. eundem portum : portus Itius. 19. equitibus: the cavalry contingents of the two legions, 500 or 600 horsemen in all. 309, a. equitibus distribuit : the horsemen could more easily go across the country to the smaller harbor (chap. 23,11.2-3). 20. Reliquum exercitum: five legions, if we assume that one legion was assigned to duty at the harbor ; for Caesar had eight legions in all, and only two were required for the expedition. 21. in — ducendum : 'for operations against.' How lit. ? 229, b. 2^. eo praesidio, quod : — tanto praesidio, quantum. 266 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 Caesar sails to Britain, and makes preparation to land. 23. His constitutis rebus, nactus idoneam ad navigan- dum tempestatem, tertia fere vigilia solvit equitesque in ulteriorem portum progredi et naves conscendere et se sequi iussit. A quibus cum paulo tardius esset adminis- stratum, ipse bora diei circiter quarta cum primis navibus Britanniam attigit, atque ibi in omnibus collibus expositas hostium copias armatas c5nspexit. Cuius loci haec erat natura, atque ita montibus angustis mare continebatur, uti ex locis superioribus in litus telum loadigi posset. Hunc ad egrediendum nequaquam idoneum 23. I. nactus : 61, a, (2), and 226, c. 2. tempestatem : ' weather.^ As might be inferred from its deri- vation from teinpns, ' time,' tempestds may imply good or bad weather according to the connection. We use "time" similarly in "a good time," " a bad time." tertia fere vigilia : ' about the third watch ' ; indefinite because the embarkation must have taken two or three hours. 21^2, c. solvit : sc. naves, ^ got under way/ from Boulogne. The date was probably August 26. 3. ulteriorem portum : Ambleteuse, northeast of Boulogne (chap. 22, 1. 17). progredi: i.e. by land. nSvgs conscendere: ''to embark.' 4. quibus: ' them,' the cavalry. 167. paulo tardius: * with a little too much delay,' probably due to the difficulty of getting the horses aboard. 153, a. esset administratum : ' the orders were carried out.' How lit.? 73, d. 5. hora quarta: the beginning of 'the fourth hour' on August 26 in the latitude of Dover by Roman reckoning was about 8.30 A.M. by our time. 2Ji2, b. 6. Britanniam attigit: * reached Britain,' near Dover; see Map II. expositas: 'arrayed.' 8. haec: 'such.' ita, etc : 'the sea was so closely bordered by abrupt cliffs'; angustis, lit. 'narrow,' implies sharp outlines, as seen from the sea, and an abrupt descent. The chalk cliffs near Dover run almost straight up from the water's edge. (See Figures 107, 108, no, and Plate VIII.) 9. locis superioribus : the top of the cliffs. lltus ; ' shore.' /5,/, IV. 23] First Expedition to Britain 267 locum arbitratus, dum reliquae naves eo convenirent, ad horam nonam in ancoris exspectavit. Interim legatls tribunlsque militum convocatis, et quae ex Voluseno cogn5visset, et quae fieri vellet, ostendit, mo- nuitque, ut rei militaris rati5, maxime ut maritimae res 15 postularent, ut, cum celerem atque instabilem motum haberent, ad nutum et ad tempus omnes res ab eis admi- Figure 108. — St. Margaret's Bay, passed by Caesar in his search for a landing place. 11. convenirent: 190y b. B. 293, ni, 2; A. 553; H. 603, 11, 2. 12. hdrani nonam: the beginning of the ninth hour was about 2.20 P.M. by our time. 21^2^ b. in ancoris: 'at anchor.' The an- cient anchors were like those of to-day. 13. tribunis militum: SlI^. et . . . et : 2S3^ a. quae: 20Jt, (2). The information derived from Volusenus was probably to the effect that there was a good landing place further up the coast. 15. ut . . . postularent: 'as military practice, above all, as marine service required.' 220. How lit. ? 16. ut . . . omnes, etc.: after momiit ; 'that all orders be exe- cuted.' 199, a. cum, etc.: 'since (these conditions) involved quick and unsteady movement.' 17. ad nutum: 'on the instant.' How lit. ? ad tempus: 'at the (right) time.' 268 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 55 nistrarentur. His dimissis, et ventum et aestum uno tem- pore nactus secundum, dato signo et sublatis ancoris, 2ocirciter milia passuum vii ab eo loco progressus, aperto ac piano litore naves constituit. The legionaries attempt to land; the Britons resist fiercely. 24. At barbari, c5nsilio R5manorum cognit5, praemisso equitatu et essedariis, quo plerumque genere in proeliis uti consuerunt, reliquis copiis subsecuti, nostros navibus 5 egredi prohibebant. Erat ob has causas summa difficultas, quod naves propter magnitudinem, nisi in alto, constitui non poterant ; militibus autem, ignotis locis, impeditis manibus, magno et gravi onere armorum oppressis, simul et de navibus desiliendum 10 et in fluctibus c5nsistendum et cum hostibus erat pugnan- dum, cum illi, aut ex arid5 aut paulum in aquam progress!, 19. secundum : 'favorable,' both wind and tide bearing toward the northeast. 20. eo loco : Dover. progressus : 226, c. aperto ac plSno litore : between Walmer and Deal, about seven miles northeast of Dover, i^^, c. 21. nav6s constituit : ' he ran the ships aground.' How lit. ? 24. 2. essedariis : ' chariot-fighters,' described in chap. 33. quo genere : ' a type (of warrior) which.' 165, b. ^ 3. c5piis: the Britons followed by land, as near the shore as pos- 'M>.sible. lSl,b. navibus ggredi :' from disembarking.' 22S,a,2iX\^ ■ 121, a. 5. Erat: 50, «. h5s : refers to what follows. 161, a. "* 6. in alto : 'in deep (water).' 154, a. constitui :' be grounded,' . so as to remain firm. militibus . . . desiliendum [erat]: 'the soldiers . . . had to jump down.' How lit..? 73, e, ^nd 110. 7. ignotis locis: ' (being) on unfamiliar ground.' How lit.? 1^5, c. 8. oppressis: agrees with wf////^//j ; < weighed down.' et . . . et . . . et: 2S8,f. 10. cum: 'while.' 187. illl: Britanni. ex Srido : 'fiom dry land.' IV, 26] First Expedition to Britain 269 omnibus membris expeditis, notissimls locis, audacter tqla conicerent et equos insuefactos incitarent.v Quibus rebus nostri perterriti, atque huius omnind generis pugnae impe- riti, non eadem alacritate ac studi5, quo in pedestribus uti proeliis consuerant, utebantur. is The standard-bearer of the Tenth leaps overboard, bidding the others follow. 25. Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas, quarum et species erat barbaris inusitatior et motus ad usum ex- 11. ndtissimis locis : 'thoroughly acquainted with the ground. How lit.? 153, a, and lU, b, (2). audacter, etc. : the British were pro- vided with weapons much like those of the Gauls (Fig. 109). 12. insugfactos : ' trained ' to go into the water. 13. generis : with /w/z^rf/^". 102. B. 204, I ; A. 349, a-, H. 451, i. 14. eadem : 150^ a. quo : 163, c. pedestribus: i.e. ierres- tribus, 'on land.' 1 5 . utebantur : ' were display- ing.' 25. I. Quod: 'Now . . . this.' 167. animadvertit: 188, a. 2. species : 'appearance.' 80, b. inusitatior : ' less familiar.' Oar- driven galleys were not so well adapted to withstand the buffetings of northern waters as solidly built sailing vessels, such as those of the Venetans (III, chap. 13-14). ad usum: i.e. ad navigandum; 'the movement was more easily con- trolled.' How lit.? The galleys „. ,„„ „ .,. , , ,, - f -^ Figure 109. — British shield. could be driven faster, and in any ^^ t,^^„^^ enamelled; found in the direction. Thames, near London. 270 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 peditior, paulum removeri ab onerarils navibus et remis incitari et ad latus apertum hostium constitui, atque inde 5 f undis, sagittTs, tormentls hostes propelli ac summoveri iussit ; quae res magno usui nostris fuit. Nam, et navium figura et rem5rum m5tu et inusitato genere tormentorum permoti, barbari c5nstiterunt ac paulum modo pedem rettu- lerunt. 10 Atque nostris militibus cunctantibus, maxime propter alti- tudinem maris, qui decimae legionis aqailam ferebat, obtes- tatus deos, ut ea res legi5ni feliciter eveniret, * Desillte,' inquit, •commllitoiies, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prodere; ego certe meum rei piiblicae atque isimperatari officium praestitero.' 4. ad latus apertum: 'over against the exposed flank,' the right flank of the enemy. The galleys were to be placed parallel with the shore. inde : = e navibus longts. 5. fundis: 'with slings,' which hurled slingshots of lead when this material was available ; such slingshots were sometimes inscribed (n. to 11,18,1.2.). sagittis: 'arrows.' 308. tormentls :' artillery ' ; our word " artillery " was applied to engines oi war, whose propelling force was derived from tension, before it came to be restricted to cannon, which derive their propelling force from explosives. The '• torsioners'' used on the galleys were probably small catapults, which Caesar else- where calls 'scorpions' {SI^S, a). 6. quaer§s: ' and this manoeuver." usui: UJ^b. 7. iigurSL: the galleys were relatively long, narrow, and low. 8. paulum modo : 'just a little,' from the water's edge. 10. altitudinem : the sailing vessels which had been run aground on the sandy bottom formed a line, irregular because of the variation in depth, at least two thirds of a mile long ; the water where the bows were driven into the sand was probably up to the soldiers' necks. 1 1 . qui : as antecedent sc. is, subject of inquit. aquilam : < eagle.' 5^4> ^> (0- obtestStus, etc. : 'praying the gods that his efl'ort might turn out fortunately for the legion.' 199. a. 13. commilitongs : 'fellow-soldiers.' .95. vultis: 71. 14. ego: 57, b. certS : 'at any rate.' 15. praestiterS: 176, c. IV, 26] First Expedition to Britain 271 Hoc cum v5ce magna dixisset, se ex navi proiecit atque in hostes aquilam ferre coepit. Tum nostrl, cohortati inter se, ne tantum dedecus admitteretur, universi ex navi desiluerunt. Hos item ex proximis primi navibus cum conspexis^ent, subsecuti hostibus appropinquarunt. 20 Finally the Romans force the enemy hack, and land. 26. Pugnatum est ab utrisque acriter. Nostri tamen, quod neque ordines servare neque firmiter insistere neque sign a subsequi poterant, atque alius alia ex navi, quibus- cumque signis occurrerat, se aggregabat, magnopere per- turbabantur ; hostes ver5, notis omnibus vadis, ubi ex s litore aliqu5s singulares ex navi egredientes conspexerant, incitatis equis impeditos adoriebantur, plures paucos cir- cumsistebant, alii ab latere aperto in universds tela con- iciebant. 16. cum: 185, c. voce: 136, b. magna: Moud.' 17. cohortati inter se : 159 ^nd 226, c. 18. dedecus : ^ disgrace,' the loss of the eagle of the legjon. 13, f. universi: 'all together.' 20. subsecuti: ' they followed and.' How lit.? 228, a. appro- pinquarunt : 6/1., a, ( I ) . 26. I. Pugnatum, etc. : ' sharp fighting was kept up by both sides.' How lit.? utrisque : 51. 2. ordines servare: 'to keep the ranks.' firmiter insistere: ' to get a firm footing.' 3. signa: 324, b, (2). alius, etc. : 'one from this ship, another from that.' 171, c. quibuscumque . . . aggregabat: ' they were joining any standards that they had fallen in with.' How lit. ? 50, a. 6. singulares: 'one by one.' conspexerant: 188, d. 7. incitatis equis : 'mging their horses forward.' 144-> b, (2). adoriebantur: 'they would attack.' 175, d. plures paucos: plures hostes paucos Romdnos. 8. ab latere aperto : 'on the exposed flank,' the right side, unpro- tected by a shield. universos : 'groups of soldiers,' contrasted with the individuals referred to in 1. 6. 272 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 lo Quod cum animadvertisset Caesar, scaphas longarum navium, item speculatoria navigia, militibus compleri iussit et, quos laborantes conspexerat, his subsidia summittebat. Nostri, simul in arid5 constiterunt, suis omnibus consecutis, in hostes impetum fecerunt atque e5s in fugam dederunt ; isneque longius prdsequi potuerunt, quod equites cursum tenere atque insulam capere non potuerant. Hoc unum ad pristinam fortunam Caesari defuit. The Britons offer to submit, and return Commius to Caesar. 27. Hostes proelio superati, simul atque se ex fuga receperunt, statim ad Caesarem legatos de pace mlse- runt ; obsides sese daturos, quaeque imperasset, facturos polliciti sunt. Una cum his legatis Commius Atrebas svenit, quem supra demonstraveram a Caesare in Britan- niam praemissum. Hunc illi e navi egressum, cum ad eos oratoris modo Caesaris mandata deferret, comprehen- derant atque in vincula coniecerant; tum, proelio facto, 10. scaphSs : 'small boats,' carried on the galleys. 11. speculatoria navigia: 'scouting vessels,' smaller and lighter than the galleys, without a beak, and designed for rapid movement. 13. in §ridd : 'on dry ground.' 15/^, a. constitgrunt : 188, a. 15. neque : 'but . . . not.' equites: still at Ambleteuse (chap. 23,1.4). 16. insulam capere : 'to make the island.' Hoc, etc. : ' in this respect only was Caesar's usual good fortune incomplete.' How lit.? 27. 2. recgpgrunt : iS,*?, ^. statim : 77. IggStos : < envoys.' 3. daturos : ^'.9, c. quaeque, etc. : i.e. ct ea, quae imperavissety facturos esse. 21 4y ^^ 5. supra : chap. 21,11. 14-20. dgm6nstr5veram : cf. II. i. 1. 2, and N. 7. oratoris modo : ' in the character of an envoy,' lit. ' of a pleader.' 80, b. 8. proelio facto: \.^. post hoc proelium. 144, b, {2). IV. 27] First Expedition to Britain 273 remiserunt. In petenda pace eius rei culpam in multitQ- dinem contulerunt et, propter imprudentiam ut ign5scere- lo tur, petiverunt. Caesar questus, quod, cum ultro, in continentem legatis missis, pacem ab se petlssent, bellum sine causa intulissent, ignoscere se imprudentiae dixit obsidesque imperavit; M r r- \ Figure 1 10. — Cliffs on the English coast, north of Dover. 9. remiserunt: sc. eum. eius rei: i.e. guod Commius, orator Caesar is, comprehensus at q tie in vincula coniectus erat. 10. imprudentiam: 'lack of knowledge.' ignoscergtur : sc. sibiy 'that pardon be granted them.' 199, a, and 106, b. 12. questus: 226, c. quod . . . intulissent: 'because (as he said) they had,' etc. 183, a. B. 286, i ; A. 540 ; H. 588, 11. con- tinentem : ' the continent,' Gaul. 13. petlssent : 187. sine causa : from the Roman point of view ; but the Romans would have considered the defence of the shores of Italy against an armed force a most noble action. Thus conditions alter opinions. In 19 16 many Mexicans considered the presence of the American punitive expedition in Mexico as a hostile invasion. 14. ignoscere se :' that he would pardon.' imprudentiae : iOJ. 274 Caesar's Gallic War [b.c. 55 IS quorum illi partem statim dederunt, partem, ex longinqui- oribus locis arcessitam, paucis diebus sese daturos dixerunt. Interea suos remigrare in agros iusserunt, principesque undique convenire et se civitatesque suas Caesari commen- dare coeperunt. The ships with the cavalry are prevented from landing by a storm. 28. His rebus pace confirmata, post diem quartum, quam est in Britanniam ventum, naves xviii, de quibus supra demonstratum est, quae equites sustulerant, ex superiore portu lenl vento solverunt. 5 Quae cum appropinquarent Britanniae et ex castris vide- rentur, tanta tempestas subito coorta est, ut nulla earum cursum tenere posset, sed aliae e5dem, unde erant pro- fectae, referrentur, aliae ad inferiorem partem insulae, quae 1 6. arcessitam : i.e. cum ea {pars) arcesslta esset. 227, a, (i). 17. suos: 'their people'; the demobilization of the British host was ordered. iusserunt: sc. et, the British envoys. 18. convenire: ad Caesar em. Caesari commendare : * to put under Caesar's protection.' 28. I . His rebus : the giving of hostages, the demobilization of the British host, and the presence of British leaders in Caesar's camp. post — quam : = quarto die postquam, ' three days after ' by our reck- oning; cf. chap. 9, 1. 2, and N. * 2. est ventum: 13, d. 3. supra: chap. 22, 11. 16-19 sustulerant: 'had taken on board.' 4. superiore portu : Ambleteuse. l§ni vento : ' with a light breeze,' blowing north or northeast. 1S8. solvgrunt : * sailed.' 5. ex castris: Caesar's camp was on rising ground, not for from the shore, so that it commanded a wide view of the sea. vidfiren- tur : trans, as passive. 6. tempestas : 'storm,' a northeaster. Cf. N. to chap. 23, 1. 2. 7. aliae . . . aliae: 171, b. eodem, etc. : Ambleteuse. 8. referrentur : sc. ut. ad . . . occSsum : southwest from Caesar's landing-place. See Map 11, A. IV, 29] First Expedition to Britain 275 est propius s5lis occasum, magno suo cum periculo deice- rentur; quae, tamen ancoris iactis, cum fluctibus comple-i« rentur, necessario adversa nocte in altum provectae conti- nentem petierunt. The fleet on the British shore is wrecked by a high tide. 29. Eadem nocte accidit, ut esset luna plena, qui dies maritimos aestus maximos in Oceano efficere consuevit, nostrisque id erat incognitum. Ita uno tempore et longas naves, quibus Caesar exercitum transportandum curaverat, quasque in aridum subduxerat, aestus complebat, et one- 5 rarias, quae ad ancoras erant deligatae, tempestas afflicta- bat, neque ulla nostris facultas aut administrandi aut auxiiiandi dabatur. Compluribus navibus fractis, reliquae cum essent — funi- 9. propius: 123, b. B. 141,3; A. 432, «;; H. 420, 5. suo: 'to themselves.'' How lit.? deicerentur : ' were driven.' 57, b. 10. quae . . . cum: 'nevertheless they anchored and when they.' How Ht. ? 167, and lU, b, (2). 1 1. adversa nocte : ' in the face of the night,' a form of expression transferred from space (as adverso colle, 134, a) to time. in altum provectae : ' they put out to sea and.' How lit. ? 226, c, and 228, a. 29. I . eadem nocte : the night of August 30, as determined by astronomical calculations. accidit . . . plena : ' it happened to be full moon,' How lit.? qui dies: 'and this date.' 2. aestus . . . incognitum: the rise and fall of the tide in the Mediterranean, as in our Great Lakes, is hardly perceptible. Caesar's men had learned of the existence of tides in the Ocean the previous year (HI, chap. 12) ; what they had failed to notice was the coinci- dence of the highest tides with the time of the full moon. At Dover the highest tide rises about 19 feet ; at Boulogne, 25 feet. 4. exercitum, etc. : ' had had the army brought over.' 229, b. 7. administrandi : ' of managing ' the vessels, the crews being on shore. 8. auxiiiandi: by getting men on to the ships. 9. funibus . . . amissis: 'on account of the loss of,' etc. 144, 276 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 55 lobus, ancoris reliquisque armamentis amissis — ad navigan- dum inutiles, magna, id quod necesse erat accidere, totius exercitus perturbati5 facta est. Neque enim naves erant aliae, quibus reportari possent, et omnia deerant, quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui, et quod omnibus constabat, IS hiemarl in Gallia oportere, frumentum in his locis in hiemem pr5visum non erat. The Britons, learning of the disaster, secretly plan a revolt. 30. Quibus rebus cognitis, principes Britanniae, qui post proelium ad Caesarem convenerant, inter se collociati, cum equites et naves et frumentum RomanJs deesse intellege- rent, et paucitatem mllitum ex castrorum exiguitate cognos- 5 Cerent, quae h5c erant etiam angustiora, quod sine impedi- mentis Caesar legiones transportaverat, optimum factu esse duxerunt, rebellione facta, frumentocommeatuque nos- tras prohibere et rem in hiemem pr5ducere ; quod, his 1 1 . magna : with perturbdtid ; emphatic. 353, d. id, etc. : * as was bound to happen.' How lit.? 160, c. 12. perturbatio : 'commotion.' Neque, etc.: 'for there were no other ships.' 90, a. How lit.? 13. reportari: ' be carried back.' possent: 194, a. 14. usui: trans, as if titilia. 112, a. constabat, etc.: 'it was clear that they would have to winter.' How lit. ? 15. his locis: in Britain. in hiemem: ' for the winter.' 12, a. Rations had been taken for only a limited stay in Britain. 30. 2. inter sS coUocuti: 159, B. 245, i ; A. 301,/; H. 502, i. 5. quae erant: 'which was.' h6c etiam angustiSra: 'even smaller (than usual for two legions) for this reason,' explained by th(» quod-c\2i\xsG. impedimentis : left in Gaul. 311. 6. optimum factu esse : ' that the best thing to do was.' How lit.? optimum: in predicate, after /?jj^. 1^8, d. facta : 232. 7. duxSrunt : ' decided ' ; the subject is principes in 1. i. rebel- lione facta: 'renewing hostilities.' How lit? I44, b, (2). frfi- mento : 121, a. 8. rem: ' their operations.' hlls, etc. : Mf these (invaders) should be,' etc. lU,b,{6,). IV. 31J First Expedition to Britain 277 superatls aut reditu interclusis, neminem postea belli infe- rendi causa in Britanniam transiturum conffdebant. lo Itaque, rursus coniuratione facta, paulatim ex castris discedere ac suos clam ex agris deducere coeperunt. Caesar, anticipating trouble, gathers supplies and hastens repairs on the ships. 31. At Caesar, etsj nondum eorum consilia cognoverat, tamen et ex eventu navium suarum, et ex eo, quod obsides dare intermiserant, fore id, quod accidit, suspicabatur. Itaque ad omnes casus subsidia comparabat. Nam et frumentum ex agris cotidie in castra c5nferebat et, quaes gravissime afflictae erant naves, earum materia atque acre ad reliquas reficiendas utebatur et, quae ad eas res erant Usui, ex continent! comportari iubebat. Itaque, cum 9. reditu: 'return.' 127, a. postea: ' in the future.' II. paulatim : one or two at a time. That the British leaders were assembled in the Roman camp is clear from 11. 1-2. 31. I. cognoverat : 'was familiar with.' 176, b. 2. ex . . . Bu^rum: 'from what had happened to his ships.' How lit. ? ex eo, quod : ' from the fact that.' 198, b. 'P\g\xx^ 111. — British coin. 4. ad . . . comparabat : < he was ^o^'^- ^^^^^^ ^^^'^'^ ^ century after ... - , Caesar's invasions. Inscription, CAMU- providing for every emergency.' i^^x^^^,-^, cuno[belini]. • of Cunobe- 5. frumentum: from the new linus, at Camulodunum.' modem Col- harvest. Later a head of wheat on Chester. British coins became an appropriate , Cunobelinuswas a British ruler, better known under the name Cymbehne. symbol of the island s staple crop (Fig. III). quae . . . naves, earum: —earum navium, quae. 165, c. 7. quae : as antecedent sc. ea, subject-accusative with comportari. ad eas rgs : ' for that purpose.' 278 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 66 summ5 studio a mllitibus administraretur, xii navibus [o ^.missis, reliquls ut navigari commode posset, effecit. The Britons make a treacherous attackj using war-chariots. 32. Dum ea geruntur, legione ex consuetudine una frumentatum missa, quae appellabatur vii, neque ulla ad id tempus belli suspicione interposita, cum pars hominum in agris remaneret, pars etiam in castra ventitaret, el, qui pro sportis castrorum in statidne erant, Caesari nuntiaverunt, pulverem maiorem, quam consuetudo ferret, in ea parte videri, quam in partem legi5 iter fecisset. Caesar id, quod erat, suspicatus, aliquid novi a barbaris initum consilii, cohortes, quae in stationibus erant, secum in earn partem 9. summo studio : * with the utmost enthusiasm.' adroinistra- rgtur: 'the work was carried on.' 18^, a. 10. reliquls, etc.: sc. navibus (ISl, a); 'he made it possible to utilize the others fairly well for navigation.' How lit.? 203, (3). 32. I. geruntur: 190, a. legione: with /m'ssd. 2. frumentatum: *to get grain,' from the fields. 231, a. vu: septima. 38, a, and 36. neque, etc. : ' without any suspicion of hostilities up to that time.' How lit.? 3. hominum : Britannorum. 98, a. 4. ventitaret : < came frequently,' a frequentative from venio.. 78, a. ei : tnllites. 5. portis castrorum : 334, a. in stati5ne : tur aut aere aut nummo aureo, aut taleis ferreis ad certum pondus ex- loaminatis, pro nummo. Nascitur ibi plumbum album in mediterraneis regionibus, 4. qui, etc. : there was, for example, a British tribe called Aire- bates. 6. Hominum, etc. : * The population is beyond number.' How lit. ? 7. aedificia: sc. simt. Gal- licis [aedificils] : large round huts of timbers and wickerwork, with coni- cal thatched roofs. 8. aere: 'bronze,' bronze coins. The earliest British bronze coins yet discovered date from a few years after Caesar's time. 9. nummo aureo : * gold coins,' we should say. Gold coins began to be struck in Britain at least a hundred years before Caesar's invasions (Fig. 115). taleis ferreis: ^^j-//«w. 109, a. 50. I. ad aquam: 'by the water,' the brook mentioned chap. 49, 1. 12. 3. Caesar, etc. : Caesar {se continet suo loco] ut, si . . . posset, citra vallem . . . contender ent. 4. suum locum : ' a position favorable to himself.' 157, e, Slicere : ' to entice.' 336 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 54 omnibus partibus castra altiore vallo munlri portasque obstrui atque in his administrandis rebus quam maxime concursari et cum simulatione agi timoris iubet. 51. Quibus omnibus rebus hostes invitati copias tradu- cunt aciemque iniquo loco c5nstituunt ; nostris vero etiam de vallo deductis, propius accedunt et tela intra muniti- onem ex omnibus partibus coniciunt praeconibusque cir- 5 cummissis pronuntiari iubent : Seu quis, Gallus seu Romdnus, velit ante horam tertiam ad se trdnsire, sine perlculo licere ; post id tempus non fore potestdtem. Ac sic nostros contempserunt, ut, obstructis in speciem loportis singulis ordinibus caespitum, quod ea non posse introrumpere videbantur, alii vallum manu scindere, alii fossas complere inciperent. Tum Caesar, omnibus portis eruptione facta equitatuque emisso, celeriter hostes in fugam dat, sic uti omnino pug- 15 nandi causa resisteret nemo, magnumque ex eis numerum occidit atque omnes armis exuit. Caesar, joining Cicero, praises him and his men. 52. Longius prosequi veritus, quod silvae paludesque intercedebant neque etiam parvulo detrimenta ill5rum 12. obstrui: < be blocked up.' 13. concursari: 'that the men rush about.' 73, d. agi: 'go through their motions.' How lit.? 51. I. copiSis traducunt : copias rfvum trdducunt. 114^ a. 4. praeconibus, etc. : * they sent criers around ' the camp, ' direct- ing that the announcement be made.' How lit.? 9. in speciem : * for show.' The barriers in the gates, of turf and only the breadth of a sod in thickness, seemed solid but were easily pushed over from the inside. 10 e5 — introrumpere : 'to break in that way,' through the gates. 14. omnino — nemo : ' no one at all.' 52. 2. neque . . . relinqui: 'and that no opportunity was left for (inflicting) even a trifling loss upon them.' How lit.? V, 52] Caesar's Repressive Measures 337 locum reliriqui videbat, omnibus suis incolumibus eodem die ad Ciceronem pervenit. institutas turres, testudines munitionesque hostium ad-s miratur ; producta legione, cognoscit, n5n decimum quem- que esse reliquum mllitem sine vulnere ; ex his omnibus iudicat rebus, quanto cum perlculo et quanta cum virtute res sint administratae. Ciceronem pro eius merito legio- nemque collaudat ; centuriones singillatim tribunosque lo militum appellat, quorum egregiam fuisse virtutem testi- monio Ciceronis cognoverat. De casu Sabini et Cottae certius ex captivis cognoscit. Postero die, contione habita, rem gestam proponit, milites consolatur et conf irmat ; quod detrimentum culpa et teme- 15 ritate legati sit acceptum, hoc aequiore animo ferundum docet, quod, beneficio deorum immortalium et virtute eo- rum expiato incommodo, neque hostibus diutina laetitia neque ipsis longior dolor relinquatur. 5. turrSs, etc. : chap. 42, 11. lo-ii, and Notes. 6. producta : ' drawn up ' for review. non, etc. : ' that not one soldier in ten had escaped un wounded.' Howlit..'* 170, a. 9. res, etc.: 'the operations ' for defence ^were handled.' eius merito : Cicero's heroic defence is famous in military annals. II. appellat: Uie addressed' in complimentary terms. 13. certius : an earlier report had come from Labienus (chap. 37). 14. contione: 'an assembly.' rem, etc. : 'set forth what had happened.' 15. quod dStrimentum : id detritnenttwi, quod. culpa et temeritate : ' through the culpable rashness.' 2S8, d. 16. hoc : ' on this account.' aequiore animo : ' with the greater tranquillity.' 18. expiato: 'atoned for.' 53-58. Summary. A report of the relief of Cicero's camp was quickly conveyed to Labienus, encamped on the Treveran border (Map ll) ; but notwithstanding this victory Caesar found it increasingly difficult to prevent revolts. Finally Indutiomarus and the Treverans made an attack on Labienus, who first feigned fear, then surprised and routed them. Indutiomarus was slain. COMMENTARIUS SEXTUS Second Expedition into Germany. 9-29 Caesar bridges the Rhine ^ crosses, makes terms with the Uhii, 9. Caesar, postquam ex Menapiis in Treveros venit, duabus de causis Rhenum transire constituit ; quarum una erat, quod German! auxilia contra se Treveris miserant, altera, ne ad eos Ambiorix receptum haberet. His con- s stitutis rebus, paulum supra eum locum, quo ante exercitum traduxerat, facere pontem instituit. Nota atque instituta ratione, magno militum studio, paucis diebus opus efficitur. Firmo in Treveris ad pontem praesidio rellcto, ne quis ab his subito motus oreretur, reliquas copias equitatumque 10 traducit. Ubii, qui ante obsides dederant atque in dediti5nem ve- nerant, purgandi sul causa ad eum legates mittunt, qui doceant, neque auxilia ex sua civitate in Trever5s missa neque ab se fidem laesam ; petunt atque orant, ut sibi 1-8. Summary. Early in 53 b.c. Caesar heard that .the Nervians and several other peoples were preparing for war. By sudden movements he forced the Nervians, Senones, and Menapians to sue for peace, and marched into the country of the Treverans, who had meanwhile been defeated by Labienus. 9. 4. Ambiorix: cf. N. to V, 37, 1. 17. 5. ante : in 55 B.C. ; see IV, 17-19, and Notes. 6. Nota . . . studio: 'Since the plan (of such a bridge) was familiar and had been tried, (and) the soldiers worked with much enthusiasm.' How lit.? 9. orergtur : 61^ b. 12. sui: /54, ^, and ;^50, (i). qui doceant : 193, a. 14. fidem laesam [esse] : * (their) pledge had been violated/ 338 MAP 13 Operations of 53 and 52 b.c. Books VI, VII. To face page 338 EXPLANATION I. March into the Arvernian country, 52 B.C. (VII. 8). 2. "Winter quarters (VII. 9). 3. Base, 52 r..c. (VII. 10). 4. Vellaunodunum captured (VII. ii). 5. Cenabum destroyed (VII. 11). 6. Noviodunum captured (VII. 12). 7. Ava- ricum destroyed (VII. 14-28). 8. Gergovia blockaded (VII. 36 ff.). 9. Junc- tion with Labienus (VII. 62). 10. Defeat of Vercingetorix (VII. 67). VI, 10] Second Expedition into Germany 339 parcat, ne communi odio German5rum innocentes pro no- is centibus poenas pendant; si amplius obsidum velit dari, pollicentur. Cognita Caesar causa reperit, ab Suebis au- xilia missa esse ; Ubiorum satisfactionem accipit, aditus viasque in Suebos perquirit. He finds it mnpossible to reach the Suebi. 10. Interim paucis post diebus fit ab Ubiis certior, Sue- bos omnes in unum locum copias cogere atque els nationi- bus, quae sub eoruni sint imperi5, denuntiare, ut auxilia peditatus equitatusque mittant. His cognitis rebus, rem frumentariam providet, castris idoneum locum deligit ; s Ubiis imperat, ut pecora deducant suaque omnia ex agrls in oppida conferant, sperans, barbaros atque imperit5s homines, inopia cibariorum adductos, ad iniquam pugnandi condici5nem posse deduci; mandat, ut crebros explora- tores in Suebos mittant, quaeque apud eos gerantur, co- lo gnoscant. I Hi imperata faciunt et, paucis diebus inter missis, referunt : Suebos omnes, posted quam certiores nuntii de exercitu Rdmdiidrum venerint, cum omnibus suls sociorumque copizs, quds coegissent, penitus ad extremos fines se receptsse ; xs silvam, esse ibi Inflnitd magnitudine, quae appelldtur Bacenis ; hanc longe intrdrsus pertinere et, pro ndtlvd muro 15. communT odio :' indiscriminate hatred/ innocentSs, etc. : ' the innocent for the guilty.' 81. 16. amplius obsidum: 'more hostages.' 97, b. B. 201, 2; A. 346,^,3; H. 442. 19. Suebos: 282. perquirit: < made careful inquiry about.' 10. 2. in anum locum, etc. : cf. IV, 19, 11. 5-12. 9. crebros : ' a great many.' The scouts were of course Ubians ; cf. chap. 29, 1. I. 15. extremos fines: 'the most remote part of their country.' 152, a. 17. pro nativd muro : 'as a natural barrier.' 340 Caesar's Gallic War fB.c. 53 obicctam^ Cheritscos ab Suebls Siiebosque ab Cheritscis iniuriis incursidnibiisqiie prohibere ; ad eius silvae initium 20 Snebos adventum Romdndrum exspectdre constituisse. The customs of the Gauls and Germans contracted. 11-28. Political conditions in Gaul ; motives for leadership. 11. Quoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur, de Galliae Germaniaeque moribus et, quo differant hae nationes inter sese, proponere. In Gallia non solum in omnibus civitatibus atque in 5 omnibus pagis partibusque, sed paene etiam in singulis domibus facti5nes sunt, earumque factionum principes sunt, qui summam auctoritatem eorum iudicio habere ex- Istimantur, quorum ad arbitrium iQdiciumque summa omnium rerum consiliorumque redeat. 18. ab : ^ on the part of.' 19. iniuriis, etc. : 'protected . . . from destructive raids.' 238yd, and 127, a. 11. I, Quoniam, etc. : 'Since we have reached this point 'in the narrative. 73, d. ali§num : 'out of place.' The digression which follows was introduced to gratify Roman readers, who were eager to have information about the new countries ; it is regarded by historians as a source of information of prime importance regarding poetical insti- tutions and conditions of life in Northern Europe in antiquity. Cf. n. at end of chap. 23. 2. d6 — proponere: 'to give an account of.' qu5 : 'in what respect,' introduces an indirect question. 5. partibus: 'districts.' 289, c. 6. domibus : 20, c. factionSs : ' party divisions.' 7. eorum: Gallorum. iudicio: 138. 8. qu5rum : refers to (^/) qui . . . extstimantur ; 'so that the final decision in respect to all affairs and projects is referred to their arbitrament and judgment.' How lit. ? 194, ^' VI, 12] The Customs of the Gauls 341 Idque eiiis rei causa antiquitus institutum videtur, neio quis ex plebe contra potentidrem auxilii egeret ; suos enim quisque opprimi et circumvenirl non patitur, neque, aliter si faciat, ullam inter su5s habet auctoritatem. Haec eadem rati5 est in summa totius Galliae ; namque omnes civitates divlsae sunt in duas partes. is 12. Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis prin- cipes erant Aedui, alterius Sequani. Hi cum per se minus valerent, quod summa auctoritas antiquitus erat in Aeduis magnaeque eorum erant clientelae, Germanos atque Ario- vistum sibi adiunxerant eosque ad se magnis iactUris pol- s licitationibusque perduxerant. Proeliis ver5 compluribus factis secundis, atque omni nobilitate Aeduorum interfecta, tantum potentia anteces- serant, ut magnam partem clientium ab Aeduis ad se tradu- 10. Id — Institutum [esse] videtur: ^that practice seems to have become established.' eius rei causa: 'with this object in view,' referring to the clause «(? . . . egeret. How lit. ? 161, a. 11. auxilii: 127, d. egeret: 'lack.' 12. quisque: 'each (leader).' neque . . . faciat, habet: 207, (2). 14. rati5, etc. : ' This same condition holds true of the whole of Gaul' How lit.? 15. divisae: 148,c. partes: ' groups,' explained in chap. 12. 12. I. Cum: < (At the time) when.' 185, b. alterius: 22, b, and 171, b. 2. HI: 'The latter.' Previously the Arvernians had held a position of leadership ; cf. I, 31, 11. 10-28. 4. clientelae : 'dependencies,' states acknowledging the sovereignty of the Aeduans. 5. eos ad se . . . perduxerant: ' had won them over.' iactu- rls : ' pecuniary sacrifices.' 7. omnI nobilitate : cf. I, 31, 1. 21 and N. 8. tantum — antecesserant : 'they had so far outstripped (the Aeduans).' 9. clientium : dependent states are here meant. 342 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 lo cerent obsidesque ab eis principum fUios acciperent, et publice iurare cogerent, nihil se contra Sequanos c5nsilii inituros, et partem f initimi agri per vim occupatam possi- derent Galliaeque totius principatum obtinerent. Qua necessitate adductus, Diviciacus, auxilii petendi causa, IS R5mam ad senatum profectus, infecta re redierat. Adventu Caesaris facta commutatidne rerum, obsidibus Aeduis redditis, veteribus clientelis restitutis, novis per Caesarem comparatis, quod ei, qui se ad eorum amicitiam aggregaverant, meliore condicione atque aequiore imperio 20 se uti videbant, reliquls rebus eorum gratia dignitateque amplificata, Sequani principatum dimiserant. In e5rum locum Remi successerant ; quos quod adae- quare apud Caesarem gratia intellegebatur, ei, qui propter veteres inimicitias nullo modo cum AeduTs coniungi pote- 25 rant, se Remis in clientelam dicabant. Hos illi diligenter 11. pablice: 'for the state.' iurSre : as subject sc. eos, i.e. Aeduorum prmcipes. nihil — consilii: < no scheme.' 91, a. 12. occupatam possidgrent : < seized . . . and retained in their possession.' 228, a. 14. Diviciacus, etc. : the statement of Diviciacus himself on this point is summarized by Caesar, I, 31, 11. 29-33. 15. infects rg : 'without accompHshing his purpose.' How lit. ? 16. Adventu: 7^7, b. facta, etc.: the ablatives absolute are best translated by clauses. II^U, b, (2) and (3). commutatione rgrum : ' a complete change of relations.' 17. AeduiB : dative. novis : sc clientelis. 18. comparatis : for the Aeduans. sg, etc. : * had joined them- selves to them as allies.' How lit. ? 20. 8g atl : ' that they enjoyed.' reliquls rgbus : < in all other respects ' also. 22. quos . . . intelleggbatur : ' and since it was understood that they (the Remi) stood equally high in Caesar's favor.' How lit. ? 24. inimicitias: 'enmities.' coniungi: 111^. 25. Rgmis, etc. : 'attached themselves as dependents to the Remi.' How lit. ? VI, 13] The Customs of the Gauls 343 tuebantur ; ita et novam et repente collectam auctoritatem tenebant. Eo turn statu res erat, ut longe principes habe- rentur Aedui, secundum locum dignitatis Remi obtinerent. TJie tivo riding classes, and the common people, in Gaul. 13. In omni Gallia e5rum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo ; nam plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae nihil audet per se, nulli adhi- betur c5nsili6. Plerique, cum aut acre alien5 aut magni- tudine tribiit5rum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur, sese s in servitutem dicant nobilibus ; quibus in hos eadem omnia sunt iura, quae dominis in servos. Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est druidum, alterum equitum. Tlie Druids : their power as priests and judges, their organiza- tion, their teachings about the soul. Illi rebus dlvlnis intersunt, sacrificia publica ac privata lo pr5curant, religiones interpretantur; ad hos magnus adu- 26. repente collectam : ' suddenly acquired,' in the brief period since the defeat of Ariovistus, five years before. 13. I. aliquo, etc. : 'are of any account and (receive) recognition.' How lit.? 143,^. 3. servorum loco : ' as slaves.* 288, b. null! consilio : ' to no consultation.' 23, a. 4. aere alieno : 'by debt.' How lit.? 5. tributorum : '■ of the taxes.' ses§, etc. : 'attach themselves as bondmen.' How lit. ? 6. quibus, etc. : 'and these have over them.' 167, and 111. 7. quae, etc.: sc. sunt; 'as masters (have) over slaves.' 8. alterum [genus]: 171, b. druidum: ' (that of ) the Druids,' a priesthood possessing great power in Gaul and Britain. Very little is known of the Druids in Caesar's time beyond what he tells us in this book. 10. nil, etc. : 'the former have charge of the services of worship.' sacrificia — procurant ; ' regulate the sacrifices.' 1 1 . religiones interpretantur : ' settle religious questions.' 238, a. 344 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 63 lescentium numerus disciplinae causa concurrit, magn5que hi sunt apud eos hon5re. Nam fere de omnibus contrd- versiis publicis privatisque constituunt et, si quod est isfacinus admissum, si caedes facta, si de hereditate, de finibus controversia est, idem decernunt, praemia poe- nasque constituunt ; si qui, aut privatus aut populus, eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt. Haec poena apud eos est gravissima. Quibus ita est 20 interdictum, hi numerd impi5rum ac scelerat5rum habentur, his omnes decedunt, aditum eorum sermonemque defu- giunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi accipiant, neque his petentibus ius redditur neque honos ullus communi- catur. 25 His autem omnibus druidibus praeest Onus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem. H5c mortu5 aut, si qui ex reliquis excellit dignitate, succedit; aut, si sunt plures 12. disciplinae caus^ : ' in order to receive instruction.' How lit.? 81. 13. hi: the Druids. eos: Gallos. 14. quod: adjective form. 1^9, a^Tcc^A 168. 15. facta: sees/. hereditate: 'an inheritance.' 16. finibus: here 'boundaries.' Idem dScernunt : 'they like- wise render judgment.' 17. qui : substantive form ; ' any (party) ' to a controversy, ' whether . . . or,' etc. 49, a. 18. dScrgto : 'decision.' 138. sacrificiis interdicunt: 'they exclude (the offender) from the sacrifices.' 127f a. 19. Quibus : dative ; ' on whom such an interdict has been laid.' 20. numero, etc. : 'as wicked and crime-polluted men.' How lit.? 21. his: dative; 'these all men avoid.' 109, d. dSfugiunt: 'shun.' 22. contagione: 'contact ' with the excommunicated. 23. petentibus: 'though they may seek (justice).' honSs : ISyOy and d. 26. Hoc mortuS: 'When he' (the arch-Druid) 'dies.' 160, b. 27. ezcelUt: ' is preeminent.' 205 f (i). dignitate: 'in stand- ing.' 142, a. VI, 14] The Customs of the Gauls 345 pares, suffragio druidum, non numquam etiam armis, de principatu contendunt. Hi certo anni tempore in finibus Carnutum, quae regio 30 totius Galliae media habetur, consldunt in loco consecrat5. Hue omnes undique, qui controversias habent, conveniunt eorumque decretis iudiciisque parent. Disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse existimatur, et nunc, qui diligentius eam rem 35 cognoscere volunt, plerumque illo discendi causa proficis- cuntur. 14. Druides a bello abesse consuerunt neque tributa una cum reliquis pendunt, militiae vacationem omniumque rerum habent immunitatem. Tantis excitati praemiis, et sua sponte multi in disciplinam conveniunt et a parentibus propinquisque mittuntur. 5 Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur. Itaque ann5s non nulli vicenos in disciplina permanent. 28. pares: \.&., pares dignitdte. suffragio: ' by vote.' 30. quae regio : ' a region which.' 165,5. Carnutum: Fig. 122. 31. considunt : 'hold a meeting.' loco conseorato : the 'hal- lowed spot ' was probably a sacred grove. 145, a. 34. Disciplina: 'The system' of the Druids. reperta, trans- lata: 221, b. It is not now possible to determine the truth of the tradition recorded by Caesar, that Druidism originated in Britain. 35. diligentius: 'with special thoroughness.' earn rem: 'the system.' 160, d. 14. 2. una cum reliquis: 'at the same rate as the rest'; the Druids paid taxes at a lower rate than ordinary citizens, or were not legally bound to pay taxes at all. pendunt: n. to I, 36, 1. 14. militiae : 80, b. vacationem, etc. : ' exemption from ' (lit. ' of) ' military service and freedom from all (public) burdens.' 81. 4. in disciplinam : 'to receive instruction,' from the Druids. How lit.? parentibus: 81. 5. mittuntur: sc. imdti ; so to-day many "are sent" to school. 6. versuum : ' lines ' ; the metrical form was probably adopted to facilitate memorizing. ediscere : ' to learn by heart.' 7. vicenos : S6. in disciplina : ' under instruction.' 346 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 63 Neque fas esse existimant ea litteris mandare cum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque rationibus, Graecis lo litteris utantur. Id mihi duabus de causis instituisse videntur, quod neque in vulgus disci plinam efferri velint, neque eos, qui discunt, litteris confisos, minus memoriae studere ; quod fere plerisque accidit, ut praesidio litterarum dlligentiam in perdiscendo ac memoriam remittant. IS In prlmis hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animas, sed ab aliis post mortem transire ad alios; atque h5c maxime ad virtutem excitari putant, metu mortis neglecto. Figure 122. — Coin of the Carnutes. 8. ea : the teachings set forth in verse. litteris : < to writing,' we should say. cum: 'although.' 187. 9. rationibus: 'accounts,' inclu W' «»>de»' ebus but added as a concrete example; trans, 'as in,' etc. Graecis litteris: 'Greek characters,' used in writing the Gallic languages (cf. I, 29, 1. i). Gallic coins occasionally had inscriptions in the Latin ~j alphabet, in imitation of Roman coins (Fig. 122). II. quod . . . velint :' because (as it has been suggested) they do not wish to have their body of teachings spread Bronze. Obverse, head, Venus; abroad among the common people,' who inscription, pixTiLos, a name. Re- would remain in subjection to the druidi- verse.lion-headedgriffinholdinpdown i • ^1 j 1 i ^1 aman: inscription P.IX or PiLx. ^^^ priesthood only SO long as they should be kept in ignorance. 183, a. 12. discunt : vivid use of the indicative ; cf. 220. litteris : 135, a. minus — studere : 'pay too little heed.' 13. quod: 'and this.' 167. . praesidio littorSrum : 'through reliance upon written records.' How lit. ? 14. perdiscendo: 'learning by heart.' 230, {4). The truth of this statement is unquestioned. 15. animus : ' the soul,' as life-principle ; the doctrine of transmigra- tion of souls, or metempsychosis, was widely accepted in antiquity, and is held to-day by the Buddhfsts. 92, a. 16. aliis, alios : 171, b, and 164, a. h6c : ' by this (belief).' 17. excitSri: impersonal; 'men are spurred on.' metfl, etc. : lU. b, (3). VI, 16] The Customs of the Gauls 347 Multa praeterea de sideribus atque eorum motu, de mundi ac terrarum magnitudine, de rerum natura, de deorum im- mortalium vi ac potestate disputant et iuventuti tradunt. 20 Tlie knights : their warlike occupation, and their retainers. 16. Alterum genus est equitum. Hi, cum est usus atque aliquod helium incidit (quod fere ante Caesaris ad- ventura quotannis accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi iniurias in- ferrent aut illatas propulsarent), omnes in hello versantur, atque eorum ut quisque est genere copiisque araplissimus, s ita plurimos circum se amhactos clientesque hahet. Hanc unam gratiam potentiamque noverunt. Superstitions of the Gauls ; their human sacrifices. 16. Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita reli- gionihus, atque oh eam causam, qui sunt affecti graviorihus morhis quique in proeliis perlculisque versantur, aut pro victimis homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent, ad- ministrisque ad ea sacrificia druidihus utuntur, quod, pros vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur, non posse deorum 18. Multa — disputant: 'They treat many subjects.' sideri- bus: 'heavenly bodies.' mundi: ' the universe.' 19. terrarum : for ordis terrdrutn, 'the earth.' 15. I. Alterum: cf. chap. 13,1.8. cum: 'whenever.' 75^, <2. 2. aliquod: It.9, a. incidit: 'breaks out.' quod: 'and this.' 5. eorum, etc. : 'each knight has about him the greatest number of vassals and retainers that his social position and resources will war- rant.' How lit.? A notable example is Orgetorix (I, 4, 11. 4-7). 6. Hanc, etc. : ' This (numerousness of retinue) is the only sign of influence and power that they recognize.' How lit. ? 116, b. 16. I. omnis: 'as a whole.' dedita: 'devoted.' 1^8, c. re- ligionibus : ' religious observances.' 3. morbis: 'diseases.' pro victimis : 'as victims.' 4. immolant : ' offer up.' se immolaturos : i.e. se immoldtiiros esse homines pro victimis. vovent : ' vow.' administris : ' as officiating priests.' 7, c, and 131, f. 348 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 63 immortalium numen placarl arbitrantur; publiceque eius- dem generis habent instituta sacrificia. Alii immani magnitudine simulacra habent, qu5rum con- lotexta viminibus membra vivis hominibus complent; quibus succensis, circumvent! flamma exanimantur homines. Supplicia eorum, qui in furto aut latrocinio aut aliqua noxia sint comprehensT, gratiora dis immortalibus esse arbitrantur; sed cum eius generis copia defecit, etiam ad is innocentium supplicia descendunt. The gods worshipped by the Gauls. 17. Deorum maxime Mercupum colunt. Huius sunt plurima simulacra; hunc omnium invent5rem artium fe- 7. numen: ^majesty ;' lit. * nod.' pl5c5ri: 'be appeased.' 8. habent instituta: 229, a. B. 337, 7; A. 497, d; H. 431, 3. sacrificia : human sacrifices were offered at times in Eastern lands (cf., tor example, 2 Kings, iii. 27), and in ancient Mexico ; and even at Rome an instance of human sacrifice is reported as late as 216 b. c. 9. simulacra : ^ images ' of wickerwork, having some resemblance to the human form. 10. VI VIS : 'living.' quibus: et els {simuldcris^. 12. Supplicia: 92, a. furto: 'theft.' latrociniS : 'highway robbery.' 13. noxia : 'crime.' gratiora: ' more acceptable.' 15. dgscendunt: 'resort.' 17. I. Deorum: dependent on maxitne. 97, e. Mercurium : in the case of Mercury and the other gods mentioned, Caesar gives the name of the Roman divinity whose attributes and functions seemed to him to correspond most nearly with those of the Gallic divinity ; the Gallic names were of course not known to Roman readers. 2. simulacra: since the Gauls began making statues only after the Roman conquest, it has been suggested that the ' images ' of Mercury referred to here were the huge upright stones (menhirs) of which several groups must have been seen by Caesar in Gaul (Fig. 123), and that these were associated in some way with the worship of the Gallic divinity identified by him with this god. Pillars of a certain type were sacred to Hermes, the Greek god corresponding with Mercury, inventorem : 80j b, artium: 'arts.' 81. iexyxnt. 172, c. VI, 17] The Customs of the Gauls 349 runt, hunc viarum atque itinerum ducetn, hunc ad quaestus pecuniae mercaturasque habere vim maximam arbitrantur ; post hunc, Apollinem et Martem et lovem et Minervam. 5 De his eandem fere, quam reliquae gentes, habent opi- nionem : Apollinem morb5s depellere, Minervam operum atque artificiorum initia tradere, lovem imperium caelestium tenere, Martem bella regere. Huic, cum proehS dlmicare constituerunt, ea, quae belldio ceperint, plerumque devovent ; cum superaverunt, animalia capta immolant reliquasque res in unum locum conferunt. Figure 123. — Sacred stones called Menhirs. Probably thought by Caesar to be images of Mercury. These Menhirs are near that part of the west coast where Caesar and his army witnessed the • sea-fight with the Venetans (III, 14, 1. 25). In the background is a modern windmill. 3. viarum: Mercury is 'giiide for roads' in that he points out the road, and ' for journeys ' because he accompanies the traveler on the way. quaestus: 'acquisition.' 92, a. 4. mercaturas : ^ commercial transactions.' 7. Apollinem, etc. : the infinitive clauses are appositional. 12, d. operum, etc. : ' imparts the elements of the trades and crafts.' 8. caelestium : <■ the gods ' as dwellers in the sky {caelum). II. ceperint: subjunctive in implied indirect discourse, for the future perfect indicative. cum superaverunt : post victoriam. animalia : 16, b, and 80, b. 350 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 Multis in civitatibus harum rerum exstructos tumulos locis c5nsecratis conspicarl licet ; neque saepe accidit, ut isneglecta quispiam religione aut capta apud se occultare aut posita tollere auderet, gravissimumque ei rei supplicium cum cruciatu constitutum est. 18. Galli se omnes ab Dite patre pr5gnatos praedicant idque ab druidibus proditum dicunt. Ob earn causam spatia omnis temporis non numerd dierum, sed noctium finiunt ; dies natales et mensium et annorum initia sic ob- s servant, ut noctem dies subsequatur. Strange customs of the Gauls. In reliquis vitae institutis hoc fere ab reliquis differunt, quod suos liberos, nisi cum adoleverunt, ut munus militiae 13. tumulos : such piles of booty would after a time rot down and be covered with vegetation, presenting the appearance of a mound. 15. quispiam: 49, a. capta: neuter plural, accusative. 227, ^,(4). apudsg: ' in his possession.' 16. posita tollere : 'to take away what had been deposited' as an offering to the gods, as Achan did (Joshua, chap. 7, verses 20-22). supplicium, etc. : like the terrible doom of Achan (Josh. 7, 23-26). 18. I . Dite patre : Caesar identifies the Gallic divinity with a Roman god of the Underworld known in earlier times as '• Father Dis ' {Dls pater), later generally called Pluto. 128, b. 2. Ob earn causam : because sprung from the god of the Under- world, the realm of darkness and night. 4. finiunt : ' measure.' The ancient Germans also reckoned time by the number of nights ; traces of this reckoning remain in our words "fortnight" (= fourteen nights) and "sennight" (= seven nights, i.e. a week) . dies nSit^lSs : ' birthdays.' 5. ut, etc. : instead of saying " the first day of the month," as we do, the Gauls said * the first night of the month,' ' the first night of the year,' * birthnight,' etc. Primitive peoples find it more difficult to keep track of time by days than by nights because it is easier to note the changes of the moon than of the sun. So Indians reckoned time by " moons." 6. hoc: 142, a. ab reliquis : ' from all other people.' 171, a. 7. adol6v6runt : * have grown up.' mdnus militiae : ' military service.' VI, 19] The Customs of the Gauls 351 sustinere possint, palam ad se adire non patiuntur, filium- que puerili aetate in publico in conspectu patris assistere turpe ducunt. ic 19. Viri, quantas pecunias ab uxoribus dotis nomine acceperunt, tantas ex suis bonis, aestimatione facta, cum dotibus communicant. Huius omnis pecuniae coniunctim ratio habetur fructusque servantur ; uter eorum vita supe- ravit, ad eum pars utriusque cum fructibus superiorum s temporum pervenit. Viri in uxores, sicuti in liberos, vitae necisque habent potestatem ; et cum pater familiae, illustriore loco natus, 8. sg : only the fathers are referred to, as shown by 1. 9. 9. puerili aetate: 'while in the age of childhood.' How lit.? US, a. 10. turpe : predicative, 'consider it disgraceful for a son ... to ap- pear.' On public occasions the Gauls would appear armed ; it was thought in bad form for an armed man to have with him, in a public place, a son who was not also armed. 19. I. Viri: 'husbands'; German J/<2«« is similarly used. pe- cunias : ' property ' in general ; trans, as if tantas pecunias, quantas. dotis nomine : ' as dowry.' 17, c, 2. bonis : 'possessions.' aestimatione facta :' making an esti- mate of value.' II^I^, b, (2). 3. communicant: 'set aside.' From his own pr6perty the hus- band set aside an amount equal to the dower received with the wife. The income from this common fund, or estate, was saved up and added to the principal; when the husband or wife died the whole went to the survivor. coniunctim, etc. : ' a joint account is kept.' How lit.? 4. fructus : 'income.' 92, a. uter: 'whichever,' husband or wife. vita: 11^2, a. 5. utriusque: 'of both.' 51. The custom could have prevailed only among the higher classes, on account of the abject poverty of the common folk (chap. 13, 11. 2-4). 7. in: 'over.' vitae, etc.: among the early Romans also the father had ' the power of life and death ' over his household. 8. pater familiae: 'the head of a family.' illustriore loco natus : ' of higher rank.' 128, a. 352 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 decessit, eius propinqui cdnveniunt et, de morte si res in lo suspicionem venit, de uxoribus in servilem modum quaesti- onem habent et, si compertum est, igni atque omnibus tor- mentis excruciatas interficiunt. Funera sunt pro cultu Gallorum magnifica et sumptuosa ; omniaque, quae vivis cordi fuisse arbitrantur, in ignem in- isferunt, etiam animalia, ac paulo supra banc memoriam servi 9. d6, etc. : ' if suspicion has arisen regarding (the cause of) death.' How lit.? 10. u:soribus : the plural implies the existence of polygamy among the higher classes in Gaul. in, etc. : * an examination like that of slaves,' under torture. How lit. ? Roman law and custom sanctioned the torture of slaves on the death of a master under suspicious cir- cumstances. 1 1 . compertum est : im- personal, * (their guilt) has been proved.' igni, etc. : 'agonize and kill them with fire and every instrument of torture.' 228, a, and 205 (3). 13. Funera: 'funerals.' 13, e. pro cultti : * con- sidering the civilization,' which in art as in life seemed to the Roman crude (Fig. 124). magnifica: 'splen- did.' SI. sumptuosa: ' costly.' 15, /. 14. cordi fuisse: 'were dear.' How lit.? /O,^, and Figure 124. — Gallic bronze bracelets. 112, b. Ignem: of the Bronze bracelets and neck rings were popular funeral pyre. The ashes were ornaments in ancient Gaul. sometimes buried in WOOden buckets adorned with bronze ornaments (Fig. 125 ; wood restored). 15. supra hanc memoriam : ' before our time.' How lit. ? VI, 20] The Customs of the Gauls 353 at clientes, qu5s ab els dilectos esse constabat, iustis fune- - bribus confeclis, urta cremabantur. TJieir precautions in dealing with rumors affecting public safety. 20. Quae civitates commodius suam rem publicam ad- ministrare existimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a finitimis rumore aut fama acceperit, uti ad magistratum deferat neve cum quo alio communicet, quod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsTs ru- 5 moribus terrerl et ad facinus impelli et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est. Magistratus, quae visa sunt, occultant, quaeque esse ex usu iudicaverunt, multitudini produnt. De re publica nisi per concilium loqui n5n conceditur. ic 16. dilectos esse: ' were loved.' iustis, etc : ' on the comple- tion of the regular funeral rites.' 17. una: 'at the same time,' with the body of the master. The burning of favorite dependents on their master's funeral pyre was probably intended to continue their service for him in the other world. Interment with- out burning was also in vogue in Gaul. 20. I. Quae civitates: i.e. eae civttdtesy quae. rem publicam : 'public affairs.' 2. habent, etc.: ' have it ordained by law that if anybody has heard any- thing.' 45, a. 3. d6 re publica: 'touching the public interest.' How lit.? 4. n§ve : 'and not.' qu6:^5, «. 5. falsis: 'baseless.' 83j a. Cf. IV ,5,11. 5-13- 8. visa sunt i.e. visa sunt occul- tanda, ' which they have thought best to conceal.' quaeque : et {en) quae. 10. per concilium : ' at an assem- bly' duly convoked, lit. 'through (the medium of) an assembly.' Very few states could have enforced this regulation for any length of time. Figure, 125. — bucKci m which burnt human bones were found ; imported from Gaul into Britain in Caesar's time. 354 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 Altogether different are the beliefs and customs of the Germans. 21. German! multum ab hac consuetudine differunt. Nam neque druides habent, qui rebus divinls praesint, ne- que sacrificiis student. Deorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et qu5rum aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et s Vulcanumet Lunam; reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt. Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit ; a parvis labori ac duritiae student. The Germans do not take to farming, arid have no private land. 22. Agri culturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, came consistit. Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet propri5s ; sed magistra- tes ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibus- sque hominum, quique una coierunt, quantum et quo loco 21. I. Germani, etc. : ' The German mode of life and goverament differs greatly from that described.' How lit. ? 238, b. 2. druides: there were priests among the Germans, but they did not form a dominant class, as the Druids did in Gaul. rgbus divi- nlB: chap. 13, 1. ID, and N. praesint: 193, a. B. 282, 2; A. 531,2. 3. Deorum, etc. ; the religion of the Germans in Caesar's time was a primitive nature-worship. 5. Vulcanum : god of fire. Lunam : the ho.st of Ariovistus dared not fight before the new moon (I, 50, 11. 1 1-17). reliquos : sc deos. 6. vgnationibus : 'hunting' 92, a. in, etc.: 'in warlike pursuits.' 7. & parvis : ' from childhood.' duritiae : ' hardship.' 22. 2. lacte: 10, g. c5se6 : 'cheese.' carne : 18, a. 3. fines proprios : ' lands of his own ' ; there was no private own- ership of land. Cf IV, i, 11. 13-15. 4. in annos singulds : 'each year.' gentibus: 'clans.' cog- nationibus : ' those connected by blood,' groups of families. 5. quique, etc.: 'and (to those) who have joined together,' asso- ciating themselves for the purpose. quantum — agri, etc. : 'as much land as they deem proper, and in whatever place (they think best).' VI, 23] The Customs of the Germans 355 visum est agri, attribuunt, atque anno post alio transire cogunt. Eius rei multas afferunt causas : ne, assidua consuetu- dine capti, studium belli gerendi agri cultura commutent; ne latos fines parare studeant, potentioresque humili5res lo possessionibus expellant; ne accuratius ad frigora atque aestus vitandos aedificent ; ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupi- ditas, qua ex re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur ; ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat. is TJieir ambitions are military; but they protect a guest. 23. Civitatibus maxima laus est, quam latissime circum se, vastatis finibus, solitudines habere. Hoc proprium virtutis existimant, expulsos agrls finitimos cedere, neque quemquam prope audere cdnsistere ; simul hoc se fore tu- tiores arbitrantur, repentinae incursi5nis timore sublato. s Cum bellum civitas aut illatum defendit aut infert, magis- 6. visum est : sc. eis {7nagistrdtibus ac prificipibiis) . anno : 140. Cf. IV, I, 11. 9-13. alio : adverb, 'to another place.' 8. Eius rei causas : ' explanations of this practice,' defined by the ^/-clauses and ///-clause following. assidua, etc. : ' captivated by the attractiveness of permanent residence.' How lit. ? 9. cultura: 139. A. 417, b; H. 478, 4. II. accuratius: ' with too great pains.' frigora: 92, c. 13. dissenslones :' dissensions.' 81. nascuntur: indicative as expressing the view of the writer ; cf. 220. 14. animi aequitate: 'in a state of contentment.' How lit.? cum, etc. : ' each one seeing.' 15. cum potentissimis : cum opibiis potentissiniorum. 238, b. 23. I. maxima laus : ' the highest distinction.' quam: 153, c. 2. proprium virtutis : ' a proof of valor.' How lit.? 102. Cf. IV, 3, 11. 1-5- 3. neque quemquam : 'and that no one.' 168, and 49, a. 5. incursionis : 'raid.' timore: i44> '^^ (3)- 6. bellum illatum defendit : ' repels an attack that has been made.' 356 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 53 tratus, qui ei bello praesint et vitae necisque habeant potestatem, deliguntur. In pace nullus est communis magistratus, sed principes regionum atque pagdrum inter losuos ius dicunt contr5versiasque minuunt. Latrocinia nullam habent infamiam, quae extra fines cuiusque civitatis fiunt, atque ea iuventutis exercendae ac desidiae minuendae causa fieri praedicant. Atque ubi quis ex principibus in concilia dixit, se ducem fore, qui sequl [5 velint, profiteantur, c5nsurgunt ei, qui et causam et homi- nem probant, suumque auxilium pollicentur atque a mul- titudine collaudantur; qui ex his secuti non sunt, in desertorum ac proditorum numero ducuntur, omniumque his rerum postea fides derogatur. 7. praesint : 193, a. B. 282, 2 ; A. 531, 2 ; H. 590. 8. communis : ' common ' to a whole people or tribe. 9. principes, etc. : ' the head men of divisions and districts.' Noth- ing is known about the details of the German civil administration in Caesar's time ; these probably varied somewhat among the different peoples. ID. ius dicunt : 'administer justice.' II. Latrocinia : 'marauding expeditions ' outside their own borders have generally been considered by barbarous peoples as not merely permissible but even praiseworthy. habent : ' involve.' infa- miam : ' disgrace.' 13. dSsidiae : 'indolence.' praedicant: 'they (the Germans) declare.' quis : 4.9, a. 14. ducem: 'leader' of an expedition or raid. qui : as ante- cedent supply ei, subject of profiteantur. 15. profiteantur: ' that they . . . are to volunteer.' 216. 17. ex his: 'of those' who have offered to follow. In this volun- tary relation between the chieftain as leader and his followers lies the origin of the peculiar relation between lord and vassal in the Middle Ages. 18. dSsertorum, etc. : ' as deserters and traitors.' SI. omnium rSrum fld6s : ' confidence in all matters,' not merely in respect to war- like prowess. 19. his: dative. 109 'b. dSrogStur : 'is withdrawn.' VI. 24] The Customs of the Germans 357 Hospitem violare fas n5n putant; qui quacumque deao causa ad eos venerunt, ab iniuria prohibent, sanctos habent, bisque omnium domus patent victusque communicatur. Tlie Gauls, once superior to the Germans, are now inferior. 24. Ac fuit antea tempus, cum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, ultro bella inferrent, propter hominum multi- tudinem agrique inopiam trans Rhenum colonias mitterent. Itaque ea, quae fertilissima Germaniae sunt, loca, circum Hercyniam silvam, quam Eratosthenl et quibusdam Graecis s qui: as antece- 50, a. 20. Hospitem violare : ' to maltreat a guest.' dent supply eos, object oi prohibent. quacumque References. The statements in chapters 22 and 23 about the institutions of the early Germans are of particular interest; for they reveal the applica- tion, in a crude way, of principles of government the fuller outworking of which in the feudal system and in the English Constitution have had much to do with shaping the political history of Europe, and even of America. Ref- erences are: Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, vol. I,, chaps, i and 2; Taylor, Origin and Growth of the English Constitution, book I., chaps. I, 2; Adams, Civihzation during the Middle Ages, chap. 5; Hallam, View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, chap. 2. 24. 2. inferrent, mitterent : 238, a. 3. trans Rhenum ; the Gauls in earlier times had not only held ex- tensive regions east of the Rhine, but had pressed far down into Italy, giving to Cisalpine Gaul its name. The •Boii (as noted elsewhere) gave their name to " Bohemia," and coins struck by different branches of the Boii, east of the Rhine and in northern Italy, have been found (Fig. 126 and Vocab. under Boii). colonias : 81. 4. fertilissima : ' most productive.' 81. loca: accusative. 5. Hercyniam silvam : see Vocab. Eratosthenl : see Vocab. quibusdam : 168. Graecis : it is not now possible to determine to what Greek writers Caesar refers. Figure 126. — Coin of the Boii. Silver ; probably struck east of the Rhine, while the Boii still dwelt there. Reverse, serpent with a lion's head. 358 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 fama notam esse video, quam illi Orcyniam appellant, Volcae Tectosages occupaverunt atque ibi consederunt ; quae gens ad hoc tempus his sedibus sese continet sum- mamque habet iustitiae et bellicae laudis opinionem. lo Nunc, quod in eadem inopia, egestate, patientia, qua ante, German! permanent, eodem victu et cultu corporis utuntur, GallTs autem provinciarum propinquitas et trans- marinarum rerum notitia multa ad copiam atque usus largitur, paulatim assuefacti superarl multisque victi proeliis, 15 ne se quidem ipsi cum illls virtute comparant. The Hercynian forest, and the wonderful animals found in it. 25. Huius Hercyniae silvae, quae supra demonstrata est, latitude vim dierum iter expedite patet ; non enim 6. video : Caesar evidently had before him the works of the Greek writers referred to. He probably kept at his headquarters copies of writings that he thought might be in any way useful in his campaigns. 7. Volcae Tectosages : see Vocab. under Tectosages. 8. quae gens: 'and that people.' ad . . . continet: 'to this day continues to maintain itself/ a Gallic outpost, as it were, on German soil. summam : 353, d. 9. bellicae, etc. : ' reputation for . . . prowess in war.' 10. in, etc. : 'in the (same condition of) poverty, privation, (and) endurance as before.' 23J^, a. 12. provinciarum: the two provinces. Cisalpine Gaul and "the Province" in Transalpine Gaul. transmarinarum, etc. : ' familiarity with products brought across the sea,' which entered Gaul chiefly through the port of Massilia. How lit. ? 293, a. 13. multa: 'many articles,' not contributing to the "simple life." ad . . . largitur : ' supply in abundance for common use.' How lit. ? 15. ipsI: Galli. illis : trans, as if GermanU. 25. I. supra : chap. 24, 1. 5. 2. latitude: 'breadth,' from north to south. villi, etc : 21^3, c. expedito : 'for an unencumbered (traveler),' who might average 20 miles a day ; if so, the ' nine days' journey ' would be a rough equiva- lent of 180 miles. VI, 26] Animals in the Hercynian Forest 359 aliter flniri potest, neque mensuras itinerum n5verunt. Ori- tur ab Helvetiorum et Nemetum et Rauracorum finibus, rec- taque fluminis Danuvii regione pertinet ad fines Dacorum s et Anartium ; hinc se flectit sinistrorsus, diversis a flumine regionibus, multarumque gentium fines propter magnitu- dinem attingit; neque quisquam est huius Germaniae, qui se aut adisse ad initium eius silvae dicat, cum dierum iter LX processerit, aut, quo ex loco oriatur, acceperit ; multaque lo in ea genera ferarum nasci constat, quae reliquis in locis visa non sint ; ex quibus quae maxime differant a ceteris et memoriae prodenda videantur, haec sunt. 26. Est bos cervl figura, cuius a media fronte inter aures unum cornu exsistit, excelsius magisque derectum his, quae 3- neque, etc. : ' and (the people) have no system of measuring dis- tances,' by paces and miles (243, a) such as the Romans had. How lit. ? Oritur : sc. ea (Hercynia silvd) . 4. finibus: 'frontiers.' rgcta, etc. : ' following the line of the Danube it extends ' How lit. ? 5. regione : 136, b. 6. sinistrorsus : ' to the left ' of the Danube, spreading out north- ward, toward the Carpathian Mountains. diversis, etc. : ' in a direc- tion away from the river.' 92, a. 8. huius Germaniae : ' of this (part of) Germany,' the western part. 9. initium : the eastern limit. dicat : 19^, a. cum : 187 . 11. ferarum: 'wild animals.' quae: 'such as.' 194, ct. ^^c- liquis locis : 'any other places.' 12. ex quibus quae: et ex els {ed) quae. 13. memoriae: dative; trans., 'seem worthy of mention.' How lit.? haec: 161, a. 26. I. Est : 90, a. bos, etc. : 'an ox having the form of a stag.' Caesar is describing the reindeer, with which the American caribou is closely related. As a descriptive term bos was applied also to the ele- phant, one name of which was Lilca bos, ' Lucanian cow.' 18, a. figura: 143, a. media: 152, a. aures: 'ears.' 82, c. 2. unum cornu : reindeer and caribou shed their antlers each year, and Caesar's informant may have seen a reindeer which had lost one antler, but had not yet shed the other. In the Provincial Museum at 360 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 nobis nota sunt, cornibus; ab eius summo sicut palmae ramlque late diffunduntur. Eadem est feminae marisque 5 natura, eadem forma magnitudoque cornuum. Figure 127. — Caribou with one horn. In the Provincial Museum at Victoria, British Columbia. Victoria, British Columbia, there is a degenerate caribou which, when shot, had only one antler (Fig. 127). excelsius, etc. : 'higher and straighter.' 30, and 129, a. 3. ab eiua summo : ' at the end of the antler.' How lit. ? slcut, etc.: 'hands' (i.e. with fingers extended) 'and branches, as it were, are widely spread out.' The aptness of the description, and the com- parison with the deer-horns familiar to the Romans {nobis nota sunt)^ suggest that Caesar had probably obtained an antler of a reindeer. The error of placing a single antler at the middle of the forehead of the reindeer may be due to an interpreter's misunderstanding ; if so, the error is certainly no more remarkable than that mistranslation of Exodus (chapter 34, verse 29), which led Michael Angelo to put horns on his famous statue of Moses. 4. fSminae, etc. : *the natural characteristics of the male and the female.' maris: 13, g. 5. eadem, etc. : here again Caesar was misinformed; the antlers of the female reindeer are somewhat smaller than those of the male , VI, 27] Animals in the Hercynian Forest 361 27. Sunt item, quae appellantur alces. Harum est consimilis capris figura et varietas pellium, sed magnitudine paulo antecedunt mutilaeque sunt cornibus et crura sine nodis articulisque habent, neque quietis causa procumbunt, neque, si quo affllctae casu conciderunt, erigere sese auts sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus ; ad eas se applicant, at- que ita, paulum mode reclinatae, quietem capiunt. Quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatdribus, quo se recipere consuerint, omnes eo loco aut ab radicibus subru- lo 27. I. alcSs : 'moose.' The American moose closely resembles the European elk, to which Caesar refers ; the American elk belongs to a different genus. 2. capris: \.^. figurae (dative) caprarum^'- (\W€) that of goats'; brachylogy. 238, b. varietSs : ' mottled appearance.' 3. antecedunt: 'they sur- pass (the reindeer).' muti- lae, etc. : ' their horns present a broken appearance ' (Fig. 128). How lit.? cornibus: 1^2, a. crura: Megs.' 13, g. 4. nodis articulisque: ' nodes and joints.' In this state- ment Caesar reflects the condi- tion of scientific knowledge in his time. The even more marvelous uni- corn found a place in a textbook of Natural History as late as the fourteenth century. In England down to the nineteenth century the belief was still current that elephants have no joints in their legs, quietis : 10, e. 5. afElictae : ' thrown down.' erigere, etc. : ' to assume a stand- ing position, or raise themselves up.' 7. sunt pro cubilibus: 'serve as resting-places.' ad, etc.: ^they lean up against these.' 8. reclinatae : ' leaning to one side ' ; lit. ' leaned back.' 9. cum: 185, b. venatoribus : 'hunters.' 7J^,a. 10. omnes: viiih arbores. 353. d. ab : 'at.' 126, c. Figure 128. — Horns of a Moose. 362 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 53 unt aut accidunt arbores, tantum, ut summa species earum stantium relinquatur. Hue cum se consuetudine reclina- verunt, infirmas arbores pondere affllgunt atque una ipsae concidunt. 28. Tertium est genus eorum, qui uri appellantur. Hi sunt magnitudine paul5 infra elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri. Magna vis eorum est et magna velocitas, neque homini neque ferae, quam c5nspexerunt, parcunt. s Hos studiose foveis capt5s interficiunt. Hoc se labore durant adulescentes atque h5c genere venationis exercent, et qui plurimos ex his interfecerunt, relatis in publicum cornibus, quae sint testim5nio, magnam ferunt laudem. Sed assuescere ad homines et mansuefieri ne parvuli quidem 10 excepti possunt. Amplitudo cornuum et figura et species multum a nostr5- 11. accidunt: c 12. quod spatium: 'a distance which.' Perhaps men had been posted in advance along the roads leading from Cenabum, in readiness to transmit the news ; otherwise the population must have been so dense over the country that neighbors were within hailing distance. 165, b. 4. I. ibi: in the country of the Arvernians ; Map 13. 2 . principatum totius Galliae : ' a position of leadership through- out the Celtic country,' on account of his influence. 287, b. 3. earn: 161, a. causam: explained by the ^//^^-clause. 5. clientibus : a feudal following, like that of Orgetorix (I, 4). 6. ad arma concurritur : ' they rushed to arms.' How lit. ? 73, d. patruo : ' uncle,' on his father's side. 7. hanc, etc. : *that fortune ought not to be tempted in this way ' ; cf. Fig. 198. How lit.? II. quoscumque, etc.: 'all the men of his state whom he ap- proached.' 50, a. 308 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 arma capiant, magnlsque coactis copiis adversaries suos, a quibus paul5 ante erat eiectus, expellit ex civitate. Rex IS ab suis appellatur. Dimittit qu5que versus legationes ; obtestatur, ut in fide maneant. Vercingetorix wins over many states, including the Bituriges. Celeriter sibi Senones, Parisi5s, Pictones, Cadurcos, Tu- ronos, Aulercos, Lemovices, Andes reliquosque omnes, qui Oceanum attingunt, adiungit ; omnium consensu ad 2oeum defertur imperium. Qua oblata potestate, omnibus his civitatibus obsides imperat, certum numerum militum ad se celeriter adduci iubet, armorum quantum quaeque civitas domf quodque ante tempus efficiat, constituit ; in primis equitatui studet. 25 Summae diligentiae summam imperil severitatem addit ; magnitudine supplicii dubitantes cogit. Nam, maiore com- misso delicto, igni atque omnibus tormentis necat, leviore de causa auribus desectis, aut singulis effossis oculis, domum remittit, ut sint reliquis documento et magnitudine poenae 30 perterreant alios. 5. His supplicils celeriter coacto exercitu, Lucterium Cadurcum, summae hominem audaciae, cum parte copia- rum in Rutenos mittit; ipse ia Bituriges proficiscitur. 13. advers&rios : * opponents,' such as Gobannitio. 16. obtestatur: 'he adjured (his allies),' through his envoys. 22. Armorum quantum, etc.: 'how great a supply of arms each state should furnish.' 97, b. 23. domi: 'of its own manufacture,' lit. 'at home.' 11^6. quod, etc. : ' and before what time ' ; Vercingetorix fixed the date for. delivery. 26. dubitantes : ' those who hesitated ' to join him. 227, a, (4). 27. dglicto : 'offence.' uecat : 2,z. eiun qui id commiserat. 28. leviore dg causa : \.q. si qui levius peccdvermtt. auribus, etc. : ' he cut off their ears, or gouged out one eye, and.' />^4, b, (2). 29. documento: 'a warning.' 112. b. 5. 3. Rutenos, etc : Vercingetorix (Figures 18, 145) proceeds with great energy against the states friendly to Caesar. VII, 6] General Uprising in Gaul 369 Eius adventu Bituriges ad Aeduos, quorum erant in fide, legates mittunt subsidium rogatum, quo facilius hostiums copias sustinere possint. Aedui de consilio legatorum, quos Caesar ad exercitum reliquerat, copias equitatus peditatusque subsidio Biturigi- bus mittunt. Qui cum ad flumen Ligerim venissent, quod Bituriges ab Aeduls dividit, paucos dies ibi morati neque lo flumen transire ausi, domum revertuntur legatlsque nostris reniintiant, se Bitiirigimi perfidiani veritos revertisse, qiii- biis id consilii fidsse cognoverint, ut, si Jlumefi trdnslssent, una ex parte ipsi, altera Arverni se circumsisterent. Id eane de causa, quam legatis pronuntiarunt, an perfidia 15 adducti fecerint, quod nihil n5bis constat, non videtur pro certo esse ponendum. Bituriges eorum discessu statim se cum Arvernis coniun- gunt. Caesar leaves Cisalpine Gaul, proceeds to Narbo, in the Province. 6. His rebus in Italiam Caesari nuntiatis, cum iam ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in statum 4. quorum, etc. : ' in whose allegiance they were.' The Aeduans were at the head of one league of Gallic states, the Arvernians of the other (I, 31, 11. 10-28). 5. rogatum: 231, a. hostium : the Arvernian army. 7. legatorum: these had been left 'with the army' when it was placed in winter quarters at the end of 53 B.C. 813, a. 9. Biturigibus: 19, e, 2in6. 112, b. Qui: 167. Ligerim: 18, e. 11. ausi: 62. domum: 20, c, 2Lnd 1 19, d. 12. veritos : 61, a, (2), and 227, a, (i). quibus, etc. : 'having found out that the Bituriges had the design.' 97, b, and 21J^, a. 15. -ne . . . an: 201^, (i). B. 162,4; A. 335; H. 380. 16. fecerint : the object is Id. nihil : adverbial accusative. 118, c. nobis: 156. pro certo : 'ascertain.' 154, a. 6. I . Italiam : Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul. 283, b, and 256. 2. urbanas res: ''affairs in the city,' Rome; see chap, i, 11. 2-9, and Notes. virtute : ' through the energetic action.' The break between Caesar and Pompey did not come till two years later. 258. 370 Caesar*s Gallic War [B.C. 52 pervenisse intellegeret, in Transalpinam Galliam profectus est. s Eo cum venisset, magna difficultate afficiebatur, qua ratione ad exercitum pervenire posset. Nam si legiones in provinciam arcesseret, se absente in itinere proeli5 dlmi- caturas intellegebat ; si ipse ad exercitum contenderet, ne eis quidem eo tempore, qui quietl viderentur, suam salutem 10 recte committi videbat. 7. Interim Lucterius Cadurcus in Rutenos missus eam civitatem Arvernis conciliat. Progressus in Nitiobroges et Gabalos, ab utrisque obsides accipit et, magna coacta manu, in provinciam Narbonem versus irruptionem facere 5 contendit. Qua re nuntiata, Caesar omnibus c5nsiliis antevertendum existimavit, ut Narbonem proficlsceretur. Eo cum venis- set, timentes c5nfirmat, praesidia in Rutenis provincialibus, Volcis Arecomicis, Tolosatibus circumque Narbonem, quae loloca hostibus erant finitima, constituit, partem copiarum ex provincia supplementumque, quod ex Italia adduxerat, in Helvi5s, qui fines Arvernorum contingunt, convenire iubet. 5. magna, etc. : 'he experienced great difficulty in devising a plan for reaching his army.' How lit. ? 6. posset: 204, (2). legiongs : see chap, i, 1. 22, dnd n. 8. ipse : alone, or with only a small military escort. 9. eo tempore : 'at so critical a time.' How lit.? 7. I. RutSnos: 282. missus: chap. 5,11. 1-3. 2. Nitiobroggs, Gabalos : west, and east, of the Ruteni ; see Map Gallia. 4. versus : ' in the direction of.' 123, c. irruptionem : • raid.' 6. omnibus, etc. : ' that setting out for Narbo should precede all (forming of) plans.' How lit. .'' 8. provinci&libus : a part of the Ruteni were in the Province. 9. quaeloca: {iti) locls quae. 165, c. II. supplSmentum : 'raw contingent'; cf. chap. i. 11. 3-5. VII, 8] General Uprising in Gaul 371 Caesar crosses the Cevennes through deep S7iow, surprising the Arverni. 8. His rebus comparatis, represso iam Lucterio at re- mot5, quod intrare intra praesidia periculosum putabat, in Helvids proficiscitur. Etsi mons Cebenna, qui Arvernos ab Helvils discludit, durissimo tempore anni altissima nive iter impediebat, tamen, discussa nive in altitudinem pedum s sex atque ita viis patefactis summo militum sudore, ad fines Arvernorum pervenit. Quibus oppressis inopinan- tibus, quod se Cebenna ut muro munit5s existimabant, ac ne singular! quidem umquam homini eo tempore annl semitae patuerant, equitibus imperat, ut, quam latissime lo possint, vagentur et quam maximum hostibus terrorem inferant. Celeriter haec fama ac nuntiis ad Vercingetorigem per- feruntur; quem perterriti omnes Arverni circumsistunt atque obsecrant, ut suis fortunis consulat neu se ab hos- is tibus diripi patiatur, praesertim cum videat omne ad se bellum transiatum. Quorum ille precibus permotus, castra ex Biturigibus movet in Arvern5s versus. 8. I. His, etc. : ' Having completed these preparations.' 2. intra praesidia: ^within the (chain of) garrisons' by which Caesar had secured the western frontier of the Province. periculo- sum : 75, /; 84, and 148, d. putabat: sc. Lucterius. 3. proficiscitur : sc. Caesar. 4. durissimo tempore : 'the most inclement season.' 5. discussa nive: 'the snow was cleared away' in the pass by which he crossed the Cevennes. Cf. Map 13, (i). I44, b, (2). 6. summo sudore : 'with the utmost effort.' 1S6, b. How lit.? 9 ne, etc. : ' not even for one man alone,' not to speak of an army. 10. semitae : mountain ' trails.' patuerant : ' were passable.' 13. fama: 'by report; ' less definite than nuntiis, 'by messages.' 15. suis: 'their own.' neu: 199, d. 16. cum: 18Ii,b. omne: 353, d. 18. in. . .versus: 123, c. Arvernos: 282. 372 Caesar's Gallic War Ib.c. 52 Caesar assembles his legions; he leaves two at Agedincum and starts for Oorgobina, besieged by Vercingetorix. 9. At Caesar, biduum in his locis moratus, quod haec de Vercingetorige usu ventura opinione praeceperat, per causam supplement! equitatusque cogendl ab exercitu dis- cedit, Brutum adulescentem his copiis praeficit ; hunc smonet, ut in omnes partes equites quam latissime perva- gentur : Daturum se operaniy ne longitis trldtio a castris absit. His constitutis rebus, suis inopinantibus, quam maximis potest itineribus, Viennam pervenit. Ibi nactus recentem 10 equitatum, quem multis ante diebus e5 praemiserat, neque diurno neque nocturno itinere intermisso, per fines Aedu5- rum in Lingones contendit, ubi duae legi5nes hiemabant, ut, si quid etiam de sua salute ab Aeduis iniretur consihi, celeritate praecurreret. E5 cum pervenisset, ad reliquas 15 legiones mittit priusque omnes in unum locum cogit, quam de eius adventu Arvernis nuntiari posset. Hac re cognita, Vercingetorix rursus in Bituriges exer- citum reducit, atque inde profectus Gorgobinam, Boiorum 9. I. haec dS Vercingetorige : '■ these movements on the part of Vercingetorix.' 2. usu ventura [esse] : ^ would take place;' lit., * would come in experience.' 142,a. opinione praecSperat : ' had conjectured.' 3. per causam, etc. : 'making a pretext of bringing together his new force,' etc. How lit. ? 6. Datiirum [esse] . . . absit : said as a blind, to prevent infor- mation regarding his plans from reaching the enemy. 9. nactus, etc. : ' finding his cavalry refreshed.' 12. duae legiongs : see (2) on Map 13. 13. quid, etc. : ' any design involving his personal safety.' 97yd; 353, d. 14. celeritate: * by quickness of movement.' praecurreret: that he might forestall (it).' 16. nuntiari posset: * any report could reach.' 73, d\ 189yb, 18. Boiorum, etc. : I, 28, 11. 15-18 ; also, N. to VI, 24, 1. 3. VII, 10] General Uprising in Gaul 373 oppidum, quos ibi, Helvetico proelio victos, Caesar colloca- verat Aeduisque attribuerat, oppugnare instituit. 2c 10. Magnam haec res Caesari difficultatem ad c5nsilium capiendum afferebat : si reliquam partem hiemis uno loco legiones contineret, ne, stlpendiariis Aeduorum expugna- tls, cuncta Gallia deficeret, quod nullum amicis in e5 praesidium videret positum esse ; si maturius ex hibernis 5 educeret, ne ab re frumentaria duris subvectionibus labo- raret. 10. I. haec res : ' This movement' of Vercingetorix. 3. ne, etc. : if Caesar failed to protect the Gauls pledged to his interest, he would soon find them enemies. Figure 129. — Low ground northeast of Bourges, ancient Avaricum. 4. cuncta Gallia : ' the whole of Gaul.' amicis : ' for those (who were) friendly (to him).' eo : Caesar. 6. educeret : sc. legiones. ab : ^ in respect to.' diiris sub- vectionibus : '■ on account of difficulties of transportation,' caused by the bad state of the roads toward the end of winter. 374 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 Praestare visum est tamen omnes difficultates perpeti, quam, tanta contumelia accepta, omnium suorum volun- lotates alienare. Itaque cohortatus Aeduos de supportando commeatu, praemittit ad Boios, qui de suo adventu doceant, hortenturque, ut in fide maneant atque hostium impetum magno' animo sustineant. Duabus Agedinci legi5nibus atque impedimentis totius exercitus relictis, ad Boios pro- 15 ficiscitur. The Siege and Destruction of Avaricum. 23-31 The ingenious construction of Gallic city walls. 23. Muri autem omnes Gallici hac fere fdrma sunt. Trabes derectae, perpetuae in longitudinem paribus inter- vallis, distantes inter se binos pedes, in sol5 collocantur. Hae revinciuntur intrdrsus et multo aggere vestiuntur; ea 9. tanta contumSlia accepts : 'by acquiescing in so great an indignity ' as the capture of Gorgobina by Vercingetorix would be. suorum: ' who were loyal to him.' voluntates : ' the good will. u. qui, etc. : ' (messengers) to explain.' 193, a. 14. totius exercitus : ten legions, besides auxiliary troops. 208. 11-22. Summary. Caesar in rapid succession captures Vellaunodunum, Cenabum, and Noviodunum (4, 5, and 6 on Map 13), and marches toward Avaricum (7 on Map 13). This city the Gauls, contrary to the advice of Ver- cingetorix, resolve to defend. Caesar besieges it, and Vercingetorix is unable to gain any advantage over him. 23. 2. Trabgs, etc.: beams at right angles to the course of the wall were laid in a row two feet apart along the entire length of the wall. 4. revinciuntur intror- sus : ' are made fast inside ' the wall, probably by means of crossbeams parallel with .1 „ 1: , r .1 „ ..,^11 ^^, • , !• a. a. Roman agger, with a tower on the raised the line 01 the wall, as indi- ^ ' , , z\, ,, . . , v ui front facing the Gallic wall, and a higher movable Gated in Plate IX, 3. vesti- tower further back. untur : * are covered.' b. Section of Gallic wall surmounted by a tower. Mb ^^^IfWlmm^A ^^^0v.;j^3f^,^*#»'— - ' Figure 1 30. Section of works at Avaricum. MAP 14 The Siege of Avaricum Book VII, 15-28 To face page 374 SCALE OF LNGLI&H MILLS fi ^ ik ^ EXPLANATION The city of Avaricum, on the site of modern Bourges, was situated at the con- fluence of two streams, now called Yevre and Auron, and was protected by marshes on three sides. It was surrounded by a strong wall (outlined in blue), and was reckoned by its inhabitants the most beautiful city in Gaul. Caesar encamped on the higher ground on the side of the city free from marshes. Selecting a favorable point of approach he commenced the construction of a huge embankment, agger, consisting of two parallel dikes, or viaducts, terminat- ing in a long embankment near the wall and parallel with it. The siege embankment, composed largely of timber, was in part destroyed by fire, and the city was finally taken by assault. VII, 24] Siege and Destruction of Avaricum 375 autem, quae diximus, intervalla grandibus in fronte saxis s efferciuntur. His collocatis et coagmentatis, alius insuper ordo additur, ut idem illud intervallum servetur neque inter se contingant trabes, sed, paribus intermissis spatiis, singulae singulis saxis interiectls arte contineantur. Sic deinceps lo omne opus contexitur, dum iusta muri altitude expleatur. The Gauls set the agger on fire and make a fierce attack. 24. His tot rebus impedita oppugnatione, mllites, cum toto tempore frigore et assiduTs imbribus tardarentur, tamen continenti labore omnia haec superaverunt et die- bus XXV aggerem latum pedes cccxxx, altum pedes lxxx exstruxerunt. 5 Cum is murum hostium paene contingeret, et Caesar ad opus consuetudine excubaret mllitesque hortaretur, ne quod omnino tempus ab opere intermitteretur, paulo ante tertiam vigiliam est animadversum, fumare aggerem, quern cunlculo hostes succenderant, eodemque tempore, lo 5 . fronte : the outside of the wall ; the large stones tightly fitted the spaces between the ends of the beams. 6. efferciuntur : * are closely packed.' 7. coagmentatis: ' fastened together.' 8. idem illud intervallum: two feet. inter, etc. : * touch one another.' 169. 9. singulae, etc. : '■ the individual (beams) are held in position by tightly fitting a stone between' each two. How lit. ? II. iusta: 'proper.' expleatur: 'is reached.' 190, b. 24. I. oppugnatione: S^O. cum: 'although.' 2. tempore: 1^7,0. frigore: it was still winter, probably in March (chap. 32, 1. 4). assiduis : 'continual.' 81. 4. CCCXXX : trecentos et triginta, measured where the siege bank faced the wall (Map 14, and Fig. 130). LXXX : octogintd. The un- usual height is explained by the existence of a gully in front of the wall. 7. excubaret : ' was watching.' 9. fumare aggerem : ' that the siege embankment was smoking.' 10. cunlculo : ' by means of a countermine,' run out underneath. 376 Caesar's Gallic War [b.c. 52 toto muro clamore sublato, duabus portis ab utroqiie latere turrium erupti5 f iebat ; alii faces atque aridam materiem de muro in aggerem eminus iaciebant, picem reliquasque res, quibus ignis excitari potest, fundebant, IS ut, quo primum occurreretur aut cui rel ferretur auxilium, vix rati5 iniri posset. Tamen, quod institute Caesaris duae semper legiones pr5 castris excubabant pluresque, partitls temporibus, erant in opere, celeriter factum est, ut alii eruptionibus resisterent, 20 alii turres reducerent aggeremque interscinderent, omnis vero ex castris multituda ad restinguendum concurreret. An instance of extraordinary bravery. 25. Cum in omnibus locis, consumpta iam reliqua parte noctis, pugnaretur semperque hostibus spes victoriae redintegraretur, eo magis, quod deustos pluteos turrium videbant nee facile adire apert5s ad auxiliandum animad- 11. portis: 134, a. ab utroque latere : 'on both sides 'of the siege embankment, designated by the movable towers now at the corners (Plate IX, 2). 12. fao6s: 'firebrands.' 17, c. &ridam : 81. 15. ut, etc. : 'so that it was hardly possible to decide at what point a counter-attack should first be made, or to what part reinforcements should be sent.' How lit.? 17. Institute, etc. : 136, c. -The legionaries on duty worked in shifts. 20. turrgs, etc. : they first drew back the towers, so as to remove these beyond the reach of the flames, then cut the siege embankment in two in order to confine the fire to the part already burning. 21. ad restinguendum : 'to put out (the fire).' 230, (3). 25. 2. hostibus : 109, a. B. 188, i, n. ; A. -^77 ; H. 425, 4, n. 3. deustos, etc. : sc. esse, 'that the breastworks of the towers were burned ' ; these were wooden screens, probably protected by hides, on the front of the towers. 4. nee, etc.: sc. mllites; 'and that it was not easy for the men exposed' to the enemy's missiles 'to come forward to help' in putting out the fire. The artillery was placed in the towers, which were there- VII, 26] Siege and Destruction of Avaricum 377 vertebant, semperque ipsi recentes defessis succederents omnemque Galliae salutem in illo vestlgio temporis posi- tam arbitrarentur, accidit, inspectantibus nobis, quod, dig- num memoria visum, praetereundum n5n existimavimus. Quidam ante portam oppidi Gallus per manus sebl ac picis traditas glebas in Ignem e regione turris proiciebat ; lo scorpione ab latere dextro traiectus exanimatusque, conci- dit. Hunc ex proximis unus iacentem transgressus, eodem illo mQnere fungebatur ; eadem ratione, ictii scorpionis, ex- animato altero, successit tertius, et tertid quartus, nee prius ille est a propugnatoribus vacuus rellctus locus, quam, is restlncto aggere atque omni ex parte summotis hostibus, finis est pugnandi factus.. Tlie defenders, despairing, plan to jlee, hut are thivarted. 26. Omnia expert! Galli, quod res nulla successerat, poster5 die c5nsilium ceperunt ex oppido profugere, hor- tante et iubente Vercingetorlge. Id silentio noctis conati, fore special objects of attack ; the towers were finally saved, perhaps by throwing earth against the parts that caught fire. 5. ipsi: 'on their side.' recentgs, defessis : 227, a, (4). 7. accidit: sc. /V/; 'there happened, under my own observation, (something) which.' How lit.? 156. dignum : predicative, after visum. 142, b. 9. per, etc. : 'lumps of tallow and pitch passed from hand to hand,' till they reached the Gaul who threw them. The siege embankment, built of green timber and earth and stones, did not burn readily. 10. e regione turris : ' directly in a line with one of the towers ' on the siege embankment, hence within range. How lit. ? 1 1 . scorpione, etc. : * his right side pierced with a (bolt from a) scorpion.' How lit. ? SJ^S, a. 12. Hunc, etc. : 'stepping over him as he lay.' 14. tertio : ictii scorpioiiis exanimdto tertio {Gallop, successit quartus {Gallus). prius .... quam: 189, a. 15. propugnatoribus: 'defenders.' vacuus: predicative. 378 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 n5n magna iactura su5rum sese effecturos sperabant, prop- sterea quod neque longe ab oppido castra Vercingetorigis aberant, et palus perpetua, quae intercedebat, Romanos ad insequendum tardabat. lamque hoc facere noctu apparatant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum pr5currerunt flentesque pr5- loiectae ad pedes suorum omnibus precibus petierunt, ne se et communes llber5s hostibus ad supplicium dederent, quos ad capiendam fugam naturae et virium infirmitas impediret. Ubi eos in sententia perstare viderunt, quod plerumque in summo periculo timor misericordiam non recipit, conclamare 15 et significare de fuga Romanis coeperunt. Quo timore perterriti Galli, ne ab equitatu Romanorum viae praeoccuparentur, c5nsili5 destiterunt. In a -final assault the Romans capture Avaricum, sparing none. 27. Postero die Caesar, promota turri perfectisque operi- bus, quae facere instituerat, magno coorto imbri, non inutilem banc ad capiendum consilium tempestatem arbi- tratus, quod paulo incautius custodias in muro dispositas 5 videbat, suos quoque languidius in opere versari iussit et, 26. 4. non magna : 'no great.' 289, g. 6. et : correlative with ?teque. 233, a. palus : cf. chap. 19, 11. i-io. 7. tardabat: 'would delay.' 8. apparabant : ' they were preparing.' 10. proiectae: 'casting themselves.' suorum: ' of their (hus- bands).' 14. non, etc. : 'knows no pity.' 177, c, and 175, c. 16. Quo, etc. : ' frightened by this ' (giving of notice to the Romans) 'and fearing that.' How lit.? 17. praeoccuparentur: ' be seized in advance.' 202. 27. 2. imbri: 15, c. n6n inutilem : 239, g. 4. incautius: ' rather carelessly.' 153, a. 5. languidius : 'quite lazily' according to appearances, in order to deceive the enemy. VII, 28] Siege and Destruction of Avaricum 379 quid fieri vellet, ostendit. Legiones intra vineas in occulto expeditas cohortatus, ut aliquando pro tantis laboribus fructum victoriae perciperent, eis, qui primi murum ascen- dissent, praemia proposuit mllitibusque signum dedit. III! subitd ex omnibus partibus evolaverunt murumque lo celeriter compleverunt 28. Hostes, re nova perterriti, muro turribusque deiecti, in foro ac locis patentioribus cuneatim constiterunt, hoc animo, ut, si qua ex parte obviam veniretur, acie Instructa depugnarent. Ubi neminem in aequum locum sese demit- tere, sed toto undique muro circumfundi viderunt, veriti, ne 5 omnino spes fugae tolleretur, abiectis armis ultimas oppidi partes continent! impetu petiverunt, parsque ibi, cum angusto exitu portarum se ipsi premerent, a militibus, pars iam egressa portis ab equitibus est interfecta. Nee fuit quisquam, qui praedae studeret. Sic, et Cenabi caede et lo labore operis incitati, non aetate c5nfectis, non mulieribus, non Infantibus pepercerunt. Denique ex omnT numero, qui fuit circiter milium xl, vix Dccc, qui, primo clamore audito, se ex oppido eiecerant, incolumes ad Vercingetorigem pervenerunt. Quos ille is multa iam nocte silentio ex fuga excepit, et veritus, ne qua 9. praemia : 318. signum : 326^ b. 28. I . turribus : on the walls of Avaricum (chap. 22, 1. 9). 127^ a. 2. cuneatim: ''in wedge-shaped masses.' 77. 3. SI, etc. : Mf an attack should be made from any quarter.' How lit.? 4. depugnSrent : ^ they would fight it out.' 5. circumfundi : impersonal, ' that they ' (the Romans) '■ distributed themselves thickly.' How lit.? 17 U. 8. a militibus : sc. interfecta est. 10. quisquam: 168. studeret: 19^^ a. Cenabi: I46. 11. non, etc.: 239, a. aetate confectis : Uhe aged.' How lit? 15. Vercingetorigem: In Fig. 131 a modern designer represents 380 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 in castris ex eorum concursu et misericordia vulgi seditio oreretur, procul in via dispositis familiaribus suis principi- busque civitatum, disparand5s deducendosque ad su5s 2ocuravit, quae cuique civitatl pars castr5rum ab initio obvenerat. Figure 131. — Vercingetorix viewing the burning of Avaricum. Vercingetorix with a group of Gallic soldiers as viewing from a distance the burning of Avaricum after the slaughter of the inhabitants. 17. sgditio: 'mutiny.' 18. orergtur: 61, b. procul, etc.: 'he stationed personal rep- resentatives and leading men of the (different) states along the road at a distance' from the camp, in order to intercept the fugitives, * (and).' 19. disparandos, etc. : ' he had them ' (the fugitives) ' divided up and conducted in each case to the men of their own state, (who were) in the part of the camp that had from the first been assigned to that state.' How lit.? The 10,000 defenders of Avaricum had been drawn from different states (chap. 21, 1. 6). 229, b. " It b prpbable^" says Desjardins, " that if the orders of the Gallic VII, 36] The Siege of Gergovia 381 The Siege of Gergovia. 36-51 Caesar arrives at Gergovia and fortifies two camps. 36. Caesar ex eo loco quintis castris Gergoviam pervenit equestrique eo die proelio levi facto, perspecto urbis situ, quae, posita in altissimo monte, omnes aditus difficiles habe- bat, de oppugnatione desperavit, de obsessione non prius agendum constituit, quam rem frumentariam expedlsset. 5 At Vercingetorix, castris prope oppidum positis, medi- ocribus circum se intervallis separatim singularum civitatum chief had been obeyed, and Avaricum had been burned, as he wished to have it, Caesar and his army would have had the lot of Napoleon after the burning of Moscow." 29-35. Summary. Vercingetorix, calling together the Gallic leaders, reminded them that at the outset he had opposed the defense of Avaricum, and encouraged them with the hope of ultimate victory. He undertook to win over the remaining states that had not yet joined in the revolt, and levied more troops. Representative Aeduans appealed to Caesar to settle a dispute between two claimants for the office of Vergobret; he proceeded to Decetia {Decize), ascertained the facts, and gave the office to Convictolitavis. He sent four legions north under Labienus, and himself led six legions southward into the Arvernian country. He marched first along the east bank of the Elaver {Allier), Vercingetorix marching on the opposite side; by a clever ruse (p. xv) he crossed the river behind Vercingetorix, who proceeded rapidly toward Gergovia, Caesar following (Map 13). 36. I. eo loco: the place where Caesar encamped after crossing the Elaver {Allier). quintis castris: 'in five marches,' encamp- ments being counted as marches because at the close of each day's march a camp was fortified. l/fTy c, and 331, a. Gergoviam : 119, a. 2. equestrl, etc. : Vercingetorix had reached Gergovia first. 3. monte, etc. : Gergovia lay on a high, narrow plateau, accessible only from the south and southeast. See Map 15. 4. oppugnatione, obsessione : 340. 5. expedisset : Miad arranged for.' 189, b. 6. castris . . . positis : on an elevated terrace, adjoining the town on the south; marked Gallic Encampment on Map 15. 7. separatim : the soldiers of each state had a separate camp. 382 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 copias collocaverat, atque omnibus eius iugi collibus occu- patis, qua despici poterat, horribilem speciem praebebat : lo principesque earum civitatum, quos sibi ad c5nsilium capiendum delegerat, prima luce cotldie ad se convenire iubebat, seu quid communicandum, seu quid administran- dum videretur ; neque ullum fere diem intermittebat, quin equestri proelio, interiectis sagittariis, quid in quoque esset IS animi ac virtutis suorum, periclitaretur. Erat e regione oppidi collis sub ipsis radicibus mentis, egregie munitus atque ex omni parte circumcisus ; quem si tenerent nostrl, et aquae magna parte et pabulatione libera prohibituri hostes videbantur. Sed is locus praesidi5 ab 20 his non nimis fTrm5 tenebatur. Tamen silentid noctis Caesar, ex castrTs egressus, prius quam subsidio ex oppido veniri posset, deiecto praesidio, potitus loco, duas ibi legiones collocavit fossamque duplicem duodenum pedum 8. eius iugi collibus: 'the minor elevations of the height,' the points of vantage on the mountain, about and below the town. 160yd. 9. qu5, etc. : ' where a view over the plain could be had.' How lit.? 75,^. horribilem :' formidable.' <^/. 13. neque, etc. : *and he allowed hardly a day to pass without try- ing.' 201, a. 14. interiectis sagittSrils : 'placing archers among (the cavalry).' How lit. ? quid, etc : i.e. quid animi ac virtutis {97, b) in quoque suorum (97, a) esset (204, 2). 16. § regione oppidi: 'directly opposite the town,' on the south. collis : White Rock (La Roche Blanche), near the village of the same name (Map 15). 17. munitus : principally by nature. circumcisus : 'precipitous.' 18. aquae, etc. : the Gauls probably obtained water from the Auzon. 19. hostSs : accusative. ab his : ab hostibus. 21. castris : marked Large Camp on Map 15. subsidio, etc.: ' before relief could come.' How lit. .^ 75, d, and 112, a. 22. loco: 131, c. ibi: on White Rock. 23. fossam, etc. : ' two (parallel) trenches, each 12 feet wide.' How lit. ? According to the excavations, which have brought to light many VII, 36] The Siege of Gefgovia 383 a maioribus castris ad min5ra perduxit, ut tuto ab repen- tlno hostium inciirsu etiam singuli commeare possent. 25 Figure 132. — Gergovia. East end of the plateau of Gergovia and upper half of slope down toward White Rock, as seen from an elevation just above the village of Jussat. traces of Caesar's works near Gergovia, the hastily dug trenches were hardly more than six feet wide. duodenum : 22, c. 24. minora [castra] : on White Rock, marked Small Camp on Map 15, As this contained two legions, in the large camp there must have been stationed four legions besides the cavalry and auxiliaries. 37-45. Summary. Leading Aeduans, including Convictolitavis, turned against Caesar, and a body of 10,000 Aeduan soldiers, sent to serve under him, was moved to defection. Caesar by prompt action won back the allegiance of the soldiers, but in his absence from Gergovia the Gauls fiercely attacked both camps. The Aeduan revolt was temporarily checked. Anticipating more serious trouble, however, Caesar began to plan how he could withdraw from Gergovia, and reunite his forces, without giving the impression that he was fleeing from the enemy. In order to frighten the Gauls he resolved to make a feint assault. He sent part of his forces around, as if to threaten an exposed point west of the town (D on Map 15), thus drawing off the Gauls from their encampment, which he prepared to attack in force. 384 Caesar's Gallic War [b.c. 52 46. Murus oppidi a planitie atque initio ascensus recta regione, si nullus anfractus intercederet, mcc passus aberat ; quicquid hue circuitus ad molliendum clivum accesserat, id spatium itineris augebat. A medi5 fere 5 colie in longitudinem, ut natura montis ferebat, ex grandi- bus saxis vi pedum murum, qui nostrorum impetum tar- daret, praeduxerant Galli atque, inferiore omni spatio vacuo relicto, superiorem partem collis, usque ad murum oppidi, densissimis castris compleverant. 10 Milites, dato signo, celeriter ad munitionem perveniunt eamque transgressi trinis castris potiuntur ; ac tanta f uit in castris capiendls celeritas, ut Teutomatus, rex Nitio- brogum, subito in tabernaculo oppressus, ut meridie con- 46. I. pl^nitiS, etc. : the lower ground at the right of the Small Camp and just above the Parallel Trenches; E on Map 15. rSctS regione : ' in a straight line.' 2. SI, etc. : ' if there should be no deviation.' How lit. ? anfrSctus : 79, d. MCC : 7Pitlle ducentds, somewhat more than an English mile. 38, a, b, and 2 A3, b. 3. quicquid . . . augebat: 'the distance to be traversed was in- creased by every detour (made) in order to render (the ascent of) the slope easy.' How lit.? The wall of Gergovia lay almost \ooo feet above the point where the legions started. 4. A, etc. : 'about halfway up the height.' 126, c, and 152, a. 5. in, etc. : 'following the long side of the mountain as the contour permitted.' How lit. ? 6. murum : marked Wall 6 feet high on Map 15. tardSret : 193, a. 7. inferiore spatio : the sloping mountain side below the wall, vacuo: predicative. lJ^S,c. • 8. superiorem partem collis : Gallic Encampment on Map 15. 9. densissimis castris: 'with camps (standing) close together' ; each camp contained the troops of a single state, in accordance with the arrangement described in chap. 36, 11. 6-8. 153, a. II. trims castris : ' three camps.' 37, e, and 131, c. 13. conquieverat : ' he was having a nap ' ; lit. ' had taken complete rest.' L:^^ ,7,i2a«?4ii£: ^.x>j.sias'.iii^. .s£-iar__ VII, 47] Siege of Gergovia 385 quieverat, superiore corporis parte nuda, vulnerato equo, vix se ex manibus praedantium militum eriperet. is Flushed with victory, the soldiers do not retreat as ordered. 47. Consecutus id, quod animo proposuerat, Caesar receptui cani iussit, legionisque x, quacum erat, continuo signa c5nstituit. At reliquarum legionum milites, non exaudlto sono tubae, quod satis magna valles intercedebat, tamen a trlbunls militum legatlsque, ut erat a Caesare s praeceptum, retinebantur ; sed, elati spe celeris victoriae et hostium fuga et superiorum temporum secundis proeliis, nihil adeo arduum sibi esse existimaverunt, quod non vir- tute consequi possent, neque flnem prius sequendi fecerunt quam muro oppidi portisque appropinquarunt. lo Turn vero, ex omnibus urbis partibus orto clamore, qui longius aberant, repentlno tumultu perterritl, cum hostem intra portas esse existimarent, sese ex oppido eiecerunt. Matres familiae de muro vestem argentumque iactabant et, pectore nudo prominentes, passTs manibus obtestabantur is 47. I. id, etc. : 'what he had in mind,' that is, to give the enemy a good scare by a bold dash, so as to be able to retire from Gergovia without discredit. 2. receptui, etc : 'gave orders that the recall be sounded.' 326, c. How lit? 112, a, 2in6. 73, d. 3. signa constituit : ' brought to a halt the standards.' 324^5,(2). non exaudlto : 'though they did not hear.' How lit. ? 14Ai b, (5). 4. tubae: 326, a, (i). valles: a depression in the slope, just west of the village of Gergovie ; Caesar with the tenth legion was east of this depression (Map 15, loth Legion, ist Position). 6. retinebantur: 'an attempt was being made ... to hold the soldiers . . . back.' How lit.? 115, e. 10. portis : probably at the points marked A and B on Map 15. 12. longius, etc. : the Gauls who were some distance inside the wall. hostem : the Romans. '14. vestem: 'clothing.' argentum : 'silver.' 15. pectore: 'breast.' prominentes :' leaning forward' pas- sis manibus: N. to H, 13, 1. 13, 386 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 Romanos, ut sibi parcerent neu, sTcut Avarici fecissent, ne a mulieribus quidem atque Tnfantibus abstinerent ; non nullae de muro per manus demissae sese militibus tradebant. L. Fabius, centurio legionis viii, quern inter suos eo die 2odixisse constabat, excitarl se Avaricensibus praemiTs neque commissurum, ut prius quisquam murum ascenderet, tres suos nactus manipulares atque ab eis sublevatus, murum ascendit ; h5s ipse rursus singul5s exceptans in miirum extulit. Tlie Gauls rally and attack the Romans. 48. Interim el, qui ad alteram partem oppidi, ut supra demonstravimus, munitionis causa convenerant, prlm5 exaudito clamore, inde etiam crebris nuntiis incitatl, oppi- dum a Romanis teneri, praemissis equitibus magno cursu s e5 contenderunt. Eorum ut quisque primus venerat, sub muro consistebat su5rumque pugnantium numerum augebat. Quorum cum magna multitude convenisset, matres familiae, quae paulo ante Romanis de muro manus tendebant, suos obtestarl et 10 more Gallicd passum capillum ostentare llberosque in c5n- spectum proferre coeperunt. 16. neu, etc.: 'and not refuse to spare even women.' How lit.? 199, d. Avarici: I46. fgcissent : 220. 18. d§missae : ' being let down ' outside the wall. 20. Avaricensibus praemils : ' the prizes (oflfered) at Avaricum ' ; see chap. 27, 11. 6-9. neque, etc.: 'and that he was not going to let any one scale the wall ahead of him.' How lit.? 22. suos manipul5r§s : 'men of his maniple.' 23. hos singulos exceptans : ' taking hold of them, one at a time.' 48. I. el: Galli. alteram partem : see chap. 44, 1. 11. suprft: chap. 44, 11. 10-16, and chap. 45, II. 13-14- 6. Eorum, etc. : 'In succession as each came up.' sub mdro ; 'at the foot of the wall,' on the outside. 10. passum capillum : ' their hair disheveled.* 11. proferre: 'to bring out.' 69, b. VII, 50] Siege of Gergovia 387 Erat Romanis nee loco nee numero aequa contentio , simul et cursu et spatio pugnae defatigati, non facile re- centes atque integros sustinebant. 49. Caesar cum iniqu5 loco pugnari hostiumque copias augeri videret, praemetuens suis, ad T. Sextium legatum, quern min5ribus castris praesidio reliquerat, misit, ut co- hortes ex castris celeriter educeret et sub infim5 colle ab dextro latere hostium constitueret, ut, sT nostros loc5 depul-5 SOS vidisset, quo minus llbere hostes insequerentur, terreret. Ipse, paulum ex eo loco cum legione progressus, ubi constiterat, eventum pugnae exspectabat. The Romans fight stubbornly, though against ovenvhelming odds. 50. Cum acerrime comminus pugnaretur, hostes loco et numero, nostri virtute conflderent, subito sunt Aedui visi ab latere nostris aperto, quos Caesar ab dextra parte ali5 ascensu, manus distinendae causa, miserat. Hi similitudine armorum vehementer nostros perterrue-s runt, ac tametsi dextris umerTs exsertis animadvertebantur, 13. spatio: 'duration.' non, etc.: 'they could not easily hold out against.' 49. 2. praemetuens suis : ' becoming anxious about his men.' 4. sub infimo colle : ' at the foot of the hill ' on which the small camp was; see Map 15, Sextius, ist Position. 5. loco depulsos : ' forced from their position.' 6. quo, etc. : ' deter the enemy from pursuing them further.' How lit.? 201, a. 7. progressus, etc. : see Map 15, loth Legion, 2d Position. 50. I. hostes: ^o.. conflderent. loco: 135, a. 2. Aedui, etc. : see chap. 45, 11. 24-25 ; Map 15, Aeduans. 4. manus, etc. : 'to separate the (enemy's) forces ' by a diversion. 5. similitudine armorum: 'from the likeness of their arms' to those of the hostile Gauls. 6. dextris, etc. : ' it was noticed that they had their right shoulders bare.' Howht.? 172, d; a.\so 191, a. 388 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 quod insigne pacatorum esse consuerat, tamen id ipsum sui fallendi causa milites ab hostibus factum existimabant. E5dem tempore L. Fabius centurio, quique una murum 10 ascenderant, circumventi atque interfecti, muro praecipita- bantur. Tlie heroic self-sacrijice of Marcus Petronius. M. Petronius, eiusdem legionis centurio, cum portas ex- cldere c5natus esset, a multitudine oppressus ac sibi de- sperans, multis iam vulneribus acceptis, manipularibus 15 suis, qui ilium secutT erant, ' Quoniam,' inquit, * me una voblscum servare non pos- sum, vestrae quidem certe vitae prospiciam, quos, cupiditate gloriae adductus, in periculum deduxi. Vos, data facultate, vobis c5nsulite.' 20 Simul in medios hostes irrupit duobusque interfectls re- liquos a porta paulum summovit. Conantibus auxiliari suis, * Frustra,' inquit, * meae vitae subvenire conamini, quern iam sanguis viresque deficiunt. Proinde abite, dum est 25 facultas, vosque ad legionem recipite.' Ita pugnans, post paulum concidit ac suTs saluti fuit. 7. quod, etc. : ' the customary sign indicating those at peace.' How Ht.? 8. sui: 154, b. B. 339, 5 ; A. 504, c\ H. 626, 3. 12. eiusdem legionis : the 8th ; see chap. 47, 1. 19. excidere : *to hew down.' 14. manipularibus : dative after tnguit. 16. Quoniam, etc.: 211, b,{2). mg : 158, b. voblscum: 125, c. 17. vestrae vitae, quos : ' for the lives of you, whom.' How lit. ? 92, b, and 164, b. 23. meae vitae, quem : i. e. 7>ltae tnei (genitive), quetu. 25. v6s : o\i)t.QXo{ recipite. 158, b. 26. ac, etc. : 'and saved his men.' How lit. ? 112, b. VII, 51] Caesar's Retirement from Gergovia 389 The Romans retire, ivith severe losses. 51. Nostri, cum undique premerentur, xlvi centurioni- bus amissis, deiecti sunt loco. Sed intolerantius Gallos insequentes legio x tardavit, quae pro subsidio paulo ae- quiore loco c5nstiterat. Hanc rursus xiii legionis cohortes exceperunt, quae, ex castris minoribus eductae, cum T. s Sextio legat5 ceperant locum superiorem. Legiones, ubi primum planitiem attigerunt, infestis contra hostes signis constiterunt. Vercingetorix ab radicibus collis su5s intra munitiones reduxit. Eo die milites sunt paulo minus dcc desiderati. ic 51. I. XLVI: quadrdgitita sex. As the centurions led their men, the percentage of casualties was proportionately much higher than among the common soldiers (1. lo). 2. deiecti sunt loco: 'were forced down from their position."" intolerantius: 'with considerable violence.' 3. paulo aequiore loco: see Map 15, loth Legion, 3d Position. 6. locum superiorem: see Map 15, Sextius, 2d Position. 7. infestis, etc. : ' they halted and faced the enemy.' How lit. ? 325, and i^-^j b, (2). That the soldiers, swept down the slope by an overwhelming force,, rallied even when supported by the loth and 13th legions, is all the more remarkable in view of the severe losses among their officers. 10. DCC: septingenti. 129, b. If the losses among the common soldiers had been in proportion to those among the centurions, the number would have been considerably above two thousand. 52-56. Summary. . Caesar addressed his soldiers, rebuking them for not obeying the order to halt, but nevertheless paying a tribute to their bravery. Afterwards he drew up in battle order, but Vercingetorix did not come down to tight. Caesar retired from Gergovia, and recrossed the Elaver {Allier), to the east side. Two prominent Aeduans, who had heretofore been loyal to Caesar, now left him, and joined their countrymen in declaring for Vercingetorix; they destroyed Caesar's supplies at Noviodunum {Nevers), burning the town. Caesar pushed rapidly northward, and forded the Liger {Loire) in the face of the enemy. 390 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 General Uprising, with Vercingetorix in Command. 63-68 The Aeduans lead; Vercingetorix assumes command. 63. Defectione Aeduorum cognita, bellum augetur. Legationes in omnes partes circummittuntur ; quantum gratia, auct5ritate, pecunia valent, ad sollicitandas civitates nituntur ; nacti obsides, quos Caesar apud e5s deposuerat, 5 horum supplicio dubitantes territant. Petunt a Vercinge- torige Aedui, ut ad se veniat rationesque belli gerendi communicet. Re impetrata contendunt, ut ipsTs summa imperii tradatur, et, re in contr5versiam deducta, totius Galliae concilium Bibracte indicitur. 10 Eodem conveniunt undique frequentes. Multitudinis suffragiis res permittitur ; ad unum omnes Vercingetorlgem probant imperatorem. Ab h5c concilio RemI, Lingones, Treveri afuerunt : illi, 57-62. Summaiy. While Caesar was engaged in the operations about Gergovia and in checking the first attempts of the revolting Aeduans, Labienus with four legions advanced from Agedincum (modern S^ns) toward the north- west and captured Metlosedum (Me/un ; Map 13). Thence he proceeded to the neighborhood of Lutecia, a town of the Parisii on an island in the Seine, which forms the heart of modern Paris (Fig. 133). He defeated the Parisii and their allies in battle, and marching sou'h rejoined Caesar (at 9 on Map 13). 63. I . Dgfectidne Aedu5rum : the Aeduans, after much dissen- sion, had finally cast in their lot with Vercingetorix. 2. circummittuntur: 'were sent in all directions' by the Aeduans. * quantum, etc. : ' to the limit of their influence.' 5. dubitantSs territant: cf. Figure 133. — Coin of thTParisii. chap. 4, 11. 25-30 and NN. Gold. Fanciful designs . ^' rationfia, etc.: 'work out the plan of campaign with (them).' 9. Bibracte ; 145, b, and 1(7, c. See Fig. 41, p. 42. II. ad linum : < to a man * ; the vote was unanimous. 13. illl; '. ^z.eos (^ — Rdmanos). If the legionaries, thus caught at a disadvantage, should attempt to defend the baggage-train, their 394 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 ^s auxilitim ferant at que in eo morentur^ iter facer e tion posse ; si, id quod magis fiiturum coiifldat, rellctis impedlmentis suae salUti consulant, et usu rerum necessdridrum et digni- tdte spolidtum Irl. Nam de equitibus kostium, quin nemo eorum progredl modo cxtrd agmen audeat, ne ipsos quidem 20 debere dubitdre. Id quo maiore faciant animd, copids se omnes pro castrls habiturum et terrorl hostibus futurum. ^ Conclamant equites, sanctissimo iure iurando confirmari oportere, ne tecto recipiatur, ne ad llberos, ne ad parentes, 25 ne ad uxorem aditum habeat, qui non bis per agmen hos- tium perequitarit. The cavalry of Vercingetorix is defeated by Caesar^ s cavalry. 67. Probata re atque omnibus lure iurando adactis, poster© die, in tres partes distributo equitatu, duae se acies ab duobus lateribus ostendunt, una a primo agmine iter impedire coepit. Qua re nuntiata, Caesar suum quoque 5 equitatum, tripertita divisum, contra hostem ire iubet. Pugnatur una omnibus in partibus. Consistit agmen; impedimenta intra legiones recipiuntur. Si qua in parte retreat would be stopped ; if they should abandon the baggage-train and try to defend only themselves, they would be cut off from their supplies. 18. dignitate spoliStum iri : 'would be despoiled of their pres- tige.' hostium : the Romans. 21. Id faciant : ' That they might make the attack."* How lit. ? 23. lure iiirando : explained by the ^/-clauses following. Cf. p. 446, 11. 16-19, and N. IS, h. 24. recipiatur: cf. qui in 1. 25, '(the man) who.' 67. I. iure iurando : the oath given in 11. 23-26 above. 2. duae acigs, una [acies] : the three divisions of Gallic cavalry, marked g, g, g, on Map 16. 3. lateribus, prTmo agmine : 'flanks,' 'van,' of the Romans. 5. equitatum, tripertito divlaum : marked e, e, e, on Map 16. 7. impedimenta, etc : each legion formed a hollow square {orbis, SS8) about its baggage {328) . Caesar was surprised. VII, 68] Vercingetorix Defeated 395 nostri laborare aut gravius premi videbantur, eo signa in- ferrl Caesar aciemque constitui iubebat ; quae res et hostes ad insequendum tardabat et nostros spe auxilii con-io firmabat. Tandem German! ab dextro latere summum iugum nacti hostes loco depellunt; fugientes usque ad flumen, ubi Ver- cingetorix cum pedestribus copils consederat, persequuntur compluresque interficiunt. Qua re animadversa, reliqui, 15 ne circumirentur, veriti, se fugae mandant. Omnibus locis fit caedes. Tres nobilissiml AeduT capti ad Caesarem perducuntur : Cotus, praefectus equitum, qui contr5versiam cum Con- victolitavi proximis comitiis habuerat, et Cavarillus, qui 20 post defectionem Litavicci pedestribus copils praefuerat, et Eporedorix, quo duce ante adventum Caesaris Aedui cum Sequanis bello contenderant. Vercingetorix and his army take refuge at Alesia. 68. Fugato omni equitatu, Vercingetorix copias suas, ut pro castris coUocaverat, reduxit protinusque Alesiam, quod est oppidum Mandubiorum, iter facere coepit celeri- terque impedimenta ex castris educi et se subsequi iussit. Caesar, impedlmentis in proximum collem deductis, dua-s bus legionibus praesidio relictis, seciitus hostes, quantum die! tempus est passum, circiter iii milibus ex novissimo agmine interfectis, altero die ad Alesiam castra fecit. Perspecto urbis situ perterritisque hostibus, quod equitatu, qua maxime parte exercitus confidebant, erant pulsi, adhor- 10 tatus ad laborem milites circumvallare instituit. 12. Germani: from the favorable position which they had reached on the height (x on Map 16) the German cavalry charged the Gallic cavalry with irresistible momentum. Cf. chap. 70, 11. 5-10 ; 80, 11. 19-22. 14. pedestribus copils: Map 16, G, G, G. 68. 6. legionibus: abl. abs. with relictis. praesidio: 112, a. 8. altero die: — poster o die, 'the next day.' Cf. Map 13. 396 Caesar's Gallic War [b.c. 52 The Siege and Fall of Alesia. 69-90 Caesar commences to surround Alesia ivith a line of works. 69. Ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summo, ad- modum edito loco, ut nisi obsidione expugnari non posse videretur. Cuius collis radices duo duabus ex partibus flumina subluebant. 5 Ante oppidum planities circiter milia passuum iii in lon- gitudinem patebat; reliquis ex omnibus partibus coUes, mediocri interiecto spatio, pari altitudinis fastigio oppidum cingebant. Sub muro, quae pars collis ad orientem solem spectabat, lohunc omnem locum copiae Gallorum compleverant fos- samque et maceriam in altitudinem vi pedum praeduxe- rant. Eius munitionis, quae ab Romanis instituebatur, circuitus 69. I. Alesia, etc. : Alesia was situated on the top of an oval hill now called Mont Auxois, a part of which is occupied by the village of Alise-Ste-Reine (see Map 17). The highest point is more than 500 feet above the beds of the small streams on either side (Fig. 135). The accuracy of Caesar's description has been attested by discoveries made in the course of excavations in 1862-65, ^^d since 1900. Various objects found at Alesia are reproduced in this book; see Figures 44, 49, 50, 138, 144, 190; cf. also Fig. i. 2. obsidione: 31^.0. 4. flumina: the Ose and the Oserain. sublugbant : 'washed.' 5. planiti€s : ' the plain ' of Les Lautnes (pronounced la 16m). 7. spatio : the average distance between the height of Alesia and the tops of the surrounding hills is about a mile. pari, etc. : ' having a like elevation.' How lit. ? 9. Sub muro, etc. : ' Below the wall,' on the side facing the east. 10. hunc omnem locum: 'all the space.' IGOyd. 11. maceriam: ^• 7. vidStur, etc.: sc. ;/i//n ; 'the speech of Critognatus should not, I think, be passed over.' nef Iriam : 'atrocious.' 9. loc6 : 128, a. magnae auctoritatis: 100, d. VII, 77] The Siege and Fall of Alesia 409 ' Nihil,' inquit, ' de eorum sententia dicturus sum, qui turpissimam servitutem deditionis nomine appellant; neque hos habendos civium loco neque ad concilium adhibendos censeo. ^ Cum his mihi res sit, qui eruptionem probant; qu5rum in consilio, omnium vestrum consensu, pristinae residere virtutis memoria videtur. Animi est ista mollitia, non virtus, paulisper inopiam ferre non posse. Qui se ultro mortl offerant, facilius reperiuntur, quam qui dolorem patienter ferant. Figure 141. — Alise-Ste-Reine, the modern city on the site of Alesia. The point against the sky-line at the left is the statue of Vercingetorix (Fig. 142). II. Nihil, etc. : 211, d, (3), and 280. 14. Cum, etc. : ' Let me deal (only) with those.' 180, b. 15. oinnii;im, etc: 'according to the common feeling of you all.' 91, c, and 138. 16. residere — videtur : '• is seen to linger.' ista : for istud, ad- dressed to those who would risk all by an immediate sortie, explained by the appositional infinitive cI^msq patilisper . . . posse; 'that is lack of resolution on your part.' 160, a, and e. 18. offerant: 194, a- reperiuntur: sc. et. quam: quam ei. 410 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 62 20 ' Atque ego banc sententiam probarem (tantum apud me dignitas potest), si nuUam praeterquam vitae nostrae iactu- ram fieri viderem ; sed in consilio capiendd omnem Galliam respiciamus, quam ad nostrum auxilium concij:avimus. Quid, bominum mllibus lxxx uno loco interfectls, propin- 25 quis consanguineTsque nostrls animi fore existimatis, si paene in ipsis cadaveribus proelio decertare cogentur } Nolite b5s vestro auxilio exspoliare, qui vestrae salutis causa suum periculum neglexerunt, nee stultitia ac temeri- tate vestra aut animi imbecillitate omnem Galliam proster- 3onere et perpetuae servituti subicere. * An, quod ad diem non venerunt, de eorum fide con- stantiaque dubitatis ? Quid ergo ? Romanos in illls ulterioribus munitionibus animine causa cotidie exerceri putatis ? Si illorum nuntiis confirmari non potestis, omni 35 aditu praesaepto, his utimini testibus, appropinquare eorum 20. ego : 87, d. banc sententiam : in favor of a sortie. tan- tum, etc. : 'so great weight does the standing (of its advocates) carry with me.' 21 . iacturam : ' loss ' ; nil Ham iacturant praeterquam vitae nostrae {iactHram^. 23. respiciamus: 180, a. concitSvimus : * we have sum- moned.' 24. Quid — animi: ' what feelings.' milibus LXXX : the number of the army of Vercingetorix, not counting the inhabitants of Alesia (chap. 71,1. 9). 27. Nolite — exspoliare :' do not rob.' 181, b. auxilio : 7^7, «. qui, etc. : the relieving force. 28. stultitia, etc. : ' by your folly and rashness or weakness of reso- lution, utterly cast down.' 31. iLn; 179,a, {2). B. 162, 4, «; A. 335,^; H. 380, 3. vCnB- runt: 176, a. 33. animi causa : ' for the sake of amusement.' -ne : 179, a,{\). exercSri : 'are exerting themselves.' 174- 34. illorum : the Gallic forces on the way. 35. praesaepto: 'shut off.' his: the Romans. VII, 77] The Siege and Fall of Alesia 411 adventum ; cuius rei timore exterriti, diem noctemque in opere versantur. * Quid ergo me! consilii est ? Facere, quod nostri ma- iores nequaquam pari bello Cimbrorum Teutonumque fece- runt ; qui in oppida compulsi ac simili inopia subacti, 40 eorum corporibus, qui aetate ad bellum inutiles videbantur, vitam toleraverunt neque se hostibus tradiderunt. Cuius rel si exemplum non haberemus, tamen libertatis causa institui et posteris prodi pulcherrimum iudicarem. ' Nam quid illi simile bello fuit ? Depopulata Gallia, 45 Cimbri, magnaque illata calamitate, finibus quidem nostris aliquando excesserunt atque alias terras petierunt ; iura, leges, agros, libertatem nobis reliquerunt. Romani vero quid petunt aliud aut quid volunt, nisi, invidia adducti, quos fama nobiles potentesque bello cognoverunt, horumso in agris civ.itatibusque considere atque his aeternam iniun- gere servitutem ? Neque enim umquam alia condicione bella gesserunt. Quod si ea, quae in longinquis nationibus geruntur, ignoratis, respicite finitimam Galliam, quae, in 38. Quid, etc.: 'What, then, is my proposal?' Facere: i.e. tneum consilium est facere. 39. Cimbrorum: 'with the Cimbrians' and Teutons ; N. to 1, 33,1. 17. 40. subacti: 'reduced to straits.' 42. Cuius, etc. : 'And if we had no precedent for such a course.' How lit. ? 44. institui: sc. exemplum, 'that a precedent be established.' pulcherrimum: 'a most noble thing.' 28, a. 45. quid, etc.: 'what resemblance had that war to the present one?' How lit.? Depopulata : 5P, /5. 49. invidia : ' envy.' 50. ftmt nobiles potentesque bello : 2S9, c. 51. iniungere : 'to fasten upon,' as a yoke is fastened upon oxen. 52. alia condicione: 'on (any) other principle.' 54. finitimam Galliam : ' the neighboring (part of Gaul) .' 152, a. 412 Caesar's Gallic War [b.c 52 55 pr5vinciam redacta, iure et legibus commutatis, securibus subiecta, perpetua premitur servitute.' The residents of Alesia with wives and children are driven outside the walls; Caesar refuses to receive them. 78. Sententiis dictis, c5nstituunt, ut el, qui valetudine aut aetate inutiles sint bello, oppido excedant, atque omnia prius experiantur, quam ad CritognatI sententiam descen- dant ; Hid tamen potius utendiim cdnsilid, si res cogat atqiie sauxilia morentur, quam aut deditionis aut pads subeundam condicionem. Mandubii, qui eos oppido receperant, cum liberis atque uxoribus exire coguntur. Hi, cum ad muniti5nes Roma- norum accessissent, flentes omnibus precibus 5rabant, ut 10 se in servitutem receptos cibo iuvarent. At Caesar, dispositis in vallo custodiis, recipi prohibebat. The cavalry of the Oallic army of relief attacks fiercely, is repulsed. 79. Interea Commius reliquique duces, quibus summa imperii permissa erat, cum omnibus copiis ad Alesiam perveniunt et, colle exteriore occupato, non longius mille passibus ab nostris munitionibus considunt. 55. securibus : ' the axes ' of the lictors, symbols of authority ; see Plate II, 4. 78. I. valgtudine: 'by reason of health.' 5. subeundam [esse] condicionem: 'submit to terms.' 7. Mandubii: the inhabitants of Alesia and those who had fled into the city from the surrounding country. 10. s6 — receptos :' receive them — and.' 228, a. 11. recipi: sc. eos. Cast out by Vercingetorix and rejected by Caesar, the women and children and men unfit for war perished miser- ably in the spaces between the town walls and the Roman contravalla- tion. Caesar's army at the time was suffering from lack of supplies (C. 111,47, 11- 16-21). 223, a. 79. I. Commius: chap. 76,1. I. ducSs : chap. 76,11. 11-13. 3. colle exteriore: southwest of Alesia; see Map 17, Encamp- ment OF Gallic Relieving Army. VII, 801 The Siege and Fall of Alesia 413 Postero die, equitatu ex castris educto, omnem earn planitiem, quam in longitudinem tria milia passuum patere demonstravimus, complent, pedestresque copias, paulum ab eo loco abditas, in locis superioribus constituunt. Erat ex oppidd Alesia despectus in campum. Con- currunt, his auxiliis vlsis ; fit gratulatio inter eos atque lo omnium animi ad laetitiam excitantur. Itaque, productis copiis, ante oppidum consldunt et proximam fossam crati- bus atque aggere explentseque ad eruptionem atque omnes casus comparant. 80. Caesar, omni exercitu ad-utramque partem munitio- num disposito, ut, si usus veniat, suum quisque locum teneat et noverit, equitatum ex castris educi et proelium committi iubet. Erat ex omnibus castris, quae summum undique iugum tenebant, despectus, atque omnes mllitess intenti pugnae proventum exspectabant. Galli inter equites raros sagittarios expeditosque levis armaturae interiecerant, qui suls cedentibus auxilio suc- currerent et nostrorum equitum impetus sustinerent. Ab his complures, de improvise vulneratl, proelid ex- lo cedebant. 6. planitiem, etc. ; see chap. 69, 11. 5-8. 8. abditas: ^ drew back and.' 228, a. 9. Concurrunt : '■ They ' (the Gauls in the town) ' rushed together.' 12. proximam fossam: the trench nearest the city; "Trench 20 FEET wide" on Map 17. 80. I. utramque, etc. : both the inner and the outer lines of works. 3. castris: the cavalry camps were probably those marked G, H, I, K on Map 17. 4. castris, etc.: the infantry camps (A, B, C, D), in which were the inllites. 6. proventum: 'issue.' 7. inter equites, etc. : N. to chap. 18, 1. 4. 8. qui, etc. : ' in order that these might furnish support.' 193, a, and 112, a. 10. complures : of Caesar's cavalry. 414 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 Cum su5s pugna superiores esse Galli confiderent et nostros multitudine premi viderent, ex omnibus partibus et ei, qui munitionibus continebantur, et hi, qui ad auxilium IS convenerant, clamore et ululatu suorum animos confirma- bant. Quod in conspectu omnium res gerebatur neque recte aut turpiter factum celari poterat, utr5sque et laudis cupiditas et timor ignominiae ad virtutem excitabat. Cum a meridie prope ad solis occasum dubia victoria 20 pugnaretur, Germani una in parte c5nfertis turmis in hostes impetum fecerunt eosque propulerunt ; quibus in fugam coniectis, sagittarii- circumventi interfectique sunt. Item ex reliquis partibus nostri, cedentes usque ad castra insecuti, suT colligendi facultatem non dederunt. 25 At el, qui ab Alesia processerant, maesti, prope vict5ria desperata, se in oppidum receperunt. 13. nostros : eqiiites ', the infantry did not go into action. 14. munitionibus : of the town. 15. ululatu: N. to V, 37, 1. 8. If upwards of 200,000 men were shouting and shrieking at once, the noise in the Roman lines across the plain, where the sounds from both sides met, must have been terrific ; even the noise at one of the great football games would furnish no standard of comparison. The Romans underarms in the camps were probably silent, awaiting a signal for action. 16. rgs gergbatur : ' the engagement was going on.' 17. rgctS, etc. : 'and no brave or cowardly action.' How lit.? 18. ignominiae: disgrace.' 81. 19. Cum, etc. : 'After the battle had been raging . . . with victory in doubt.' How lit. ? 20. GermSni: the German cavalry rendered effective service on several critical occasions (chap. 67, 11. 12-15, ^"d 70, 11. 5-12). 22. sagittSrii, etc.: among the cavalry; they had not yet learned to keep up with the horsemen by taking hold of the horses' manes, as the Germans did (I, 48, 11. 18-20). 23. c6dentgs : ' the enemy in retreat.' How lit. ? 221, a, (4). 24. sui: 15Ji, b. B. 339, 5 ; A. 504, c ; H. 626, 3. 25. maeati: 'in sadness.' 151. VII, 81J The Siege and Fall of Alesia 415 A second attack, by night, is equally unsuccessful. 81. Uno die intermisso, Galll, atque hoc spatio magno cratium, scalarum, harpagonum numero effect5, media nocte silentio ex castris egressi, ad campestres munitiones accedunt. Subito clamore sublat5, qua significatione, qui in oppido obsidebantur, de suo adventu cognoscere pos-s sent, crates prdicere, fundis, sagittis, lapidibus nostros de vallo proturbare reliquaque, quae ad oppugnationem per- tinent, parant administrare. Eodem tempore, clamore ex- audito, dat tuba signum suis Vercingetorix atque ex oppidd educit. ic NostrT, ut superioribus diebus suus cuique erat locus attributus, ad munitiones accedunt; fundis librilibus sudi- 81. I. hoc spatio: 'dur- ing this interval.' 147, c. 2. scalarum : ' ladders.' harpagonum: 'grappling- hooks,' for pulling down the Roman breastworks and pali- sades. 12, c. 3. campestres : west of the town, and nearest the Gallic encampment. 4. qua significatione : tit ea significatidne, 'that by this sign.' 19S, a. 5. obsidebantur : vivid use of the indicative. Cf. 220. 7. vailo : of the circum- vallation, running from the Ose to Flavigny Heights. pro- turbare : 'dislodge.' 9. dat tuba signum : Ver- cingetorix had adopted the Roman system of signals. S26, a, (I), and II, 20, 1. 3. Figure 142. Statue of Vercingetorix at Alesia. 12. fundis librilibus: 'pound-weight slings'; whether these were 416 Caesar's Gallic War [b.c. 52 busque, qiias in opere disposuerant, ac glandibus Gallos proterrent. Prospectu tenebris adempto, multa utrimque IS vulnera accipiuntur. Complura tormentis tela coniciuntur. At M. Antonius et C. Trebonius legati, quibus hae partes ad defendendum obvenerant, qua ex parte nostr5s premi intellexerant, his auxili5 ex ulterioribus castellis deduct5s summittebant. 82. Dum longius a munitione aberant Galli, plus mul- titudine telorum proficiebant ; postea quam propius suc- cesserunt, aut se stimulis inopinantes induebant aut in scrobes delati transfodiebantur aut ex vallo ac turribus straiecti pilis muralibus interibant. Multis undique vulne- ribus acceptis, nulla munitione perrupta, cum lux appe- teret, veriti, ne ab latere apert5 ex superioribus castris eruptiane circumvenirentur, se ad su5s receperunt. At interiores, dum ea, quae a Vercingetorige ad erup- lotianem praeparata erant, pr5ferunt, priores fossas explent, slingshots of stone weighing about a Roman pound, or stones of a pound weight hurled with the help of a cord attached to them, we do not know ; Balearic slingers were trained to hurl stones weighing a pound. 85. sudibus ; ' stakes,' with pointed ends hardened by fire, for use as javelins {praeiistae sudes ; cf. V, 40, 1. 14 and N.). 13. disposuerant : * had piled at intervals,' as reserve ammunition. 79, d. glandibus : probably leaden ' bullets ' ; N. to II, 10, 1. 2. 14. proterrent: 'drove back.' tenebris: 'by the darkness'; the attack began at midnight (1. 2). multa, etc. : the soldiers could not parry the blows with their shields because they could not see the missiles coming. 16. M. Antonius: the first mention of Mark Antony by Caesar, hae partgs : ' this portion ' of the fortifications, in the plain. 82. 3. stimulis, etc. : chap. 73, 11. 25-28, and Notes. 4. scrobes: chap. 73,11. 15-24. dgiati: 'stumbling.' How lit.? transfodiSbantur : 'were impaled.' 57, b. 5. trSiectl, etc. : ' transfixed by wall pikes ' ; N. to V, 40. 1. 14. 7. superioribus castris : on Flavigny Heights ; marked A, B. 9. interiorgs : the Gallic army in Alesia. 10. pridrSs fossSs : precisely what trenches are meant we do VII, 83] The Siege and Fall of Alesia 417 diutius in his rebus administrandis morati, prius suos dis- cessisse cogndverunt, quam munltionibus appropinquarent. Ita re infecta in oppidum reverterunt. Tlie Gauls plan a surprise, and make a last desperate assault. 83. Bis magn5 cum detriment5 repulsi, Galh, quid agant, consulunt; locorum peritos adhibent; ex his superi5rum castrorum situs munitionesque cognoscunt. Erat a septentrionibus coUis, quern propter magnitudi- nem circuitus opere circumplecti non potuerant nostri;s Figure 143. — A characteristic bit of the slope at Alesia. On the south side, near the top, facing Flavigny Heights. not know ; evidently not the same as proximam /ossam, chap. 79, 1. 12. 13. re infecta: ' without accomplishing their purpose.' 83. I. Bis . . . repulsi: first in an attack with cavalry (chap. 80), then in an attack with infantry (chap. 81-82). 2. locorum, etc.: 'they brought in men who knew the ground.' How lit? 102. 4. a septentrionibus : 'on the north.' collis : Mont Rda. 418 Caesar's Gallic War [bc. 62 necessario paene iniquo loc5 ef leniter declivi castra fece- rant. Haec C. Antistius Reginus et C. Caninius Rebilus legati cum duabus legion ibus obtinebant. Cognitis per exploratores regionibus, duces hostium LX lomilia ex omni numerd deligunt earum civitatum, quae maximam virtutis opini5nem habebant ; quid quoque pacto agi placeat, occulte inter se constituunt; adeundi tempus definiunt, cum meridies esse videatur. His cdpiis Vercas- sivellaunum Arvernum, unum ex mi ducibus, propinquum 15 Vercingetorigis, praeficiunt. lUe ex castris prima vigilia egressus, prope confecto sub lucem itinere, post montem se occultavit, militesque ex nocturno labore sese reficere iussit. Cum iam meridies appropinquare videretur, ad ea castra, quae supra demon- 20 stravimus, contendit ; eodemque tempore equitatus ad cam- pestres munltiones accedere et reliquae copiae pr5 castris sese ostendere coeperunt. Vercingetorix attacks the Roinan works on the inner side. 84. Vercingetorix, ex arce Alesiae suos conspicatus, ex oppido egreditur; crates, longurios, musculos, falces reli- quaque, quae erupti5nis causa paraverat, profert. 6. ISniter dSclivi : ' gently sloping ' toward the city ; hence offer- ing an advantage to a force attacking from the north. castra : D on Map 17. 11. virtutis opinionem : 'reputation for courage.' quid, etc. : * what plan they would deem it best to carry out, and in what way.' 12. adeundi, etc. : 'they fixed as the hour of attack.' 14. Illl ducibus: 'the four commanders' named in chap. 76, 11. 11-13. 16. sub lucem : ' toward daybreak.' 17. itinere: shown on Map 17, Route of Attacking Force UNDER Vercassivellaunus. post montem : behind Mont R^a. 19. castra: marked D ; described in lines 4-8. 20. campestrSs: chap. 72, 1. 12, and N. 84. 2. longurios: 'poles,' sharpened at the end, for thrusting; VII. 85] The Siege and Fall of Alesia 419 Pugnatur uno tempore omnibus locis, atque omnia temp- tantur ; quae minime visa pars firma est, hue concurritur. 5 Romanorum manus tantis munitionibus distinetur nee facile pluribus locis occurrit. Multum ad terrendos nostros valet clamor, qui post tergum pugnantibus exsistit, quod suum perlculum in aliena vident virtute c5nstare ; omnia enim plerumque, quae absunt, vehementius hominum mentes 10 perturbant Caesar surveys the field, meets crises wherever they arise. 85. Caesar idoneum locum nactus, quid quaque in parte geratur, cognoscit ; labdrantibus subsidium summittit. Utrisque ad animum occurrit, unum esse illud tempus, qu5 maxime contendi conveniat : Galll, nisi perfregerint munitiones, de omni salute desperant ; Romani, si rem s obtinuerint, finem laborum omnium exspectant. Maxime ad superiores muniti5nes laboratur, qu5 Ver- cassivellaunum missum dem5nstravimus. Iniquum loci ad much longer than the ordinary javelin. musculos : ^mousies'; Vercingetorix had adopted the Roman siege appliances {3Jt2, a). falces : fakes miirdles ; n. to chap. 22, 1. 4. 3Jf2, c, and Figure 188. 6. nee, etc. : ' could not easily meet (the enemy) at several points (at the same time).' 8. post tergum pugnantibus : / at the rear of the men in action ' ; the shouting of those fighting on the outer line of works was heard by those defending the inner line, and vice versa. 109, a. 10. absunt, perturbant : 175, c. 85. I. locum, etc. : Caesar's post of observation was probably on the Flavigny Heights, at the point rnarked with a cross on Map 17. 3. Utrisque, etc.: 'To both sides came the conviction, that now was the time for a supreme final effort.' How lit. ? 5. si, etc.: 'if they could (only) maintain their position, looked forward to.' 8. demonstrtvimus : chap. 83, 11. 9-20. Iniquum, etc. : 'The unfavorable ground' (above the camp marked D), 'sloping down- wards' (cf. chap. 83, 1. 6), 'proved a serious factor.' How lit.? 420 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 declivitatem fastigium magnum habet momentum. Alii lo tela coniciunt, alii, testudine facta, subeunt ; defatigatis in vicem integri succedunt. Agger, ab universis in munitio- nem coniectus, et ascensum dat Gallis et ea, quae in terra occultaverant Romani, contegit ; nee iam arma nostrls nee vires suppetunt. 86. His rebus cognitis, Caesar Labienum cum cohorti- bus VI subsidio laborantibus mittit ; imperat, si sustinere non possit, deductis cohortibus eruptione pugnet; id, nisi necessari5, ne faciat. s Ipse adit reliquos ; cohortatur, ne labor! succumbant; omnium superiorum dimicationum fructum in eo die atque hora docet consistere. 10. testudine facta: 'formed a turtle-shell roof (in the Roman fashion) 'and.' lU, b, (2), and 3S8, 345. 1 1 . Agger : ' earth ' ; no regular siege embankment was made. 12. ea, quae, etc. : chap. 7Z, 11. 8-28. 13. contegit: 'covered up.' 86. 2. laborantibus : the troops under Antistius Reginus and Caninius Rebilus. in the fiercely assaulted camp at D. 3. dSductis, etc. : 'to draw off the cohorts (from the en- gagement) and make a sortie.' A similar tactic had saved the day for Galba at Octodurus (111,5,11.8-15). 5. Ipse : 'in person.' re- liquos: the other divisions besides that to which Labienus had been sent. 6. dimicationum : ' com- bats.' <- .^ Figure 144. — Heads and butts of lances found at Alesia. VII, 871 The Siege and Fall of Alesia 421 The attack of Vercingetorix is repulsed. Interiores, desperatis campestribus locis propter magni- tudinem munlti5num, loca praerupta ascensu temptant; hue ea, quae paraverant, c5nferunt. Multitudine telorum lo ex turribus propugnantes deturbant, aggere et cratibus fossas explent, falcibus vallum ac loricam rescindunt. 87. Mittit prima Brutum adulescentem cum cohortibus Caesar, post cum alils C. Fabium legatum ; postremo ipse, cum vehementius pugnaretur, integros subsidi5 adducit. A charge and a flank movement on the north rout the enemy. Restitute proeli5 ac repulsls hostibus, eo, quo Labienum miserat, contendit ; cohortes iiii ex proximo castello dedu- s cit, equitum partem se sequi, partem circumire exteriores munitiones et a tergo hostes adoriri iubet. Labienus, postquam neque aggeres neque fossae vim hostium sustinere poterant, coactis una xi cohortibus, quas . 8. Interiores : as in chap. 82, 1. 9. 9. loca, etc. : 'places with a steep ascent' (Ut. 'steep in respect to ascent'), along the side of Flavigny Heights, which it had not been thought necessary to provide with defenses as elaborate as those in the plain of Les Laumes. 10. ea, quae, etc. : see chap. 84, 11. 2-3. 11. propugnantes, etc. : 'forced back (our) men (who were) fight- ing from the towers.' 12. falcibus: chap. 84, 1. 2. vallum, loricam: chap. 72, 11. 14-15. 87. I. Mittit: to the point attacked by Vercingetorix. cohor- tibus : the number is not given. 4. Restitute, etc. : reenforced, the men defending the ramparts attacked by Vercingetorix rallied and beat him off. 6. partem circumire : sc. equitum. The division of cavalry ordered to execute the flank movement probably started from the camp at G; Map 17, Route of Caesar's Cavalry. 8. aggeres : here ' ramparts/ at camp D. 422 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 loex proximis praesidiis deductas fors obtuHt, Caesarem per nuntios facit certiorem, quid faciendum existimet. Acce- lerat Caesar, ut proelio intersit. 88. Eius adventu ex colore vestitus cognito, quo insigni in proeliis uti c5nsuerat, turmisque equitum et cohortibus visis, quas se sequi iusserat, ut de locis superioribus haec declivia et devexa cernebantur, hostes proelium commit- 5 tunt. Utrimque clamore sublato, excipit rursus ex vallo atque omnibus munitionibus clamor. NostrT, omissis pilis, gladils rem gerunt. Repente post tergum equitatus cernitur ; cohortes aliae loappropinquant. Hostes terga vertunt; fugientibus equites occurrunt. Fit magna caedes. Sedulius, dux et princeps Lemovicum, occiditur; Ver- cassivellaunus Arvernus vivus in fuga comprehenditur ; 10. praesidiis : detachments under arms at the redoubts ; cf. chap. 69, 1. 17, and N. 11. Accelerat: 'hastened.' 88. I. colore: scarlet. vestitus: cloak { paluddmentuni) . 321. cognito : by the enemy. insigni :* as a distinguishing mark.' 3. locis superioribus : Mont Rda. haec dSclivia et dSvexa: ' these descending slopes,' on the northwest side of Flavigny Heights, down which Caesar passed, on horseback, in full view of the enemy. 4. committunt : with the division under Labienus just coming into action. 6. Utrimque, etc. : the extraordinary vividness of the following de- scription is due in part to the brevity of the sentences, some of which a writer of less restraint would have expanded into paragraphs ; to the omission of connectives (238, a), and to the sparing use of adjectives, excipit — clamor: 'the cheering was taken up' by those not in the action. How lit. ? 353, a. 8. omissis pills : the legionaries were charging up hill, so that pikes could not be hurled to advantage. 9. tergum : sc. hostmm. equitatus : from camp G. cohor- tfis aliae : the fresh cohorts with Caesar (I. 2). VII, 89] The Siege and Fall of Alesia 423 signa militaria lxxiiii ad Caesarem referuntur ; pauci ex 15 tanto numero se incolumes in castra recipiunt. C5nspicati ex oppido caedem et fugam suorum, despe- rata salute, copias a munitionibus reducunt. Fit protinus, hac re audita, ex castris Gallorum fuga. Quod nisi crebris subsidiis ac totius diei labore milites 20 essent defessi, omnes hostium copiae deleri potuissent. De media nocte missus equitatus novissimum agmen conse- quitur ; magnus numerus capitur atque interficitur, reliqui ex fuga in civitates discedunt. Vercingetorix surrenders. 89. Postero die Vercingetorix, concilio convocato, id bellum se suscepisse non suarum necessitatum, sed com- munis libertatis causa demonstrat, et quoniam sit fortunae cedendum, ad utramque rem se illis offerre, seu morte sua Romanis satisfacere seu vivum tradere velint. s Mittuntur de his rebus ad Caesarem legatl. lubet arma tradi, principes produci. Ipse in munitione pro castris consedit; eo duces producuntur. Vercingetorix deditur, arma proiciuntur. 15. signa militaria : see Figures 30 and 42. 16. numero : 60,000 (chap. 83, 1. 9). 17. Conspicati ex oppido: brief for ei, qui in oppido sunt, cdn- spicati, etc. 20. Quod: 118, d. nisi, etc.: 208, a, (2). crSbria sub- sidiis : 'with frequent (service in) supporting forces.' 22. De media nocte : 21^2, d. 89, 4. ad utramque rem : 'for either alternative' (Fig. 145). 7. Ipse : Caesar. 8. Vercingetorix, etc. : Vercingetorix, as we learn from Plutarch, having arrayed himself in splendid armor, mounted a horse adorned with trappings, passed slowly out from Alesia, and rode around Caesar sitting to receive the prisoners ; then, halting before Caesar, he sprang from his horse, laid off his armor, and without a word seated himself at the feet of his conqueror, " every inch a king ! " 424 Caesar's Gallic War [B.C. 52 Reservatis Aeduls atque Arvernis, si per eos civitates recuperare posset, ex reliquis captivis toti exercitui capita singula praedae nomine distribuit. For six years after this Vercingetorix was confined in a Roman prison.* At length, in 46 B.C., he was led along the streets of Rome to grace Caesar's great triumph; then, in accordance with Roman custom, " while his conqueror was offering solemn thanks to the gods on the summit of the Capitol, Vercingetorix was beheaded at its foot as guilty of high treason against the Roman nation" (Fig. 145). Thus ended the career of the greatest of the Gauls, the first national hero of France. 10. Reservatis, etc : afterwards 20,000 prisoners were returned to the Aeduans and Arvernians (chap. 90, 1. 5). si : '(to see) whether.' 204, (4). B. 300, 3 ; A. 576, « ; H. 649, 3. 1 1 . capita singula, etc. : each soldier in Caesar's army received a prisoner as his share of the booty {318) ; the number was probably not far from 50,000. On receipt of Caesar's dispatches announcing the victory, a thanksgiving of 20 days was declared at Rome (chap. 90, 11. 17-18). Historical Significance of the Siege of Alesia. Caesar's devices for ren- dering impassable his lines of defense at Alesia, in ingenuity and adaptation to the purpose for which they were intended, have never been excelled in the annals of military engineering. Caesar's success, again, well illustrates the superiority of generalship, disci- pline, persistency, and hard work over vastly greater numbers, even in the face of every disadvantage of position and surroundings. For the Gauls the fall of Alesia was the crowning disaster of a hopeless struggle. They staked all on the relief of the city, and lost. But if Caesar had here suffered complete defeat, probably Gaul would long have remained unconquered, and the course of European history would have been changed. The siege of Alesia may well rank among the decisive military operations of the world. * Doubtless the Mamertine Prison ; for which see the editor's Select Orations and Letters of Cicero, p. 115 and N. to p. 115, 15. Figure 145. — Vercin- getorix. Denarius, struck while Ver- cingetorix was in prison, in Rome. He is represented with pointed beard and flowing hair, and with a chain about his neck. Behind the head is a shield. Plate X Bust of Caesar at Naples Truly a wonderful man was Caius Julius Caesar. Better be first, he said, in a little Iberian village Than be second in Rome; and I think he was right when he said it. Longfellow, Courtship of Miles Standish. SELECTIONS FROM CAESAR'S CIVIL WAR The Second Sea-fight off Massilia. II. 3-7 The Massilian fleet is reenforced by ships sent by Pompey. 3. Interim L. Nasidius, ab Cn. Pompeio cum classe navium xvi, in quibus paucae erant aeratae, L. Domitio Massiliensibusque subsidio missus, freto Siciliae, impru- dente atque inopinante Curione, pervehitur, appulsisque Messanam navibus atque, inde propter repentlnum terr5rem s 3-7. The circumstances. On his way to Spain in April, 49 B.C. {259') Caesar sought the allegiance of Massilia {293, a), but the Massilians decided to cast in their lot with Pompey. Caesar directed Trebonius to besiege the city and Decimus Brutus, who had won the sea-fight with the Venetans, to destroy their formidable fleet. In June, when his ships were ready, Brutus took up a position at the island opposite Massilia (Map 18); the much larger Massilian fleet came out to fight, but proved to be no match for Brutus, who sank some ships, captured others, and drove the rest back into the harbor. The second sea-fight, even more disastrous to the Massilians, took place in July; it is described in the following chapters. 3. I. L. Nasidius: apparently the same as Q. Nasidius named on coins (Figures 146 and 160). Pompeio : Pompey, having fled from Italy {259), was on the east side of the Adriatic, in Macedonia {299). 2. aeratae : 'sheathed with copper,' particularly the beaks {3^6, c). L. Domitio : at Massilia. The enemies of Caesar had arranged the appointment of Domitius to succeed Caesar in Gaul in 49 B.C., and he had helped the Massilians in the first sea-fight. 112, b. 3. freto: ' strait,' between Italy and Sicily ; Map 12. 13 J^, a. 4. Curione : Curio was engaged in crushing the Pompeian party in Sicily, whence, in August of 49, he crossed over to Africa. 12, c. pervehitur: 'sailed along.' How lit. ? appulsis, etc. : he landed at Messana, now Messina. 425 426 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 49 principum ac senatus fuga facta, navem ex navalibus eorum deducit. Hac adiuncta ad reliquas naves, cursum Massiliam versus perficit, praemissaque clam navicula, Domitium Massilen losesque de suo adventu certiores facit, eosque magnopere hortatur, ut rursus cum Bruti classe, additis suis auxilils, confligant. 4. Massilienses, post superius incommodum, veteres ad eundem numerum ex navalibus productas naves refecerant summaque industria armaverant (remigum, gubernatorum magna copia suppetebat) piscatoriasque adiecerant atque 5 contexerant, ut essent ab ictu telorum remiges tuti ; has sagittariis tormentisque compleverunt. Tali mod5 Instructa classe, omnium seniorum, matrum familiae, virginum precibus et fletu excitatl, extreme tem- pore civitati subvenirent, n5n minore animo ac fiducia, loquam ante dimicaverant, naves conscendunt. CommunI enim fit vitio naturae, ut invlsitatis atque incognitis rebus magis confidamus vehementiusque exterreamur ; ut turn 6. nIvSlibus : 'shipyards.' eorum: of the Messanians. 9. nSviculSl : a small sailing vessel, faster than the fleet. 4. I. superius incommodum: the first sea-fight, described C. I. 56-58. 2. eundem numerum: *the same number,' 17, as in the first sea- fight ; Nasidius, counting the ship seized at Messana, also had 17 ships. 4. pisoatorias [naves] : ' fishing-smacks.' 5. contSxerant: 'had covered (them)' with decks, to protect the rowers underneath ; the fishing-smacks, like those of the Mediterranean to-day, were open. 7. seniorum: 'older men,' unfit for military or naval service. 8. virginum: !,!,(/. extrfimo tempore: ' in utmost peril.' 9. subvenirent, etc. : ' (begging) them to help the state ' ; the idea of asking is implied in precibus. 200, a. 10. CommClnT, etc. : ' For it is a common failing of human nature that we are swayed by unseen and unknown factors to overconfidence and to too great fear.' How lit. ? 135y a, and 203, (i). C. II, 3-7 MAP i8 The Second Sea-Fight off Massilia To face page 426 SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES SCALE OF ROMAN MILES EXPLANATION Nasidius, admiral of Pompey, had come to Taurois with 17 galleys. Here he was joined by the Massilian fleet, consisting of an equal number of galleys and some protected fishing-smacks. To oppose this formidable squadron Brutus had only 18 galleys, some of which, newly built, could be less easily maneuvered than the ships of the enemy. His rowers, too, were inferior to those of the enemy, lacking experience. Nevertheless Brutus left his anchorage, near an island opposite the harbor of Massilia, and led his fleet in the direction of Taurois. In the battle an attempt to ram Brutus's flagship from opposite sides disabled two of the enemy's ships by collision. Brutus's men showed themselves specially skillful in the seizing of hostile ships by grappling-hooks and boarding, with hand-to-hand fighting. The fleet of Nasidius fled. On the land side Massilia was shut in by the siege works of Trebonius, whose camp was on high ground on the northwest side of the city (chap. 5, 1. 8). 11,5] The Second Sea-fight ofF Massilia 427 accidit Adventus enim L. Nasidii summa spe at volun- tate civitatem compleverat. Nacti idoneum ventum, ex portu exeunt et Tauroenta, is quod est castellum Massiliensium, ad Nasidium perveniunt ; ibique naves expediunt rursusque se ad confligendum anim5 confirmant et c5nsilia communicant. Dextra pars attribuitur Massiliensibus, sinistra Nasidio. Brutus, in command of Caesar'' s fleet, comes out to join battle. 5. Eodem Brutus contendit, aucto navium numero. Nam ad eas, quae factae erant Arelate per Caesarem, captivae Massiliensium accesserant vi. Has superidribus diebus refecerat atque omnibus rebus instruxerat. Itaque Tau- 13. voluntate : ' eagerness ' to fight. 15. idoneum ventum: from the north; see Map 18. roenta: 18, g, and 119, a. i6. castellum : Taurois was a fortified port. Nasidius had stopped there, instead of proceeding to Massilia, in order not to expose his fleet, in passing the islands, to the risk of an attack by Brutus; Map 18. 17. expediunt: ^ made ready for action.' 175, b. 18. animo: 1J^2, a. consilia com- municant : '■ worked out together their plan ' of battle. pars : '- formation.' 5. I. contendit: from his naval base, at the island opposite' Massilia. 2. Arelate: 11^5, b. per Caesarem : ' on Caesar's order ' ; 1 2 galleys were built at Arelas (C. I. 36), and in the first sea-fight these alone formed the fleet of Brutus. 3. captivae; sc. naves', ^captured' in the first sea-fight. In all, Brutus now had 18 galleys as against 34 galleys and the protected fishing-smacks in the combined fleet of the Massilians and Nasidius. Figure 146. — Coin of Quintus Nasidius. Silver, denarius, struck: 38- 36 B.C. Galley with beak, oars, and sail. The pilot stands on the prow ; at the stern sits the helmsman, controlling a large steering-paddle thrust down into the sea. For obverse see Fig. 16.0. 428 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 49 ssuos cohortatus, quos integros superavissent, ut victos contemnerent, plenus spel bonae atque animi, ad versus eos proficiscitur. The inhabitants of Massilia offer prayers for victory. Facile erat, ex castris C. Trebonii atque omnibus superio- ribus locis, pr5spicere in urbem, ut omnis iuventus, quae loin oppido remanserat, omnesque superioris aetatis cum liberis atque uxoribus ex publicis locis cust5diisque aut muro ad caelum manus tenderent aut templa de5rum im- mortalium adirent et, ante simulacra pr5iecti, victoriam ab dis exposcerent. 15 Neque erat quisquam omnium, quln in eius diei casu suarum omnium fortunarum eventum consistere existi- maret. Nam et honesti ex iuventute, et cuiusque aetatis amplissimi, nominatim evocati atque obsecrati, naves con- scenderant, ut, sT quid adversi accidisset, ne ad conandum 2oquidem sibi quicquam reliqul fore viderent; si superavis- 5. suos, etc. ; sicos cohortatus ut {eos), quos integros (*at their full strength') superavissent , victos ('as beaten') contemnerent. 199, a. 8. castris: on the northwest side of the city; Map. 18. 9. ut: 'how.' 204, (^). quae, etc. : cf. 220. 10. superioris aet&tis : ' of more advanced age.' 11. custodiis : 'watch stations,' where watchmen were on duty. 12. ad . . . tenderent: in the attitude of prayer. 13. simulacra: ' images ' of the gods. 74, d. prSiecti: 'cast- ing themselves down.' 174- 14. exposcerent: ' were imploring.' 204,(3)- 15. qnin := gut non. 195. in . . . c&sA : ' upon the issue.' 16. 6 ventum consistere : 'that the destiny . . . rested.' 17. honesti ex iuventute: 'the youth of good family.' How lit. ? 97, d. 18. amplissimi : ' the most prominent men,' the leading men of the city. 19. adversi, reliqul: 97, b. nfi . . . fore: 'that even the possibility of making another attempt would be cut off.' How lit. ? 11,6] The Second Sea-fight off Massilia 429 sent, vel domesticis opibus vel externis auxiliis de salute urbis conflderent. The Massilians and their allies, the Alhici, fight desperately. 6. Commiss5 proelio, Massiliensibus res nulla ad virtu- tem defuit ; sed memores eorum praeceptorum, quae paulo ante ab suis acceperant, hoc animo decertabant, ut nullum aliud tempus ad conandum habituri viderentur et, quibus in pugna vitae periculum accideret, non ita multo se reliquo- s rum civium fatum antecedere existimarent, quibus, urbe capta, eadem esset belli fortuna patienda. Diductisque nostrls paulatim navibus, et artifici5 guber- natorum et mobilitati navium locus dabatur ; et si quando nostri, facultatem nacti, ferreis manibus iniectis, navem lo religaverant, undique suis laborantibus succurrebant. Neque vero coniuncti Albici comminus pugnando deficie- bant neque multum cedebant virtute nostris. 21. externis: 'foreign.' de, etc.: 'they confidently expected to assure the safety of the city' against Trebonius. 6. I. Commisso proelio: 'After the engagement had begun.' The probable formation in battle order is indicated on Map i8. 4. habituri viderentur: sc. sibi, ' it seemed to them that they were going to have.' quibus . . . accideret: 'if they should risk their lives.' How lit. ? 6. existimSrent : 203,(4). urbe capta : 144,d,(4). 7. eadem fortuna : they expected an indiscriminate slaughter, like that at Avaricum (VII. 28), if the city should be taken. 8. Diductis, etc. : the gradual drawing apart of Brutus's fleet in the course of the engagement gave to the Massilian steersmen, who were very skillful, a favorable opportunity to manoeuver their ships, which were seasoned and more easily handled than the new battle- ships of Brutus, gubernatorum : 84- ID. ferreis, etc.: 'had thrown grappling-hooks upon a ship and held it fast.' 144, b, (2), and S46, d. 12. ooniuncti Albici : ' the Albici serving with (them),' as marines, pugnando: dative ziiev de/iciebant ; trans, 'fail in hand-to-hand fight- ing,' when Brutus's men boarded a Massilian ship. 430 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 49 Simul ex minoribus navibus magna vis eminus missa 15 telorum multa nostrls de impr5vis6, imprudentibus atque impeditis, vulnera Tnferebant. C5nspicataeque naves tri- remes duae navem D. Bruti, quae ex insigni facile agnosci poterat, duabus ex partibus sese in eam incitaverunt. Sed tantum, re provisa, Brutus celeritate navis enlsus est, ut 2oparv6 momento antecederet. Illae adeo graviter inter se incitatae conflixerunt, ut vehementissime utraque ex con- cursu laborarent, altera ver5, praefracto rostro, tota collabe- fieret. Qua re animadversa, quae proximae ei loco ex Bruti classe naves erant, in eas impedltas impetum faciunt 25 celeriterque ambas deprimunt. Brutus wins the victory ; grief fills the city. 7. Sed Nasidianae naves nulli usui fuerunt celeriterque pugna excesserunt ; non enim has aut conspectus patriae aut propinquorum praecepta ad extremum vitae periculum adire cogebant ; itaque ex eo numero navium nulla deside- 5 rata est. Ex Massiliensium classe v sunt depressae, iiii 14. minoribus nSlvibus : the protected fishing-smacks (chap. 4, U. 4-6). 16. inferSbant: 173, b. Conspicatae : < sighting'; the ships are personified. 226, c, and 239, h. ntvgs trirSmSs : * triremes.' 31^6, a. 17. insigni: a red banner. 3^6, d. agnosci: ' be recognized.' 18. duSbus ex partibus : 'from opposite sides.' 347. 19. tantum, etc. : ' Brutus, seeing what would happen, by a quick movement of his ship just managed, by a narrow margin, to drive ahead,' so that the two attacking ships rammed each other. How Ht. ? 22. praefrScto, etc : 'had had its beak broken off and was quite shattered.' 346, c, and Fig. 146. 25. dgprimunt: 'sunk.' 7. I. N5sidi5nae: ' of Nasidius.' -que: 'but.' 23Uib, 2. has [naves] : personification, as in chap. 6, 1. 16. 4. e6 numero navium: i.e. numero earum navium, 17 (chap. 3^ 11. 1-7). Plate XI An Ancient Sea-fight between Galleys A bireme, with two banks of oars, is ramming a quinquereme, with five banks. Fighting-tops were used in the later Roman days, but not in Caesar's time. The boat in the foreground, with one bank of oars on each side and deck along the middle, would pass very well for one of the protected fishing-smacks used by the Massilians, enlarged (C. III. 4). Ill, 47] Heroic Endurance of Caesar's Soldiers 431 captae, una cum Nasidianis profugit; quae omnes citeri- orem Hispaniam petiverunt At ex reliquis una, praemissa Massiliam huius nuntii perferendi gratia, cum iam appropinquaret urbf, omnis sese multitude ad cognoscendum eff udit ; et, re cognita, tantus lo luctus excepit, ut urbs ab hostibus capta eodem vestigio videretur. Massilienses tamen nihilo setius ad defensionem urbis reliqua apparare coeperunt. Heroic Endurance of Caesar's Soldiers before Dyrrachium. III. 47-49, 53 Caesar with a smaller army shuts Pompey up at Dyrrachium. 47. Erat nova et inusitata belli ratio, cum tot castello- rum numero tantoque spatio et tantis munitionibus et tot5 obsidionis genere, tum etiam reliquis rebus. 6. captae : sc. sunt naves. The losses of Brutus are not reported, quae omnSs : 97, c. citeriorem Hispaniam : 296. ID. multitudo : ' population.' ad cognoscendum : ' to learn the news.' II. luctus ezcSpit: 'lamentation followed.' capta: 148, e. eodem vestigio : 'at that moment.' How lit.? 47-53. Caesar before DyrrStchium. When, early in 49 B.C., Pompey fled with his army from Italy (259), he established his base in the region of Dyrrachium, now Durazzo (Map 19). Here he had easy communication by sea with coastal regions, and by land also with Greece and the wealthy prov- inces of the Orient {261). Before the end of 49 Caesar had vanquished Pompey's forces in Spain and had received the capitulation of MassiUa; in January, 48 B.C. (Unreformed Calendar; 241, c), he landed an army at Palaeste (Map 19), and took possession of Apollonia. By the middle of April, 48, military operations were concentrated at Dyrrachium, where Caesar, though he had a smaller army, shut Pompey in by an extended line of works on the land side. After a long and bitter struggle Caesar was obliged to retire from before Dyrrachium ; but the difficulties of the undertaking served only to bring out in clearer light the loyalty and endurance of his soldiers. 47. I. inusitata: 'unprecedented.' cum, etc.: 'considering not only the great number of redoubts.' How lit. ? castellorum: 432 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 Nam quicumque alterum obsidere c5nati sunt, perculsos s atque inflrmds hostes adorti, aut proelio superatos aut ali- qua offensione perm5t5s, continuerunt, cum ipsi numero equitum militumque praestarent ; causa autem obsidi5nis haec fere esse consuevit, ut frument5 hostes prohiberent. At turn integras atque incolumes copias Caesar inferiore lo militum numero continebat, cum illi omnium rerum copia abundarent; cotidie enim magnus undique navium nu-, merus conveniebat, quae commeatum supportarent, neque alius flare ventus poterat, quin aliqua ex parte secundum cursum haberent. Ipse autem, consumptis omnibus longe IS lateque frumentis, summis erat in angustiis. His men, half-starved, say they will live on hark rather than let Pomjyey escape. Sed tamen haec singular! patientia milites ferebant. Recordabantur enim eadem se superiore anno in Hispania perpessos labore et patientia maximum bellum confecisse, meminerant ad Alesiam magnam se inopiam perpessos, the number of redoubts in Caesar's lines we do not know; Pompey, hemmed in by Caesar, built 24 for defense. 2. spatio : the area included between Caesar's lines and the sea ex- ceeded 20 square miles. munitionibus : Caesar's lines extended 17 Roman miles. For about two thirds of the distance they ran along higher ground ; for the rest, on lower ground, where parallel trenches and ramparts were constructed, 600 feet apart. 3. reliquis rgbuB : * other conditions.' 4. quicumque, etc. : ' commanders who heretofore have attempted to blockade an opponent.' How lit. ? perculsos : ' demoralized ' ; the reason is given in a?it . . . permotos. 5. aliqu& offSnsione : 'by some other reverse.' 10. ill! : the soldiers of Pompey, whose fleets controlled the sea. 15. friimentis : here 'stores of grain.' 17. Recordabantur: 'They recalled the fact.' 2^9. eadem: object oi perpessos ; 'having experienced the same hardships.' III, 49] Heroic Endurance of Caesar's Soldiers 433 multo etiam maiorem ad Avaricum, maximarum gentium 20 victores discessisse. N5n ill! hordeum, cum daretur, non legumina recusabant ; pecus vero, cuius rei summa erat ex EpTro copia, magno in honore habebant. 48. Est etiam genus radicis inventum ab eis, qui fuerant in vallibus, quod appellatur chara, quod admixtum lacte multum inopiam levabat. Id ad similitudinem panis efficiebant. Eius erat magna copia. Ex hoc effectos panes, cum in colloquiis Pompeianis famem nostris obiectarent, vulgo in eos iaciebant, ut spem e5rum minuerent. 49. lamque frumenta maturescere incipiebant, atque ipsa spes inopiam sustentabat, quod celeriter se habituros copiam confidebant; crebraeque voces mllitum in vigiliis colloquiisque audiebantur, prius se cortice ex arboribus victuros, quam Pompeium e manibus dimissuros ... 5 20. maiorem: sc. inopia?n perpessos (VW. 17). 21. hordeum: ' barley,' not considered a fair substitute for wheat in the soldier's rations. 317. 22. legumina: 'pulse,' including beans, lentils, etc. pecus, etc. : Caesar's soldiers counted it a hardship to have fresh meat as the staple of diet. 23. Epiro : mountainous, well adapted for raising cattle. 48. 2. vallibus : numerous ravines cut the surface of the higher ground on which Caesar extended his lines. chara : probably a species of arum, the tubers of which contained starch but were bitter to the taste and had to be mixed with milk, or cooked with milk, to make them edible. admixtumi : 'mixed.' 139. 4 Id, etc. : ' This they made into a kind of bread.' How lit. ? 5. panes: 'loaves.' colloquiis: the opposing hnes were within calling distance. Pompeianl: 'the soldiers of Pompey.' 6. famem, etc. : 'would taunt our men with hunger.' 49. I. frumenta: 'fields of grain.' The blockade of Pompey dragged on from April to July. 3. crebrae: 151. vigiliis: when on guard duty at night. 4. cortice, etc. : 'that they would live on bark off the trees.' Cf. IV, I, 1. 16, and N. ex: 150, d. 434 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 One day^ s fighting before Dyrrachium. 53. Ita uno die vi proeliis factis, tribus ad Dyrrachium, tribus ad munitiones, cum horum omnium ratio haberetur, ad duo milia numero ex Pompeianis cecidisse reperiebamus, evocat5s centurionesque complures (in e5 fuit numero Va- 5lerius Flaccus, L. filius, eius, qui praetor Asiam obtinue- rat) ; signaque sunt militaria sex relata. Nostri non amplius xx omnibus sunt proeliis desiderati. The extraordinary bravery of Scaeva, centurion, and his men. Sed in castello illo nem5 fuit omnino mllitum, quin vulneraretur, quattuorque ex una cohorte centuriones ocul5s amiserunt. Et cum laboris sui periculique testimonium afferre vel- lent, milia sagittarum circiter xxx, in castellum coniecta, 49-53. Summary. Pompey's water supply was cut off by Caesar, so that his troops were obliged to dig wells, which proved to be inadequate; the baggage-animals died, and there was much sickness among the soldiers. Pompey finally ordered an attack upon several of Caesar's redoubts at the same time, in order that reenforcements might not be sent from one to the other. 53. I. uno di6: the day on which Pompey attacked several re- doubts at the same time; the offensive cost him heavily. Dyrra- chium : near the upper end of the area hemmed in by Caesar, on a peninsula projecting into the Adriatic sea. 4. gvocStos: 316. 5. L. : Lucii. 8, a. eius: sc. Valerit Flacci. This Lucius Valerius Flaccus was praetor in the year of Cicero's Consulship, 63 B.C. Asiam: the province Asia. S02, c. obtinuerat : ex-praetors, as well as ex-consuls, went out as governors of provinces. 6. signa militSria : of Pompey, ' brought back ' by Caesar's men. S2A, b, (2). 7. XX: vigintl. 129, b. omnibus proeliis : 11^7, b. 8. castello ill6 : apparently a redoubt held by the eighth cohort of the sixth legion. 12. in castellum coniecta: < that had been shot against there- doubt.' Ill, 59] Caesar's Treatment of Two " Grafters " 435 Caesari numeraverunt, scutoque ad cum relate Scaevae, centurionis, inventa sunt in eo foramina cxx. Quern Cae- sar, ut erat de se meritus et de re publica, donatum mllibus is cc . . . atque ab octavis ordinibus ad primipilum se tradu- cere pronuntiavit (eius enim opera castellum magna ex parte c5nservatum esse c5nstabat) cohortemque posteS. duplici stipendio, frumento, veste, cibariis militaribusque donis amplissime donavit. 20 Caesar's Treatment of Two <* Grafters.** III. 59-61 Two " grafters,^^ Gauls, are found in Caesar's cavalry. 59. Erant apud Caesarem in equitum numero Allobro- ges duo, fratres, Roucillus et Egus, Adbucilll filii, qui principatum in civitate multis annis obtinuerat, singular! virtute homines, quorum opera Caesar omnibus Gallicis 13. numeraverunt: ' they counted out.' scuto, etc. : Scaeva, we are elsewhere told, held his post, at the gate of the redoubt, to the end of the engagement, though one eye was put out and he was wounded in shoulder and thigh (Suetonius, Caesar, 68). 14. foramina: 'holes,' made by arrows. Scaeva must have parried with marvelous steadiness and quickness. Quem : trans, as if et eiim. 15. donatum, etc. : filling the gap in the text as Meusel suggests we may read, donatum {228, a) milibus ducentis sestertium (see Vocab.) pro contione lauddvit, * presented him with 200,000 sesterces and praised him before the assembly of the soldiers.' The value of the gift exceeded $8000 in our money. 16. ab, etc. : 'announced his promotion from the rank of centurion in the eighth cohort to the position of first centurion.' How lit.? 18. cohortem: all the men of the cohort had their pay doubled, besides receiving other gifts and decorations. 318. 59. I. Erant, etc.: the incidents related in chapters 59-61 took place while Caesar was still before Dyrrachium. 90, a. in equitum numero : ' among the cavalry,' apparently a contingent raised among the Allobroges. 3. annis: 147, c. singular! virtute: 143, a. 436 Caesar's Civil War [b.c. 48 sbellis optima fortissimaque erat usus. His domi ob has causas amplissimos magistratus mandaverat atque eos extra ordinem in senatum legendos curaverat, agrosque in Gallia, ex hostibus captos, praemiaque rel pecuniariae magna tri- buerat, locupletesque ex egentibus fecerat. lo Hi propter virtutem non solum apud Caesarem in ho- nore erant, sed etiam apud exercitum cari habebantur; sed, freti amicitia Caesaris, et stulta ac barbara arrogantia elatl, despiciebant suos, stipendiumque equitum fraudabant et praedam omnem domum avertebant. Quibus illi rebus IS permoti, universi Caesarem adierunt palamque de eorum iriiuriis sunt quest!, et ad cetera addiderunt, falsum ab eis equitum numerum deferri, quorum stipendium averterent. Caesar disciplines them privately. 60. Caesar, neque tempus illud animadversi5nis esse existimans, et multa virtuti eorum concedens, rem totam distulit ; ill5s secret© castigavit, quod quaestui equites 5. bellls: * campaigns.' domi: in their own country. I46. 6. amplissimos : ' highest.' extrS ordinem : ' out of due course.' 7. senatum: ^z. Allobrogum. 289, b. legendos: 229, b. 8. praemia rei pecuniariae : 'rewards in money.' 12. amicitia: 131, e. stulta: 'stupid.' 13. dgspici§bant : 'looked down upon their fellow-countrymen.' fraudabant: 'were appropriating.' 14. domum Svertebant : they turned aside to private use what should have been divided up among all. illi : the aggrieved cavalry- men. 17. equitum, etc: by turning in a 'fictitious number of cavalry- men' they drew pay for soldiers who did not exist. Sverterent : 193, a. 60. I. neque, etc: 'that that (time) was not the (proper) time for punishment.' 94, d. 3. quaestui, etc. : ' they made booty of the cavalrymen.' tl2, a. Ill, 60] Caesar's Treatment of Two " Grafters " 437 haberent, monuitque, ut ex sua amicitia omnia exspectarent et ex praeteritis suis officiis reliqua sperarent. s Resentful, they borrow money, buy horses, go over to Pompey. Magnam tamen haec res illis offensionem et contemp- ti5nem ad omnes attulit, idque ita esse cum ex aliorum obiectati5nibus, turn etiam ex domestico iudicio atque animi conscientia intellegebant. Quo puddre adducti, et fortasse non se liberari, sed in aliud tempus reservari, arbitrati, dis- lo cedere ab nobis et novam temptare fortunam novasque amicitias experiri constituerunt. Et cum panels collocuti clientibus suis, quibus tantum facinus committere audebant, primum conati sunt praefec- tum equitum, C. Volusenum, interficere, ut postea, bell5 con- 15 fecto, cognitum est, ut cum munere aliquo perfugisse ad Pompeium viderentur ; postquam id facinus difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendl dabatur, quam maximas potuerunt pecunias mutuati, proinde ac si suis satisfacere et f raudata restituere vellent, multis coemptis equis ad 20 5. praeteritis suis officiis: 'his good offices in the past.' 7. ad omnes : 'before all.' id, etc. : 'and that this was so.' 8. obiectationibus : 'reproaches.' domestico iudicio: 'the judgment (of those) of their own household.' animi conscientia : ' (their own) conscience.' 10. liberSri: ^z. poena. 13. cum, etc.: 'after conferring with a few of their clients.' How lit.? 14. committere: 'to entrust (the knowledge of).' praefectum equitum : 309, c. 15. C. Volusenum : he had distinguished himself in the Gallic war; cf. Ill, 5, 11. 7-10. 16. munere aliquo: 'some service' rendered, to commend them to Pompey. 18. quam, etc. : ' having borrowed the largest sums of money that they could.' 20. fraudata: 'the embezzled funds.' vellent: 210. 438 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 Pompeium transierunt cum els, qu5s sui consilii participes habebant. 61. Quos Pompeius, quod erant honesto loco nati et Instructi liberaliter, magnoque comitatu et multls iumentis venerant, virlque fortes habebantur et in honore apud Cae- sarem f uerant, quodque novum id, et praeter consuetudinem, s acciderat, omnia sua praesidia circumduxit atque ostentavit. Nam ante id terhpus nemo, aut miles aut eques, a Caesare ad Pompeium transierat, cum paene cotidie a Pompeio ad Caesarem perfugerent, vulgo vero in Epir5 atque Aetolia conscript! mllites, earumque regionum omnium, quae a lo Caesare tenebantur. Last Operations about Dyrrachium. III. 64 Bravery of a dying standard-bearer in a panic of Caesar's troops. 64. H5c tumultu nuntiato, Marcellinus cobortes . . . subsidio nostris laborantibus summittit ex castris ; quae, 21 . sui consilii participes : ' as associates in the plot.' How lit. ? 26,b,2ind 115, b. 61. I. Quos: oh]tct oi circumduxit . 167. loco: 128, a. 2. instructi liberaliter : ' generously supplied,' as explained in the next clause. comitatu: 'retinue.' Cf. chap. 84, 11. 20-23. 4. novum, etc. : ' as something new and without precedent.' 5. circumduxit: with two accusatives. 114,a. 8. perfugerent: 'men were deserting.' 187. vulgo: 'in large numbers.' 9. militSs : sc. perfugerent. eSrum regionum : sc. nnlites. 64. I. tumultu: 'sudden attack' at one end of Caesar's line of works, near the sea ; two cohorts of the ninth legion, on guard duty, were driven back. cohortgs : a word, giving the number of the cohorts sent as reenforcement, has been lost. 2. aubsidio nostris: 112, b. castrTs : one of Caesar's camps, in charge of the quaestor Marcellinus and near the point of attack, quae, etc.: 'but these (cohorts), when they saw our men fleeing.' How lit.? Ill, 64] Last Operations about Dyrrachium 439 fugientes conspicatae, neque illos suo adventu cdnfirmare potuerunt, neque ipsae hostium impetum tulerunt. Itaque quodcumque addebatur subsidio, id, correptum timore fugi- s entium, terrorem et perlculum augebat; hominum enim multitudine receptus impediebatur. In eo proelio cum gravi vulnere asset affectus aquilifer et a viribus deficeretur, conspicatus equites nostros, * Hanc ego,' inquit, * et vivus multos per annos magna lo diligentia defend! et nunc, moriens, eadem fide Caesari restitu5. Nollte, obsecro, committere, quod ante in exer- citu Caesaris n5n accidit, ut rei militaris dedecus admitta- tur, incolumemque ad eum deferte.' H5c casu aquila conservatur, omnibus primal cohortisis centurionibus interfectis praeter principem pri5rem. 5. quodcumque, etc.: ^ every additional detachment sent as reen- forcement, seized by the panic of those in flight, (only) increased.' How lit.? 8. aquilifer : ^ eagle-bearer,' always accompanying the first cohort of a legion. 32 4y b, (i). 9. 5 viribus dgficergtur : 'his strength began to fail.' How lit.? equites : perhaps belonging to the cavalry detachment of the ninth legion. 309, a. 10. Hanc: hanc aqtiilam. 211, a, b, (3). 12. Nollte, etc. : * Do not permit the incurring of a military dis- grace.' How lit.? 181, b. 14. incolumen : sc. hanc aquilam. The cavalrymen heeded his plea, and took the eagle. -que : 23J^, b. deferte : 69, b. 15. Hoc casu: the appearance of the cavalrymen at the opportune moment. 1 6. principem priorem : * the first centurion of the second maniple .' 315, b. 65-83. Dyrrachium to Pharsalus. While at Dyrrachium y2ei) Caesar sent Domitius Calvinus with two legions eastward into Macedonia in order to check the advance of Scipio (father of Pompey's fifth and last wife, Cornelia), who was bringing an army westward to Pompey. Forced finally to withdraw from Dyrrachium, Caesar fell back on ApoUonia (Map 19); thence he marched southeast, effected a junction with Domitius at 440 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 The Battle of Pharsalus. III. 82-99 Caesar draws up his army near Pow.pey^s camp, tests his cavalry. 84. Re frumentaria praeparata confirmatisque militibus, et satis longo spatio temporis a DyrrachLiIs proelils inter- misso, quo satis perspectum habere militum animum vide- retur, temptandum Caesar existimavit, quidnam Pompeius 5 propositi aut voluntatis ad dimicandum haberet. Itaque exercitum ex castris eduxit aciemque instruxit, primo suis locis paul5que a castris Pompei longius, continentibus vera diebus, ut progrederetur a castris suis collibusque Pompeianis aciem subiceret. Quae res in dies c5nfirma- 10 tiorem eius exercitum efficiebat. Aeginium in Thessaly {301, and Map 19), and led the united army to Gomphi, which, because its gates were closed, he stormed and gave over to looting. From Gomphi Caesar marched by way of Metropolis to the vicinity of Phar- salus, where he encamped, in a plain rich with ripening harvests, resolved there to await the coming of P«impey (Map 20). Pompey, taking a northerly route (Map 19) by way of Heraclea (modern Monastir), joined the army of Scipio with his own, entered Thessaly from the north, and encamped not far from Caesar (Map 20). 84. I. R6, etc. : trans, by clauses commencing with ' when.' con- firmttis: 'encouraged.' 2. satis, etc. : ' a sufficiently long period had elapsed since the en- gagements at Dyrrachium to enable him to issure himself of the spirit of his soldiers.' How lit. ? 3. perspectum: 229, a. vid6rgtur: sc. sibt. 19/,, a. 4. temptandum [esse]: sc. sibi ^ 'that he ought to find out.' quidnam : etc. : ' what intention or desire.' 48, c, and 97, b. \ 7. suis locis: 'in a position favorable to himself,' in front of his own camp. castris Pompei : on an-elevation, east of Caesar's camp (Map 20). 8, b. continentibus: 'successive.' 8. ut : ita instruxit ut ; trans. ' in such a way that he moved forward.' collibus, etc. : 'pushed his line up to the hills occupied by Pompey.' 9. r6s : the fact that Pompey did not offer battle when Caesar's line moved up near binj. c^nfirmatiSrem : ' more confident.' 111,84] The Battle of Pharsalus 441 Superius tamen institutum in equitibus, quod dem5n- stravimus, servabat, ut, quoniam numero multis partibus esset inferior, adulescentes atque expedites ex antesigna- nis, electis ad pernlcitatem armis, inter equites proeliari iuberet, qui cotidiana consuetudine usum quoque eius 15 generis proeliorum perciperent. His erat rebus effectum, ut equites mille, etiam apertio- ribus locis, vii milium Pompeianorum impetum, cum ades- set usus, sustinere auderent, neque magnopere eorum multitudine terrerentur. Namque etiam per eos dies proe- 20 Hum secundum equestre fecit, atque unum AUobrogem ex du5bus, quos perfiigisse ad Pompeium supra docuimus, cum quibusdam interfecit. 1 1 . Superius institutum : ' the former arrangement.' demSn- stravimus : in chapter 75 ; there Caesar relates how he interspersed 400 light-armed footmen among his cavalry which, thus strengthened, defeated Pompey^s cavalry with much slaughter. 12. numero: sc. equitum. 1^2, a. multis partibus: 'much.' How lit.? UO. 13. expedites : 'with light equipment,' in place of the heavy weapons ordinarily carried by the legionary. antesignanis : in each legion the ' men before the standards ' formed a select contingent of the best fighters who were charged to protect the standards and in battle were posted in the parts of the line that were in front of the standards. 14. electis, etc. : 'with arms selected for quickness of movement.' 15. qui: 'in order that they.' 193, a. quoque, etc.: 'in that kind of fighting also,' as well as in the methods in which they were trained as legionaries. The interspersing of agile footmen among cavalry Caesar had learned from the Germans (I, 48, 11. 12-20) ; in the latter part of the Gallic War Caesar had employed German horsemen (N. to VII, 70, 1. 5). 17. apertioribus locis : 'on more open ground,' where Pompey's much larger force of cavalry could be deployed to the best advantage. 1J,5. c. 18. cum adesset usus : ' when the necessity presented itself.' 220. 22. duobus: Roucillus and Egus. supra: chapters 59-61. 442 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 Pompey remains stationary ; finally ^ as Caesar breaks camp, he advances. 85. Pompeius, qui castra in colle habebat, ad infimas radices montis aciem instruebat, semper, ut videbatur, exspectans, si iniquis locis Caesar se subiceret. Caesar, nQlla ratione ad pugnam elicl posse Pompeium s existimans, banc sibi commodissimam belli rationem iudi- cavit, uti castra ex eo loco moveret semperque esset in itineribus, haec spectans, ut movendis castrls pluribusque adeundis locis commodiore re frumentaria uteretur ; simul- que in itinere ut aliquam occasionem dimicandl nancisce- lo retur, et insolitum ad laborem Pompei exercitum cotidianis itineribus defatigaret. His constitutis rebus, signo iam profectionis dato, taber- nacullsque detensis, animadversum est, paulo ante, extra cotidianam consuetudinem longius a vallo esse aciem Pompei IS progressam, ut n5n iniquo loc5 posse dimicari videretur. Turn Caesar apud suos, cum iam esset agmen in portis, 85. 2. montis : <■ elevation.' aciem : Map 20, Pompey's First Position. Instruebat: on successive days. 175, d. 3. exspectans : < waiting (to see) whether Caesar would move close up to the unfavorable ground.' 204, (4). 4. Slici: 'be lured forth.' 57, b. 5. belli rationem : * plan of campaign.* 7. in itineribus: 'on the march.' haec specttns : 'having this in view.' movendis castrls : ' by constantly moving his camp.' 230, (4). 10. Insolitum ad laborem : ' not used to hard work.' 12. His, etc. : Caesar probably reached his decision on August 8, and gave orders to break camp early the next morning. 13. dStSnsIs: 'struck.' paulo, etc. : the movement of Pompey's line, ' contrary to his daily practice,' was noticed ' a little before ' the packing and loading of the tents was completed. 15. ut, etc. : 'so that it seemed possible to fight in a not disadvan- tageous position,' the advantages being more nearly equalized by Pom- Ill, 86] The Battle of Pharsalus 443 * Differendum est,' inquit, 'iter in praesentia nobis, et de proelio cogitandum, sicut semper depoposcimus. Animo simus ad dimicandum parati ; n5n facile occasionem postea reperiemus ; ' - 20 confestimque expedites copias educit. Pompey believed that his cavalry alone would win the battle. 86. Pompeius quoque, ut postea cognitum est, su5rum omnium hortatu, statuerat proelio decertare. Namqiie etiam in consilio superioribus diebus dixerat, Prius quam coftcurrerent acies, fore, utl exeiritus Caesaris pelleretur. Id cum essent plerlque admlrati, s ' Sci5 me,' inquit, 'paene incredibilem rem pollicerl; sed rationem consilii mei accipite, quo firmiore animS in proe- lium prodeatis. Persuasi equitibus nostris (idque mihi facturos confirmaverunt), ut, cum propius sit accessum, pey's advance further into the plain from his camp on higher ground. 73, d, and 239, g. 18. -depoposcimus: ^ we have earnestly desired.' How lit.? Animo : ' in spirit.' 21. expeditas : 'in fighting trim'; lit. 'unencumbered,' having laid aside the burdens which they had started to carry on the march. 86. 2. hortatu: ' in consequence of the urging.' 135, a. 3. consilio: a meeting of officers. superioribus diebus : from in posterum diem (1. 16) we are led to infer that the meeting of officers took place on August 8, the day before the battle. 4. concurrerent : present subjunctive in the direct form. 189, b. acies : the two opposing lines, Caesar's and Pompey 's. fore, etc. : 203, (i). 6. Scio, etc. : Fig. 147. 211, b, (3). 7. rationem consilii mei : ' the explanation of my plan.' quS, etc. : 193, b. 8. Persuasi : as if Pompey had only to ' persuade ' the cavalry to carry out the movement — and the battle would be won ! 9. cum, etc. : ' when the lines have drawn nearer.' How lit. ? 73, d. 444 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 lo dextrum Caesaris cornu ab latere aperto aggrederentur, et, circLimventa a tergo acie, prius perturbatum exercitum pellerent, quam a nobis telum in hostem iaceretur. * Ita sine periculo legionum, et paene sine vulnere, bellum conficiemus. Id autem difficile non est, cum tantum equi- 15 tatu valeamus.' Simul denuntiavit, ut essent animo parati in posterum diem et, quoniam fieret dimicandi potestas, ut saepe rogitavissent, ne suam neu reliqu5rum opinionem fal- lerent. Figure Pompey. 10. ab latere aperto : N. to I, 25, 1. 17. Pompey's huge force of cavalry was to out- flank Caesar's line of infantry and attack it from the rear. The outflanking was planned for Caesar's right wing because his left would be protected by the river Enipeus (cf. Map 20). 1 1 . perturbltum : * throw his army into confusion and.' 228, a. 14. cum, etc.: 'since we are so much stronger in cav- alry.' Pompey's horsemen numbered 7000, Caesar's 1000. 18/,, a. 16. dgnuntiavit: 'he en- joined (them).' 18. n6, etc. : *and not dis- appoint his own expectation or that of the others.' 157, d. reliquorum : senators and other civilians of standing who Marble bust in the Jacobsen Museum, Copen- . , ^ ^ 11 hagen : from a photograph courteously furnished were With Pompey. faUe- by the Director of the Museum. rent : 199 j a. Ill, 86] The Battle of Pharsalus 445 Even Labienus, over-confident, had expressed his contempt for Caesafs troops. 87 Hunc Labienus excepit et, cum Caesaris copias despiceret, Pompei consilium summis laudibus efferret, ' Noli,' inquit, * existimare, Pompei, hunc esse exercitum, qui Galliam Germaniamque devicerit. Omnibus interfui proelils neque temere incognitam rem pronuntid. s * Perexigua pars ilhus exercitus superest ; magna pars deperiit (quod accidere tot proeliis fuit necesse), multos autumni pestilentia in Italia consumpsit, multi domum discesserunt, multi sunt relictl in continent!. * An n5n audistis, ex eis, qui per causam valetudinis re- lo 87. I. Labienus: Labienus had gone over to the side of Pompey and had already shown himself an implacable enemy of Caesar. So long as he was under the direction of Caesar he was an efficient officer, displaying military talents of a high order. When, however, he came to act more independently he showed lack of insight, as in the present instance ; and he failed to realize the expectations of his new friends. excepit : ' followed,' in speaking. cum . . . despiceret : ' dis- paraging.' 185, c. 3. Noli: 181, b. Pompei: 8, c. B. 25, i; A. 49, <:; H. 4. devicerit : ' subdued.' The statement is an exaggeration, to heighten the effect ; Germany was far from being subdued. There is similar exaggeration in the following statement, that Labienus took part in all the battles in Gaul and Germany. 5. neque, etc. : *and I am not recklessly asserting something that I do not know.' How lit.? 6. Perexigua pars : ' An exceedingly small remnant.' 7. deperiit : '■ has been destroyed.' quod : = id qiwd. 160, c. 8. autumni pestilentia : ' the autumn sickness,' fevers, from which, in the autumn of 49 B.C., Caesar's army had suffered in Apulia and the region of Brundisium (C. Ill, 2). 9. in continent! : in Italy. 10. An: i75,«, (2). B. 162, 4, a ; A. 335,^ ; H. 380,3. audistis: H^ a, (3). 446 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 manserunt, cohortes esse Brundisii factas? Hae copiae, quas videtis, ex dilectibus horum annorum in citeri5re Gallia sunt refectae, et plerique sunt ex coloniis Trans- padanTs. Ac tamen, quod fuit roboris, duobus proeliis 15 Dyrrachinis interiit.' Haec cum dixisset, iuravit, se nisi victorem in castra non reversurum, reliquosque, ut idem facerent, hortatus est. H5c laudans, Pompeius idem iuravit ; nee vero ex reliquis fuit quisquam, qui iurare dubitaret. 20 Haec tum facta sunt in consilio, magnaque spe et laetitia omnium discessum est ; ac iam animo victoriam praecipie- bant, quod de re tanta et a tam perito imperatore nihil frustra confirmari videbatur. 11. cohortSs, etc. : 'that (whole) cohorts at Brundisium have been made up of those who were left behind on account of sickness.' I46. 12. horum annorum : i.e. of the last two years, since the outbreak of the Civil War. citeriore Gallia : 28^. 13. sunt refectae : Miave been recruited.' 14. quod fuit roboris: 'all the (real) strength there was' in Caesar's army ; the small nucleus of veterans which, after the reductions mentioned, Labienus thought that Caesar had been able to bring across the Adriatic. 97, b. 15. interiit: how badly mistaken Labienus was, he afterwards learned to his sorrow ; the brunt of the fighting at Pharsalus was borne by Caesar's veterans. 16. iurSvit, etc. : the oath was not unlike that taken by the Gauls under Vercingetorix (VII, 66, 11. 23-26; 67, 1. i) ; the result was in both cases the same. Similar, too, was the proclamation of General Ducrot, addressed to his soldiers in beleaguered Paris November 28, 1870, when he was trying to break through the Prussian "ring of iron" about the city. "For myself," the proclamation says, "I am fully resolved, I make my oath before you and before the entire nation, that I will re- enter Paris either dead or victorious ; you may see me fall, but you will not see me retreat." Vercingetorix and his officers, Pompey, Labienus, Ducrot — all alike survived overwhelming defeat. 21. omnium : including, besides the officers, prominent civilians. 22. tam perito imperStdre : Labienus. nihil, etc. : sc. sibi; ' the) Ill, 88] The Battle of Pharsalus 447 Caesar notes the arrangement of Pompey^s line of battle. 88. Caesar, cum Pompel castris appropinquasset, ad hunc modum aciem eius instructam animum advertit : Erant in sinistro cornu legidnes duae, traditae a Caesare initio dissensionis ex senatus consulto; quarum una prima, altera tertia appellabatur. In e5 loc5 ipse erat Pompeius. 5 Mediam aciem Sclpio cum legionibus Syriacis tenebat. Ciliciensis legid coniuncta cum cohortibus Hispanls, quas thought that confident assurances were not given without good grounds.' How lit.? 88. 2. hunc: 161, a. animum advertit : 113, c. 3. traditae : 'which had been handed over (to him).' 227, a, (4). 4. initio dissensionis : 'at the beginning of the strife,' in 50 B.C. 147, b. ex senatus consulto : ' in accordance with a decree of the Senate.' 258. prima, tertia : predicative. A legion transferred to another com- mander received a new num- ber. Pompey's ' First Legion ' had been legio VI in Caesar's army, and his ' Third Legion ' had been Caesar's legio XV -, both legions entered the service of Caesar in 53 B.C. 307, g. 5. eo loco : Pompey's left wing, facing Caesar's right. 6. legionibus Syriacis : two legions that had been serving in Syria, that Scipio had conducted to Pompey in Macedonia. 7. Ciliciensis: 'fromCili- cia ' ; this was a veteran legion. quais . . . docuimus : the passage here referred to 'has Figure 148. — Legionary's cuirass. Pompey's soldiers had the same armor and weapons as Caesar's ; there was no such disparity in equipment as there had been between Caesar's soldiers and the Gauls. 448 Caesar's Civil War tB.c. 48 traductas ab Afranio docuimus, in dextro cornu erant col- locatae. Has flrmissimas se habere Pompeius existimabat. lo Reliquas inter aciem mediam cornuaque interiecerat numeroque cohortes ex expleverat. Haec erant numero milia XLv; evocatorum circiter duo, quae ex beneficiarils superiorum exercituum ad eum convenerant, quae tota acie disperserat. 15 Reliquas cohortes vii castrls propinqulsque castellis prae- sidio disposuerat. Dextrum cornu eius rivus quidam impe- ditis rlpTs muniebat ; quam ob causam cunctum equitatum, sagittarios funditoresque omnes sinistro cornu adiecerat. Caesar arranges his troops in order of battle. 89. Caesar", superius institutum servans, x legionem in dextro cornu, nonam in sinistro collocaverat, tametsi erat been lost. Afranius and Petreius commanded forces of Pompey in Spain, but were conquered by Caesar in 49 B.C. 8. erant collocatae : the subject grammatically is legio, but in thought the ' Spanish cohorts ' also are included, as if legid et Hispcitiae cohortes had been written. 113^ b. 9. Has : the five legions mentioned, and the Spanish cohorts ; ' that these were the strongest legions which he bad.' How lit. ? 10. Reliquas: sc. legioties (Fig. 148). 11. numero, etc.: Pompey had no cohorts, the equivalent of II legions, in his battle line (Map 20) ; these comprised 47,000 regular soldiers, besides cavalry and light-armed troops. 12. evocatorum : ' veteran volunteers.' SIG. duo : sc. milia- erant. beneficiariis : ' privileged soldiers ' ; see Vocab. 13. superiorum exercituum: 'of (his) former armies,' as in the war with Mithridates. 15. castellis : marked A A A on Map 20. 16. rivus quidam: probably the Enipeus ; see Map 20. impe- ditis ripis : ' with banks hard to cross.' 89. I . superius Institutum : ' his earlier arrangement ' of having the tenth legion in the place of honor on the right wing, as in the battle with Ariovistus, eleven years before (Map 4). X: decimam. 38^ if. 2. erat, etc. : ' it had been greatly reduced in strength.' 191, a. 4> 'o a. 6 o X Ill, 89] The Battle of Pharsalus 449 Dyrrachinis proelils vehementer attenuata, et huic sic adiunxerat octavam, ut paene unam ex duabus efificeret, atque alteram alterl praesidio esse iusserat. s Cohortes in acie lxxx constitutas habebat, quae summa erat milium xxii ; cohortes vii castris praesidid reliquerat. Sinistro cornu Antonium, dextro P. Sullam, mediae aciei Cn. Domitium praeposuerat Ipse contra Pompeium constitit. ic Simul his rebus animadversis, quas demonstravimus, timens, ne a multitudine equitum dextrum cornu circum- veniretur, celeriter ex tertia acie singulas cohortes detraxit 5. alter! : sc. legionf ; ^ that, the one (legion) should support the other.' 23, a, and 112, b. 6. LXXX : 26. quae summa : trans, as if quarum simima (cfc I, 29, 1. 5). 7. milium XXII: Caesar's 80 cohorts, 8 legions (Map 20), con- taining a total of only 22,000 men, averaged less than 300 men to a cohort ; Pompey's no cohorts averaged above 400 men each. 100, b, and 301, b, c. 8. cornu: dative. 20, b. Antonium : Mark Antony. 9. contra Pompeium: Caesar was with the tenth legion on the right wing, facing Pom- pey's left wing, where Pompey was (chap. 88, 1. 5). II. his rebus : Pompey's disposition of forces, especially the massing of cavalry and light infantry over against Caesar's right wing (chap. 88, 11. 17-18) ; Caesar saw at a glance that a flanking movement was in- tended, and with amazing quickness of decision devised a means to resist it. 13. tertia acie : 337. Figure 149. — Banner, vexillum. 450 ' Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 atque ex his quartam instituit equitatuique opposuit, et, 15 quid fieri vellet, ostendit, monuitque eius diei victoriam in earum cohortium virtute constare. Simul tertiae aciel imperavit, ne iniussu suo concurreret ; se, cum id fieri vellet, vexill5 signum daturum. Caesar briefly addresses his soldiers and gives the signed to attack. 90. Exercitum cum militari m5re ad pugnam cohorta- retur suaque in eum perpetui temporis officia praedicaret, in prlmls commemoravit : Testibiis se mtlitibus utl posse, qiianto studio pdcem S petlsset ; quae per Vatinium in colloqiiiis, quae per A. Clo- dium cum Scipidne egisset, quibus modis ad Oricum cum Lib one de m,ittendis legdtis contendisset. Neque se um- quam abutl militum sanguine neque rem publicam alterutro exercitu prlvare voluisse. 14. quftrtam [aciem] : this line was made up of eight cohorts, less than 3000 men ; see Map 20, Fourth Line. 18. vexillo : used generally to give the signal 'to arms' (II, 20, 1. 2, and Fig. 149) ; in this instance, to order a division into action. 5^^^, (3)- 90. I . militari more : ' in accordance with military custom ' ; N. to 1,25,1.3- iS6,c. 2. sua, etc. : ' was setting forth his kindnesses to it, an unbroken series ' (lit. ' of unbroken time '). 100, a. 4. Testibus, etc. : * that he could call upon his soldiers to bear witness.' How lit.? i5i, /, and ^/^, c, (2). 5. per Vatinium, etc. : the efforts made by Caesar to arrange terms of peace through the agency of Publius Vatininus and Aulus Clodius are narrated in chapters 19 and 57 of Book III. 7. dS, etc. : 'had endeavored to arrange the sending of envoys' for a peace conference ; cf. C III, 16-17. 201^., (3). 8. abutl : 'waste.' ISU c. alterutrS : 51. 9. exercitfi: 127, a. B. 214; H. 462. privSre : 'deprive** 111,91] The Battle of Pharsalus 451 Hac habita oratione, exposcentibus militibus et studio lo pugnae ardentibus, tuba signum dedit. With heroic words, Crastinus leads the charge. 91. Erat Crastinus, evocatus, in exercitu Caesaris, qui superiore ann5 apud cum primum pilum in legione x duxe- rat, vir singular! virtute. Hie, sign5 dato, ' Sequiminl me,' inquit, * manipulares mei qui fuistis, et vestro imperatori, quam consuevistis, operam date. Unum s hoc proelium superest ; qu5 confect5, et ille suam dignita- tem, et nos nostram libertatem recuperabimus.' Simul respiciens Caesarem, * Faciam,' inquit, * hodie, imperator, ut aut vivo mihi aut mortu5 gratias agas.' lo Haec cum dixisset, primus ex dextro cornu procucurrit, atque eum electi milites circiter cxx voluntariT sunt pr5secuti. 10. oratione : the words must have been repeated several times, probably by Caesar himself, riding along the line ; no single utterance could have been heard over so extended a front. exposcentibus : sc. signum. Caesar's watchword in this battle was venus victrix, ' Venus Bringer of Victory/ He vowed a temple to this goddess if he should be victorious, and afterwards fulfilled his vow by erecting a temple to Venus in Rome. 244- 11. ardentibus : a strong word ; 'burning.' tuba, etc. : 326, a, (i), and b. The date was August 9, unreformed calendar. 261, and 241, c. 91. I. Crastinus: 76, b. evocatus: S16. 2. pilum : from pi his ; see Vocab., and 315, b. X: 38, b. 4. manipulares, etc. : ' who were the men of my maniple ' (when I was first centurion). 6. quo confecto : ' when this is over.' How Ht. ? dignitatem: 'his position' in the state; sc. recuperdbit. 7. nostram libertatem : jeopardized by Pompey. 9. Faciam, etc. : ' General, you will to-day have occasion to thank me, living or dead.' How lit.? ;g03, (3). 12. voluntarii: 'who were serving as volunteers'; like Crastinus, they were 'veterans,' evocdti. 452 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 Caesar's veterans halt, to take breath, hurl themselves on the foe. 92. Inter duas acies tantum erat rellctum spatii, ut satis esset ad concursum utriusque exercitus. Sed Pompeius suis praedixerat, ut Caesaris impetum exciperent, neve se loco moverent aciemque eius distrahl paterentur; idque 5 admonitu C. Triaril fecisse dicebatur, ut primus excursus visque militum infringeretur aciesque distenderetur, atque in suis ordinibus dispositi dispers5s adorlrentur; leviusque casura pila sperabat, in loc5 retentis militibus, quam si ipsi immissis telis occurrissent ; simul fore, ut, duplicato cursu, lo Caesaris milites exanimarentur et lassitudine conficerentur. Quod nobis quidem nulla rati5ne factum a Pompeio videtur, propterea quod est quaedam animi incitatio atque 92. I. tantum spatii: '(only) so much space'; probably about IOC /^j-j-wj-, somewhat less than 500 English feet. 97, b, and 243, b. ut, etc. : ' as to enable each army to charge.' How lit. ? 197, b. 3. praedixerat, etc.: 'had given orders in advance' (i.e. not to countercharge when they saw the enemy advancing but) 'to await Caesar's attack and not to move from their position.' 199, d. 4. aciem, etc. : ' his line to become disordered,' as his soldiers should rush forward in the charge. 5. primus, etc.: 'that the initial vigor of attack of (Caesar's) soldiers might be lessened.' How lit.? 7. dispositi disperses: sc. sul (i.e. Po7npeianl milites) eos {Caesaris milites) ; ' that his own men with ranks in perfect order might fall upon them when in confusion.' How lit.? levius casura [esse] : ' would fall with less eflfect,' than if his soldiers should charge against them as they were hurled. 8. in, etc. : ' if his soldiers should be held in position.' 144. b, (4). 9. duplicato cursu : ' having twice as far to run ' in the charge, cover- ing the whole distance between the two armies instead of half the distance. 10. exanimarentur, etc. : 'would get out of breath and be weak- ened by fatigue.' 11. Quod: 'Now this.' 167. nulla ratione : ' quite without reason.' How lit.? 135, a. fsictum: sc. esse. 12. est, etc. : ' all men have by nature a kind of latent capacity for be- ing spurred to action, and this is kindled by the heat of battle.' How lit. ? Ill, 93] . The Battle of Pharsalus 453 alacritas naturaliter innata omnibus, quae studio pugnae incenditur. Hanc non reprimere, sed augere imperatores debent; neque frustra antiquitus Tnstitutum est, ut signais undique concinerent clamoremque universi tollerent ; qui- bus rebus et hostes terreri et suos incitari existimaverunt. 93. Sed nostrl milites, sign5 dato, cum infestls pills procucurrissent atque animum advertissent non concurri a Pompeianls, usu perlti ac superioribus pugnis exercitatl, sua sponte cursum represserunt et ad medium fere spatium constiterunt, ne c5nsumptis viribus appropinquarent ; par- $ voque intermissd temporis spatio, ac rursus renovato cursu, pila miserunt celeriterque, ut erat praeceptum a Caesare, gladi5s strinxerunt. Neque vero Pompeiani huic rei defuerunt. Nam et tela missa exceperunt et impetum legionum tulerunt et ordines lo conservarunt, pTlisque missis, ad gladios redierunt. 15. signa: 'signals' with the trumpet. 326, a, b. 16. undique concinerent : 'should in all parts (of the line) sound at the same time/ universi: ' (the soldiers) in a body.' 17. quibus rebus: 'and by these means.' existimaverunt: as subject supply antiqiif, ' men of the olden time.' 93. I. cum: 185, c. infestis pills: 'with pikes raised,' ready for hurling. How lit.? 2. non concurri, etc. : 'that no advance was made by the soldiers of Pompey,' who had been ordered to stand still and let Caesar's sol- diers come on. 4. ad medium fere spatium: 'about half-way between' the two armies. These experienced soldiers covered nearly the distance of our 100-yard dash, stopped of their own accord to take breath, ran again a like distance and hurled their pikes, then 'drew their swords.' Pompey had again miscalculated, in assuming that Caesar's men would allow themselves to be exhausted by a charge of twice the ordinary length. 9. Neque, etc : ' And in truth the soldiers of Pompey did not fail to meet this movement.' How lit. ? tela : the pikes hurled by Caesar's men. 10. exceperunt : with their shields. ordines : ' ranks.' 454 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 Caesar's cavahy is defeated; his fouHh line routs Pompey's caiy airy and attacks Pompey's left wing in the rear. E5dem tempore equites ab sinistr5 Pompei cornu, ut erat imperatum, universi pr5cucurrerunt, omnisque multitudo sagittariorum se pr5fudit. Quorum impetum noster equi- istatus non tulit, sed paulatim loco motus cessit; equitesque Pompei hoc acrius instare et se turmatim explicare aciem- que nostram ab latere apert5 circumire coeperunt. Quod ubi Caesar animum advertit, quartae aciei, quam instituerat, cohortibus dedit signum. 20 Illae celeriter pr5cucurrerunt infestisque signis tanta vi in Pompei equites impetum fecerunt, ut eorum nemo con- sisteret, omnesque conversi non solum loco excederent, sed prdtinus incitati fuga montes altissimos peterent. Quibus summotis, omnes sagittarii funditoresque destituti, inermes, 25 sine praesidio, interfecti sunt. 12. EquitSs, etc. : see chap. 86, 11. 8-15 ; chap. 88, 11. 17-18. Pom- pey's cavalry was commanded by Labienus, who soon forgot his oath (chap. 87, 11. 16-17). See Map .20. 14. Bgprofudit: ' rushed forward.' 16. hoc: 135, a. se turmatim explicare : ' to deploy by squad- rons.' The cavalry had charged in clo?e formation ; it now deployed by squadrons in order the more easily to execute the flanking movement ordered by Pompey. 309, c. 18. acigi: dependent on cohortibus; see chap. 89, 11. 14-16, and Map 20, JFOURTH LINE. 20. Infestis signis : 325. Cavalry are at a disadvantage in with- standing a charge of infantry. 22. -que: 'but.' ;25^ b. conversi: < wheeling about.' How lit.? 23. incitati fugS : 'scurrj'ing in flight.' How lit.? Their probable course is shown on Map 20, Route of Pompey's Cavalry in Flight. 24. dgstituti : by the flight of the cavalry, inermfis : without de- fensive weapons. 25. sine praesidio : in^ the open plain, without a rampart to shield them. 111,94] The Battle of Pharsalus 455 Eodem impetu cohortes sinistrum cornu, pugnantibus etiam turn ac resistentibus in acie Pompeianis, circumierunt eosque a tergo sunt adortae. Caesar's third line eiiters the action; Pompey's infantry gives way, and Pompey Jlees to his camp. 94. Eodem tempore tertiam aciem Caesar, quae quieta fuerat et se ad id tempus loco tenuerat, procurrere iussit. Ita cum recentes atque integri defessis successissent, alii autem a tergo adorirentur, sustinere Pompeiani non po- tuerunt atque universi terga verterunt. s Sed Pompeius, ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit atque eam partem, cui maxime confidebat, perterritam animum ad- vertit, alils diffisus acie excessit protinusque se in castra equo contulit et eis centurionibus, quos in statione ad prae- toriam portam posuerat, clare, ut mllites exaudirent, ic 26. Eodem impetu: < Continuing their movement.' How lit.? cohortes : of the fourth line. sinistrum cornu : of Pompey. 27. Pompeianis : Pompey's legionaries ; his cavalry and light-armed troops were already disposed of. 28. a tergo : by forming a fourth line, notwithstanding his inferior numbers, Caesar was enabled not only to defeat Pompey's plan to out- flank him but to turn the tables and outflank Pompey. 94. I. tertiam aciem: the third line had been ordered to await Caesar's signal with the red banner (chap. 89, 11. 17-18). 3. recentes atque integri: the soldiers of Caesar's third line, defessis : the soldiers of the first and second lines, fighting against superior numbers, until now without reenforcements. 337, b. alii : Caesar's fourth line. 6. ut: 188, a. atque: 'and (thus).' eam partem: the cavalry. 8. aliis diffisus: Hosing confidence in his other troops.' 62, and 105. acie: 127, a. sg equo contulit: 'rode on horseback.' How lit.? 131, a. ID. praetoriam portam : here the west gate of the camp (Map 20). S3Ii, a. clSre : ' in a loud voice.' 456 Caesar*s Civil War [B.C. 48 ' Tuemini,' inquit, ' castra et defendite diligenter, si quid durius accident. Ego reliquas portas circumeo et castrorum praesidia confirmo.' Haec cum dixisset, se in praetorium contulit, summae IS rei diffldens et tamen eventum exspectans. Caesar takes Pompey^s camp, finding many evidences of luxuiy. 95. Caesar, Pompeianis ex fuga intra vallum compulsis, nullum spatium perterritis darl oportere existimans, milites cohortatus est, ut beneficio fortunae uterentur castraque oppugnarent. Qui, etsi magno aestu fatigati — nam ad s meridiem res erat perducta — tamen, ad omnem laborem animo paratT, imperi5 paruerunt. Castra a cohortibus, quae ibi praesidio erant relictae, In- dustrie defendebantur, multo etiam acrius a Thracibus barbarisque auxiliis. Nam qui ex acie refugerant milites, loet animo perterriti et lassitudine confecti, dimissis plerlque II. Tuemini: 61, a, (2). si, etc. : ' if any unusual difficulty pre- sents itself.' How lit.? 206. 13. confirmo : ' encourage'; vivid use of the present tense. 14. praetorium: 'general's quarters.' 334j b. summae: da- tive, with rei, genitive, depending on it ; ' distrustful of the final issue.* How lit.? 95. I. vallum: of Pompey's camp; his men had been forced back to the elevation on which the camp was, and up the slope (Map 20). 3. ut, etc. : ' to take advantage of fortune's favor.' 4. magno aestu : in the plain of Pharsalus the heat in summer is intense. 5. r6s : 'the struggle.' tamen, etc : notwithstanding the physi- cal exhaustion of Caesar's soldiers, their grit did not fail them. 7. cohortibus : 7 in number, for the camp and redoubts (chap. 88, 11. 15-16). 9. barbarisque auxiliis: 'and (other) barbarian auxiliary troops.' Nam : ' (The defense was left to these) for.' 10. dimissis, etc. : ' in most cases throwing away.' How lit. ? 111,96] The Battle of Pharsalus 457 armis signisque militaribus, magis de reliqua fuga quam de castrorum defensione cogitabant. Neque ver5 diutius, qui in vallo c5nstiterant, multitu- dinem telorum sustinere potuerunt, sed, confecti vulneribus, locum reliquerunt, protinusque omnes, ducibus usi centuri- ic onibus tribuiiisque militum, in altissimos montes, qui ad castra pertinebant, confiigerunt. 96. In castrls Pompei videre licuit trichilas structas, magnum argent! pondus expositum, recentibus caespitibus tabernacula constrata, L. etiam Lentuli et non nuUorum tabernacula protecta hedera, multaque praeterea, quae nimiam luxuriam et victoriae fiduciam designarent; uts facile existimari posset, nihil eos de eventu eius diei ti- muisse, qui non necessarias conquirerent voluptates. At hi 13. qui: as antecedent sc. ^f, subject of /(9/«/r««/. 15. ducibus, etc.: 'having as their leaders' (in flight) 'the cen- turions and military tribunes,' who ought to have rallied the demoralized troops and continued the battle ; bitter sarcasm, veiled under a form of expression that on the surface is complimentary. 131,/. 16. montes, etc. : see Map 20, Route of Pompey's Fleeing Legionaries. 96. I. licuit: 73, b. trichilas structas: ' arbors that had been built,' covered with branches having their leaves on, as a protection against the sun. These did not take the place of the tents, but were used for dining; in summer well-to-do Romans made much use of arbors shaded with branches or vines. 2. argenti : 'silver plate.' expositum: 'set out' on tables, in readiness for dinner. recentibus, etc. : ' tents carpeted with fresh turf 3. L. Lentuli: mentioned by name because of his prominence ; he had been consul the previous year. 4. protecta hedera : ' decked with ivy,' trailed along the sides, to keep out the heat. 5. designarent: ^evidenced.' The unsoldierly camp life of Pom- pey's aristocratic civilian contingent is known from other sources. 19^, a. 7. non necessSrias voluptates : ' needless indulgences.' 239^ g. at: 236, a. 458 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 48 miserrim5 ac patientissimo exercitui Caesaris luxuriam obiciebant, cui semper omnia ad necessarium usum de- lo f uissent ! Pompey Jlees from the camp, reaches the sea, takes ship, Pompeius, cum iam intra vallum nostri versarentur, equum nactus, detractis insignibus imperatoriis, decumana porta se ex castrls eiecit protinusque equo citat5 Larisam contendit. IS Neque ibi constitit, sed eadem celeritate, paucos suos ex fuga nactus, nocturne itinere non intermissd, comitatu equitum xxx ad mare pervenit navemque frumentariam conscendit, saepe, ut dicebatur, querens tantum se opi- nionem fefellisse, ut, a quo genere hominum victoriam spe- 2orasset, ab e5 initi5 fugae fact5, paene proditus videretur. 8. miserrimo: 28, a. patientissimo: 'most long-suffering.' 27, a. 9. cui, etc. : ^although it had lacked everything.' 194, d. 12. equum nactus: the language implies that Pompey did not wait to get his own mount but jumped on the first horse he could find. 61, a, (3), and 226, c. insignibus imperStoriis : the distinguish- ing marks of his rank as commander, particularly his scarlet mantle {palildamentum), which he replaced by a traveler's cloak. 321. de- cumSna porta : in this case the east gate (Map 20). 554, ^j and 134, ^• 13. equo citato: 'urging his horse forward.' 144, b, (7)* ^*- rlsam: see Map 19. The distance from Pharsalus to Larisa is about 25 English miles. 15. paucos suos: among Pompey 's companions in flight was Lucius Lentulus (1. 3) who likewise met death in Egypt (C. III. 104). 17. mare: at the mouth of the Peneus, about 25 miles northeast of Larisa ; in the latter part of his flight Pompey passed through the famous Vale of Tempe, which runs back from the sea between Mt. Olympus and Mt. Ossa (Map 19) ; see Fig. 209, in Vocab. 18. s6, etc.: 'that he had been so grievously disappointed in his expectations ' ; se'\^ object oi fefellisse. How lit.? 19. a qu6, etc. : ' that it almost seemed as if he had been betrayed, 111,97] The Battle of Pharsalus 459 Caesar completes the victory, taking many captives. 97. Caesar, castrls potitus, a mllitibus contendit, ne, in praeda occupati, reliqui negotil gerendl facultatem dimit- terent. Qua re impetrata, montem opere circummunire Instituit. Pompeiani, quod is mons erat sine aqua, diffisi ei loco, s relicto monte, universi iugis eis Larisam versus se reci- pere coeperunt. Qua re animadversa, Caesar copias suas divisit partemque legi5num in castris Pompei remanere iussit, partem in sua castra remisit, iiii secum legiones duxit commodioreque itinere Pompeianis occurrere coepit, lo et, progressus milia passuum vi, aciem instruxit. Qua re animadversa, Pompeiani in quodam monte con- stiterunt. Hunc montem flumen subluebat. since the rout was started by that division of men (the cavalry), from whom.' How lit. ? 148, e; 172, d, and 165, c. 97. I. castris: 131, c. mllitibus: the soldiers immediately on capturing the camp began to plunder it. contendit : ' urged and demanded,' not zmperat ; see n. to chap. 98, 1. 7. 199, a. 2. reliqui, etc. : ^the opportunity to finish up the business in hand.' How lit.? 3. Qua re impetrata: 'Having carried his point.' That under the circumstances Caesar's soldiers left off looting in order to resume fighting, is evidence not only of his power to maintain discipline but also of their loyalty to him. montem: 'elevation'; see chap. 95, 1. 16. opere : the usual trench and rampart. 6. iugis eis : ' along the ridges,' connecting the heights. 134, b, and IGO, d. Larisam versus : ' in the direction of Larisa.' Their course was first toward the northeast, to find a place where they could cross the Enipeus ; Map 20, Route of Pompey's fleeing legionaries. 10. commodiore itinere : Caesar passed over the height on which was Pompey's camp and followed the more level ground along the river, being thus enabled to head off the fleeing legionaries who were travers- ing the high ground ; Map 20, Route of Caesar overtaking the LEGIONARIES OF POMPEY. 12. quodam monte : marked B on Map 20. 13. flumen: Enipeus. 460 Caesar's Civil War (B.C. 48 Caesar, milites cohortatus, etsi totius diei continent! ts labore erant confecti noxque iam suberat, tamen muniti- one flumen a monte seclusit, ne noctu aquari PompeianI possent. Quo perfect5 opere, illi de deditione, missis legatls, agere coeperunt. Pauci ordinis senatdrii, qui se cum his coniunxerant, nocte fuga salutem petiverunt. 98. Caesar prima luce omnes eos, qui in monte con- sederant, ex superioribus locis in planitiem descendere atque arma proicere iussit. Quod ubi sine recusatione fecerunt, passisque palmis, pr5iecti ad terram, flentes, ab eo s salutem petiverunt, consolatus consurgere iussit, et pauca apud eos de lenitate sua locutus, quo minore essent timore, omnes c5nservavit ; militibusque suis commendavit, ne qui eorum violaretur, neu quid sui desiderarent. Hac adhibita diligentia, ex castris sibi legiones alias occurrere et eas, 15. mumtione : Map 20, Caesar's line of works. 16. sgclusit: 'shutoif.' 79, d. aquSri: ' to obtain water.' 18. ordinis senatdrii: 'of senatorial rank.' These men, having bitterly opposed Caesar, feared his vengeance even more than the sol- diers did. 98. 3. Quod : trans, as if et id. recusatione : ' protest.' 4. passis palmis : * with their palms outstretclied,' in supplication, proiecti ad terram: < casting themselves upon the ground.' 17 1^. ab eo : llii, b. 5. consurgere iussit: sc. eos^ 'he bade them rise.' 6. quo, etc. : ' in order to allay their fears.' How lit.? IJ^S. b. 7. n6: ' (urging) that.' qui; 4P, «, and 765. commendavit [eos]: not imperdvit ; in a time of so great excitement and strain Caesar could more easily control his men through a request than by a command. 8. violSrgtur: 'be harmed.' neu: 199, d. sui: genitive, singular, neuter; 'anything that belonged to them,' lit. 'anything of their own.' 57, b, and 154, a. HSc adhibita diligentia : ♦ Having given this matter careful attention.' How lit. ? 9. sibi occurrere : with /V/jmv/, 'he ordered other legions to join him.' Ill, 99] The Battle of Pharsalus 461 quas secum duxerat, in vicem requiescere atque in castra lo reverti iussit, eodemque die Larisam pervenit. The losses, on both sides. Death of the brave Crastinus. 99. In eo proelio non amplius cc milites desideravit, sed centuriones, fortes viros, circiter xxx amisit. Interfectus estetiam, fortissime pugnans, Crastinus, cuius mentionem supra fecimus, gladio in os adversum coniecto. Neque id f uit falsum, quod ille, in pugnam proficiscens, s dixerat. Sic enim Caesar existimabat, e5 proelio excellen- tissimam virtutem Crastini fuisse, optimeque eum de se meritum iudicabat. 10. quSs, etc. : these legions had been fighting, marching, fortifying, or on guard duty, continuously for twenty-four hours. requiescere : ' to take rest.' 11. Larisam pervenit: a march of 25 English miles, on the day after the battle, in very hot weather — no mean accom- plishment. 329. 99. I . CC : ducenios. 129, b. B. 217,3; A. 407,^; H. 471? 4- 2. centuriones, etc. : cf. N. to VII, 51, 1. I. 3. supra : chap. 91. gladio, etc. : '• having re- ceived a sword-thrust directly in the face.' 6. excellentissimam, etc. : ' that the valor of Cras- tinus was the most extraordinary ' of all. " The army bore witness," says Appian, " how, like one inspired, running to each rank he per- formed prodigies of valor. And when, after search, he was found among the dead, Caesar put military decorations upon him, and buried them with him, and built for him a separate tomb near the common burial- place where many were interred." Figure 150. — Symbols of Victory. Cuirass, two spears, and a banner, suggesting victory over a civilized nation. From a relief. 462 Caesar's Civil War [B.C. 4» Ex Pompeiano exercitu circiter milia xv cecidisse vide- * lo bantur, sed in deditionem venerunt amplius milia xxiiii (namque etiam cohortes, quae praesidio in castellis fuerant, sese Sullae dediderunt), multi praeterea in finitimas civitates refugerunt ; signaque militaria ex proelio ad Caesarem sunt relata clxxx et aquilae vim. IS L. Domitius ex castris in montem refugiens, cum vires eum lassitudine defecissent, ab equitibus est interfectus. 9. vidSbantur, etc. : the expression suggests a rough estimate ; the number of prisoners is more definitely stated, since they were accurately counted. 14. aquilae vmi : the eagles of all but two of Pompey's 11 legions fell into Caesar's hands, a sweeping victory (Fig. 150). The most graphic description of the battle of Pharsalus in English literature is in chap. 21 oi A Friend of Caesar^ by W. S. Davis. 15. L. Domitius: N. to chap. 3, 1. 2. Historical Significance of the Battle of Pharsalus. " In none (of the world's decisive battles)," says Warde Fowler, " have the contending forces in a world-wide revolution been so exactly focussed in two armies on a single battle-field. On one side the disunion, selfishness, and pride of the last sur- vivors of an ancient oligarchy, speculating before the event on the wealth or office that victory was to bring them ; on the other, the absolute command of a single man, whose clear mental vision was entirely occupied with the facts and issues that lay before him that day. " The one host was composed in great part of a motley crowd from Greece and the East, representing that spurious Hellenic civilisation that for a cen- tury had sapped the vigour of Roman life; the other was chiefly drawn from the Gallic populations of Italy and the West, fresh, vigorous, intelligent, and united in devotion and loyalty to a leader whom not even defeat could dishearten. " With Pompeius was the spirit of the past, and his failure did but answer to the failure of a decaying world; with Caesar was the spirit of the future^ and his victory marks the moment when humanity could once more start hope- fully upon a new line of progress." SELECTIONS FOR SIGHT READING 1. The Pig's Last Will and Testament Testdmentum Porcelli. Incipit testamentum porcelli. M. Grunnius Corocotta, porcellus, testamentum fecit. Quoniam manu mea scribere non potui, scribendum dictavl. Magirus, cocus, dixit : *Veni hue, eversor domi, solivertiator, fugitive porcelle, s et hodie tibi dirimo vitam.' Corocotta, porcellus, dixit : * Si qua feci, si qua peccavi, si qua vascella pedibus meis 1. I, Incipit: '(Here) begins.' testamentum: in our legal phrase, ' the last will and testament.' The Pig's Will, the author of which is unknown, afforded amusement to many generations of Roman schoolboys. porcellus, -i, m., 'pig.' 75, a. 2. M. Grunnius Corocotta, gen. Marci Grunnii Corocottae, m., * Marcus Grunter Bristleback.' All the names of the Will are made up, and their meaning, although obvious to a Roman, can be only ap- proximated in translation. 3. scribendum: gerundive, 'for writing'; sc. testdmentum. diet 6, -are, -avi, -Stus, [frequentative of dico, 18,a\, i, ' dictate.' 4. Magirus, -i, [/xtiyapo?], m., ' Chef ; Greek word meaning ' cook,' here used as a name. cocus, -1, m., 'cook.' 5. eversor, -oris, [everto], m., 'overturner.' solivertiator, -oris, [solum, 'ground,' verto], m., a made-up word, 'rooter.' 6. hodie: adv., 'to-day.' dirimo: colloquial present instead of the future. 8. qua: 'anything,' lit. 'anythings.' pecco, -5re, -Svi, -atus, i, ' transgress,' ' do mischief.' qua peccavi : ' have done any mischief.' qua : ' any.' v5scellum, -1, n., * dish.' 463 464 Caesar's Gallic War confregi, rogo, domine coce, vitam peto, concede roganti.' lo Magirus, cocus, dixit : * TransI, puer, affer mihi de cocina cultrum, ut hunc por- cellum faciam cruentum.' Porcellus comprehenditur a famulis, ductus, sub die xvi kal. lucerninas, ubi abundant cymae, Clibanato et Pipe- 15 rato consul ibus. Et ut vidit, se moriturum esse, h5rae spatium petiit, et cocum rogavit, ut testamentum facere posset. Clamavit ad se suos parentes, ut de cibariis suls aliquid dimitteret eis. Qui ait : 20 ' Patri me5, Verrin5 Lardino, do, lego dari glandis mo- di5s XXX ; et matrl meae, Veturinae Scrofae, do, lego dari Laconicae siliginis modios xl; et sorori meae Quirinae, in 9. conf lingo, -ere, confrggi, -fractus, 3, ' smash,' ' break to pieces.' dominus, -1, m., 'master.' roganti: sc. mihi. II. puer : the cook's helper. cocina, -ae, f., < kitchen.' culter, -tri (7, 0) ni-» 'butcher-knife.' 12. cruentus, -a, -um, adj., 'bloody'; here, ' all bloody.' 13. famulus, -1, m., ' servant.' 14. lucerninus, -a, -um, adj., a made-up word, ' of candle-light ' ; the expression ' the kalends of candle-light ' humorously suggests the beginning of the long winter nights — the season when spring pigs (and turkeys) are in demand. cyma, -ae, f., < young cabbage.' Cliban&tus, -1, [clibanus, * baking-pan '], m., 'Roastingpan.' Pipe- rttus, -i, [piper, ' pepper'], m., ' Blackpepper.' 18. clSmo, -are, -avi, -5tus, i, 'call.' 19. dimitteret eis : ' bestow upon them.' Qui ait : ' And he said.' 20. Verrinus L^rdinus, -1 -1, [verrSs, *boar,' Iftrdum, 'bacon'], m., 'Boar Bacon.' 16g6, -are, -avi, -atus, i, 'appoint.' 16g6 dari: ' I bequeath,' lit. ' I appoint to be given ' ; legal formality and re- dundancy of expression. glandis : singular where we use the plural ; 'of acorns.' modius, -1, m., ' peck.' 21. Veturina Scrofa, -ae -ae, 'Dame Hogg.' 22. Laconicus, -a, -um, adj. 'Lacedaemonian.' sillgd, -inis, f. ' white wheat.' Quirina, -ae, f., ' Squealy.' in : ' at.' 23. v6tum :' wedding.' bordeum, -I, n., 'barley/ Selections for Sight Reading 465 cuius votum interesse non potui, do, lego dan hordei modios XXX. * Et de meis visceribus dabo, donabo, sutoribus saetas, 25 rixoribus capitinas, surdis auriculas, causidicis et verbosis linguam, isiciariis femora, cursoribus et venat5ribus talos, latronibus ungulas. ' Et nee nominando coco legato dimitto popiam et pis- tillum, quae mecum attuleram, de Tebeste usque ad Ter-30 geste ; liget sibi collum de reste. * Et volo mihi fieri monumentum, aureis litterls scrlptum, M • GRUNNIUS • COROCOTTA • PORCELLUS VIXIT • ANNIS • DCCCC XC Villi • ET • S QUOD • SI • SEMISSEM • VIXISSET 35 MILLE • ANNOS • IMPLESSET 25. viscus, -eris, (13, e), n., 'flesh,' sutor, -oris, m., 'shoe- maker.' saeta, -ae, f., 'bristle,' used by cobblers in the waxed end of their threads. 26. rixor, -oris, m., 'quarreler.' capitina, -ae, [caput], f., ' head-meat,' suggesting our word " headcheese." surdus, -a, -uni, adj., 'deaf.' auricula, -ae, [diminutive of auris], f., 'ear'; the hearing of pigs is very keen. causidicus, -1, [causa, dico], m., 'pleader.' verbosus, -1, [verbum], m., ' talkative person.' 27. isiciarius,-i,m., 'sausage-maker.' cursor, -6ris, [curro], m., 'runner.' talus, -1, m., 'knucklebone.' 28. ungula, -ae, f., ' hoof.' 29. nee nominando : 'unspeakable.' legStum, -1, n., ' legacy ' ; here dative of purpose. popia, -ae, f., 'soup-ladle.' pistillum, -1, n., 'pestle ' of a mortar. 30. de, etc. : like " from Dan to Beersheba." Tebeste, -is, n., ' Te- beste,' a city in Numidia, now T^bessa. Tergeste, -is, n., now Trieste. 31. ligo, -are, -avi, -atus, i, 'bind.' collum, -1, n., 'neck.' d6: we should say 'with.' restis, -is, f., 'rope'; the cook is ex- horted to hang himself. 32. monumentum, -1, [moneo ; 74, d'], n., 'monument.' 34. S : for semisse, abl. semis, semissis, m., 'half.' 466 Caesar's Gallic War * OptimI amatores mei, vel c5nsules vltae, rogo vos, ut cum corpore meo bene faciatis, bene condiatis de bonis condlmentis nuclei, piperis et mellis, ut n5men meum in 4osempiternum nominetur. *MeI domini vel c5nsobrini mei, qui in medio testamento interfuistis, iubete signari.* Lardio signavit. Ofellicus signavit. 45 Cyminatus signavit. Lucanicus signavit. Tergillus signavit. Celsinus signavit. Nuptialicus signavit. so Explicit testamentum porcelli, sub die xvi kal. lucerninas, Clibanat5 et Piperato consulibus, feliciter. 35. quod: 'but.' sSmissem : ' half ' of a year. 36. impleo, -§re, implSvi, -etus, 2, * fill out ' ; satirical in respect to the veracity of inscriptions on tombstones. 37. amator, -oris, [amo], m., 'lover.' mei: 'of me.' con- sulSs : translate as if considentes; double meaning, ' ye who have regard for (my) life,' ' ye who are fond of good living.' 38. condio, -ire, -ivi, -itus, 4, word of double meaning: 'em- balm ' from the pig's point of view, 'season' from the point of view of the ' lovers ' of roast pig. condiatis: ^c. id. d6 : 'with.' 39. condlmentum, -1, [condio], n., 'seasoning.' nucleus, -1, m., 'nut-meat.' piper, -eris, n., 'pepper.' mei, mellis, n., 'honey.' 40. sempiternus, -a, -um, [semper], adj., 'everlasting'; neuter as noun, in sempiternum, 'forever and ever.' 41. Mei domini: title of respect ; 'good sirs.' consobrinus, -I, m., 'cousin.' in medio testamento: i.e. 'at the making of my will.' 42. signo, -are, -avi, -atus, [signum], i, 'affix a seal'; signari, 'that the seals be affixed.' Each of the seven witnesses of a will was supposed to stamp his signet in the wax covering the ends of the string with which the tablets were tied together (Fig. 203). 43-49. LardiS: 'Fatbacon.' Ofellicus : 'Tidbit.' Cymi- Selections for Sight Reading 467 2. Witticisms attributed to Cicero On Lentulus, his son-in-law. Cicero cum Lentulum, generum suum, exiguae staturae hominem, longo gladio accinctum vidisset, *Quis,' inquit, 'generum meum ad gladium alligavit?* On Piso, a son-in-law, who walked effeminately. Cicero, cum Piso gener eius mollius incederet, filia autem concitatius, ait f iliae : * Ambula tamquam vir ! ' On a portrait of his brother Quintus, larger than life. Nee Q. Ciceroni fratrl circa similem mordacitatem peper- cit. Nam cum in ea provincia, quam ille rexerat, vidisset natus: * Youngcabbager.' Lucanicus : ' Porksausager.' Ter- gillus: < Porkrind.' Celsinus : 'Porkpie.' Nuptialicus : ' Weddingporker,' suggesting a dish in favor for wedding-feasts. 50. explico, -are, explicui, explicitus, [ex + plico], i, 'unroll,' as a book written in the form of a scroll. Explicit : in full, explicitum est, lit. 'is unrolled'; we should say, 'Here ends.' The form of ex- pression, while not suitable for the tablets on which wills were written, is appropriate for the scroll-shaped book in which the Pig's Will is repre- sented as being recorded (Figures 166 and 191). 51. feliciter: 'happily,' a word of good omen, often added at the end of a writing. 2. 2. accingo, -cingere, -cinxi, -cinctus, [ad + cingo], 3, 'gird on,' 'arm.' 3. alligo, -are, -avT, -atus, [ad + ligo], i, 'tie (to).' 4. molliter, [mollis], adv., 'lazily.' 5. concitate, [concitatus, participle of concito], adv., 'ener- getically.' ambulo, -are, -avi, i, 'walk.' tamquam, [tam -|- quam], adv., 'just as.' vir: '(your) husband (does).' 6. circa: 'in the use of; lit. 'around.' mordacitas, -atis, [mordax], f., 'sharpness' of speech. pepercit : sc. M. Cicero. 7. rexerat: 'had governed'; Quintus Cicero was governor of the province of Asia (50^, c) for three years, before he became a lieutenant of Caesar in Gaul. 468 Caesar's Gallic War clipeatam imaginem eius, ingentibus liniamentis, usque ad pectus ex more pictam (erat autem Quintus ipse staturae loparvae), ait : * Frater meus dimidius maior est quam totus.' On a certain foppishness of Co.esar's attire. In Caesarem quoque mordacitas Ciceronis dentes suos strlnxit. Nam primum post victoriam Caesaris interroga- tus, cur in electione partis errasset, respondit: * Praecinctura IS me decepit,' iocatus in Caesarem, qui ita toga praecingeba- tur, ut trahendo laciniam velut mollis incederet. On Caesar's enlargement of the Senate. Cicerd alias facilitatem Caesaris in allegando senatu irrisit palam. Nam cum ab hospite su5, P. Malli5, rogare- 8. clipeStus, -a, -um, [clipeus], adj., ^shield-shaped,' i.e. *oval,' like the ch'Peus. imSgo, -inis, f., 'portrait.' liniamentum, -i, n., * feature.' usque, etc. : the painted portrait resembled a bust. 9. ex more: * in the usual fashion.' pingo, -ere, pinxi, pictus^ 3, 'paint.' 11. Frater meus dimidius: 'the half of my brother.' 12. dentes suos strlnxit : ' showed its teeth,' we should say. 13. victoriam: at Pharsalus ; Cicero had joined the party of Pompey. 14. electio, -onis, [gligo], f., 'choice.' praecinctura, -ae, [prae- cingo], f., 'manner of dress,' referring to the effeminate way that Cae- sar draped his toga. 15. iocor, -Sri, -£tus, i, dep., 'jest.' toga, -ae, f., 'toga,' the principal outer garment worn by Roman men. praecingo. -cingere, -cinxi, -cinctus, [prae -f cingo], 3, 'gird about.' The passive is here used in a middle sense ; ' would wrap his toga about him in such a way,' lit. ' would so wrap himself up with his toga.' 16. lacinia, -ae, f., ' end ' of a toga ; ' by letting the end of his toga drag,' instead of carefully tucking it in. 17. facilit&s, -5tis, [facilis], f., 'ready compliance.' allSgo, -are, -Svl, -atus, i, 'depute'; 'in appointing (men to) the Senate.' 18. P. Mallius, gen. Publii Mallii, m:, a friend of Cicero. Selections for Sight Reading 469 tur, ut decurionatum privigno eius expediret, assistente frequentia, dixit : 20 * R5mae, si vis, habebit ; Pompeiis difficile est.' A play upon tcords. Ne ilia quidem (oratoribus conveniunt), quae Ciceroni aliquando, sed non in agendo, exciderunt, ut dixit, cum is candidatus, qui cod filius habebatur, coram eo suffra- gium ab alio peteret : 20 ' Ego, quoque, tibi favebo.' To Vatinius, Caesar^ s friend, anticipating a compliment. Vattnius, pedibus aeger, cum vellet videri commo- dioris valetudinis factus et diceret, se iam bina milia ambulare : ■ 'Dies enim,' inquit Cicero, * longiores sunt.' 30 19. decurionatus, -us, m., ' membership in a town council,' prob- ably at Pompeii, near which Cicero had a countryseat. privignus, -i, m., * step-son.' expediret: Mielp to secure.' 20. frequentia, -ae, [frequens], f., 'crowd.' 21. Romae : locative. I46. Pompeiis: 'at Pompeii.' 11^.5, b. 22. ilia: 'those (sayings).' oratoribus conveniunt: 'are proper for an orator.' Ciceroni — exciderunt: 'fell from the lips of Cicero.' 109, b. 23. in agendo : ' while arguing ' in court. 24. candidatus, -1, [candidus, 'white'], m., 'candidate.' cocT: gen. of cocus, ' cook,' pronounced as if spelled quoquus. coram: here a preposition with the ablative; 'in his presence.' 26. quoque : either the adverb, or the vocative of quoquus = cocus. 27. pedibus aeger : Vatinius had the gout. 28. commodioris valetiidinis factus [esse] : 'to have improved in health,' lit. ' to have become of better health.' bina milia [pas- suum] : 'two miles (a day).' 30. enim: '(Of course), for.' 470 Caesar's Gallic War On the consulship of Vatinius, which lasted a few days. In consulatu Vatinii, quem paucis diebus gessit, notabilis Ciceronis urbanitas circumferebatur: 'Magnum ostentum,' inquit, *anno Vatinii factum est, quod illo consulatu nee bruma nee ver nee aestas nee au- 35 tumnus fuit' Querent! deinde Vatinio, quod gravatus esset, domum ad se infirmatum venire, respondit : 'Volui in consulatu tuo venire, sed nox me compre- hendit.' On the consulship of Caninius Itebilus, formerly a lieutenant of Caesar, which lasted only a few hours, at the end of 45 B.C. 40 * H5c c5nsecutus est Rebilus, ut quaereretur, quibus con- sulibus consul fuerit.' ' Vigilantem habemus consulem Canlnium, qui in consu- latu su5 somnum non vidit.* Retorts for persons who lie about their age. Redarguimus interim aperte, ut Cicero Vibium Curium, 45 multum de annTs aetatis suae mentientem : 31. notabilis, -e, [nota], adj., ^remarkable.' 32. urbanitas, -atis, [urbauus], f., 'pleasantry'; trans, 'witti- cism.' circumfero, -ferre, -tull, -latus, [circum -f fer6], 3, 'carry around'; here 'circulate.' 33. ostentum, -1, [ostendo], n., 'marvel.' 36. gravatus esset : ' because (as he said, Cicero) had been un- willing.' domum ad sS : 'to his house to (see) him.' 37. inflrmo, -are, -avi, -atus, [Infirmus], i, 'enfeeble.' Infir- matum : ' when he was laid up,' 40. ut quaereretur : ' that the question should be raised.' quibus c5nsulibus : ' in whose consulship.' 42. vigiians, -antis [vigilo, 'keep awake'], adj. of double mean- ing, ' watchful ' and ' wakeful.' 44. redargue, -ere, -ui, 3, 'show up'; 'we show up (people).' interim: 'sometimes.' Vibius Curius, -I -1, m., an acquaintance of Cicero's ; sc. redarguit. Selections for Sight Reading 471 * Turn ergo, cum una declamabamus, non eras natus ! * Interim et simulata assensione, ut idem, Fabia Dola- bellae dicente trlgintd se annos habere^ * Verum est,' inquit, * nam hoc illam iam vigintT annis audi5 ! ' so On a man from Africa, wJio wished to pass as an aristocrat. Octavius, qui natu n5biHs videbatur, Ciceroni recitanti ait : ' Non audi5, quae dicis.' Ille respondit : * Certe solebas bene foratas habere aures ! ' H5c eo dictum, quia Octavius Libys oriundus dicebatur, quibus m5s est aurem forare. ss 3. Legal Maxims Fundamental maxims of right conduct. luris praecepta sunt haec : honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cuique tribuere. Definition of justice. lustitia est c5nstans et perpetua voluntas ius suum cui- que tribuendl. 45. mentior, -Tri, -Itus, 4, dep., 'he.'' 46. dgclamo, -are, etc., [d§ + clamo], i, 'practice declamation.' 47. assensio, -onis, f., 'agreement.' idem: Cicero; subject of inquit. Fabia, -ae, f., wife of Dolabella. Dolabella, -ae, m., P. Cornelius Dolabella, who was born in 70 B.C., and was prominent in Roman politics at the time of the Civil War. 48. triginta, etc. : 'that she was thirty years old.' 49. hoc, etc. : sc. dicere ; 'I've been hearing her say that.' 53. foro, -are, -avi, -atus, i, 'bore'; of the ear, 'pierce.' 54. Libys, -yos, m., ' a Libyan ' ; ' was said to be a Libyan by birth.' 55. quibus : et els, the Libyans. 3. I. honeste, [honos] : adv., ' honorably.' 2. suum cuique : 'to each what belongs to him.' 3. constSns, -tis, adj., 'unvarying.' voluntas :' determination.' ius suum cuique : ' to each his due.' 4. tribuendl : translate as if an infinitive. 472 Caesar's Gallic War The principal is responsible for his agent, s Qui facit per alium, facit per se. The plea, " / did not know the law,^^ is not valid. Ignorantia legis neminem excusat. We cannot confer upon another ampler rights than we ourselves possess. Nemo plus iuris in alium transferre potest quam ipse habet. A single crime, a single punishment. Nem5 debet bis'punirl pro un5 delicto. In heated argument men lose sight of the truth. [o Nimium altercando Veritas amittitur. _ 4. Fables In union lies safety ; in discord, weakness. In e5dem prato pascebantur tres boves in maxima Con- cordia, et sic ab omnI ferarum incursione tuti erant. Sed discidio inter illos ort5, singuli a feris petit! et laniati sunt. Fabula docet, quantum boni sit in concordia. Circumstances may make cowards brave. s Haedus, stans in tecto domus, lup5 praetereunti male- 6. ignorantia, -ae, f., ' ignorance.' 9. punio, -Ire, -ivi, -itus, 4, 'punish.' 10. altercor, -Sri, -5tus, [alter], i, dep., 'dispute.' vCritas, -Stis, [vgrus], f., Mruth.' 4. I. prStum, -1, n., 'meadow.' pascor, -1, pSLstus, 3, dep., 'feed.' concordia, -ae, f., 'harmony.' 3. discidium, -I, n., ' discord.' Iani5, -Sre, etc., i, ' tear to pieces.' 4. fabula, -ae, f., ' fable.' 5. haedus, -1, m.,' kid.' lupus, -I, m.,' wolf.' maledicS, -dicere, -dizl, -dictus, 3, ' rail at.' Selections for Sight Reading 473 dixit. Cui lupus, ' Non tu,' inquit, 'sed tectum mihi male- dicit.' Saepe locus et tempus homines timidos audaces reddit. The dog in the manger. Canis iacebat in praesepi bovesque latrando a pabulo arcebat. Cui Onus boum, 'Quanta ista,' inquit, 'invidiaio est, quod non pateris, ut eo cibo vescamur, quem tu ipse capere nee possis ! Haec fabula invidiae indolem declarat. " Who will put the hell on the cat ?" Mures aliquando habuerunt consilium, quo modo sibi a fele caverent. Multis aliis propositis, omnibus placuit, ut is el tintinnabulum annecteretur ; sic enim ipsos sonitu ad- monitos eam fugere posse. Sed cum iam inter mures quaereretur, qui fell tintinnabulum annecteret, nemo re- pertus est. Fabula docet, in suadendo plurimos esse audaces, sed in 20 ipso periculo timidos. He who urges others on, shares the responsibility. Tubicen ab hostibus captus, ' Ne me,' inquit, 'interficite; nam inermis sum, neque quicquam habeo praeter banc tubam.* 9. canis, -is, m., 'dog.' praesepe, -is, n., * manger.' latro, -are, -avi, i, 'bark.' 10. arceo, -ere, -ui, 2, 'keep (from).' invidia, -ae, f., 'meanness.' 11. vescor, -1, 3, dep., ' eat.' 13. indoles, -is, f., ' true nature.' 14. mus, muris, m., ' mouse.' 15. felis, -is, f., 'cat.' 16. tintinnabulum, -1, n., 'bell.' annecto, -nectere, -nexui, -nexus, 3, 'tie (to).' sonitus, -us, m., 'sound.' 20. suadeo, -ere, -SI, 2, 'advise.' 22. tubicen, -inis, m., 'trumpeter.' 474 Caesar's Gallic War 25 At hostes, * Propter hoc ipsum,' inquiunt, * te interime- mus, quod, cum ipse pugnandi sis imperitus, alios ad pugnam incitare soles.* Fabula docet, non solum maleficos esse puniendos, sed etiam eos, qui alios ad male faciendum irritent. 5. The First Psalm Beatus vir, qui n5n abiit in consilio impiorum, et in via peccatorum non stetit, et in cathedra pestilentiae non sedit ; sed in lege Domini voluntas eius, 5 et in lege eius meditabitur die ac nocte. Et erit tamquam lignum, quod plantatum est secus decur- sus aquarum, quod fructum suum dabit in tempore suo, et folium eius non defluet, et omnia, quaecumque faciet, prosperabuntur. 25. inquiunt: from inquam; 'say.' interimo, -imere, -6nii, -SmptuB, 3, ' kill.' 28. maleficus, -I, m , 'evildoer.' 29. irrito, -5re, -5vl, -5tus, i, ' stir up.' 5. I Beatus, -a, -um, adj., ' happy,' ' blessed.' impius, -a, -um, [in--f pius], adj., 'wicked,' 'ungodly'; as a noun, impius, -T, m., 'wicked man.' 2. peccStor, -oris, [pecco], m., 'sinner.' 3. cathedra, -ae, [Ku^c'Spa], f., 'chair,' 'seat.' pestilentia, -ae, [pestil§ns, ' unwholesome '] , f., ' plague ' ; here ' they that are a plague,' 'the scornful.' sedeo, -6re, sgdi, sup. sessum, 2, 'sit.' 4. Dominus, -1, m., 'Lord.' voluntas : sc. est. 5. meditor, -Sri, -Stus, i, dep., 'reflect/ 'meditate.' 6. lignum, -1, n., 'wood,' 'tree.' planto, -5re, -5vi, -5tus, [planta, 'a plant'], i, 'plant.' secus, prep, 'along,' 'beside.' dScursus, -fls, [dScurro], m., 'course' of a brook or stream, 'river.' 8. folium, -I, n.,'leaf.' dgfluo, -fluere, -fliixl, [d6 -f flu6], 3, ' flow away ' ; of a leaf, ' fade,' ' wither.' 9. prospers, -are, -avi, -atus, [prosper, ' favorable '], i, * succeed/ ' prosper.' Selections for Sight Reading 475 Non sic impii, non sic ; lo sed tamquam pulvis, quern proicit ventus a facie terrae. Ideo non resurgent impil in iudicio, neque peccatores in concilio iustorum ; quoniam novit Dominus viam iustorum, et iter impiorum peribit. i^ 6. The Twenty-third Psalm Dominus regit me, et nihil mihi deerit. In loco pascuae ibi me collocavit ; super aquam refectionis educavit me, animam meam convertit. Deduxit me super semitas iustitiae propter nomen suum. ^ Nam, et si ambulavero in medio umbrae mortis, non timebo mala, quoniam tu mecum es : virga tua et baculus tuus, ipsa me consolata sunt. Parasti in conspectu meo mensam, adversus eos qui trlbu- lant me : 10. impii : sc. sunt. 11. faciSs, -ei, f., 'face.' 12. resurgo, -ere, resurrgxi, resurrectus, [re- -|- surgo], 3, 'rise again,' 'stand.' 13. iustus, -1, [iustus, -a, -um], m., 'just man,' 'righteous man.' 6. 2. pascua, -ae, f., 'pasturage,' 'pasture.' 3. refectio, -onis, [reficio], f., 'refreshing.' educo, -are, -avi, -atus, [e -|- duco, from dux], i, 'rear'; 'support,' 'nourish.' 5. iustitiae: 'righteousness.' 6. et: 'even.' ambulo, -are, -avi, i, 'walk.' umbra, -ae, f., ' shadow.' 8. virga, -ae, f., a slender branch, ' rod.' baculus, -i, m., ' staff.' ipsa : neuter plural as referring to both virga and baculus (cf. 163^ c) ; emphatic ' they.' 9. mgnsa, -ae, f., ' table.' tribulo, -are, i, 'thresh' ; 'afflict,' ' torment.' 476 Caesar's Gallic War lo impinguasti in oleo caput meum, et calix meus inebrians quam praeclarus est! Et misericordia tua subsequetur me omnibus diebus vitae meae, et ut inhabitem in domo Domini in longitudinem dierum. 10. impinguS, -are, -avi, -atus, [in + pinguis], i, 'make fat'; ■ * anoint.' in : ' with.' oleum, -i, n., ' oil ' of the olive. 11. caliX; -icis, m., 'cup.' inebrio, -are, i, 'fill full'; 'over- flow.' praeclarus, -a, -um, [prae + clarus], adj., 'glorious,' 'splendid.' 13. inhabits, -are, -avi, [in + habito], i, 'dwell in,' ' dweU.* in longitudinem dierum: 'forever.' A COMPANION TO CAESAR Essentials of Latin Grammar for the Study of Caesar §§1-243 Gaius Julius Caesar §§ 244-280 The Geography of Caesar's Commentaries . . §§281-306 The Roman Art of War in Caesar's Time . . §§ 307-351 Figure 151. — The Goddess of Victory bearing a Gallic war trumpet, in commemoration of a victory over Gauls. From a relief at Pompeii. ESSENTIALS OF LATIN GRAMMAR FOR THE STUDY OF CAESAR INFLECTIONS NOUNS 1. The Latin language has no article. In translating into English, the definite article the, or the indefinite article a, should be supplied with nouns in the different cases as the sense may require. FIRST DECLENSION 2. a. The Nominative Singular of nouns of the First Declension ends in -S. b. Nouns of the First Declension are nearly all of the Feminine Gender ; a few nouns referring to males are masculine, as nauta, sailor (III. 9) ; Cotta, a man's name (C. I. 6). 3. An example of the First Declension is: via (stem via-), f., way (1.9): SINGULAR Case Meaning Termination Nom. via a way, the way -ft Gen. viae of a way, of the way -ae Dat. viae to or for a way, or the way -ae Ace. viam a way, the way -am Voc. via O way ! -ft Ahl. vift from, by, in a way or the way -ft PLURAL Nom. viae ways, the ways -ae Gen. viftrum of ways, of the ways -ftrum Dat. viis to or for ways, or the ways -js Ace. vias ways, the ways -fts Voc. viae ways f -ae Abl. viis from, by, in ways, or the ways -is 4. a. Besides the six cases of the First Declension there is a rare Locative Case, of which the Singular is exactly like the Genitive, as Samarobrivae, at Samarohriva (V. 24). h. The Greek Name Achillas (C. III. 104) is of the First Declen- sion, and declined as follows: Nom. Achillas, Gen. Achillae, Dat. Achillae, Ace. Achillam, Voc. Achilla or Achilla, Abl. Achilla. 479 480 Companion to Caesar [§5 SECOND DECLENSION 5. a. The Nominative Singular of the Second Declension ends in -um for Neuter Nouns and -us, -er, -ir for all others. b. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us, -er, and -ir are gener- ally Masculine. Feminine are most names of Trees and Plants, as fagus, he'ech (V. 12), and most names of Countries, Islands, and Cities, as Aegyptus, Egypt (C. II F, 104). 6. a. Examples of Nouns of the Second Declension in -us and -um are leg&tus (I. 7) and bellum (T. 1) : leg£tus (8tem legato-), m., bellum (stem bello-), n., war envoy, lieutenant SINGULAR Termination Termination Nom. legatus -US bellum -um Gen. legati -i belli -i Dat. legato -0 bello -0 Ace. legatum -um bellum -um Voc. legate -e bellum -um AbL legato -0 PLURAL bello -6 Nom. legal! -i bella -a Gen. legatorum -orum bellorum -orum Dat. legatis -is bellis -is Ace. legatOB -OS bella -a Voc. legati -i bella -a Abl. legatis -is bellis -18 b. Caesar uses the Neuter vulgus in the Nominative (IV. 5), Geni tive vulgi (I. 20), and the Accusative vulgus (I. 46). c. Caesar uses locus, -i, m., place, with a Neuter Plural declined thus: Nom. loca, Gen. locorum, Dat. locis. Ace. loca, Abl. locls. d. The Second Declension has a rare Locative Case, of which the Singular is like the Genitive; as Cavilloni, at Cavillonum (VII. 90). 7. a. Examples of Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are puer, boy (I. 29), ager, field (I. 4), and vir, man (II. 25) : puer (stem puero-) , ager (stem agro-), vir (stem viro-), M., boy ii., field M., man SINGULAR Termination Nom. puer SLger vir Gen. pueri agri viri -i Dat. puero agr5 viio -5 Ace. puerum agrum virum -um Voc. puer ager vir Abl. puer5 agrO vir8 -o §9} Essentials of Latin Grammar 481 PLURAL Termination agri viri -i agrorum virorum -orum agiis viriB -is agios viios -OS agri viri -i agiis viris -is Nom. pueri Gen. puerorum Dat. pueris Ace. pueros Voc. pueri Abl. pueris b. Declined like puer are socer, m., father-in-law (T. 12), gener, M., son-in-law (V. 56), vesper, m., evening (I. 26), liberi, m., plural only, children (I. 11), and compounds of -fer and -ger, as signifer, standard-bearer (II. 25). c. Like ager is arbiter, -tri, m., referee (V. 1) ; also faber, -bri, m., mechanic, Gen. Plural generally fabrum (V. 11), administer, -tri, m., helper (VI. 16), culter, -tri, m., butcher-knife (p. 464). 8. a. In Caesar's time nouns of the Second Declension in -ius and -ium formed the Genitive Singular in -T (not -ii), retaining the accent on the penult of words of more than two syllables even when this was short; thus, fill, Vale'ri, nego'ti, impe'ri. Afterwards Common Nouns in -ius, and many Proper Names in -ius, were written with the Genitive in -ii, and for the sake of consistency such Genitives are fre- quently printed with -ii to-day, as consilii (I. 21), Valerii (I. 47). b. The Genitive of Pompeius is written with -i, Pompe' i (VII. 6, C. III. 84), as are also the Genitives of some other Proper Names in -ius. c. The Vocative of filius and of Proper Names in -ius ends in -i (not -ie), the accent remaining on the penult of vocatives containing more than two syllables ; thus : Pompe'i (C. III. 87). d. The declension of deus, m., god (I. 12), is irregular : SINGULAR Nora, deus Gen. dei Dat. deo Ace. deum Voc. deus Ahl. deo PLURAL di, dei, dii deorum, deum dis, deis, diis deos dl, dei, dii dis, deis, diis THIRD DECLENSION 9. In the Third Declension are comprised nouns with stems ending m a consonant (mute stems, liquid stems, nasal stems, and -s stems), nouns with stems ending in -i, nouns with mixed stems, and nouns of irregular declension. The stem rarely appears unchanged in the Nominative, but may usually be recognized in the Genitive. 482 Companion to Caesar [1.10 10. a. Mute Stems may end in a Labial, p, b ; in a Guttural, c, g ; or in a Dental, t, d. In Guttural Stems the -a of the case ending in the Nominative unites with the c or g of the stem, producing x; thus dux for duc-B, in which the stem is due-, the termination -s ; and r6x for r6g-s. h. Examples of nouns with mute stems are princepa (T. 13), r6x (I. 31), pSs (I. 8), mllea (I. 7), virtua (I. 1) and caput (I. 29): princeps (stem in oblique rSx (stem reg-), pes (stem in oblique cases princip-) , m., leader, M., king cases ped-), m.^ leading man SINGULAR foot Teemination Nom, princeps rex pes -s Gen. principis regis pedis -is Bat. principi regi pedi -i Ace. prlncipem regem ped em -em Voc. princeps rex pes -8 Abl. principe rege PLURAL pede -e Nom. principes reges pedis -8s Gen. principum regum pedum -um Dat. principibus regibus pedibus -ibus Ace. principes reges pedes -es Voc. principes reges pedes -es Abl. principibus regibus pedibus -ibus xnlles (stem in oblique virtus (stem in oblique caput (stem in oblique cases milit-), m., cases virtut-), F., cases capit-), n., soldier valor, virtue head SINGULAR Nom. miles virtus caput Gen. militis virtutis capitis Dat. militl virtuti capiti Ace. militem virtutem caput Voc. miles virtus caput Abl. milite virtute PLURAL capite Nom. milites virtu tSs capita Gen. militum virtutum capitum Dat. mllitibus virtu tibus capit ibus Ace. militSs virtuiSs capita Voc. rallitSs virtutSs capita Abl. militibus virtutibus capitibus c. Like rfix are declined Gallic Proper Names in -rlx, as, in Sin- gular only, Orgetorix, Gen. Orgetorlgia (I. 2), and Dumnorix, §11] Essentials of Latin Grammar 483 -rigis (I. 3), and, in Plural only, Bituriges, Biturigum (I. 18) ; also dux, ducis, M., leader (I. 13), pax, pacis, f., peace (I. 3), pix, picis, Y., pitch (VII. 22), and vox, vocis, f., voice, utterance (I. 32). d. Like miles in Declension are eques, equitis, m,, horseman (I. 15), pedes, peditis, m., foot-soldier (I. 42) ; and caespes, m., sod (III. 25), comes, m., companion (VI. 30), hospes, m., guest-friend (I. 53), stipes, M., tree-trunk (VII. 73). e. Quies, f., repose (V. 40), is declined quies, quietis, quieti, etc. ; but aries, m., hattering-ra7n (II. 32), abies, f., fir-tree (V. 12), inter- pres, M., interpreter (I. 19), seges, f., grainfield (VI. 36) have -6tis in the Genitive and are declined aries, arietis, arieti, arietem, etc. /. Like virtus are salus, salutis, f., in Singular only, safety (I. 27), servitus, servitutis, f., slavery (I. 11) ; here also belong the Feminine Nouns whose Nominative ends in -tas, as oivitas, civitiLtis, state (I. 2), aestas, aestatis, summer (I. 54). g. Lacking the Dental in the Nominative are the Neuters cor, cordis, heart (VI. 19), and lac, lactis, milk (IV. 1). 11. a. Liquid stems end in -1 or -r. h. Examples of nouns with liquid stems are consul (I. 2), victor (I. 31) and pater (I. 3) : consul (stem consul-), m., victor (stem victor-), m., pater (stem patr-), consul victor m.., father Nam. consul Gen. consulis Bat. consul! Ace. consulem Vac. consul AM. consule Nom. consules Gen. consulum Dat. cOnsulibus Ace. consules Voc. consules Abl. consulibus SINGULAR victor victoris victoii victorem victor victore PLURAL victores vie to rum victoribus victores victores victoribus pater patris patri patrem pater patre patrSs patrum patribus pat res patres patribus c. Like consul are sol, soils, m., sun (I. 1), exsul, exsulis, m., exile (V. 55), sal, salis, m., salt (C. 11, 37) ; also some -r stems, as Caesar, Caesaris, m., Caesar (19, c) ; agger, aggeris, m., mound (II. 20), anser, -eris, m., goose (V. 12), mulier, mulieris, f., woman (I. 29), arbor, arboris, f., tree (II. 1*^). 484 Companion to Caesar [812 d Like victor are declined Masculine nouns of Agency in -tor, as mercStor, -oris, trader (I. 1), deprecStor, -oris, intercessor (I. 9) ; and Abstract nouns in -or, as timor, oris, yi.,fear (I. 22). e. Like pater are declined f rater, fr^tris, m., brother (L 3), and mater, matris, f., mother (L 18). 12. a. Nasal Stems end in -n, excepting in hiems, hiemis, f., winter (IV. 1), of which the stem ends in -m. h. Examples are serm5 (V. 37), homo (I. 2) and ndmen (L 13) : sermo (stem sermon-) , M., conversation Nom. sermo Gen. sermonis Dat. sermoni Ace. sermonem Voc. sermo AM. sermone Nom. sermones Gen. sermoiium Dat. sermonibus Ace. sermones Voc. sermones Abl. sermonibus homo (stem homin-), nomen (stem nomin-] M., man N., name SINGULAR homo n5men hominiB nominis homini nomini hominem nomen homo ndmen homine nomine PLURAL homines nOmina hominum uominum hominibus nominibus homines nomina homines nomin a hominibus nominibus c. Like sermo are declined harpago, harpagonis, m., (jrappling-hook (VIL 81) ; latro, latronis, m., bandit (III. 17) ; Divico, DIviconis, M., (I. 13; in Singular only) ; and nouns in -io, as suspicio, suspi- cionis, F., suspicion (I. 4), coniiiratio, -onis, f., league (I. 2), Curio, Curiouis, m., (C. II. 3 ; in Singular only). d. Like homo are declined ordo, ordinis, m., rank- (I. 40) ; neces- situdo, -inis, f., close connection (I. 43) ; testiido, testudinis, f., tes- tudo (II. 6); nSmo, Dat. nSmini, Ace. nSminem (the place of the Gen. and Abl.y and sometimes the />«<., being supplied by Gen. ntll- ITus, Abl. nullo, Dat. nulll, from niillus), m., no one; Apollo, ApoUinis, m., (VI. 17, in Singular only) ; solitudo, solitudinis, f., loilderness (IV. 18); and virgo, -inis, f., maiden (C. 11. 4). e. Like ndmen are declined other Neuters in -men, as flfimen, . fluminis, river (I. 1), agmen, agminis, column (I. 15), and certft- men, -inis, contest (III. 14). 13. a. The -s- of -s Stems becomes r between vowels in the oblique cases. In bonds, -r generally appears also in the Nominative; -r is §13] Essentials of Latin Grammar 485 always found in the Nominative of rumor and many other nouns of this class. h. Examples of nouns with -s stems are m6s (I. 4), bonds (VI. 13), or honor, and genus (I. 48) : mos (oblique stem honos, honor (oblique stem genus (oblique stem mor-), M., custom honor-), m., honor gener-) , n., race Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. mos moris mori morem mos more SIJ^GULAR honos or honor honoris honori honorem honor honore genus generis generi genus genus genere Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. mores morum morihus mores mores morihus PLURAL honores honorum honorihus honores honores honorihus genera gene rum generihus genera genera generihus c. Like mos is declined flos, m., flower (VII. 73). d. Like honor are soror, sororis, f., sister (L 18), uxor, uxoris, F., loife (I. 18). e. Like genus are declined the Neuters fiinus, fiineris, funeral (VL 19) ; latus, lateris, side (I. 25) ; munus, muneris, gift (I. 43) ; onus, oneris, burden, load (11.30); opus, operis, work (I. 8); soelus, sceleris, crime (I. 14) ; vulnus, vulneris, wound (I. 25), etc. /. Similar in declension to genus, but having a different vowel before the Endings of the Oblique Cases, are the Neuters corpus, corporis, body (I. 25) ; dedecus, -oris, disgrace (IV. 25) ; facinus, -oris, evil deed (I. 40) ; frigus, frigoris, cold (I. 16) ; litus, litoris, shore (IV. 23) ; pectus, pectoris, breast (VII. 47) ; pecus, pecoris, cattle (III. 29) ; tempus, temporis, time (1. 16) ; and robur, roboris, oak (in. 13). g. Among other Nouns of the Third Declension with Nominative in -8 and Genitive in -ris are the Masculine pulvis, pulveris, dust {Ace. pulverem, IV. 32), lepus, leporis, Aare {Ace. leporem, V. 12), mas, maris, male {Gen. VI. 26) ; and the Neuters ius, iuris (I. 4; Nom. Plural iiira, VI. 13), aes, aeiia, copper (IV. 31), criis, crtiris, leg (VI. 27), and 6s, oris, 7Jiouth,face (V. 35; Ace. Plural ora, VI. 39). h. ius iurandum, n., oath (I. 3), is thus declined, in the Singular : 486 Companion to Caesar [M4 Nom. ius iiirandum, Gen. iuris iurandl, Dat. idrl iflrandd, Ace. ifLs iurandum, Ahl. iure iurando. 14. a. The Nominative Singular of Masculine and Feminine nouns with -i Stems ends ordinarily in -is, the Genitive Plural always in -ium. h. Examples of Masculine and Feminine -i Stems with Nomina- tive Singular in -is are turris (II. 30), Ignis (1. 4) and hostis (I. 21) : turris (stem turri-), f., ignis (stem igni-), hostis (stem hosti-), tower yi..,Jire c, enemy SINGULAR Tebjiination Nom. turris ignis hostis -is Gen. turris ignis hostis -is Dat. turri igni hosti -i Ace. turrim or -em ignem hostem -im, -em Voc. turris ignis hostis -is Ahl. turri or -e igni or -e PLURAL hoste -e,-i Nom. turres ignes hostis -«8 Gen. turrium ignium hostium -ium Dat. turribus ignibus hostibus -ibus Ace. turris or -es ignis or -Ss hostis or -§8 -is, -es Voc. turres ignes hostes -es Ahl. turribus Ignibus hostibus -ibus c. Like turris, but in the Singular only, is Sabis, -is, Ace. -im, u.^the Sambre (II. 16) ; also Tamesis, -is. Ace. -im, m., the Thames (V. 11, 18). 15. a. The Nominative Singular of some nouns with -i Stems ends in -6s, of a few others in -er. Examples are caedSs (V. 47) and linter (I. 12) : caedes (stem caedi-), r., slaughter linter (stem lintri-), f., skiff SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. . caedSs caedSs linter lintris Gen. caedis caedium lintris lintrium Dat. caedl caedibus lintri lintribus Ace. caedem caedes or -is lintrem lintres. -is Voc. caedSs caedes linter lint res Ahl. caede caedibus lintri or -e lintribus b. Like caedSs are declined the Feminine Nouns cautSs, cautis, jagged rock (III. 13), molSs, mdlis, dike (III. 12), rupSs, -is, cliff' (II. 29), s6d6s, -is, abode (I. 31), saepfis, -is, hedge (II. 17), alc6s, -is, moose (VI. 27); also famSs, -is, hunger (I. 28), which, however^ has famfi in the Ablative Singular (VII. 20). c. Like linter is imber, imbris, m., rainstorm (III. 29). §17] Essentials of Latin Grammar 487 16. a. The Nominative Singular of Neuter nouns with -i Stems ends in -e, -al, and -ar ; the Ablative Singular ends in -i, the Genitive Plural in -ium. h. Examples of neuter nouns with -i Stems are mare (III. 7) and animal (VI. 17) : mare (stem marl-), n. sea animal (stem animilli-), n., animal SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. mare maria animal animalia Geyi. maris marium animalis animalium Dat. mari maribus animali animalibus Ace. mare maria animal animalia Voc. mare maria animal animalia Abl. mari maribus animali animalibus Terminations singular plural -e or wanting -ia -is -ium -i -ibus -e or wanting -ia -e or wanting -ia -i -ibus c. Bibracte, n., is declined thus : Nom. Bibracte, Gen. Bibractis, Dat. Bibracti, Ace. Bibracte, Ahl. Bibracte; no Plural. d. Like animal is vectlgal, -alis (I. 18). 17. a. The declension of nouns with Mixed Stems in the Singular conforms to that of Mute Stems, in the Plural to that of -i Stems. b. Examples of nouns with Mixed Stems are m5ns (I. 1), pars (1. 1), nox (I. 26) and urbs (I. 39) : mons pars noz urbs (stem : mont-), (stem part-) , (stem noct-) , (stemurb-), M., height F., part F., night F., city SINGULAR Nom. mOns pars nox urbs Gen. mentis partis noctis arbis Dat. monti parti nocti urbi Ace. montem partem uoctem urbem Voc. mons pars nox urbs Ahl. monte parte PLURAL nocte urbe Nom. montes partes noctes urbes Gen. montium partium noctium urbium Dat. montibuB partibus noctibus urbibus Ace. montes, -is partes, -is noctes, -is urbes, -is Voc. montes partes noctes urbes Ahl. montibus partibus noctibus urbibus c. Among Nouns with Mixed Stems used by Caesar are pons, pontis, M., bridge (I. 6) ; cliens, clientis, m., retainer (I. 4) ; pa- rens, -entis, M. and f., parent (V. 14) ; falx, falcis, f., sickle, hook (III. 14); fax, facis, f., torch (VII. 24); glans, glandis, f., acorn, 488 Companion to Caesar 1518 slingshot (V. 43) ; dos, dotis, v., dou^rt/ (VI. 19) ; fraus, fraudis, f., deception (VII. 40); frons, frontis, f., front (II. 8) ; laus, laudis, f., praise (I. 40); lis, litis, f., damages (V. 1) ; mors, mortis, f., death (I. 5) ; nix, nivis, f., snow (VII. 8) ; plSbs, plgbis, f., people (I. 3) ; trabs, trabis, f., beam (II. 29) ; sors, sortis, f., lot (I. 50) ; stirps, stirpis, F., stock (VI. 34). d. Defective is the noun with the stem spont-, which has only a Genitive, spontis, and Ablative, sponte (I. 9). 18. a. The declension of the nouns vis (I. 6), bos (VI. 26), car5 (V. 14), and luppiter (VI. 17), is exceptional, not conforming to any of the types which have been given : vis (stems vi-, vir-) , v., force Nam. vis Gen. Dat. Ace. vim Vac. vis AM. vi Nom. vires Gen. virium Dat. viribuB Ace. vires Voc. vires Ahl. viribus bos (stem bov-) , caro (stem luppiter (stem iov-, + c, ox, cow earn-), pater in the Nom.), F.,_tl€sh M., Jupiter SINGULAR bSs caro luppiter bovis carnis lovis bovi canii lovi bovem earn em lovem bos caro luppiter bove PLURAL came love boves canies bourn or bovum carnium bobus or bubus carnibus boves carues boves earnes bobus or bubus carnibus h. Senex, m., old man (I. 29), stem seni- in oblique cases, is declined thus : senex, senis, sen!, senem, senex, sene ; senSs, senum, senibus, senes, senes, senibus. c. Iter, n., Journey, route (I. 3), has a stem itiner- in the oblique cases : iter, itineris, itinerl, iter, iter, itinere ; itinera, itinerum, itineribus, itinera, itinera, itineribus. d. Femur, n., thigh, in the oblique cases has two stems, femor- atid femin-, thus: No7n. femur. Gen. femoris or feminis (VII. 73), etc. e. Arar, m., th«' Ai-ar (I. 12, 13, 16), is declined thus: Arar, Araris, Ararl, Ararim, Arar, Arari; similar is Liger, Ligeris, m.. the Liger (III. 9). /. phalanx, f., mass formation, mass, is declined thus : Nom. phalanx Gen. phalangis, Dat. phalangi, Ace. phalaugem or phalanga, Ahl. phalange. § 20] Essentials of Latin Grammar 489 g. Taurois, f., Taurois, is thus declined : Taurois, Gen. Tauro- entis, Ace. Tauroenta (C. 11. 4). Names of the First, Second, and Third Declensions 19. a. Of the Second Declension are all Roman First Names (prae- nomina) used by Caesar, and in reading the text the name should be supplied, in the proper case form, from the abbreviation. The First Names are Aulus, Gen. Auli (abbreviation A.), Appius (Ap.), Gaius (abbreviation C, an old form of G.), Decimus (D.), Gnaeus (Cn.), Lucius (L.), Marcus (M.), Publius (P.), Quintus (Q.), Servius (Ser.), and Titus (T.). b. The Clan Names (nomina), ending in -ius (as lulius, Tullius), are of the Second Declension. c. The Family Names or Surnames (cognomina) are partly of the First Declension, as Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba) ; of the Sec- ond, as Baculus (Publius Sextius Baculus) ; and of the Third, as Caesar (11, c), the full name being declined thus: Nam. Gaius lulius Caesar, Ge7i. Gai lull Caesaris or Gail lulii Caesaris (8, a), Dat. Gaio lulio CaesarT, .Ice. Gaium lulium Caesarem, Voc. Gal lull Caesar (5, c), AU. Gaio lulio Caesare. d. The names of Gauls or Germans are generally of the Second Declension, as Diviciacus, -i, or of the Third, as Dumnorix, Gen. Dumnorigis; of the First Declension are Galba (II. 4, 13) and Nasua (I. 37), as well as the Numidian names Juba, Saburra (C. II. 38). e. The names of Foreign Peoples are ordinarily declined in the Plural only. A feyv are of the First Declension, as Belgae, -arum (I. 1) ; the rest are of the Second Declension, as Helvetii, -orum (I. 1), or of the Third, as AUobroges, -um (I. 6). /. In the Accusative Plural of names of foreign peoples Caesar sometimes has the Greek ending -as instead of -gs ; as Allobrogas (I. 14), Cretas (II. 7), Coriosolitas (II. 34). FOURTH DECLENSION 20. a. Nouns of the Fourth Declension ending in -us are generally Masculine, nouns ending in -ti are Neuter; domus, manus, and Idus (Plural) are Feminine. h. Examples of nouns of the Fourth Declension are fructus (VI. 19) and cornu (I. 52) : 490 Companion to Caesar [§21 frQctus (stem fructu-) ta., fruit comu (stem comti-), n., horn SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Nom . fructus fructus cornfl cornua Oen. fructus fructuum cornfis comuum Dat. fructui fructibus cornfi comibus Ace. fructum fructus cornu cornua Voc. fructus fructus cornu cornua Ahl. fructu fructibus cornfl cornibUB c. DomuB (stem domu-), f., house, has also a stem domo- of the Second Declension, from which are formed a Locative Singular, domi, at home (I. 18, 20, etc.), an Ablative Singular, domo, from home, (I. 5, 6, etc.), an Accusative Plural, domos (I. 30), and some forms not used by Caesar. d. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are defective, being used only in the Ablative Singular, as iniussu (1. 19), iussu (VII. 3), nata (11. 13). FIFTH DECLENSION 21. a. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -Ss, and are Femi- nine except digs, day, and meridigs, midday (I. 50), which are Mas- culine; but digs is usually Feminine when referring to a certain day (as I. 4, 8, 30), or to time in general. h. Examples of nouns of the Fifth Declension are : digs (stem dig-), m., day res (stem r5-), f., thing SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. dies dies rSs res Gen. diei dierum rel rerum Dat. diSi diebus r«X rebus Ace. diem dies rem res Voc. diSs dies rSs rSs Ahl. dig diSbus rS rebus c. In the Genitive and Dative Singular -61 becomes -el when a consonant precedes, as in rel (L 21) ; so spei (VI L 63, C. IL 5). ADJECTIVES 22. a. In Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions the Mas- culine is declined like Ifigatus {6, a), puer (7, a), or ager (7, o), the Feminine like via {3), and the Neuter like bellum (6, a). h. Declined like Iggfttus, via, bellum, are many Adjectives, as bonus, bona, bonum, good : §23] Essentials of Latin Grammar 491 SINGULAR PLURAL Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Femininb Neuter Nom. bonus bona bonum boni bonae bona Gen. boni bonae boni bouorum bonarum bonorum Dat. bono bonae bono bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonum bonam bonum bonos bonSs bona Voc. bone bona bonum boni bonae bona Ahl. bono bona bono bonis bonis bonis c. Distributive adjectives are declined like bonus except that in the Genitive Plural they have -um instead of -orum, as quadragenum (ly. 17)., d. A few Adjectives are declined like puer, via, bellum, as miser, misera, miserum, wretched (I. 32) : SINGULAR Masottline Feminine Neuter Nom . miser misera miserum Gen. raiseri miserae miseri Dat. misero miserae misero Ace. miserum miseram miserum Voc. miser misera miserum Ahl. misero misera misero PLURAL Masculine Feminine Neuter miseri miserae misera miserorum miserSrum niiserorum miseris miseris miseris miseros miseras misera miseri miserae misera miseris miseris miseris e. Like miser are declined asper (V. 45), liber (I. 44), and tener (11.17). /. Declined like ager, via, bellum, are most adjectives in -er, as aeger, aegra, aegrum, sick (V. 40), integer (III. 4), etc. : SINGULAR Masculine Feminine Neuter Nom. aeger aegra aegrum Gen. aegri aegrae aegri Dat. aegro aegrae aegro Ace. aegrum aegram aegrum Voc. aeger aegra aegrum Abl. aegro aegri aegro PLURAL Masculine Feminine Nbutek aegri aegrae aegra aegrorum aegrSrum aegrorum aegris aegris aegris aegros aegrSs aegra aegri aegrae aegra aegris aegris aegris 23. a. Six Adjectives in -us (unus, one ; solus, alone : totus, whole ; alius, other; ullus, any; nullus, none) and three in -er (alter, the other; liter, which (of two) f and neuter, neither), have -lus (or -ius) in the Genitive and -i in the Dative Singular of all genders, and lack the Vocative ; the Plural is regular. They are thus declined in the Singular : 492 Companion to Caesar [§24 SINGULAR PLURAL M A8CULINE Fkminink Neuteb Masculine Fkmimne Neuteb Nom . alius alia aliud alter altera alteram Gen. [alius alius alius] alterius alterius alterius Bat. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri Ace. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum Abl. alio alia alio altero altera altero Nom. totus tota totum uter utra utrum Gen. totius totius totius utiius utrius utrius JJat. toti toti toti utii ntri utri Ace. totum totam totum utrum utram utrum Abl. toto tota toto utro utra utro h. The Grenitive Singular of alter is generally alterius, instead of alterius; and alterius is ordinarily used in place of the Genitive alius. 24. Some Adjectives of the Third Declension hrve three end- ings in the Nominative Singular, others two, and others only one. Adjectives with three endings are declined like 5cer, acris, 5cre, sharp (C. HI. 72) : SINGULAR PLURAL Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuteb Nom. acer acris acre acres acres acria Gen. acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium Bat. acii arri acri acribus acribus acribus Ace. acrem acrem acre acres, -is acres, -is acria Voc. acer acris acre acres acres ficria Abl acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus 25. a. Adjectives of the Third Declension with two endings are in part formed on -i Stems, like nouns, and in the Positive Degree, as fortis, forte, strong (IT. 33) ; in part they are Comparatives formed on -s Stems {IS, a), as fortior, fortius, stronger (III. 14), melior, melius, better (VI. 12) : SINGULAR PLURA L Masculine and Fem. Neuter Masculine and Fem. Neuteb Nom. fortis forte fortSs fortia Gen. fortis fortis fortium fortium Dat. fortl fortl fortibus fortibus Ace. fortem forte fortes or -is fortia Voc. fortis forte fortes fortia Abl. fortl forti fortibus fortibus §26J Essentials of Latin Grammar 493 SINGULAR PLURAI Masculine and Fem. Neuter Masculine and Fem. Neuter Nom, melior melius meliores meliora Gen. melioris melioris meliorum meliorum Dat. meliori meliori melioribus melioribus Ace. meliorem melius meliores or -is meliora Voc. melior melius meliores meliora Ahl. meliore meliore melioribus melioribus b. Plus, more, is defective, in the Singular having only the neuter forms, Nom. plus, Gen. pluris. Ace. plus, Ahl. plure ; the Plural is declined Nom. plures, plura. Gen. plurium, plurium, Dat. pluribus, pluribus. Ace. plures or pluris, plura, Ahl. pluribus, pluribus. 26. a. With Adjectives of the Third Declension having one end- ing in the Nom. Singular are included also present participles. Exam- ples are duplex, double (II. 29), regens, ruling, and vetus, old (1. 13) : SINGULAR PLURAL Masculine and Fem. Neuter Masculine and Fem. Neuter Nam . duplex duplex duplices duplicia Gen. duplicis duplicis duplicium duplicium Dat. duplici duplici duplicibus duplicibus Ace. duplicem duplex duplices or -is duplicia Voc. duplex duplex duplices duplicia Ahl. duplici duplici duplicibus duplicibus SINGULAR PLURAL M A8CULINE AND Fem. Neuter Masculine and Fkm. Neuter Nom. , regens regens regentes regentia Gen. regentis regentis regentium regentium Dat. regenti regenti regeutibus regeutibus Ace. regentem regens regentes or -is regentia Voc. regens regens regentes regentia Ahl. regente (participle) regente (participle) regeutibus regeutibus regenti (adjective) regenti (adjective) SINGULAR PLURAI Masculine and Fem. Neuter Masculine and Fem. Neuter Nom. . vetus vetus veteres Vetera Gen. veteris veteris veterum veterum Dat. veteri veteri veteribus veteribus Ace. veterem vetus veteres Vetera Voc. vetus vetus veteres Vetera Ahl. vetere vetere veteribus veteribus h. The Adjective princeps, -cipis (I. 7) is declined like the Noun {10, b) ; the Adjectives anceps, ancipitis (I. 26), particeps, cipis, (C. III. 60), and praeceps, -cipitis (II. 24), also have additional syllables in the oblique cases. 494 Companion to Caesar (§27 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 27. a. Examples of the Regular Comparison of Adjectives, and of participles used as Adjectives, are : POSITIVE altus, -a, -um, high COMPARATIVE altior, altius, higher antiquus, -a, -um, ancient antiquior, -lus fortis, -e, hrave nobilis, -e, nohle f erfix, fertile potens, able apertus, open, exposed fortior, fortius nobilior, nobilius feracior, feracius potentior, potentius apertior, apertiua SUPERLATIVE altissimus, -a,-uin, very high, lilghest antiquissimus fortissimus nobilissimuB feracissimus poteiitissimus apertissimus h. Novus, new, lacks the Comparative, but has a Superlative, no- vissimus, last (I. 15). 28. a. Examples of Adjectives in -er, with Comparative in -ior and Superlative in -rimus, are : asper, -ra, -rum, rough asperior, -ius asperrimus, -a, -um celer, -eris, -ere, swift celerior, -ius celerrimus creber, -bra, -brum, frequent crebrior, crebrius creberrimus pulcher, -chra, -chrum, beautiful pulcbrior, -ius pulcherrimus h. Vetus, Gen. veteris, old. Sup. viterrimus, lacks the Comparative. 29. Six Adjectives in -ills have -limus in the Superlative : faciliB, difficilis, gracilis, humilis, similis, dissimilis : facilis, -e, easy difficilis, -e, difficult humilis, -e, low similis, -e, like facilior, faoilius diflicilior, -ius hurailior, -ius similior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difiicillimus humillimus simillimuB* 30. Some Adjectives form the Comparative and the Superlative by prefixing magia, more, and mazimS, most, as magis dSrSctum, straighter (VI. 26), and maxim§ acceptus, veri/ acceptable (I. 3). maxims frfLmentariis, exceedingly fertile (I. 10), maximS ferl, mo.si barbarous (II. 4). 31. The Adjectives dives or dis, rich (I. 2), honorificus, com- plimentary (I. 43), and magnificus, splendid (VI. 19) are thus com- pared : dives or dis honorificus magnificus divitior or ditior honorificentior magnificentior divitissimus or ditissimus honorificentissimus mafqiificentissimuB 34] Essentials of Latin Grammar 495 32. Several common Adjectives are irregular in Comparison : bonus, -a, -um, good melior, melius, better optimus, -a, -um, best malus, bad peior, peius, worse pessimus, worst parvus, small minor, minus, less minimus, least magnus, great maior, maius, greater maximus, greatest multus, much plus, gen. pluris {25, b) plurimus, m,ost 33. Several Adjectives lack the Positive, though the Stem appears in Prepositions and Adverbs ; others have a Positive only in a limited or special use. Examples are : (citra, on this side) (ultra, beyond) (intra, within) (prope, near) (de, doion) (prae, pro, before) posterus, following inferus, below superus, above citerior, citerius, on this side, hither ulterior, ulterius, /ar^Aer interior, interius, inner propior, propius, nearer deterior, deterius, inferior prior, prius, /orrner posterior, later inferior, inferius, loioer extervLS, foreign (C. III. 43) citimus, -a, -um, nearest ultimus, farthest intimus, inmost proximus, nearest deterrimus, worst primus, frst postremus, latest, last l'^^''^^ I lowest imus, J supremus, last summus, highest extremus, outermost superior, superius, higher exterior, outer ADVERBS 34. a. Adverbs regularly formed from Adjectives have the Positive in -e (-S in facile) or -ter, the Comparative in -ius, and the Superla- tive in -S : COMPARATIVE amplius, more fully aegrius matiirius facilius fortius audacius acrius SUPERLATIVE amplissime, most fully aegerrime maturrime facillime fortissime audacissime acerrime POSITIVE ample (a.m'pluB) , fully aegre (aeger), ill matiire (maturus) , early facile (facilis), easily fortiter (fortis), bravely audacter (audax), boldly acriter (SLcer) , fiercely b. Some Adverbs formed from Adjectives end in -6 (-6 in cito), as continuo, subito, primo ; such, with Comparative and Super- lative, are : crebr5 (creber) , frequently tuto (tutus), safely cito (citus) , quickly c. A few Adverbs formed from Adjectives end in -um (Ace. Sin- gular Neuter), as multum (multus), much (III. 9); in -tim, as privatim (privatus), privately (I. 17) ; and in -tus, as antiqultu^ (antiquus), m ancient times (II. 4). crebrius creberrime tutius tutissime citius citissime 496 Companion to Caesar [§35 35. The following Adverbs have irregularities in Formation or in Comparison : little bene, well male, ill magnopere, greatly multum, much nOn multum, parum, j nuper, recently diu, long saepe, often prope, near satis, enough melius, better peius, worse magis, more plus, more minus, less diutius, longer saepius, oftener propius, nearer potiuB, rather satius, better prius, before optime, best pessime, worst maximg, most plurimum, most minimS, least nuperrimS, most recently, very recently diutissime, longest saepissime, most often, oftenest proximo, nearest, next potissimum, especially, above all T^timMm, first NUMERALS 36. The Roman Notation, and Cardinal, Ordinal, and Distributive Adjectives are presented in the following list : Ordinals Rohan Notation I. II. m. mi, or IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. vmi, or IX. X. XL XIL XIII. XIIII, or XIV. XV. XVI. Cardinals iinus, una, unum, duo, duae, duo tres, tria, three quattuor,/owr quinque.^ue sex, six septem, seven octo, eight novem, nine decem, ten undecim, eleven duodecim, tv^elve tredecira, thirteen quattuordecim, fourteen quindecim, .^/ Fem. Neuter Masculink Feminine Nom. quis quid qui quae Gen. cuius cuius ■ quorum quarum Dat. cui cui quibus quibus Ace. quem quid quOs quas Ahl. quo quo quibus quibus Neuter quae quorum quibus quae quibus h. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun is qui, quae, quod, what f as qui numerua, what number f (I. 29). It is declined like the Rela- tive Pronoun (-^7). c. Interrogative quia and qui may be strengthened by -nam, as quibusnam manibus, by what hands, pray f (11. 30). §51] Essentials of Latin Grammar 501 49. a. ThelndefinitePronounsfollowtheDeclensionof the Relative and Interrogative Pronouns, but only the Pronominal Part of the Compounds is declined. The following Indefinite Pronouns are used by Caesar, in both Substantive and Adjective forms : Substantive Forms Masc. and Fem. Neut. quis or qui (Masc.) aliquis aliqui (V. 26) quispiam quisquam quid j any one, I anything Ad.jective Forms Masc. Fem. Neut. qui or quae or quod quis qua No7n. and ace. PI. Neut., quae or qua any aliquid { some one, 1 something (some one, some- thing {any one, anything quisquam at all aliqui aliqua aliquod | any quispiam quaepiam quodpiam [ some quicquam «;;2;^-j (Plural lacking.) quisque quidque qui vis quae vis quid vis ( ace. quem- vis vis vis I you please quidam quaedam quiddam \ a certain ace. quen- quau- qmA-\ person, dam dam dam ) or thing r each one, [each thing any one, quam- quid- 1 anything (Plural lacking.) quisque quaeque quodque | each quivis quaevis quodvis \ ace. quemvis quamvis quod- \ !*^ ^^^ . ■ vis )^'^««« quidam quaedam quoddam \ ^ t a oer- acc. quen- quan- quod- K . dam dam dam J ^"*^ h. The Indefinite Pronoun quis, qui, is used by Caesar only after si, nisi, seu, ne, neu, and ubi. 50. a. The Indefinite Relative quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever, the first part qui- being declined like the relative qui, is used both as an Adjective and as a Sub- stantive; as quaecumque bella, whatever wars (I. 44), quicumque bellum inferant, whoever, or no matter who, should wage war (IV. 7). h. The parts of the Indefinite Relative quisquis, quidquid or quicquid, whoever, whatever, are both declined like quis (4^), but only quisquis, quicquid (II. 17), and quoquo are in common use. 51. Caesar uses two compounds of uter (^3, a) with the force of In- definite Pronouns, uterque, utraque, utrumque (utriusque, etc.), each of two. Plural both, the two; and alteruter, alterutra, alter- utrum, one or the other, as alterutro exercitu, the one or the other army (C. III. 90). 502 Companion to Caesar [§52 VERBS 1 52. The verb sum is inflected as follows : Principal Parts: Pbes. Indicative Pres. Infinitive Perf. Tndtoative Fut. Pabt. (Perf. Part, lacking) sum fui futuruB INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense SINGULAR plural sum, / am es, thou art est, he {she, it) is sumus, we are estis, you are sunt, they are Imperfect eram, / was erfis, thou wast erat, he was erftmus, we were erfttis, you were erant, they were Future ero, I shall be eris, thou wilt be erit, lie will be erimus, we shall be eritis, you will be erunt, they will be Perfect fui, I have been, fuimus, we have I was f uisti, thou hast been, you were fuit, he has been, he was been, we were fuistis, you have been, you were j> , ^ ( ^hey have Pluperfect fueram, I had been fuerfts, thoii hadst, you had, been fuerat, he had been f uerftmus, we had been fuerfttis, you had been f uerant, they had been Future Perfect fuero, / shall have been fueris, thou wilt have been f uerit, he will have been fuerimus, we shall have been fueritis, you will have been fuerint, they will have been SUBJUNCTIVE Present singular sim sis sit plural simus sitis sint Imperfect essemus esses essetlB essent Perfect fuerim fuerimus fueris fueritis fuerit fuerint Pluperfect fuissem fuissemus fuisses fuissetis fuisset fuissent 1 Since the Principal Parts of all the Verbs in the Latin Text of this book are given in the Vocabulary, it has not been thought necessary to extend this outline by presenting either a List of Verbs or a discussion of the Stems. §53J Essentials of Latin Grammar 503 IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE es, he thou este, he ye Pres. esse, to he esto, thou estote, ye shall he Per/. fuisse, to have been Shalt be sunto, they shall be Fut. futurus esse, or fore, esto, he shall be to be about to he Fut. PARTICIPLE Fut. futurus, about to be FIRST CONJUGATION 53. Verbs of the First Conjugation are inflected like amo, / love. PRiNCiPAii Parts: Pres. Indicative Pres. Infinitive Perf. Indicative Perf. Pass. Participle Active, amo amftre amavi amfttus Pres. Indicative Pres. Infinitive Perf. Indicative Passive, amor amari araatus sum Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense SINGULAR amo, Hove amas, you love amat, he loves PLURAL amamus, we love amatis, you love amant, they love Imperfect amabam, I was loving am abas, you were loving amabat, he was loving amabamus, we were loving amabatis, you loere loving amabant, they were loving Future amabo, I shall amabimus, we love shall love amabis, thou wilt, amabitis, you you ivill^ love will love amabit, he will amabunt, they love will love Perfect amavi, / have loved, I loved amavisti, you have loved, you loved amavit, he has loved, he loved amavimus, we have loved, we loved amavistis, you have loved, you loved amaverunt, -ere, they have loved, they loved Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense singular plural I am loved, etc. amor amamur amaris or -re amamini amatur amantur Imperfect I was loved, etc. amabar amabamur amabaris or -re amabaminl amabatur amabantur Future I shall be loved, etc. amabor amabimur amaberis, or -re amabiminl amabitur amabuntur Perfect / have been loved or / was loved, etc. amatus (-a, -um) amati (-ae, -a) sumus amatI estis amati sunt sum amatus es amatus est 504 Companion to Caesar [§53 Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Plupkefkct amaveram, I had loved, amaver&s, you had loved amaverat, he had loved amaverftmus, we had loved amaverfttis, you had loved amaverant, they had loved Future Perfect amavero, I shall have loved amaveris, you will have loved amaverit, he will have loved amaverimus, we shall have loved amaveritis, you will have loved amaverint, they vnll have loved Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Pluperfect I had been loved, etc. amatus erftm ^ amati erftmus amatus erfts amatUB erat amati erfttis amati erant Future Perfect / shall have been loved amatus ero i amati erimus amatus eris amati eritis amg^tus exit amati erunt SUBJUNCTIVE Present singular plural / may love, let us love, etc. amem am emus ames ametis amet ament Imperfect I might love amftrem am&remus amftres amftretis am&ret amftrent Perfect / may have loved amav«rlin amaverimus amaveris amaveritis amaverit amaverint Pluperfect I might have loved amavissem amavissSmus amavisses amavissetis araavisset amavissent SUBJUNCTIVE Present singular plural I may be loved, etc. amer amemur am eris, or -re amemini ametur amentur Imperfect / might be lovrd amarer amfiremur amareris, or -re amaremini amaretur amarentur Perfect / may have been loved amatus sim'^ amati simus amatus sis amati sitis amatus sit amati sint Pluperfect / might have been loved amatus essem^ amati essemus iiiniitus esses amatus esset anuiti essetis amati essent 1 In the Perfect Passive fui, fuisti. fuit, etc., are sometimes used for sum, 68, est, etc., and fueram, fueras. fuero. etc., for eram, ero. etc. 2 Here tWTlvH, fuerls.fuissem, etc., are sometimes used for aim, essem, etc. 54] Essentials of Latin Grammar 505 Active Voice Passive Voice IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE Fres. ama, love thou annate, love ye SINGULAR Fut. amato, thou araatote. , tje Pres. amftre, be thou loved shaft love shall love Fut. amator, thou shalt be loved amato, he shall araanto, theij amator, he shall be loved love shall love PLURAL Pres. amamini, be ye loved Fut. amantor, they shall be loved INFINITIVE INFINITIVE Pres. am are, to love Pres. amari, to be loved Per/. amavisse, to have loved Per/. amatus esse, to have been Fut. amaturus esse, to be loved about to love , Fut. amatum iri, to be about to be loved PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE Pres. Fut. araftns, loving {Gen. amantis) amaturus, about to love Perfect. amatus, loved, having been loved Gerundive, amandus, to he loved, worthy to be loved GERUND SUPINE Gen. amandi, of loving Dat. a.mSindo, for loving Ace. araandum, loving Abl. amando, by loving Ace. amatum, to love Abl. amatu, to love, to be loved SECOND CONJUGATION 54. Verbs of the Second Conjugation are conjugated like moneo, / advise. Principal Parts : Pres. Indicative Pkes. Infinitive Perf. Indicative Perp. Pass. Participle Active, moneo men ere Pres. Indicative Pres. Infinitive Passive, moneor moneri Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense singular plural I advise, etc. monui monitus Perf. Indicative monitus sum Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense singular plural / am advised, etc. moneo moil emus moneor monemur mones monetis moneris or -re monemini monet monent monetur monentur 506 Companion to Caesar [§51 Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Imperfect I was advising, or I advised, etc. moiiebam monetamus moneb&s monebatis mouebat monebant Future I shall advise monebo monebimus monebis monebit monebitis monebunt Perfect / have advised, or / advised monui monuimus monuisti monuit monui&tis monuerunt, or -ere Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Imperfect / was advised, etc. monebar monebSLinur monebaris, or -re moiiebamini monebatur monebantur Future / shall be advised monebor v monebimur moneberis, or -re monebimini monebitur monebuntur Perfect / have been advised, I was advised monitus sum monitUB es monitus est moniti sumus moniti estis moniti sunt Pluperfect / had advised monueram monuerfts monuerat monuerftmus monuerS.tis monuerant monitus eram monitus erSs monitus erat Pluperfect / had been advised moniti erftmuB munili er£tis moniti erant Future Perfect I shall have advised monuero monueris monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint Future Perfect I shall have been advised monitus ero moniti erimus monitus eris moniti eritis monitus erit moniti erunt SUBJUNCTIVE Present I may advise, let us advise, etc. moneam moneS,mus monefts moneat monefttis moneant SUBJUNCTIVE Present / may be advised, etc. monear nioneftris, or -re nioiie&tur moneftmur moneftmini moneantur Imperfect / might advise, you would advise monSrem monSremus moneres moneretis monSret mouerent Imperfect / might be advised monSrer inoneremur monereris. or -re moneremini moneretur monerentur 54] Essentials of Latin Grammar 507 Active Voice SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect / may have advised, etc. monuenm monueris monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint Pluperfect / might have advised, you would have advised, etc. monuissem mouuissemus monuisses monuissetis monuisset monuissent Passive Voice SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect I may have been advised, etc. monitus sim moniti simus monitus sis monitus sit Pluperfect I might have been advised moniti sitis moniti sint monitus essem monitus esses monitus esset moniti essemus moniti essetis moniti assent IMPERATIVE Pres. mone, advise monete, advise thou ye Fut. moneto, thou monetote, ye shall advise shall advise moneto, he monento, they shall advise shall advise IMPERATIVE Pres. monere, be mouemini, be ye thou advised advised Fut. monetor, thou shalt be ad- vised monetor, he monentor, they shall be ad- shall be ad- vised vised INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. monere, to Pres. monens, advise advising Per/, monuisse, to {Gen. mo- have advised nentis) monitiirus Fut. moniturus, esse, to be about to about to advise advise Fut. GERUND Gen. monendi, of advising Dat. monendo, /or advising Ace. monendum, advising Ahl. monendo, by advising, SUPINE Ace Abl. monitum, to advise monitu, to advise, to he advised INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. moneri, to be advised Perf. monitus esse, to have been advised Fut. monitum iri, to be about to be advised Perfect, moni- tus, advised, having been advised Gerundive, mo- nendus, to be advised, worthy to be advised 508 Companion to Caesar [§55 THIRD CONJUGATION 55. Verbs of the Third Conjugation are inflected like reg6, / rule. Principal Parts: Pres. Indicative Active. reg3 Pees. Indicative Passive. regor Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense / rule, etc. SINGULAR PLURAL reg5 regimuB regis regitis regit regunt Imperfect / loas ruling, or / rtiled Pres. Infinitive Perf. Indicative Perk. Pass. PARXia regere rexi rectus Pres. Infinitive Pf.rf, Indicative regi rectus sum Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tensb lam ruled, etc. SINGULAR plural regimur regimini reguntur regor regeris or -re regitur regebam regebfts regebat regam reges reget regebftmus regebatis regebant Future / shall rule Imperfect / loas ruled regebar regebftmur regebfiris, or -re reuebamini regebfitur regebantur Future / shall he ruled regemus regetis regent regar regeris, or -re regetur regemur regemini regentur Perfect / have ruled, or / ruled rexi reximus rexisU rexistis rexit rexerunt, or -ere Pluperfect / had ruled rexeram rexerftmus rexer&s rexerfttis rexerat rexerant Future Perfect / shall have ruled Perfect / have been ruled, or / uhis ruled rectus sum recti sumus rectus es rectus est recti estis rec;ti sunt rexerO rexeris rexerit rcxerimus rexeritis rexerint Pluperfect I had been ruled rectus eram recti erftmus rectus erfts recti erfttis rectus erat recti erant Future Perfect / shall have been ruled rectus ero recti erimui rectus eris m-iieritis rectus erit recti enmt 55] Essentials of Latin Grammar 509 Active Voice SUBJUNCTIVE Present I may rule, let us rule, etc. SINGULAR regam regfts regat regS,mus regS-tis regant Imperfect / might rule, you would rule, etc. regerem regerSs regeret regeremus regeretis regerent Perfect / may have ruled rexerim rexeris rexerit rexerimus rexeritis rexerint Pluperfect I might have ruled, you would have ruled rexissem rexisses rexisset rexissemus rexissetis rexissent IMPERATIVE Pres. rege 1, rule regite, rule ye thou Fut. regito, thou regitote, ye shall shalt rule rule regito, he regunto, they shall rule shall rule INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. regere, to Pres. regens, rul- rule ing Per/, rexisse, to {Gen. re- have ruled gentis) Fut. recturus esse, Fut. recturus, to he about about to to rule rule Passive Voice SUBJUNCTIVE Present / may be ruled, etc. SINGULAR regar regSris, or re regatur regamur regaminl regantur Imperfect / might be ruled, you would be ruled regerer regeremur regereris, or -re regeremini regeretur regerentur Perfect I may have been ruled rectus sim recti simus rectus sis recti sitis rectus sit recti sint Pluperfect '/ 7night have been ruled, you would have been ruled rectus essem recti essemus rectus esses recti essetis rectus esset recti essent IMPERATIVE Pres. regere, be regimini, be ye thou ruled ruled Fut. regitor, thou shalt be ruled regitor, he reguntor, they shall be shall be ruleci ruled INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. regi, to be Perfect, rectus, ruled ruled, having been ruled Perf. rectus esse, Gerundive to have regendus, to be been ruled, deserving ruled to he ruled Fut. rectum iri, to be about to be ruled 510 Companion to Caesar [f66 Active Voice GERUND Gen. regendi, of ruling Dat. regendo, for ruling Ace. regendum, ruling Ahl. regendo, hy ruling SUPINE Ace. rectum, to rule Ahl. rectfi, to rule, to he ruled 56. Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation have in the present sys- tem forms in which -i- is followed by a vowel; these forms are like the corresponding forms of the Fourth Conjugation. An example is capio, / take. Principal Parts: Pres. Indicativk Fees. Infinitive Active. capi5 capere Pres. Indicative PBi?8. Infinitive Passive. capio r capi Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense jmOULAR capio capis caplt capiebam capiebas capiebat capiam capies capiet cepi cepisti cepit PLURAL capimus capitis capiunt Imperfect capiebamus capiebatia capiebant Future capiemus capietis capient Perfect cepimus cepistis ceperunt or -ere Pluperfect ceperam ceperamus ceperas ceperatis ceperat ceperant Future Perfect ceperO ceperimus ceperis ceperitis ceperit ceperint Pebf. Indicative cepi Perf. Indicative captus sum Perf. Pass. Partic. captus Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense SINGULAR plural capior capiraur caperis, or -re capiraini capitur capiuntur Imperfect capiebar capiebaris capiebatur capiebamur capicbamini capiebantur Future capiemur capieraini capientur Perfect capti sumus capti estis capti sunt Pluperfect captus eram capti eramus capti eratis capti erant Future Perfect captus erO capti erimus capti eritis capti eront capiar capieris capietur captus sum captus es captus est captus eras captus erat captus eris captus erit §57] Essentials of Latin Grammar 511 Active Voice Passive Voice SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present Present SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL capiam capiamus capias capiatis capiat capiant capiar capiaris, or -re capiatur capiamur capiamini capiantur Imperfect Imperfect caperem caperemus caperes caperetis caperet caperent caperer capereris caperetur caperemur caperemini caperentur Perfect Perfect ceperim ceperimus ceperis ceperitis ceperit ceperint captus sim captus SIS captus sit capti simus capti sitis capti sint • Pluperfect Pluperfect cepissem *cepissemus cepisses cepissetis cepisset cepissent captus essem captus esses captus esset capti essemus capti essetis capti essent IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE Pres. Fut. cape capite capito capitote capito capiunto Pres. capere Fut. capitor capitor capimini capiuntor INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE INFINITIVE PARTICIPL Pres. Perf. Fut. capere Pres. capiens cepisse {Gen. capientis) capturus esse Fut. capturus GERUND SUPINE Pres. capi Perf. captus esse Fut. captum iri Perf. captus Ger. capien- dus Gen. Dat. Ace. Ahl. capiendi capiendo capiendum Ace. captum capiendo Ahl. captu 57. a. Inflected like capi5 are its Compounds, accipio, con- cipio, deoipio, excipio, incipio, percipio, praecipio, recipio, and. suscipio. h. The following verbs in -io, inflected like capio, are used by- Caesar : cupio, ardently desire., wish well to (I. 18, etc.) ; facio, do, make, and its Compounds afficio, conficio, deficio, eflScio, inficio, perficio, praeficio, proficio, reficio and sufficio ; elicio, entice (V. 50), fodio, dig (VIT. 73) and its Compounds effodio (VII. 4), infodio (VII. 73), subfodio (IV. 12), traiisfodio (VII. 82) ; fugio, run away, 512 Companion to Caesar [§58 and its Compounds confugio, dgfugio, effugio, perfugio, profugio? and refugio ; iacid, throw, and its Compounds abicio, conicio, dSicid, disicio, Sicio, inicio, obicio, proicio, reicio, and subicio ; pari5, bring forth, gain (C. III. 82) ; two Compounds of quatio, shake, discutio (VII. 8) and percutio (V. 44) ; five Compounds of rapid, seize, arripio (V. 33), corripio, diripio, Sripio and praeripio ; sapio, have sense (V. 30) ; allicio, attract (V. 55, VII. 31) ; and Compounds of specio, look, conspicio, dSspicio, perspicio, prospicio, and respicio. c. Similar in inflection to the Passive of capio are the following Deponent Verbs in -ior used by Caesar: patior, suffer (inflected below, 60), and its Compound perpetior (C. II 1. 47); morior, die (1. 4, etc.) ; and the following Compounds of gradior, step : aggredior, congredior, dggredior, digredior, ggredior, ingredior, praegredior, progredior, and regredior. FOURTH CONJUGATION 58. Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are inflected like audio, 1 hear. Principal Parts: Pbes. Indicativb Active. audio Pre8. Indicative Passive. audior Active Voice Pbes. Infinitive audire Pres. Infinitive audiri Perf. Indicative audivi Perf. Indicative auditus sum Pekk. Pa88. Paetic. auditus INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tensk I hear, etx;. SINGULAR audio audls audit PLURAL audimus auditis audiunt Imperfect / was hearing, or / heard audiebam audiebftmus audieb&s audiebfttis audiebat audiebant Future / shall hear audiam audies audiet audiSmus audietis audient Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense I am heard, etc. SINGULAR plural audior audimur audiris, or -re audlmini auditur audiuntur Imperfect I IV as heard audiSbar audiSbftmur audi§bftris, or -re audiebftmini audiebatur audiebantur Future I slut 1 1 be heard audiar , aiuliSmur audiSris, or -re audiimini audiStur audientur §58] Essentials of Latin Grammar 513 Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Perfect / have heard, or / heard audivi audivimus audivisti audivistis audivit audiverunt, or -ere Pluperfect / had heard audiveram audiveramus audlveras audiveratis audiverat audiverant Future Perfect / shall have heard audlvero audiverimus audiveris audiveritis audiverit audiverint Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD Perfect I have been heard, or / ivas heard auditus sum auditi sumus auditus es auditi estis auditus est auditi sunt Pluperfect / had been heard auditus eram auditi eramus auditus eras auditus erat auditi eratis auditi erant Future Perfect / shall have been heard auditus ero auditi erimus auditus eris auditus erit auditi eritis auditi erunt SUBJUNCTIVE Present / may hear, let us hear, etc. singular plural audiam audi9.mus audi&s audiatis audiat audiant Imperfect / might hear, you would hear audirem audiremus audires audiretis audiret audirent Perfect I may have heard audiverim audiverimus audiveris audiveritis audiverit audiverint Pluperfect / might have heard, you would have heard audivissem audivissemus audivisses audivissetis audivisset audivissent SUBJUNCTIVE Present I may be heard, let us be heard, etc. singular plural audiar audiamur audiaris, or -re audiamini audiatur audiantur Imperfect I might be heard, you would be heard audirer audiremur audireris, or -re audiremini audiretur audirentur Perfect I may have been heard auditus sim auditi simus auditus sis auditi sitis auditus sit auditi sint Pluperfect I might have been heard, you would have been heard auditus essem auditi essemus auditus esses auditi essetis auditus esset auditi essent 514 Companion to Caesar [|59 Active Voice Passive Voice IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE Pres. audi, hear thou audite, hear ye Pres. audire, be thou heard audimini, be ye heard Fut. audits, thou auditote, ye Fut. auditor, thou shalt hear shall hear Shalt be heard audits, he audiuntS, they auditor, he audiuntor, they shall hear shall hear shall be heard shall be heard INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. audire, to hear Pres. audiens, Pres. audiri, to be Per/. auditUB, hearing heard heard, Per/, audivisse, to {Gen. Per/. auditus esse. having have heard audien- to have been tis) been heard heard Fut. auditurus esse, Fut. auditurus, Fut. auditum iri, Ger. audiendus. to be about about to to be about to be to hear hear to be heard heard, worthy to be heard GERUND SUPINE Gen. audiendi, of hearing Dat. audiendo, /or hearing Ace. audiendum, Ace. auditum. hearing to hear Abl. audiendo, by Abl. auditu, to hearing hear, to be heard DEPONENT VERBS 59. a. The forms of Deponent Verbs are generally Passive, while the meaning is Active. b. The Passive meaning is found in the Gerundive of Deponent Verbs, and sometimes in the Perfect Participle ; as dImSnafi, meas- ured off(U. 19) ; dgpopuiatis, having been ravaged (I. 11). c. Deponent Verbs have in the Active form a Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Stipine. 60. Deponent Verbs in the four conjugations are inflected, as hor- tor, urge (\. 19) ; vereor, fear (T. 19) ; sequor, follow (I. 22), and patior, suffer, allow (I. 6, 9) ; largior, give freely (I. 18) : §60] Essentials of Latin Grammar 515 INDICATIVE MOOD First Second Third Third Fourth Conjugation Conjugation Conjugation CoNJ. in -ior (Conjugation Pres. hortor vereor sequor patior largior hortaris, -re vereris, -re sequeris, -re pateris, -re largiris, -re hortatur veretur sequitur patitur largitur hortaraur veremur sequimur patimur largimur hortamini veremini sequimini patimini largimini hortantur verentur sequuntur patiuntur largiuntur Imp. hortabar, etc. verebar, etc. sequebar, etc. patiebar, etc . largiebar, etc. Fut. hortabor verebor sequar patiar largiar Pert'. hortatus sum veritus sum secutus sum passus sum largitus sum Plup. hortatus eram veritus eram secutus eram passus eram largitus eram F.P. hortatus ero veritus ero secutus ero passus ero largitus ero SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. horter verear sequar patiar largiar Imp. hortarer vererer sequerer paterer larglrer Perf. hortatus sira veritus sim secutus sim passus sim largitus sim Plup. hortatus essem veritus essem secutus essen 1 passus essem I largitus essem IMPERATIVE Pres. hortare verere sequere patere largire Fut. hortator veretor sequitor patitor largitor INFINITIVE Pres. hortari vereri sequi pati largiri Perf. hortatus esse veritus esse secutus esse passus esse largitus esse Fut. hortaturus esse veriturus secuturus passurus largiturus PARTICIPLES Pres. Fut. Per/. Ger. hortans hortaturus hortatus hortandus verens veriturus veritus verendus sequens secuturus secutus sequendus GERUND patiens passurus passus patiendus largiens largiturus largitus largiendus Gen. Dat. Ace. Ahl. hortandi hortando hortandum hortando verendi verendo verendum verendo sequendi sequendo sequendum sequendo SUPINE patiendi patiendo patiendum patiendo largiendi largiendo largiendum largiendo Ace. Ahl. hortatum hortatu veritum veritu secutum secutu passum passii largitum largitu 516 Companion to Caesar [§6i 61. a. Of the Deponent Verbs used by Caesar, besides those pre- viously mentioned, the most important are : (1) First Conjugation, arbitror, think (I. 4), cohortor, urge on (I. 25), Conor, attempt (I. 3), consector, pursue (III. 19), consolor, reassure (I. 20), conspicor, catch sight of (I. 25), cunctor, delay (III. 23), dominor, hold sway (II. 31), fru- mentor, get supplies (IV. 9), glorior, boast (I. 14), gritu- lor, congratulate (I. 30), interpret or, expound (VI. 13) ; mlror, wonder (I. 32) and admiror (I. 14) ; miser or, lament (I. 39); moror, delay (I. 39), and dgmoror (III. 6); pShulor, get fodder (V. 17), populor, lay waste (I. 11), and d§populor, completely lay waste (II. 7) ; recordor, recall (C. JIT. 72), remuneror, compensate (I. 44), and speculor, spy out (I. 47). (2) Second Conjugation, fateor, acknowledge (C. III. 20), and its Compounds confiteor (V. 27) and profiteor (VI. 23) ; liceor, bid (I. 18), and polliceor, promise (I. 14); mereor, earn (I. 40) ; tueor, protect (IV. 8), and intueor, look upon (I. 32) ; vereor, be afraid (I. 19). (3) Third Conjugation, complector, embrace (I. 20), dgfetiscor, become exhausted (VII. 88); fruor, enjoy (III. 22); labor, slip, fall aivay (V. 3), and Slftbor, escape (V. 37) ; loquor, speak (I. 20) ; nSscor, be born, rise (II. 18), and enftscor, grow out (II. 17) ; nanciscor, obtain (I. 53) ; nitor, strive, rely on (I. 13), and innitor, lean upon (II. 27) ; oblivi8Cor,ybr(7<'/ (I. 14), proficlscor, set out (I. 3), queror, complain (I. 10) ; the Compounds of sequor, consequor, exsequor, insequor, persequor, prosequor, subsequor ; reminiscor, remember (I. 13), ulciscor, avenge (I. 12) ; and utor, use, adopt (I. 5). (4) Fourth Conjno-ation, experior, try (I. 31), largior, gire freely, bribe (I. 18); mStior, measure (I. 16), and dimStior, measure off {II. 19, IV. 17); ^dixtior, divide (III. 10), and potior, become master of (J. 3). 6. To the Fourth Conjugation belongs the Deponent orior, rise, •with its Compounds adorior, attack (I. 13) and cottrior. arise (III. 7) ; but Caesar uses certain forms of orior wliich are like those of Depo- nents in -ior of the Third Conjugation, as oritur (VI. 25) and orerB- tur (Imperfect Subjunctive ; VI. 9, VII. 28). 62. Semi-Deponent Verbs Iiave a Perfect System Passive in form but Active in meaning; they are audeS (I. 18), fld6 (C. III. Ill) 63] Essentials of Latin Grammar 517 with its compounds confido (I. 23) and diffido (V. 41) ; gauded (IV. 13), and soleo (VI. 15) : audeo, audere, ausus sum, dare. fido, fidere, fisus sum, trust. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, rejoice. soleo, solere, solitus sum, be loont. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 63. The Periphrastic Conjugation has an Active and a Passive form, made up by combining the Future Active Participle and the Future Passive Participle, or Gerundive, with the verb sum, thus : Active Periphrastic Conjugation SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Pres. Imp. Fat. Perf. Plup. Fut. P. Pres. Imp. Perf. Plup. amaturus sim, / may he about to love amaturus essem, I might be about to love amaturus fuerim, / may have been about to love amaturus fuissem, / might have been about to love INDICATIVE MOOD amaturus (-a, -um) sum, / am about to love amaturus eram, I was about to love amaturus ero, / shall be about to love amaturus fui, / have been, was, about to love amaturus fueram, / had been about to love ^ amaturus fuer5, / shall have been about to love INFINITIVE Pres. amaturus esse, to be about to love Perf. amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love Passive Periphrastic Con.tugation INDICATIVE Pres. amandus (a, -um) sum, I Pres- am to be loved, I must be loved Imp. Imp. amandus eram, I had to be loved Perf. Fut. amandus ero, / shall have to be loved Plup. Perf. amandus fui, I have had to be loved, had to be loved Plup. amandus fueram, I had de- served to be loved Fut. P. &ma.ndvis inero, I shall have had to be loved INFINITIVE Pres. amandus esse, to have to be loved Perf. amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved SUBJUNCTIVE amandus sim, / may have to be loved amandus essem, I might have to be loved amandus fuerim, / may have had to be loved amandus fuissem, / might have had to be loved 518 Companion to Caesar [f64 64. a. Perfects in -avi, -Svl, and -IvI, and other tenses formed from the same stems, are sometimes contracted by the loss of -vi- or -ve- before -a- or -r-; Perfects in -ivi lose the -v- before -r- but retain the vowel. Examples are : (1) oppugnarant (I. 5) for oppugnaverant ; adamassent (I. 31) for adamavissent ; commemorassent (I. 14) for com- memorSvissent ; superarint, Perfect Subjunctive (I. 40) for superaverint ; superassent (I. 40) for superavissent. (2) consugrunt (III. 8, etc.) for c6nsugv6runt ; consuerint (I. 44, etc.) for consueverint ; consuSsse (I, 14) for c6n- suSvisse. (3) audigrunt (V. 28) for audivSrunt; audierit (IV. 5) for audlverit; audierant (II. 12, VI. 37) for audiverant; audissent (VII. 62) for audivissent ; audistis (C. III. 87) for audivistis. b. The Future Passive Participle, or Gerundive, sometimes has the ending -undus instead of -endus, as faciundi (I. 7), potiundl (II. 7). IRREGULAR VERBS 65. Of the Irregular Verbs Caesar most frequently uses sum, d6, eo, fero, fio, volo and certain compounds. 66. a. Of the compounds of sum Caesar uses absum, adsum, dSsum, intersum, possum, praesum, prosum, subsum, and su- persum. These are inflected like sum (52), excepting possum; but in pro-sum (profuisse, VI. 40) the preposition has the form prod- before vowels, as prodest. b. Possum, / am able, is inflected as follows : Principal Parts : poBsum posse potui INDICATIVE MOOD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. possum possumus Pres. possim possimus, potes po testis possis possitis, potest possunt possit possint Imp. poterara, pote- poteramus Imp. possem possemus ras, etc. -eratis, etc. posses possetis Fut. poterO, poteris, poterimus posset possent etc. Per/. potuerim potuerimus Perf. potui, potuisti, potuimus potueris potueritis etc. potuerit potuerint Plup. potueram, po- potueram as Plup. , potuissem potuissemus tueras, etc. potuisses potui ssetis Fut. P. potuevO. potue- potuerimus potuisset potuissent ris, etc. §68] Essentials of Latin Grammar 519 INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. posse Pres. potens {used as an adjective) Per/, potuisse Gen. potentis 67. a. Do, darCj give, has -a- instead of -a- in the Present System except in the Second Person of the Present Indicative and the Pres- ent Imperative. The inflection of the Perfect System (dedi, etc.), is regular. Principal Parts : do dare dedi datus Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Pres. do damus Pres. dem demus das datis des detis daf dant det dent Imp. dabam, etc. dabamus Imp. darem daremus Fut. dabo, etc. dabimus dares daretis Perf. dedi, etc. dedimus daret darent Plup. dederam, etc. dederaraus Perf. dederim, etc. dederimus, etc. Fut.P . dedero, etc. dederimus Plup. dedissem, etc. . dedissemus, eic. IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. da date Pres. dare dans Fut. dato datote Perf. dedisse dato danto Fut. daturus esse daturus GERUND SUPINE dandi, etc. datum, datu b. The Passive of do has -a- instead of -a-, as dari, datur, dabar, dabor, darer, datus, etc.; the First Person of the Present Indicative Passive is not in use. c. The compounds of do are of the Third Conjugation except ciroumdo, which is inflected like do. 68. a. E6, ire, go, is thus inflected : Principal Parts: eo ire ii (ivi) itum (est) INDICATIVE MOOD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Pres. eo imus Pres. earn eamus is itis eas eatis it eunt eat eant Imp. ibam, etc. ibaraus Imp. irem iremus Fut. ibo, etc. ibimus ires iretis Perf. ii iimus iret irent isti or iisti istis or iistis Perf. ierim ierimus lit ierunt or iere ieris ieritis Plup ieram, etc. ieramus ierit ierint Fut. P. iero, etc. ierimus -P^wp. issem, etc. issemus, etc. 520 Companion to Caesar »69 IMPERATIVE Pres. 1 ite Fut. its itote itO eunto INFINITIVE Pres. ire Perf. isse Fat. iturus esse Pass, iri PARTICIPLE Pres. iens Gen. euntis Fut. iturus Oerundive eundum GERUND eundi, eundo, etc. SUPINE itura, itu b. Caesar uses the Compounds abeo, adeo, coeo (VI. 22), exeo^ ineo, obed, prodeo, redeo, subeo, and transed, inflected like eo. c. Transitive compounds of eo are used also in the Passive, as numerus inibatur, the number was cast up (VII. 76) ; init£ aest&te^ at the beginning of summer (II. 2) ; transitur, is crossed (I. 6). d. Impersonal Passive forms of eo are iri (III. 18), irStur (III. 24). 69. a. Per6, ferre, bear, carry, is inflected as follows : Principal Parts : Active. fero Passive. feror Active Voice INDICATIVE MOOD ferre tuli lS,tuB f erri Ifttus sum Passive Voice INDICATIVE MOOD SINGULAR PLURAL singular PLURAL Pres. fer5 ferimus Pres. feror ferimur fers fertis ferris ferimini fert ferunt fertur feruntur Imp. ferebam, etc. ferebamus Imp. ferebar ferebamur Fut. feram feremus Fut. ferar feremur Per/. tull tulinms Perf. latus sum lati sumus Plup. tulerara tuleramus Plup. latus eram lati eramus Fut. P. tulero tulerim us i''^/^P.latuser5 lati erimus SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Pres. feram feramus Pres. ferar feram ur feras feratis feraris, or -re feraraini ferat ferant feratur ferantur Imp. ferrem ferremus Imp. ferrer ferremur ferres • ferretis ferreris ferremini ferret ferrent ferretur ferrentur Perf. tulerim tulerlmus Perf. latus sim lati sim us Plup. tulissem tulissemus Plup. latus essem lati essemus IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE Pres. fer ferte Pres. ferre ferimini Fut. fertO fertote ■ Fut. fertor ferto feruntO fertor feruntor 5 701 Essentials of Latin Grammar 521 Active Voice Passive Voice INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. ferre Pres. ferens Pres. ferri Per/. tulisse {Gen. ferentis) Perf. latus esse Perf. latus Flit. laturus esse Fut. laturus Fut. latum iri Ger. ferendus or ferundus GERUND SUPINE • Gen. ferendi Dai. ferendo Ace. feren- dum Ace. latum Ahl. ferendo Ahl. lata h. Caesar uses the Compounds, affero, antefero, confero, defero, differo, effero, infero, offero, perfero, praefero, profero and refero, which are inflected like fero. 70. a. Fio, become (with -i- except in fit and before -e-), is used as the Passive of faci5, with the meaning he made, he done. It is in- flected as follows : Principal Parts: fio fieri factus sum INDICATIVE MOOD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD SINGULAR PLURAt SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. fio fimus Pres. fiam fiamus fis fitis fias fiatis fit fiunt fiat fiant Imp. fiebam, etc. fiebamus Imp. fierem fieremus Fut. fiam fleraus fieres fieretis Perf. factus sum facti sumus fieret fierent Plup. factus eram facti eramus Perf factus sim facti simus Fut. P. factus ero facti erimus Plup. factus essem facti essem IMPERATIVE Pres. fi fite INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. fieri Perf. factus esse Perf. factus Fut. factum iri Ger. faciendus h. Of compounds of fio Caesar uses confieri (VII. 58) and col,- labefieri (C. II. 6). . 522 Companion to Caesar [§71 c. Compounds of facio with Prepositions have their own Passive forms ; so confecta erat, had been made (I. 29) ; patefieri, he kept open (III. 1). 71. Volo, / wish, and its compounds nolo, / am unwilling, and mSllo, I prefer, are inflected as follows: Principal Parts: vols velle volui nol5 nolle nolui maio maile malui INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. Present Present Present Present Present Present vols velim vis velis vult velit volumus velimus vultis velitis volunt velint nolo nolim nOn vis nolis non vult nolit nolumus noliraus non vultis nolitis nOlunt nolint malo malim mavis malis mavult malit malumus malim us mavultis malitis malunt malint Imperfect Imperfect Imperfect volebam, etc. vellem nOlebam nollem malebam mallem Future Future Future volam, etc. nOlam malam Perfect Perfect Perfect volui, etc. voluerim n5lui nOluerim malui maluerim Pluperfect Pluperfect Pluperfect volueram voluissem nOlueram nSluissem malueram maluissem Future Perfect Future Perfect Future Perfect voluerO, etc. nOluerO IMPERATIVE Pres. noli nolite Fut. nOlitO nolitOte nOlitO nOluntO maluerO INFINITIVE INFINITIVE INFINITIVE Pres. velle Perf. voluisse nolle nolulsse PARTICIPLE malle maluisse Prea. volens nolens §73] Essentials of Latin Grammar 523 DEFECTIVE VERBS 72. a. Caesar uses one or more forms of each of the followmg De- fective Verbs : inquam, / say, which he uses only in direct quotations, in the Third Person Singular Indicative Present, inquit, he says, says he ; coepi, / have begun, I began, which belongs chiefly to the Perfect System ; memini, / remember, and odi, / hate, which are Perfect in form, but Present in meaning. b. Coepi, memini and odi are inflected as follows : INDICATIVE MOOD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Perf. coepi, etc. memini odi Plup. coep- memin- oderam eram eram Fut. P. coepero meminero odero coeperim meminerim coepissem meminissem oderim odissem IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE Sing, memento Pe7-f. coepisse meminisse Fut. coepturus esse 1 odisse Plur. mementote .osurus esse PARTICIPLE Perf. coeptus, begun Fut. coepturus osus osurus c. The Passive forms of coepT are used with the Passive Infinitive, as lapidSs iaci coepti sunt, .stones began to be thrown (II. 6). IMPERSONAL VERBS 73. a. Of the Impersonal Verbs Caesar of tenest uses licet, it is per- mitted (I. 7) and oportet, it is necessary, it behooves (I. 4) ; he has also paenitet, it makes sorry (IV. 5) and pudet, it makes ashamed (VII. 42). b. The Impersonal licet is inflected as follows : INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. licet, it is permitted Pres. liceat, it may be permitted Imp. licebat, it was permitted Imp. liceret, it might be permitted Fut. licebit, it will be permitted Perf. licuerit, it may have been per- Perf. licuit, it has been permitted mitted or it was permitted Plup. licuisset, it might have been Plup. licuerat, it had been permitted ' permitted Fut. P. licuerit, it will have been per- mitted INFINITIVE Pres. licere, to be permitted Perf. licuisse, to have been permitted 524 Companion to Caesar [§73 c. Caesar uses Impersonally the Third Person Singular of a number of Verbs, among which are accSdit, it is added, there is the further fact that (III. 13) ; accidit, it happens, it turns out (I. 31) ; constat, 1/ is certain (III. 6) ; interest, it is important (II. 5) ; placet, it, pleases (I. 34) ; and praestat, it is better (I. 17). d. Caesar uses Impersonally the Passive of several Intransitive Verbs, making prominent the action rather than the doer ; as pugnS- tur, fighting goes on, lit. it is fought (VII. 67, 84) ; pugn^tum est, fighting went on (I. 26) ; Ubi eo ventum est, when {they) had come thither, lit. when it was come thither, the coming being made prominent (I. 43). e. Verbs are often used impersonally in the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation, denoting Obligation or Necessity {229, c) ; as, rei fru- mentSriae prospiciendum [esse] , that he should provide for supplies, lit. that it ought to be provided for supplies by him (I. 23). WOED FORMATION 74. The following classes of words are derived from Verbs : a. Nouns with the Suffix -tor denoting the agent, as vic-tor, (I. 31), victor^ from vinco ; defen-sor (11. 6; for defend-tor, as defen-sus for defend-tus), defender, from defendo. h. Nouns with the Suffixes -tio (-sio), -tus, -tura, -ium, denoting an action or the result of an action, as coniura-tio (I. 2), a swearing together^ league (coniuro) ; muni-tio (I. 10), a fortifying, a fortifi- cation conceived as a result of fortifying (munio) ; adven-tus (I. 22), arrival (advenio) ; exerci-tus (I. 13), army, conceived as a product of training (exerceo) ; arma-tura (II. 10), equipment (armo) ; impe- rium (I. 3), command, sovereignty (impero) ; iudic-ium (I. 4), judg- ment, trial (iudico). c. Nouns with the Suffix -or, denoting a condition or state, as tim-or (I. 22), fear (timeo). d. Nouns with the Suffixes -men or -mentum, -ulum, -bulum, -crum, denoting process, means, or result, as flu -men (I. 12), stream, river, conceived as a flowing or current (fluo) ; impedi-mentum (I. 25), hindrance (impedio), pi. impedimenta (I. 24), baggage, con-' ceived as an aggregation of hindrances; vinc-ulum (I. 4), bond, chain, conceived as a means of binding (vincio) ; pa-bulum (I. 16), fodder, conceived as a means of feeding (pasco) ; simula-crum (VI. 16), image, conceived as something made like something else (simulo, make like). e. Adjectives with the Suffix -ax, denoting a quality or tendency, as ferSx (II. '^), productive, fertile (fero, bear). f. Adjectives with the Suffixes -ills and -bills, denoting passive qualities, or capacity, as fac-ilis (I. 6), easy, i.e. capable of being done or made (facio) ; mo-bilis (IV. 5), easily moved, changeable (moveo) ; incredibilis (I. 12), incredible (negative in- -f credibilis, capable of being believed, from crSdo). g. A few Adjectives in -tivus, as cap-tivus (I. 50), captive (capio), fugi-tivus (I. 23), fugitive (fugio). 75. The following classes of words are derived from Nouns : a. Diminutive Nouns, ending in -lus (Fem. -la, Neut. -Ium), and in -ulus, -olus, -cuius, etc., as arti-culus (VI. 27), Joint (artus) ; 525 526 Companion to Caesar [§76 tabella (C. III. 83), voting tablet (tabula) ; porcellus, pig, dim. from porculus, young hog, pig, which is itself a dim. from porcus, hog, (p. 463). h. Nouns with the Suffix -atus, denoting an official position or body, as c6nsul-5tu8 (I. 35), consulship (consul) ; magistrStus (I. 4), inag- istracy, magistrate (magister) ; senatus (I. 3), senate (senex). c. A few Abstract Nouns in -tas and -tus, as civi-taa (I. 2), citi- zenship, state (civis) ; vir-tus (I. 1), valor (vir). d. Adjectives with the Suffix -eus, denoting material, as aureus (V. 12), of gold (aurum); ferreus (III. 13), of iron (ferrum). e. Adjectives with the Suffixes -ius, -icus, -cus, -anus, -inus, -nus, -Slis, -His, -Srius, -Sris, -ivus, meaning connected with, belonging to, from, etc., as patr-ius (IT. 15), of a father, ancestral (pater) ; bell-icus (VI. 24), of war (bellum) ; Gall-icus (I. 31), Gallic; German-icus (IV. 16), Germanic; urb-anus (VII. 1), of a city, of the city (urbs) ; Rom-anus, of Rome (Roma) ; Lat-inus, of Latium, Latin ; nSv-aiis (III. 19), naval (nSvis) ; legion-arius (I. 51), of a legion, legionary (legio) ; consul-aris (C. III. 82), consular; aest-ivus (VI. 4), of summer. f Adjectives with the suffix -osus, denoting fullness, as pericu- losus (I. ^'^), full of danger (periculum) ; bellic-osus (I. 10), warlike (bellic-us, bellum). g. Denominative Verbs, of the different conjugations, as ciiro, -5re (I. 19), care for, take care (cura) ; laud5, -Sre (C. III. 87), praise (laus, laudis) ; tribuo, -ere (I. 13), assign (tribus) ; fiiiio, -Ire (IV. 16), limit (finis) ; partior, -Iri (III. 10), divide (pars, partis). 76. a. Derived from Adjectives are Abstract Nouns with the Suf- fixes -tia, -ia, -tSs, and -tudo, denoting quality or condition, as duri-tia (VI. 21), hardness (durus) ; aud&c-ia (I. 18), boldness (audax) ; grSt-ia (I. 9), favor (grStus) ; cupidi-t5s (I. 2), desire (cupidus) ; forti-tudo (I. 2), bravery (fortis). h. Derived from Adverbs are several Adjectives in -urnus, -turnus, -tinus, referring to Time, as diu-turnus (I. 14), long-continued (difl), and diii-tinus (V. 52), protracted (dlQ) ; so CrSstinus (C. III. 91), like the English name Morrow, from cr5s-tinus, of to-morrow (crfts). c. A few Adjectives have a Diminutive in -ulus ; as tantulus, so small, from tantus (IV. 22). 77. Adverbs ^ are sometimes formed from the Stem of the Perfect Passive Participle with the suffix -im, as stat-im (I. 53), immediately 1 The formation of Adverbs from Adjectives is treated under Adverbs, 34, 36. §79] Word Formation 527 (status, sto) ; and from nouns, with the ending -tim (or -im), as viri-tim (VII. 71), man hy man (vir), and part-im (II. 1), partly, which was originally an Accusative of pars. 78. Verbs derived from Verbs are : a. Frequentatives, expressing repeated or intensive action ; fre- quentatives derived from Verbs of the First Conjugation end in -ito, as clamito (V. 7), cry out loudly, shout (clamo) ; others end in -to or -so, as iacto (I. 25), toss about, cast (iacio), concurso (V. 33), rush hither and yon, rush about (concurro). b. Inchoatives, or Inceptives, expressing the beginning of an action or state, a becoming ; they end in -sco, preceded by -a-, -e-, or -1-, as maturesco (VI. 29), become ripe (mature). 79. a. In the first part of a Compound Word the final vowel of the Stem of a Noun or Adjective is dropped before a vowel, and becomes -i- before a consonant, while in the case of consonant Stems -i- is often inserted ; in the second part vowel changes frequently appear. Thus signi-fer (11. 25), standard-bearer (for signo-fer, signum + fer- in fero) ; prin-ceps (I. 30), leader, i.e. taking foremost place (for primo-cap-s, primus 4- cap- in capio) ; ampli-fico (II. 14), enlarge (for amplo-fac-6, amplus -f fac- in facio) . b. The first part of a Compound is often a Preposition or other indeclinable word, as per-ficio (I. 3), carry through (per + facio) ; in-iussu (I. 19), ivithout orders (negative in- -f iussu) ; bi-enn-ium (I. 3), (period of) two years (for bi-anno-ium, bis -|- annus + suffix -ium) ; quotannis (I. 36), annually (quot + Ablative of annus). c. Compounds originating in phrases are sometimes declinable, as prS-consul, proconsul, Abl. pro-consule (VI. 1) ; sometimes inde- clinable, as ob-viam, in the way (VII. 12, 28). d. The following indeclinable prefixes are found only in Compound Words : amb-, am-, (an-), about, as in an-fractus (VII. 46), curve. com-, CO- (old form of cum, loith) , with, together ; see under cum in Vocab- ulary. dis-, appearing also as dir-, di-, apart, as in dis-cedo (I. 16), go apart; dir-imo (I. 46), take apart, break off; di-mitto (I. 18), send about, send off. in-, = ?ermi< (I. 36). (7) Deciding : censeo, decree (1. 35) ; cdnstituo, determinp. (II. 10) ; placuit, it pleased (I. 34) ; sanciS, bind (I. 30). (8) Striving : ago, arrange (I. 41) ; contendo, strive (I. 31) ; do operam, take pains (V. 7) ; impetro, obtain one's request (I. 9) ; laboro, put forth effort {I. 31). b. Such Verbs are sometimes used impersonally in the Passive, the Substantive Clause taking the place of a Subject; as erat eipraecep- tum, ne proelium committeret, he had been ordered not to Join battle, lit. it had been ordered to him that he should not, etc. (I. 22). c. With such Verbs the Substantive Clause is sometimes replaced by the Infinitive, with or without a Subject Accusative ; as, loqul concfiditur, permission is given to speak (VI. 20) ; H5s [nftvgs] ftctu- Sri§s imperat (Historical Present) fieri, he ordered that these (ships) he built for fast movement (V. 1). d. As a Negative Connective between Substantive Subjunctive Clauses Caesar uses nfive (before vowels and h) and neu (before con- sonants), witli the meaning and that . . . not, or that . . . not. §202] Substantive Clauses 565 200. a. In Substantive Clauses with ut after admoneo, cohortor, constituo, impero, mando, nuntio, order, postulo, demand, and rogo, ask, and a few phrases, the ut is sometimes omitted ; as, rogat (Historical Present), finem orandi faciat, asked him to make an end of his pleading (I. 20). h. lubeo, order, hid, and veto, forbid, are regularly used by Caesar with the Infinitive and Subject Accusative; conor, attempt, with the Infinitive ; as, quemque effere iubent, they gare (lit. gii^e) orders that each person carry away ... (I. 5) ; ezsequi conaretur, attempted to enforce (I. 4). 201. a. Substantive Clauses with the Subjunctive introduced by ne, that not, quo minus, that not (lit. by which the less), and quin, that not, are used after Verbs of Hindering, Preventing, and Refusing ; the Conjunction often may best be rendered by from with a Par- ticiple. Thus, hos . . . deterrere ne frumentum conferant, these through fear were holding back (the people) from furnishing the grain (I. 17) ; retineri non potuerant quin . . . tSla conicerent, could not be restrained from hurling darts (I. 47). Such Verbs used by Caesar are : deteffreo, ^o/(Z back through fear : recuse, re/use (1.31) ; rvlmeio, restrain ; tempero, restrain one's self (I. 33) ; teneo, hold back (IV. 22) ; terreo, frighten (VII. 49). b. Substantive Clauses with the Subjunctive introduced by quin are used also after general expressions of Doubt and Negation, quin being translated that. Thus, non esse dubium, quin . . ., that there was no doubt that (I. 3) ; neque abest suspicio . . . quin, a7id there is ground for suspecting that, lit. and there is not lacking suspicion that (I. 4). c. After dubito, meaning doubt, Caesar uses a Substantive Clause with quin and the Subjunctive ; after dubito, hesitate, generally the Infinitive, rarely a clause with quin. Thus, non dubitare quin . . . sumat, he did not doubt that he (Ariovistus) would inflict (I. 31) ; transire flumen non dubitaverunt, did not hesitate to cross the river (II. 23) ; dubitandum non existimavit quin . . . profioTsciretur, thought that he ought not to hesitate to set out (II. 2). 202. Substantive Clauses with the Subjunctive introduced by ut and ne are used after Yerbs of Fearing ; after such Verbs ut is to be translated that not, and ne, that, or lest. Thus, nS . . . offenderet verebatur, was afraid that he might offend (I. 19) ; ut . . . supportari posset, timere dicebant, ivere saying that they feared that (the supply of grain) cuuld not be brought up (I. 39). 566 Companion to Caesar [§203 203. Clauses of Result introduced by ut or uti aiul ut non are used as Substantive Clauses in four ways : (1) As the Subject of Impersonal Verbs ; thus, fiebat ut . . . va- garentur, it came about that they wandered (1. 2) ; AccSdSbat ut . . . tempestatem ferrent, There teas the additional fact that they weathered the storm (III. 13). The more important Impersonal Forms thus used by Caesar are accedebat; accidit, it happened (IV. 29) ; fit (C. II. 4) ; fiebat ; factum est (III. 19) ; factum esse (I. 31), fieri (II. 4) ; institutum est, the custom bpcame Jixed (C. III. 92); Belinquebatur, the result loas, lit. it ions left (V. 19); and the Future Infinitive of sum in both forms, futurum esse (I. 10, 20, 31), and fore (1.42). (2) As Predicate or Appositive with consugtudo est and ius est; thus, ea consuetude asset, ut matres familiae . . . de- clSrarent, tho-e was the custom that the matrons should declare (T. 50). (3) As Object after Verbs of Action and Accomplishment; thus, committeret ut is locus . . . nomen caperet. lit. bring it about that the place . . . should assume a name (I. 13) ; com- meStus ut . . . portSri possent, efficiebat, made it possible for supplies to be brouyht, lit. was accompUshing that supplies could be brought (II. 5). The Verbs thus used by Caesar are committo, efficio, perficio (I. 9). (4) As Appositive of a Noun or Neuter Pronoun whose meaning the ut-clause defines; thus, poenam, ut igni crem5r6tur, the penalty of being burned by Jire, lit. that he should be burned by fire (I. 4) ; id, quod coustituerant . . . ut 6 finibus suTs ezeant, that ivhich they had resolced upon, a migration from their country, lit. that they should go out from their terri- tories (I. 5). 204. Indirect Questions are used as Substantive Clauses after Ex- pressions of Inquiry, Narration, Deliberation, and Uncertainty, and have the Subjunctive. The following types of Indirect Questions are used by Caesar : (1) Introduced by the Interrogative Particles -ne (V. 27), num (I. 14) in Single Questions ; in Double Questions, by the Correlative Particles utrum . . . an, whether . . . or (I. 40); utrum . . . necne, whether . . . or not, necne representing annon of the Direct Form (I. 50); -ne . . . an, whether . . . § 205] Conditional Sentences 567 or (VI. 31) ; -ne . . . an . . . an, whether . . . or . . . or (IV. 14) ; -ne . . . -ne, whether . . . or (VII. 14) ; and an alone, utrum being omitted, or (VII. 15). Thus, consultum [esse], utrum igni statim necaretur an . . . reservaretur, that counsel was taken ivhether he should at once be put to death by burning, or saved up for another occasion (I. 53). (2) Introduced by an Interrogative Pronoun ; as, Dumnorigi cus- t5des ponit (Historical Present), ut, quae agat, quibuscum loquatur, scire possit (Caesar), set guards over Dumnorix, in order to be able to know what (lit. what things) he did, with whom he talked (I. 20). (3) Introduced by Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs used Inter- rogatively ; as, in utram partem fluat, in which direction it flows (I. 12). Adjectives and Adverbs thus used by Caesar are qualis, of ivhat sort (I. 21) ; quam with an Adjective, how (I. 43) ; quantus, how great (I. 17) ; quem ad modum, in what way (I. 36) ; uter, which; cur, why (I. 40) ; quare, wherefore, why (I. 45); quo, whither (III. 16); quot, how many (VII. 19) ; quotiens, how often (I. 43) ; unde, whence (V. 53) ; ut, how (I. 43). (4) Introduced by si, if, whether, after Verbs of Effort and Expec- tation ; as, si perrumpere possent, conati, trying (to see) whether they could break through (I. 8). CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 205. Caesar has General Conditions of the First Type (Conditions of Fact) introduced by si, if, with the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Protasis implying Customary or Repeated Action ; si is almost equivalent to whenever. Thus: (1) Present Tense in both Protasis and Apodosis : si qui ex reli- quis excellit, succ§dit, if anyone of the rest is preeminent, he becomes the successor of the arch-druid (VI. 13). (2) Imperfect Tense in both Protasis and Apodosis : si quid erat durius, concurrebant, if there was unusually serious difficulty (lit. if there was anything rather hard) they would rush to the rescue (I. 48). (3) Perfect Tense in the Protasis, Present in the Apodosis: si compertum est, interficiunt, if the fact (of crime) has been established, they kill (VI. 19). 568 Companion to Caesar [§206 (4) Pluperfect Tense in the Protasis, Imperfect in the Apodosis-. 81 qui . . . equo dSciderat, circumsistSbaiit, if anyone had fallen from his horse, they would gather around him (I. 48). 206. Caesar has Specific Conditions of the First Type (Conditions of Fact) introduced by si, if, or nisi, unless, with the Indicative in the Protasis, and the Indicative, Imperative, or Hortatory Subjunctive iu the Apodosis. Thus : (1) Present Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis: Cuius si vos paenitet, vestrum vobis beneficium remitto, if you regret this, I give yon hack your furor (C. II. 32). (2) Present Indicative in the Protasis, Present Imperative in the Apodosis : Dgsillte . . . nisi vultis aquilam hostibus pr6- dere, jump down, unless you luish to abandon your eagle to the enemy (IV. 25). (3) Present Indicative in the Protasis, Hortatory Subjunctive in the Apodosis : SI quid in nobis animi est, persequamur mortem, if ice have any vestige of courage in us, let us avenge the death (VII. 38). (4) Future Perfect Indicative in the Protasis, Future Indicative or Imperative in the Apodosis: si gravius quid acoiderit, rationem reposcent, if any disaster shall befall them (lit. any- thing rather heavy shall have happened), they will demand an accounting (V. 30) ; TugminI castra, et defendite, si quid durius acoiderit, guard the camp, and defend it in case of any trouble, lit. if anything rather hard shall have happened (C. III. 94). 207. Caesar has conditions of the Second Type (Conditions of Possible Realization), introduced by si, if, nisi, unless, or sin, but if, with the Subjunctive in the Protasis, and the Potential Subjunc- tive, or the Indicative (emphasizing the situation as an actual one) in the Apodosis ; thus : (1) Present Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis : qui, si per te liceat, . . . cum reliquls belli c&sum sustineant, if they should have your permission, they would share the fortune of war with the rest (V. 30). (2) Present Subjunctive in the Protasis, Present Indicative in the Apodosis : neque, aliter si faciat, uUam habet auctdritft- tern, and if (a leading ma7i) does (lit. should do) otherwise, he has no influence Qt q,ll (VI, 11). §209] Conditional Sentences 569 (3) Imperfect Subjunctive in the Protasis, Imperfect Indicative in the Apodosis : si continere ad signa manipulos vellet, locus ipse erat praesidio barbaris, if he desired to keep Ms companies with the standards, the very (character of the) region was a protection to the natives (VI. 84). 208. a, Caesar has Conditions of the Third Type (Conditions Contrary to Fact), introduced by si, if or nisi, unless, with the Sub- junctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to .Present Time, the Pluperfect to Past Time. Thus : (1) Imperfect : ego banc sententiam probarem ... si nuUam praeterquam vitae nostrae iacturam fieri viderem, / should approve this view if I saw that no {loss) ivas involved except the loss of our own lives, implying that the speaker did not approve the view, and that other loss was involved (VII. 77). (2) Pluperfect : nisi . . . milites essent defessi, omnes hostium copiae delSri potuissent, if the soldiers had not been ex- hausted . . ., the entire forces of the enemy might have been wiped out, implying that the soldiers were exhausted, and that many of the enemy escaped (VII. 88). h. The Indicative is used in the Apodosis of Conditions Contrary to Fact when there is present an idea of Necessity, Propriety, or Pos- sibility ; as, sT populus Romanus alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuit difBcile cavere, if the Roman people had been con- scious of any wrongdoing it would not have been (lit. was not) difficult {for them) to take precautions (from the Indirect Form in I. 14). c. The Imperfect Subjunctive, referring to Past Time, may be used in Conditions Contrary to Fact, if a lasting state of affairs is implied ; as, si quid mihi a Caesare opus esset, ad eum venissem. If I had wanted {or now wanted) anything of Caesar, I should have come to him (from the Indirect Form in I. 34). 209. In the Protasis of a Conditional Sentence an Ablative Abso- lute, a Participle, or other form of expression implying a Condition, may be used in place of the clause with si ; as, data facultate, tak- ing the place of si faoultas data esset, if an opportunity should have been granted, in the Direct Form, si faoultas data erit (I. 7) ; dam- natum (eum), him, if condemned, damnatum taking the place of si damnatus esset (I. 4). 570 Companion to Caesar l$2io 210. Caesar has Conditional Clauses of Comparison with the Sub- junctive introduced by velut si, quasi, and proinde ac si. Thus : quod . . . absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem velut si coram adesset, horrgrent, that is . . . velut horrerent, si coram adesset, hor- rSrent, because they dreaded Ariovistus's cruelty when he was away just as (they would dread it) if he were present (I. 32) ; Quasi vSr6 cSnsilii sit rgs. As if indeed it were a matter of choice, i.e. as it would be, if it should be a matter of choice (VII. 38) ; proinde ac si . . . vellent, just as if they proposed (C. III. 60). DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUOTATION AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE GENERAL STATEMENT 211. a. Caesar presents the language of another person in two ways, either in Direct Quotation, or in Indirect Quotation, a form of Indirect Discourse. b. In Direct Quotation Caesar quotes : (1) Words spoken directly to him, as the brave words of Crastinus just before going into action at the battle of Pharsalus (C. III. 91). (2) Words reported to him, presumably by his ofl&cers ; as the exhor- tation of the unnamed standard-bearer of the Tenth Legion when landing on the British shore, if this was spoken outside of Caesar's hearing (IV. 25), and the challenge of Pullo to Vorenus (V. 44). (3) Words or Speeches, sometimes in dialects foreign to Caesar, which he presents in his own language, but throws into the form of Direct Quotation in order to enhance the effect ; such are the words of the Eburonian captive to the Sugam- brian leaders (VI. 35), and the speech of the cold-blooded Critognatus at the war council in Alesia (VII. 77) ; also the words of the dying eagle-bearer (C. III. 64), and the remarks of Pompey and Labienus before Pharsalus (C III. 86, 87). 212. a. In Indirect Quotation, or Indirect Discourse in the nar- rower sense, Caesar in most cases aims to present, not a word-for- word reproduction of what was said or written, but a summary, as brief as possible, of the main points. For example, in order to move to action the other prominent Helvetians, and carry through the negotiations with Casticus and Dumnorix, Orgetorix must have had §212] Indirect Quotation 571 many conferences, extending over a considerable period of time ; yet the gist of the argument by which, according to Caesar, he per- suaded the whole Helvetian nation to migrate, is given in ten words of Indirect Discourse (I, 2), while the gist of the argument by which Casticus and Dumnorix were induced to join him in forming a triumvirate of usurpation is summarized in thirty -one words (I. 3). h. The kind of Summary found in the longer passages of Caesar's Indirect Discourse has a parallel in the condensed reports of addresses in the newspapers. A reporter, sent to prepare a synopsis of a lecture an hour in length, on the Moon, might on his return to the news- paper office find his space reduced, by pressure of matter, to sixty words ; he might nevertheless summarize the main points thus : *' The lecturer said that the moon is iiearhj two hundred and thirty-nine thousand miles from the earth ; that under the telescope it has the appearance of a dead planet ; that most careful observations have failed to detect the presence of air or water ; and that, notwithstanding the moon's brightness, due to reflection, its surface must he as cold as ice." c. In a manner somewhat similar, but with marvelous clearness and cogency in view of the degree of condensation, Caesar in Indirect Discourse presents summarizing statements, or outlines, including — (1) Conferences with Gallic and German leaders, conducted, no doubt haltingly, through interpreters, as with Divico (I. 13, 14), Liscus and other Aeduans (I. 17, 18), the Gallic delega- tion (T. 30-33), and Ariovistus (I. 43-45). (2) His own addresses ;. as the speech with which he quelled an incipient mutiny (I. 40), and his exhortation to his soldiers at Pharsalus (C. III. 90). (3) Reports made to him ; as by Labienus (II. 1) and the envoys of the Remi (II. 3. 4). (4) Requests and replies, messages and instructions; as the request of the Helvetian envoys, and Caesar's answer (I. 7); the plea of the Aeduans (I. 11), Caesar's message to the Lin- gones (1.26), messages to and from Ariovistus (I. 34-36,47). (5) Arguments; as the arguments of Orgetorix (I. 2, 3), and of disloyal natives (II. 17). (6) Brief reports, explanations or speeches, presented in some cases with little or no condensation, as the hurried report of Considius (I. 22), the apology of the soldiers (I. 41), the joke by the soldier of the Tenth Legion (I. 42), and the taunt of the Atuatuci as translated into Latin (II. 30). 572 Companion to Caesar [§213 d. Indirect Discourse in a broader sense includes all statements in the Indirect Form after words of Thought as well as S|>eech ; as, biennium satis esse duxerunt, they reckoned that two years would be sufficient (1. 3). e. In the Latin text of this book the more important Indirect Quota- tions and Summaries are printed in Italic Type. 213. a. Indirect Discourse is introduced by a Verb or other Ex- pression of Saying, Perceiving, Ascertaining, Thinking, Knotoing, or Remembering; as, s5 . . . condonare dicit (Historical Present) he said that he would pardon (I. 20). Such Verbs and Expressions used by Caesar are : ago, present a case (I. 13); animadverto, notice (I. 32); arbitror, think (I. 2) ; audio, hear (IV. 7) ; censeo, decide, think (VII. 21) ; certiorem facio, inform (I. 11); certior fit, is Informed (I. 12); ciatnito, cry out (V. 7), cogito, think (V. 33) ; cognosco, learn (I. 22) ; commemoro, relate (IV. 16) ; comperio, ascertain {W. 19); concl9.mo, shout (III. 18); confidS, he confi- dent, trust (III. 9) ; confirmo, assure (I. 3) ; coniecturam capio, infer (VII. 36) ; conspicio, see (II. 24) ; constat, it is agreed (III, 0) ; constituo, resolve (II. 10) ; contends, insist (VI. 41) ; credo, believe (II. 33). demonstro, shoio, prove (1. 11)^ denuntio, threaten (I. 3(5) ; dico, say ; dif- fido, lose confidence (VI. 36) ; disco, learn (VII. 54) ; doceo, explain (I. 43) ; duco, reckon (I. 3) ; existimS, reckon, think (I. 6) ; facio verba, make a plea (II. 14) ; intellego, understand (I. 16) ; invenio, fmd out (II. 16) ; iudico, judge (I. 45) ; iuro, sioear (VI. 12) ; loquor, speak, say (11.31). memini, remember (III. 6) ; memoriS, teneo, hold in memory, remember (I. 7) ; mihi persu9.sum habed, am conviyiced (111. 2) ; moneo, explain (C. III. 89); nego, declare that . . . 7iot (I. 8); nuntio, announce (II. 2); nuntium m'itto, send word (II. 6) ; ostendS, make plain (I. 8) ; perscribo, irrite fully (V. 49) ; perspicio, perceive (III. 9) ; polliceor, promise (I. .'W) ; praedicd, declare (I. 39) ; pro explorftto habeo, consider certain (VI. 5) : probS, show, prove (I. 3) ; profiteor, declare (VII. 2) ; pronuntio, announce (V. 56) ; pr5vide5, foresee (VII. 39) ; puto, think (IV. 3). recordor, recall (C. III. 47) ; refer5, report (VI. 10) ; reniintio, bring {hack) report (1. 10) ; reperio,.^"nfZ out, ascertain (I. 18) ; respondeS, (jlS10li NAVlCturt 5A>Cf!-M^MV«J« 240. a. The Roman year (annus) is usually dated by the consuls in office, their names being given in the Ablative Absolute with consulibus ; as, Cn. Pom- peio, M. Crasso consuli- bus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus (IV. 1), 55 B.C. b. In Caesar's time the year commenced on Jan- uary 1, and the months were named (mSnsis) lanu^rius, Februarius, Martius (orig- inally the first month of the year), Aprilis, Mains, Jun- ius, Quinctilis (from quln- que ; named the fijlh month when the year began with March), Sextilis (sex), September, October, No- vember, December (the tenth month, reckoning March as the first). Afterwards Quinctilis was changed t^ lulius (our July) in honor to Augustus (our August) in honor Figure 152. — A Roman Calendar. Of marble. Above the name of each month is a sign of the zodiac associated with it: Capricorn with January. Aquarius with February. Pisces with March, Aries with April, Taurus with May, and Gemini with June. pf Julius Caesar, and Sextilis of the Emperor Augustus. 241. a. Dates in the month were reckoned backward from three points, the mode of reckoning being sinular to that which we use when we say " Four days yet before the New Moon." These points, designated by Plural Feminine Nouns, are the Calends, ^alendae, § 242] Expressions Relating to Time 585 the first day of the month ; the Nones, Nonae (ninth before the Ides), the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, the Jifth day of other months; and the Ides (Idus), the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, the thirteenth of other months. b. In giving dates the days at the beginning and end of a given period were both included, and abbreviations were employed. Thus, a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (I. 6), in full would be ante diem quintum Kalendas Apriles, which is translated as if it were (dies) quintus ante Kalendas Apriles, the fifth (day) before the Calends of April; since March had 31 days, we start from April 1 and count back : Day I Day II Day III Day IV Day V April 1 March 31 March 30 March 29 March 28 and so we find the fifth day, which is March 28 according to our method of writing dates. c. In 46 B.C. the Calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar by virtue of his authority as Supreme Pontiff {252), and since that year it has undergone slight change. As the dates of the Gallic War and of the Civil War are prior to 46 B.C., they fall in the period of the Un- reformed Calendar, when there was much confusion. Thus, the twenty-eighth day of March of the Unreformed Calendar in 58 b.c. (I. 6) is considered by some to be the same as March 24 of our Cal- endar ; by others, the same as March 25 ; by others still, as April 16 of our Calendar. 242. a. The day from sunrise to sunset was divided into twelve hours, horae, which varied in length according to the season of the year, and were numbered 1-12 ; thus, hora septima, the seventh hour' (I. 26). Since the sixth hour ended at noon, the seventh hour at the equinoxes would correspond exactly with the hour between twelve and one o'clock according to our reckoning ; at other times the sev- enth hour would end after, or before, one o'clock. b. The method of reducing the Roman hours to our system of reckoning may be illustrated by the following problem : Question. "What, approximately, is our equivalent of the fourth Roman hour in the last week of August in the region of Dover, England ? " Answer. In the region of Dover in the last week in August the sun rises about 5 o'clock and sets about?. The length of the day is therefore about 14 hours by our reckoning. Since the Romans divided the full day into 12 equal hours, we divide 14 by 12 and have 1^, that is, the Roman 'hour in this prob- lem = 1^ of our hours. At the beginning of the fourth Roman hour 3 Roman hours have passed ; 3 X 1^ = 3^, that is, at the beginning of the fourth Roman hour 3| of our hours have passed since sunrise. As sunrise is 586 Companion to Caesar [§ 243 reckoned about 5 o'clock by our time, we add 3J to 5, making 8.30 ; that i8, 8.30 A.M., by our reckoning from midnight, will approximately represent the beginning of the fourth hour of the day by Roman reckoning under the condi- tions of the problem. c. In military usage the night was divided into four watches of three hours each : prima vigilia, Jirst watch (VII. 8), commencing at sunset, 6 to 9 o'clock by Roman reckoning ; secunda vigilia (II. 11), ending at midnight, 9 to 12 o'clock ; tertia vigilia (II. 83), commencing at midnight, 12 to 3 o'clock a.m.; quarta vigilia (I. 21), ending at sunrise, 3 to 6 o'clock a.m., by Roman reckoning. d. Caesar uses the Preposition d6 in certain expressions of time with the meaning yusf after, in the course of ; as dg media nocte, just after midnight (II. 7) ; dS tertiS vigiliS, soon after the beginning of the third ivatch (I. 12), which lasted f lom midnight to 3 a. m. e. When the sun was not visible, recourse might be had to water clocks, ex aqua mensurae (V. 13), for the measurement of time. EXPRESSIONS RELATING TO LENGTH AND DISTANCE 243. a. Of the terms denoting measurement Caesar uses digitus, finger-hreadth (VII. 73) ; pgs, foot (I. 8), which measured approxi- mately .97 of the English foot ; passus, pace (I. 49) ; and mille passus, mile, Plural milia passuum, miles (I. 2). The passus con- tained two ordinary steps (gradus), and measured the distance be- tween the points where the same heel is lifted and touches the ground again. h. The relations of the units of measurement, and their modern equivalents, are as follows : English Feet Meters 1 digitus = .728 inch = .0185 16 digit! = 1 pes = 11.65 inches = .296 1\ pedes = 1 gradus = 2 feet 5^ inches = .74 2 gradus = 1 passus = 4 feet lOJ inches = 1.48 1000 passus = mllle passus = 4864 feet = 1480.00 Since the Roman foot was approximately .97 of the English foot in length, the Roman mile, 4854 English feet in length, was 426 feet shorter than the English mile of 5280 feet; 12 English miles are a little more than the equivalent of 13 Roman miles. c. Long distances may be loosely expressed by iter (Accusative) with the Genitive; as, novem diSrum iter, a nine days'' Journey (VL25). GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR LIFE OF CAESAR 244. " My aunt Julia," said Julius Caesar in an address in 68 B.C. at the funeral of his aunt, wife of the famous Marius, " My aunt Julia on her mother's side traced her ancestry back to kings, on her father's side to the immortal gods. For those who bear the name Marcius Rex, her mother's family, are descended from Ancus Marcius ; ^ from Venus the Julii are sprung, and to that clan our family belongs. In our stock therefore are blended the sacred authority of kings, whose power is greatest among men, and a right to the reverence due to the gods, under whose power kings themselves are." Whatever the truth may be about the origin of the Julian clan (gens), in these proud words the man who was destined to become its most distin- guished representative asserted un- Figure 153. — Aeneas flee- ing from Troy. Silver coin, denarius, struck in the East soon after the battle of Pharsalus. Inscription, CAESAR. mistakably, its aristocratic standing. Twenty years afterwards, when Caesar had the authority to strike coins, he gave a visible expression to the popular belief in the Trojan origin of the Julii, from Venus and Anchises ; stamped upon a denarius (85) Aeneas appears, in the flight from burning Troy, carrying his aged father Anchises upon his left shoulder and in his right hand the sacred image, the Palladium, which, men said, had fallen from heaven (Fig. 153). 1 The fourth king of Rome, following Tullus Hostilius. 587 588 Companion to Caesar [§245 245. Toward the end of the Republic the Caesar family far outstripped the other families of the Julian gens in prominence. In the two centuries immediately preceding the Christian era it furnished a full score of names sufficiently distinguished to find mention in biographical dictionaries two thousand years afterwards. Of the father of Julius Caesar, however, nothing important is of record except his sudden death, at Pisa, when he was putting on his shoes. 246. Gains Julius Caesar was born on July 12, in the year 100 B.C. ; he was thus six years younger than Pompey and the orator Cicero. It is assumed that his birth- place was Kome. His mother was Aurelia, a Roman matron of the highest type. She not only watched over the education of her son — and Julius ' was the only son — with great care, but followed his career with solicitude, and on one occasion at least rendered him a notable service. She was not spared, how- ever, to see her son at the head of the State, or to be harrowed by civil war; she died when Caesar was in Gaul. We know nothing about the education of the young Julius, except that he had as private teacher, at his own home, Antonius Gnipho, a distinguished rhetorician, who had studied at Alexandria and was well versed in Greek. We may assume that the youth received the usual training of the time in Greek as well as in declamation, numbers, and music; for Greek was then the foundation of liberal studies. Figure 154. — A Roman Boy Portrait of a Roman boy, probably connected with the Caesar family. From a bronze statue of the first century b.c. in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. § 249] Life of Caesar 589 At the age of twelve Caesar's face must remotely, at least, have resembled that of the Roman boy whose portrait is pre- served in the lifelike bronze statue acquired in 1914 by the Metropolitan Museum in New York (Fig. 154). 247. The only career deemed suitable for a young patrician was in the service of the State, either through public office, or through service in the field, as occasion might require. We do not understand how high-born Caesars were first led to espouse the cause of the common people and champion the interests of the masses as opposed to the aristocracy, which believed in the government of the many by the few and had its stronghold in the Senate ; but when Julius was old enough to take an active interest in public affairs, his uncle by mar- riage, Marius, was leader of the popular or democratic party, which was then dominant. Marius died in 86 e.g., and was succeeded by Cornelius Cinna as democratic leader. 248. The daughter of this Cinna, Cornelia, in 83 e.g. became Caesar's wife. To them was born a daughter Julia who, in 59 E.G., in her early twenties, became the fourth wife of Pompey. 249. In 82 E.G. Sulla returned from a series of victories in the East and restored the power of the Senate, wreaking ven- geance upon political enemies. There was a reign of terror. Cinna had been killed, and Sulla ordered Caesar to divorce his wife, Cinna's daughter. This Caesar refused, at the risk of his life. In disguise he made his escape to the mountains. He was tracked by Sulla's emissaries, one of whom found him ; he purchased his life with a large bribe. After a time, through influential friends, pardon was obtained from Sulla, who is said to have granted it with the warning that in young Caesar there were many Mariuses. Advancement in Rome, however, was blocked so long as Sulla lived. Caesar went East and joined the army. At the siege of Mytilene, on the island of Lesbos, in 80 e.g., he was awarded the Civic Crown for conspicuous bravery. This crown, though made of oak leaves, represented a military dis- 590 Companion to Caesar [§250 tinction rarely conferred, and most highly esteemed. It was given only to the soldier who had saved the life of a Roman citizen in battle, had killed his adversary, and held the posi- tion where the rescue was made, without retreating. There is a good representation of a Civic Crown on a coin of the Emperor Augustus (Fig. 155). 250. Returning to Rome, after Sulla's death (78 b.c), Caesar brought charges of extortion in provincial management first against Gnaeus Dolabella, who had been proconsul in Macedonia, and afterwards against Gains Antonius, who had plundered Greece; at that time the bringing of delinquent officials to justice was a common way of intro- ducing one's self to public notice. Though both Dolabella and Antonius seem to have escaped punishment, Caesar showed marked oratorical power, and in prosecuting them attracted favorable attention. Wishing to perfect himself in oratory, in 76 Caesar started for Rhodes, to study under Apollonius Molo, the most eminent teacher of the art. In the Eastern Mediterranean the pirates were still active ; near Miletus his ship was captured, and he was held a prisoner on an island for thirty-eight days, until his retinue could return and bring to the pirates a ransom of fifty talents, more than fifty thousand dollars. As a captive he showed himself merry and sociable ; and he jokingly told his captors that some day he would come back and crucify them. Being released, he at once manned ships at Miletus, attacked the pirates suddenly, and captured most of them. True to his word, he crucified them, but ordered their throats cut first — Suetonius adds, as an example of Caesar's humane- ness — in order to spare needless suffering. The quickness of action, daring, and success of this adventure reveal in Caesar Figure 155. — Civic Crown, corona civica. Silver coin of Au^stus, de- narius, struck in 16 or 15 b.c. The crown, of oak leaves, is tied with a fillet. Inscription, OB civis SERVATOS, ' on account of the saving of citizens.' §251] Life of Caesar 591 at the age of twenty-four the qualities that characterized his entire career. 251. a. During the next sixteen years Caesar followed the usual course of political promotion, neglecting no means by which he might increase his popularity. He bestowed gifts with a free hand, assumed the debts of bankrupt young nobles who had squan- dered their inheritance, gave largesses to the people. When his own means were exhausted, he borrowed large" sums at high rates of interest, with the design of obtain- ing reimbursemeuc from the spoils of office. Ac- cording to Plutarch his indebtedness, before he held a single office, had reached the enormous sum of thirteen hundred tal- ents, about a million and a half of dollars. h. In 68 B.C. Caesar was quaestor, and accom- panied Antistius Vetus to Spain. Here his duties were chiefly financial ; the provincial quaestor had charge of the military stores and supervised the keeping of accounts for the pro- vincial governor. This was doubtless a good business training Figure 156. — Ancient trophy, of marble. Now on the Capitoline hill in Rome, badly weatherworn ; by some thought to be one of the very trophies set up by Marius and restored by Julius Caesar. This is an imitation of the trophies which were made on battle-fields by fastening shields, helmets, and other weapons of the enemy to trunks of trees, or posts. 592 Companion to Caesar [§262 for Caesar, which he turned to excellent use later in his ad- ministration in Gaul. c. In 65 B.C. Caesar was curule aedile, with Bibulus as colleague ; the curule aediles had charge of the streets and public buildings, the markets, and the celebration of the public games. In this office, by extravagant expenditures on games and public improvements, he raised the enthusiasm of the populace to the highest pitch. He even dared by night to set up in the Capitol the statue of Marius, and trophies of victories in the Jugurthine and Cimbrian wars, which had been thrown down by Sulla seventeen years before ; and the people wept for joy at the revival of old memories (Fig. 156). He secured so many gladiators for public shows that the Senate became alarmed, on account of the presence of so great an armed force, and passed a law restricting the num- ber ; but he nevertheless exhibited three hundred and twenty pairs, all resplendent in silver armor. Caesar's political methods were not unlike those of his contemporaties, but he excelled them in daring and foresight — and succeeded. 252. It has been believed by many that Caesar was connected with the Catilinarian conspiracy of 65 b.c, if not also with that of 63 ; but the evi- dence is meager. Much more important was his election, in 63 b.c, after a bitter contest, to the office of Supreme Pontiff, Pontifex Maximus. The ten- ure of this office was for life. As the head of the college of pontiffs, then fifteen in number, the Supreme Pontiff was virtually the head of the Roman religious system. He decided questions relat- ing to religious law and usage, and he had charge of the Figure 157. — Symbols of Caesar's office, as Su- preme Pontiff. Middle, axe used in sacrifices, with wolf's head above. Right, priest'scap, with point (apex), and bands for tying under the chin. Left, sprinkler for holy water, and underneath, wine- ladle. Silver coin, denarius, struck by Caesar in Gaul, probably in 50 B.C. Obverse in Fig. 164. §254] Life of Caesar 593 Calendar ; the priests of Jupiter and of other divinities, as well as the Vestal Virgins, were under his jurisdiction. The first coin struck by Caesar in Gaul on one side bears the symbols of his sacred office (Fig. 157), the ax for striking victims in offering sacrifice, the close-fitting cap, with point of olive wood, worn by certain priests, the brush-shaped sprinkler for holy water, and the ladle for dipping up wine, for use in pouring libations. 253. In 62 B.C. Caesar held the office of praetor, in the dis- charge of which, amid scenes of violence, he carried himself with firmness and dignity ; the functions of the praetor were judicial, and in stormy times the administration of justice is doubly difficult. The next year he was propraetor in Further Spain, where he won distinction by subduing several tribes along the Atlantic in Gallaecia and Lusitania. Keturning to Rome in the summer of 60, with abundant means of satisfying his creditors, he was decreed a public thanksgiving for his victories, and was soon elected consul for the year 59. In the year of his consulship, 59, Caesar married Calpurnia, familiar to readers of Shakespeare's " Julius Caesar " ; she was the daughter of Calpurnius Piso (I. 12), and was Caesar's fourth wife. For his first wife, Cossutia, was divorced before he married Cornelia, his second wife (24.8), who had died before his quaestorship ; and Pompeia, whom Caesar married in 67 B.C., as his third wife, was divorced six years later. 254. For some years Pompey had been the most conspicuous lioman. His successes in the campaign against the pirates and the war with Mithridates, and his conquest of Syria and Palestine, had made him the national hero (Fig. 147). But in the qualities needful for a political leader he was quite lacking ; so that even from his own party, the aristocratic, he was unable to win either the recognition he desired or the privileges to which he was entitled. More than once the Senate snubbed him outright. Here Caesar saw an opportunity. Relying on his own popularity, he proposed to Pompey that they work in harmony, and by uniting their influence accom- 594 Companion to Caesar I§255 plish what either might desire. Pompey agreed; and with these two, Crassus, the wealthiest man of Kome, was joined, making a political coalition really supreme, which is known as the First Triumvirate. It had no official existence ; it was simply a political ring, of only three members but of un- limited power. It was to cement this union that Pompey, then a widower for the third time, married Caesar's daughter Julia {2Jt8)^ who was less than half his age. 255. During his consulship, in 59, among other measures Caesar caused a law to be passed regarding the division of the public lands, which, though bitterly opposed by the Senate, pleased the people greatly. With his aid, too, Pompey gained the favors previously denied. While consul he seems to have used his influence with the Senate to secure a recognition of Ariovistus, the German ruler, with whom he after- wards fought (I. 33, 35, 40). At the close of his consulship, as it was the custom to give to ex-consuls the charge of provinces, Caesar easily obtained for live years the govern- ment of both Cisalpine Gaul {28 Ji) and Illyricum {298), together with the part of Transalpine Gaul previously subdued, which in this book is called the Province {290). 256. Caesar was soon engaged in the conquest of Trans- alpine Gaul beyond the Province. The first summer (68 b.c.) he drove back to their homes the Helvetians, who had at- tempted to migrate from the country now called Switzerland, to the west of Gaul ; and he annihilated the army of the Ger- man king, Ariovistus. The following year he subdued the Belgic States in the north. The third campaign (56 b.c.) was against the peoples of north- west Gaul, that had leagued together to resist Caesar. In April Figure 158. — Goddess of Concord. Silver coin, denarius, struck about 53 B.C. to symbolize the harmony between the members of the Triumvirate. Inscription, CONCORDIAI = Concordiae, ' To Concord.' §257] Life of Caesar 595 of this year at Luca, near the southern border of Cisalpine Gaul, Caesar had renewed his compact with Poiiipey and Crassus, who agreed to see to it that his command should be extended for five years longer (Fig. 158). A part of every winter except one (54-53), he spent in Cisalpine Gaul, so as to be near Rome and retain his influence in home politics ; it was contrary to law that a provincial governor having an army should enter Italy while in office. In 55 B.C. Caesar chastised several German tribes and bridged the Rhine ; then he crossed over to Britain. The campaign of the next summer (54) was principally against the Britons, part of whom he reduced to nominal subjection. In the fall a division of his army in Belgium, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, was cut off by a sudden uprising of the enemy. In 53 Caesar had to face an extensive rebellion of the Gallic states, which, however, he speedily crushed. But the next year almost all Gaul rose against him, and under the leadership of Ver- cingetorix taxed his powers to the utmost. He finally prevailed ; and after the fall of Alesia (52 b.c), the strength of the Gauls was forever broken. In the eighth campaign, summer of 51, the states that had not submitted were one by one reduced to complete subjection. The following spring, in 50 b.c, Caesar left his army and went into Cisalpine Gaul. Here he resolved to remain till the expiration of his command in 49, returning to Transalpine Gaul only for a short time during the summer to review the troops. 257. Caesar's Gallic victories are symbolically portrayed on several coins. On one (Fig. 159), we see in the middle a trophy, Figure 159. — Symbols of victories over the Gauls. Middle, trophy, draped; at the top, a Gallic helmet, horned. Hanging from the trophy at the left is an oval shield ; at the right, a Gallic war-trumpet. Behind the war-trumpet Is a sacrificial axe, above which is the head of an animal. Gold coin, aureus, struck by Caesar in Rome in 49 b.c 596 Companion to Caesar [§258 draped ; on the top is a Gallic helmet, with a bull's horns. Suspended on one side of the trophy is an oval shield ; opposite is a Gallic war trumpet, with the mouth carved to represent the head of a serpent; then, nearer the edge of the coin, a sacrificial ax. The base of the trophy divides the victor's name, Caesar. A trophy appears less distinctly on another coin of Caesar, but at the foot is Vercingetorix, sitting, with his hands tied behind him ; his head is turned toward the left as he looks upward (cf. Fig. 161). 258. During Caesar's absence in Gaul, in 55 b.c, Crassus undertook a campaign of conquest against the Parthians, in the Far East; -he was defeated and killed in 53 b.c. The triumvirate was thus brought to an end, and with it speedily ended the cooperation be- tween Caesar and Pompey. Pompey began to view Caesar's suc- cesses with distrust and alarm. He entered into alliance again with the aristocracy. In 60 b.c. the Senate in Pompey's interest passed a decree that he and Caesar should each give up a legion for service in, the East. Since 53 Caesar had had one of Pompey's legions ; this was now demanded back. Caesar let it go, and one of his own too, without a complaint, although the intent of the whole action was evidently to weaken his forces. As it was not lawful for him to proceed in person to Rome, he stationed himself in Ravenna, the town of Cisalpine Gaul nearest the boundary of Italy (283), on the east side ; thence he sent agents and friends to the City to negotiate for him, to try to offset the influence now openly brought to bear against him, but the negotiations were fruitless. Pompey (Fig. 160) and the Senate both hated and feared Caesar. A decree was passed that he should disband his army Figure 160. — Pompey the Great. Silver coin struck by Pom- pey's admiral, Nasidius, some years after his death. The tri- dent, the dolphin, and the in- scription NEPTUNI, 'Of Nep- tune,' refer to the fleet of his son, Sextus Pompey. Cf. Fig. 146. §261] Life of Caesar 597 by a certain date^ or be considered an outlaw. In the state of public affairs at the time, this was simply to wrest from him the fruits of his hard-won successes, without leaving him even a guaranty of his personal safety. Caesar hesitated. The Senate voted further, that the consuls should " provide that the state receive no hurt," which is like a proclamation of martial law in our day. 259. This action of the Senate was virtually a declaration of war against Caesar, inspired by the jealousy of his opponent. With one legion he at once (in January, 49 b.c.) crossed the Rubicon, the boundary of his province (283), and marched south. Soon all Italy was in his power ; Pompey, the Senate, and their followers had lied to Macedonia, on the east side of the Adri- atic {299). After arranging matters at Rome to suit himself, in April, 49 B.C., Caesar went to Spain, where lieutenants devoted to Pom- pey, Afranius and Petreius, had a strong army. They were soon crushed, the main force being captured near Ilerda in August of 49. On his return from Spain to Italy, Massilia (Marseilles), which had closed its gates to him on the way out, and had been besieged with great energy in his absence by Trebonius, gave itself into his hands ; its fleet had been de- stroyed, in two engagements, by Decimus Brutus (p. 425). 260. Operations in Africa in 49 were not so fortunate ; for the force dispatched under Curio to defeat the followers of Pompey in Africa, led by Varus, was utterly destroyed through the aid of the wily Numidian king, Juba. 261. At the end of 49 Caesar had control of all Roman territories west of the Adriatic ; the provinces east of the Adriatic, however, were in the hands of Pompey, who was mobilizing forces in Macedonia obviously for a descent upon Italy from across the sea ; in consequence Caesar also now gathered his forces on the east side of the Adriatic. For some months, in the earlier part of 48, the armies of Pompey and Caesar faced each other near Dyrrachium (Durazzo) ; but Caesar was obliged to withdraw into the interior. The decisive 598 Companion to Caesar [§ 262 battle was fought August 9, 48 b.c, near the city of Pharsalus, in Thessaly. Caesar's forces numbered about twenty-two thou- sand men, with one thousand cavalry ; Pompey had forty-seven thousand infantry, seven thousand cavalry, and some light- armed troops. But superior generalship and the courage of desperation won the day against overwhelming odds. The Senatorial forces were entirely routed. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. 262. Caesar also went with a small force to Egypt, where, in Alexandria, he became involved in the Alexandrine War. For a time this war occasioned him great difficulty because of his inability to secure reenforcements ; but finally Mithridates of Pergamum came to his assistance with an army, marching down through Cilicia and Syria to Egypt. By April of 47 B.C. Caesar had the country under complete control ; but he him- self is said to have fallen a victim to the charms of the young and beautiful Egyptian princess, Cleopatra. 263. Leaving Cleopatra and a younger brother on the Egyp- tian throne, Caesar in June proceeded through Syria north to Pontus, where at Zela he easily crushed the rebellious King Pharlia'ces, reporting the quick victory to a friend in the laconic message, veni, vidi, vici. He soon afterwards returned to Rome. 264. Caesar had only three months in Rome before he was obliged to take the field against the Pompeian forces, now gathered in Africa under the leadership of Scipio and Labienus. In January, 46, he landed with a small army near Hadrumetum, southeast from Carthage, where he maintained his position until sufficient forces could be brought over. At the battle of Thapsus, April 6, 46 b.c, he won a complete victory over the Pompeians and Juba, who was still helping them. 265. Caesar was now everywhere master. In accordance with legal forms he promulgated several laws of great benefit to the people. He reformed the calendar also (241, c). In August of 46 in Rome Caesar celebrated his great triumph. On four different days triumphal , processions wound along the 267] Life of Caesar 599 Sacred Way through the Forum and up the Capitoline Hill, displaying to the astonished multitudes the spoils of victories in Gaul, Egypt, and Pontus, and over Juba in Africa. Treasure amounting to 65,000 talents (more than $70,000,000) was carried in the procession ; and a conspicuous figure was the Gallic commander-in-chief, Vercingetorix, who had been kept in prison six years awaiting this event. In honor of the triumph twenty-two thousand tables were spread for the feasting of the populace, and games and gladiatorial shows were given with a magnificence previously unheard of. 266. In 45 B.C. a large army was collected against Caesar in Spain, com- manded by the two sons of Pompey. Caesar marched against it, and at the battle of Munda (March 17) totally defeated it. On a coin struck in Spain in 45, and perhaps put into circulation in order to pay his soldiers, Caesar commemorates Spanish as well as Gallic victories (Fig. 161). A large trophy supports, in the middle, a coat of mail, above which is a helmet ; on either side is a spear (disproportion- ately short), then a shield, and a war- trumpet. At the foot, on the right, is a seated captive, with his hands tied behind him and face turned backward, looking up, his hair streaming down ; this we may safely identify as Vercingetorix. At the left sits a female figure, weeping, a personification of Hispania. 267. On Caesar's return to Rome the Senate, whose mem- bers were now mainly of his own choosing, loaded him with honors. By conferring upon him all the important offices, especially the dictatorship in life tenure, it centered the whole authority in his hands. Finally it ordered his portrait struck Figure 161. — Commemo- ration of Gallic and Spanish victories. Middle, trophy with Gallic and Spanish arms ; cuirass, helmet, two spears. . twp ovjil shields, two trumpets. ^ '; Below, at right, VeYciri^ff-"' torix, seated, with hands bound behind him ; at left, Hispania, personified, weeping. Silver coin, denarius, struck by Caesar in Spain in 45 b.c. 600 Companion to Caesar [§268 Figure 162. — Caesar. Silver coin, denarius, struck In Rome in 44 b.c. Obverse, head of Caesar with laurel wreath. Inscription : CAESAR, DICT[aTOR] PER- PETUO, 'Dictator for Life.' on coins, from whi(;li previously faces of living men had been excluded (F\^. 162), and decreed that statues of him should be placed in the temples of the gods in Home. 268. Caesar's use of absolute power was marked by unexpected clemency towards former opponents ; in recog- nition of this the Senate shortly l>efore his death ordered a temple built and dedicated to 'Caesar's Mercifulness,' personilied as a divinity (Fig. 163). He contemplated large projects for the public weal ; nevertheless his foresight and breadth of view counted for noth- ing in the bitter hatred of his political enemies. A conspiracy was formed to take his life. On March 15, 44 b.c, as Caesar had just entered the hall where the Senate met, near Pompey's Theater, he was set upon with daggers, and fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, at the foot of a statue of his vanquished rival. Though the assassination of Caesar was commemorated by a coin (Fig. 167), the plans of the murderers all miscarried. It is said that not one of them died a natural death ; and before many years Caesar's nephew and heir, Octavianus, afterwards called Augus- tus, was Emperor of the Roman world. 269. Caesar was tall and of com- manding presence. His features were angular and prominent. He had a fair complexion, with keen black eyes. In later years he was bald ; at no time of life did he wear a beard. Suetonius says that among all the honors conferred Figure 163.— Temple of Caesar's Mercifulness. Front of the Temple, with four columns, and double doors closed. Inscription, CLEMEN- TIAE CAESARIS. ' To the Mer- cifulness of Caesar.' Silver coin, denarius, struck in 44 B.C. §271] The Name Caesar 601 upon Caesar by the Senate and the People none was more acceptable to him than the privilege of wearing at all times a laurel crown, by which his baldness was concealed (Fig. 162). Though endowed with a constitution naturally by no means robust, he became inured to hardship, *and exhibited astonish- ing powers of endurance. In matters of dress he was par- ticular to the verge of effeminacy. 270. Of all the Eomans Caesar was without doubt the greatest. In him the most varied talents were united with a restless ambition and tireless energy. While deliberate and far-seeing in forming his plans, in carrying them out he often acted with a haste that seemed like recklessness. He could occasion scenes of the most shocking cruelty ; yet none could be more forgiving, or more gracious in granting pardon. Ap- parently believing, with the Epicurean philosophy, that death ends all and life is worth living only for the pleasure to be gotten out of it, he mingled freely with the dissolute society of Rome ; yet when it was time for action he spurned indul- gences, gave himself to the severest toil, and endured priva- tions without a murmur. In regard to all these things, however, we may say that Caesar's faults were those he shared in common with his age ; his genius belongs to all ages. Chateaubriand declares that Caesar was the most complete man of all history ; for his genius was transcendent in three directions — in politics, in war, and in literature. THE NAME CAESAR 271. Roman surnames, which in many cases became family names, were generally derived from some personal character- istic or association. For the name Caesar scholars in antiquity suggested four derivations, of which one was, that the tirst of the Julii to bear the name Caesar received it because he was born with a thick head of hair, caesaries ; another was, that it came from the color of the eyes, bluish gray, caesins. 602 Companion to Caesar (§272 Figure 164. — Elephant trampling upon a ser- pent-headed Gallic war- trumpet. Silver coin, denarius, struck by Caesar in Gaul, probably in 50 B.C. The reverse of the same coin IS shown in Fig. 157. There was also a tradition that the first Julius to be called Caesar had killed an elephant and received the name from the word for elephant in the language of the Mauri, in Africa, from whose coun- try elephants came. This derivation seems to have commended itself to Julius Caesar ; for on a coin struck by him in Gaul (Fig. 164), we see, over his name, an elephant trampling upon a Gallic war trumpet with a serpent's head, symbolizing his utter defeat of the Gauls and conquest of the country. To the end of the Empire Roman emperors adopted the name Caesar as a title ; and it survives in two imperial titles of modern times, "Kaiser," of Germany and Austria, and "Czar," of Russia. What an impress the life of Julius Caesar made upon the world — not merely to leave a heritage of influence in government and literature, but to transmit his very name across the ages as a designation of the highest authority recognized among men ! THE PORTRAITS OF CAESAR 272. After Caesar became supreme, almost innumerable likenesses of him must have been made. Statues of him were ordered set up in all cities, as well as in the temples of Rome ; his features were not only stamped Figure 165. — Caesar, on coins but engraved upon gems cem. Behind is an augur's staff. (Fig. 166). symbolic of his priestly authority. Of the numerous extant busts and statues bearing C'aesar's name, however, only a few can be considered authentic. §273] Caesar's Commentaries 603 Though two of the best of these, a colossal bust at Naples and a large statue in Eome, have been somewhat restored, the expression of face has not been materially affected ; a bust in the British Museum, representing Caesar at a somewhat later period of life, is singularly well preserved. In the statue in Rome (shown in the frontispiece of this book, Plate I) Caesar appears as a commander. To judge from the manner of treatment, both this statue and the bust at Naples (Plate X) were made near the end of the first century a.d., but copied from earlier works. CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES 273. The Commentaries of Caesar were not designed to be a biographical work, nor yet, strictly speaking, a military history. They were rather, as the title Commentaries of Deeds, Com- mentarii Rerum Gestarum, implies, an informal record of events. For commentarius comes from commentor, a verb used by speakers with the meaning make preparation for a speech by gathering material and preparing outlines ; whence liber commentarius, or commen- tarius, commentary, came to designate a collection of materials for future use. Had Caesar intended that the Commentaries should be a formal his- tory, the matter, in ac- cordance with the universal custom of antiquity, would have been arranged in such a way that the books would be of about the same length ; but he grouped his material by years, without regard to the length of the divisions, and we find that the first book, or Commentary, is as long as the second and third corn- Figure 166. — A Case for Books. With cover and straps for carrying. In the case are seven rolls, volumina, corresponding with the^ number of the Commentaries on the Gallic War. A writing tablet leans against the case. 604 Companion to Caesar [§ 274 bined, while the seventh is almost as long as the second, third, and fourth taken together. Approximate uniformity in the length of the books comprised in a literary work was usual on account of convenience in handling, since each book formed a separate roll ; hence the name for the roll or hook, volumen (from volvo, roll up), which survives in our word " volume " (Fig. 166). 274. Nevertheless it is evident that the Commentaries were not prepared as a diary, for private use, but written at one time and intended for circulation. We are safe in believing that Caesar intended through them not only to give to the pub- lic an authoritative account of the important events treated, but also to supply to historians of the period a collection of authen- tic material on which they might draw; hence, perhaps, the peculiar restraint under which he refers to himself in the third person, a practice as rare in narratives of the kind in antiquity as it is to-day ; hence, also, presumably, the frequent use of indirect discourse near the beginning, while in the later books the style is more often enlivened, as generally in Greek and Latin historical works, by direct quotation {211, b). 275. The Seven Commentaries of the Gallic War were prob- ably composed soon after the fall of Alesia, in the winter of 52-51 B.C. ; they were probably taken down from dictation and circulated through the multiplication of copies from the original copy or copies sent from Gaul to Rome in 51. 276. The Civil War was seemingly incomplete at the time of Caesar's death ; only two Commentaries, narrating the events of 49 and 48 B.C., were finished. Later the first Commentary, dealing with the events of 49, was divided into two books, the other remaining undivided ; consequently in manuscripts and editions the Civil War now appears in three books, the first and second being devoted to the events of 49, the third to those of 48 B.C. 277. A gap of two years was left between the Commentaries of the Gallic War, covering the period 58-52 n.c, and those of the Civil War, covering the years 49 and 48. This was filled 279] Caesar*s Commentaries 605 by Aulus Hirtius, who added to the Gallic War an eighth book narrating briefly the events of 51 and 50 b.c. in Gaul. Other writers afterwards extended the Civil War also by adding nar- ratives of Caesar's military operations in Egypt, Africa, and Spain. 278. Notwithstanding Caesar's aim in composing the Commentaries as source books rather than finished works, the clearness, conciseness, and vigor of his style, and the importance of the matter, have given them a place in the first rank of historical writings. Of the Commentaries on the Gallic War Cicero wrote {Brut. Ixxv. 262) : Figure 167. — Coin com- memorating the assassi- nation of Caesar. Struck by an officer of Marcus Junius Brutus. A " cap of lib- erty " appears between two dag- gers. Inscription : EID • MAR, for EIDIBUS MARTIIS, ' On the Ides of March.' "They are worthy of all praise. They are unadorned, straightforward, and elegant, every embellishment being stripped off as a garment. Caesar desired, indeed, to furnish others, who might wish to write history, with material upon which they might draw; and perhaps men without good taste, who like to deck out facts in tawdry graces of expression, may think that he has rendered a service to historians by providing them with raw material, but he has deterred men of sound sense from trying to improve on the Commentaries in literary expression. For in history a pure and brilliant conciseness of style is the highest attainable beauty." 279. The question has been much discussed whether or not in the Commentaries Caesar warped the truth in self-justifica- tion. No one will deny that he had a complete command of the facts, and that, when the Commentaries on the Gallic War were published, there were many officers and men who would instantly have detected untruths and condemned them. Caesar seems to have been too large a man to condescend to misrepre- sentation even in narrating his own defeats, as at Gergovia and Dyrrachium ; while there may have been occasional lapses of memory in respect to details, we have no reason to question the substantial accuracy of the Commentaries as historical doc- uments. 606 Companion to Caesar [§ 28O The Commentaries themselves convey no impression of ex- aggeration. Plutarch, who had at hand other sources of in- formation, no longer extant, thus summarizes the results of the Gallic war : " Caesar was engaged in the Gallic war less than ten years. In that time he captured more than eight hundred towns, brought into submission three hundred peoples, fought against three million foes, killed a million, and took a million prisoners.'.' Caesar took part in thirty battles. CAESAR AS AN ORATOR 280. As an orator Caesar was rated second only to Cicero. His orations have perished ; but apart from other evidence a favorable judgment of Caesar's oratorical style might be formed from the speech which he puts into the mouth of Critognatus (VII. 77), and the outline of the argument by which he quelled an incipient mutiny (I. 40). THE GEOGRAPHY OF CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES INTRODUCTORY 281. The Geography of the Commentaries on the Gallic War touches Italy, Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum, and Transalpine Gaul ; that of the Civil War touches also Spain, Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Africa. 282. Caesar frequently uses the name of a peoplfe for that of the country inhabited by them, where English usage ex- pects the word " country " or " land " or an equivalent ; as qui agrum HelvetLum a Germanis dividit, ivhich separates the Helve- tian territory from that of the Germans, lit. from the Germans (I. 2) ; unum per Sequanos, 07ie (i^oute) through the country of the Sequanians, lit. through the Sequanians (I. 6). ITALY AND CISALPINE GAUL 283. Caesar uses Italia, Italy, in two senses : a. Italy in the narrower sense as a political unit (C. I. 6), Italy proper, having as its northern boundary on the east side the small river Rubicon, on the west the lower course of the river Auser, and between the two rivers a line running a short distance south of Luca (modern Lucca). b. Italy in the geographical sense (I. 10), designating the entire peninsula as far as the Alps, and including Cisalpine Gaul in addition to Italy proper. 284. Cisalpine Gaul is designated by Caesar as Cisalpina Gallia (VI. 1), Gallia citerior, Hither Gaul (I. 24), and citerior provincia, the nearer province (I. 10). It comprised the great drainage area of the Padus, Po (V. 24), extending from Italy proper to the Alps. The entire region was brought under 607 608 Companion to Caesar [§285 Roman domination in the second century B.C., but Cisalpine Gaul was not joined with Italy politically till the reign of Augustus. 285. Of the cities of Cisalpine Gaul Caesar mentions two, Aquileia (I. 10), at the head of the Adriatic Sea, chief city of the Cisalpine Veneti, who gave their name to modem "Venice " ; and Ocelum (I. 10), in the extreme western part. TRANSALPINE GAUL 286. Transalpine Gaul is designated by Caesar as Trans- alpina Gallia (VII. 6), Gallia Transalpina (VII. 1) ; Gallia ulterior (I. 7), and ulterior Gallia (I. 10), Further Oaul; or simply Gallia, Gaul (I. 1). It extended from the Alps and the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean, comprising the countries now known as France and Belgium, the German possessions west of the Rhine, and the greater part of Switzerland and Holland. In this book where " Gaul " stands alone. Transalpine Oaul is meant. (See Map inside back cover). After the conquest, Gallia as a sub- ject country was personified as a female ligure, sometimes with the character- istic Gallic war-trumpet, as on a coin struck in Rome in 48 b.o. (Fig. 168) ; here only the head is shown, with long hair, dishevelled, the war-trumpet being behind the head. 287. On account of differences in speech, and other char- acteristics, Caesar describes Transalpine Gaul as divided into three parts: a. Tlie land of the Belgians, Belgium, in the northeast, ex- tending from the rivers Sequana, Seine, and Matrona, Marne, to the river Rhenus, Rhine. The Belgium described by Caesar was much larger than the modern country. The ancient Bel- Figure 168. — Conquered Gaul, personified. Behind the head is a Gallic war-trumpet. Denarius, 48 b.c § 289] Geography of the Commentaries 609 gian stock survives in the Walloons. The language was mostly Celtic. h. TJie land of the Galli, the Celtic country, Celtic Gaul, ex- tending from the Seine and Marne to the river Garumna, Garonne. This part is often called Gallia (I. 1, 1. 20 ; I. 30). The numerous dialects of Celtic Gaul belonged to the great Celtic family, which has modern representatives in Armoric, spoken in Brittany, and the Welsh language. c. The land of the Aquitanians, Aquitania, extending from the Garonne River to the Pyrenees. The language of the Aquitanians seems to have been related to the Basque. 288. a. The three divisions of Gaul were made up of many small states, civitates, each of which had its own political organization. A number of the states had their own coinage in gold and other metals ; but the coins were mostly imita- tions of those struck by Greek states and Rome. b. In Celtic Gaul the governing power was in the hands of two classes, the knights and the Druid priests ; the condition of the common people was not much above slavery (VI. 13). 289. a. Government in Gaul was administered by magi- strates, magistratus, chosen by the dominant classes, such as the Vergobrets (I. 16) ; a few of the more backward states had kings, reges, as Galba, king of the Suessiones (II. 4), and Commius, king of the Atrebates (IV. 21). b: In some states there was a council of elders, senatus (11. 6). c. Politically Gaul in Caesar's time was in a condition of unrest. Usurpations of power and changes of rulers were frequent (II. 1). Not only in the different states but in the subdivisions of states, and even in powerful families, there were party divisions (VI. 11), from which strifes of great bit- terness arose. A conspicuous example is the irreconcilable antagonism between the brothers Diviciacus and Dumnorix (I. 18), of whom the former did everything possible to advance Caesar's interests (II. 5, 10), while the latter, as leader of an anti-Roman party among the Aeduans, sought in all ways to 610 Companion to Caesar [§290 thwart Caesar, until finally he was killed, while resisting cap- ture, by Caesar's cavalry (V. 7). 290. The southeastern part of Gaul, not specified in Caesar's threefold division, had been conquered by the Romans and organized into a province in 121 b.c. This was the only part of Transalpine Gaul that properly came under Caesar's juris- diction when he went out as governor in 58 b.c. {255). It is designated by Caesar as Gallia provincia (I. 19) or provincia Gallia (I. 53), the Oallic Province ; as ulterior provincia, the Further Province (I. 10), provincia nostra, oi^r Province (I. 2), or simply provincia, the Province (I- 1)- 291. Of the mountains of Gaul the most important are. Alpes, the Alps (I. 10), of which the western and southern portion, the French and the Swiss Alps, were known to Caesar ; mons Cebenna, the Cevennes (VII. 8), in Southern Gaul ; mons lura, the Jura Mountains (I. 2), extending from the Rhone below Geneva northeast to the Rhine ; mons Vosegus, the Vosges (IV. 10), west of the Rhine and north of the Jura range ; Pyrenaei montes, the Pyrenees, on the border toward Spain (I. 1). 292. The more important rivers of Gaul mentioned by Caesar are : Rhodanus, the Rhone (I. 2), which flows through lacus Lemannus, Lake Geneva (I. 2), and empties into the Mediter- ranean ; Arar, Sadne (I. 12), a tributary of the Rhone, which it enters from the north ; Sequana, the Seine (I. 1) ; Matrona, Marne (I. 1), a tributary of the Seine, which it enters from the east ; Azona, Aisne (II. 5), a tributary of the Oise, which in turn flows into the Seine from the northeast, below the conflu- ence with the Marne ; Rhenus, Rhine (1. 1) ; Garumna, Garonne (I. 1) ; Iiiger, Loire (III. 9), the largest river of Gaul, flowing into the Bay of Biscay ; Mosa, Meuse (IV. 9), in northeastern Gaul ; Sabis, Sambre, a tributary of the Meuse, which it enters from the west (II. 16). 293. The cities of Gaul in Caesar's time were situated on or near a coast, on a river, or on the top of a high mountain. The more noteworthy were : § 294] Geography of the Commentaries 611 Figure 169. — Coin of Massilia. Silver. Obverse, head of Artemis with earrings and necklace ; reverse, lion, prowling, with abbreviation of the Greek name above, and crescent in front. a. In the Province: Massilia, Marseilles (C. II. 3), founded by Greeks from Phocaea about 600 b.c, a prosperous city, which retained its Greek character, carried on an extensive commerce, and became an impor- tant civilizing influence (Fig. 169) ; Narbo, Narbonne (III. 20), on the river Atax not far from the sea, colonized by the Romans in 118 B.C. ; Tolosa, Toulouse (III. 20), on the Garonne river ; Geiiava, Geneva (I. 6), on lacus Lemannus, Lake Geneva (I. 2). b. In Celtic Gaul : Agedincura, Sens (VI. 44) ; Alesia, Alise-Sainte-Eeine (VII. 68) ; Avaricum, Bourges (VII. 13) ; Bibracte, on Mt. Beuvray (I. 23) ; Cenabum, Orleans (VII. 3) ; Decetia, Decize (VII. 33) 5 Gergovia (VII. 36) ; Lutecia Parisiorum, Paris (VI. 3) ; Vesontio, Besangon (I. 38). c. In Belgium: Bibrax (II. 6) near the Aisne; Durocorto- rum, Reims (VI. 44); Noviodunum of the Suessiones, near JSoissons (II. 12) ; Samarobriva, Amiens (V. 24). BRITAIX, GERMANY, AND SPAIN 294. Caesar uses Britannia, Britain (II. 4), to designate the island of Great Britain, including modern England, Scotland, and Wales. He was the first Ro- man general to invade the island, whose inhabitants he found similar to those of Celtic Gaul in language and institutions, but not so far ad- Figure 170.— Early British vanced in civilization (Fig. 170). Coin. His two expeditions, in 55 and Silver, of crude workmanship; 54 B.C., had slight apparent effect, probably in circulation in Caesar's 13^^ ^j^cy Stimulated Commerce and time. "^ prepared the way for the introduc- tion of Roman wares and customs (Fig. 140). The subjuga- tion of Britain by the Romans began in 43 a.d. 612 Companion to Caesar (§295 295. Caesar uses Germania, Germany (IV. 4), to designate a country of indefinite extent east of the Khine and north of the Danube. He came into contact only with the German peoples near the Rhine. His two expeditions across the Rhine, in 55 and 53 b.c, produced slight effect ; the Romans never conquered more of Germany than a narrow strip along the Rhine and the Danube. 296. Ancient Spain, Hispania, included modern Spain and Portugal. After the Roman Conquest, about 200 b.c, it was divided into two provinces, citerior Hispania, Hither Spairi (III. 23), including the northern and eastern part of the peninsula, and ulterior Hispania, Further Spain (C. I. 38), on the south and west. 297. Caesar sometimes uses Hispania, Spain, to designate the peninsula as a whole (V. 1) : sometimes the plural, Hispaniae, the Spains (C. III. 73), referring to the two Spanish jjrovinces. ILLYRICUM, MACEDONIA, EPIRUS, AND THESSALY 298. niyricum was a narrow province that bordered Cisalpine Gaul for a short distance at the head of the Adriatic Sea, and extended down the east side of the Adriatic as far as the river Drilo, Dnn. It included parts of modern Albania, Montene- gro, Herzegovina, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Istria. It came under Roman control about 167 b.c. 299. Belonging, in Caesar's time, to the province of Mace- donia, was a strip of coast between Illyricum and Epirus with the important cities Apollonia (C. III. 75), about live miles from the sea, and Dyrrachium, Durazzo (C. III. 53), on the coast (Map 19). 300. Epirus was the northernmost division of Greece on the west side ; it occupied a part of modern Albania. It was con- quered by the Romans in 168 b.c. (Map 19). Towns of Epirus mentioned by Caesar are Buthrotum (C. III. 16) and Oricum (C. III. 90), both on the coast (Map 19). 301. Thessalia, Thessaly, in northeastern Greece, corre- sponded roughly with the division of modern Greece called §306] Geography of the Commentaries 613 by the same name. Towns of Thessaly mentioned by Caesar are Gtomphi (C. III. 80), Lirisa, Larissa (C. III. 96), and Me- .tropolis (C. III. 80). Cf. Map 19. ASIA, SYRIA, EGYPT, AND AFRICA 302. The Romans used Asia in three senses, designating : (a.) The continent Asia, as we use the name to-day. (b.) 'The western projection of the continent, between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea ; called Asia Minor in order to distinguish it from the mass of the continent as a whole. (c.) The Roman province Asia, which was organized in 129 B.C. The Roman province Asia included only the western part of Asia Minor, with the countries Caria, Lydia, Mysia, and Phrygia. Caesar uses Asia (C. III. 53) to designate the Roman province, not Asia Minor or the continent. 303. At the time of the Civil War Bithynia, including a part of Pontus (C. III. 3), and Cilicia in Asia Minor (C. III. 102) were already organized as separate provinces. 304. Syria (C. III. 103), including Phoenicia and Palestine, was conquered by Pompey and became a Roman province about 64 B.C. At Jerusalem Pompey profaned the Holy of Holies in the Temple by entering it, but he refrained from carrying off the treasure. The treasure, however, a few years later fell a prey to Crassus, who, on his way to attack the Parthians {258), delayed in Jerusalem in order to rob the Temple. 305. Aegyptus, Egypt (C. III. 104), at the time of the Civil War was an independent kingdom. It was not made subject to Rome till 29 b.c. Its principal city, Alexandria, Alexandria (C. III. 103), was founded by Alexander the Great, who gave to it his name. 306. Caesar uses Africa (C. II. 37) to designate, not the con- tinent, but the comparatively small Roman province of Africa, which was organized after the destruction of Carthage in 146 b.c. After the battle of Thapsus and the death of Juba (262) Caesar 614 Companion to Caesar (§306 made another province' out of the Kingdom of Numidia, which adjoined the province Africa on the south and west, and after his death was added to it. Figure 171. — Africa, personified as a goddess. As a headdress she wears the spoils of an elephant, with trunk and tusks projecting above and broad ears falling beside the neck ; over the right shoulder we see. projecting, the bow of the hunting goddess, Artemis, and the club of Hercules; underneath is the rattle, sistrum, sacred to Isis. On her right shoulder is a lion, while an asp rises threateningly above her right hand, facing a panther that stands on the fruits gathered in the fold of her robe ; these creatures and the fruits symbolize the wild life and fertility of the Province. Relief on a silver plate. Africa was personified as a female figure, wearing as a head- dress the spoils of an elephant (Fig. 171). THE ROMAN ART OF WAR IN CAESAR'S TIME I. COMPOSITION OF THE ARMY 307. The legion. — a. The legion, legio (I. 7), in Caesar's time was composed exclusively of Roman citizens. Probably Caesar's legionary soldiers, legionarii (C. III. 63) or simply milites (I. 7), were mainly volunteers who were willing to enlist for the regular term of twenty years on account of the certainty of the pay, and of provision for their old age in case they lived beyond the period of service. However, citizens between the ages of seventeen and forty-six were liable to be called out by a levy, dilectus (C. I. 6), at any time. Romans of the upper classes who wished to serve in the army, or found themselves unable to evade conscription, were ^ employed as officers, or attached to the bodyguard of the commander. b. The normal strength of a legion at the end of the Re- public was 6000 men ; but the average number of men in Caesar's legions probably did not exceed 3600 in the Gallic War, and 3000 in the Civil War. c. The legion was divided into ten cohorts, cohortes (III. 1), averaging, in Caesar's army, about 360 men each ; the cohort was divided into three maniples, manipuli (II. 25), of 120 men ; the maniples into two centuries or companies, ordines (I. 40). In legions having a full complement of men each century would contain 100 ; in Caesar's army the number could hardly have averaged more than 60. d. The legions that had seen long service, apparently not less than nine or ten years, were called veteran, legiones veteranae (I. 24) ; the rest, last levied, or raw, legiones proxime con- scriptae (I. 24), or legiones tironum (C. III. 28). The legions were designated by number. 615 616 Companion to Caesar [§308 e. In the first year of the Gallic War Caesar had four veteran legions, numbered vii., vi^ ix., — these three ajjparently brought from th^^icinity ot Aquileia (I. 10), — and x. ; the tenth legion was in the Province at the time of his arrival in Gaul (I. 7). After Caesar learuod that the Helvetians pro- posed to go through the country of the Sequanians ad^ Aeduans he hastily raised in Cisalpine Gaul two legions (I. 10), which were numbered xi. and xii. With these six legions he gained two of .his most brilliant victories, over the Helvetians and over Ariovistus. /. In the second year of the war Caesar raised two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul (II. 2), numbered xiii. and xiv., so that he now had four veteran and four raw legions, eight in all. g. In the fifth year (54 b.c.) the xivth legion and half of another were annihilated in the ambuscade set by Ambiorix (V. 26-37). At the beginning of the next year Caesar raised two more legions in Cisalpine Gaul, one replacing the lost xivth (VI. 32), the other numbered xv., and besides obtained a legion from Pompey, which was numbered vi. (VI. 1 ; VIII. 54). In the last two years of the war he had thus ten legions (VII. 34), numbered vi. to xv. inclusive. It appears probable that the whole force of legionary soldiers engaged in the siege of Alesia fell short of forty thousand. 308. The infantry auxiliaries. — In addition to the legions, a Roman army (contained bodies of ihfantry and cavalry drawn from allied and subject peoples, or hired outright from inde- pendent nations, called auxiliaries or auxiliary troops, auzilia (I. 24). These in some cases retained their native dress, equipment, and mode of fighthig, in others were armed and trained after the Roman fashion (Fig. 172). To the former class belong the light-armed troop8,*\ev\B armaturae pedites (II. 24), including as special classes ihe ^lingers (Plate III. 1), and bowmen. In the Gallic War Caesar availed himself of the help of slingers, funditores, from the Balearic Islands (II. 7), bowmen, sagittarii, from (-rete and from Numidia (II. 7), and light-armed German troops (VII. 05). He utilized also §309] The Roman Art of War 617 contingents from the Gallic States that he subdued (III. 18, VIII. 10). i<|r^2 B.C. he had a force of ten thousand Aeduans (VII. 34). Caesar, as other Roman writers, is generally not careful to state the exact number of the auxiliary troops ; they were regarded as rela- tively unimportant. The officers of the auxiliaries, both infantry and cavalry, were Romans. Auxiliary troops posted on the wing of an army might be called wing-men, alarii (I. 51). 309. The cavalry. — a. A troop of cav^ry usually accompanied each legion. While the evidence is not conclusive, it is probable that in the latter part of the Gallic War, if not from the beginning, Caesar had contingents of cavalry in connection with his legions, averag- ing 200 to 300 men each. These horsemen were foreigners, serving for pay ; they were drawn ^'^""'^ ^^2. - Light-armed soldier, from Spain, Spanish horsemen, Hispani equites (V. 26), from Germany, German horsemen, Germani equites (VII. 13), and from Gaul. b. Apart from the legionary contingents, Caesar had a force of cavalry raised from the Gallic States subject or friendly to 618 Companion to Caesar [§3io Rome, which was reckoned as a single body, numbering undei ordinary circumstances about 4000 (I. 15 ; V. 5), or 5000 men (IV. 12). c. The cavalry was divided into squads or squadrons, turmae, of about 30 horsemen ; such a squad went with Commius to Britain (IV. 35). Probably the squad contained three decuriesy decuriae, of 10 men each, under the command of decurions, decuriones (I. 23). The higher officers were called cavab-y prefects, praefecti equitum (III. 26). See Plate III, 5. 310. The non-combatants. — a. There were two classes of non- combatants, slaves employed for menial services, and free men, or f reedmen. In the former class were included the officers' ser- vants and camp servants, calones (II. 24), as well as the drivers and muleteers with the heavy baggage, muliones (VII. 45) ; in the latter class were citizens or others who were allowed to accompany the army but were obliged to find quarters outside of the camp, as the traders, mercatores (VI. 37). b. The mechanics, fabri (V. 11), were not enrolled as a separate corps, but were drawn from the ranks of the legionary soldiers whenever needed. 311. The baggage train. — Each legion had a separate bag- gage train. The heavy baggage, impedimenta (II. 19), com- prised tents, hand-mills for grinding grain, artillery, extra. weapons, and other military stores, as well as supplies of food. In the enemy's country for better defense the baggage trains of a number of legions foiight be formed into a single column (II. 19). From the baggage of the legion, or heavy baggage, the baggage of the soldiers, carried in individual packs, sarcinae, should be clearly distinguished (Fig. 6). II. THE OFFICERS 312. The general was properly called leader, dux, until he had won a victory ; after the first victory he had a right to the title imperator, commander or general (1. 40). Caesar used the title Imperator from the time that he defeated the Helvetians, in 58 B.C., until his death (I. 40, etc.). 315] The Roman Art of War 619 313. a. Next in rank came the lieutenant, or lieutenant- general, legatus (I. 10), who was frequently placed by Caesar in command of separate legions, or of corps containing more than one legion. When acting in the absence of the general the lieutenant became lieutenant in the generaVs place, legatus pro praetore (I. 21), and exercised unusual authority. The title "lieutenant general" would more accurately define the military position of Labienus, for example, than that of "lieutenant" as the word is used in the United States and England. h. The quaestor, quaestor (I. 52), was charged with the care of the military chest and the supplies, but was sometimes clothed with purely military authority, and assumed the func- tions of a lieutenant. The quaestor and the lieutenants be- longed to the staff of the general, and had with him the distinction of a body-guard, oohors praetoria (I. 40), composed of picked soldiers and of young men of rank who wished to acquire military experience. 314. The military tribunes, tribuni militum (I. 39), numbered six to a legion. In Caesar's army the tribunes appear to have received appointment for personal rather than military reasons ; and they were intrusted with subordinate services, such as the leading of troops on the march, the command of detachments smaller than a legion (cf. VI. 39), the securing of supplies (III. 7), and the oversight of the watches. Only one military tribune, Gains Volusenus (III. 5), is mentioned by Caesar in terms of praise. 315. a. In marked contrast with the higher officers, who were of good social position, were the captains, or centurions, centu- riones, ordines (V. 30). These were often of the humblest origin ; they were promoted from the ranks simply on account of bravery and efficiency. At the drill, on the march, and in battle, they were at the same time the models and the leaders of the soldiers. b. As each century had a centurion, there were 2 centurions in each maniple (distinguished as first, prior, and second, pos- 620 Companion to Caesar [§3i6 terior), 6 in each cohort, and 60 in the legion. The first in rank was the first centurion (of the first maniple) of the first cohort J primipiluB (II. 25). The first centurion of the second maniple of a cohort was called princeps prior (C. III. 64). 316. Below the centurions, but ranking above the common soldiers, were the privileged soldiers, who were relieved from picket duty as well as work on fortifications and other manual labor. Such were the veteran volunteers, evocati (C. III. 53), soldiers who had served their full time but had reenlisted at the general's request ; the musicians, and the standard-hearers, sigiiiferi. in. PROVISIONING AND PAY OF THE SOLDIERS 317. Caesar was careful to have ample supplies always at hand. The care of the stores was in the hands of the quaes- tor, with his staff. Not bread or flour, but grain, frumentum (1. 16), usually wheat, was served out to the soldiers for rations. This they themselves ground with hand-mills, molae manuales, and prepared for food by boiling into a paste or by making into bread without yeast. The grain was portioned out every fifteen days, and on the march each soldier carried his share in a sack. The amount furnished does not seem large when we» reflect that the men lived almost exclusively on a vegetable diet. The allowance for the fifteen days was two Roman pecks, modii, about half a bushel by our measure. As the weight of this was not far from thirty pounds, the soldier had about two pounds per day. On difficult or forced marches extra rations were served out. If the soldier desired to do so he could trade off his grain for bread, or buy other articles of food from the numerous traders, mercatores (I. 39), who accompanied the army and had a flour- ishing business. When wheat was scarce, barley, hordeum (C. III. 47), was substituted. Rations of barley were frecjuently served out also instead of wheat as a punishment for slight 320] The Roman Art of War 621 offenses. In traversing an enemy's country fresh meat was often secured. 318. The wages of the Roman soldier were very small, but in successful campaigns the men had a share of the hooty^ praeda (C. III. 97), consisting largely of captives, who were sold as slaves (VII. 89). These were bought up on the spot by the traders, and thus readily turned into cash. Sometimes Caesar gave money realized from the sale of booty ; thus after the conquest of the Bituriges in 51 B.C. the soldiers received 200 sesterces (about $8.00) apiece, the centurions a much larger sum (VIII. 4). As other rewards, praemia (V. 58), the commander could make special gifts, militaria dona (C. III. 53), such as disk-shaped decorations of metal for the breast, phalerae (Fig. 62), clothing, and double pay (C. III. 53). When convicted of cowardly or disgraceful conduct the soldier was deprived of his weapons and driven from the camp, or in extreme cases put to death ; oflicers and privileged soldiers might be reduced in rank, as were certain standard- bearers after an engagement before Dyrrachium (C. III. 74). 319. At the close of his period of service, twenty years, or on reaching his fiftieth year, the soldier who had served well was entitled to an honorable discharge, missio honesta, or missio (C. I. 86), together with an allotment of land, or a payment of money. IV. THE DEESS AND EQUIPMENT 320. The legionary soldier wore a thick woolen undergar- ment, tunic, tunica, reaching nearly to the knees (cf. C. III. 44). His cloak, sagum (0. I. 75), which served also as a blanket, was like- wise of undyed wool, and fastened by a clasp, fibula, on the right shoulder, so as not to impede the movement of the right arm. The soldier's shoes, caUgae (Fig. 173), were like a sandal, but had heavy Figure 173. — Soldier's shoe. 622 Companion to Caesar [§321 Figure 174. — Legion- ary's helmet, galea without the crest. soles which were fastened on by straps over the foot and instep. 321. The cloak of the commander, palu- damentum, differed from tliat of the soldier only in being more ample, of tiner quality, and ornamented ; it was ordinarily scarlet in color (VII. 88). 322. The weapons of the legionary were in part offensive, in part defensive. As defensive iveapons, arma, he had : o. A helmet, galea (Fig. 174), orna- mented with a crest, crista (Plate III, 3 ; Fig. 33). On the march the helmet was hung on a cord which passed through the ring at the top and around the soldier's neck. The crest was fastened on before going into action. b. A cuirass, or coat of mail, lorica, of leather, or of leather strengthened with strips of metal, or of metal (Figures 148, 150). c. A shield, ordinarily rectangular, scutum (II 25; Fig. 175; Plate IV, 3), but in some cases oval, cUpeus (Plate IV, 1), made of two layers of boards fastened together, strengthened on the out- side by layers of linen or of leather, and at the edges by a rim of metal. At the middle of the out- side was an iron knob, umbo, used in striking. Figure 175. Roman oblong shield, scutum. §322] The Roman Art of War 623 On the march the shield was protected from the wet by a leather covering, tegimentum (II. 21). In battle it was held on the left arm (Fig. 33). The offensive weapons of the legionary were : d. A pike, pilum (I. 25), a heavy and formidable javelin. It e a bed Figure 176. — Roman pike, restored. a. Wooden shaft. b. Iron collar, strengthening the end of the wooden shaft where the iron is fitted in. c. The " iron," ferrum ; of soft iron, easily bent. d. Hard barbed point, of iron. e. Iron shoe, making it possible to stick the pike into the ground, so that it would stand upright, without frazzling the wood. consisted of a shaft of wood about four feet long, into the end of which was fitted a small iron shaft, ferrum (I. 25), with a pointed head, which projected two feet beyond the end of the wood (see Figures 49, 50, 176, and Plate IV, 6). The weight of the whole was not far from ten or eleven pounds. Pikes could be thrown only about 75 feet ; but they were hurled with such skill and force that the first hurling often decided the battle. e. A sword, gladius (I. 25), called Spanish sword, gladius Hispanus, because made accord- ing to a pattern brought from Spain after the Second Punic War. The Spanish sword was short, broad, two-edged, and pointed, better adapted for stabbing than for slashing, though used for both purposes (Plate IV, 9). It was kept in a scabbard, vagina (V. 44), fastened to a belt, balteus (V. 44), which was passed over the left shoulder (Plate III, 3, and Fig. 177) ; this brought the sword on the right side, so Figure 177. that it was not in the way of the shield. Spanish sword, /. In the time of the Empire, and probably in the scabbard. 624 Companion to Caesar [§323 also in Caesar's day, officers carried a dagger, pugio, which was attached to a belt running around the waist (Fig. 178). 323. The dress and equipment of the light-armed soldiers varied greatly (Fig. 172, and Plate III, 1; PI. IV, 7, 11). They, as well as the cavalry, seem generally to have had a light round or oval shield, parma, about three feet in diameter (Plate IV, 4). The cavalry had helmets of metal, cassides (VII. 45, Figure 179), light lances for hurling, and a longer sword than that used by the infantry (Figure 98, and Plate III, 5). V. THE STANDARDS Figure 178. — Roman dag- ger. 324, a. While the ancient battle lacked the noise and smoke of cannon and of other death- dealing devices of modern war, great clouds of dust were raised and obscured the movements of the combatants ; the standards, or ensigns, were conse- quently more numerous, and had a relatively more important place, than flags have to-day. h. The ensigns of Caesar's army were: (1) The eagle of the legion, aquila (IV. 26), of silver, carried in battle on the end of a pole by the eagle-bear-er, aquilifer (V. 37). In camp it was kept in a little shrine, sacellum (Plate IV, 8). It was the standard of the legion as a whole ; the eagle with extended wings borne aloft seemed to signify that the bird sacred to Jupiter, god of victory, was ready to lead the legion to success ; and the loss of the eagle was the deepest disgrace that could be incurred (IV. 25; V. 37 ; C. III. 64). See Fig. 180, and Plate IV, 2. The ancient Persians had a golden eagle as the royal stand- Figure 179. — Cavalry- man's helmet, cassis. 325] The Roman Art of War 625 Figur — Standards. ard ; and to-day the eagle appears among the emblems of several European countries, and of the United States. (2) The staridards, signa (II. 21), one to each maniple, carried by standard-bearers, signiferi (II. 25 ; Fig. 187). These varied in appearance. One type, known from a coin struck in 49 b.c. (Fig. 180), had small streamers attached to the end of the pole, underneath which were two crescents (perhaps for good luck), one just above the other ; below these were two disks of metal, phalerae, no doubt presented .to the maniple for meritorious conduct, and last of all a square plate of metal, indicating by a letter the place of the maniple (H = hastati, P = principes). In some cases figures of animals appeared. There was no separate standard for the cohort. (3) The banners, vexilla, rectangular flags of different sizes used for a yariety of purposes (Fig. 149). A large red flag was the special ensign of the commander (II. 20). Smaller banners were used by special detachments not formed of regular maniples (VI. 36), or attached to the standards of the maniples. 325. On the march the standard was at the front, in battle some distance behind the front, of the maniple. From the immediate association of the manipular standards with military movements arose several idiomatic expressions used by Caesar. Such are : Bigna ferre, to go forward (I. 39). signa inferre, to advance (II. 26). signa convertere, to face about (I. 25). ad signa convenire, to assemble (VI. 1). infestis signis, m battle formation, lit. with hostile standards (VII. 51 ; C. III. 93). Denarius, struck in 49 b.c. ; eagle between two standards. Inscription, L • LENT[ulus], c • marc[ellus1 cos, ' Lucius Lentulus and" Gaius Marcellus, Consuls. ' 626 Companion to Caesar [§326 VI. THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 326. a. The musical instruments were : (1) The trumpet, tuba (II. 20), about three feet long, with a funnel-shaped opening (Fig. 84, and Plate II, 7) ; it had a deep tone, and was sounded by the trumpeters, tubicines (VII. 47). (2) The horn, cornu, a large curved instrument, with a shriller note (Fig. 181, and Plate II. 8). (3) The shell trumpet, bucina, perhaps resem- bling the large shells in use in modern times about Naples as dumer horns (Fig. 182) ; such at least is Triton's bucuia described by Ovid (Met. I, 333-338). The shell trumpet was used especially in camp for giving the signals to change the watches (C. II. 35). 6. As the maniple was the unit of military move- ment, signals were ad- dressed to the standard- bearer's, algniferi. c. The order " to ad- vance" or "to fall back" was conveyed by the gen- eral to the trumpeters, tubicines (of. VII. 47); Fig^'-e 182. -Modern shell trumpet, with ,, . . T , , "^ iron mouthpiece. their signal was taken up , , r^ It has a deep tone which can be heard a long by the horn-blowers, COrni- distance. From Boscoreale. near Pompeii. Figure 181. — Horn, with crosspiece by which it was carried. §329] The Roman Art of War 627 cines, of whom there was one to each maniple. The notes of the instruments could be heard above the din of battle much more clearly than the spoken words of the officers. VII. THE AEMY ON THE MARCH 327. When in an enemy's country Caesar maintained an exceedingly efficient information service. Parties of mounted patrols, exploratores (I. 21), scoured the coun- try ; and their observation was supplemented by single scouts or spies, speculatores (II. 11), who gathered information wherever they could (Fig. 183). 328. The army advanced ordinarily in three divisions. At the front, primum agmen (VII. 67), came the cavalry, with perhaps a division of light-armed troops, sent ahead to feel out the enemy (I. 15), and in case of attack, to hold him at bay until the rest of the army could prepare for action (II. 19). Next came the main force, each legion being accompanied by its baggage train ; but when there was danger of attack the legions marched in single column, with the baggage of the whole army united (II. 19). The rear, novissimum agmen, might in case of danger be formed of part of the legionary force, the baggage being between the rear and the main body (II. 19). 329. The regular day^s march, iustum iter, was from six to seven hours long. The start was usually made at sunrise ; but in emergencies the army got under way at midnight, or two or three o'clock in the morning. The distance ordinarily traversed was about 15 or 16 English miles ; on a forced march, iter magnum (II. 12), a much greater distance might be made, as 25 or 30 English miles (VII. 41). Caesar's forced marches manifested astonishing powers of endurance on the part of 1 \3 [/ 1 It^ S- Figure 183. — Scout, specula- tor. 628 Companion to Caesar [§330 his soldiers. Kivers were often crossed by fording ; in such operations the ancient army had the advantage over the modern, because it carried no ammunition that would be spoiled by the water (V. 18, VII. 56). 330. On the march the soldier carried his rations, his cook- ing utensils, his arms, blanket, and one or two rampart stakes, or palisades, valli ; palisades for defense were carried by dra- goons as late as the seventeenth century. The luggage was done up in tight bundles or packs, sarcinae (Plate III, 4), which v.^ere fastened to forked poles, and raised over the shoulder (Fig. 6). This arrangement was introduced by MariuSj in memory of whom soldiers so equipped were called Marius's mides, muli Mariani. The helmet was hung by a cord from the neck, the other weapons disposed of in the most convenient way. When it rained, the oblong shields, scuta {S22, c), could be put over the head like a roof. VIII. THE ARMY IN CAMP 331. a. A camp was fortified at the close of every day's march. When the army was still on the march, men were sent forward to choose a suitable location for a camp and measure it off. b. Whenever possible, a site for the ciimp was selected on a slight elevation, with abundance of water, and of wood for fuel, near at hand. The proximity of a dense forest or overhanging moun- p. T^^ tain was avoided, that a favorable opportunity Roman spade, ^f attack might not be given to the enemy. Of iron ; such, Sometimes the rear or one side was placed par- with wooden allel with a river (II. 6). us*ed^by Calslr's ^^ "^^^ ^^V was usually rectangular (see soldiers. Maps 3, 4, 6, 20); in a few cases there were camps of irregular shapes, adapted to the nature of the ground (Maps 6, 15). The size of the camp varied according to the size of the force. §333] The Roman Art of War 629 333. In fortifying a camp, first an embankment was thrown up on all four sides ; for digging the soldiers used spades, or trenching tools, like those in use to-day (Figures 3, 4, 184). Outside of this embankment was a trench, usually triangular in section (V-shaped), from which the earth for the embank- ment was taken (Fig. 185, and Plate IV^ 10). On the outer Figure 185. — Bird's-eye view of a Roman Camp. Plainly seen are the trench or moat, and the rampart, with its stockade, on which are battlements ; gates, with towers at each side ; the general's quarters, and the rows of tents. edge of the embankment a row of strong rampart stakes or palisades, valli, was driven firmly in, forming a stockade. The rampart, vallum (II. 5), thus made, was several feet high and wide enough so that the soldiers could stand on it behind the palisades. The trench, or moat, fossa (II. 8), was from twelve to eighteen feet wide (II. 5) and from seven to ten feet deep. When the army expected to remain in the same place for a long time, as in winter quarters, hiberna (I. 54), or a stationary camp, castra stativa (C. III. 30), sometimes towers, turres (V. 40), were added at brief intervals, and the intervening spaces further protected by a roof (Plate IX, 6). 630 Companion to Caesar [§334 The labor of fortifying a camp was prodigious. 334. a. The camp had four gates (Plate IV, 10). That in the direction of the advance, toward the enemy, was called the generaVs gate, porta praetoria (C. III. 94), the one opposite to this, at the rear, the decuman gate, porta decumana (II, 24) ; the gates on the right and left side respectively, as one faced the front, main right gate, porta principalis dextra, and m^in left gate, porta principalis sinistra. The last two were connected by the main street, via principalis. The entrances were made more easily defensible by an approach so laid out that an enemy attempting to enter would expose the right, or unprotected side (Fig. 185). h. Inside the rampart, between it and the tents, a vacant space two hundred feet wide was left on all sides. The remain- ing room in the enclosure was systematically divided, so that every maniple, decuria, and body of light-armed troops knew its place and could find its quarters at once. The generaVs quarters, praetorium (C. III. 94), was near the middle of the camp ; near it was an open space where he could address his troops from a 'platform, suggestus (VI. 3). Access to all parts of the camp was made by means of passageways, viae (V. 49). 335. a. The tents, tabernacula (I. 39), were of leather (Plate VII, 3) ; hence sub pellibus, lit. under hides, means in tents (III. 29). Each was calculated to hold ten men ; but a cen- turion seems generally to have had more room to himself than the soldiers. h. The winter quarters, hib^ma, were made more comfortable by the substitution of straw-thatched huts, casae (V. 43), for tents. c. In a hostile country a strong guard was kept before the gates of the camp (IV. 32). In the earlier times, and probably in Caesar's army, the password, admitting to the camp, was different each night; it was written on slips of wood, which were given by the commander to the military tribunes, and passed by these to the men on duty. 336. Many Roman camps became the nucleus of permanent 337] The Roman Art of War 631 settlements, which survive in cities to-day. A marked instance is the city of Chester, England, the name of which is derived from castara ; so Rochester comes from Rodolphi castra. IX. THE ARMY IN BATTLE ARRAY 337. a. When the Roman force was far outnumbered by the enemy, the legionary soldiers might be arranged in a double line, duplex acies (III. 24), or even in a single line, acies simplex, First Line. Second Line. Third Line. Figure 186. — Acies triplex. One legion in triple line formation, showing the arrangement of the ten cohorts, and of the three maniples and six centuries in each cohort. Four cohorts are shown in the first line, three in the second, and three in the third. In each cohort the three maniples stand side by side. Each maniple is represented as divided into two centuries, one century being behind the other. The men in each maniple probably stood 8 ranks deep, each century being formed in 4 ranks. as at the battle of Ruspina, near Hadrumetum (264). But under ordinary circumstances Caesar drew up his legions in a triple line, triplex acies, as in the battles with the Helvetians, Ariovistus, and the Usipetes and Tencteri. This arrangement was probably as follows (Eig. 186) : (1) Four cohorts of each legion stood in the first line ; about 160 feet behind them stood three cohorts ; and ordinarily the remaining three cohorts of the legion were posted still farther back as a reserve. At the battle of Pharsalus there were only two cohorts in Caesar's third line (as indicated on Map 20), one cohort from each legion having been drawa o:ff to form a 632 Companion to Caesar r§337 fourth line ; and there were probably only two cohorts in the third line at the battle with Ariovistus (Map 4), one cohort from each legion being required for guard duty at the camps. (2) In each cohort the three maniples stood side by side, one of the centu- ries in each maniple being behind the other. The soldiers in each battle line stood about three feet apart each way ; and there is some reason for supposing that in Caesar's cohorts the men stood 8 ranks deep. The standard-bearers (Fig. 187) did not stand in the front rank, but were protected by soldiers selected for their agility and strength, the men before the standards, ante- signani (C. III. 84). b. As the first line went into action the second fol- lowed closely behind ; as the men of the first fell or withdrew exhausted, those of the second pressed forward and took their places ; in case of need the third line advanced and in like manner re- lieved the combined first and second. In the battle with the Helvetians the whole third line faced about and repQllQ(i 9(0 attack on the rear (Map 3). Figure 187. — Standard-bearer. This standard-bearer belongs to a time some- what later than Caesar; whether Caesar's stand- ard-bearers wore bearskins on their heads or not, we do not know. §342] The Roman Art of War 633 338. When circumstances required it, soldiers were massed in serried ranks, as in a wedge-sliaped column, wedge, cuneus (VI. 40), or under a turtle-shell roof, testiido (used by the Gauls, VII. 85). For defense sometimes a force was formed into a circle, orbis, corresponding with our hollow square (IV. 37). 339. The place of the light-armed troops and cavalry was ordinarily at first in front of the triple line, or on the wings. They opened the engagement by skirmishing, prevented flank movements of the enemy, drew the brunt of the attack if the legions wished to take another position, and were employed in various other ways as occasion demanded. The cavalry were utilized especially to cut down the fleeing. X. OPERATIONS AGAINST FORTIFIED PLACES 340. The taking of walled towns was accomplished either by sudden storming without long preparation, repentina oppug- natio (C. III. 80), or oppugnatio (VII. 36) ; by siege blockade, obsidio (VII. 69), or obsessio (VII. 36), which aimed to repel all attempts of the enemy to escape or secure supplies, and to reduce him by starvation, as at Alesia (VII. 69-90) ; or by siege and storming, longinqua oppugnatio (C. III. 80), with the help of appliances to break down the enemy's fortifications and gain admission to the city, as at Avaricum (VII. 16-28). In storming a city the forces rushed forward, tried to batter down the gates, fill up the moat, and mount the walls with ladders. 341. The siege was begun by extending a line of works, in case the nature of the site allowed, entirely around the place to be reduced. Then a siege embankment, or mole, agger, a wide roadway of timber and earth, was begun outside the reach of the enemy's weapons ; it was gradually prolonged toward the city wall, and raised until at the front the top was on a level with the wall, or even higher.* 342. a. The workmen at the front were protected by mov- able breastworks, plutei (cf. Plate IX, 4, 5), or by arbor-sheds, or 634 Companion to Caesar (§343 sappers^ huts, vineae (II, 12 ; see Plate IX, 9), made of timber or of thick wickerwork, with rawhides stretched over the out- side as a protection against fire. Kows of arbor-sheds were placed along the sides of the mole to afford passageways to the front (Plate IX, 2); a long arbor-shed was called a mousie, musculus (VII. 84 ; C. II. 10). A sappers' shed with a sloping roof of strong boards specially adapted for use in undermining a wall was called a turtle-shell shed, testudo (Plate VII, 10). b. Movable towers, turres ambulatoriae (II. 12, 31), to be tilled with soldiers, were built out of range of the enemy's missiles and brought up near the walls, usually on the siege embankment, which sloped gently from the rear up to the wall (Plate IX, 7 ; Figure 188. — Wall hook. Plate XII). Iron head of a wall hook, found in the remains C. In the lowCSt Story of the Gallic wall at Besancon. ancient Vesontio. ^f ^j^^ movable toWCr, Or under a separate roof, was the battering ram., aries (II. 32), an enormous beam with a metallic head which was swung against the walls with terrific force (Plate VII, 1). The attacking force tried also to pry stones out of the walls with ivall hooks, falces (murales), light poles with a strong iron hook at the end (VII. 22 ; Fig. 188), and clear the walls of defenders by means of artillery of thedorsioner type, tormenta. d. Walls and ramparts were mounted by means of scaling ladders, scalae (V. 43). 343. For throwing heavy missiles the Eomans had torsioners, tormenta (VII. 81), so named from the method of developing the force required for hurling ; tormentum is derived from torqueo, twist. This was obtained by twisting with great ten- sion strong ropes of hair (Fig. 189), whicli were suddenly re- leased by means of a trigger ; the force was utilized for the shooting of missiles by a mechanism of which there were three principal types : a. The catapult, catapulta (Plate IX, 8), for shooting large 3441 The Roman Art of War 635 arrows or darts. A small catapult is called scorpion, scorpio, by Caesar (VII. 25). h. The ballista, balUsta (Plate VII, 8), which cast stones ; the trough was sharply inclined, while that of the catapult was nearly horizontal. The ballista is not mentioned by Caesar. I mi \ Mil Figure 189. Head of a catapult, restored. St. Germain, near Paris. In the Museum of a, a. Tightly twisted ropes. b, b. Arms, to which are attached the cords connected with the trigger. The methods of loading and discharging artillery of this kind are easily understood from the figures shown in Plate VII, 8, and Plate IX, 8. c. The wild ass, onager (Plate VII, 7), which hurled stones, but was probably not used in Caesar's time. Where the ground allowed, the walls were undermined and tunnels run under the town. 344. The besieged met mines by counter-mines. With great hooks they tried to catch the head of the battering ram and hold it, or let down masses of wood or wickerwork along the 636 Companion to Caesar [§345 side of the wall to deaden the force of the blow, or drew the wall hooks over into the city with windlasses (VII. 22). By frequent sallies, eruptionea (VII. 22), they endeavored to destroy the works of the besiegers, drove the workmen from their posts, and hurled firebrands into the sheds and towers. 345. Owing to the amount of wood used in siege works the danger from lire was great. Once even the siege embankment was burned (VII. 24). When a breach had been made in the wall, or a gate battered down, an attack was begun wherever it was thought possible to force an entrance. The siege em- bankmeat and towers were connected with the top of the wall by means of planks and beams thrown across (Plate XII). Detachments of soldiers, holding their oblong shields close together above their heads, formed a turtle-shell roof, testudo, under which they marched up close to the walls and tried to scale them, or entered the breach (Plate VII, 6). XI. THE ROMAN BATTLESHIPS 346. a. The battleships or galleys, naves longae (III. 9), of Caesar's time were propelled mainly by oars ; they had only one mast, and generally one large sail (Fig. 146). There were usually three rows or banks of oars, hence the name tnremej navis triremis (C. II. 6) or triremis (C. III. 101), but some- times vessels with two banks of oars were used, hireme, biremis (C. III. 40), and even live banks, quinquereme, quinqueremis (C. III. 101). The rowers kept time to the sound of a horn or click of a hammer. h. The rudders, gubernacula, were not like those of to-day, but consisted of two large paddles thrust down into the sea, one on each side of the stern (Fig. 146) ; they were controlled by the steersman, gubernator (III. 9). The anchor was like those of our own time. c. At the prow, near the water line, was the ship's beak, rostnun (III. 13), consisting of one or more sharp metal- §348] The Roman Art of War 637 pointed beams projecting in front, for use in ramming a hostile ship (Figures 24, 146). When the galleys were not in use they might be drawn up on the shore (IV. 29). d. Before the galley went into action the sail was rolled up and the mast taken down ; a tower, turris (III. 14), was raised on the front part of the ship, from which missiles could be hurled over into a vessel near at hand ; grappUng-hooks, ferreae manus (lit. iron hands; C. II. 6), were provided, by which the opposing ship might be seized, and a movable bridge that could be thrown across in boarding. e. For the carrying of his troops Caesar used transports, one- rariae naves (IV. 22), which were broader and slower than the galleys (Fig. 202, in the Vocabulary); these were accompanied by galleys as escort (V. 8). /. The admiral's ship, or flag-ship, was distinguished by a red banner, vexillum, resembling that used by the general on land {324, b, 3). 347. The naval tactics of the Romans consisted mainly in either propelling a vessel with great force against a rival and crushing the side by ramming, or in catching hold of the hostile craft with grappling-hooks, pulling alongside, springing over on it, and settling the conflict with a hand-to-hand fight (Plate XI). In the sea-fight with the Venetans, who had only sailing vessels, the Roman sailors crippled the enemy's ships by cutting down the sail yards ; the legionaries on the galleys then boarded the Venetan ships and despatched the crews (III. 13-15). Galleys were used on the Mediterranean until 'the beginning of the nineteenth century. XII. DRESS AND EQUIPMENT OF THE GAULS AND GERMANS 348. The Gauls wore trousers, bracae, which the Romans con- sidered barbaric. The Gallic military cloak, sagulum (V. 42), was apparently smaller than that of the Roman soldiers. 638 Companion to Caesar [§349 Figure 190 — Gallic sword and sheath. Found at Alesia. The handle has rusted away. 349. The Gallic infantry were protected by large oblong or oval shields, of wood or metal (called by Caesar, scuta, I. 25 ; Figures 19, 48, and 131), and by helmets of metal on which sometimes horns, and even wheels, appeared (Figures 46 and 131). The offensive weapons of the Gauls were a long sword (Figures 39 and 190), and several types of missile for throwing (Figures 40, 43), as javelins, gaesa (III. 4), spears, matarae (I. 26), and darts, tragulae (I. 26), or veruta (V. 44). 350. The Gallic standard, in many cases at least, was an image of a boar mounted on a pole (Figures 30, 42). Signals in Gallic armies were given on a curved ivar-trumpet, csimyx, which terminated in the head of an animal or serpent (Figures 19, 151). 351. The clothing of the Germans was largely of skins (IV. 1), but the more ad- vanced wore trousers, like the Gauls, and confined their long hair in a kind of knot (Fig. 66). The principal weapons of the Germans were a shield and spear, and a long sword with a single edge (Fig. 67). EXERCISES IN LATIN COMPOSITION Forty Exercises reprinted, by permission, from Latin Composition, by Bernard JVl. Allen and John L. Phillips, of Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts. Figure 191. — Roman inkstand, reed pen, and book partly unrolled, with title on a small tag attached at the end. From an ancient wall painting. POINTS TO BE NOTED IN WRITING LATIN 0RDP:R OF WORDS IN LATIN 352. Normal Order, a. When the emphasis is evenly distributed in a Latin sentence, the Subject comes first, the Predicate last, and the Modifiers of the Predicate precede the Verb in this order : Indirect Object, Direct Object, Adverb or Adverbial Phrase; as. Is sibi lega- tionem ad civitates suscepit, he took upon himtfelf the misson of envoy to the states (I. 3). h. Genitives, Adjectives, Possessive Pronouns, and Ordinal Nu- merals when unemphatic follow their Nouns; as gloria belli, reputa- tion for ivar (I. 2) ; cupiditate regni, by desire of kingly power (I. 9) ; locis patentibus maximeque frumentariis, open and exceedingly productive country (I. 10) ; filiam suam, his daughter (I. 3) ; die quarto, on the fourth day (I. 26). c. The Demonstrative Pronouns hic, iste, ille, is, the Intensive ipse, and Adjectives indicating quantity or po'sition when unemphatic precede their Nouns ; as. His rebus, by these conditions (I. 3) ; ipse imperator, the general himself (I. 40) ; tres populos, three peoples (I. 3) ; magnum numerum, a great number (I. 4) ; extremum oppi- dum, the furthest town (I. 6) ; superiore aci§, the upper line (I. 24). 353. Order according to Emphasis, a. For the sake of emphasis the Normal Order of words in the sentence may be reversed, the Subject being placed last; as, Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit et ditissimus Orgetorix, Among the Helvetians Orgetorix was far the highest in rank, and wealthiest (I. 2). b. Genitives, Adjectives, Possessive Pronouns, and Ordinal Nu- merals when emphatic precede their Nouns ; as, regni cupiditate, by desire of kingly power (1.2); inimioo anim5, of hostile disposi- tion (I. 7) ; decima legio, the tenth legion (I. 41). c. When emphatic, the Demonstratives hic, iste, ille, is, the In- tensive ipse and Adjectives indicating quantity or position follow their nouns; as, in insula ipsa, in the island itself (V. 12) ; Galliae totius, of entire Gaul (I. 31); partes tres, three parts (I. 1) ; locis superioribus, the higher places (I. 10). d. For the sake of emphasis words belonging together in construc- tion are often separated ; as, aliud iter haberent niillum, they had 641 642 Exercises in Latin Composition [§354 no other way (I- 7) ; magno ad pugnam erat impediments, was a great hindrance (I. 25). e. An important word in a clause may be made emphatic by placing it before the conjunction introducing the clause; as Ditl cum esset pugnStum, When the fighting had continued a long time (I. 26). THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES 354. In writing Latin the Sequence of Tenses should be particu- larly noted when a Subjunctive is required in a Dependent Clause. For convenience of reference the statement of the grammar {177, a) is here supplemented by a tabular outline : PRIMARY SEQUENCE rogat 1 quid f aciam rogabit (incomplete ac- rogaverit tion) rogat 1 quid fecerim rogabit (completed ac- rogaverit tiou) rogabat rogavit rogaverat rogabat rogavit rogaverat He asks, is asking He will ask He will have asked He asks, is asking He will ask He will have asked SECONDARY SEQUENCE quid facerem He asked, was asking (incomplete ac- He asked tion) He had asked quid fecissem He asked, was asking (completed ac- He asked tion) He had asked what I am doing. what I did, or have done. what I was do- ing. what I had done. Table Illustrating Sequence of Tenses • Main Veru FOLLOWBD BY SuBJTTNCTIVB Referring to the Same or Later Time Referring to Previous Time Present Future Future Perfect Present Perfect 05 Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect Imperfect Pluperfect § 357] Exercises in Latin Composition 643 WAYS OF EXPRESSING PURPOSE 355. Purpose in Latin may be expressed in five ways : By the use of ut with the Subjunctive {196, a) ; By the use of a Relative with the Subjunctive (193, a) ; By ad with the Accusative of the Gerund or the Gerundive Con- struction (230, 3) ; By causa with the Genitive of the Gerund or the Gerundive Con- struction (230, 1) ; By the Supine in -um (£31, a and h). "MAY," "MIGHT," AND "MUST," "OUGHT" IN LATIN 356. a. "May" and "might" often appear in clauses expressing Purpose, which are translated into Latin by ut with the Subjunctive ; as, " in order that they might be more ready," ut paratiores essent (L 5). 196, a. b. "May" and "might" may also express Permission and be best translated by licet with the Dative of the Person and the Infinitive; as, " We may discuss with him," nobis cum eo agere licet, lit. ' it is permitted to us,' etc. 73, b, and 222, a. 357. a. " Must " implies Necessity, and is translated by the Passive Periphrastic conjugation (73, e, and 229, c), or by necesse est with the Infinitive, or Infinitive with Subject- Accusative, the Infinitive with necesse est being the Subject of est ; as, ' as was bound to happen,' quod necesse erat accidere, lit. ' which was necessary to happen,' quod accidere being the subject of erat (IV. 29). b. " Ought," implying Obligation or Propriety, is translated either by the Passive Periphrastic conjugation (73, e, and 229, c), by oportet and the Present Infinitive with Subject Accusative (73, a), or by debed with a Present Infinitive ; since " ought " is a defective verb, past time is expressed in English by the Past Infinitive with " ought," while in Latin past time is expressed by the Principal Verb and only the Present Infinitive is used. Thus : Present Time " They ought to fight bravely " fortiter pugnare debent eos fortiter pugnare oportet eis fortiter pugnandum est Past Time rht to have OS ages obsides ei mittendi erant TT ..XI. X f obsides mittere debuit He ought to have sent . ^^^ ^^^.^-^ ^.^^^^^ ^^^^^^.^ LESSON I PRONOUNS Personal. 39, a and b; 87, a and b ; 155, 156. B. 242; A. 295; H. 600. Demonstrative and Intensive. 42-45, 46; 160-162; B. 246-249; A. 296- 298; H. r)05-507. Reflexive. 40, a and b; 158, a and 6; 159. B. 244; A. 299, and 300, 1, 2; H. 502-504. 2. 1. These often carry on war with them 2. That river separates all these from the Belgians. 3. We call you Gauls. 4. They call themselves Celts. 5. The Helvetians carry on war with the Germans, and fight in their territory. 6. They all differ from one another. 7. The Belgians inhabit this part of Gaul, and call themselves the bravest of all. . 8. Their boundaries are narrow in propor- tion to the number of men. LESSON II PRONOUNS — Continued Relative. 47 ; 163, a and b. B. 250, 251 ; A. 304-306, and 308, a; H. 610. Possessive. 41 ; 157, a-c, 158, c. B. 243; A. 302, a, c, d,e;H. 601. Book I. 3, 4. 1. Oasticus had been called our friend. 2. He will seize the royal power in his own state. 3. Divi- ciacus, who held the leadership, was a brother of Dumnorix. 4. They will establish peace with those states which are near- est. 6. They were influenced by his speech, and gave a pledge to one another. 6. His father held the royal power for many years. 7. He will take all his clients with him to the trial. 8. Dumnorix, to whom he gave his daughter in marriage, was very powerful. 9. You attempted the same thing in your state. 644 I, 81 Exercises in Latin Composition 645 LESSON III PRONOUNS — Continued Interrogative. 48, a and b. B. 90; A. 148, 152; H. 511. Indefinite. 49, a and & ; 168. B. 252; A. 309-314; H. 51!J-515. Direct Questions. J79,a. B. 162; A. 330-333; H. 378. Ablative of Agent and Means. 126, a; 131, a, h, and c. B. 216; A. 405; H. 468, and 1. Book I. 5, 6. 1. Were all the towns and villages burned by the Helvetians ? 2. Certain ^ of the Rauraci adopted the same plan, and started out with them. 3. If there is any road by which we can ^ go from home, we will burn all our towns and villages. 4. What did they try to do when^ they went out from home ? 5. They cannot persuade their neigh- bor, can they, to attempt to do this? 6. They permitted them to go through their territory. 1 certain ; quidam and numerals take ex with the Ablative instead of the Partitive Genitive. 97, d. 2 can ; note mood in text. 194, a. 3 when ; use ubi. Note construction in text. LESSON IV REVIEW Book I. 7, 8. Lake Geneva empties into the Rhone, which is a river in Gaul between the (country of the) Sequanians i and the (country of the) Allobroges. Caesar built a rampart ten feet high from this lake to the Jura mountains, which sepa- rate the (country of the) Helvetians from the (country of the) Sequanians. When this rampart was finished, he fortified redoubts ; and after stationing ^ garrisons, he was able very easily to stop those who tried to cross over. The Helvetians were intending to march through the Province because they could not go by any other route ; and so ^ they fastened many boats together, and made rafts by which they crossed the Rhone at, its shallowest point. "^282. 2 a/^e^g^a^ioninfir; use Ablative Absolute. i44, a and 6. 8 and so, itaque. 237, a. 646 Exercises in Latin Composition p, 9 LESSON V Indirect Questions. 204. B. 300; A. 573, 574; H. 649, ii. Sequence of Tenses. 177, a, and 354. B. 267, 268 ; A. 482-484 ; H. 543-546. Book I. 9, 10. 1. He does not understand why they are sending envoys. 2. He announced what^ the Helvetians were planning. 3. They found out why he had enrolled two legions. 4. Did Caesar know whether Dumnorix was a friend of the Helvetians or not? 5. Caesar knew what* was being done by the Helvetians. 6. He does not know whether they obtained their request. 7. Can he find out why they led their legions out from winter quarters ? 8. I asked him whether Caesar was passing the winter there, or had gone into Gaul. 1 what, plural. LESSON VI Subjunctive of Purpose. 196, a, 6, and 193, a, b. B. 282; A. 531; H. 568, 590. Constructions of Place. 119, a, b, and 120, a ; 130, a and 6 ; 145, a, b, c ; 146. B. 182, 228, 229, 232; A. 426, 427; H. 418, and 4, 419, 1, and 461, 462, 483, 484. Book I. 11, 12. 1. The Aeduans, in order to defend them- selves and their possessions, asked help of * Caesar. 2. They sent an army to keep off the at'tack of the enemy. 3. They had nothing left at home. 4. When the Tigurini had gone out from home, they sent Cassius's army under the yoke. 5. He will cross the river in order to be able to judge in which direction it flows. 6. Caesar inflicted a great disaster on this state, with the design of avenging* his personal wrongs. 7. He will send envoys to Rome to ask help. 1 ask of, peto, with ab and Ablative. 116, b. 2 irith the design of avenging ; in Latin, with this design that he might avenge. 1, 15] Exercises in Latin Composition 647 LESSON VII REVIEW Book I. 13. Caesar led his army across the Arar, so that he might follow up the forces of the Helvetians. His sudden arrival alarmed them, and they sent envoys to him to make peace, for^ they could not understand how^ he had crossed the river so quickly.^ Divico was the leader of this embassy, and he asked Caesar where he wished the Helvetians to go. He inquired if Caesar remembered the former valor "^ of the Helvetians, and the destruction of the army which had crossed from the Eoman Province ^ into their territory. i/or, nam 2 how, quern ad modum. s quickly, celeriter. * valor ; note case after reminiscor in text. 6 province, provincia. LESSON VIII Subjunctive of Eesult. 197, a and 6. B. 284; A. 537; H. 570. Ablative of Means. 131, a. B. 218; A. 409; H. 476. Dative of Possession, ill. B. 190; A. 373; H. 430. Book I. 14, 15. 1. They boasted so insolently that Caesar could not put aside the memory of the injuries. 2. Caesar had less doubt because he remembered what the envoys had mentioned. 3. They will march in such a way that we can- not attack them. 4. By this battle he kept the enemy from foraging. 5. The gods tad granted prosperity to them for so long that they were grieved at the change of circumstances. 6. The number of the enemy is so large that they cannot drive them back. 7. He stationed men to see in what direc- tion the enemy were marching. 648 Exercises in Latin Composition [i, 16 LESSON IX Indirect Discourse: Simple Declarative Sentenpes. 212, d; 213, a and 6 ,• 214, a ; 178. B. 313, 314, 1, 2, aud 317 ; A. 571)-582, 584; H. 642, 644. • Partitive Genitive. 97, a, b, c, and d. B. 201, 1, 2; A. 346, a, c; H. 440, 5, and 441-443. Book I. 16, 17. 1. Caesar said that the grain in the fields was not ripe. 2. He knew that many of their chiefs had been called together to complain about the leadership of the . Aeduans. 3. For this reason he thought Caesar would take away liberty from the Gauls.* 4. Day after day he declared that the Aeduans were not collecting the grain. 5. They have a large supply of grain, which they can use if Caesar undertakes ^ the war. 6. He said that he thought we knew with how great danger he had reported our plans. 1 Gauls ; note case in text. 2 undertakes ; what time is referred to ? LESSON X REVIEW Book I. 18. Caesar realized that Liscus referred to Dum- norix, and that these matters had been discussed very freely and boldly ; but because Dumnorix was in charge of the cav- alry and was utterly reckless,* he wished him to favor the Romans. After dismissing ^ the council he asked many ques- tions,^ and discovered that for several years Dumnorix had been enlarging his private property and had very great power both at home and among the Helvetians. Caesar knew that Dumilorix, by means of this power, could restore hfmself to his former position of influence, and that he had amassed so much 4 wealth that he entertained hopes of getting the royal power. He learned also that Dumnorix and his horsemen had started the flight of the cavalry a few days before. 1 utterly reckless; in Latin, of supreme recklessness. 2 after dismissing ; use Ablative Absolute. 144, a and 6. ^ questions; omit, and use neuter adjective as a noun. * 80 much, tantus. I, 22] Exercises in Latin Composition 649 LESSON XI INDIRECT DISCOURSE Complex Sentences. 214, a; 218; 158, a; 354. B. 314, 1 and 318; A. 580, and 585, a ; H. 643. Prepositions. 122, a; 124, a \ 125, a. B. 141, 142, 143; A. 220, a, b, c; H. 420, 2 and 3, and 490, 2. Book I. 19, 20. 1. He knew that everything 1 which was said to him was true. 2. Caesar hoped not to hurt (that he should not hurt) the feelings of Diviciacus, if he should punish his brother. 3. We all know that Procillus was a man in whom 2 he had great confidence. 4. Diviciacus thought that Caesar would punish Dumnorix because he had led an army through the territory of the Sequanians. 5. He will order Diviciacus to be called to him, in order that he may tell him what he knows. 6. Caesar replied that he would tell what had been said in the council. 1 everything ; in Latin, all things. 2 in lohom ; use the Dative. LESSON XII ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE Ablative Absolute. 144, a and h. B. 227; A. 419, 420; H. 489. Book I. 21, 22. 1. Caesar, having sent ahead all his cav- alry, ordered Labienus to climb to the summit of the mountain. 2. While our men were seizing this mountain, the Helvetians moved camp. 3. After seizing the mountain, Labienus did not begin battle, but waited for Caesar. 4. Caesar led his forces to the nearest hill, but did not make an attack on the enemy. 5. When they had pitched camp three miles from Caesar's camp, the enemy refrained from battle. 650 Exercises in Latin Composition [1,23 LESSON XIII REVIEW Book I. 23, 24. On the following day it was announced to the enemy that Caesar had changed his route and gone to Bibracte, which was the richest city of the Helvetians, to pro- vide for grain. The Helvetians thought that he was with- drawing because he was frightened, and attacked him in the rear ; but Caesar, after leading his forces to the nearest hill and drawing up his line of battle, stationed two legions on the top of the ridge, and collected the packs in i one place. The Helvetians, following with all their baggage, formed a phalanx close by ^ the line of battle of the Romans. 1 in; in Latin, into. 124, a. ^ close by, sub, with the Ablative. LESSON XIV Substantive Clauses with Verbs of Commanding, Vrging, Reminding, Persuading, and Permitting. 199, a; 200, b; 223, a, (1) and (4). B. 294, 295, 1, 2, and 29f), 1 ; A. 563 ; H. 564, 565, 568. Ablative of Accompaniment. 137, a, b, and c. B. 222; A. 413; H. 473, and 474, 2, n. 1. Book I. 25, 26. They threw away their shields, and fought with the enemy with swords. 2. Caesar ordered the soldiers* to make an attack on the Helvetians with drawn swords. 3. Having noticed this, he bade the cavalry sur- round the enemy and renew the battle. 4. He urges them to retreat to the mountain with their baggage and carts. 5. We persuaded them not to help the soldiers with wagons or any- thing else. 6. They fought a long time near the baggage, and got possession of the camp and the horses. I, 301 Exercises in Latin Composition 651 LESSON XV Substantive Clauses with Verbs of Asking and Fearing. 199, a, and 202. H. 295, 1, and 296, 2; A. 563, 564; H. 565, 567. Book I. 27, 28. 1. Caesar demanded that they should await his i arrival in that place. 2. The Helvetians feared that Caesar would ask that they surrender their arms. 3. They begged Caesar not to regard them as enemies. 4. He will ask that envoys be sent to him. 5. He was afraid that the Germans might cross into the territory of the Helvetians. 6. Caesar asked the Helvetians to return to their own territory, so that the lands 2 might not be unoccupied. 7. They urge him to accept their surrender.^ 8. They fear that they may not be able to conceal their flight. 1 his, indirect reflexive. 158, a. 2 lands, agri. 8 accept their surrender ; note the text. LESSON XVI REVIEW Book I, 29, 30. The soldiers found records in the camp showing 1 the number of Helvetians who could bear arms. These had gone out from home with all the women and chil- dren. Caesar ordered his men to make an enumeration of those who had returned home, and the total was about 120,000. The envoys of the Gauls, who had come to Caesar, feared that he would inflict punishment on their states, but nevertheless asked him not to take possession of all Gaul. This war had turned out to the advantage of Gaul, and they begged Caesar that they might be permitted to appoint a council, and to ask of him the things which they wished.2 This request was granted, and they agreed together not to disclose anything except with Caesar's consent. 1 showing ; in Latin , which showed. ^wished; use Subjunctive, Subordinate Clause in implied Indirect Dis- course. 214, b. 652 Exercises in Latin Composition [i, 31 LESSON XVII Ablative of Separation or Source. 127, a, b, and c. B. 214, 215; A. 400- 402, and 403, 1 ; H. 461-4«o, 4()7. Ablative of Comparison. 129, a and 6. B. 217 ; A. 406 and 407, a ; H. 471. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 140. B. 223; A. 414; H. 479. E-ook I. 31 (first half). 1. They asked back their hostages from the Sequanians, and sought aid of the Roman people. 2. The Germans are much fiercer than the Gauls,i and covet their lands. 3. Diviciacus fled from his state, and came to Rome many years before. 4. The Aeduans are less powerful in*Gaul than the Sequanians, being weakened by great disasters, 6. We are working to induce 2 Diviciacus to give his children as hostages to the Germans. 6. About a thousand of the Germans crossed the Rhine, and contended in arms with the Aeduans and their dependents. 1 than the Gauls ; express in two ways. ^to Induce, 196, a. LESSON XVIII Substantive Clauses of Besult. 203. B. 297; A. 568, 569; H. 571. Ablative of Manner. 130, a and 6. B. 220 ; A. 412 ; H. 473, 3. Ablative of Accordance, nn, c. B. 220, 3; A. 418, a ; H. 475, 3. Book I. 31 (latter half). 1. The result was that they could not longer endure his cruelty. 2. He will cause a place to be prepared for the Harudes. 3. He saw that the best part of entire Gaul would be occupied by Ariovistus. 4. All these things were done with the greatest injustice. 5. He says that they will not be able to drive the Germans from the Gallic territory. 6. The cruelty of Ariovistus caused them to seek another home. 7. It happened that a larger number of Ger- mans crossed the Rhine. I, 35] Exercises in Latin Composition 653 LESSON XIX REVIEW Book I. 32, 33. The lot of the Sequanians was much more unhappy than (that) of the others, because the cruelty of Ario- vistus had caused them to fear him in his absence, and they did not dare to seek aid from Caesar. Therefore ^ when Caesar asked why they did not do what the others did, it happened that they made no answer, 2 but remained silent. Diviciacus finally told what the reason was. Caesar promised to put an end to the outrages of Ariovistus, and dismissed the council. The Roman Province was sep- arated by the Rhone from the territory of the Sequanians, and Caesar thought it would be dangerous to the Roman people (for) the Germans to cross from their own boundaries into Gaul. 1 therefore, itaque. 2 made no answer ; in Latin, answered nothing. LESSON XX Verbs of Hindering, Preventing, Doubting. 201, a, 6, and c. B. 295, Sj and 298 ; A. 558 ; H. m%, 8, and 595, 1, 2, and 59(), 2. Ablative of Time. 147, a and h. B. 230, 231 ; A. 423; H. 486, 487. Accusative of Extent. 118, a. B. 181 ; A. 423, 425; H. 417. Book I. 34, 35. 1. They could not be restrained from send- ing envoys to Caesar. 2. In three days he will advance many miles. 3. There was no doubt that these replies had been brought back to Caesar. 4. He talked^ with him a large part of the day about very important matters. 5. Caesar demanded of him that he prevent a large number from being led across the Rhine. 6. This river was half a mile (five hundred paces) wide.' 1 talked, ago. 2 sq^ and 243, a and 6. 654 Exercises in Latin Composition (i, 36 LESSON XXI Dative with Special Verbs. 105. B. 187, ii ; A. 367 ; H. 426. Dative with Compounda. 107, a and 6. B. 187, m ; A. ^70; H. 429. Book I. 36. 1. The Germans rule those whom they con- quer, as they wish. 2. We do not prescribe to you how you shall pay the tax. 3. I shall not make war on their allies unjustly. 4. They could not be persuaded to return the hostages. 5. No one had resisted him without his own de- struction. 6. They put him in command ^ of the conquered. 7. He ordered * them not to make the revenues less. 8. He will persuade them to do what he wishes. 9. They had been ordered* to do all these things. i put in command, praeficiS. 2 ordered; use imper5 in one sentence, and iubeo in the other. LESSON XXII REVIEW Book I. 37, 38. The Harudes, who had lately come into Gaul, could not be kept from laying waste the lands of the Aeduans. The latter resisted bravely for many days, and did not doubt that Caesar was hurrying by forced marches against the Swabians, commanded by Nasua,^ in order to pre- vent them from , crossing the Khine. Caesar thought that he ought to advance as quickly as possible to seize Vesontio, and after getting ready a grain supply, he hastened to that town with all his forces. The town is almost surrounded by a river of great width, which touches the base of a mountain six hundred feet high. Caesar fortified this town with a very high wall, so that a great opportunity was given to prolong the war, and having stationed a garrison there, he advanced a three days' march toward Ariovistus. 1 commanded by Nasua ; in Liitin, whom Nasua commanded. I, 40] Exercises in Latin Composition 655 LESSON XXIII Gerund and Gerundive. 230. B. 338, 339 ; A. 501-507 ; H. 623-631. Supine. 231,232. B. 340 ; A. 509 ; H. 633. Active Periphrastic Conjugation. 63. B. 115; A. 193-195, and 498, a; H. 236, 531. Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. 63, 73, e, and 229, c. B. 115, and 337, 8, 6, 1 : A. 193, 194, 196, and 500, 2; H. 237, and 621, 1, 2. Dative of Agent, no. B. 189, 1 ; A. 374, a ; H. 431. Book I. 39. 1. One assigned one reason for departing, an- other another. 2. He remained in camp for the sake of avoiding suspicion. 3. Caesar intended to delay a few days near Vesontio. 4. Caesar sent some of his men to bring up the grain.^ 5. We shall have to break camp in a few days. 6. He said that he was going to report this to Caesar. 7. Having sealed their wills, they remained in their tents to lament the common danger. 8. The Germans, with whom they were going to contend, had ^ incredible valor. 1 to bring up the grain ; write in five ways. 355. 2 had; in Latin, were of. LESSON XXIV MAY, MIGHT, MUST, OUGHT May, Might. 356, a and h. B. 327, 1 ; A. 565, n. 1, 2 ; H. 564, 2. Must, Ought. 357, a and 6. B. 115, 270, 2, and 337, 8, 6, 1 ; A. 194, 196, 486, a, and 500, 2 ; H. 237, 618, 2, and 621, 1, 2. Book I. 40 {first half). 1. Caesar ought ^ to summon to the council the centurions of all ranks. 2. A centurion is not allowed to inquire by what plan he is being led. 3. Caesar said he did this in order that Ariovistus might not reject his friendship. 4. This he should not have said (= ought not to have said). 5. After learning their plans, you may stay in camp if you wish. 6. The Eomans did not need to fear that these unarmed men would conquer them.* 1 ought ; write in three ways. 357, b. 2 them, 158, a. 656 Exercises in Latin Composition p, 40 LESSON XXV REVIEW Book I. 40 {latter half). Caesar urged the Roman soldiers not to despair in regard to grain, which was then already ripe in the fields. He told them that they ought not to be dis- turbed by the narrow roads, and that they were not permitted to dictate to the commander concerning his duties. He de- sired to know as soon as possible whether the soldiers were going to be ^ obedient to his command or not, and so he ordered them to move camp on the next night. He had the greatest confidence in the tenth legion, and did not ^ doubt that they would follow 3 him,* and do what ** had to be done. 1 were going to be, etc., 63, and 204, (1). 2 and . . . not, neque. ^follow, 201, b. * hitn, 158, a. 6 what ; iir Latin, = those things which. LESSON XXVI Temporal Clauses with Ubi, Ut, Postquam, Simul atque. x88, a. B. 287, 1; A. 543; H. 602. Temporal Clauses with Cum, Cum primum. 185, a, b,c. B. 288, 1, and 289 ; A. 545-547 ; H. GOO, 601. Ablative with Certain Deponents. 131, c. B. 218, 1 ; A. 410; H. 477. Book I. 41, 42. 1. When Caesar had delivered this speech, the military tribunes thanked him. 2. As soon as Ariovistus learned of Caesar's arrival, he promised many things of his own accord. 3. After getting possession of the horses, he put on them his bravest soldiers. 4. When he saw that Ariovistus wished a conference, he decided not to use the Gallic horsemen. 5. As soon as they came, they said that the enemy's forces were twenty miles away. 1, 44] Exercises in Latin Composition 657 LESSON XXVII Temporal Clauses with Prms guam. 759, a and 6. B; 291, 292; A. 551; H. 605. Temporal Clauses with Dum and Quoad. 190, a, b, and c. B. 293 ; A. 553- 556; H. 603, 604, 1. Ablative of Specification. 142, a and b. B. 226 ; A. 418 ; H. 480. Ablative of Cause. 135, a and b. B. 219; A. 404; H. 475. Book I. 43. 1. Caesar stationed the legion two hundred paces from the mound, before he came to the conference. 2. While he was making war on their allies, a part of the Germans crossed the Ehine. 3. The Aeduans had held the leadership before Ariovistus came into Gaul. 4. They had been able to secure these gifts through his kindness. 5. They did not send back the hostages until ^ he demanded them. 6. They were his allies, and for this reason he made these de- mands. 7. He waited ^ until they should seek our friendship. 1 until ^ J.DO, b. 2 loait, exspecto. LESSON XXVIII REVIEW Book I. 44 (Jirst half). After Ariovistus was summoned by the Gauls, he crossed the Rhine, and took possession of the settlements whirih the Gauls had granted him. When they made war upon him, they were routed in one battle, and after being defeated, paid tribute and enjoyed peace. While this was going on, Caesar was marching to attack Ariovistus, and wished to come into Gaul before he^ should impose tribute on all the states. As soon as he came there, he pitched camp, and waited 2 until Ariovistus should reply to his demands. The latter ^ was ready to fight if Caes^ar wished to, but Caesar made objections about the tribute, which up to this time had been paid willingly by the Gauls. I he, ille. 2 loait, exspectd. « the latter, here ille. 658 Exercises in Latin Composition (i, 44 LESSON XXIX Causal Clauses with Quod, Quia, Quoniam. 183, a and 6. B. 286, 1; A. 540; H. 588. Causal Clauses with Cum. 184, a and 6. B. 28G, 2; A. 549; H. 598. Dative with Adjectives. 108, a and 6. B. 192 ; A. 383-385 ; H. 434. Book I. 44 (latter half). 1. He withdrew his army into those regions, because they were nearest the province (of) Gaul. 2. Since the Aeduans had been called brothers by the senate, they ought to have enjoyed the assistance of the Romans. 3. Ariovistus complained because we had made an attack on his territories. 4. The friendship of the Roman people was pleasing to the Aeduans, since they did not wish to be over- whelmed. 5. Since he has withdrawn from Gaul, we shall consider him as a friend, and not as an enemy. LESSON XXX Adversative or Concessive Clauses. 187, and 191, a and 6. B. 908, and 309, 2, 3; A. 527, 549; H. 585, 586, 598. Genitive with Adjectives. 102. B. 204, 1 ; A. 349, a ; H. 450, 451. Book I. 45, 46. 1. Although Fabius conquered the Aver- nians, he did not reduce them to a province. 2. Since the horsemen were hurling weapons against our men, Caesar stopped speaking.^ 3. Although the soldiers were eager for the battle, Caesar ordered them not to make an attack. 4. Even if Gaul is free, still it cannot use its own laws. 5. When this had been announced to Caesar, he ordered his men to return to camp. 6. Although they are ignorant of the custom of the Roman people, he will not pardon tHem. 1 stopped speaking ; note the expression in the text. I, 49] Exercises in Latin Composition 659 LESSON XXXI REVIEW Book I. 47. Ariovistus sent a messenger to Caesar, to ask that he should a second time appoint a day for a conference. Although the matters which they had begun to discuss the day before had not been finished, Caesar was unwilling to go himself, or to send envoys and expose them to so great danger. However,! because he desired to know what Ariovistus would say (was going to say),^ it seemed best to him to send Valerius Procillus and Marcus Mettius. When they had come to Ario- vistus in' camp, and were attempting to speak, he called out that they were spies, and threw them into chains. Caesar ought not to have sent these men to Ariovistus, since there was no reason for a conference, and he knew that the danger to'* them would be great. 1 however, autem, the second word of its clause. 236, a and 6. 2 would say, 63. 8 in, in with accusative. 124, a. ' to ; in Latin, of. LESSON XXXTI Subjunctive of Characteristic. 194, a. B. 283, 1, 2; A. 535, a, &; H. 591, 1,2,4,5. Ablative of Description. 143, a and h. B. 224 ; A. 415 ; H. 473, 2. Genitive of Quality and Measure. I00,a2in&h. B. 203 ; A. 345 ; H. 440, 3. Book I. 48, 49. 1. A place about six hundred paces long was picked out, suitable for two legions. 2. The forces of Ario- vistus are the only ones which can keep our troops from sup- plies. 3. The G-ermans were very swift and of great courage, and terrified our men. 4. There is no army in all Gaul that can overcome the forces of the Eomans. 5. They were (men) of so great swiftness that they equaled the speed of the horses. 6. They were cut off from grain and supplies by a river two hundred feet in width.^ 1 Two hundred feet in width ; express in two ways. 660 Exercises in Latin Composition [i. 50 LESSON XXXIII Exhortations, and Jussive Subjunctive. 180, a and b. B. 27^275; A. 439; H. 559, 1,2. Commands and Prohibitions. 18l, a and b. B. 276, b; A. 450; H. 561, 1. Wishes. 180, c and d. B. 279; A. 441 ; H. 558. Dative of Purpose; Two Datives. 112, a and 6. B. 191, 1, 2; A. 382; H. 425, 3, and 433. 51. 1. Let US lead out the troops from camp, and draw up our line of battle. 2. Would that we had not given them an opportunity for fighting ! 3. Caesar left the auxiliaries as a protection for the smaller camp. 4. that they would not deliver us into slavery ! 5. Do not fight be- fore the new moon, if you wish to conquer. 6. Let him not use the auxiliaries for a show. 7. Would that it were not ordained that the Germains should conquer ! LESSON XXXIV Conditions. 205-209. B. 301-304, 1; A. 515-517; H. 574-579. Book I. 52. 1. If the enemy should suddenly make an at- tack on our men, they would not be able to hurl their javelins. 2. They would have sent the lieutenant to our assistance, if they had noticed this. 3. If Caesar were in command of the troops, they would not be in difficulty. 4. I shall not begin battle on the left wing, unless I see that that part of the line is the strongest. 5. I'hey said that if they leaped upon the enemy from above, they would put them to flight. 6. Do not throw your javelins against the enemy, unless they make an attack upon you. 7. Had he not put a lieutenant in charge of our men, they would have been routed. IV, 28] Exercises in Latin Composition 661 LESSON XXXV REVIEW Book I. 53, 54. When the battle had been renewed, the enemy were put to flight, and fled to the river. A few, who trusted in their strength, swam across. There were some who crossed over in boats which they found, but the rest were put to death by our cavalry. Ariovistus himself would have been killed, if he had not found a skiff fastened to the shore, and sought safety in it. While he was following the enemy, Caesar fell in with Valerius Procillus, whom the guards were dragging along. Having rescued him, Caesar said : " I should have little pleas- ure in this victory, if you were now in the hands of the enemy. Would that the other envoys, whom 1 sent to Ariovistus, had also been restored to me ! Let us hope that they may be found and brought back." LESSON XXXVI REVIEW Causal and Concessive Clauses (Lessons XXIX and XXX). Book" IV. 27, 28. As soon as the hostages, whom the enemy sent to Caesar, did what he had ordered, he pardoned them, and begged them not to make war on him without good cause. Although he pardoned their ignorance, he complained because they had thrown Commius the Atrebatian into chains, and had not sent him back. Since part of the hostages which they promised were at a distance, he ordered them to be sent to the continent in a few days. The ships in which the cavalry were carried approached Britain, but could not hold their course because a great storm suddenly came up and carried them back to the continent. 662 Exercises in Latin Composition [iv, 29 LESSON XXXVII REVIEW Clauses of Besult, and Substantive Clauses of Besult (Lessons VIII and XVIII). Book rv. 29-31. 1. It happened that the tides were very- high on that night because there was a full moon. 2. He caused those things which were of use to be brought from the continent. 3. We must keep them from supplies, and pro- long the affair until winter. 4. The tide was so ^ high that it filled the ships which had been drawn up on dry land. 5. Although they were going to pass the winter in Gaul, they had made no provision for grain. 6. The ships are so dam- aged by the storm that they cannot be repaired. 7. He brought it about that no one afterwards crossed to Britain to bring on war. 8. It happened that everything was lack- ing which was useful for carrying on war. 1 so, tarn. LESSON XXXVIII REVIEW Exhortations, Commands, Prohibitions and Wishes (lesson XXXm). Book IV. 32, 33. 1. Let part of the legion march in that direction in which the dust was seen. 2. Would that Caesar had suspected the plans of the barbarians, and attacked them wlien their arms were laid aside ! 3. It was reported to the general that the cohorts which were on guard had started in the same direction. 4. If the enemy attack you, throw your weapons quickly ; let the cavalry dismount and light on foot. 6. Do not be disturbed by the noise of the chariots, for if hard pressed, you will have an easy retreat. 6. The Brit- ons fight with chariots, and daily practice makes them able to do many things with their horses at full speed. IV. 38J Exercises in Latin Composition 663 LESSON XXXIX REVIEW Purpose Clauses, and Substantive Clauses after Certain Verbs (Lessons VI, XIV, and XV) . Book IV. 34, 35. 1. Caesar will keep his men in camp that they may not be attacked by the enemy. 2. The bar- barians sent messengers in all directions to tell what had hap- pened. 3. Storms followed for so many days^ that the enemy were kept from a battle. 4. Caesar feared that the same thing would happen. 5. They urged the rest, who were in the fields, to depart. 6. Disturbed by th: strange sort of fighting, they begged Caesar to send aid to them. 7. They gathered a large number of cavalry and infantry, in order that they might the more easily ^ drive the Romans from the camp. 8. He ordered them to burn the buildings far and near, and return to camp. 9. Having killed many, they prevented the rest from escaping.^ 1 days, 118, a, ^ easily, facile, ^from escaping, 201, a, and 223, a, (3). LESSON XL REVIEW Conditions (Lesson XXXIV) . Book IV. 36-38. If Caesar had not sailed on that night, the hostages which he ordered would have been brought to him, but the equinox was near, and he thought if he hastened he would arrive safely at the continent. After finding a suit- able place, he disembarked some three hundred men, who started for the camp, but were surrounded by the Morini, who said, " Lay down your arms if you do not wish to be killed. If Caesar and his cavalry were here, they would defend you, but you cannot withstand our attack and will be all killed unless he comes to your assistance." But after those who said this saw that our cavalry were coming, they quickly turned and fled. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS' 1. Wolf-holes along Caesar's lines before Alesia, in 52 B.C. L. Gur- litt, Anschauungstafeln zu Caesar^ II . . . . ix 2. Wolf-holes along the German lines near Ypres, Belgium, in 19 14. Photograph, Press Illustrating Company, New York . . x 3. Roman soldier's trenching tool, spade, found in the remains of the Roman camp at the Saalburg, near Homburg. R. Forrer, Reallexikon der prdhistorischen^ klassischen und fruhchrist- lichen Altertiitner, Taf. 182 xi 4. Trenching tool, spade, supplied with the marching equipment of the U. S. army and navy xii 5. " One-man tank," used " somewhere in France." Photograph . xiii 6. Roman soldier in heavy marching order, impeditus.^ S. Cybulski, Tabulae,'^ VI ........ . xiv 7. United States sailor in heavy marching-order equipment . . xv 8. French soldier hurling a hand grenade. Photograph, Under- wood and Underwood, New York ..... xvi 9. French bayonet, with scabbard. Type of 191 5. Photograph, G. R. S.4 xvii 10. French helmet, type of 1915. Photograph, G. R. S. . . xvii 11. Gallic bronze helmets, perhaps of the second century B.C. Brit- ish Museum. Photograph, kindly furnished by Sir Hercules Read xvii: 1 Stereopticon slides of all illustrations and maps in this book can be supplied to teachers and schools at cost; inquiry should be addressed to the Latin Department, University 0/ Michigan , Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2 The three series of wall plates, L. Gurlitt's Anschauungstafeln zu Caesar, S. Cy- bulski 's Tabulae quibus antiquitates Graecae et Romanae illustrantur, and Ad. Leh- mann's Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder (cf. Fig. 117), are imported by G. E. Stechert and Company, New York, and A. J. Nystrom and Company, Chicago. 8 The designs reproduced in the illustrations from Cybulski's Tabulae were pre- pared by Dr. Martin Fickelscherer. They are based chiefly upon evidence drawn from monuments later than Caesar's time, yet in most respects the designs are correct for the military equipment of Caesar's armv. * The photographs designated " G. R. S. " were made by Mr. George R. Swain. 666 666 List of Illustrations FAGK 12. Roman legionary's helmet, galea. S. Cybulski, Tabulae, V . xix 13. Italian barb-wire cutter. Photograph, Medem Photo Service . xxi 14. Leaden slingshot, inscribed. Ephemeris Epigraphica, vol. 6 (1885), pi. 3, no. 16 xxiii 15. Highlanders holding to stirrups of Scots Greys charging at St. Quentin. From a colored plate, published in 191 5. Courtesy of Collier's Weekly ...... xxv 16. Gold coin, ascribed to the Ambarri. H. de la Tour, Atlas de monnaies gauloises (Paris, 1895), pi. 16, no. 5315 . . xxix 17. Gold coin of the Mediomatrici. De la Tour, Atlas, pi. 36, no. 8933 ........... xxix 18. Arvernian gold coin. De la Tour, ^^/ and EburovicSs (iii. 17, vii. 75)- AuluB, -I, m., (&' lus), a Roman first name. aureus, -a, -um, [aurum], adj., of gold, golden. V. 12. [oriole. auriga, -ae, [aurea, bridle, -f agrO], m., charioteer, driver, iv. ^^. auris 15 Belgae auris, -is, f., ear. [aural AuninculeiuB, -i, m., Lucius Au- runculeius Cotta, (d" rung-ku-le' yus kot' a), a lieutenant of Caesar, killed by the Eburones. Ausci, -orum, m., pi., (d' si), a people in the eastern part of Aquitania. iii. 27. ausuB, see audeo. aut, conj., or. aut . . .aut, either . . . or. aut . , . aut . . . aut, either . . .or . . .or. ^utem, conj., but, however, on the contrary ; and now, moreover. autumnus, -i, m., autumn, [autumn. auxili^ris, -e, [auxilium], adj., aux- iliary. As noun, auxiliares, -ium, m., pi., auxiliary troops, auxiliaries (iii. 25). [auxiliar. auxilior, -ari, -atus, [auxilium], i, dep., render aid, assist, help. auxilium, -i, [cf. augeS], n., help, aid, assistance ; relief, remedy, re- source. PI., auxilia, auxiliary troops, auxiliaries, allied forces. Avaricensis, -e, adj., of Avaricum, at Avaricum. Vii. 47. Avaricum,-!, n., (a-var'i-kum), larg- est and most strongly fortified city of the Bituriges, now Bourges; besieged and taken by Caesar, the inhabitants put to the sword. avarltia, -ae, [avarus, greedy^ (., greed, covetous ness. [avarice. §veho, -vehere, -vexi, -vectus, [a + veh6], 3, carry off, carry away. aversus,-a, -um, sup. aversissimus, [part of averto], adj., turned away ; behind, in the rear, [averse. averts, -tere, -ti, -sus, [a + vertS], 3, turti away, turn 'aside, avert; divert, alienate, estrange, [avert. avis, -is, f., bird. iv. 10. [aviation. avus, -i, m., grandfather. Axona, -ae, f., ('aks' o-na), a river in the southern part of Belgic Gaul, now Aisne. Bacenis, -is, (sc. silva), f., (ba- se' nis), a forest in Germany, vi. 10. Baculus, -i, m., Publius Sextius Ba- culus, (bac' Ci-lus), one of the bravest of Caesar's centurions. He distin- guished himself in the battle with the Nervians (11. 25) ; his advice saved the day when Galba was attacked in the Alps (ill. 5) ; and his heroic re- sistance checked a surprise attack on Cicero's camp (vi. 38). Bagradas, or Bagrada, -ae, m., (bag' ra-das), an important river of Roman Africa, now Medjerda. C. II. 38. Baleares, -ium, [= ^aXiapeis, sling- ^rj],m., pi., (bal-e-a'rez), natives of the Balearic Islands, off the east coast of Spain; famous as slingers. ii. 7. balteus, -i, m., belt, sword-belt. Balventius, -i, m., Titus Balventius, (bal-ven' sh[y]-us), a brave centu- rion. V. 35. barbarus, -a, -um, [ = ^dp^apos^, adj., foreign, strange; rude, savage, un- civilized. As noun , barbari , -Orum , m., pi., strangers, foreigners ; na- tives, barbarians, [barbarous. Basilus, -i, m., Lucius Minucius Bas- ilus, (mi-nu'sh[y]us bas' i-lus), an officer of Caesar, afterwards one of the conspirators against him ; mur- dered in 43 B.C. on account of cruelty to his slaves. Batavi, -6rum, m., pi., the Batavians, Batavi, ( ba-ta' vl) , a people dwelling near the mouth of the Rhine, iv. 10. Belgae, -arum, m., pi., the Belgians, Belgae, (bel'je), inhabitants of one of the three main divisions of Gaul, divided into many small states. Belgium 16 Boii Belgium, -i, n., (bel'j[y]um),/'-4/f/a«xiiCixiB.,trumpet'\, m., trumpeter. C. 11. 35. C, in expressions of number, = 100. C, see Gaius. Caburus, -i, m , Gaius Valerias Caburus, (va-le'ri-us ka-bu'rus), a Gaul who received the Roman citi- zenship. caciimen, -inis, n., end, point (vii. 73) ; peak, summit, [cacuminous. cadaver, -eris, [cf. cado], n., corpse, dead body, [cadaver. cado, cadere, cecidi, casurus, 3, fall ; be slain, die. [chance. Cadurci, -orum, m., pi., (ka-der' sT), a people in Aquitania. Sing. CadCtrcus, -i, m., a cadurcan (vii. 5). caedes, -is, [caedo], f., killing; slaughter, murder, massacre. caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesus, 3, cut, cut down ; cut to pieces, slay. caelestis, -e, [caelum], adj., heav- enly. As noun, caelestes, -ium, m., pi., the gods (vi. 17). [celestial. caelum, -i, n., heaven, the heavens, the sky. C. II. 5. caerimonia, -ae, f., religious cere- mony, sacred rite. vii. 2. [cere- mony. Caerosi, -orum, m., pi, (se-r5's!), a people in Belgic Gaul. ii. 4. caeruleus, -a, -um, adj., deep blue, dark blue. v. 14. [cerulean. Caesar, -aris, m. : (i) Gaius Julius Caesar {ga.'yus Jul' yus se' zar). (2) Lucius Julius Caesar, consul in 64 B.C., a distant relative of the great Caesar, under whom he served as lieutenant, in 52 B.C. vii. 65. caespes, -itis, m., sod, turf. calamitas, -tatis, f., loss, damage; disaster, defeat, [calamity. Caleti 18 cams Caleti, -5rum, also Caletes, -um, m., pi., (kal' e-ti, kal' c-tez), a peo- ple near the mouth of the Sequana {Seine). calliduB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [calleo, be skillful^ adj., skillful ; tactful, crafty (iii. 1 8). calo, -onis, m., soldier's servant, camp servant. campester, -trls, -tre, [campus], adj., of level ground, flat, level. campus, -i, m., //am. [campus. CamulogenuB, -i, m., (kam-ii-loj' e- nus), an Aulercan, commander of the Parisii against Labienus. Caninius, -i, m., Gaius Caninius Reb- ilus, (ka-nin' i-us reb' j-lus), a lieu- tenant of Caesar's in the latter part of the Gallic War, and in the Civil War ; made consul by Caesar for a few hours to fill a vacancy on the last day of December, B.C. 45. vii. 83, 90 ; C. II. 34. cand, canere, cecini, 3, sing ; of a musical instrument, sound, play. Cantabri, -Orum, m., pi., Canta- brians, Cantabri (kan' ta-brH, a war- like people in northern Spain. Cantium, -i, n., Kent, Cantium, (kan- sh[y] um), a district in the southeast part of England. capilluB, -i, [cf. caput], m., hair of the head, hair, [capillary. capid, capere, cepi, captus, 3, take, get; seize, capture ; occupy, take pos- session of; select, win over, charm, captivate ; receive ; of vessels, reach, make; deceive (i. 40). initium capere, to begin. cSnsllium ca- pere, to form a plan, dolorem capere, to be grieved, [capture. Capitolium, -i, n., the Capitol, the temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline hill in Rome ; some- times referring to the hill as a whole, the Capitoline hill. C. 1.6. [Capitol. capra, -ae, [caper], f., she-goat. captivuB, -a, -um, [cf. capid], adj., taken prisoner, captured (C II. 5). As noun, captivus, -i, m., captive, prisoner (vi. 43). [captive. captUB, -a, -um, see capid. captuB, -as, [capio], m., capacity; understanding, notion (iv. 3). Capua, -ae, f., (kap' u-a), a city in Italy, in Campania. C. ill. 71. caput, -itis, n., head; by metonymy, person, man, life, safety ; of a river, mouth (IV. 10). capitis poena, capital punishment (vii. 71). duo milia capitum, two thousand souls. [capital. CarcaBO, -onis, f., (kar' ka-so), a town in southern Gaul, now Car- cassonne (ill. 20). cared, -ere, -ui, -iturus, 2, be with- out, lack, want. vi. 38 ; vii. 17. carina, -ae, f., keel of a ship. Carnutes, -um, m., pi., (kar' nu- tez), a people in Central Gaul, north of the Liger {Loire) ; chief city, Cena- bum (Fig. 197). Figure 197. — Coin of the Carnutes. Bronze. Obverse, head of Hercules; in- scription [a]cussros. Reverse, boar. Copied from a Roman coin, except the name. caro, carnis, f., flesh, meat, [car- nage. carpd, -ere, -si. -tus, ^, pluck ; cen- sure, criticise (iii. 17). [carp. carruB, -i, m., cart, wagon, [car. cftruB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. ca- rissimus, 9^^)., dear, precious. Carvilius 19 Celtillus Carvilius, -i, m., (kar-vil' i-us), one of four British rulers in Kent. v. 22. casa, -ae, f., hut, cottage, barrack. caseuB, -i, m., cheese, vi. 22. CasBi, -oruin, m., pi., (leas' i), a tribe in Britain, v. 21. Cassianus, -a, -um, [Cassius], adj., of Cassius. i. 13. cassis, -idis, f., helmet of metal. Cassius, -i, m., Lucius Cassius Lon- ginus, (kash' [y]us lon-ji' nus), praetor in B.C.; when consul, 107 B.C., he engaged in battle with the Tigurians in the territory of the AUob- roges, and was defeated and slain. I. 7, 12. Cassivellaunus, -i, m., Cassivellau- nus (kas" i-ve-lS' nus), Caswalloti, leader of the British army against Caesar in 54 B.C. castellum, -i, [dim. of castrum],n., redoubt, fortress, stronghold, [castle. Casticus, -1, m., (kas' tj-kus), a prominent Sequanian. i. 3. castigo, -are, -avi, -atus, i, reprove. C. III. 60. [castigate. castra, -orum, n., [pi. of castrum, fortress^ camp, encampment ; mili- tary service (l. 39) ; day's march (vii. 36). castra movere, to break camp, castra ponere, to encamp, camp, [-chaster in Ro-chester, etc. cSlsus, -us, [cad.6], m., fall; chance, occurrence, happening, fortune ; op- portunity, event; accident, mis- hap, evil plight, death, casu, by chance, [case. Catamantaloedis, -is, m., (kat-a- man-ta-le' djs), a leader among the Sequanians before Caesar's time. I- 3- catSnae, -arum, f., pi., chains ; fetters. Caturiges, -um, m., pi., (kat-u-rl' jez), a Gallic people in the eastern part of the Province, i. 10. Catuvolcus, -1, m., (kat-u-vol' kus), a ruler of the Eburones; despair- ing of success in the war against Caesar, he took poison, v. 24, 26 ; vi. 31. causa, -ae, f . , cause, ground, reason ; pretext, excuse ; condition, state, case, suit, causi,, with gen. , for the sake of, on account of. [cause. caute, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [cau- tus, from caveo], adv., cautiously ^ . carefully, v. 49. cautes, -is, f. Jagged rock, cliff, iii . 1 3. Cavarillus, -i. m., (kav-a-riV us), an Aeduan of high rank. vii. 67. Cavarinus, -i, m., (kav-a-rl' nus), a ruler among the Senones. v. 54; vi. 5. caveo, cavere, cavi, cauturus, 2, be on one's guard, beware of, take precau- tion ; give security, [cautious. Cavillonum, -i, n., (kav-i-16' num), an Aeduan city on the Arar, now Chdlon-sur-Saone. Vii. 42, 90. Cebenna, -ae, f., Cebenna (se-ben'a), the Cevennes, a mountain range in southern Caul, about 250 miles long. cedo, cedere, cessi, cessurus, 3, go away, depart, withdrazv., retreat; yield, give up to ; abandon, [cede. celer, -eris, -ere, comp. -ior, sup. celerrimus, adj., quick, speedy. celeritas, -tatis, [celer J, f., speed, quickness, szviftness, rapidity, des- patch, [celerity. celeriter, comp. celerius, sup. celer- rime, [celer], adv., quickly., speed- ily, at once, immediately. celo, -are, -avi, -atus, i, conceal, hide, keep secret, ii. 32; vii. 80. Celtae, -arum, m., pi., Celts, Celtae (sel'te), inhabitants of central Gaul, divided into many states. Celtillus, -i, m., (sel-til' us), an Ar- vernian ruler, father of Vercingetorix. vii 4. Cenabenses 20 cingo Cenabensgs, -ium, [Cenabum],m., pi., the inhabitants of Cenabum. CSnabum, -i, n., (sen' a-bum), chief city of the Carnutes, later called Aurelianensis Urbs, whence comes Orleans, name of the city on the site of Cenabum. CSnimagm, -orum, m., pi., (sen-j- mag' ni), a British people, v. 2i. C§nomani, -orum, (se-nom'a-ni), see Aulerci. censed, -ere, -ui, -us, 2, estimate; think, hold, judge ; decree, resolve upon, determine ; vote for, favor, cSnauB, -us, [censeS], m., count, enumeration, i. 29. [census. centum, or C, indeclinable num. adj., hundred, [cent, in per cent. centurio, -onis, [centuria],m., cen- turion, [centurion. cemo, cernere, crevi, 3, separate; distinguish, discern, see, perceive. certamen, -inis, [certS], n., contest, rivalry (v. 44) ; struggle, battle, en- gagement (iii. 14). certs, comp. certius, [certus], adv., affirmative, certainly, surely (vi. 31) ; restrictive, at least, at any rate (iv. 25, V. 29, VII. 50). certus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issi- mus, [part, of cernO], adj., certain, fixed, definite; positive, undoubted, trustworthy, true, certiorem fa- cere, to inform, certior fieri, to be informed. Neut. as noun, certi quid esset, what was really going on (vii. 45) ; pr6 certO, as a cer- tainty, as certain (vii. 5). [certain. cervuB, -i, m., stag (vi. 26); in mili- tary language, sta^s horns, a device for hindering the approach of an enemy (vii. 72). [cervine. cSterus, -a, -um, nom. sing. m. not in use, adj., other, the other, the rest, remainder ; pi., the rest, all the others, the other. As noun, cSterl, -orum, m., pi., the others, all the rest, everyone else; cetera, -5rum, n., pi., the rest, all else, everything else. Ceutrones,-um, m., pi. (su' tro-nez) : (i) A Belgic people, subject to the Nervians. v. 39. (2) A people in the eastern part of the Province, i. 10. chara, -ae, f., char a, a plant the tuber- ous roots of which were used by Caesar's soldiers for food. C. ill. 48. Cherusci, -Qrum, m., pi., (ke-rus'i), a German people north of the Suebi. vi. 10. cibaria, -6rum, [cibarius, from ci- bus], n., ^\., provisions, rations. cibus, -i, vci.,food, nourishment. Cicero, -Onis, m., Quintus Tullius Cicero (tul' i-us sis' e-ro), brother of Marcus Tullius Cicero, the orator, born about 102 B.C. He became a lieutenant^ of Caesar in Gaul in 55, and made a heroic defence of his camp in 54; he held aloof from Caesar in the Civil War, but was reconciled with him in 47; he was put to death by order of the trium- virs in 43 B.C. CiliciSnBis, -e, [Cilicia], adj., Cilician, of Cilicia, a province in the southern part of Asia Minor. Cimberius, -i, m., (sjm-be' ri-us), a leader of the Suebi. i. 37. Cimbri, -6rum, m., pi., Cimbrians, Cimbri (sim' bri), a Germanic people that joined with the Teutones in the invasion of Gaul. Cingetorix, -igris, m., (sjn-jet' 9- rjks) : (i) Rival of Indutiomarus for the headship of the Treverans, and loyal to Caesar, v. 3, 4, 56, 57 ; vi. 8. (2) A British ruler, v. 22. cingo, cing-ere. cinxi, cinctus, 3, surround, encircle; invest, [cinc- ture. cippus 21 cito cippus, -i, m,, stake^ post. vii. 73. circinus, -i, [= K/pKtws], m., pair of compasses, i. 38. circiter, [circus, circle\ adv. and prep. : (i) As adv., about, not far from, near. (2) As prep., with ace. only, about (i. 50). cireuitus, -us, [circumeo], m., a going around ; detour, circuit, wind- ing path, way around, [circuit. circum, [ace. of circus, circle'], adv. and prep. : (i) As adv., about, around. (2) As prep, with ace, around, about; in the neighborhood of, near, near by. circumcido, -cidere, -cidi, -cisus, [circum + caedS], 3, cut around, cut. v. 42. circumcisus, -a, -um, [part, of cir- cumcido], adj., cut off ; steep, pre- cipitous, vii. 36. circumcludo, -dere, -si, -sus, [cir- cum + claudo], 3, encircle, vi. 28. circumdo, -dare, -dedi, -datus, [circum 4- do, place], i, place around, encompass, surround, en- circle. circum duoo, -ducere, -duxi, -duc- tus, [circum + duco], 3, lead around; trace (i. 38). [circumduct. circumeo, -ire, -ii, -itus, [circum + eo], '\rx.,go around, pass around ; surround, encircle; go about, visit for inspection (v. 2). circumfundo, -fundere, -fudi, -fu- sus, [circum + fundoj, 3, pour around; surround, hem in; pass, often used reflexively, spread {them- selves) around, crowd around. circumicio, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [circum + iacio], T^,'throw around, place around, ii. 6. circummitto, -mittere, -misi, -mis- sus, [circum + mitto], 3, send around, v. 51 ; vii. 63, circummunio, -ire, -ivi, -itus, [cir- cum 4- munio] , 4, surround with walls, fortify ; hem in (ii. 30). circumplector, -plecti, 3, dep., em- brace, encompass, surround, vii. 83. circumsisto, -sistere, -steti or -stiti, [circum + sist5], 3, stattd around, surround, take a position around. circumspicio, -icere, -exi, -ectus, [circum + specie, look], 3, look about, survey; ponder, consider; look about for, look over (v. 31). [circumspect. circumvallo, -are, -avi, -atus, [cir- cum + vallo], I, surround with a rampart, blockade, inves'. circumvehor, -vehi, -vectus, [cir- cum 4- veho], 3, pass, as dep., ride around (vii. 45); sail around. circumvenio, -venire, -veni, -ven- tus, [circum + venio], 4, come around, go around ; surround, en- compass ; ensnare, overreach, deceive. [circumvent. cis, prep, with ace, on this side of. Cisalpinus, -a, -um, [cis + Alpi- nus], adj.. Cisalpine, on this (the Italian) side of the Alps. [Cis- alpine. Cisrhenanus, -a, -um, [cis + Rhe nanus], adj., on this side (the west side) of the Rhine, vi. 2. Cita, (si' ta), see Faflus. citatus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [cit5], adj.,r«/eV. iv. 10. citerior, -us, [citer, from cis], comp. adj., on this side, hither, nearer. cito, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of cie6, set in motion], I, urge on. C. III. 96. [cite. cito, comp. citius, sup. citissime, [citus], adv., speedily, citissime, with the utmost rapidity (iv. 33). citra 22 cogndscd citrS, [citer, from cis], prep, with ace. only, on this side of. citro, [citer, from cis], adv., hither. ultr6 citrSque, to and fro, back and forth (i. 42). Civis, -is, m. and f., citizen, fellow- citizen, [civil. civitSls, -tatis, [civis], f., body of citizens, state, nation ; citizenship (i. 47). [city. clam, [cf. celo], adv., secretly. clSlmito, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of clamo], I, cry out loudly, shout. clamor, -oris, [cf. ciamo, cry out], m., outcry, shout, din. [clamor. clandestinus, -a, -um, [clam], adj., secret, hidden, vii. i, 64. [clandes- tine. clar6, [ciarus], adv., loudly, dis- tinctly. C. III. 94. ciarus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issi- mus, adj., clear, distinct; of the voice, loud (v. 30) ; famous, [clear. classicum, -l, [classicus, -a, -um, from classis], n., trumpet signal. C. III. 82. classis, -is, f., a class ; a fleet, [class. Claudius, -i, m., Appius Claudius Pulcher, (kid' di-us pul' ker), brother of Clodius (see below) ; praetor in 57 B.C., and consul in 54. v. i. claudo, claudere, clausi, clausus, 3, shut, close, [close. clavus, -1, m., nail, spike, iii. 13. dementia, -ae, [clemens], f., for- bearance, mercifulness, [clemency. Cleopatra, -ae, f., (kle-o-pa' tra), sister of the young Egyptian king, Ptolemy, and afterwards queen of Egypt. C. III. 103. cliSns, -entis, m., retainer, dependent, client, adherent, [client. clienteia, -ae, [cliens], f., relation of client to patron, clientship, vassal- age ; Y)\'i following of clients (vii. 32), dependencies (vi. 12), [clientele. cllvus, -i, m., slope, vii. 46. Clodius, -i, m., (klo' di-us) : (1) I'ublius Clodius Pulcher, the enemy of Cicero, who as tribune in 58 B.C. drove the orator into exile; he was killed in 52 B.C. vii. i. (2) Aulus Clodius, a mutual friend of Caesar and of Scipio. C. III. 90. Cn., = Gnaeus (ne' us), a Roman first name. CO-, see com-. coacervo, -are, -avi, atus, [co- 4- acervo], i, heap up, pile up. ii. 27. coactus, pf. pass. part, of cSgrC coactus, -us, [cog-o], m., only abl. sing, in use, compulsion, v. 27. coagmento, -are, -avi, -atus, [coagr- mentum, cf. cogro], i, fasten to- gether, vii. 23. [coagment. coarto, are, -avi, -atus, [co- ■\- arto, make close], 1, press together, crowd together, vii. 70. CocosatSs, -um, m , pi., (kok-o-sa' tez), a people in Aquitania. iii. 27. coSmo, -emere, -emi, -emptus, [co- + em6], 3, buy up, purchase. coed, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itum est, [co- + e6], irr., come together y join together, vi. 22. coepi, -isse, coeptus, def., (present supplied by incipiS), have begun, began. coSrced, -ercere, -ercui. -ercitus, [co-4-arce6, shut up], 2, confine; restrain, check (i. 17; v. 7). [coerce. coglto, -are, avi, -atus, [co-+, agito], I, think about, think ; .in- tend, purpose, plan, [cogitate. cognatid, -6nis, [cogrnatus], f., blood-relationship ; blood-relations, kindred, [cognation. cognosco, -grnSscere, -grnSvi, co- grnitus, [co- + (8r)n6sc6], 3, be- come acquainted with, learn, learn of, ascertain ; be familiar with, know^ cogo 23 committ5 recognize; spy out, examine; take cognizance of. [cognizance. cogo, cogere, coegri, coactus, [cO'+ago], 3, drive together, bring together, collect, gather, assem- ble ; compel, force, oblige, [cogent. cohors, -hortis, f., cohort, battalion, the tenth part of a legion, [cohort. cohortatio, -onis, [coliortor], f., encouraging, exhortation, ii. 25. cohortor, -ari, -atus, [co- + hor- tor], I, dep., encourage; urge, ex- hort; address with encouraging words, [cohortative. coUabefio, -fieri, -f actus, [com- + labefio, be shaken loose], pass., be shattered. C. 1 1. 6. coUatus, see confero. coUaudo, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + laudo], \, praise zvarmly, commend. coUigo, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + ligo, biiid'\, I, bind together, fasten together, i. 25. collig6,-lig'ere, -legi,-lectus, [com- + lego, gather'], 3, gather together, collect, assemble ; obtain, get. se col- ligere, to gather themselves together ; to form in battle order (iii. 19); to recover themselves, rally, [collect. collis, -is, m., hill, height, elevation. coUoco, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + loco, place], I, place, set, post, sta- tion ; set in order, arrange ; with or without nuptum, give in marriage (i. 18). [collocate. colloquium, -i, [colloquor], n., con- ference, interview, [colloquy. colloquor, -loqui, -locutus, [com- -f loquor ] , 3, dep., talk with, hold a conference, hold a parley. colo, colore, colui, cultus, 3, culti- vate, till (iv. i; V. 12); honor, Ivor ship (vi. 17). colonia, -ae, [colonus], f., colony^ settlement, vi. 24. [colony. color, -oris, m., color, [color. com-, CO-, prep., old form of cum, with, found only in composition ; see cum. combiiro, -tirere, -ussi, -ustus, [com--|-*buro,=ur6, burn], 3, burn up, consume by fire. i. 5. [combustion. comes, -itis, [co- + ©o], m. and f., companion, comrade, [count (title). comitatus, -us, [comes], m., retinue, coi7ipany. C. III. 61, 96. [county. comitia, -orum, [sing, comitium, meeting-place for elections], n., pi., elections (vii. 67; C. in. 82). comitor, -ari, -atus, [comes], i, dep., accompany, attend, vi. 8. commeatus, -us, [commeo], m., passing to and fro, trip, voyage (v. 23); siipplies, provisions, often in- cluding grain, frumentum. commemoro, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- -|- memoro], i, call to mind, recount, relate, [commemorate. commends, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- -f mando], i, commit to one for protection, entrust ; ask favor for, commend, [commend. commentarius, -i, [commentor], m., note-book, source-book, [com- mentary. commeo, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- -j- me6,^o], \,go to and fro, visit, re- sort to. i. I ; vii. 36. commHito, -onis, [com- -|- milito, from miles], va.., fellow-soldier, com- rade. comminus, [com- -f manus], adv., hand to hand, at close quarters. commissiira, -ae, [committo], f., joint, seam, juncture, vii. 72. committo, -mittere, -misi, -missus, [com- + mitto], 3, join, bring to- gether, connect; entrust, commit; cause, do, perpetrate, committere proelium, to join battle, begin the engagement, [commit. Commius 24 concedo Commius, -I, m,, Comm, Commius, (kom' i-us), an Atrebatian, loyal and useful to Caesar (especially in the British campaigns) till the uprising in 52, when he became a commander in the Gallic army raised for the relief of Alesia. commode, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [commodus], adv., conveniently ^ opportunely, to advantage; readily, easily ; fitly, suitably, properly. commodus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [com- + modus, i.e. having full ?neasure'\, adj., conven- ient, advantageous, easy ; good, fa- vorable ; suitable, fit. As noun, commodum, -i, n., convenience, advantage, profit, [commodious. commonefacio, -facere, -feci, -f ac- tus, [commoneo -I- facio], 3, re- mind; impress upon one (i. 19). commoror, -ari, -atus, [com- -|- moror], i, dep., delay, linger. commove5, -movere, -m5vi, com- m5tus, [com- -I- moveo], 2, dis- turb, disquiet, alarm ; move, stir. [commotion. communico,-are, -Slvl, -atus, [com- munis], I, share together, share with, divide with; communicate, impart; consultwith (v. 36). [communicate. commiinid, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itus, [com- + munio], 4, fortify on all sides, strongly fortify, intrench. commiims, -e, [com- + munus], adj., common, in common, general, public; indiscriminate (vi. 9). commtlni cSncilio, in accordance with the general plan, by common consent, in commtlni concilio, at a general council (ii. 4; vii. 15). [common. commutati5, -Onis, [commQtS], f., complete change, alteration. commuto, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + mutSj, I, change, wholly change, alter; exchange (vi. 22). [com- mute. compare, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- -f paroj, I, prepare, make ready, get together; acquire, secure; amass, (I. i8)._ compard, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- par, like'], i, match, compare. [compare. compello, -pellere, -puli, -pulsus, [com- -f pelloj, 3, drive together, collect; drive, force, [compel. compendium, -i, [com- + pendS], n., profit, gain. vii. 43. [compend. comperio, -perire, -peri, -pertus, [com- -I- PEK in experior], 4, ascertain, learn, discover, find out. complector, -plecti, -plexus, [com- + plectS, braid~\, 3, dep., embrace, (i. 20) ; surround, include, encom- pass {vVx. 'j2, 'j^) . [complex. compleo, -plere, -plevi, -pletus, [com- 4- Ple6,///J, 2, fill up, fill ; complete, cover; of troops, fully occupy, fill full, [complete. complexuB, see complector. complures, -a, [com- -f piares, from plds], adj., pi., several, a num- ber of; many. As noun, com- pldres, -ium, m., pi., a great many, quite a number, many. comports, -are, avi, -atus, [com- ■\- ports], I, bring in, carry, con- vey, bring over, [comport. comprehends, -hendere, -hendl, -hensus, [com- -f prehendSj, 3, grasp; seize; arrest, capture; of fire, catch (v. 43). [comprehend. comprobS, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- 4- probS], I, approve fully, justify. cSnatum, -i, [n. of cSnatus. part, of cSnor], n., attempt, undertaking. cSuStus, -as, [cSnor]. m., attempt. conatus, pf. part. t)f cSnor. concSdS.-cedere, -cessi,-ce8stlrus, [com- 4- cedS], 3, withdraw, de- concelebro 25 confinium part ; give up, yields cede ; submit; allow, grant; grant permission, permit, [concede. concelebro, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- 4- celebro], i, frequent; publish abroad, make known. C. III. 72. congessus, -us, [concedo], ni., used only in abl. sing., permission, leave. concido, -cidere, -cidi, [com- + cado], 3, fall doivn, fall ; perish, be slain. concido, -cidere, -cidi, -ciaus, [com- + caedo], 3, cut up, cut off; cut to pieces, kill, slay, destroy. concilio, -are, -avi, -atus, [conci- lium], I, win over, reconcile ; win, gain, procure, [conciliate. concilium, -i, n., meeting, assembly. [council. concino, -ere, -ui, [com- + can6], 3, sound together. C. ill. 92. concito, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + cito], I, rouse, stir up. conclamo, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- -\- clamo, shout~\, i, cry aloud to- gether, shout, cry out. conclusus, -a, -um, [conclude], adj., confined, shut in. ill. 9. Conconnetodumnus, -i, m., (kon- kon" e -to-dum' nus), a chief of the Carnutes. vii. 3. concrepo, -are, -ui, -itus, [com- + crepo, raitle'\, i, rattle, clash, vii. 21. concurro, -currere, -cucurri or -curri, -cur sum est, [com- + curro], 3, rtm together, run up, rush; charge; gather; resort (vi. 13). [concur. concurso, -are, [freq. of concurro], I, rush to and fro, run about. concursuB, -us, [concurro], m., running together ; dashing together, collision (v. 10; C. 11. 6); onset, charge {\\,^\ vii. 62). [concourse. condemns, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + damno], i, condemn, find guilty {of), vii. 19. [condemn. condicio, -onis, [com- + Die, de- clare'], f., condition, situation, state; terms, stipulation, [condition. condono, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + d5n6], I, give up, overlook, disregard, pardon, i. 20. [con- done. Condrusi, -orum, m., pi. (kon-dru' si), a Belgic people on the right bank of the Mosa {Meuse). condiico, -ducere, -duxi, -ductus, [com- + duco], 3, bring together, collect; hire, [conduce. confectus, see conflcio. confers, -ferre, -tuli, collatus, [com- -f fero], irr., bring together, gather, collect, convey ; compare (i. 31); ascribe, refer (i. 40); put off, postpone (i. 40). se conferre, to betake one^s self, turn, proceed, [con- fer. confertus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part of confercio], adj., crowded together, close, dense. confestim, adv., immediately, at once, speedily. conficio, -flcere, -feci, -fectus, [com- + facio], 3, do thoroughly, complete, finish, accomplish, do; bring to an end, wear out, exhaust, enfeeble ; of troops, bring together, furnish (ii. 4). [confectionery. confido, -fidere, -fisus sum, [com- + fido, trust], 3, semi-dep., trust finally, rely upon, have confidence in ; believe, be confident, [confide. configo, -figere, -fixi, -fixus, [com- + figo, fasten], 3, fasten together, join. iii. 13. confinis, -e, [com- + finis], adj., bordering on, adjoining, vi. 3. confinium, -i. [confinis], n., boun- dary, frontier, v. 24. [confine. confid conscendo confid, -fieri, [com- + fioj, irr., sometimes used instead of conflcior, pass, of c6nflci6, be accomplished, be done. vii. 58. confirmatio, -Onis, [cSnfirmo], f., assurance, iii. 18. [confirmation. confirmatUB, -a, -um, [confirms J, adj., comp. confirmatior, encour- aged, confident. C. ill. 84. confirmd, -are, -avi, atus, [com-, cf. firm us], \, strengthen, confirm; arrange for, establish ; reassure, en- courage ; assert, declare; assure. [confirm. confisus, -a, -um, see confido. confiteor, -flteri, -fessus, [com- + fateor, confess^ 2, dep., confess, ac- kno7vledge. v. 27. [confess. confizus, -a, -um, see configro. conflagro, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + flagrro, blaze), 1, be in fiames, be on fire. v. 43. [conflagration. conflicto, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of confligo], I, dep., harass, assail. V. 35. [conflict. confligd, -fligrere, -flixi, -flictus, [com- -f- flig5, strike}, 3, dash to- gether ; contend, fight. confluSns, -entis, [cQnfluo], m., fioiving together of two streams, con- fiuence. iv. 15. confluo, -fluere, -fluxi, [com- + flu6], 3, fioiv together; fiock (vii. 44). [confluent. confugio, -fugere, -ftigri, [com- + fugio], 3, fiee for refuge, vi. 5. confmido, -fundere, -fQdi, -fasus, [com- + funds], 3, pour together; mass together (vii. 75). [confound. congerd, -grerere, -gressi, -grestus, [com- + grerS] , 3, bring together, collect. C. II. 37. congredior, -grredi, -grressus, [com- -f-grradlor, step'], 3, dep., come together, meet, unite with ; Join battle, engage, contend. congresBUs, -a, -um, see congrre- dior. congreBBUB, -us, [congrredior], m., fneeting; encounter , engagement (iii. 13). [congress. conicio, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [com- + iacio], 3, throw together, hurl, cast; throw up, throw; place, put. in fugram conicere, to put to flight. coniectura, -ae, [conicio], f., infer- ence, [conjecture. coniunctim, [coniungrS], adv., jointly, in common. conitinotUB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part of coniungrS], adj., connected; closely allied (vii. t,^). [conjunct. coniungd, -iungrere, -ianxi, -ittnc- tus, [com- + iungo], 3, join to- gether, unite, join, [conjoin. coniiinx, coniugris, [coniungro], m. and f., husband; wife, spouse (vii. 14). [conjugal. coniuratio, -onls, [coniarS], f., union bound by oath, league; con- spiracy, plot. coniuro, -are, -avi, atus, [com- 4- -iuro], I, take oath together (vii. i) ; form a league, conspire, plot, [con- jure. Conor, -ari, -atus, i, dep., endeavor, attempt, undertake, try. [conative. conquiesco, -ere, -quievi, -qui§- turus, [com- + quiescS, rest], 3, take complete rest, repose, vii. 46. conquiro, -quirere, -quisivi, -quisi- tus, [com- + quaer6], 3, seek out, hunt up; bring together, collect. conquisitUB, see conquirS. consanguineuB, -a, -um. [com- + sangruineus, from sangruis], adj., of the same blood. As noun, m., and f., relative, kinsman; pi., kinsfolk, blood-relations, [consanguineous. conscendo, -scendere, -scendi, -scensus, [com- + scand6,f/iw<^]» conscientia 27 consterno 3, mount, ascend, naves conscen- dere, to embark. conscientia, -ae, [conscio], f., knowledge (v. 56); with animi, moral sense^ conscience (C. ill. 60). [conscience. conscisco, -sciscere, -scivi, -scitus, [com- + scisco, approve'}, 3, decree., appoint; injlict, bring upon, sibi mortem consciscere, to commit suicide (i. 4 ; iii. 22). conscius, -a, -um, [com-, of. scio], adj., conscious, aware {of), [con- scious. conscribo, -scribere, -scripsi, -scriptus, [com- + scribo], 3, write (v. 48); enrol, levy, enlist. [conscript. conscriptus, see c5nscrib6. consecratus, -a, -um, [part, of con- secro], adj., holy, sacred, [conse- crate. consector, -ari, -atus, [consequor] , I, dep., follow up, pursue. consecutus, see consequor. consensio, -onis, [consentio], f., common feeling, agreement. vii. 76. consensus, -as, [consentio], m., common feeling, agreement., under- standing, [consensus. consentio, -sentire, -sensi, -sensus, [com- -f- sentio] , 4 ; agree ; plot to- gether, conspire, [consent. consequor, -sequi, -secutus, [com- -h sequor], 3, dep., follow after, folloiv ; pursue, overtake ; obtain, se- cure, gain, [consequence. conservo, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- -|- servo], I, save, spare; of laws or rights, observe, maintain, [con- serve. considerate, [consideratus, from considers], adv., circumspectly. Com p. consideratius, with unusual caution (C. ill. 82). Cdnsidius, -i, m., Publius Considius, (kon-sid' i-us), an officer in Caesar's army, consido, -sidere, -sedi, -sessum, [com- + sido, sit}, t,, sit down, seat one^s self; halt, encamp ; take up an abode, establish one's self, settle. consilium, -i, [of. consul©], n., con- sultation, deliberation, counsel ; gath- ering for deliberation, council; ad- vice ; decision, plan, design, scheme ; project, proposal; good j udgment, pru- dence, discretion, consilium inire or habere, to form a plan, [coun- sel. consimilis, -e, [com- + similis], adj., very like, quite like. consisto, -sistere, -stiti, [com- -f sisto, set, place}, 3, stand, stop, halt ; take a position, be posted, make a stand ; stay, remain ; sojourn, settle ; consist {in), depend {on), in orbem consistere, to form a circle (v. 33). [consist. consobrinus, -i, [com-, of. soror], m., cousin, vii. 76. [cousin. consoler, -ari, -atus, [com- + sSlor, comfort}, I, dep., comfort, cheer, en- courage, [console. conspectus, -us, [conspicio], m., sight, vieiv, presence, [conspectus. conspicio, -spicere, -spexi, -spec- tus, [com- -I- specie, look}, 3, ob- serve, behold, see, perceive, conspicor, -ari, -atus, i, dep., catch sight of, see, observe. conspiro, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- + spiro, breathe}, i, agree; com- bine, form a league, conspire (iii. 10). [conspire. c5nstanter, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [constans],adv., resolutely {\\\. 25) ; uniformly, unanimously (ii. 2). constantia, -ae, [constans], i., firm- ness, resolution, [constancy. consterno, -are, -avi, -atus, i, cOnsterno 28 contentus alarm, terrify, vii. 30. [conster- nation. cdnsterno, -sternere, -stravi, -stra- tus, [com- + sterno], 3, stretu over, cover (iv. 17); strew, carpet (C. III. 96). constipo, -are, -avi, -atus, [com- 4- stip6, press\, i, crowd together, crozvd closely, v. 43. constituo, -stituere, -stitui, -stitu- tus, [com- + 8tatu5], 3, station, place, draw up ; bring to a halt, stop (vii. 47); of ships, moor ; appoint, establish; resolve upon, determine, decide., fix, settle, [constitute. consto, -stare, -stiti, -staturus, [com- -|- sto], I, stand firm ; re- main the same (vii. 35) ; remain, lie (vii. 21); depend on (vii. 84); cost (vii. 19); be made tip of (C. il. 36). cSnstat, impers., it is certain, well- known., evident, it is clear. consuesco, -suescere, -suevi, -sue- tus, [com- -f suesco, become used"], 3, form a habit, become accustomed, be accustomed, be wont. consugtudo, -inis, [c5nsu§sc5], f., habit, practice, custom, usage ; mode of life (v. 14, vi. 21); practice in speaking a language (i. 47). c6n- suetadS victus, standard of living (i. 31). [custom. consuetus, see consuesco. consul, -ulls, m., consul, one of the two chief magistrates at Rome, chosen annually, [consul. conauiaris, -e, [consul], adj., consu- lar. C. I. 6. [consular. consuiatUB, -as, [c5nsul], m., con- sulship, i. 35. [consulate. consuls, -sulere, -sului, -sultus, 3, consult, deliberate, take counsel of; with dat., have regard for, look out for. consulto, [c6nsul5], adv., on pur- pose, designedly, purposely. consulto, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of consuls], I, deliberate, take counsel. V- 53; vii. 77. [consult. consultum, -i, [cSnsultus, from consuls], n., deliberation; resolu- tion, decree, decision. consumo, -sttmere, -stimpsi, -samptus, [com- + siimS], 3, use up, devour, eat up; waste, exhaust, destroy; of time, spend, pass, [con- sume. cdnsumptus, see c5nsam6. consurgo, -surgere, -surrexi, con- surrectum est, [com- -f surgS, rise^, 3, rise together, arise, stand up. contabulo, -are, avi, atus, [com-, cf. tabula, board], i, construct of boards; build up in stories, vii. 22. contagio, -5nis, [cf. contingrC], f., contact, vi. 13. [contagion. contamino, -are, -avi, -atus, [con- tamen, = contagiS], i, taint, pol- lute, vii. 43. [contaminate. contego, -tegere, -texi, -tectus, [com- -f- tegS], 3, cover, cover up (vii. 85). contemno, -temnere, -tempsi, -temptus, [com- + temnS, Ti); apportion (C. ill. 2>2). [define. defore, see desum. deformis, -e, comp. -ior, [de + forma], adj., ill-shaped (iv. 2); unsightly (vii. 23). [deform. defugio, -fugere, -fugi, [de + fugio], ■^, flee from, shun, avoid. deicio, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [de + iacio], 3, throio down, cast down, throw ; dislodge, drive from, rout ; of a ship, pass., be carried (iv. 28) ; of lots, cast (C. III. 6) ; kill, destroy ; disappoint, [dejection. delectus, see deicio. delectus, -us, [deicio], m., descent, slope, declivity, ii. 8, 22, 29. deinceps, [dein, = deinde, + cap in capio], adv., one after the other, in sttccession, in turn; without inter- ruption (ill. 29). deinde, [de + indej, adv., thereafter, afterwards, then, next. delatus, see defero. delecto, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of delicio], i, please; in pass., have pleasure in (\w 2). [delectation. delectus, see deligo. deleo 34 deprecator dSleo, -ere, -evi, -etus, 2, destroy ^ annihilate; of disgrace, wipe out (ii. 27). [delete. dglibero, -are, -avi, -fttus, [dS, cf. libra, balance"], i, deliberate, ponder. Impersonal, deliberatur, the ques- tion is discussed (vii. 15). [delib- erate. delibro, -are, , -atus, [de + liber, bark'], i, strip off the bark, peel. vii. 73, dglictum, -i, [d§linqu6, do wrong], n., offence, crime, vii. 4. [delict. deligo, -are, -avi, -atus, [de + ligrS, bind], I, bind fast, make fast, tie, fasten. dSligo, -lig-ere, -legi, -lectus, [de 4- leg-o], 3 choose, select, pick out. dSlitesco, -litescere, -litui, [de + latesco, from lateS], 3, conceal one's self. iv. 32. dementia, -ae, [demons], f., jnad- ness, folly, iv. 13. [dementia. demessus, see demeto. dSmeto, -metere, -messui, -mes- sus, [de + meto], 3, reap. iv. 32. demigrd, -are, -avi, -atus, [de + migro, depart], i, ?nove from,with- drazv ; depart, migrate. dSminuo, -mlnuere, -minui, -minii- tus, [de + minuS], 3, lessen, make smaller ; impair, [diminish. demissus, -a, -um, comp. -lor [part, of demittoj, adj., loiu. vii. 72. d§mlttd, -mittere, -misi, -missus, [de + mitts], 3, se?id down, let down ; of the head, bow (i. 32). demissae, letting themselves down (vii. 47). se demittere, to go down, come down, descend (v. 32; vi. 40; vii. 28). se anim5 de- mittere, to be discouraged (vii. 29). [demit. dSmo, d§mere, d3mpsl, d§mptus, [de -I- emS], 3, take down. v. 48. demonatrd, -are, -avi, -atus, [d§ + monstrS, show], \, point out, state ^ mention ; show, explain, [demon- strate. dSmoror, -ari, -atus, [de + moror], I, dep., delay, retard, hinder. dgmptus, see dem6. demum, adv., at length, finally . denego, -are, -avi, atus, [de + Vi&^o],\, refuse, deny. i. 42. [deny. deni, -ae, -a, [decem], distributive num. adj., ten each, ten apiece. denique, adv., at last, finally ; in a word, in short ; at any rate (ii. 33). dSnsuB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., thick, closely packed, dense, crowded, [dense. dgnuntio, -are, -avi, -atus, [de + nuntio], i, announce, declare; threaten (i. 36); order (vi. lo); admonish (C. III. 86). [denounce. dSpelld, -pellere, -puli, -pulsus, [de -j- pello], 3, drive away, dis- lodge ; of disease, ward off (vi. 17). dSperdo, -dere, -didi, -ditus, [dS -f- perdo, destroy], 3, lose. depered, -ire, -ii, -ittirus, [de + pereo], irr., be destroyed (\. 23); be lost, perish (vii. 31, C. III. 87). dSpono, -pSnere, -posul, -positus, [de + pon6], 3, lay aside, lay down, place; gir'e up, resign (vii. 33). [deposit. dSpopulor, ari, atus, [d§ + popu- lor], I, dej)., lay waste, plunder; part, depopuiatus, pass., laid waste, devastated (i. 11 ; vii. 77). [depopulate. dSporto, -are, -ftvi, -atus, [dS -f portSj, I, repnove, iii. 12. [deport. dSpoBcd, -poscere. -poposci, [de + poscSj, 3, demand, earnestly desire, dSposituB, sci.' dep5n5. dgpravo, -are, avi. atus. [d§, pra- vus], I, distort, corrupt, [deprave. dSprecator, -5ris, [dSprecor], m., intercessor, mediator, [deprecator. deprecor 35 destituo deprecor, -ari, -atus, [de + precor, pray'], I, dep., pray to be delivered from, beg to escape ; ask for quarter, beg for mercy (iv. 7, vi. 4). [dep- recate. deprehendo, -hendere, -hendi, -hensus, [de + prehendo], 3, catch, seize ; surprise. deprehensus, see deprehendo. deprimo, -primere, -pressi, -pres- sus, [de + premo], Z^ press down; sink (C. II. 6, 7, 43). [depress. depugno, -are, -avi, -atus, [de + pugno], \, fight decisively, fight it out (vii. 28). depulsus, see depello. derecte, comp. -ius, [derectus], adv., directly, straight up and down (iv. 17). derectus, -a, -una, [part, of derigo], adj., laid straight, straight; straight up and down, perpendicular . [direct. derigo, -rigere, -rexi, -rectus, [de + regoj, 3, lay straight ; of a line of battle, draw up, form (vi, 8). [dress. derive, -are, -avi, -atus, [de + rivus, brook], i, dratu off, turn aside. vii. [derive. derogo, -are, -avi, -atus, [de + rogo], I, withdraw, vi. 23. [dero- gate. descendo, -scendere, -scendi, de- scensum est, [de + scando, clirnb], 3, come down, descend ; with ad and the ace, resort to, stoop to. [descend. desec5, -care, -cui, -ctus, [de + seco], I, cut off. vii. 4. desero, -serere, -serui, -sertus, [de -f- sero, join], 3, leave, abandon, desert, [desert. desertor, -oris, [desero], m., de- serter, runaway, vi. 23. desertus, see desero. desertus, -x, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part, of desero), adj., deserted^ solitary, v. 53. deaidero, -are, -avi, -atus, i, 7vish for, want, long for, miss ; lack, lose ; pass, often, especially of soldiers, be missing, be lost, [desideratum. desidia, -ae, [deses, idle, cf. de- sideo], f., indolence, idleness, vi. 23. designo, -are, -avi, -atus, [de -^ sigjxo, mark], i, point out; indicate, evidence (C. ill. 96); designate (1. 18). [designate. desilio, -silire, -silui, -sultus, [de + salio, leap], 4, leap down, jump down ; from horses, dismount. desisto, -sistere, -stiti, -stiturus, [de 4- sisto], 3, leave off, cease ; desist from, stop, give up. desis- tere sententia, to give up the notion (vi. 4). [desist. despectus, see despicio. despectus, -us, [despicio], m., a looking down from an elevation, view. desperatio, -5nis, [desperS], f., despair, hopelessness, [desperation. desperatus, -a, -una, comp. -ior, sup. -issinaus, [part, of despero], adj., without hope, beyond hope, des- perate, vii. 3. [desperate. despero, are, -avi, -atus, [de + spero], I, give up hope of, despair of have no hope of [despair. despicio, -spicere , -spexi, -spectus, [de + specie, look], 3, look down upon ; despise.^ disdain, [despise. despolio, -are, -avi, -atus, [de -f- spolio], I, despoil, rob. ii. 31. [despoil. destino, -are, -avi, atus, i, make fast, bind, stay. operi destinati, detailed for the work (vii. 72). [destine. dSstituo, -stituere, -stitui, -stitu- tus, [de + statuo], t^, desert, aban- don, leave, i. 16. [destitute. destrictus 86 diduc5 dSstrictuB, see destringS. dgstringo, -stringrere, -strinxi, -strictus, [Linriov, from iiri -f I'ttttos], n., saddle-cloth. IV. 2. Epirus, -i, ["HTreipos], f., (e-pl' rus), a province in the northern part of Greece, east of the Adriatic. C. 111. 47,61. epistula, -ae, [^ttio-toXiJ], f., letter., despatch, v. 48. [epistle. EporSdoriz, igis, m., (ep-o-red' o- riks) : (i) A leader of the Aeduans, cap- tured by Caesar, vii. 67. (2) A young Aeduan of rank, for a time friendly to Caesar, after- wards one of the commanders of the Gallic army raised for the relief of Alesia. vii. 38, 39, 40, 54, 55, 63, 64, 76. epulae, -arum, f., y>^., feast, vi. 28. eques, -itis, [equus], m., horseman, cavalryman, trooper ; as a member of a social order, knight. equester, -tris, -tre, [eques], adj., of cavalry, cavalry-, [equestrian. equitatuB, -us, [equito, ride'], m., cavalry ; knighthood, collectively knights (i. 31). equus, -i, m., horse, [equine. Eratosthenes, -is, ['Eparoo-^^j'ijj], m., (er-a-tos' the-nez), a Greek, born at Cyrene, in Africa, B.C. 276; died about B.C. 196; librarian of the great library at Alexandria in Egypt, and famous as a geographer, mathemati- cian, historian, and grammarian, vi. 24. erectus, -a, -um, com p. -ior, [part, of erig-S], adj., high, elevated, iii. 13. [erect (adj.). ereptUB, see eripiS. ergS, prep, with ace, towards. v. 54- ergo, adv., therefore, then., vii. 77. Srigo, -rigrere, -rexi, -rectus, [ex -f- regro], 3, raise to a standing position, (vi. 27); erect, [erect (verb). eripio, -ripere, -ripui, -reptus, [ex + rapid, seize], 3, take away, snatch arvay ; rescue, save (i. 53). sS eripere, to rescue one?s self, make one's escape. erro, -are, -avi, -atus, \, wander ; be mistaken., delude one's self. [err. error, -6ris, [errS], m., wandering ; mistake (C. ill. 73). [error. erumpo, -rumpere, -rttpi, -ruptus. [ex -|- rump6, /';-£-l; V. 9, 16, 17. Esuvii, -orum, m., pi., (e-su'vi-I), a people in northwestern Gaul. et, conj., and. et . . . et, both . . . and. et'"*!!! [et + iam], conj., also; even. non solum . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also. etsi [et + si], conj., althojigh, though, even if. evado, -vadere, -vasi, -vasurus, [ex + vado], 3, escape, iii. 19. [evade. evello, -vellere, -velli, -vulsus, [ex + vello, pluck'], 3, pull out. i. 25- evenio, -venire, -veni, -venttirus, [ex + venio], 4, turn out, happen, iv. 25. eventus, -as, [cf. evenio], m., out- come, result; chance, fortmie (vi. 42); fate, accident (iv. 31). [event. evocatus, -i, [part, of evoco], m., veteran volunteer, a soldier serving voluntarily after the completion of his time of service, vii. 65. evoco, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex -f VOCo], I, call out, call forth, call, summon; invite (^v. ^S). [evoke. gvolo, -are, -avi, [ex + volo, fly], \, fly forth, rush out, dash out. ex, often before consonants e, prep, with abl., from, out of, dotvn from ; since, after ; of; by reason of, by, be- cause of, in consequence of; accord- ing to, with, in, on. ex una parte, on one side. In composition ex becomes ef be- fore f , e before b, d, g, 1 consonant, 1, m, n, and v. exactus, see exig-o. exagito, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex -f agfito, freq. of agro], i, disturb, harass, ii. 29; iv. I. ezamino, -are, -S-vi, -atus, [ex- amen, tongue of a balance], \,xveigh, V. 12. [examine. exanimo, -are, -avi, -atus, [exani- mus], I, deprive of life, kill ; pass., be out of breath, weakened, exhausted (11. 23, III. 19; C. III. 92). exardesco, -ardescere, -arsi, -arsa- rus, [ex + ardescoj, 3, take fire ; be incensed (v. 4). exaudio, -dire, -divi, -ditus, [ex + audio], 4, hear distinctly, hear plainly. excedo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessurus, [ex + cedo], 3,^^ out, leave, with- draw, depart, [exceed. excellens, -entis, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [excello], adj., surpass- ing., excellent. C. HI. 99. [excellent. excello, -cellere, participial adj. ex- celsus, 3, be eminent, surpass, vi. 13. [excel. excelsus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part, of excello], adj., high (vi. 26). [excelsior. excepts, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of excipio], I, catch up with the hands, take hold of (\\\. 47). exceptus, see excipio. excido, -cidere,-cidi,-cisus, [ex -f caedo], 3, cut out ; cut down (vii. 50). [excise. excipio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptus, [ex + capio], 3, take out ; take up (vii. 3) ; take in (vii. 28) ; cut off., catch (vi. 28, 35 ; vii. 20); receive., withstand {{. 52, iii. 5, iv. 17, C. ill. 92); cope with, encounter (iii. 13); take the place of, relieve, succeed., follow (v. 16; vii. 51, 88, C. ii, 7, III. 87). [except. excito, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex-f- cit6, move]., I., erect, raise rapidly (iii. 14; V. 40) ; stir up, rouse., spur on; kindle (vii. 24). [excite. excludo, -cludere, -clusi, -clusus, [ex + claudo], 3, shut out, shut excogito 44 expello off^ cut off ; hinder, prevent, [ex- clude. ezcdgitd, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex + cOg-itSj, I, think out, think of. v. 31. [excogitate. ezcrucio, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex + crucio, from crux, cross\ i, tor- ment.^ torture, [excruciate. escubitor, -oris, [excubo], m., soldier in bivouac; watchman., sen- tinel, vii. 69. e^cubo, -cubare, -cubui, [ex 4- cub6, lie down^, i, lie out of doors, bivouac ; keep watch, keep guard. exculco, -are, [ex + calco, from calx, /^f^/J, I, tread down, pack down by stamping, vii. 73. excursio, -onis, [ex, cf. currS], f., a running out ; sally, sortie (ii. 30). [excursion. excursus, -us, [excurro], m., a run- ning forth ; onset, attack (C. III. 92). [excursus. excusatio, -onis, [excttso], f., ex- cuse, apology, defence, vi. 4. excuso, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex, cf. causa], I, excuse., f?iake excuse for. iv. 22. [excuse. ezemplum, -i, [cf. eximo], n., ex- ample, precedent ; as an example to warn others, kind of punishment (i. 31). [example. exed, -ire, -ii, -Itum est, [ex + eo], xxt.., go forth, go out ; withdraw, leave. exerceo, -ercere, -ercui, -ercitus, [ex + arceoj, 2, exercise., practice ; train, discipline, [exercise. exercit&tio, -6nis, [exercito, freq. of exerce5], f., practice, exercise, training. exercitatuB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [exercitS, freq. of ex- erceS], adj., practiced, experienced, trained. exercituB, -as, [exerceS], m.,army.^ as a trained and disciplined body. exhaurid, -haurire, -hausi, -haus- tus, [ex + hauriS, draw up'], 4, take out. V. 42. [exhaust. exigo, -igere, -egi, actus, [ex + agro], 3, drive out ; of time, spend, complete, end (iii. 28; vi. i); of money, demand., require (C. I. 6). [exact. exigue [exiguus], adv., barely, hardly, vii. 71. exiguitas, -atis, [exigruiis], f., small- ness (iv. 30); scantness (iv. l); S7nall number, fewness (iii. 23); shortness (ii. 21, 33). exiguus, -a, -um, sup. -issimus, [exig-o], adj., small, scanty, little. eximius, -a, -um, [cf. eximSj, adj., distinguished, excellent, ii. 8. exiBtimatio, -onis, [existimO], f., opinion, jtidgment (i. 20; v. 44); good name., reputation (C. I. 7). existimo, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex + aestimo, compute]., i, reckon; think, consider, juiige, suppose, believe. exitus, -us, [exeo], m., a going out., egress (vii. 44); passage (vii. 28); conclusion, end ; issue, event, out- come, [exit. expedid, -pedire, -pedivi, -peditus, [ex, cf. pes], 4, disengage, set free ; get ready, make ready, [ex- pedite. expeditio, -5nis, [expediS], f., rapid march, v. lo. [expedition. expeditus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part of expediS], adj., with light equipment, unencumbered, light-armed ; convenient, easy, legri- 6nes expeditae, legions in light marching order, without baggage. As noun, expeditus, -i, m., soldier with light equipment, light-armed soldier. expello, -pellere, -puli, -pulsus, [ex 4- pellO], 3, drive otit, drivt away, remove, [expel. experior 45 extimescS experior, -periri, -partus, 4, dep., put to the test, try. [expert. ezpid, -are, -avi, -at us, [ex + pio, appease\ I, atone for, make amends for. V. 52. [expiate. expleo, -plere, -plevi, -pletus, [ex + pleo,///], 2, /// up, fill flit I; fill out, complete. explico, -are, -avi and -ui, explici- tus, explicaturus, [ex + plico, fold~\, I, unfold; of troops, with se, deploy (C. ill. 93). [explicate. explorator, -oris, [explore], ra., scout, patrol. exploratus, -a, -um, com p. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part, of exploroj, adj., established, certain, set /ltd, sure. Neut, as noun in pro explorato, lit. for a certainty, as certain (vi. 5). exploro, -are, -avi, -atus, i, search out, investigate, explore; spy out, reconnoitre ; gain, secure. [ex- plore. expono, -ponere, -posui, -positus, [ex+pono], 3, set out, put out; place in full view, array (iv. 23); from ships, set on shore, land; set forth, state, explain, [expose. exports, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex-f portoj, I, carry away. iv. 18. [export. exposed, -poscere, -poposci, [ex + posco], 3, earnestly request, clamor for. vii. 19; C. III. 90. exprimo, -primere, -pressi, -pres- sus, [ex + premo], 3, press out; force out (i. 32) ; raise, increase (vii. 22). [express. ezpugnatio, -onls, [expugno], f., storming, assault, vi. 41. expugno, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex + pugno], I, take by stortn, take by assault, capture. expulsus, see expello. exquiro, -quirere, -quisivi, -quisi- tus, [ex -f quaero], 3, seek out, search out (i. 41); ask for, inquire into (iii. 3). [exquisite. exquisitus, see exquiro. exsequor, -sequi, -secutus, [ex -f sequor], 3, d^^p.., follow up ; main- tain, enforce (i. 4). [execute. exsero, -serere, -serui, -sertus, [ex + sero], 3, thrust out; thrust out from one's garments, bare (vii. 50). exsertus, see exsero. exsisto, -sistere, -stiti, [ex+sistoj, 3, appear ; spring up, arise, ensue ; of a horn, project (vi. 26). [exist. exspecto, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex + specto], I, look out for, xvait for, await ; look to see, expect, [expect. exspolio, -are, -avi, -atus, [ex -|- spolloj, I, deprive, rob. vii. 77. exstinguo, -stinguere, -stinxi, -stinctus, [ex -f stinguo], 3, quench completely, v. 29. [extin- guish. exsto, -stare, [ex + st5], i, stand out, project, v. 18. [extant. exstruo, -struere, -struxi, -strac- tus, [ex + struo, /?7^], 3, /z7/], n., theft. fdsilis, -e, [cf. fundOj, adj., molten; of clay, kneaded, molded. v. 43. [fusile. futurus, -a, -um, see sum. Gabali, -orum, m., pi., (gab'a-Ii), a people in Southern Gaul, subject to the Arvernians. vii. 7, 64, 75. Gabinius, -i, m., Aulus Gabinius (ga- bin' j-us), consul with Lucius Cal- purnius Piso, 58 B.C. i. 6; C. in, 103. gaesum, -i, n., heavy javelin used by the Gauls, iii. 4. Gaius, -i, abbreviation C, m., Gaius (ga' yus), sometimes in English writ- ten Caius., a Roman first name. Galba, -ae, m., (gal'ba) : (i) Servius Sulpicius Galba,, a lieutenant of Caesar in the earlier part of the Gallic War, Praetor at Rome in 54 B.C.; afterwards named among the conspirators who took Caesar's life. iii. 1-6. (2) Galba., a ruler of the Sues- siones. ii. 4, 13. galea, -ae, f., helmet, ii. 21. Figure 199. — Coin struck at Lug- dunum, now Lyons. Silver, issued by order of Galba. latter half of first century a. d. Inscription, TRES GALLIA[e], 'Three Gauls.' The identifica- tion of the heads is uncertain ; an eaf of wheat projects in front of each. Gallia, -ae. [Oallus], f., Gallia (^gal' i-a), Gaul, used of Transal- pine Gaul, and of the middle one of its three parts, Celtic Gaul (i. i); Gallicus 51 Gracchi also of Cisalpine Gaul, and of the Province ; once in the plural, Gal- liae, as referring to the several di- visions (IV. 20), After Caesar's conquest the plural was used of three provinces in Transalpine Gaul (Fig. 199). [Gaul. Gallicus, -a, -um, [Gallus], adj., of Gaul^ Gallic. gallina, -ae, [gallus, cock\ f., hen. G-allus, -a, -um, adj., Gallic. As noun, m., a Gaul; pi., Galli, -drum, Celts., Galli (gal' T), used by Caesar as referring to the inhabitants of Gallia Celtica^ the middle of the three main divisions of Gaul. Gallus, -i, m., see Trebius. Garumna, -ae, f., (ga-rum'na), the great river of southvi^estern France, which rises in the Pyrenees Moun- tains and flows in a northwesterly direction to the Atlantic Ocean, after a course of about 350 miles; now Garonne, i. I. Garumni, -orum, m.,pl.,(ga-rum'nl), a people in Aquitania, probably near the sources of the Garonne, iii. 27. Gates, -ium, m., pi., (ga' tez), a peo- ple in Aquitania. iii. 27. gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, 2, semi-dep., rejoice, be glad. iv. 13. gavisus, see gaudeo. Geidumni, -orum, m., pi., (je- dum' nl), a people of Belgic Gaul, clients of the Nervians. v. 39. Genava, -ae, f., (jen' a-va), a city of the Allobroges, on the lacus Leman- nus; now Geneva, i. 7. gener, generi, m., son-in-law. v. 56. generatim [genus], adv., by kind; by peoples^ by tribes^ nation by na- tion (i. 51; vii. 19). gens, gentis, f., clan., family (vi. 22) ; nation^ people, [gentile. genus, generis, n., birth., descent., family; race (iv. 3; vii. 22, 42); kind., species; class., rank; method.^ nature, [genus. Gergovia, -ae, f., (jer-go' vi-a), chief city of the Arvernians, situated on a narrow plateau (elevation, 2,440 ft.) about six miles south of Clermont- Ferrand. Germania, -ae, [Germanus], f., Germany. [Germany. Germanicus, -a, -um, [German!], adj., German. Germanus, -a, -um, adj., of or from Germany, German. As noun, Ger- man!, -orum, m., pi., Germans, the Germans. [German. gero, gerere, gessi, gestus, 3, bear, carry; manage, transact, do, carry on ; carry out, perform, accomplish ; of anofifice,y?/// , lie prostrate ; lie dead (vii. 25). Pres. part, as noun, iacentes, -iuzn, m., pi., the fallen (ii. 27). iacio, iacere, ieci, lactus, 3, thrmv^ cast, hurl ; throw up^ construct (ii. 12) ; of an anchor, drop (iv. 28). iacto, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of iacio], I, throw^ cast (vii. 47); throw about^ jerk back and forth (i. 25); discuss^ agitate {\. 18); boast of vaunt (C. III. 83). iactura, -ae, [iaciS], f., a throwing; loss^ sacrifice^ cost. lactus, see iaci5. laculum, -i, [cf. iacio], n., javelin. V. 43. 45- lam, adv., already^ now ; at once^ im- mediately (vi. 35, vii. 38); at length (i. 42); actually (iii. 17); in fact., indeed (iii. 9). Ibl or ibi, adv., in that place., there. IccluB, -i, m., (ik'sh[y]us), a leader , of the Remi. Ictus, -us, [ic6, strike\ m., blow., stroke, i. 25; vii. 25. id., abbreviation for Idus. Idclrcd, [id -fabl. of circus], adv., on that account.^ therefore, v. 3. idem, eadem, idem, eiusdem, dem. pron., the same, [identity. identldem, [idem et idem], adv., repeatedly, again and again, ii. 19. Iddneus, -a, -um, adj., suitable^ con- _ venient^fit, capable. Idus, -uum, f., pi., abbreviation Id., the Ides, the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October; the thir- teenth day of other months, i. 7. Ignis, -is, m.,fire. PI., igrnSs, /r ^^^P upon. i. 52. insimulo, -are, -S-vi, -atus, [in -f simulo], I, charge with, accuse of; witli gen. vii. 20, 38. insinuo, -g,re. -avi, -atus, [in + sinu6, curve], i.^ push in; with se, f/iake one's way (iv. 33). [insinu- ate. Insists, -sistere, -stiti, [in + sisto], 3, stand, stand upon, keep one's foot- ing ; press on; follow, pursue (iii. 14). tStug insistit in, he devotes himself zvholly to (vi. 5). [insist. insolSns, -entis, [in-, soleo], adj., unusual, insolens belli, unaccus- tomed to 7var (C. II. 36). [inso- lent. Insolenter [in8ol§ns], adv., arro- 'gantly, haughtily, i. 14. insolitus, -a, -um. [in- + solitus], adj., unaccustomed. C. iii. 85. inspects, -are, only pres. part, in use, [freq. of inspiciS], i, look at, look. inspectantibus nSbis, under our own eyes (vii. 25). [in- soect. Instabilis, -e, [in- + stabilis, from St6], adj., unsteady, iv. 23. instSns, -antis, comp. instantior, [part, of instSJ, adj., impending, pressing, vi. 4. [instant. iustar, n., indecl., likeness ; followed by gen., like (li. 17). instigS, -are, -avi, -atus, i, urge on, incite, v. 56. [instigate. instituS, -stituere, -stitui, -stittt- tus, [in -f status], 3, of troops, draw up, arrange; devise, build, construct; make ; make ready, fur- nish ; obtain {u\. \., fresh troops, [integer. intego, -tegrere, -texi, -tectus, [in + tego], 3, cover, cover over. intellegd, -legere, -lexi, -lectus, [inter + lego], 3, understand, see clearly, realize, [intelligent. intentus, -a, -una, comp. -lor, sup. -issimus, [part, of intendoj, adj., attentive, eager, intent, [intent. inter, prep, with ace, between, among ; of time, during, for (i. 36). in- ter se, with each other, among them- selves, with one another. intercede, -cedere, -cessi, -cessu- rus, [inter + ced5], 3, go between, be placed between (ii. 17); lie be- tween (i. 39; V. 52; vii. 26, 46, 47) ; of time, intervene, pass (i. 7; v. 53) ; take place, occur (v. 1 1 ). [intercede. intercessid, -onis, [intercedo], f., interposition.! protest. C. 1. 7. [in- tercession. intercipid, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptus, [inter + capio], 3, cut off, inter- cept, [intercept. intercludo, -clu^Mve, -ciasi, -clu- sus, [inter 4- ciaado], 3, shut off, cutoff; block up,b -^tkade, hinder. inter dico, -dicere, dixi, -dictus, [inter H- dico], 3, forbid, prohibit, exclude, interdict; followed by a prohibition, enjoin (v. 58; vii. 40). [interdict. interdiu, [inter, cf. dies], adv., in the daytifue, by day. interdum, [inter + dum], adv., for a time, for a season (i. 14) ; some- times (i. 39). interea, [inter + ea], adv., in the mean time, meanwhile. intereo, -ire, -ii, -iturus, [inter + eo], j^, perish, be destroyed, die. interficio, -flcere, -feci, -fectus, [in- ter + facio], 3, slay.1 kill. intericio, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [in- ter + iacio], 3, throw between.^ place between., put between; pass, part., interiectus, lying between.^ intervening, [interject. interiectus, see intericio. interim, [inter + -im], adv., in the meafi time, meanwhile. interior,-ius, gen. -oris, sup. intimus, [inter], adj. in comp. degree, inner, interior. As noun, interiores, -una, m., pi., those living in the in- terior (v. 14), those within the city (vii. 82, 86). [interior, interitus, -us, [intereo], m., destruc- tion., death, v. 47. intermi tt 6 , -naitter e , -naisi , -missus , [inter + naitto], 3, leave an inter- val^ leave vacant; leave off., leave; stop, break., cease., discontinue; inter- rupt., suspend ; pass,, of fire, abate (v, 43), of wind,/?i7 (v. 8). [inter- mittent. internecio, onis, [cf. interneco, de- stroy\ f., slaughter (l. 13); utter destruction (ii. 28). [internecine. interpello, -are, -avi, -atus, i, inter- rupt ; disturb, hinder (i. 44), [in- terpellate. interpono, -ponere, -posui, -posi- tus, [inter + pono], 3, place be- tzveen., put between^ interpose ; put forzvard (i. 42) ; present., manifest (iv, 32) ; of time, suffer to elapse. fidem interponere, to pledge one's honor (v. 6, 36). [interpose. interpres, -pretis, m., interpreter., i. 19; V. 36. [interpreter. interpreter, -ari, -atus, [interpres], I, dep., explain., expound, vi. 13. [interpret. interrogo, -are, -avi, -atus, [inter + rogo], I, ask., question, vii. 20. [interrogate. interrumpo, -rumpere. -rupi, -rup- tus, [inter + rumpo] , 3, break interscindo 62 invitus down^ destroy, vii. 19, 34. [inter- rupt. interscindo, -scindere, -soldi, -scis- sus, [inter + scindS], 3, cut down (ii. 9); cut through (vii. 24). intersum, -esse, -fui, irr., be between^ lie between ; be present at., take part in. Impers., interest, it concerns., is important, magrni interest, it is of great importance (v. 4, vi. i). neque interest, and it makes no difference (vii. 14). [interest. intervallum, -i, [inter + vallum], n., room between two palisades, in- terval., space., distance, [interval. interveni6,-venire, -veni, -ventum est, [inter + venio], 4, arrive (vi. 37) > appear^ present one's self (vii. 20). [intervene. interventus, -us, [intervenio], m., intervention, iii. 15. intexo, -texere, -texui, -textus, [in + texo, weave\ 3, weave in., inter- weave, ii. 33. intoleranter, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [intolerans], adv., unendurably ; violently (vii. 51). intra, [for intera, sc. parte], prep, with ace, inside of within. intritus, [in- + part, of ter6, rub\ adj., unworn ; unwearied., fresh (iii. 26). Intro, adv., within., inside. Intro, -are, -avi, -atus, [in + ♦trS, cf, trans], i, enter., go in. [enter. introduce, -ducere, -dQxi, -ductus, [intro -{- dac6], 3, lead into^ bring into, [introduce. introeo, ire, -ivi, [intrS + eo], irr., go in; come in, enter (v. 43). introituB, -us, [introe5], m., an entering; entrance {w. g). [introit. intromisauB, see intrSmitto. intr5mitto, -mittere, -misi. -mis- sus, [intrS f mitts], 3, send into, send in ; let in ; bring in (v. 58). introrsuB, [intrS + versus], adv., within, inside. intronimpo, -rumpere, -rupi, -rup- tus, [intrO + rump6, break], 3, burst into; break in (v. 51). intueor, -tueri, -tuitus, [in + tu- eor], 2, dep., look upon. i. 32. [intuition. intuleram, see inferS. intuli, see infero. intuB, adv., loithin, on the inside. inuBitatUB, -a. -um, comp. -lor, [in- -f part, of usitor, freq. of Q.tor], adj., unfamiliar, unwonted, unprece- dented. InutiliB, -e, comp. -lor, [in- + atilis], adj., useless, unserviceable^ of no use ; disadvantageous (vii. 27). [inutile. invenio, -venire, -veni, -ventus, [in + veniS], 4, come upon, find, dis- cover; find out, learn (ii. 16). [in- vent. inventor, -oris, [inveniS], m., origi- nator, inventor, vi. 17. [inventor. inveter^BCO, -ere, inveteravi, [in -f veterasco, from vetus], Ztgrow old ; become established, become fixed (v. 41); establish one's self {W. i). [cf. inveterate. invictuB, -a, -um, [in- -f- part, of vinco], adj., unconquerable, invinci- ble, i. 36. invided, -videre, -vidi, -visus, [in -|- videS], 2, look askance at ; envy (ii- 30- invidia, -ae, [Invidus], f., envy^ jealousy, [envy. inviol&tuB, -a, -um, [in- -f part, of v\o\o],^i\)., inviolable, iii. 9. [in- violate. inviBitatus, -a. -um, [in- -f visita- tus], adj., unseen. C. II. 4. invito, -&re, -ftvi, -fttus, i, invite, request (i. ^^l iv. 6) ; entice, attract (v. 51 ; vi. 35). [invite. invitus, -a, -um, sup. -issimus, adj., ipse 63 Iflra unwilling, reluctant. se invito (i. 8; IV. i6), eo invito (i. 14), against his ivill. ipse, -a, -una, gen. ipsiu8, dem. pron., self; himself, herself itself, them- selves ; he, they (emphatic); very. hoc ipso tempore, y«J'/ at this mo- ment (vi. 37). iracundia, -ae, [iracundus], f., anger, passion, vi. 5; vii. 42. iracundus, -a,-um, comp. -ior, [ira], adj., passionate, quick-tempered, i. 31. [iracund. irrideo, -ridere, -risi, -risus, [in + rideo, laugk^, 2, laugh at, make fun of, ridicule, ii. 30. irridicule, [in- + ridicule], adv., without wit. i. 42. irrumpo, -rumpere, -rapi, -ruptus, [in + rumpo, break^, 3, break into, burst into, rush in. irniptio, -onis, [irrumpo], f., raid (vii. 7); attack (vii. 70). [irrup- tion. Ib, ea, id, gen. eius, dem. pron., he, she, it ; that, this, the, the one ; before ut, is = talis, such; after et, and that too ; after neque, and that not (iii. 2) ; with comparatives, abl. eo = the, all the, as eo magis, all the more. iste, -a, -ud, gen. istius, dem. pron., that, that of yours, vii. 77. ita, [cf. is], adv., in this way, so, thus ; in the following manner, in such a way, accordingly. non ita, not so very, not very (iv. 37; v. 47). Italia, -ae, f., Italy. [Italy. itaque, = et ita, and so (i. 52). itaque, [ita + -que], adv., and thus, accordingly, therefore, consequently. item, adv., also, further ; just so, in like manner, [item. iter, itineris, [cf. eo, ire], n., jour- ney, line of march, march ; road, route. magnum iter, forced jnarch, from 20 to 25 miles a day. ex itinere, directly after marching, from the line of march ; used of a force which turns from marching at once, without encamping, to attack an enemy in the field (i. 25 ) , to storm a town (ii. 6, 12; iii. 21), or to re- treat (ii. 29). [itinerary. iterum, adv., again, a second time. Itius, -i, m., portus Itius (ish' [y]us), harbor from which Caesar sailed to Britain, probably Boulogne. itunis, see eo. iuba, -ae, f., mane. i. 48. luba, -ae, m., Juba (ju' ba), a king of Numidia, who joined the side of Pompey in the Civil War. iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussus, 2, order, give orders, bid, command, [jussive. indicium, -i, [iudex,7«^^], n., legal judgment, decision, decree ; place of judgment, trial (i. 4) ; opinion, judg- ment, [judicial. iudico, -are, -avi, -p,tus, [iudex], I, judge, decide; think, be of the opinion; pronounce, declare (v. 56). [judge (verb). iugum, -i, [lUG, cf. iungo], n., yoke (i. 7, 12; iv. 33) ; of hills and moun- tains, ridge, summit, height. iumentum, -i, [for *iugumentum, root lUG in iungo], n., yoke-animal, beast of burden, draught-animal^ used of horses, mules, and asses. iunctiira, -ae, [iungo], {., juncture, joint, iv. 17. [juncture. iunctus, see iungo. iungo, -ere, iunxi, iunctus, 3, join together, join, connect, unite, [join. iiinior, see iuvenis. lunius, -i, m., Quintus Junius (jun'- yus), a Roman of Spanish birth in Caesar's army. v. 27, 28. luppiter, lovis, m., Jupiter (jii'pi- ter). vi. 17. Fig. 200. [jovial. lura, -ae, m., Jura (ju' ra), a range of mountains extending from the iurS 64 Labienus Rhine to the Rhone (about 170 miles), and forming the boundary between the Helvetians and the Sequanians. i. 2, 6, 8. Figure 200. — Bust of Jupiter, discovered at Pompeii- Of marble. " The god is following with closest attention the course of events in some far distant place, affairs that in the next moment nnay require his intervention ; excitement and expectancy are seen in the raised upper lip. The ideal of this sculptor was the wise and powerful king, whose watchful and all-protective eye sees to the furthest limits of his kingdom " ids reddere, to render justice (vi. 13). iiis dicere, to adm inister jus- tice (vi. 23). iara in hOs, rights over these (vi. 13). ius iurandum, laris iQ- randi, [ius -f gerun- dive uf iuro], n., oath. iussus, -Qs, [iubeo], m., used only in abl. sing., order ^ bidding, command, vii. 3. iustitia, -ae, [lastus], f., justice, fair-deal- ing, [justice. iuBtuB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [ius], adj.,y«j/, right- ful, fair ; proper, suit- aide, due. [just. iuvenls, -e, comp. ia- nior, adj., r^«"^. As noun, itiniores, -um, m., pi., younger men, of military age, under forty-six years (vii. l). [junior. iuventus, -tltis, [iu- venis] , f., youth ; young men. iuvo, -are, ittvi, iQtus, I, help, aid, assist. iuxta, adv., near by, near, [jostle. iuro, -are, -avi, -atus. [itls], i, take an oath, S7vear. [jury. Ills, itlris, n., right, justice, authority. iare belli, by the laivs of^var (i. 44; vii. 41). in 8u6 iQre, in the exer- cise of his own rights (l. 36, 44). Kal. = Kalendae. Kalendae. -arum, f.. pi.. Calends, the first day of the month. [Calendar. L., with proper names = Ltlcius. LaberiuB, -I. m., see Dttrus. Labi§nuB, -I, m., Titus labienus (la- bj-e' nus)v, the most prominent of labor 65 lav6 Caesar's lieutenants in the Gallic War; in the Civil War he went over to the side of Pompey, but displayed small abilities as a com- mander, and fell at the battle of Munda, 45 B.C. labor, labi, lapsus, 3, dep., slip ; go astray (v. 3); fail, be deceived, be disappo inted (v. 55). [lapse. labor, -oris, m., toil, work, exertion, labor ; endurance (iv. 2). [labor. laboro, -are, -avi, -atus, [labor], i, make effort, labor, strive (i. 31 ; vii. 31); be hard pressed, be in distress, be in danger, [labor (verb). labrum, -i, [i.ab, cf. lambo, lick^, n., lip (v. 14); edge (vii. 72); rim, brim (vi. 28). lac, lactis, n., milk, [lacteal. lacesso, -ere, -ivi, -itus, [obsolete laci5, entice\ 3, arouse, provoke; harass, assail, attack. lacrima, -ae, f., tear, [lachrymal. lacrimo, -are, -avi, -atus, [lac- rima], I, shed tears, weep. vii. 38. lacus, -us, m., lake. [lake. laedo, laedere, laesi, laesus, 3, in- jure ; break, violate (vi. 9). laetitia, -ae, [laetus], f., rejoicitig, Joy, delight, v. 48, 52; vii. 79. laetuB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, 2^^].. joyful, glad, iii.* 1 8. languide, comp. lang-uidius, [lan- guidus], adv., feebly, lazily, vii. 27. languidus, -a, um, comp. -ior, [cf. languor], adj., weak, faint, ex- hausted, iii. 5. [languid. languor, -oris, [langueS, be faint\ va.., faintness ; exhaustion, weariness (v. 31). [languor. lapis, -idis, m., stone, [lapidary. lapsus, see labor. laqueuB, -i, m., noose, vii. 22, largior, largiri, largitus, [largus, abundant\ ^, A^"^., give freely, sup- ply, bestow (vi. 24); bribe (i. 18). largiter, [largus, abundant\ adv., abundantly, much. largitio, -onis, [larg-ior], f., lavish giving, bribery, i. 9. [largition. Larisa, -ae, [Adpio-o-a], f. (la-ris' a), a city in Thessaly, now Larissa. C. III. 96, 97, 98. lassitudo, -inis, [lassus, weak^ f., faintness, weariness, [lassitude. late, comp. latius, sup. latissime, [latus], adv., tvidely, broadly, ex- tensively, quam latissime, as far as possible. latebra, -ae, [cf. lateo], f., hiding- place, vi. 43. [latebricole. lateo, latere, latui, 2, lie hid (ii. 19); beunttoticed {m. i^^. [latent. latissime, sea late. latitude, -inis, [latus], f., width, breadth, extent, [latitude. latius, see late. Latobrigi, -orum, m., pi., (lat-o- bri' jT), a people near the Helvetians. latro, -onis, n\., freebooter, robber. latrocinium, -i, [latrocinor, plun- der^, n., freebooting, brigandage, rob- bery, vi. 16, 23, 35. laturus, see fero. latus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issi- mus, adj., broad, wide ; of territory, extensive (ii. 4; vi. 22). latus, -eris, n., side; of an army, flank. latus apertum, exposed flank. ab latere, on the flank. [lateral. laudo, -are, -avi, -atus, [laus], i, praise, commend, compliment, [laud (verb). laurea, -ae, [laurus, laurel\ f., laurel tree; laurel (C. ill. 71). [laureate. laus, laudis, f., praise, glory, com- mendation, distinction, [laud. lavo, -are, li-vi, lautus and lotus, I, wash; pass, lavari, used reflex- ively, bathe (iv. i). [lave. laxO 66 liberaiitas laxo, -are, -avi, -atus, i, make wide, spread out, extend, [laxative. legatio, -onls, [leg6, despatch'], f., envoyship, mission (i. 3); referring to persons (= legrati), deputation, embassy, envoys, [legation. ISgatUB, -1, [lego, despatch], m., en- voy ; of the army, lieutenant, lieu- tenant-general, [legate. legio, -onis, [cf. lego, collect], f., legion, [legion. legidnariuB, -a, -um, [leg-io], adj., of a legion, legionary, [legionary. lego, -ere, legi, lectus, 3, bring to- gether ; single out, select (C. in. 59); read, [legible. legumen, -Inis, [lego, gather], n., pulse. C. III. 47. [legume. LemannuB, -i, m., with lacus, Lake Geneva. LemovicSB, -um, m., pi., (lem-o- vl'sez), a Gallic people west of the Arvernians. ISnis, -e, comp. -lor, sup. -issimus, adj., smooth, gentle, [lenient. ISnitas, -atis, [lenis], f., smoothness (i. 12); gentleness (C. ill. 98). [lenity. leniter, comp. lenius, sup. -issime, [lenis], adv., mildly, gently, slightly. lentg, [lentus], adv., comp. lentius, slowly. C. II. 40. LentuluB, -i, m., (len' chulus) : (i) Lucim Lentulus, coii%\x\ in 49 B.C., a partisan of Pompey, who was with him at the time of the battle of Pharsalus (C. in. 96). (2) See Splnther. ISnunculuB, -i, m., boat, skiff. C. 11. 43- Lepontii, -6rum, m., pi., (le-pon'- sh[y]T), a people in the Alps. Leptitani, -5rum, [Leptis], m., pi., (lep-tj-ta' nl), the inhabitants of Leptis Minor, a city on the coast of Africa southeast of Thapsus. lepuB, -oris, m., hare. v. 12. Leuci, -orum, m., pi., (lu' si), a Gal- lic state south of the Mediomatrici. i. 40. Lev5ci, -6rum, m., pi., (le-va'sl), a Belgic people, dependents of the Nervians. v. 39. leviB, -e, comp. -lor, sup. -isBimxis, adj., light, slight ; of a report, base- less, unfounded (vii. 42); of an en- gagement, unimportant {\\\. 36,53). Comp., more capricious (v. 28); less serious (vii. 4). levitaB, -atis, [levis], f., lightness (y- 34); fickleness, instability (ii. i; vii. 43). [levity. leviter, [levis], adv., comp. levius, sup. levissime, lightly. C. iii. 92. levo, -are, -avi, -atus, [levis], i, lighten; relieve, free from (v. 27). lex, legis, {.., law, enactment, [legal. Lezovii, orum, m., pi., (leks-6' vi-i), a Gallic state on the coast west of the Sequana (Seine). Fig. 201. Figure 201. — Coin of the Lexovii. Bronze. Obverse, portrait ; inscription, CISIAMBOS, probably the name of the man whose portrait appears. Reverse, eagle; Inscription, PUBLICOS Cl Misses LIXOVIO. libenter, comp. libentius, sup. liben- tissime, [libens, glad], adv., jvill- ingly, gladly, cheerfully. liber, -era, -erum, comp. -lor, sup. liberrlmus , ad j . , free, independent ; u n impeded, tin restricted. [ liberal . liber aiitas, -atis, [liberaiis], f., gen- erosity (i. 18) ; generous help (l. 43). [liberality. liberaliter 67 longinquus liberaliter, comp. liberalius, sup. -issime, [liberalis], adv., gra- ciously^ courteously, kindly. libere, comp. -ius, [liber], adv., freely, without hindrance (vii, 49); boldly (v. 19); openly (i. 18; vii. i). liberi, -orum, m., pi., children. libero, -are, -avi, -atus, [liber], i, set free, free ; release, relieve, [lib- erate. Ifbertas, -atis, [liber], f., freedom, liberty, independence, [liberty. Lib5, -onis, m., Lucius Scribonius Libo (skri-bo' ni-us li' bo), a partisan of Pompey in the Civil War. C. iii. 90. librTlis, -e, [libra, pound'\, adj., weighing a pound, vii. 81. licentia, -ae, [licens, licet], f., law- lessness; presumption (vii. 52). [license. liceor, liceri, licitus, 2, dep., bid, make a bid, at an auction, i. 18. licet, licere, licuit and licitum est, 2, impers., it is allowed, lawful, per- mitted, licet mihi, / am allowed^ I may. petere ut liceat, to ask permission, [licit. Licinius, -i, m., Licinius (iT-sin' i-us), a Roman name : ( 1 ) Licinius Crassus, see Crassus. (2) Licinius Damasippus (dam- a-sip' us), a Roman senator on the side of Pompey in the Civil War. C. II. 44 lictor, -oris, m., lictor, an attendant upon a Roman magistrate. C. i. 6. Liger, -eris, m., (11' jer), L.oire, which rises in the Cevennes ( Cebenna) mountains, flows northwest, receives as a tributary the Allier {Elaver), flows west, and empties into the Atlantic, after a course of more than 500 miles, iii. 9; vii, 5, 1 1, 55, 59, lignatio, -6nis, [lignor, from ligf- nwca], C^ getting wood. v. 39. lignator, -oris, [lignor, from ligr- num], m., wood-cutter. PI., men sent to get wood, wood foragers (v. 26). inium, -i, n., lily. vii. 73. [lily. linea, -ae, [lineus, from linum], f, line. vii. 23. [line. Lingones, -um, m., pi., (ling' go- nez), a Gallic people west of the Se- quanians. lingua, -ae, f., tongue; language (i. i, 47). [language. lingula, -ae, [dim. of lingua], f., tongue of land. iii. 12. linter, -tris, f., boat, skiff. linum, -i, Ti.,flax. iii. 13. lis, litis, f., strife ; lawsuit ; damages, adjudged by legal process (v. i). Liscua, -1, m., (lis' kus), chief magis- trate (vergobret) of the Aeduans in 58 B.C. Litaviccus, -i, m., (Ut-a-vik' us), a prominent Aeduan. littera, -ae, f., letter, character, of the alphabet. PL litterae, -arum, writing (vi. 14); letter, despatch. litterae publicae, public records (v. 47). [letter. litUB, -oris, n., shore of the sea, strand, beach, [littoral. locuples, -etis, [locus, cf. plenus], z.^)., wealthy, opulent. C. ill. 59. locus, -i, m., pi. loca, -orum, n., place, ground; position, situation; room ; social position, rank, stand- ing ; opportunity ; pi. loca often region, country, [local. locutus, see loquor, longe, comp. longius, sup. longis- sime, [longrus], adv., at a distance, far, by far. Comp., of space, further; of time, further, longer. quam longissime, as far as possible, longinquus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, [longus], z.^]., far removed, remote, distant; long- continued, prolonged, lasting, [longinquity. longitudO 68 maleficium longitudo, -inis, [longrus], f., length. [longitude. longuriuB, -i, [longus], m., long pole. longus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., longy extended, dis- tant; used of either space or time. nSLvis longa, battleship, galley. loquor, loqui, loctitus, 3, dep., speak, say. [loquacious. lorica, -ae, [cf. lorum, leather strap'], {., cuirass of leather; breastwork (v. 40; vii. 72, 86). [loricate. Lucanius, -1, m., Quintus I.ucanius (lu-ka' ni-us), a brave centurion. V. 35. Lucilius, -i, m., a Roman name. Lu- cilius Hirrus (lu-sil' i-us hir' us), a leader on the side of Pompey in the Civil War. C. in. 82. Lucius, -i, m., (lu' sh[y]us), a Roman first name; abbreviation, Ij. Lucterius, -i, m., (luk-te' ri-us), a Cadurcan, a helper of Vercingetorix in the great uprising of 52 B.C. luctus, -lis, [lag-eS], m., mournings lamentation. C. 11. 7. Lugotorix, -igria, m., (lu-got' o-riks), a British chief, v. 22. luna, -ae, f., moon, [lunar. Luna, -ae, f., moon as a divinity, moon-goddess, vi. 21. Lutecia, -ae, f., (lu-te' sh[y]a), a city of the Parisii on an island in the Seine, Paris, vi. 3; vii. 57, 58. Iflx, lacls, f., light, daylight, prima IQce, at daybreak. Idzuria, -ae, [laxus, excess], f., high livings luxury, ii. 15. [luxury. M. M., with proper names = Mftrcus. M as a designation of number = looo. maceria, -ae, [cf. macerS, soften], f., originally wall of soft clay ; wall of loose stone (vii. 69, 70.) machinSltio, -Snis, [machinor, con- trive], f., mechanical appliance, machine, [machination. maestus, -a, -um, sup. -issimus, [cf. maereS, he sad], adj., sad, dejected. magis, sup. maxime, [cf. magrnus], adv. in comp. degree, more, rather. eo magis, all the more. Sup. ma- xime, very greatly, exceedingly, chiefly, especially, quam maxime, as much as possible. magister, -tri, m., master of a ship. captain (C. ill. 43). [master. magiatratus, -us, [magister], m., magistracy, civil office ; one holding a magistracy, magistrate, [magistrate. magnificuB, -a, -um, comp. magnifl- centior, sup. -issimus, [magnus, cf. faciS], adj., splendid, magnifi- cent, vi. 19. [magnificent. magnitudo, -inis, [magnus], f., greatness, extent ; size, bulk ; of winds and waves, violence, [magnitude. magnopere, [for magnS opere, abl. of magnum -f opus], adv., very much, greatly, specially, deeply ; ear- nestly, urgently. magnus, -a, -um, comp. znaior, sup. maximus, adj., great, large, power- ful ; of wind, violent; of voices, loud (iv. 25). Sup., greatest, very great, largest, very large. As noun, maiores, -um. m., \\., forefathers^ ancestors, maiores natil, lit. those older by birth, the old men, elders (ii. 13,28; iv. 13). [maximum. maiestSs, -atis, [maior], f., great- ness, dignity, vii. 17. [majesty. maiorgs, -um, see magnus. malacia, -ae, {^^a.\a.Kia.], {., calm, dead calm. iii. 15. male, comp. peius, sup. pesslmS, [malus, bad], adv., badly ^ iily un- successfully. maleficium, -I. [maleflcus], n., mis- chief wrong doing.^ outrage, harm. maid 69 materior maid, maUe, malui, [magris + volo], \rx., prefer, choose rather, had rather. malus, -i, m., upright pole, upright ; of a ship, mast. iii. 14; vii. 22. mandatum, -i, [part, of mando], n., commission, order; comitiand ; in- junction, instruction, [mandate. mando, -are, -avi, -atus, [tnanus + do], I, commit, entrust, commission ; order, direct, [mandatory. Mandubii, -orum, m., pi., Mandu- Hans, Mandubii (man-du' bi-i), a Gallic people north of the Aeduans; chief city Alesia, now Alise-Ste- Reine. Mandubracius, -i, m., (man-du-bra'- sh[y]us), a British chieftain, loyal to Caesar, v. 20, 22. mane, adv., in the morning. maned, manere, mansi, mansurus, 2, stay, remain; continue, [manse. manipularis, -e, [manipulus] , adj., of a maniple. As noun, manipu- laris, -is, m., soldier of a maniple, fellow-manipular. vii. 47, 50. manipulus, -i, [manus + ^le in pleo, the first standard of a maniple being a handful of hay raised on a pole], m., company of soldiers, man- iple, one-third of a cohort, [maniple. ManliuB, -i, m., Lucius Manlius (man'li-us), a proconsul in Gaul, iii. 20. mansuefaciOj-facere, -feci, -factus, pass, mansuefio, -fieri, [mansu- etus, tame, + facio], 3, 7tiake tame, tame. vi. 28. mansuStildo, -inis, [mansuetus, tame'], {., gentleness, compassion. manus, -us, f., hand ; of troops, band, force, [manicure. Marcelllnus, -i, m., P. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus (len' chu-lus mar-se-li' nus), a quaestor in Caesar's army in the Civil War. C. iii. 64. Marcellus, -i, m., Gaius Claudius Marcellus (kla' dj-us mar-sel' us), one of the consuls in 49 B.C. C. i. 6. Marcius, -i, m., Marcius Rufus (mar'sj-us ru'fus), a quaestor in Curio's army (C. 11. 43). Marcomani, -orum, m., pi., (mar- kom'a-ni), a Germanic people. Marcus, -i, m., (mar' kus), a Roman first name, our Mark. mare, -is, n., the sea. [marine. marltimus, -a, -um, [mare], adj., of the sea, by the sea, near the sea ; maritime, sea-. maritimae res, naval operations (iv. 23). [mari- time. Marius, -i, m., Gaius Marius (ma'- ri-us), a great Roman general; born 157 B.C., near Arpinum, died 86 B.C.; famous for his victories over Jugur- tha, and the Cimbrians and Teutons; seven times consul, remaining to the end the bitter foe of the aristocratic party, i. 40. Marriicini, -5rum, m., pi., (mar- u-sl' nl), a people of Central Italy, on the Adriatic coast. C. Ii. 34. Mars, Martis, m., Mars (marz), god of war (vi. 17). [March. mas, maris, vs\.,male. vi. 26. [male. Massilia, -ae, [Macro-aX/a], f., (ma- sil'i-a), a city in southern Gaul, founded by Greeks from Phocaea; now Marseilles. C. ii. 3, 7. Massilienses, -ium, [Massilia], m., pi., inhabitants of Massilia, Massil- ians. matara, -ae, i., javelin, spear, i. 26. mater, -tris, f., mother. matres familiae, matrons, [maternal. materia, -ae, and inS.teries, ace. (vii. 24) materiem, [mater], f., mate- rial, stuff; timber, wood ; woodzuork (vii. 23). [material. materior, -ari, [materia], i, dep., procure timber, get wood. vii. 73. Matisco 70 Mercurius Matisco, -5ni8, f., (ma-tis'ko), an Aeduan city on the Arar {Sadne), now Afdfon. vii. 90. matrimonium, -i, [mater], n., mar- riage, [matrimony. Matrona, -ae, f., Matrona (mat'ro- na), Marne, a tributary of the Se- quana {Seine), into which it flows four miles above Paris, after a course of more than two hundred miles, i. i. maturg, conip. maturius, sup. ma- turrime, [maturus], adv., early. quam maturrime, as early as pos- sible (i. 33). maturesco, [maturus], -ere, matu- rui, 3, become ripe, ripen, vi. 29. maturo, -are, -avi, -atus, [mata- rus], I, make haste, hasten, [matu- rate. mSturrimS, see matare. maturus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. maturrimus, adj., ripe ; early (iv. 20). [mature. Mauritania, -ae, (md-re-ta' ni-a), a country of northern Africa reaching from Numidia west to the Atlantic Ocean. C. i. 6. mazimg, [maximus], see magris. mazimus, see magnus. Maximus, see Fabius (i). medeor, -eri, 2, dep., neal ; remedy, provide for .{y. 24). [medicine. mediocris, -ere, [medius], adj., com- mon, ordinary ; of distance, moder^ ate, short, [mediocre. mediocriter, comp. mediocrius [mediocris], adv., moderately, in a slight degree. Mediomatrici, -5rum, m., pi., (me"- dj-o-mat' rj-si), a Gallic people near the Rhine. mediterraneuB, -a, -um, [medius -f terra], adj., inland. v. 12. [Mediterranean. medius, -a. -um, adj., middle, in the midst, mid-, media noz, midnight. de media nocte, just after mid- night, [medium. Meldl, -arum, m., pi., (mel'dl), a Gallic people on the Matrona (A/arne) , e2LSt of the Parisii. v, 5. melior, adj., see bonus. melius, adv., see bene, membrum, -i, n., limb, [member. memini, -isse, def., remember, bear in mind. iii. 6; vii. 37. memor, -oris, adj., mindful, remem- bering. C. 11. 6. memoria, -ae, [memor], f., memory, recollection, remembrance. memo- ria tenere, to recollect, memoria proditum, reported, handed down, by tradition (v. 12). [memory. Menapii, -orum, m., pi., (me-na'- pi-I), a people in the northeast part of Belgic Gaul. mendacium, -1, [mendax,ya/ji'],n., lie, falsehood, [mendacious. mSns, mentis, f., mind ; temper (iii. 19); attitude of m in d, feeling ( i . 41; vii. 64). et mente et anim5, heart and soul {\'\. s^). [mental. mensis, -is, m., month. mensura, -ae, [metier], f., measur- ing (vi. 25); measure. ex CMlua mensura, water-clock (v. 13). [measure. mentis, -Snis, [men in memini], f., mention, vi. 38. [mention. mercator, -6ris, [mercor, irade\ m., trader, merchant. mercatdra, -ae, [mercor, trade'], f., traffic, trade ; pi., commercial trans- actions (vi. 17). mercSs, -edis, t, pay, hire. \. 31. Mercurius, -i, [cf. merx, merchan- dise'], m., Mercury, messenger of the gods, patron of traders and thieves, promoter of eloquence, and conductor of souls to the lower world; also, patron divinity of ath- letes and athletics, vi. 17. mereo 71 moderor mereo, -ere, -ui, -itus, and mereor, -eri, -itus, 2, dep., deserve, merit; serve (vii. 17). [merit. meridianus, -a, -um, [meridies], adj., of mid- day . meridiano fere tempore, about noon (v. 8). [me- ridian. meridies, -ei, [medl-die, loc.J, m., mid-day ; south (v. 13). meritum, -i, [part, of mereo], n., desert, merit, service, [merit. meritus, see mereor. Messala, -ae, m., Marcus Valerius Alessala (va-le' ri-us me-sa' la), con- sul, 61 B.C. i. 2, 35. Messana, -ae, [Meo-o-i^cTj], f., (me- sa' na), a city of northeastern Sicily, now Messina. C. li. 3. -met, enclitic, self; see eg5. metior, metiri, mensus, 4, dep., measure, measure out, distribute. MetiuB, -i, m., Marcus Melius (me'- sh[y]us), an envoy of Caesar to Ariovistus. Metlosedum, -i, n., (met-lo-se'dum), a town of the Senones, on an island in the Sequana (^Seine)^ 28 miles above Paris; later called Melodunum, now Melun. meto, metere, messui, messus, 3, reap. iv. 32. metus, --Qs, m.^fear, apprehension. meuB, -a, -um, [me], adj., my, mine. mUes, -itis, m., soldier, foot soldier. milit^riB, -e, [miles], adj., of a sol- dier, military. res militaris, art of 7var. [military. militia, -ae, [miles], f., military ser- vice, vi. 14, 18; vii. 14. [militia. mille or M, indecl. adj., a thousand. As noun, milia, -um, n., pi., thou- sand, thousands, [mile. Minerva, -ae, f., (mi-ner' va), god- dess of wisdom and the arts; identi- fied with a Gallic divinity (vi. 17). minime, see parum. minimus, -a, -um, see parvus. minor, -us, see parvus. Minucius, see Basilus. minuo, -uere, -ui, -utus, 3, lessen, diminish, reduce; of the tide, ebb (iii. 12); of controversies, settle, put an end to {\. 26; vi. 23). [minute. minus, see parum. miror, -ari, -atus, [mirus], i, dep., tvonder, wonder at. i. 32; v. 54. mirus, -a, -um, [miror], adj., won- derful, remarkable, marvellous. miser, -era, -erum, comp. -lor, sup. miserrimus, adj., wretched, unfor- tunate, pitiable; poor (vi. 35). As noun, miseri, -orum, m., pi., the wretched (ii. 28). [miser. misericordia, -ae, [misericors], f., pity, compassion, mercy. miseror, -ari, -atus, [miser], i,dep., lament, deplore. \. 39; vii. I. missus, -us, [mitto], m., used only in abl. sing., a sending, despatching. missu Caesaris, being sent by Caesar (v. 27; vi. 7). missus, -a -um, see mitto. mitissime, [mitis, mild'], adv., sup., very gently, very kindly. quam mitissime potest, in as kind a manner asJ>ossible (vii. 43). mitto, mittere, misi, missus, 3, send, despatch; release, let go; of weapons, throw, hurl, shoot, [mis- sile. mobilis, -e, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [cf. moved], 2i^]., fickle, changeable. iv. 5. [mobile. mdbilitas, -tatis, [mobilis], f., quick- ness of movefnent, speed (iv. 33, C. II. 6) ; instability, changeableness (ii. i). [mobility. mdbiliter, [mobilis], adv., easily (iii. 10). moderor, -ari, -atus, [modus], i, dep., keep under control (iv. 'i'h)\ manage, control {wn. 75). [moderate. modestia 72 multitudO modestia, -ae, [modestus], f., self- control ; subordination (vii. 52). [modesty. modo, [modus], adv., only^ merely ^ even ; of time, lately, just now (vi. 39, 43). non modo . . . sed etlam, not only . . . but also. modus, -i, m., measure, amount (vi. 22); plan (v. i); manner, fashion, style, ad hunc modum, after this manner, in this ivay. eius modi, of such a character, of that kind. quem ad modumi, in what way, how ; in whatever way, just as (i. 36). miod5, abL, with a dependent geni- tive, after the manner of, as (iv. 17, 27). ntillo mods, by no means (vi. 12). omnibus modis, by all means, in every way (vii. 14). [mode. moenia, -ium, n., pi., walls oi a city, fortifications as a whole. moles, -is, f., mass, massive structure ; dam, dike (iii. 12). [mole. moleste, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [molestus, troublesome^, 2idv.,with annoyance. molimentum, -i, [cf. mQlior, from mSles], n., great effort, i. 34. molitus, see mold. moUio, -ire, -ivi, -itus, [mollis], 4, soften; make easy (vii. 46). mollis, -e, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., pliant, gentle ; smooth (v. 9); weak, yielding (iii. 19); effeminate. mollitia, -ae (vii. 77), and (vii. 20) moUities, -§i, [mollis], f., weak- ness, irresolution. molo, -ere, -ui, -itus, ■^, grind. mdmentum, -i, [for *movimen- tum, cf. moveO], n., movement; thrust, forward movement (C. ii. 6); influence (vii. 85); importance, account (vii. 39). [moment. Mona, -ae, f., (mo' na), the Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea. v. 13. moneo, -ere, -ui, -itus, 2, advise^ warn, remind, admonish. mons, montis, m., mountain, moun- tain-range, elevation, height, sum- mus mons, top of the height (i. 22). radices montis, foot of the moun- tain or height (i. 38; vii. 36). [mount. mora, -ae, f., delay. mioratus, -a, -iim, see moror. morbus, -i, [cf. morior, mors], m., disease, sickness, vi, 16, 17. [mor- bid. Morini, -6rum, m., pi., (mor' j-nl), a Belgic people, on the seacoast op- posite Kent. morior, mori, mortuus, 3, dep.,a'z>. i. 4; vi. 13. [mortuary. Moritasgus, -i, m., (mor-j-tas' gus), a chief of the Senones. v. 54. moror, -ari, -fttus, [mora], i, dep., delay, wait, stay; hinder, delay, check, impede, [moratorium. mors, mortis, f., death, [mortal. mortuus, -a, -um, see morior. mos, moris, m., usage, custom, way, wont, practice. PI., customs, man- ners, [moral. Mosa, -ae, f., Mosa (mo' sa), Metise, or Maas, which rises in the western spurs of the Vosges, pursues a north- erly course till joined by the Waal, then flows westward into the North Sea. motuB, -as, [move6],m., movement, motion; disturbance, revolt, upris- ing. moved, movSre, mOvI. mOtus, 2, move, set in motion, remove ; of feel- ings, disturb; stir, touch (vii. 76). castra movere, to break camp. [move. mulier, -eris, f., 7voman. miilid, -6nis. [maius], m., muleteer, mule-driver, vii. 45. multitudo, -Inis, [multus], (., great multo 73 Narbo number, host, large body; crowd. [multitude. multo, -are, -avi, -atus, [multa, a fine~\, 1, punish ; deprive of, by way of punishment (vii. 54, C. ill. 83). [mulct. multo, multum, comp. plus, sup. plurimum, [multus], adv., much, by far, greatly. multum posse or valere, to have great power, in- fluence. multum, adv., see mult5. multus, -a, -um, adj., comp. plus, sup. plurimus, much; pi., many. As noun, m., pi., multi, -orum, many (people) ; plures, -ium, more, quite a number, several ; neut., sing., multum, i7iuch ; plus, more ; plu- rimum, very much: neut., pi., multa, many things, many consider- ations, [plural. mulus, -i, m., mule. vii. 45. [mule. Munatius, see Plancus. mundus, -i, m., world, universe. vi. 14. [mundane. municipium.-i, [municeps], n.,/r^/'/5/ peo- ple, tribe, [nation. n^tivuB, -a, -um, [cf. natus], adj., natural, native, vi. 10. [native. naturaiiter, [naturalis], adv., by nature, naturally. C. ill. 92. natura, -ae, [natus, from nascor], f., nature, character ; natural fea- tures, situation ; ttature of things, Nature. nS.turS. et opere, natu- rally and artificially. v. 9, 21. [nature. nStus, -us, [cf. nascor], m., used only in abl. sing., birth, maiores natu, see maernus. nauta, -ae, [for * n a v i t a from nSvis], m., sailor, seaman, iii. 9; v. 10. nauticus, -a, -una, [= murtxAs], adj., naval, nautical, [nautical. n&vUis, -e, [navis], adj., naval. As noun, navaiia, -ium, n., pi., shipyards. C. II. 3. [naval. n&vicula, -ae, [dim. of nftvis], f., boat, skiff (i. 53); small ship (C. ". 3). nSlvig&tid, -6nis, [navigrS], f., navi- gation, sailing; voyage, [naviga- tion. nSvigium, -i, [navigrO], n., vessel, boat. See specuiat5riu8. nlvigo, are, -avi, -atus, [navis, cf. agro], I, sail, go by water, [navi- gate. navia, -is, f., ship, vessel; for river navigation, barge. navis longra, battleship, galley, navis oneraria, a transport (Fig. 202). [nave. Figure 202. — Ancient transport. The transport is just entering the harbor, gliding into still water. The helmsman sits at the stern, and one of the two steering- paddles is plainly seen ; the sailors are furl- ing the large sail. From a relief on a tomb at Pompeii, symbolizing entrance into a haven of rest, after the stormy voyage of life. navo, -are, -avi, atus, [(g)navus, busy'], I, do with zeal. nS, adv., not. ne . . . quidem, not . . . even. n6, conj., that . . . not, lest, not to, after words of fearing, that; after words of beseeching, ordering, com- manding, not to. ne quis, that no one. ne qua spes . . . that no hope. deterrere ne . . . to frighten from. -ne, enclitic interrog. particle, whether. -ne . . . an, or -ne . . . -ne (vii. 14), whether . . . or. nee, conj., see neque. necesaarid, [necessarius], adv., of necessity, unai-oidably. neceaaariua, -a, -um, [necesse], di^)., needful, necessary: urgent, press- ing. As noun, necessarius. -I. m., relative, kinsman (i. il, C. ill. 82). [necessary. necesse 75 nitor necesse, indecl. adj., necessary, un- avoidable, inevitable. necessitas, -tatis, [necesse], f., ne- cessity, need, tirgency. [necessity. necessitudd, -inis, [necesse], f., close relationship, friendship, i. 43. necne, [nee + -ne], conj , or not. utrum . , . necne, whether or not (i. 50). neco, -are, -avi, -atus, \, put to death., kill, destroy, [noyade. necubi, [ne + * c ubi for ubi], conj., that nowhere, lest, anywhere, vii. 35. nefarius, -a, -um, [nefas], adj., exe- crable, atrocious, [nefarious. nefas [ne, = ne, + fas], n., indecl., a crime against divine law, impious deed. nefas est, it is wrong, it is not permitted (vii. 40). neglego, -legere, -lexi, -lectus,[nec + lego], 3, disregard, leave out of consideration, be indifferent to ; neg- lect (iii. 27; iv. 38 ; overlook, leave unnoticed (i. 35, 36; iii. 10). [neg- lect. nego, -are, -avi, -atus, i, deny, say not, say no, often = dicit non; re- fuse (v. 6, 27). [negative. negotiator, -oris, [negotior], m., wholesale dealer, 7vholesaler. C. III. 103. [negotiator. negotior, -ari, -atus, [negotium], I, dep., transact business. nego- tlandi causa, in order to carry on ^«j'/«^i'.y(vii. 3, 42, 55). [negotiate. negotium, -i, [neg-, = ne, + otium], n., business, enterprise, task; effort, trouble, difficulty, nihil negotii, 7to trouble, (v. 38). Nemetes, -um, m., pi., (nam' e-tez), a Germanic people, settled west of the Rhine. nemo, dat. nemini, [ne + * h e m 6 = homo], m., no one, nobody. nequaquam [ne + quaquam, any- where\ adv., not at all, by no means. neque or nee [ne, = ne, + -que], adv., nor, and . . . not. neque . . . neque or nee, neither . . . nor. ne . . . quidem, see ne. nequiquam [ne + quiquam], adv., in vain, to no purpose, ii. 27. Nervicus, -a, -um, adj., of the Ner- vians. Nervicum proelium, bat- tle with the Nervians (iii. 5). Nervius, -i, m., a Nervian (v. 45). PI., Nervii, -orum, the Nervians, Nervii (ner' vi-I), a warlike people of Belgic Gaul. nervus, -i, m., sineiv, muscle (vi. 21); T^\., power, force (i. 20). [nerve. neu, see neve. neuter, -tra, -trum, gen. neutrius, [ne + uter], pron. adj., neither. As noun, neutri, -orum, m., pi., neither side (vii. 63), neither force (ii. 9). [neuter. neve or neu, [ne + -ve, or\ conj., or not., and not, and that not, nor. neu . . . -que, and not . . . but (ii. 21). neu . . . et, and not . . . but (v. 34). nex, necis, f., death by violence. nihil [ne, = ne, + hilum, trifle'\, n., indecl., nothing ; as adverbial ace, = emphatic non, not at all. [ni- hilism. nihilo setius, see setius. nihilum, -i, [ne, = ne, + hilum], n., nothing. nihilo, abl. of degree of difference, lit. by nothing; nihilo minus, none the less. nimius, -a, -um, [nimis], adj., exces- sive, too great, vii. 29, C. III. 96. nisi [ne, = ne, + si], conj., if not, unless, except. Nitiobroges, -um, m., pi., (nish-i- ob' ro-jez), a people in Northern Aquitania. nitor, niti, nixus and nisus, 3, dep., strive, endeavor; rely upon, depend on (i. 13). nix 76 novus nix, nivis, f., snow. vii. 8, 55. nobilis, -e, comp. -ior, sup. -Issimus, [cf. nSsco], adj., noted ^ renowned (vii. 77); of high rank, noble (i. 2, 18; V. 22; vii. 67). As noun, n6- bil§8, -ium, m., pi., nobles, men of ranh(i.44; vi. 13); nobilissimua, -i, m., man of highest rank ; pi., men of highest rank (i. 7, 31). [noble. nobilitSs, -tatis, [nobilis], f., no- bility, rank (ii. 6); collective (for nSbiles), nobility, nobles, men of rank, [nobility. nocSns, -entis, comp. nocentior, sup. -issimus, [part, of noceo], adj., guilty. As noun, nocentes, -um, m., pi., the guilty (vi. 9). noceo, -ere, -ui, -iturus, 2, hurt, do harm, injure. noctu, [cf. nox], adv., by night, at night, in the night. nocturnuB, -a, -um, [cf. nox], adj., by night, of night. nocturnus labor, the toil of the night (vii. 83). noctumum tempus, night-time (v. 11,40). [nocturnal. nodua, -i, m., knot; node, on the joint of an animal (vi. 27). [node. nolo, nolle, nSlui, [ne + vol6], irr., be unwilling, not wish, not want. n61i, n51ite, with infin., do not. nomen, -inis, n., name, appellation, title ; reputation, renown ; account. su6 nomine, on his o^vn account (i. 18), on their own account (vii. 75). [noun. nominSltim [nominS], adv., by name. nomino, -are, -avi, -atus, [nSmen], I, name, call by a name (vii. 73); mention (ii. 18). [nominate. n5n, adv., not, no. n6n nihil, to some extent, somewhat ( iii. 17). nOn nflllus, some, several. nOn num- quam, sometimes. nonagintft, or zc, indeclinable num. adj., ninety. nondum [n5n + dum], adv., not yet. non nihil, see n6n non nuUus, -a, -um, see n6n. non numquam, see n6n. nonuB, -a, -um, [novem], numeral ord. adj., ninth, [noon. Ndreia, -ae, f., (no-re' ya), chief city of the Norici (nor' i-sT), now Neu- mark/, i. 5. NoricuB, -a, -um, adj., of the Norici, A^orican (i. 5). As noun, N6rica, -ae, f., Norican woman (i. 53). noB, see egfo. nosco, noscere, novi, nStus, 3, ob- tain a knowledge of, learn ; in tenses from the pf. stem, know, be familiar with, be acquainted with. nosmet, see egromet. noBter, -tra, -trum, [nSs], pron. adj., our, our own. As noun, nostri, -orum, m., pi., our men, our side. [nostrum. notitia, -ae, [nStus], f., knowledge, acquaintance, [notice. noto, -are, -avi, -atus, [nota, mark'l, I, brand (C. III. 74); reprimand, check (C. I. 7). [note. notuB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issi- mus, [part, of n6sc6], adj., known, well-known, familiar. novem, or viiii, indeclinable num. adj., nine. Noviodunum, -i, [Celtic word, = ' Newtown '], n., (no" vi-o-du' num), name of three towns : (i) Of the Aeduans, on the right bank of the Liger {Loire) ; now Nevers. vii. 55. (2) Of the Bituriges, south of Cenabum. vii. 12, 14. (3) Of the Suessiones, on the Axona {Aisne). ii. 12. novltaB, -tatis, [novus], f., novelty, ne^oness, strangeness. novuB, -a, -um, adj., new, fresh, strange. Sup. novissimus, last, at noz 77 obitus the rear. As noun, novissimi, -orum, m., pi., those at the rear, the rear. novissimum agmen, rear of the line of march, the rear. [novice. noz, noctis, f., night, multa nocte, late at night, when the night was far spent, [nocti- in noctivagant, etc. nozia, -ae, [noxius, -a, -um, hurt- ful\ f., h7irt, offence, crime (vi. i6). aubo, nubere, nupsi, supine nup- tum, 3, veil one's self for marriage, marry, wed. i. i8, [nuptial. nudo, -are, -avi, -atus [nudus], i, strip, make bare; clear (il. 6); expose, leave unprotected. nudus, -a, -um, adj., naked, bare; unprotected {\. 2^). [nude. nuUus, -a, -um, gen. nuUius, dat. ntilli, [ne, = ne, + uUus], adj., none, no. As noun, especially in the dat., m., no one. num, interrogative particle, expecting the answer No. numen, -inis, [cf. nuo, nod'\, n., divine will ; divine majesty (vi. i6). numero, -are, -avi, -atus, [nume- rus], I, count, reckon. C. ill. 53. [numerate. numerus, -i, m., number, amount; estimation, account (vi. 13). ob- sidum numero, as hostages (v. 27). [number. Numidae, -arum, [j/o/ids, wanderer., pi. w^idSes], m., pi., Numidians, a people in Northern Africa, in the country now called Algeria, famous as archers, and employed by Caesar as light-armed troops (ii. 7, 10, 24). Numidians under Juba destroyed the army of Curio in 49 B.C. (C. ii. 39, 41). nununuB, -i, m., piece of money, money, coin. V. 12. . numquam [ne, = ne, + umquam], adv., never, not at any time. nunc, adv., no7v, at present. nuncup6,-are,-avi, -atus, [n5men, cf. capio], I, name publicly ; of vows, offer publicly (C. I. 6). nuntio, -are, -avi, -atus, [nuntius], I, annotmce, report ; give orders (iv. 11). Impers. nuntiatur, word is brought, it is reported. nuntius, -i, m., messenger, agent (i. 44) ; message, tidings, [nuncio. nuper, sup. nuperrime, adv., lately^ recently. nutus, -us, [nu6, nod\ m., nod, nodding (v. 43); bidding, command (i. 31; iv. 23). O. ob, prep, with ace, on account of, for. ob eam causam, for that reason. ob eam rem, on that account, there- fore, quam ob rem, wherefore (l. 34); for %vhat reason (i. 50). obaeratus, -a, -um, comp. -lor, [ob, cf. aes], adj., in debt. As noun, obaeratus, i, m., debtor, serf{\. 4). obduco, -ducere, -duxi, -ductus, [ob + duco], 3, lead forward ; of a trench, prolong, extend (ii. 8) . obeo, -ire, -ii, -itus, [ob + eo], irr., go to meet; attend to. omnia per se obire, to see to everything in per- son (v. T,i). obicio, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [ob+ iacio], 3, throw before; place in front, place ; put in the way, expose ; of taunts, cast up at, twit of (C. HI. 96); of difBculties, /^-^^.fw/ (vii. 59). [object. obieotatio, -5nis, [obiectS], f., re- proach. C. III. 60. obiecto, -are, -§.vi, -atus, [freq. of obicio], I, accuse of; twit of (C. ill. 48). obiectuB, -a, -um, see obicio. obitus, -0.8, [cf. obe5], m., destruc- tion, ii. 29. [obituary. oblatus 78 obstinate obiatUB, see offero. oblique, [obliquusj, adv., obliquely, 7vitk a slant, iv. 17. obliquuB, -a, -um, adj., slanting, crossivise. vii. 73. [oblique. obllviscor, -livisci, -litus, 3, dep., forget, [oblivion. obses, -idis, [cf. obeideSJ, m. and f., hostage. obsessio, onis, [cf. obsided], f., siege (vii. 36); blockade (vi. 36). [obsession. obsesBUB, see obsided. obsideo, -sidere. -sedi, -sessus, [ob Figure 203. — A Roman document, tied and sealed. The writing is on the two inside faces of the two tablets, which were securely tied together. The seals of the 8 witnesses were stann.ped in wax over the ends of the cord, a groove of suitable width being cut in the wood of the tablets for the purpose. The names of those who stamped their seals were written with ink on the wood at the right, in the genitive case. The number of witnesses was often 7 (cf. p. 467). sometimes 8. as here, sometimes 9 or more. The illustration is from a charred tablet found at Pompsii, restored ; it was sealed about 100 years after Caesar's death. The names of the first three and last three witnesses are: L. LAELIUS FUSCUS, SEXTUS NONIUS SCAMANDER, P. AEFULANUS CRYSAN1>US ; L. MELISSAEUS COERASUS, L. COR- NELIUS DEXTER, and L. NAEVOLEIUS NYMPHUS. The fourth and fiUh names are uncertain. obBecro, -are, -avi, atus, [ob + sacro, from sacer], i, beseech in the name of that which is sacred. implore, beg. [obsecrate. obBcquentia, -ae, [obsequSns], f., compliance^ complaisance, vii. 29. obBcrvo, -are, -ftvi, -atus, [ob + servo], I, watch, observe (vii. 16); keep track of {y'\. 18); heed, comply with (i. 45; v. 35). [observe. -f- sede6], 2, besiege, blockade; of roads, seize upon, block (iii. 23, 24; V. 40). [obsess. obsidio, onis, [cf. obsideS], f., siege, blockade; oppression (iv. 19). obsigno, are, -avi, -atus, [ob + signo], I, seal up, seal {Y'\g. 203). obsisto. -sistere. -stiti, [ob + sistoj, 3, withstand, vii. 29. obstinate [obstinatus, part, of ob- obstrictus 79 octo stinS, persist], adv., firmly, stead- fastly, persistently, v. 6. obstrictus, -a, -um, see obstringo. obstringo, -stringere, -strinxi, -strictus, [ob + strings, tie], 3, bind, place under obligation, i. 9, 31- obstruo, -struere, -strfexi, -strac- tus, [ob + struo,///^], 3, block up, stop up. V. 50, 51; vii. 41. [ob- struct. obtempero, -are, -avi, -atus, [ob + temper©], i, submit to, obey. obtenturus, fut. act. partof obtineo. obtestor, -ari, -atus, [ob + testor], 1, dep., call as witness, appeal to ; implore, adjure. obtineo, -tinere, -tinui, -tentus, [ob + teneoj, 2, hold fast, main- tain, keep, retain, hold (i. 3); get possession of, obtain (i. 18; vi. 12); possess, occupy, inhabit {\. i). [ob- tain. obtrectatio, -5nis, [obtrect5], f., disparagement. C. I. 7. obvenio, -venire, -veni, -venturus, [ob 4- venio], 4, fall in with, en- counter (ii. 23); fall to the lot of, fall to {yn. 28, 81, C. I. 6). obviam, [ob + ace. of via], adv., in the zvay, against, obviam Caesar! proflciscitur, goes to meet Caesar (vii. 12). occSsio, -6nis, [cf. occido], f., op- portunity, favorable moment; sur- prise (vii. 45). [occasion. occasus, -us, [cf. occido], m.., going down, setting, solis occasus, stm- set, the west (i. I ; iv. 28). occidens, -entis, [part, of occido], adj., of the sun, j finish, complete^ bring to an end. perangustus, -a, -um, [per + an- grustus], adj., very narrow, vii. percello, -ere, perculi, perculsua, 1 3, beat down ; cast down, demoralize (C. III. 47). perceptus, see percipio. percipio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptus [per + capio], 3, get, secure, gain ; hear (v. i); learn (vi. 8). [per- ceive. percontatio, -onis, [percenter, in- quire], {., questioning, inquiry. percurro, -currere, -cucurri or -curri, -cursurus, [per + curr6], 3, run through; run along (iv. t^"^. percussus, see percutio. percutio, -cutere, -cussi, -cussus, [per + quatiS, shake], 3, thrust through. V. 44. [percuss. perdisco, -discere, -didici, [per + disc5], 3, learn thoroughly, learn by heart, vi. 14. perditus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part, of perdS, ruin], adj., abandoned, desperate (iii. 17). As noun, perdlti, -6rum, m., pi., desperate men, the desperate (vii. 4). perduco, -dacere, -dttxi. -ductus, [per 4- dac5], 3» ^"^^ through, bring, conduct, convey; bring over, win over (vi. 12); draw out, prolong (v. 31, C. III. 95); extend, construct, make. perendinuB, -a, -um, [perendifi, day after to-morro7v], adj., after to-mor- row. perendinO di§, day after to-morrow (v. 30). pereO 85 perpetior pereo, -ire, -li, -iturus, [per + eo], irr., perish^ be lost, [perish. perequito, -are, -avi, [per + equito, ride\ i, ride through (vii. 66); ride about {\\ . ■^T,) . pereziguus, -a, -um, [per + exi- g-uus], adj., very small. perfacills, -e, [per + facilis], adj., very easy. perfectuB, see perflcio. perfero, -ferre, -tuli, -latus, [per + fero], irr., lit. carry through ; carry, convey, bring, report ; endure, suffer ; bear^ submit to. perfici6,-flcere, -feci, -fectus, [per + faci5], 1, finish, complete; per- form, accomplish, carry out; cause, effect; bring about, arrange, [per- fect. perfidia, -ae, [perfldus], f., faith- lessness, bad faith, treachery, [per- fidy. perf lingo, -frlngere, -fregi, -frac- tus, [per + frangS], 3, break through. perfuga, -ae, [perfugio], m., de- serter. perfugio, -fugere, -fugi, [per + fu- grio], i,fiee for refuge, fiee. perfugium, -i, [cf. perfugio], n., place of refuge, refuge, iv. 38. pergo, pergere, perrexi, perrec- tus, [per + regQ], 3, proceed, ad- vance. periclitor, -ari, -atus, [periculum], I, dep., try, prove, make trial of, test; be in danger, incur danger (vi. 34; vii. 56). periculosus, -a, -una, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [periculum], adj., full of danger, dangerous, i. 'i)'h^ vii. 8. [perilous. periculum, -i, n., trial, test (i. 40); attempt (iv. 2i); risk, datiger, haz- ard, [peril. peritus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., skilled, practised ; fa- miliar with. perlatus, see perfero. perlectus, see perlego. perlego, -legere, -legi, -lectus, [per 4- lego], 3, read through, pe- ruse. V. 48. [perlection. perluo, -luere, -lui, -lutus, [per + luo, 'wash\ 3, wash. Pass, used reflexively, bathe (vi. 21). permagnus, -a, -um, [per + mag- nus], adj., very large, very great. permaneo, -manere, -mansi, man- surus, [per + maneo], 2, continue, stay, remain, [permanent. permisceo, -miscere, -miscui, -mix- tus, [per + misceo, mix\, 2, mix, mingle, vii. 62. permitto, -mittere, -misi, -missus, [per -|- mitto], 2,, give over, entrust, commit ; grant, alloiv. [permit. permixtus, see permisceo. permotus, see permoveo. permoveo, -movere, -movi, -mo- tus, [per + moveo], 2, deeply move, disturb, alarm; arouse, stir ; influ- ence, indtice. permulceo, -ere, -si, -sus, [per + mulceo, soothe^ 2, calm, soothe. iv. 6. permulsus, see permulceo. pernicies, -ei, [per, cf. nex], f., ruin, destruction, i. 20, 36. perniciosus, -a, -um, [pernicies], adj., ruinous, C. i. 7. [pernicious. pernlcitas, -tatis, [pernix, nimble'], {., quickness of movement, nimbleness. C. III. 84. perpauci, -ae, -a, [per + paucus], adj., very few. As noun, perpauci. -orum, m., pi., a very few. perpendiculum, -i, [cf. perpendo], n., plumb-line, [perpendicular. perpetior, -peti, -pessus, [per -}- patior], 3, dep., bear patiently, en- dure, vii. 10 J C- ni. 47. perpetuo phalanx perpetuo [perpetuus], adv., contin- ually, constantly (vii. 41); always, forever (i. 31). perpetuus, -a, -una, [per, cf. pet6J, adj., continuous, unbroken, unceas- ing, entire, perpetual. As noun, in perpetuum, for ever, ever after. [perpetual. perquiro, -quirere, -quisivi, -quisi- tus, [per + quaero], 3, make care- ful inquiry about, inquire about. vi. 9. perrumpo, -rumpere, -rupi, -rup- tus, [per + rump6, brealc], 3, break through, burst through, force a passage. perruptus, see perrumpo. per8crrb6,-scribere,-scrip8i,-scrip- tus, [per + scribo], 3, write fully, report in writing. peraequor, -sequi, -secutu8,[per + sequor], 3, dc^., follow up, pursue ; assail, attack (i. 13; v. l); avenge (vii. 38). [persecute. persevere, -are, -avi, -atus, [perse- verus, very strict^, i , continue stea.d- fastly, persist. [persevere. persolvd, -solvere, -solvi, -solutus, [per + solvo], 3, pay in full, pay. perspectus, see perspiciS. perspicio, -spicere, -spexi, -spec- tus, [per + specie, look^ 3, see, look; inspect, survey ; perceive, ob- serve, ascertain, [perspective. persto, -stare, -stiti, -stattlru8,[per -f sto], I, stand firmly, persist. persuaded, -suadere, -suasi, -sua- sum est, [per + suadeS, per- suade'\, 2, convince, persuade, prevail upon, induce, mihi persuadetur, / am convinced, [persuade. perterreo, -terrere, -terrui, -terri- tua, [per 4- terreS], 2, greatly alarm, frighten, terrify, dismay. Part., perterritus, -a, -una, often panic-stricken. pertinacia, -ae, [pertinax, per -f tenax, I rum teneoj, i., obstinacy, stubbornness, [pertinacity. pertineo, -tinere, -tinui, [per + teneoj, 2, reach out, extend ; per- tain to, concern, belong to. [pertain. perturbatio, -onis, [perturbo], f., disturbance, confusion, [perturba- tion. perturbo, -are. -avi, atus, [per + turbo, disturb^, 1, disturb greatly, disorder, confuse, [perturb. pervagor, ari, atus, [per + va- gror], I, dep., roam about. perveho, -ere, pervexi, [per + veho], 3, carry through ; pass, with middle sense, sail along (C. II. 3). pervenio, -venire, -veni, -ventuna est, [per + veniS], 4, come (to), arrive (at), reach ; of an inheritance, fall to (vi. 19). pes, pedis, m., foot ; as a measure of length, = .9708 of the English foot, or 296 millimetres. pedem re- ferre, to retreat, [pedestrian. pestilentia, -ae, [pestilens], f., plague, pestilence. C. III. 87. [pes- tilence. petitus, see peto. peto, petere, petivi and petii, peti- tus, 3, make for, try to reach, seek ; get, secure; beg, ask, request. pe- tere ut liceat, to ask permission. Petrocorii, -orum, m., pi., (pet-ro- ko'ri-I), a Gallic people north of the Garumna (^Garonne) river, vii. 75- Petronius, -i, m., Marcus Petronius (pe-tro' nj-us), a centurion of the eighth legion (vii. 50). Petrosidius, -i, m., Lucius Petrosi- dius (pet-ro-sid' i-us), a brave stand- ard-hearer, v. 37. phalanx, -angris, Greek ace. sing., (i. 52) phalangra, [0ciXa7f], f., com- pact host, mass, phalanx, [phalanx. Philippus 87 plenus Philippus, -i, m., Lucius Marctis Philippus (fi-lip' us), consul in 56 B.C. C. I. 6. Pictonea, -um, m., pi., (pik' to-nez), a Gallic people bordering on the Atlantic south of the Liger {Loire). Fig. 205. Figure 205. — A coin of the Pictones. Silver. Reverse, cavalryman with a shield. The object underneath has not been explained. The hair of the head on the obverse is shown in thick masses. pietas, -atis, [plus, dutiful\ f., dutiful conduct, devotion, to the gods, one's country, or one's kindred ; loy- alty (v. 27), [piety. pnum, -1, XV., javelin, pike. [pile. pilus, -i, [pilum], ni., with primus, maniple of the triarii, a division in the army containing the most experi- enced soldiers. primi pili cen- turio, first centurion of the first ynaniple of the triarii, first centurion of the legion in rank (iii. 5). pri- mum pilum ducere, to lead the first maniple of the triarii, to hold the rank of first centurion (v. 35; vi. 38 ; C. III. 91). pinna, -ae, L, feather ; in military lan- guage, battle/nent. [pen. PiruBtae, -arum, m., pi., (pT-rus'te), a people in Illyricum. v. i. piscatorius, -a, -um, [piscator, fisher7nau\ adj., of a fisherman. naves piscatorlae, fishing-smacks (C. II. 4). [piscatory. piscis, -is, m.,fish. iv. lo. [Pisces. Piso, -onis, m., (pi' so) : ( 1 ) Lucius Calpurnius Piso Cac soninus, consul 112 B.C. i. 12. (2) Lucius Calpurnius Piso Cae- soninus, consul with Aulus Cabi- nius, 58 B.C.; father-in-law of Cae- sar, i. 6, 12. (3) Marcus Pupius Piso Calpur- nianus, consul with M. Valerius Messala, 61 B.C. i. 2, 35. (4) /'/j^, abrave Aquitanian. iv. 12. pix, picis, {., pitch, [pitch. Placentia, -ae, f., (pla-sen'sh[y]a), a city in northern Italy, on the Po River; now Piacenza. C. ill. 71. placed, placere, placui, placitum est, 2, please, be agreeable, be ivel- come to. Used impersonally, placet, it pleases, it seems good ; it is agreed, it is settled ; it is resolved, it is de- cided, ei placuit, he resolved (i. 34). [please. placide, comp. -ius, [placidus], adv., quietly, calmly, vi, 8. placd, -are, -avi, -atus, i, appease, conciliate, vi. 16. [placate. Plancus, -i, m., Lucius Munatius Plancus (mu-na'sh[y]us plang'- kus), a lieutenant in Caesar's army. V. 24, 25. plane, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [pla- nus], adv., clearly, distinctly (iii. 26); entirely, quite (vi. 43). planities, -ei, [planus], f., level ground, plain. planus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., level, even (iv. 23); flat (iii. 13). [plain. plebs, plebis, or plebes, -ei, f., the common folk, the common people, the masses, apud ^X&hQxn., among the masses, [plebeian. plSne, comp. -ius, [plenus], adv., fully, completely, iii. 3. plenus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, ^d].,full. plerumque 88 possum plSnimque, [n. ace. of plerusque], adv., conunonly, generally, usually, for the most part. plerusque, -aqua, -umque, [plerus, very viany'\, adj., very many, most. As noun, plerique, -orumque, m., pi., the most, the greater part, the majority, most. Pleumoxii,-6rum, m., pi., (plu-mok'- si-T), a Belgic people, subject to the Nervians. v. 39. plumbum, -i, n., lead. plumbum album, tin (v. 12.) [plumber. plurSs, piarimus, see miultus. plus, plurimum, see multum. pluteus, -i, m., breastwork of planks or wickerwork, placed on ramparts (vii. 41), or on the stories of a tower (vii. 25) ; ^vood construction (vii. 72); movable mantelet, to protect besiegers. poculum, -i, n., cup, beaker, vi. 28. poena,. -ae, f., co jup ens ation, fine {y . i); punishment, penalty. poenas pendere (vi. 9) or persolvere, (i. \2), to pay the penalty, [penal. poUez, pollicis, m., thumb, great toe. polliceor, -liceri, -licit us, [por- + liceor], 2, dty^., promise, offer. pollicitatio, onis, [poUicitor, freq. of polliceor], f., promise, offer. pollicitus, see polliceor. Pompei^nus, -a, -\im, [Pompeius], adj., of Pompey. As noun, Pom- peiani, -6rum, m,, pi., soldiers of Pompey, Pompey s men. (C. III. 48. 72). Pompeius, -i, m., (pom-pe' yus) : (i) Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Pompey, Caesar's father-in-law and rival, born B.C. lo6; conquered by Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus, and afterwards murdered in Egypt. (2) Gnaeus Pompeius, an inter- preter serving under Titurius Sabi- nus. V. 36. pondus, ponderis, [cf. pend5], n., heaviness, lueight (ii. 29; vi. 27; vii. 22); a weight as a standard of value (v. 12); quantity (C. III. 96). [ponderous. pono, ponere, posui, positus, 3, place, put; lay down (iv. 37); set aside(v\. ly); station ; pitch. Pass. often be situated, be dependent, de- pend on. castra ponere, to pitch camp, encamp, [positive. pons, pontis, m., bridge, [pontoon. populatio, -6ni8, [populor], f, a laying waste, ravaging, i. 15. populor, -ari, -atxis, i, dep., lay waste, devastate, i. II. populus, -i, m., people as a political whole, nation, [people. por-, in Q.oxa:^o%\\\ow, forth, forward. porrigo, -rigere, -rexi, -rectus, [por- -H reg5], 3, reach out, extend. porro, adv., moreover, furthermore. V. 27. , porta, -ae, f., gate of a city, gateway ; of a camp, gate, entrance, passage. [porter (door-keeper). ports, -are, -§,vi, -atus, i, carry ^ bring, convey, take, [portage. portorium, -i, n., toll, tax^ customs duties, i. 18; iii. i. portus, -us, m., harbor, haven, [port. posco, poscere, poposci, 3, demand, ask for urgently ; of things, require^ make necessary (vii. i). positus, -a, -um, see p6n6. possessio, -onis, [cf. possidd], f., possession, [possession. possideo, -sidere, -sedi, [por- -f- sedeo], 2, hold, occupy, possess, i. 34; ii. 4; vi. 12. [possess. possido, -sidere, -8§di, -sessus, [por- + sidS], T„ gain possession of, possess one's self of. iv. 7. possum, posse, potui, [potis, able, + sum], irr., be able, can ; have power^ have influence. multum post 89 praeceps posse, to have great influence; plurimum posse, to have very great power, influence, [posse. post, adv., afterwards, later, after; with abl. of degree of difference, anno post, a year later, the follow- ing year, paucis post diebus, a few days later. post, prep, with ace. only : ( 1 ) Of place, behind. post ter- gum, in the rear. (2) Of time, after. post me- dian! noctem, after midnight. postea [post ea], adv., afterzvards. postea quam, with the force of a conjunction, after that., after. posterns, -a, -um, nom. sing. m. not in use, comp. posterior, sup. pos- tremus, [post], adj., the folloiving, next. As noun, poster!, -orum, m.,pl., posterity (vii. 77). [postern. postpone, -pone re, -posui , -positus, [post + pono], 3, put after, lay aside. omnia postponere, to dis- regard everything else (vi. 3). om- nibus rebus postpositis, laying everything else aside (v. 7) . [post- pone. postpositus, see postpone. postquam [post -f quam], conj., after that, after, when; post and quam are often separated by inter- vening words. postremo [abl. of postremus, sc. tempore], adv., atlast,flnally. postridie, [locative from posterus dies], adv., the next day. postridie eius diei, the next day, the following day. postul&tum, -i, [part, of postulo], n., demand, claim, request. postulo, -are, -avi, -atus, i, claim, demand, ask, request; of things, re- quire, make necessary, demand; ac- cuse of {C u\. ^t^). [postulate. potSns, -entis, comp. potentior, sup. -issimus, [part, of possum], adj., powerful. As noun, potentior, -oris, m., one more pozverful (vi. 11); pi., the more powerful (ii. i; vi. 13, 22). potentissimi, -orum, m., pi., the most powerful (vi. 22). [potent. potentatus, -us, [potens], m., pozver, headship, supremacy. i. 31. [potentate. potentia, -ae, [potens], f., might, power, influence, [potency. potestas, -atis, [potis], f., might, power, authority, lordship; possibil- ity, opportunity. potestatem fa- cere, to give opportunity ; to grant permission (iv. 15; v. 41). potior, potiri, potitus, {^otm^ablel, 4, dep., obtain possession of become master of, acquire, obtain. potius, adv. in comp. degree, sup. potissimum, [potis], adv., rather, more, preferably. potius quam, rather than. prae, prep, with abl., in comparison with (ii. 30), (7« account of {yW. 44). praeacuo, -cuere, -cui, -cutus, 3, sharpen at the end. praeacutus, -a, -um, [part, of prae- acuo], adj., sharpened at the end, sharpened, pointed ; very sharp. praebeo, -ere, praebui, praebitus. [prae + habeo], 2, hold forth ; ex- hibit., manifest; furnish, provide (ii. 17); produce (iii. 17). [prebendary. praecaveo, -cavere, -cavi, -cautus, [prae + caveo], 2, take precau- tions, i. 38. [precaution. praecedo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessu- rus, [prae + cedo], 3, go before ; surpass., excel (i. i). [precede. praeceps, -cipitis, [prae + cap in caput], adj., headlong, with great speed, head over heels {W. 24; v. 17); steep, precipitous (iv. 33). [precipi- tous. praeceptum 90 praescribo praeceptum, -i, [part, of praecipioj, n., order ^ command, instruction, in- junction ; precept, v. 35; vi. 36. [precept. praecipio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptus, [prae + capioj, 3, anticipate (vii. 9; Cm. 87) ; order, direct, instruct. praecipito, -are, -avi, -atus, [prae- ceps], I, hurl headlong^ fling down. [precipitate. praecipu§, [praeclpuus], adv., es- pecially, specially, particularly. praecipuuB, -a, -um, [prae + cap in capio], adj., especial, particular. praecludd, -cludere,-clusi, -clusus, [prae + claudo], 3, close up, block. V. 9. [preclude. praeco, -onis, m., herald, crier. Praeconinua (pre-co-nf nus), see Valerius (i). praecurro, -currere, -cucurri or -curri, [prae -f curro], 3, run forward, hasten forivard (vi. 39, C. II. 34); hasten in advance (vii. 37) ; anticipate (vii. 9). [precursor. praeda, -ae, [cf. praehendo], f., booty, spoil, plunder, [prey. praedico, -are, -avi, -atus, [prae + dico], I, make known, declare, an- nounce ; boast (i. 44, C. II. 39). [preach. praedico, -dicere, -dixi, -dictus, [prae + dico], 3, say beforehand ; order, give orders, in advance (C. ill. 92). [predict. praedo, -6nis, [praeda], m,, robber, pirate. Cm. 104. praedor, -Eri, -atus, [praeda], i, dep., obtain booty, pillage, plunder. praeduc5, -dacere, -dQxi, -ductus, [prae -f- diic6], 3, extend, make in front, vii. 46, 69. praefectus, see praeflciS praefectUB, -i, [praeflciO], m., com- mander, prefect; subsidiary oflicial (I- 39)- [prefect. praefero, -ferre, -tuli, -latus, [prae + fer6], irr., carry before ; put be- fore, prefer to (v. 54). se prae- ferre, to show on^s self superior to (ii. 27). [prefer. praeficio, -flcere, -feci, -fectus, [prae + facio], 3, place in com- mand of, appoint to command. praeflgo, -fig-ere, -fixi, -fixus, [prae + figo, fasten'], 3, flx in front. sudibus praefixis, by driving stakes in front (v. 18). [prefix. praefringo, -fringere, -fregri, -frac- tus, [prae + frangro], 3, break off, shatter. C ii. 6. praemetuo, -ere, [prae + inetu5, fear], 3, be anxious, vii. 49. praemitto, -raittere, -misi, -missus, [prae -|- mitto], 3, send forward, send ahead, send in advance, [pre- mise. praemium, i, [prae, cf. emo], n., reward^ distinction, [premium. praeoccupo, -are, -avi, -atus, [prae -f occupo], I, take possession of be- forehand, seize first (vii. 26). [pre- occupy. praeopt6,-are, -avi, atus, [prae + optoj, I, choose rather, prefer. I. 25- praeparo, are, avi, atus, [prae + paro], I, make ready beforehand, make ready, prepare, [prepare. praepdno, -ponere, -posui, -posi- tus, [prae + pono], 3, set over, place in command of praerumpo, -rumpere, -rilpi, -rup- tus, [prae + rumpO, break], 3, break off in front, break off. iii. 14. praeruptus, -a, -um, [part, of prae- rump6], adj., steep, precipitous. praeaaepio, -saepire, -saepsi, -saeptus, [prae + saepid], 4, fence in ; block, bar (vii. 77). praesaeptUB, see praesaepi6. praescribo, -scribere, -scripsi. praescriptum 91 primum -scriptus, [prae + scribS], 2^ give directions, direct (i. 30, 40); deter- mine (ii. 20). [prescribe. praescriptum, -i, [part, of prae- scribo], n., direction, order, instruc- tions, i. 36. [prescript. praesens, -entis, comp. -ior, [part, of praesum], adj., at hand, present. [present. praesentia, -ae, [praesens], i., pres- ence (v. 43) ; present time. in praesentia,/?;' the present, [pres- ence. praesentio, -sentire, -sensi, -sen- sus, [prae + sentio], 4, perceive beforehand, v. 54; vii. 30. praesertim [prae, cf. sero, Joinl, adv., especially, particularly. praesidium, i, [praeses,^M«r^], n., guard, detachment, garrison, protec- tion ; post, redoubt; safety (ii. 11). praest5, -stare, -stiti, -stitus, [prae + sto], I, surpass, excel ; exhibit, display, manifest; discharge, per- form, do. Impers. praestat, it is preferable, it is better. praestd, adv., at hand. praest5 esse, to meet (v. 26). praesum, -esse, -fui, [prae + sum], irr., preside over ; be at the head of have command of, have charge of. praeter, prep, with ace. only, beyond (i. 48) ; except, besides ; contrary to. praeterea [praeter + ea], adv., be- sides, further. praetereo, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itus, [praeter + eo], irr., pass over (vii. 25, 77); pass, go by (vii. 77). [preterit. praeteritus, see praetereo. praetermitto, -mittere, -misi, mis- sus, [praeter + mitto], 3, pass over, let pass, allow to go by. praeterquam [praeter -f quam], adv. with comparative force, other than, besides, vii. 77. praetor, -oris, [*praeitor, from praeeo], m., general, commander (i. 21); praetor, a Roman magis- trate, next in rank to the consul. praetorium, -i, [praetorius], n., generaVs tent. C. III. 82. praetorius, -a, -um, [praetor], adj., of the commander, generaPs (i. 40, 42) ; pretorian. As noun, praeto- rius, -i, m., ex-praetor, man of prae- torian rank (C. ill. 82). [preto- rian. praetura, -ae, [praetor], f., the office of praetor, praetorship (C. ill. 82). praeustus, -a, -um, [part, of prae- iiro], adj., burnt at the end, hard- ened at the end by burning. praeverto, -vertere, -verti, [prae + verto], 3, outstrip ; attend to first (vii. ZZ)' pravns, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., bad, wicked, vii. 39. preces, see prex. premo, -ere. pressi, pressus, 3, press, harass, oppress ; pass., be hard pressed, be beset, be burdened, be in need, [press. prendo (for prehendo), prendere, prendi, prensus, 3, take, grasp. i. 20. pretium, -i, n., price, 7jalue. [price. prex, precis, f., generally pi., nom. and gen. sing, not in use, prayer, entreaty, supplication ; curse, impre- cation (vi, 31). pridie, adv., the day before, the previ- ous day. pridie eius diei, the day before that day, on the previous day (i. 47). pnmipilus, -i, [primus + pilus], m., = primus pilus, first centurion; see pilus. ii. 25, C. III. 53. primd [abl. of primus], adv., at first, in the first place. primum [ace. of primus], adv.,y?^j/, before everything else, itt the first primus 92 proelium place. quam primum, as soon as possible, cum primum, as soon as. primus, see prior. princeps, -ipis, [primus + cap in capi5], adj.,y?rj/, chief, at the front. As noun, m., leading man, leader, pi. often leading men. [prince. principatus, -us, [princeps], m., chief authority, headship, [principate. prior, -us, gen. priSris, adj. in comp. degree, sup. primus, [cf. pro], former, previous, first. As noun, priores, -um, m., pi., those in ad- vance (ii. ii). Sup. i>rim.M&, first, the first. As noun, primi, -orum, m., pi., the foremost men, the first. prima, -orum, n., pi., in the phrase in primis. especially, [prior, prime. pristinus, -a, -um, [*prls, = prius, -f-- tin us], adj., former, previous, earlier, old-time, [pristine. prius [prior], adv., before, sooner, earlier. priusquam, prius quam, conj., be- fore, sooner than ; prius and quam are often separated by intervening words. priv&tim [privatus], Zi^v., privately, as individuals, opposed in meaning to pablice. i. 17; V. 55. privatus, -a, -um, [part, of privS], adj., private, personal. As noun, privatus, -i, m., private individual (vi. 13). [private. privo, -are, -avi, -atus, i, rob, de- prive. C. III. 90. pro, prep, with abl. only, in front of, before ; for, in behalf of; instead of, as; on account of, in return for; in accordance with (ii. 31); in pro- portion to, considering (i. 2, 51; vi. 19; vii. 56, 74). probS, -are, -avi, -atus, [probus], I, approve; shoiv to be worthy, dis- play (v. 44); prove (v. 27); show, demonstrate (i. 3). [probe. prScSdo, -cedere, -cessi, [prC -f- c5d6], 3, advance, go forward. [proceed. Procillus, (pro-sil' us), see Vale- rius (4). proclino, -are, -avi, atus, [prO -f cUn6, bend'\, I, bend forward, lean forward ; pass., become desperate (vii. 42). proconsul, -ulis, [pro -f- cSnsul], m., proconsul, a.n ex-consul appointed as governor of a province. procul, adv., at a distance, from afar, far off. procumbo, -cumbere, -cubui, [pr6 + cumb5, for cubo, lie down'], 3, fall prostrate (vii. 15); sink down (ii. 27); be beaten doivn (vi. 43); lie down (vi. 27); lean forward {\\. 17). prociiratio, -onis, [pr5car5], f., charge, management. C. III. 104. procuro, -are, -avi, -atus, [pr6 -f curo], I, look after, have charge of, regulate, vi. 13. [procure. procurro, -currere, -cucurri or -curri, [pro + curro], 3, run for- ivard, hasten forward, rush forward. prodeo, -ire, -ii, -itum est, [prOd-, for pro, + ©6], irr., come out, come forth, advance. prodesse, see pr5sum. pr6diti6,-6nis,[pr6d6], [., treachery. proditor, -oris, [prod5], m., traitor. proditus, see prodo. prodo, -dere, -didi, -ditus, [prO -|- do], 3, gix'e forth, make knoivn ; transmit, hand down; surrender, betray ; give up, abandon (iv. 25). produce, -ddcere, -daxi, -ductus, [pr6 -|- dClc6], 3, bring out, lead forth ; prolong (iv. 30) . [product. prdductus, sec prodttcO. proelior, ari, -atus, [proelium], i, dep., pght. proelium, -i, n., battle, combat, engage' ment. profectio 93 propinquus profectio, -onis, [proflciscor], f., departure, setting out. profectus, see proflcio. profectus, see proflciscor. profero, -ferre, -tuli, -latus, [pro -f- fero], irr., bring out, bring forth. pr6fici6,-flcere, -feci, -fectus, [pro + faci5], 3, effect, gain, accomplish. [profit. proflciscor, -flcisci, -fectus, [pro- flcio], 3, dep., set out, depart ; set out {for^, proceed. profiteer, -flteri, -fessus, [pro, = pro, + fateor, confess^ 2, dep., de- clare openly, avow (Yil. 2, 37) ; offer, promise, [profess. profligo, -are, -avi, -atus, [pro -|- fligo, strike'], 1, put to flight, rout. ii. 23; vii. 13. [profligate. profluo, -fluere, -fluxi, [pro -|- flu5], 2, flow forth. IV. 10. profugio, -fugere, -fugi, [pro, = pro, + fugio], Z,flee, escape. profui, see pr5sum. profundo, -fundere, -fudi, -fusus, [pr5 -f fundo], t„ pour forth. se profadit, rushed forward (C. iii. 93)- prognatus, -a, -um, [pro + (g)na- tus, from (g')nascor], a.d]., sprung, descended, ii. 29; vi. 18. progredior, -gredi, -gressus, [pro -i- gradior, step], 3, dep., advance, go forward, proceed, [progress. progresBUB, see progredior. prohibeo, -hibere, -hibui, -hibitus, [pro 4- babeo], 2, hold, restrain; keep off, prevent, hinder ; cut off, shut off; protect, defend. [pro- hibit. proicid, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [pro + iacio], 3, throiv forward, throw, fling, cast; of arms, throw doivn ; abandon, lose ( ii. 15). se proicere, to leap down (iv. 25), to prostrate one's self (i. 27, 31). proiectae, pass, as middle, casting themselves (vii. 26). [project. proinde [pro + inde], adv., hence, therefore, and so. proinde ac si, just as if (C. III. 60). promineo, -minere, -minui, 2, bend forward, lean forzvard. [prominent. promiscue [promiscuus], adv., in common, promiscuously, vi. 21. promiBsr.B, -a, -um, [part, of pro- mitto], adj., of hair, hanging down, flowing. V. 14. promotus, see promoveo. promoveo, -movere, -movi, -mo- tus, [pro + raoveo], 2, move for- ward, push forward, [promote. promptuB, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part, of promo, bring for- zuard~\, adj., ready, quick, [prompt. promunturium, -i, [cf. promineo], n., headland, iii. 1 2. [promontory. prone [pronus], adv., bending for- zvard, leaning forward, iv. 17. pronuntio, -are, -avi, -atus, [pro -f- ndntio], i, tell openly, declare; announce, give jiotice. Impers., pro- nuntiatur, notice is given, [pro- nounce. prope, comp. propius, sup. proximo, adv., near, nearly, ahnost ; followed by the ace, near. proximo, near- est, next, very near ; last, most re- cently. propello, -pellere, -puli, -pulsus, [pro + pello], 3, drive away, put to flight, rout; force back (v. 44). [propel. propero, -are, -avi, -atus, [prope- rus, quick], I, hurry, make haste, hasten. propinquitas, -atis, [propinquus], f., nearness, vicinity; relationship (ii. 4). [propinquity. propinquus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, [prope], adj., near, neighboring. As noun, propinquus, -i, m., rela- propior 94 provisus tive ; pi., propinqui, -orum, m., relatives, kinsfolk; propinquae, -arum, {., female relatives (i. i8). propior, -us, gen. propioris, adj. in comp. degree, sup. proximus, [cf. prope], positive wanting, nearer. proximus, -a, -um, nearest, next, last, of space or time. proxima nocte, on the following night, [proximate. propiuB. see prope. propono, -ponere, -posui, -positus, [pro + p6n6], 3, set forth, put fo)-- ward, present; declare, explain; propose, intend; raise, display (ii. 20). [propose. propositum, -i, [pr5positus], n., intention, purpose. C. ill. 84. propositus, see propono. .proprius, -a, -um, adj., one's own, particular, peculiar, characteristic. vi. 22, 23. [proper. propter, prep, with ace. only, on ac- count of, in consequence of. proptere^ [propter + ea], adv.,/7r ihis reason, therefore. propterea quod, because. propugnator, -oris, [propugnoj, m., defender, vii. 25. propugno, -are, -avi, -atus, [pro + pugrnS], I, come forth to fight (v. 9) ; fight on the defensive (ii. 7; vii. 86). propulso, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of propello], I, drive off, drive back (i. 49) ; ward off, repel (vi. 15). prora, -ae, [7r/) ^^^^^^ down, subside. vii. 64. resists, -sistere, -stiti, [re- + sisto, set]., 3, remain, stay ; stand still (C. II- 35); oppose, withstand, offer re- sistance, [resist. respiciS, -spicere, -spexi, -spectus, [re- + specie, look\ 3, look back (ii. 24; V. 43, C. II. 35); look at; con- sider (vii. 77). [respect. respondeS, -spondere, -spondi, resp5nsum 102 sacerdotium -spSnsus, [re- + spondeS, prom- ise\ 2, answer, reply, [respond. responsum, -i, [part, of responded], n., answer y reply, [response. res publica, see publlcus. respud, -spue re, -spui, [re- + spu6], 3, spit out ; reject (i. 42). restinguo, -stinguere, -stinxi, -stinctus, [re- + stinguo, quench\ 3, put out, extinguish, vii. 24, 25. reatitud, -uere, -ui, -utus, [re- + statuo], 3, replace, restore ; renew, revive; rebuild {\. 2%'). [restitution. retentuB, see retineo. retineo, -tinere,-tinui,-tentus, [re- + teneo], 2, restrain^, detain, keep back ; hold {\\\. 21). [retain. retraho, -trahere, -traxi, -tractus, [re- + traho], 3, bring back by force. V. 7. [retract. revello, -vellere, -velli, -vulsus, [re- + vello, /«//], 3, pull back (i. 52); tear away (vii. 73). reversuB, see reverter. reverts, reverti, [re- + vertS], 3, only in tenses from pf. stem, and reverter, -verti, -versarus, 3, dep., return, go back, [revert. revincio, -vincire, -vinxi, -vinctus, [re- + vinciS], 4, bind back, bind securely, fasten. revoco, -are, -avi, -Stus, [re- + voco], I, call back, recall, [re- voke. r6x, regis, [cf. regrS, rule\ m., king, ruler, chieftain. RhenuB, -i, m., the Rhine. RhodanuB, -i, m., the Rhone, which rises in the Alps near the sources of the Rhine, and passing through Lake Geneva, follows at first a south- westerly direction, then flows south, reaching the Mediterranean after a course of about 500 miles. rlpa, -ae, f., bank of a stream, [river. rIvuB, -i, m., stream, brook, [rival. robur, -oris, n., oak (11. 13); strength (C. 111. 87). [robust. rogo, -are, -avi,-atus, i, ask, request, [rogation. Roma, -ae, f., Rome. RomanuB, -a, -um, [Roma], adj., Roman. As noun, Romanua, -i, m., a Roman; usually pi., the Ro- mans, Romans. [Roman. RosciuB, -1, m., Lucius Roscius (rosh'- [y] us), a lieutenant in Caesar's army. roBtrum, -i, [cf. rodo, gnaw], n., beak; of a ship, ^^. [rostrum. rota, -ae, f., wheel, [rotary. RoucilluB, -i, m., (ru-sil' us)., an Allo- brogian., brother of Egus. C. HI. 59. rubuB, -i, m., brier, bramble, ii. 17. RufuB, -i, [rafus, reddish]., m., (ru'- fus), a Roman cognomen. rumor, -5ris, m., rumor, report., gossip. [rumor. nipcB, -is, [cf. rump6], f., cliff, ii. 29. rursuB, [for revorsus, from re- verto], adv., again, anew ; in turn^ on the contrary. Ruteni, -5rum, m., pi., (ru-te'nl), a Gallic people, west of the Cebenna (CfT/^-wwifj) Mountains; part of them were in the Province, and were called Ruteni provinciaies. RutiluB (ru' tj-lus), see Sempr5- nius. SabinuB, see Titurius. SabiB, -is, m., Sabis (sa' bjs), the Sambre., a river in the central part of Belgic Gaul flowing northeast into the Mosa {Metise). ii. 16, 18. Saburra, -ae. m., (sa-bU' ra), a gen- eral in Juha's army. C. II. 38-42. BacerdoB, -dStis, [sacer. cf. d6], m. and f., priest, vii. n. [sacer- dotal, sacerddtium, -i, [sacerdSs], n., priesthood. C. ill. 82, 83. sacramentum 103 satus Bacramentum, -i, [sacro, set apart as sacred\ n., oath, [sacrament. Sacrativir, -i, m., Marcus Sacraiivir, (sa-krat' i-vir), a Roman knight, C. III. 71. sacrificium, -i, [sacriflcus, from sa- crum 4- FAC in facio], n., sacrifice. vi. 13, 16, 21. [sacrifice. saepe, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, adv.. often, frequently. Comp., too often (iii. 6). saepe numero, often- times, repeatedly. saepes, -is, f., hedge, ii. 17, 22. saevio, -ire, -ii, -itus, [saevus, fierce']., 4, rage ; be violent (iii. 13). sagitta, -ae, f., arrow. Sagittarius, -i, [sagitta], m., archer, bowman. [Sagittarius. sagulum, -i, [dim. of sagrum, 7nan- tle]^ n., small cloak, cloak, v. 42. sal, salis, m., salt. C. 11. 37. [salad. salinae, -arum, f., pi., [sal], salt- works. C. II. 37. saltern, adv., at any rate. C. i. 6. saltUB, -us, m., wooded valley, defile, glen, thicket, vi. 43; vii. 19. salus, -atis, [cf. salvus, well\ f., health.^ welfare ; safety, [salutary. saluto, -are, -avi, -atus, [salus], I, greet, address. Cm. 71. [salute. Samarobriva, -ae, f., (sam" a-ro- bri' va), a city of the Ambiani on the Samara {Somme); now Amiens. sancio, sancire, sanxi, sanctus, 4, make sacred ; make binding, ratify. [sanction. sanctus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [sancio], adj., hallowed, sacred, [saint. sanguis, -inis, m., blood, [sanguine. sanitas, -tatis, [sanus] , f., soundness of mind, good sense, [sanity. sano, -are, -avi, -atus, [cf. sanus], I, make sound ; make good, remedy (vii. 29). Santones, -um, or Santoni, -drum, m., pi., (san' to-nez, san' to-ni), a Gallic people on the seacoast north of the Garumna (^Garonne). Fig. 207. Figure 207. — Coin of the Santones. Silver. Obverse, helmeted head; in- scription, SANTONOS. Reverse, a galloping horse. sanus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. sa- nissimus, adj., sound, healthy, ra- tional. As noun, pro sano, as a prudent man {y .']') . [sane. sapid, -ere, -ivi, 3, taste ; be sensible.^ understand {y. -if)), [sapient. sarcinae, -arum, [sarcio], f,, pi., packs., carried by the soldiers on their backs. sarcio, -ire, sarsi, sartus, 4, mend ; make good (vi. i; C. ill. 73); zvipe out (C. III. 74). [sartorial. sarmentum, -i, [sarpo. prune], n., a branch; pi., brusMvood (iii. 18). satis, adv., enough, sufficiently, toler- ably, rather ; often used as a noun, especially with a gen. of the whole as satis causae, sufficient reason. satisfacio [satis + facio], -facere, -feci, -factus, irr., satisfy., give sat- isfaction ; make restitution (i. 14, v. i); appease., placate {y\\.%(f)\ make apology., apologize (i. 41, v. 54). [satisfy. satisfactio, -onis, [satisfaci5], f,, apology, excuse. [satisfaction. Saturmnus, -i, m., L. Appuleius Sat- urninus (sat-ur-nl' nus), a tribune in 100 B.C. C. I. 7. satus, see sero. saucius 104 Seduni sauciuB, -a, -um, adj., wounded (v. 36). As noun, saucius, -i, m., a wounded VI an (iii. 4). sazum, -i, n , stone , rock. Scaeva, -ae, m., Cassius Scaeva (se'va), a brave centurion in Cae- sar's army. C. III. 53. scalae, -arum, [of. scando, climb\ f., pi. , ladder, scaling-ladder, [scale. Scaldis, -is, m., the Schelde, which rises in France near the headwaters of the Somme (Samara), and flows northeast to the sea. vi. 33. Bcapha, -ae, [a/cd^Tj], f., skiff, small boat. sceleratuB, -a, -um, cump. -i'or, sup. -issimus, [part, of scelero, from scelus], adj., 7vicked. infamous (vi. 34). As noun, sceleratus, -i, m., a crime-polluted man {y'\. 13). scelus, scelerls, n., crime, zvicked- ness. i. 14. scienter, comp.scientius, sup.scien- tissime, [sciens], adv., cleverly, skilfully, vii. 22. Bcientia, -ae, [sciens], f., knowledge, skill, [science. scindo, -ere, scidi, scissus, 3, tear., cut, split; tear doivn, break down (iii. 5; V. 51). Bcio, scire, scivi, scitus, 4, know, understand. Scipio, -6nis, m., Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio (sip' j-6), a prominent parti- san of Pompey, who married his daughter Cornelia as fifth wife. C. III. 82, 83, 88, 90. Scorpio, -6nis, \jiKop-Ki(j)v\vci..i a scor- pion ; scorpion, a military engine (vii. 25). [scorpion. scribo, scribere, scripsi, scriptus, 3, write, write down, [scribe. Bcrobis, -is, m. and f., hole, pit ; wolf- hole, wolf-pit. [scrobicule. scutum, -i, n., oblong shield. sS, 88b6, see buI. b6-, B§d-, in composition, apart from, without. sSbum, -i, x\..^fat, tallow, [sebaceous. sScesBlp, -6nis, [secedO], f., with- dra-ival. C. I. 7. [secession. secludo, -ere, -si, -sus, [bS- -}; claudo], 3, shut off. C. in. 97. [seclude. seco, -are, -ui, -tus, i, cut. [sector. secret [secretus], adv., secretly, privately, i. 18, 31. sectio, -6ni8, [seco], f., booty, [sec- tion. sector, -ari, -atus, [freq. of sequor], I, ([qt^.., pursue, chase, vi. 35. sectura, -ae, [secS], f., a cutting through earth, digging, excavation. iii. 21. secundum, [sequor], prep, with ace. only, along, next to, by the side of (ii. 18; vii. 34); according to (iv. 17); besides (i. 33). secundus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [sequor], adj., second, next ; propitious, fortunate, favor- able, [second. securis, -is, [cf. sec5], f., axe; pi. referring to the axes of the lictors, the lictor^s axe (vii. 77). Bed, conj., but ; yet, but yet. sSd-, see se-. sgdecim, or XVI, [sex + decern], indeclinable num. adj., sixteen. sSdes, -is, [cf. sedeo, 5iV], f., seat habitation, abode, settlement, home. sgditio, -6nis, [sed- + itiO, from Ire] f., mutiny, revolt, vii. 28. [sedi tion. sSditiosuB, -a, -um, sup. -issimus [seditiO], adj., mutinous, [sedi tious. SeduliuB, -i, m., (se-du' li-us), a leader of the Lemovices. vii. 88. Seduni, -Orum, m., pi., (se-du' nl), a people in the Alps southeast of Lacus Lemannus {Lake Geneva). Sedusii 105 sepultura Sedusii, orum, pi., (se-du' sh[y]-i), a German tribe, i. 51. seges, -etis, i.^ grain-field, vi. 36. Segni, -orum, m., pi., (seg' nl), a German tribe settled in Belgic Gaul. vi. 32. Segontiaci, -orum, m., pL, (seg"- on-shi-a' si), a people in the southern part of Britain, v. 21 . Segovaz, -actis, m., (seg'o-vaks), a British chieftain, v. 22. Segusiavi, -orum, m., pi., (seg"u- shi-a' vl), a Gallic people, subject to the Aeduans. Fig. 208. Figure 208. — A Coin of the Segusiavi. Silver. Obverse, helmeted head ; in- scription, SEGVSIAVS, perhaps a man's name. Reverse, Hercules with his club and lion's skin. semel, adv., once. sementis, -is, [semen, seed\ f., sow- ing, seeding (i. 3). semita, -ae, i., path, by-ivay. semper, adv., always., ever, constantly. Sempronius, -i, m., Marcus Sempro- nius Rutilus (sem-pro' ni-us ru' ti- lus), a Roman cavalry officer, vii. 90. senator, -oris, [cf, senex], m., mem- ber of the Roman Senate, senator ; member of a Gallic state-council, councillor , senator {\\. 28). [senator. senatdrius, -a, -um, [senator], adj., senatorial. ordo senatorius, sen- atorial rank (C. ill. 83, 97). [sena- torial. senatus, -us, [cf. senex], m., council of elders, senate, [senate. senex, -is, comp. senior, adj., old, aged. As noun, m., old man (i. 29) ; seniores, -um, m., pi., older men (C. ii. 4). [senile. seni, -ae, -a, [sex], distrib. num. adj., six each, six. i. 15. Senones, -um, m,, pi., (sen' o-nez), a Gallic people south of the Ma- trona {Marne); chief city Agedin- cum, now Sens. sententia, -ae, [cf. sentio], f., opin- ion, view., notion, conviction ; deci- sion, judgment, sententiam di- cere, to express an opinion. sen- tentias ferre, to vote (C. iii. 83). [sentence. sentio, sentire, sensi, sensus, 4, perceive through the senses, become awarcy learn; feel, think; knotv. [sense. sentis, -is, m , thorn-bush. ii. 17. separatim [separatus], adv., sepa- rately, apart. separatus, -a, -um, [part, of separo], adj., separate, 7?iarked off^. [separate. separo, -are, -avi, -atus, [se- + paro], I, part, separate. vii. 63. [separate (verb). septem, or VII, indeclinable num. adj., seven. [September. septentrio, -onis, [septem + trio, plough-ox']., m., generally pi,, sep- tentriones, -um, the seven plough- oxen, the seven stars forming the constellation of the Great Bear; the North, [septentrional. Septimius, -i, m,, Lucius Septimius (sep-tim' i-us), a military tribune. C. III. 104. Septimus, -a, -um, [septem], num. di(\].^ the seventh, [septimal. septingenti, -ae, -a, or DCC, [sep- tem + centum], num. adj., seven hundred, v. 13; vii. 51. septuaginta, or LXX, indeclinable num. adj., severity. [Septuagint. sepultura, -ae, [cf. sepelio, bury']i f., burial, i. 26. [sepulture. Sequana 106 significatio SSquana, -ae, f., Sequana (sek'- wa-na), the Seine, the principal river of Nurihern France. 3Squaui, -6rum, m., pi., tAe Sequa- nians, Sequani (sek' wa-ni), a Gallic people west of the Jura; chief city Vesontio, now Besanqon. SSquanus, -a, -um, adj., Sequanian, of the Sequanians (i. 31). As noun, SSquanus, -i, m., a Sequanian (i. 3)- sequor, -qui, -cQtus, 3, dt^i.^ follow, follow after ; pursue ; take advantage of {y. 8) ; hold to, maintain (vii. 63). Caesarls fldem sequi, to attach one's self to Caesar (v. 20, 56). [sequence. Ser., = Servlus. sermo, -onis, m., talk, conversation. [sermon. aero, comp. serius, sup. -Issime, [se- rus, late']., adv., late ; too late (v. 29) . sero, serere, sevi, satus, 3, sow, plant. Sertorius, -i, m., Quintus Sertorius (ser-to' ri-us), a Roman general. III. 23. servilis, -e, [servus], adj., servile, of slaves, i. 40; vi. 19. [servile. Bervio, -ire, -ii, -itus, [servus], 4, be the slave of follow (iv. 5); devote one's self to (vii. 34). [serve. servitUB, -tatis, [servus], f., slavery, bondage, subjection, [servitude. ServiuB, -i, m., (ser'vj-us), a Roman first name. Bervo, -are, -ftvi, -atus, i, save ; keep, maintain, retain; save up (vi. 19); keep watch of, watch (v. 19); keep tip the watch (ii. 33). servus, -i, m., slave, [serf. sescentl, -ae, -a, or DC, [sex + centum], num. adj., six hundred. bSbS, see sui. BSsquipedaiis, -e, [sSsqui-, one half more, + pedaiis ; sesqul- = sS- mia, one half + -que], adj., a fool and a half '\w \.\\\cV.v\t.?,%. iv. 17. sesterdus, -a, -um, [for semis ter- tius, three less one half], num. adj., two and a half As subst., sester- tius, -i, (originally sc. nummus), gen. pi. sestertitim, m., sesterce, a small silver coin, originally 2\ asses, = about 4j^ cents. B§tiu8, adv., comp., less. nihil5 setius, none the less, nevertheless. seu, see sive. BeveritSs, -tatis, [sevems, sezZ- [stability. statim [sto], adv., on the spot ; imme- diately, at once., straightway. statio, -onis, [cf. st6], f., outpost, picket, guard ; reserves (v. 16). in etoXiowQ, on guard, [station. statud, -uere, -ui, -atus, [status], 3, 5^/, place ; determine, resolve ; judge, think, [statute. statura, -ae, [cf. sto], f., height.^ stat- ure, ii. 30; vi. 21. [stature. status, -us, [st6], m., condition, posi- tion., situation, [status. stimulus, -i, m., goad ; pricker like a goad (vii. 73, 82). [stimulus. stipendiarlus, -a, -um, [stipen- dium], adj., tributary, subject to payment of tribute (i. 30, 36). As noun, stipendiarii. -6rum, m., pi., tributaries, dependents (vii. 10). [stipendiary. stipendium, -i, [stips, coin, cf. stipes 109 subsidium pend5, weigh^ n., tribute ; of %o\- diers, /«j. [stipend. stipes, -itis, m., stock of a tree, log. vii. 73. stirps, -is, f., stem ; stock, race (vi. 34). sto, stare, steti, staturus, i, stand, stand upright {y'\. 27); be posted^ be placed (v. 35, 43) ; abide by (vi. 13). stramentum, -i, [cf. sterno, strew\ n., thatch of houses (v. 43); pack- saddle (vii. 45). strepitus, -us, [strepo], m., noise, uproar. stringo, -ere, strinxi, strictus, 3, llind tight ; of a sword, draiv (C. ill. 93). [stringent^ Btruo, -ere, struxi, structus, 3, build, construct. C. ill. 96. Btudeo, -ere, -ui, 2, be eager for, strive for ; be devoted to, pay heed to ; eagerly desire, strive, [student. studiose, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [studiosus, eager\ adv., eagerly, diligently. Btudium, -i, [cf. studeo], n., eager- ness^ energy, enthusiasm ; goodwill {\.\o,)\ pursuit. studia rei mili- taris, pursuits of war, military pur- suits (vi. 21). [study. Btultitia, -ae, [stultus], i.^ folly, lack of foresight, vii. 77. BtultUB, -a, -um, adj., foolish. C. in. 59. [stultify. BUb, prep. : (i) With ace, after verbs of mo- tion, under^ towards, near to, just before. (2) With abl., under, at the foot of, close by ; of time, on, in, during. subactus, see subig-o. subdoluB, -a, -um, [sub -f- dolus], adj., crafty, cunning, vii. 31. Bubduco, -ducere, -duxi, -ductus, [sub -f duco], 3, lead up from a lower to a higher position (i. 22, 24) ; of ships, draw up, haul on shore, beach (iv. 29; v. ii, 24). subductio, -onis, [subduco], f., hauling on shore, beaching, v. I. subeo, -ire, -ii, -iturus, [sub + eo], irr., go under (i. 36) ; co?tie up^ approach, go tip (to)^ from a lower position (ii. 25, 27; vii. 85); un- dergo, suffer. subfodio, -fodere, -fodi, -fossus, [sub + fodio], 3, stab underneat i. iv, 12. subfossus, see subfodio. subicio, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [sub 4- iacio], 3, throw under, place near ; throw from beneath (i. 26) ; expose (iv. 36, C. III. 85); make subject (vii. I, 77). Bubiectus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, [subicio], adj., lying near, adja- cent. V. 13. [subject. Bubigo, -igere, -egi, -actus, [sub -f ago], 3, subdue; constrain.^ reduce to straits (vii. 77). subito, [abl. of subitus], adv., sud- denly., on a stidden. BubituB, -a, -um, [subeS], adj., sud- den, unexpected. Bublatus, see toUo. Bublevo, -are, -avi, -atus, [sub -f levo], I, lift up., support., hold up (i. 48; vi. 27; vii. 47); relieve., as- sist., aid, support (i. 16, 40; vii. 14, 65); of labor, lighten (vi. 32); re- trieve (C. III. 73). Bublioa, -ae, f., stake., pile. Bubluo, -luere, , -lutus, [sub -\- luo], 3, wash (vii. 69); flow at the foot of {Q. III. 97). Bubruo, -ruere, -rui, -rutus, [sub -i- ru6,y^//], 3, undermine. Bubsequor, -sequi, -secutus, [sub -f sequor], 3, dep., follow close upon., follow after., follow up. [sub- sequent. subsidium, -i, [cf. subsidS], n., re- subsido 110 summa serve^ reserve force^ auxiliaries ; support^ reliefs help^ aid ; relieving force ; resource^ remedy. mittere subsidio, to send help, [subsidy. Bubsido, -sidere, -sedi, [sub + sido, J/VJ, 3, stay behind.^ remain behind, vi. 36. [subside. Bubsisto, -sistere, -stiti, [sub + sisto, J^/], 3, halt., make a stand (i. 15); hold out {v. 10). [subsist. Bubsum, -esse, [sub + sum], irr., be near (i. 25; v. 2q) ; of time, be close at hand.1 not far <7^(iii. 27; v. 23, C. III. 97)- Bubtraho, -trahere, -traxi, -trac- tus, [sub + traho], 3, carry off., draw off underneath (vii. 22); with- draiv^ take away (i. 44). [subtract. Bubvectio, -6nis, [subveho], f., transportation, vii. 10. Bubveho, -vehere, -vexi, -vectus, [sub + veho], 3, bring up. i. 16. Bubvenid, -venire, -veni, subven- tum est, [sub + venio], 4, come to the help of come to the resctie of; assist^ succor^ render assistance. [subvention. BuccSdo, -cedere, -cessi, -cessu- rus, [sub + ced5J, 3, come up^ approach., advance; succeed to an- other's place, take the place of., relieve., follow ; become the successor (vi. 13) ; prosper., succeed (vii. 26). [suc- ceed. Buccendo, -cendere, -cendi, -cen- sus, [sub, cf. candeOj, 3, set en fire, set fire to. Buccido, -cidere, -cidi, -cisus, [sub + caed6], 3, cut down. Bucc\imb6,-cumbere,-cubui, [sub -f cum bo, for cub6], 3, >-/>/ipt ; make an attack on^ attack^ assail (vii. 73, 86) ; try to win over (vi. 2). [tempt. tempus, -oris, n., period of time ; time., period; season; occasion., cir- cumstances, pro tempore, accord- ing to the emergency (v. 8). in re- liquum tempus, y^r the future., for all time to come, [temporal. Tencteri, -orum, m., pi., (tengk'- te-rl), a German people, driven from their territories by the Suebi. tendo, tendere, tetendi, tentus, 3, stretchy extend; put up (C. ill. 82); have one's tent (vi. 37). [tend. tenebrae, -arum, f., pi., darkness. teneo, tenere, tenui, 2, hold^ keep, occupy ; hold in., keep in, hold back, restrain, hem in; hind (i. 31). se tenere, to keep one''s self, to re- main, [tenet. tener, -era, -erum, comp. -ior, sup. tenerrimus, adj., tender., young. ii. 17. [tender (adj.). tenuis, -e, comp. tenuior, sup. tenu- issimus, adj , thin ; poor., trifling (^'i- 35); feeble., delicate (v. 40). tenuitSs, -atis, [tenuis], f., thinness ; weakness; poverty, destitution (vii. 17). [tenuity. tenuiter, comp. tenuius, sup. -issime, [tenuis], adv., thinly. iii. 13. ter, num. adv., three times., thrice. teres, -etis, [cf. terO, rub']., adj., smooth (vii. 73). tergum, -i, n., back. a tergrO, post tergum, /// the rear., on the rear. terga vertere, to flee, [tergant. term, -ae, -a, [terj, distrib. num. adj., by threes., three each, [ternary. terra, -ae, f., earth; land, ground ; territory, country^ region, [terrace. Terrasidius, -i, m., (ter-a-sid' i-us), an officer under Publius Crassus. iii. 7, 8. terrenus, -a, -um, [terra], adj., of earth., earthy, i. 43. [terrain. terreo, -ere, -ui, -itus, 2, frighten, terrify., alarm ; followed by qu6 minus, deter^ frighten from an ac- tion (vii. 49). territo, -are, [freq. of terreo], i, frighten greatly., terrify. metQ territare, to fill with apprehension (v. 6). terror, -oris, [cf. terreo], m., fear., fright., alarm. inferre terrorem, to strike terror (vii. 8). [terror. tertius, -a, -um, [ter], num. ord. adj., third. tertius decimus, or XIII, thirteenth, [tertiary. testamentimi, -i, [cf. testorj, n., will. i. 39. [testament. testimonium, -i, [cf. testis], n., proof evidence, [testimony. testis, -is, m. and f., ivitness. testud5, -inis, [cf. testa, potsherd], f., turtle ; turtle-shell roof testudo., a covering formed by the soldiers' shields held above their heads and overlapping (ii. 6; v. 9; vii. 85); turtle-shell shed, a movable shed to protect soldiers near the enemy's wall (v. 42, 43, 52). [testudinate. Teutomatus, -1, m., (tu-tom'a-tus), a king of the Nitiobroges.- vii. 31, 46. Teuton!, gen. -um, m., pi., Teutons^ Teutoni (tu'to-nl); see Cimbrl. Thessalia, -ae, [Beo-craX/a], f., Thes- saly., the northeastern part of Greece. C. III. 82. Thraces 115 transcendo Thraces, -um, in.,pl., Thracians^ na- tives of Thrace, east of Macedonia. C. III. 95. tignum, -1, n., log^ pile. iv. 17. Tigurinus, -a, -um, adj., Tigurian. As noun, Tigurini, -orum, m., pi., the Tigiirians, one of the four divi- sions of the Helvetians, i. 12. timed, -ere, -ui, 2., fear., be afraid of ; be afraid., be apprehensive (i. 14, 41). Pres. part, as noun, timentes, m-., pi., the fearful (vii. 7). timide, comp, -ius, [timidus], adv., timidly, iii. 25; v. 33. timidus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [cf. timeo], adj., timid^ cowardly, i. 39; vi. 40. [timid. timor, -oris, [cf. timeo], m., fear^ apprehension., alarm, [timorous. TituriuB, -i, m., Quifitus Titurius Sa- bintis (tl-tu' rj-us sa-bi' nus), a lieu- tenant of Caesar. Titus, -i. m., (ti' tus), a Roman first name; abbreviation, T. tolero, -are, -avi, -atus, i, bear^ sup- port., endure ; sustain (vu. yy); hold out (vii. 71). [tolerate. toUo, toUere, sustuli, sublatus, 3, lift., raise; of an anchor, 7veigh (iv. 23) ; take on board ( iv. 28) ; puff up., elate (i. 15; v. 38, C. 11. 37); take away., remove (vi. 17; vii. 14); do away with (l. 42). Tolosa, -ae, f., (to-16' sa), a city in the Province, now Toulouse, iii. 20. Tolosates,. -lum, [Tolosa], m., pi., (tol-o-sa' tez), a people in the terri- tory of the Volcae Tectosages, in the Province, about Tolosa. tormentum, -i, [cf. torqueo, tivist']., n., windlass (vii. 22); as a military term, pi., torsioners, engines., artillery (vii. 41, 81); missile., thrown by the torsioners (iv. 25); means of tor- ture., rack, torture (vi. 19; vii. 4). [torment. torreo, torrere, torrui, tostus, 2. roast ; burn.,scorch (v. 43). [torrid. tot, indeclinable num. adj., so many. totidem [tot], indeclinable num. adj., just as many, just so many. to tus, -a, -um, gen. totius, adj., the whole, all., all the., entire, [total. trabs, trabis, f., beam, timber. tractus, see traho. trado, -dere, -didi, -ditus, [trans + do], 3, hand over., give up., deliver, surrender ; intrust^ commit., confide ; commend., recommend (vii. 39) ; hand down (iv. 7); teach., impart (vi. 14, 17; vii. 22). traduco, -ducere, -duxi, -ductus, [trans + duco], 3, lead across, bring over ; lead., transport., transfer ; ivin over (vi. 12, VII. 37). [traduce. tragula, -ae, f., dart., javelin., perhaps having a barbed point, and hurled by means of a leather thong. traho, trahere, traxi, tractus, 3, drag along ( i. 53 ) ; draw along., drag (VI. 38). [tract. traicid, -icere, -ieci, -iectus, [trans -|- iaciS], 3, throw across; strike through, pierce, transfix (v. 35, 44; vii. 25, 82). [trajectory. traiectus, see traicio. traiectus, -us, [cf. traicio], m.,/aj- sage. iv. 21 ; v. 2. trano, -are, -avi, [trans + n6, jwz'w], I, sivim across, i. 53. tranquillitas, -atis, [tranquillus, still]., f., stillness., calm (iii. 15). summa tranquillitas, a profound calm (v. 23). [tranquillity. trans, prep, with ace. only, across.^ over ; on the further side of be- yond. TransalpinuB, -a, -um, [trans -f- Alpinus, from Alpes], adj., beyond ike Alps., Transalpine . vii. I, 6. transcendo, -scendere, -scendi, [trans + scand5, climb']., 3, climb transeo 116 trichila over (vii. 70); of ships, board (iii. 15). [transcend. trSnseo, -ire, -II or -ivi, -itum est, [trans + eo], \xx.^goover,go across, pass over^ cross over ; pass by, march through; of time, pass (iii. 2). [transit (verb). transferd, -ferre, -tuli, -latus, [trans + ferO], irr., carry across ; transfer, [transfer, transflgo, -figere, -fixi, -fixus, [trans + figo, /^J, 3i pierce through^ transfix, [transfix. tr&nsfixus, see transfig-o. tr^nsfodio, -fodere, -fodi, -fossus, [trans + fodio], 3, pierce through, impale (vii. 82). trSnsgredior, -gredi, gressus, [trans + gradiSr, walk^ go\ 3, dep.,/aw over ^ go across^ cross, ii. 19; vii. 25, 46. [transgress. tr^nsituB, -tls, [cf. transeS], m., going over^ crossing (v. 55; vi. 7; vii- 57)- [transit (noun). tr&nslStUB, see transfers. transmarinuB, -a, -um, [trans + mare], adj., beyond the sea. vi. 24. [transmarine. tr&nBmiBBUB, -us, [cf. transmittS], vi\.^ passage, v. 13. tr&nsmittd, mlttere, -misi, -mis- sus, [trans + mittoj, 3, send across,^ convey across. vii. 61. [transmit. Tr^nspadanuB, -a, -um, [trans -f PadusJ, adj., beyond the Po. C. III. 87. [Transpadane. transportd, -are, -avi, -atus, [trans + ports], I, carry over., convey across^ transport, [transport. TransrhSnanuB, -a, -um, [trans + RhSnus], a.i\].., beyond the A'hine, on the other side of the Khine (v. 2). As noun, Transrhenani, -Orum, m., pi., the people beyond the Rhine (iv. 16; vi. 5). [Transrhenane. transtrum, -i, [trans], n., thwart^ cross-beam. iii. 13. transveiBUB [part, of transvertO], adj., crosswise, ii. 8. [transverse. TrebiUB, -i, m., Marcus Trebius Cal- lus (tre' l)i-us gal' us), an officer under Publius Crassus. iii. 7, 8. TrebdniuB, -i, m., (tre-bo' ni-us) : (i) Gaius Trebonius^ quaestor 60 B.C., tribune of the people 55 B.C., a lieutenant of Caesar in the Gallic and Civil wars; afterwards one of the conspirators against Caesar's life. (2) Gaius Trebonius^ a Roman knight, vi. 40. trecenti, -ae, -a, or CCC, [trSs + centum], num. ^iX].^ three hundred. trepido, -are, -avi, -atus, [cf. trepi- dus], 1, hurry about anxiously, v. ZZ'y vi. 37. [trepidation. tr6B, tria, gen. trium, or III, num. adj., three. Trgveri, -orum, m., pi., Treverans, Treveri (trev' e-rl), a Belgic people near the Rhine. TrgveniB, -a, -um, adj., Treveran, of the Treveri (ii. 24). TriariuB, -i, m., Gaius Triarius (tri- a' ri-us), a commander under Pom- pey. C. III. 92. TribocSB, -um, or Triboci, -Orum. m., pi., (trib' o-sez, trib' o-si), a Cierman people near the Rhine. tribuniciuB, -a, -um, [tribaniis],* adj., of a tribune^ tribunicial. C. I. 7. tribunuB, -i, [tribus, tribe\ m., tribune. tribiinus militum , m Hi- lary tribune. tribiinus plebis, tribune of the people, [tribune. trlbuo, -ere, -ui, -atus, [cf. tribus], 3, assign, ascribe ; allot^ give, con- cede ; grant., pay, render. tributum, -I, [part, of trlbuO], n., tax, tribute, vi. 13, 14. [tribute. trichila, -ae, f., arbor^ bower. C. ill. .96. triduum 117 Ubli triduum, -i, [tri, = tres, cf. dies], n., space of three days, three days. triennium, -i, [tri-, = tres,+ annus], n., period of three years, three years. iv. 4. [triennial. trigintt, or XXX, indeclinable num. adj., thirty. trini, -ae, -a, [tres], distrib. num. adj., three each; three; threefold, triple (i. 53). [trinal. Trinovantes, -um, m., pi., (trin-o- van' tez), a tribe in Britain. tripertito, [tripertitus, tri- + par- titus], adv., in three divisions, in three columns, [tripertite. triplex, -Icis, [tri, = tres, cf. plico, fold\ adj., threefold, triple, [triple. triquetrus, -a, -um, adj., three-cor- nered.^ triangular, v. 13. triremis, -e, [tri, = tres, + remus], adj., having three banks of oars. C. II. 6. [trireme. tristis, -e, comp. -lor, sup. -issimus, adj., sad.^ dejected, disconsolate, i. 32. tristitia, -ae, [tristis], f., sadness., dejection, i. 32. Troucillus, -i, m., Gains Valerius Troucillus (tru-sil' us), a Gaul who acted as interpreter for Caesar, i. 19. truncuB, -i, m., trunk of a tree, [trunk. tu, tui, pi. vos, vestrum, personal pron., thou, you. tuba, -ae, f., trumpet, [tuba. tueor, tueri, 2, 6.t^.,gaze at, behold, watch ; guard, protect., defend. tuli, see fero. Tulingi, -orum, m , pi., (tu-lin' jT), a people near the Helvetians. Tullius, see Cicero. TulluB, see Volcacius. tum, adv., then^ at that time ; there- upon; besides^ moreover. cum . . . tum, both . . . and, not only . . . but also. tumultuor, -ari, Stus, [tumultus], I , dep., make a disturbance ; be in confusion (vii. 61). tumultuose, comp. -ius, sup. -issime , [tumultuosus] , adv., with confusion. Comp., with more con- fusion than usual (vii. 45). tumultus, -us, m., disturbance., con- fusion, disorder., uproar ; uprising., rebellion (i. 40; v. 26). [tumult. tumulus, -i, [tumeo, swell\ m., mound., hillock, [tumulus. tunc, adv., then, at that time., at this juncture, v. 41. turba, -ae, f., disorder., confusion. C. II. 35. turma, -ae, f., troop., squaUron of cav- alry. turmatim, [turma], adv., by squad- rons. C. III. 93. Turoni, -orum, m., pi., (tu'ro-nT), a Gallic people, on the Liger {Loire). turpis, -e, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, adj., ugly ; disgraceful, shameful. turpiter, comp. -ius, sup. -issime, [turpis], adv., basely., disgracefully. turpitudo, -inis, [turpis], f., base- ness, disgrace, ii. 27. [turpitude. turris, -is, f., tower ; movable tower., built on wheels so that it could be moved up to the wall of a besieged city, [tower. TutictnuB, -i, m., (tU-ti-ka' nus), a Gaul in Caesar's army. C. iii. 71. tuto, comp. tutius, [abl. of tatus], adv., in safety., safely., securely. tiitus, comp. -ior, sup. -issimus, [part, of tueor], adj., safe., secure. tuuB, -a, -um, [tu], possessive pro- nominal adj., thy., your. v. 44. ubi or ubi, adv., of place, where ; of time, when. ubi primum, as soon as. Ubii, -orum, m., pi., Ubians, Ubii (u' bi-i), a German people. ubique 118 ut ubique [ubi + -que], adv., anywhere^ everyivhere. iii. i6. [ubiquity. UbiuB, -a, -um, adj., Ubian, of the Ubians (vi. 29). ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus, 3, dep., take 7)engeance on (i 14; iv. 19; v. 38); avenge (i. 12); to take ven- geance (vi. 34). uUus, -a, -um, gen. ailius, adj., any. As noun, anyone.^ anybody (i, 8). ulterior, -ius, [ultra], adj. in comp. degree, farther.^ beyond.^ more remote., more distant. Sup. ultimus, farthest., most distant., most remote; last. As noun, ulteriSres, -um, m., pi., Viose who uere further off (vi. 2); ultimi, -orumi, m., pi, the last {y. 43). [ulterior, ultimate. ultr&, prep, with ace. only, on the farther side of; beyond (i. 48, 49). Ultr5, adv. , to the farther side ; besides., moreover., also (v. 28, vi. 35); actu- ally (v. 40) ; of one's own accord., voluntarily. ultus, see ulciscor. ululStus, -us, [ululo, jW/], m., only in ace. and abl., shouting.^ yell. umeruB, -i, m., shoulder. vii. 50, 56. umquam, adv., at any time., ever. un5 [anus], adv , into one place (vii. 87); in the same place (ii. 29; vii. 38) ; at the same time ; together., in company. dnS, cum, along with., to- gether with. unde, adv., whence., fom which. iindecim, or XI, [anus + decern], indeclinable num. adj., eleven. findecimus, -a, -um, [undeclm], num. ord. adj , eleventh. findSquadrSginta, or XXXIX, [anus + de f quadr&grinta], indeclinable num. adj., thirty-nine. dndgvlgintl, or X Villi, [anus -|- d6 -f vigrinti], indeclinable num. adj., nineteen, i. 8. undique [unde -(- -que], adv., from all sides., on all sides, everyxvhere. uni versus, -a. -um,[anus -f versus, from verto], ailj., all together.^ all, in a I ody ; the ivhole of entire. As noun, aniversi, orum, m , pi , all the men together., the whole body., all together, [universe. unus, -a, -um, gen. anius, num. adj., one ; one alone, only one., only., sole; one and the same. PI , ani, alone, only. ano tempore, at one and the same time. ad anum omnes, all to a man {\. 37). [unite. urbanus, -a, -um, [urbs], adj., of ///^<:zV)', referring to Rome, [urban. urbs, urbls, f., city; often the city., referrmg to Rome. urgeo, urg-ere, ursi, 2., press; pass., be hard pressed (ii. 25, 26). [urge. urus, -i, m., toild ox. vi. 28. Usipetes, -um, m., pi., (u-sip'e-tez), a Cerman people. usitatus, -a, -um, comp. -lor, sup. -issimus, [part, of asitor], adj., usual; common., familiar {y\\. 22). usque, a.dv.., as far as, even. asque ad, as far as; of time, up to, until (i. 50; iii. 15). usque e6, ez>en so far as this, even to this degree (vi. 37; vii. 17). usus, see ator. UBUB, -as, [cf. ator], m., use, prac- tice, exercise, employment ; experi- tn'-f, familiarity (7f/tM), skill; control; advantage, benefit; need, necessity. ex asa, of advantage. [use (noun). ut, uti, adv. and conj. : ( 1 ) As adv., interrogative, hoxv (i. 43,46); relative, ^/ J, y«j/ a5. (2) As conj., with indie, ^^(1.4); when, as soon as (i. 31) ; with subj., that, so that ; in order that; thougli^ although (iii. 9), .. uter 119 varus uter, utra, utrum, gen. utrius, pro- nominal adj., olten used as subst., zohich of twt), whichever, which. uterque, -traque, -trumque, gen. utriusque, [uter + -que], adj., each, both. As subst., uterque, utriusque, m., both, each. PI., utrique, both sides, both forces (iv. 26; V. 50; vii. 70, 80, 85) ; both peo- ples (ii. 16; vii. 7). uti, see ut. Utica, -ae, f., (u' ti-ca), a city in northern Africa, on the sea-coast. nticenses, -ium, m., pi., Uticans, the inhabitants of Utica. C. ii. 36. utilis, -e, comp. -ior, sup, -issimus, [utor], adj., ttseful, serviceable (iv. 7; vii. 20); helpful {vW. 76). utilitas, -atis, [utilis], f., usefulness., advantage, benefit, [utility. utor, uti, usus, 3, dep., use, employ, adopt; avail one's self of, have, en- joy, find ; observe, maintain; exer- cise, display, show, [use (verb). utrimque [uterque], adv., on both sides. utrum, [uter], conj., whether. uxor, -oris, f., wife, [uxorious. Vacalus, -i, m., Waal, Vacalus (vak'a-lus), an arm of the Rhine, v.'hich flows vilest into the Meuse. iv. 10. vac3lti5, -5nis, [cf. vaco], f., exemp- tion, vi. 14. [vacation. vaco, -are, -avi, -atus, i, be unoccu- pied, lie waste, [vacate. vacuus, -a, -um, sup. vacuissimus, [vaco], adj., empty, clear, vacant, unoccupied ; destitute (ii. 12). [vacuum. vadum, -i, n., shoal, shallow (iii. 9, 12, 13; iv. 26); ford, shallozu place. V&gina, -ae, f., scabbard, sheath, v. 44. vagor, -ari, -atus, i, dep., wander^ wander about, roam about. valeo, -ere, -ui, -iturus, 2, be poxver- ful, be strong ; have power, have in- fluence ; prevail, [value. Valerius, -i, m., (va-le' ri-us) : (i) Lucius Valerius Praeconinus, a lieutenant defeated and killed in Aquitania a few years before 56 B.C. iii. 20. (2) Gaius Valerius Flacciis, a Roman governor in Gaul. i. 47. (3) Gaius Valerius Caburus, a Gaul who received the Roman fran- chise, B.C. 83. i. 47; vii. 65. (4) Gaius Valerius Procillus.,%oxv of (3) ; sent by Caesar as envoy to Ariovistus. i. 47, 53. (5) Gaius Valerius Donnotaurus, a Gaul, son of (3). vii. 65. (6) Gaius Valerius Troucillus, see Troucillus. i. 19. (7) Valerius Flaccus, an officer in Pompey's army. C. ill. 53. Valetiacus, -i, m., (val' e-shi-a' kus), vergobret of the Aeduans in 53 B.C. vii. 32. valetudo, -inis, [cf. valeo], f., health. v. 40; vii. 78. [valetudinarian. valles or vallis, -is, f., valley, [val- ley. vallum, -i, [vaUus], n., rampart %et with palisades, wall, intrenchment. [wall. vallus, -i, m., stake., pole; rampart stake, palisade ; rampart stakes in po- sition, stockade, palisade ; sharpened point (vii. 73). Vangiones, -um, m., pi., (van-jT' o- nez), a German tribe, i. 51. varietas, -atis, [varius], f., variety., diversity (vii. 23); mottled appear- ance (vi. 27). [variet}''. varius, -a, -um, adj., different, diverse. [various. Varus, -i, a Roman name : see Attius vasts 120 v6r vSsto, -are, -avi, -atus, [vastus], i, lay waste, devastate. vastus, -a, -um, comp. -lor, sup. -issimus, z., slope ; be situated. [verge. vergobretus, -i, m., [Celtic word, 'He that renders judgment'; as a title, 'Dispenser of Justice'], ver- gobret, title of the chief magistrate of the Aeduans. i. 16. veritus, see vereor. vero [abl. neuter of verus], adv., in truth.^ in fact., truly ., certainly ; but., but in fact., hoivever. verso, -are, -avi, -atus, [freq. of verto], I, tur7i often; shift, change the position of (v. 44). Pass. versor, -ari, -atus, as dep., lit., turn one's self about, move about in any place; dzvell., live., be ; be occupied., be engaged., be busy. in bello versari, to engage in war (vi. 15). [versatile. versus, -us, [verto], m., line., verse (vi. 14). [verse. versus, [part, of verto], prep, and adv. : ( I ) As prep., veith ace. only, some- times following a word governed by ad or in, towards., in the direction of ad . . . versus, in . . . ver- sus, towards. (2) As adv., turned., facing. quo que versus, in all directions (iii. 23; vii. 4, 14). Vertico, -onis, m., (ver'ti-ko), a Nervian of rank. v. 45, 49. verto, vertere, verti, versus, 3, turn., turn about ; change. terg-a vertere, to turn and flee., to flee. Veruoloetius, -i, m., (ver-u-kle'- sh[y]us), a Helvetian who went as envoy to Caesar, i. 7. verus, -a, -um, comp. -ior, sup. ve- rissimus, adj., true (i. 18, 20); right., proper., fitting (iv. 8). As noun, verum, -i,* n., the truth. veri ^\va.)\\s>, probable (iii. 13). verutum, -i, [veru, spit for roasting meat], n., dart. v. 44. Vesontio, -onis, m., (ve-son' sh[y]6), chief city of the Sequanians, on the Dubis (Z?^«^.y) river; now Besanfon. i- 38, 39- vesper, -eri, m., evening, [vespers. vester, -tra, -trum, [v6s], posses- sive pronominal a.<.\].., your^ yours. vestigium, -i, w.., footprint^ track (vi. 27); spot., place (iv. 2); of time, moment., instant, [vestige. vestio, -ire, -ivi, -itus, [vestis], 4, clothe (v. 14; vii. 31); cover (vii. 23). [vestment. vestis, -is, f , clothing, vii. 47. [vest. vestitus, -us, [cf. vestio], m., cloth- ing., garb, iv. I; vii. 88. veteranus, -a, -um, [vetus], adj., old., veteran, i. 24. [veteran. veto, -are, -ui, -itus, i, forbid (ii. 20); not allow (vii. 33). [veto. vetus, -eris, sup. veterrimus, adj., old, former ; ancient, long-standing. vetustas, -atis, [vetustus, vetus], {.., antiquity, ancient times. C. I. 6. vexillum, -i, [cf. velum], n., banner y vex5 122 virtus vezo, -are, -avi, atus, [freq. of veh6], I, harass^ assail (i. 14; vi. 43 )> ^^y "w^isie, overrun (ii. 4; iv. 15). [vex. via, -ae, f., way, road; journey^ march. bidui via, a tivo days^ march (vi. 7). [via. viator, -Oris, [cf. via], m., traveller, wayfarer, iv. 5. vicenl, -ae, -a, [viginti], distrib. num. adj., twenty each, tiventy. vicesimus, -a, -um, [vigrinti], num. adj., tiventieth. vi. 21. viciSs [vigrinti], num. adv., twenty times. vicies centum milia pas- suum, t%vo thousand miles (v. 13). vicinitas, -atis, [vicinus, near\ f., neighborhood; neighbors (vi. 34). [vicinity. vicis, -is, f., nom., dat. and voc. sing. and gen. and voc. pi. not in use, change, succession. in vicem, in turn (iv. I, C. III. 98)*. [vicar. victima, -ae, f., victim. vi. 16, [victim. victor, -5ri8, [vinc6], m., conqueror, victor. As adj., victorious (i. 31; vii. 20, 62). [victor. victoria, -ae, [victor], f., victory. [victory. victUB, see vines. victUB,-a8, [viv6], m., living (i. 31) ; mode of life (vi. 24) ', food, provisions (vi. 22, 23). [victuals. VICUB, -i, m., village., hamlet. video, videre, vidi, visus, 2, see, perceive, observe ; understand. Pass. , generally as dep., videor, videri, visus sum, be seen., see m., appear; seem proper, seem good, seem best. [vision. Vienna, -ae, f., (vi-en'a), a city of the Allobroges ; now Vienne. vii. 9. vigilia, -ae, [vigril, ^vatchman]^ f., watching, sleeplessness (v. 31, 32); watch., a division of the night ; sentry duty (C. III. 49). [vigil. viginti, or XX, indeclinable num. adj., twenty. vimen, -inis, n., pliant shoot., twig., 7vithe. ii. 33; vii. 73. [Viminal. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctus, 4, bind. i. 53 vinco, vincere, vici, victus, 3, con- quer^ overcome., defeat^ subdue ; ex- ceed., surpass (vi. 43); carry one's point, have one^s 07vn way (v. 30). victi, -orum, part., used as noun, m., pi., the conquered, [vincible. vinculum, -i, [vincio], n., chain^ bond, fetters, [vinculum. vindico, -are, -avi, -atus, [cf. vin- dex], I, claim, demand (vii. 76) ; restore to liberty (vii. i); inflict punishment {\\\. 16). [vindicate. vinea, -ae, f., arbor-shed, sappers' hut. vinum, -i, n., witie. [wine. violo, -are, -avi, -atus, [vis], i, do violence to, maltreat (vi. 23) ; invade^ lay waste (vi. 32). [violate. vir, viri, m., man; husband {s\. 19). [virile. virSB, see vis. virgo, -inis, f., maiden, [virgin. virgultum, -i, [virgra, a shoot\ n., small brush ; fascine, iii. 18 ; vii. 73. Viridom5niB, -i, m., (vir" j-do-ma'- riis), a prominent Aeduan. Viridovix, -icis, m , (vi-rid'-o-viks), a leader of the Venelli. iii. 17-18. viritim, [vir], adv., man by man., to each individually, vii. 71. Viromaudui, -6rum, m., pi., (vir-o- man' du-T), a Belgic people about the headwaters of the Samara {Somme) and the Scaldis (Schelde). Fig. 21 1. virtiis, -atis, [vir], f., manliness; courage., bravery., prowess; vigor^ energy, initiative (vii. 6, 59); effi- ciency, effort (v. 8 ; vii. 22) ; ivorth (i. 47). PI, remarkable qualities^ virtues (i. 44). [virtue. vis 123 vultus VIS, ace. vim, abl. vi, pi. vires, -ium, f., strength (vi. 28); force., violence ; influence, control (vi. 14, 17); num- ber (vi. 36). Y\.., physical powers, strength, [vim. Figure 21 1. — A Viromanduan coin. Bronze ; crude fanciful designs. viBUS, see video. vita, -ae, [cf. vivo], f., life, [vital. vitium, -i, n., defect., failing, fault. C. II. 4, III. 72. [vice.* vito, -are, -avi, -atus, i, shun, avoid., try to escape. vitrum, -i, n., woad, a plant used for dyeing blue. v. 14. vivo, vivere, vixi, victurus, 3, live ; vviih abl., sustain life., live on (iv. I, 10; V. 14). [vivacious. vivus, -a, -um, [cf. vivo], adj., liv- ing, alive. As noun, vivi, -orum, m., pi., the living (vi. 19). [vivi- section. vix, adv., scarcely, barely ; with diffi- culty., hardly (i. 6; vi. 37; vii. 46). Vocates, -ium, m., pi., (vo-ka' tez), a people in Aquitania. iii. 23, 27. Voccio, -onis, m., (vok' sh[y]6), a king of the Norici. i. 53. voco, -are, -avi, -atus, [cf. vox], i, call, summon ; call for, demand; name., call (v. 21). [vocative. Vocontii, -orum, m., pi., (vo-kon'- sh[y]i), a Gallic people in the Prov- ince, i. 10. Volcacius, -i, m., Gaius Volcacius Tullus (vol-ka'sh[y]us tuV us), an officer in Caesar's army. Volcae, -arum, m., pi., (vol'se), a Gallic people in the Province having two branches, Arecomici and Tec- tosag'es. V0I6, velle, volui, irr., be willing, zvish, desire ; mean., intend.^ purpose. voluntarius, -a, -um, [volo], adj., willing ; serving as a volunteer (C. III. 91). As noun, voluntarius, -i, m., volunteer (v. 56). [voluntary. voluntas, -atis, [volo], f., zuill, wish., inclination^ desire; good-will, loy- alty (i. 19; v. 4; vii. 10); consent, approval {\. 7, 20, 30, 39). voluptas, -atis, [volo], f., pleasure, indulgence, enjoyment ; amusement (v. 12). [voluptuous. Volusenus, -i, m., Gaius Volusenus Quadratus (vol-u-se' nus kwa-dra'- tus), a military tribune. Vorenus, -i, m., Lucius Vorenus (vo- re' nus), a centurion, v. 44. Vosegus, -i, m., (vos' e-gus), a range of mountains in eastern Gaul, now Vosges (vozh). votum, -i, [voveo], n., vow. C. i. 6. [vote. voveo, vovere, vovi, votus, 2, voiv. vi. 16. [vow. vox, vocis, f., voice (ii. 13; v. 30; IV. 25); utterance (vii. 17); word., reply (i. 32). PI. voces, words., sayings, language, speeches, state- ments, [voice. Vulcanus, -i, m., Vulcan, son of Jupi- ter and Juno, god of fire and of work in metals, vi. 21. [volcano. vulgo [vulgus], z.^v., generally., com- monly., everyzvhere. i. 39; ii. I; V.33. vulgus, -i, n., common people ; multi- tude., crozvd ; of soldiers, rank and fie (i. 46). [vulgar. vulnero, -are, -avi, -atus, [vulnus], I, ivound., hurt, [vulnerable. vulnus, -eris, n., wound. vultus, -us, m., countenance., features, expression of face. i. 39. ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY Regular verbs of the first conjugation are indicated by the figure i. abandon, relinquo, -ere, -liqui, -lictus. ability, virtus, -tutis, /. natural ability, ingenium, -ii, n. have ability, possum, posse, potul. able, be able, possum, posse, potui. about, concerning, de, prep, with abl. about, around, circum, prep, with ace. about {with numerals), circiter. accept, accipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptus. accident, casus, -us, m. accomplish, perficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus; consequor, -i, -secutus. account, on account of, propter, prep. with ace. accuse, accuso, i. accustomed, be accustomed, soleo, -ere, solitus. across, trans, prep, with ace. act {noun), factum, -i, n. act {verb), facio, -ere, feci, f actus. actively, acriter. admit, confiteor, -eri, -fessus. adopt, of a plan, utor. advance, progredior, -gredi, -gressus. advantage, bonum, -i, n. ; com- modum, -i, n. advise, moneo, -ere, -ui, -itus. affair, res, rei, /. public affairs, res publica. afraid, be afraid, timeo, -ere, -ui. after, post, prep, with -ace; postquam, conj. afterward, post, postea. again, iterum. against, in, ad, contra, prepositions with ace. ago, ante. agriculture, agri cultura, -ae, /. aid {noun), auxilium, -ii, n, aid {verb), adiuvo, -are, -iuvi, -iutus, with ace. alarm, permoveo, -ere, -movi, -motus. all, omnis, -e ; totus, -a, -um. allow, patior, pati, passus. ally, socius, -ii, m. almost, fere, paene. alone, solus, -a, -um. already, iam. also, quoque {postpositive) . not only . . . but also, non modo . . . sed etiam. although, cum, quamquam, always, semper. ambassador, legatus, -i, m. ambuscade, insidiae, -arum, /., pi. among, apud, prep, with ace. ancestors, maiores, -um, m. anchor, ancora, -ae, /. at anchor, ad ancoram. and, et, atque, -que. and . . . not, neque. and so, itaque. announce, nuntio, i. another, alius, -a, -ud. answer, respondeo, -ere, -di, re- sponsus. any, any one, anything, aliquis, aliqua, aliquid (quod) ; after si, nisi or ne, quis, qua, quid (quod) ; with negatives, quisquam quidquam {pron.) ; ullus, -a, -um {adj.).^ appeal to, imploro, i. approach, appropinquo, i. approve, probo, i. ' Reproduced, with the consent of the authors, from Latin Composition, by Bernard M. Allen and John L. Phillips. 124 arise 125 f^an arise, coorior, -in, -ortus. arm, armo, i. arms, arma, -orum, n. army, exercitus, -us, m. arouse, incite, i. arrival, adventus, -us, m. arrive, pervenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum est. as, just as, ut, sicut, with indie. as if, quasi, velut si. as soon as, simul atque. ask, request, rogo, i. ask, seek, peto, -ere, -ivi or -ii, -itus. ask, inquire, quaero, -ere, -sivi or -sii, -situs. assistance, auxilium, -ii, n. at, in udth ahl. ; ad with ace; sign of locative case. Atrebatiaxi, AtrebSs, -atis, m. attack {noun), impetus, -us, m. attack {verb), oppugno, i ; adgredior, -i, -gressus; lacesso, -ere, -ivi or -ii, -itus. make an attack on, impetum facio in with ace. attempt {noun), conatus, -us, m. attempt {verb), conor, i. authority, auctoritas, -tatis,/. avenge, ulciscor, -i, ultus. avoid, vito, i. await, exspecto, i. away, be away, absum, abesse, afui, afuturus. baggage, impedimenta, -orum, «., pi. band {of men), manus, -us,/. barbarian, barbarus, -i, m. battle, pugna, -ae, /. ; proelium, -ii, n. be, sum, esse, fui, futurus. be at hand, adsum, adeSjSe, affui. bear, fero, ferre, tuli, latus. because, quod. because of, propter, prep, with ace. befall, accidit, -ere, accidit. before {adv.), ante, an tea. before {conj.), prius quam, ante quam. before {prep.), ante, with ace. before (adj.), prior, superior. on the day before, pridie. beg, oro, i ; peto, -ere, -ivi or -ii, -itus. began, coepi, cocpisse, coeptus. Use the pass, when the inf. is pass. begin, incipio, c e {.see began), behalf, in behalf of, pro, prep, with abl. behind, post, prep, with ace. behind him, them, etc., post tergum. Belgians, Belgae, -arum, m., pi. believe, credo, -ere, credidi, creditus; puto, I. belittle, minuo, -ere, -ui, -utus. betray, prodo, -ere, -didi, -ditus. between, inter, prep, with ace. bitterly, acriter. board, go on board, navem (naves; ascendo, -ere, -scendi, -scensus. body, corpus, -oris, n. both, each, uterque, utraque, utrum- que. both . . . and, et . . . et. boundaries, fines, -ium, m. brave, fortis, -e. bravely, fortiter. break down, perfringo, -ere, -frCgf, -fractus. bridge, pons, pontis, m. bring, fero, ferre, tuli, latus; duco, -ere, duxi, -ductus, bring about, conficio, -ere, -f€ci, -fectus. bring on, upon, infero. bring to, affero, afferre, attuli, allatus; adduco, -ere, -duxi, -ductus, bring together, comporto, i. Britain, Britannia, -ae, /. Britons, Britanni, -orum, tn., pi. brother, frater, -tris, m. build, {of a bridge), facio, -ere, feci, -factus. {of a road), munio, -ire, -ivi, or -ii, -itus. {of a rampart), perduco, -ducere, -duxi, -ductus, building, aedificium, -ii, n. burn, set fire to, incendo, -ere, -cendl, -census. burning, incendium, -ii, n. but, sed. buy, emo, -ere, emi, emptus. by, abl. case; ab, with abl. of agent. call {by name) , appello, i . camp, castra, -orum, «., pi. can, possum, posse, potul. capture 126 course c p are, capio, -ere, cepi, caplus. {by storming), expugno, i. care, cura, -ae, /. carefully, diligenter. carriage with four wheels, wagon, raeda, /. carry, fero, ferre, tuli, latus. carry back, refero, referre, rettuli, relatus. carry on, gero, -ere, gessi, gestus. carry out, accomplish, perficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. case, causa, -ae, /. in the case of, in, prep, with abl. cast off, cast out, abicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectus ; eicio. cause {noun), causa, -ae, /. cause {verb), efficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus; facio, -ere, feci, factus. cavalry {adj.), equester, -tris, -tre. cavalry {noun), equitatus, -us, m.; equites, -um, m., pi. Ce'.ts, Celtae, -arum, m., pi. centurion, centurio, -onis, m. certain {indef. pron.), quidam, quaedam, quiddam. certainly, certe. chain, vinculum,-!, n. chance, occasio, -onis, /. by chance, forte, charge, be in charge, praesum, -esse, -fui. put in charge, praeficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. chariot, currus, -us, m. chief, chief man, princeps, -cipis, m. children, pueri, -orum, m., pi. {free born), liberi, -orum, m., pi. choose, lego, -ere, legi, Iectus ; deligo, -ere, -legi, -Iectus. citizen, civis, -is, tn. city, urbs, urbis, /. clear, make clear, declare, i. it is clear, constat. client, cliens, -entis, m. close, be close at hand, subsum, -esse. cohort, cohors, cohortis, /. come, venio, -ire, veni, ventum est. come back, redeo, -ire, -ii, -itum est. come together, convenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum est. come to pass, fio, fieri, factum est come up, arise, coorior, -iri, -ortus. comfort, consolor, i. command, iubeo, -ere, iussi, iussus; impero, i. be in command, praesum, -esse, -fui, with dat. commander, imperator, -oris, tn. commence battle, proelium committo, -ere, -misi, -missus. commit, do, facio, -ere, feci, factus. common, communis, -e. common people, plebs, plebis, /. companion, socius, -ii, m. compare, compare, i. compel, cogo, -ere, coegi, coactus. complain, queror, -i, questus. concern, it concerns, interest, -esse, -fuit. concerning, de, prep, with abl. confer, colloquor, -i, -locutus. conference, colloquium, -ii, n. confess, confiteor, -eri, -fessus. confidence, fides, -ei, /. have confidence in, confido, -ere, -fisus. conquer, vinco, -ere, vici, victus; supero, I. consider, believe, puto, i ; existimo, I. consider, regard, habeo, -ere, habui, habitus. conspiracy, coniuratio, -onis,/. conspire, coniuro, i. consul, consul, -is, m. consulship, consulatus, -us, m. in the consulship of, abl. absol. with consul. consult, consuls, -ere, -ui, -sultus. contention, contentio, -onis, /. continent, continens, -entis, /. contrary to, contra, prep, with ace. convict, damno, i. council, concilium, -ii, n. council of war, concilium, -ii, n. counsel, advice, consilium, -ii, n. take counsel, consuls, -ere, -ul, -sultus. courage, virtiis, -litis,/. have courage, audeo, -ere, ausus. courageously, fortiter. course, cursus, -us, m. court 127 drive court of law, jQdicium, -il, n. covet, adamo, i. crime, facinus, -oris, n. ; scelus, -ens, n. cross, transeo, -ire, -il, -itum est. crowd, multitudo, -inis, /. crush, frango, -ere, fregl, fractus. custom, mos, moris, m. ; consuetude, -dinis, /. cut down (of grain), succido, -ere, -cidi, -cisus ; (of a bridge), rescinds, -ere, -scidi, -scissus. cut oflf, intercludo, -ere, -clusl, -clusus. daily, cotidianus, -a, -um. damage, aflBigo, -ere, -flixi, -flictus. danger, periculum, -I, n. dangerous, periculosus, -a, -um. dare, audeo, -ere, ausus. daughter, filia, -ae, /. day (noun), dies, -ei, m. on the next day, postridie. on the day before, pridie. day (adj.), diumus, -a, -um. death, mors, mortis, /. decide, constituo, -ere, -ui, -utus. decision, iudicium, -ii, n. declare, declaro, i; confirm©, i. decree, decerno, -ere, -crevi, -cretus. deed, factum, -i, n. deep, altus, -a, -um. defeat, supero, i. defend, defends, -ere, -fendi, -fensus. delay, wait, moror, i. deliver (of a speech), habeo, -ere, -ui, -itus. demand (noun), postulatum, -i, n. demand (verb), impero, i, ivith dat. of person from whom; postulo, i, with ab and abl. deny, nego, i. depart, discedO, -ere, -cessi, -cessum est. descendants, posteri, -Orum, m. deserve, mereor, -6ri, meritus. design (noun), cSnsilium, -il, n. desire, cupi6, -ere, -ivi or -ii, -Itus. desirous, cupidus, -a, -um. despoil, spolio, i. destroy, d6le6, -6re, -5vi, -gtus. detain, teneO, -fire, -ui; detineO, -€re, -ui, -tentus. determine, cOnstituO, -ere, -ul, -Qtus. devise, cSgito, i. devote, do, dare, dedi, datus; dedO, -ere, dedidi, deditus. devoted, deditus, -a, -um. devotion, studium, -ii, n. die, morior, mori, mortuus. die, be put to death, pass, of interficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. die, perish, pereo, -ire, -ii, -iturus. diflfer, differo, -ferre, distuli, dilatus. difference, there is a difference, interest, -esse, -fuit. difficult, difficilis, -e. difficulty, difficultas, -tatis, /. diminish, deminuo, -ere, -ui, -utus. direction, pars, partis, /. in that direction, in eam partem, disaster, calamitas, -tatis,/. discover, reperio, -ire, repperl, repertus. disembark (trans.), ex navi (navibus) expono, -ere, -posui, -positus; (intrans.), ex navi (navibus) egredior, -i, -gressus. disgraceful, turpis, -e. dislodge, summoveo, -gre, -movl, -motus. dismiss, dimitto, -ere, -misi, -missus, dismount, ex equo (equis) desilio, -ire, -ui, -sultus. disorder, tumultus, -us, m. disregard, neglego, -ere, -Igxi, -lectus. distance, at a distance, procul, in locis longinquis. disturb, commoveo, -ere, -mOvI, -motus; perturbs, i. divide, divido, -ere, -\isi, -visus. do, facio, -ere, feci, factus. be done, happen, fio, fieri, factum est. be done, go on, pass, of ger6, -ere, gessi, gestus. do not (in prohibitions), nOlI, nOlIte, with inf. doubt, dubito, i. there is no doubt, nOn est dubium. doubtful, dubius, -a, -um. draw up (of soldiers), instruO, -ere, -struxi, -structus ; (of ships), sub- duco, -ere, -duxi, -ductus. drive, pell6, -ere, pepuli, pulsus. drive back, repellO, -ere, repull, repulsus. dry 128 fill dry, aridus, -a, -um. dry land, aridum, -I, n. Dumnorix, Dumnorix, -rigis, m. dust, pulvis, -veris, m. duty, officium, -ii, n. do one's duty, officium praesto, -are, -stiti, -stilus. each (of any number), quisque, quaeque, quidque and quodque. eager, cupidus, -a, -um. eagle, aquila, -ae, /. eagle-bearer, aquilifer, -eri, m. easily, facile. easy, facilis, -e. effort, labor, -oris, m. eight, octo. either ... or, aut . . . aut. elect, facio, -ere, feci, f actus; creo, i. else (adj.), reliquus, -a, -um. nothing else, nihil aliud. eminent, clarus, -a, -um. empty (of a river), influo, influere, -fluxi. encounter, occurro, -ere, -curri, -cur- surus, with dat.; subeo, -ire, -ii, -itus, with ace. encourage, hortor, i. end, finis, -is, m. each end, utraque pars, utriusque partis, /. endure, fero, ferre, tuli, latus. enemy {in war), hostis, -is, m., hostes, -ium, pL; {personal), inimicus, -i, m. enjoy, fruor, -i, fructus. enlist, enroll, conscribo, -ere, -scrips!, -scriptus. enough {adv. and indecl. noun), satis. entreat, oro, i. envoy, legatus, -i, m. equal, par, paris; idem, eadem, idem. equinox, aequinoctii dies. escape, effugio, -ere, -fugi. establish, constituo, -ere, -ui, -utus. become established, inveterasco, -ere, -ravi. even, etiam. not even, ne . . . quidem. even if, etsi, etiam si. ever, umquam. every, all, omnis, -e. every, each, quisque, quaeque, quid- que and quodque. everybody, omnes, -ium, m., pi. everything, omnia, omnes res. every part of, totus, -a, -um; omnis, -e. every sort of, omnis, -e. in every way, omni modo. evidence, indicium, -ii, n. evident, it is evident, constat, except, praeter, prep, with ace; nisi {conj.). exchange, inter se do, dare, dedi, datus. excuse, purgo, i. exercise, exercitatio, -onis, /. exist, sum, esse, fui, futurus. exposed, apertus, -a, -um. extend, pertineo, -ere, -ui. face to face, adversus, -a, -um. fact, res, rei, /. fall, cado, -ere, cecidi, casurus. fall on, fall in with, incido, -ere, -cidi, -casurus. fall upon, overwhelm, opprimo, -ere, -pressi, -pressus. far, longe. far and near, longe lateque. farther, ulterior, -ius. father, pater, -tris, m. favorable, secundus, -a, -um. fear {noun) , timor, -oris, m. ; metus, -us, m. fear {verb), timeo, -ere, timui. feel, sentio, -ire, sensi, sensus. feeling, sensus, -us, m. feelings, animus, -i, m. fellow soldier, commilito, -onis, m. few, pauci, -ae, -a. not a few, complures, -ia or -a. fickleness, levitas, -atis, /. field, ager, agri, m. fiercely, acriter. fifteen, quindecim, XV. fight {noun), pugna, -ae, /. ; proelium, -ii, n. fight {verb) , pugno, i ; contends, -ere, -tendi, -tentus; congredior, -i, -gressus. fill, compleo, -ere, -evi, -etus. finally 129 have finally, denique, postremo. find, invenio, -ire, -veni, -ventus; nanclscor, -i, nactus or nanctus. find out, reperio, -ire, repperi, repertus. finish, end, conficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. finish, make perfect, perficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. fire, set fire to, incendo, -ere, -cendi, -census. first, primus, -a, -um. at first, primo. in the first place, primum. fit, idoneus, -a, -um. five, quinque, V. flank, latus, -eris, n. flee, fugio, -ere, fugi. flight, fuga, -ae, /. put to flight, in fugam do, dare, dedi, datus. foe, see enemy. follow, sequor, -i, secutus; insequor. foot, pes, pedis, m. on foot, pedibus. for (conj.), nam, enim (postpositive). for, in behalf of, pro, prep, with ahl. for, toward, in, prep, with ace; often expressed by dat. case. force, vis, /. forces, copiae, -arum, /., pi. forest, silva, -ae, /. ' forget, obliviscor, -i, oblitus. form, make, facio, -ere, feci, factus; (of plans), capio, -ere, cepi, captus. former, early, pristinus, -a, -um. fortify, munio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itus. fortune, good fortune, fortuna, -ae, /. four, quattuor, IIII. free, liber, -era, -erum. free, unencumbered, expeditus, -a, -um. free, set free, libero, i. freedom, libertas, -atis, /. friend, amicus, -i, m. friendship, amicitia, -ae, /. frighten, terreo, -ere, -ui, -itus. from, sign of abl case; a or ab, e or ex, de, prep<.sitions with abl. front, frons, frontis, /. in front of, pro, prep, with abl.; ante, prep, with ace. full, plenus, -a, -um. gain, consequor, -i, -secutus. gain possession of, potior, -in, -itus, with abl. gather, bring together, cogo, -ere, coegi, coactus. Gaul, Gallia, -ae,/. Gauls, Galli, -orum, m., pi. general, dux, ducis, m. ; imperator, -oris, m. Germans, Germani, -orum, m., pi. get to, arrive, pervenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum est. get possession of, potior, -iri, -itus, with abl. give, do, dare, dedi, datus. give up, see surrender, give opportunity, potestatem facio, -ere, feci, factus. glad, be glad, gaudeo, -ere, gavisus. glory, gloria, -ae, /. go, eo, ire, ivi, or ii, itum est. go back, redeo, -ire, -ii, -itum est. go out, exeo, -ire, -ii, -itum est. go on, be done, pass, of gero, -ere, gessi, gestus. god, deus, dei, m. good, bonus, -a, -um. grain (threshed), frumentum, -i, n. ; (growing or unthreshed), frumenta, -orum, M., pi. grain supply, res frumentiria, rei frumentariae, /. gratitude, gratia, -ae,/. great, magnus, -a, -um. greatly, magnopere. grief, dolor, -oris, m. guard (noun), praesidium, -ii, n. off one's guard, inopinans, -antis. on guard, in statione (stationibus). habit, consuetudo, -inis, /. hand, manus, -us, /. on the other hand, contr&. be at hand,' adsum, -esse, affui. happen, accidit, -ere, accidit; fit, fieri, factum est. harbor, portus, -us, m. harm, detrimentum, -i, n. hasten, contendo, -ere, -tendi, -tentus. hastily, repente. hate, odi, odisse, 6surus. have, habeo, -€re, -ui, -itus. have in mind 130 invincible have in mind, propono, -ere, -posui, -positus, with reflex. he, is, hie, ille. Usually not expressed. hear, hear of, audio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itus. height, altitudo, -inis, /. held, cf. hold. help (noun), auxilium, -ii, n. help (verb), adiuvo, -are, -iuvi, -iutus. helpful, Usui, dat. of usus. Helvetians, Helvetii, -orum, m., pi. here, hie (adv.). hesitate, dubito, i, with inf. hide, abdo, -ere, -didi, -ditus. high (of position), superus, -a, -um, (of extent), altus, -a, -um. (of wind or tide), magnus, -a, -um. himself, ipse (intensive) ; sui (re- flexive) . hinder, impedio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itus. hire, conduce, -ere, -duxi, -ductus, his, eius; suus, -a, -um (reflex.). hold, teneo, -ere, -ui. (of an office), gero, -ere, gessi, gestus. (of a council), habeo, -ere, -ui, -itus. home, house, domus, -us, /. at home, domi. from home, domo. (to one's) home, domum. honor, honor, -oris, m. honorable, honestus, -a, -um. hope (noun), spes, -ei, /. hope (verb), spero, i. horse, equus, -i, m. horseman, eques, -itis, m. hostage, obses, -idis, m. hostile, infestus, -a, -um. hour, hora, -ae, /. house, domus, -us, /. how, in what degree, quam ; in what way, quo modo, quem ad modum. how many, quot, quam multi, -ae, -a. how much, quantus, -a, -um; as subst., quantum, -i, n. how often, quotiens. however (adv.), quam vis. however (conj.), autem (postpositive) . human, humanus, -a, -um. hundred, centum, C. hurl, conicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectus. hurry (intrans.), contend©, -ere, -tendl, -tentus. hurry off (trans.), rapio, -ere, -ui, raptus. I, ego, mei. Usually not expressed. if, si. if not, nisi. if only, dum modo. if (in indirect questions), num, -ne. but if, quod si; after another condition, sin. immortal, immortalis, -e. import, imports, i. importance, it is of importance, refert. impunity, impunitas, -atis, /. with impunity, impune. in, in, prep, with abl. increase (trans.), augeo, -ere, kuxi, auctus. (intrans.), cresco, -ere, crevi, cretus. incredible, incredibilis, -e. incur, subeo, -ire, -ii. induce, adduco, -ere, -duxi, -ductus, infantry, pedites, -um, m., pi.; peditatus, -us, m. inflict, infero, -ferre, intuli, illatus. influence, auctoritas, -atis, /. influence (verb), adduco, -ere, -duxi, -ductus. inform, certiorem (certiores) facio, -ere, feci, factus. inhabit, incolo, -ere, -ui. • injury, iniuria, -ae, /. inquire, quaero, -ere, -sivi or -ii, -situs. inspire, inicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectus, with dat. of person and ace. of thing. intention, concilium, -ii, n. interests of state, res publica, rei publicae, /. highest interests of state, summa res publica. it is to the interest, interest, interesse, interfuit. intimate friend, familiaris, -is, m. into, in, prep, with ace. investigate, search into, quaero, -ere, -sivi or -sii, -situs. investigate, inspect, perspicio, -ere, -spexi, -spectus. iavincible, invictus, -a, -um. island 131 message island, insula, -ae, /. it, hie, haec, hoc ; is, ea, id. Italy, Italia, -ae, /. its, eius; suus, -a, -um {reflex.). itself, ipse, ipsa, ipsum. javelin, pilum, -i, n. journey, iter, itineris, n. judge, pass judgment, iudico, i. jump down, desilio, -ire, -ui, -sultus. Jupiter, Juppiter, Jovis, m. just as, sicut. justly, iure. keep, teneo, -ere, -ui. keep, hold, contineo, -ere, -u!, -tentus. keep, prevent, prohibeo, -ere, -ui, -itus. kill, interficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus; occido, -ere, -cidi, -cisus. knight, eques, -itis, m. know, scio, scire, scivi, scitus. know, have learned, cognovi. not know, ignoro, i ; nescio, -ire, -ivi. known, notus, -a, -um. lack, be lacking, be wanting, desum, -esse, -fui. lake, lacus. Lake Geneva, lacus Lemannus. land, ager, agri, m. large, magnus, -a, -um. large number, multitudo, -inis, /. last (adv.), proxime. at last, tandem. later (adv.), postea. latter, the latter, hie, haec, hoc. law, lex, legis, /. lay aside, depono, -ere, -posui, -positus. lay down (of arms), pono, -ere, posui, positus. lead, duco, -ere, duxi, ductus. lead across, traduco, -ere, -duxl, -ductus. lead back, redflcO, -ere, -duxi, -ductus. lead out, educO, -ere, -duxi, -ductus, leader, dux, ducis, m. leading man, princeps, -cipis, m. leadership, principatus, -us, m. learn, cognosce, -ere, -ovi, -itus; reperio, -ire, repf)eri, repertus. leave, relinquo, -ere, -liqui, -lictus; discedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessurus, followed by ab with abl. legion, legio, -onis, /. less, minor, minus, gen. minoris. liberty, libertas, -atis, /. lieutenant, legatus, -i, m. life, vita, -ae, /. line of battle, acies, -ei, /. listen to, audio, -ire, -ivi or -ii, -itus. little, parvus, -a, -um. a little while, breve tempus, -oris, n. live, vivo, -ere, vixi, victus. live in, inhabit, inco 6, -ere, -ui (with accusative). long, longus, -a, -um. for a long time, diu. look at, specto, i. lose, amitto, -ere, -misi, -missus, loud, magnus, -a, -um. low, inferus, -a, -um. madness, furor, -oris, m. ; amentia, -ae, jf. make, facio, -ere, feci, factus. make {of a plan), capio, -ere, cepi, captus ; ineo, inire, inii, initus. make war, bellum facio, or bellum infers, inferre, intuli, illatus, both with dat. make use of, utor, -i, usus. man, homo, hominis, m. ; vir, viri, m. men, soldiers, milites, -um, m. a man who, is qui. many, multi, -ae, -a; complures, -a or -ia. march, iter, itineris, n. march, make a march, iter faciO, -ere, feci, factus. Mark, Marcus, -i, m. marriage, matrimonium, -il, n. material, materia, -ae, /. matter, res, rei, /. meet (trans.), convenio, -Ire, -v6nl, -ventum est, with ace; occurrO, -ere, -curri, -cursurus, with dat. mercy, misericordia, -ae, /. mere, ipse, -a, -um. message, nuntius, -ii, m. messenger 132 pass judgment messenger, nuntius, -ii, m. miles, milia passuum. military matters, res militaris, rel militaris, /. mind, mens, mentis, /. ; animus, -i, m. misdeed, facinus, -oris, n. misfortune, calamitas, -atis, /, month, mensis, -is, /. moon, luna, -ae, /. more (adj.), plus, pluris ; (adv.), magis. moreover, autem (postpositive) . motive, causa, -ae, /. move, moveo, -ere, movi, motus. moved, disturbed, commjtus, -a, -um. much (adj .) , multus, -a, -um; (adv.), multum ; in comparisons, multo. multitude, multitude, -inis, /. name, nomen, -inis, n. narrow, angustus, -a, -um. nation, natio, -onis, /. nature, natura, -ae, /. near at hand, be near at hand, adsum, -esse, aflfui. nearer (adj.), propior, -ius ; (adv.), pro- pius. nearly, fere. necessary, necessarius, -a, -um. it is necessary, opus est ; necesse est. neglect, neglego, -ere, -lexl, -lectus. neighbor, finitimus, -i, m. neither . . . nor, neque . . . neque; nee . . . nee. never, numquam. nevertheless, tamen. new, novus, -a, -um. news, nuntius, -ii, m. next, proximus, -a, -um. on the next day, postero die. night, nox, noctis, /. by night, noctu. no, nullus, -a, -um. no one, nobody, nemo, m. and /., gen. nulllus, dat. neminl, ace. neminem, abl. nullo. noise, strepitus, -us, m. not, non; in negative purpose, wish, or command, ne. and not, neque. not only . . . but also, non solum . . . sed etiam. not yet, nondum. notable, insignis, -e. nothing, nihil (indecL). notice, animadverts, -ere, -verti^ -versus. now, at the present time, nunc; by this time, iam. number, numerus, -i, m. obtain a request, impetro, i. occur, occurro, -ere, -curri, -cursurus. of, concerning, de, prep, with abl. offer, offero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatus; of terms, fero. office, magistratus, -us, m.; honor, -oris, m. often, saepe. on, in, prep, ivith abl. once, at once, statim. one, unus, -a, -um. one . . . another, alius . . . alius. one who, is qui. only (adv.), moo'o. only one, solus, -a, -um. opinion, opinio, -onis, /. opportunity, facultas, -atis, /. oppose, resists, -ere, -stiti. oppress, premo, -ere, pressi, pressus. or, aut ; in questions, an. order, iubeo, -ere, iussi, iussus, with ace. and inf.; impero, I, with dat., ut and subj. in order that, ut, with subj. other, another, alius, -a, -ud. on the other hand, autem (post- positive) . others, the remaining, ceteri, -ae, -a. ought, debeo, -ere, -ui, -itus ; oportet, -ere, oportuit. our, noster, -tra, -trum. our men, nostri, -orum, w., pi. outcry, clamor, -oris, m. overwhelm, opprimo, -ere, -pressi, -pressus. own, reflex, poss. adj., or gen. of ipse. pack-animal, iumentum, -i, n. pain, dolor, -oris, m. pardon, ignosco, -ere, -novi, -notus. part, pars, partis, /. party, pars, partis, /. pass judgment, itidico, i. peace 133 ready peace, pax, pads, /. people, populus, -i, ni. their people {reflex.), sui, suorum, m., pi. perceive, perspicio, -ere, -spexi, -spectus. peril, perlculum, -i, n. perish, pereo, -ire, -il, -iturus. permission, it is permitted, licet, licere, licuit, with dat. and inf. permit, patior, pati, passus, with ace. and inf.; permitto, -ere, -misi, -missus^ with dat., ut, and subj. personal enemy, inimicus, -i, m. persuade, persuadeo, -ere, -suasi, -suasum est, with dat., ut, and subj. picked, delectus, -a, -um. pick out, deligo, -ere, -legi, -lectus. pitch camp, castra pono, -ere, posul, positus. place (noun), locus, -i, m.; pi. loca, -orum, n. place (verb), colloco, i ; pono, -ere, posui, positus. place (in different positions), dis- pono. plan (noun), consilium, -il, n. plan, arrange, constituo, -ere, -ui, -utus. plan, think (of), cogito, i. pleasure, voluptas, -atis, /. plot, ambuscade, insidiae, -arum, /., pi. plot against, Insidior, i, with dat. point, at this point, hic. possession, gain possession of, potior, -Iri, -itus. power, ability, facultas, -atis, /. ; power, might, potentia, -ae, /. ; military power, imperium, -il, n. powerful, to be very, plurimum posse, practice, exercitatio, -onis, /. praetor, praetor, -oris, m. praise, laus, laudis, /. pray (verb), votum faciS, -ere, f6cl, factum, pray (in commands and questions)^ tandem, prefer, malo, malle, malui. prepare, compare, i ; par6, i. prepared, paratus, -a, -um. preserve, conserve, i. press hard, premo, -ere, pressi, pressus, pretend, simulo, i. prevail, valeo, -ere, -ui, -iturus. prevent, prohibeo, -ere, -ui, -itus, with inf. not prevent, non deterred, -ere_, -ui, -itus, with quin and subj. previous, superior, -ius; prior, -us. private, privatus, -a, -um. privilege, give the privilege, potes- tatem facio. prolong, produco, -ere, -duxi, -ductus, proof, indicium, -ii, n. property, res, rei, /. proportion, in proportion to, pro. prosperous, florens, -entis. protect, defends, -ere, -di, -fensus. protection, praesidium, -ii, n. prove, probo, i. provided, provided that, dum. province, provincia, -ae, /. provision, make provision, prOvideo, -ere, -vidi, -visus. public, publicus, -a, -um. public welfare, res publica, rei publicae, /. punish, ulciscor, -i, ultus. punishment, supplicium, -ii, n. ; poena, -ae, /. purpose, mens, mentis,/. put down, conquer, supero, i. put in charge, praeficio, -ere, -fgci, -fectus. put to death, interficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. put to flight, fugo, I. put under the power, permitto, -ere, -misi, -missus. quickly, celeriter. rampart, vallum, -i, n. rank, ordo, -inis, /. rather, potius. reach, per\'eni6, -Ire, -vCnl, -ventum est, with ad and ace. reach (of land), attingo, -ere, -tigi, -tactus. ready, paratus, -a, -um. get ready, comparO, i. realize 131 service realize, intellego, -ere, -lexi, -lectus. reason, causa, -ae, /. for this reason, qua de causa, reasonable, iustus, -a, -um. reasonableness, ratio, -onis, /. recall, revoco, i. receive, accipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptus. receive under protection, in fidem recipio. recently, nuper. recklessness, audacia, -ae,/. regard, in regard to, de ivith abl. region, regio, -onis,/. reject, repudio, i. rejoice, gaudeo, -ere, gavisus sum. relief, subsidium, -il, n. remain, maneo, -ere, mansi, manstirus. remove, tollo, -ere, sustuli, sublatus; removeo, -ere, -movi, -motus. renown, gloria, -ae,/. repair, reficio, -ere, -feci, -fectus. repeatedly, saepe. repent, paenitet, -err, -uit. reply, respondeo, -ere, -spondi, -sponsus. report, nuntio, i. report back, renuntio, i. republic, res publica, rei publicae, /. reputation, opinio, -onis, /. request, obtain a request, impetro, i, reserve, reserve, i, resist, resisto, -ere, -stiti, with dat. rest of, remaining, reliquus, -a, -um. restore, restituo, -ere, -ui, -utus; reddo, -ere, -didi, -ditus. restrain, retineo, -ere, -ui, -tentus; prohibeo, -ere, -ui, -itus; re- primo, -ere, -pressi, -pressus. retreat (noun), receptus, -us, m. retreat (verb), recipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptus, with reflexive. return (noun), reditus, -us, m. return, give back, reddo, -ere, -didi, -ditus. return, go back, redeo, -ire, -ii, -tum est; reverter, -i. in return for, pro with abl. revolt, tumultus, -us, m. reward, piaemium, -ii, n. Rhine, Rh?nus, -i, m. Rhone, Rhodanus, -i, m. right, fair (adj.), aequus, -a, -um. right {in the sight of the gods). fas, n., indecl. noun. rightly, iure. risk, periculum, -i, n. river, flumen, -inis, n. road, via, -ae, /. ; iter, itineris, n. Roman, Romanus, -a, -um. Rome, Roma, -ae, /. royal power, regnum. rule, rego, -ere, rexi, rectus, rumor, rumor, -oris, m. safe, incolumisj -e; tutus, -a, -um. safely, tuto ; translate when possible by adj., safe. safety, salus, -utis, /. sail (verb), navigo, i. sake, for the sake of, causa, following its gen. same, idem, eadem, idem, savage, ferus, -a, -um. save, conserve, i. say, dico, -ere, dixi, dictus. sea, mare, -is, n. secure, (adj.), tutus, -a, -um. secure (verb), consequor, -i, -secutus; concilio, i ; nanciscor, -i, nactus. see, see to it, video, -ere, vidi, visus. seek, peto, -ere, -ivi or -ii, -itus. seem, videor, -eri, visus. seize, occupo, i ; comprehendo, -ere, -hendi, -hensus. self, myself, etc. // emphatic, ipse, -a, -um ; if reflexive, mei, tui, sui, etc. senate, senatus, -us, m. senator, senator, -oris, m. send, mitto, -ere, misi, missus. send ahead, praemitto, -ere, -misi, -missus. send back, remitto, -ere, -misi, -missus. send out or away (in different directions), dimitto, -ere, -misi, -missus. separate, divido, -ere, -visi, -visus. serious, gravis, -e. servant, servus, -i, m. service, officium, -ii, n. ; meritum, -i, n. service, be of service, prosum, prodesse, profui. set 135 take set fire to, incendo, -ere, -cendi, -cen- sus. set out, proficiscor, -I, -fectus. set sail, solvo, -ere, solvi, solutus, with or without navem or naves, settle (down), consldo, -ere, -sedi, -sessurus. seventh, septimus, -a, -um. several, complures, -a or -ia. shield, scutum, -i, n. ship, navis, -is, /. war ship, navis longa. short, brevis, -e. shout, shouting, clamor, -oris, m. show, ostendc, -ere, -di, -tus; indico, I ; doceo, -ere, -ui, doctus. shrewdness, consilium, -ii, n. sight, conspectus, -us, tn. since, cum, with suhj.; quoniam, with indie. sister, soror, -oris, /. situation, locus, -i, m. ; pi. loca, -orum, n. skilful, skilled, peritus, -a, -um, with gen. slave, servus, -I, m. slay, occido, -ere, -cidi, -cisus. slight, parvus, -a, -um. so {with adjectives and adverbs), tam ; {with verbs), ita, sic. and so, itaque. so great, tantus, -a, -um. so long, tam diu. so long as, dum, with indie. so much {as noun), tantum, -i, n. so often, totiens. soldier, miles, -litis, m. some {adj.), aliqui, -qua, -quod; non nullus, -a, -um ; pi. as subst. some one, something {subst.), ali- quis, aliquid. some . . . others, alii . . . alii. some in one direction, others in. another, alii aliam in partem. there are some who, sunt qui. sometimes, non numquam. soon, brevi tempore. as soon as, simul atque. sort, genus, -eris, n. of this sort, eius modi. spare, parco, -ere, pepercl or parsi, parsurus. speak, dico, -ere, dixi, dictus. speech, oratio, -onis, /. speed, celeritas, -atis, /. at full speed {of horses), incitStus, -a, -um. spot, locus, -i, m.; />/. loca, -orum, n. spy, spy out, speculor, i. stab, percutio, -ere, -cussi, -cussus. stand, sto, stare, steti, status. stand, get a footing, consists, -ere, -stiti. stand in the way of, obsisto, -ere, -stiti, with dat. standard, signum, -i, n. start, proficiscor, -i, profectus. state, civitas, -atis,/. stay, maneo, -ere, mansi, man.surus. still, now, nunc; still, nevertheless, tamen. stir up, concito, i.- storm, tempestas, -atis,/. strange, novus, -a, -um. strangeness, novitas, -tatis, /. strong, firmus, -a -um. such, of such a sort, talis, -e; so great, tantus, -a, -um. suddenly, subito sufficient, satis {indecL), n. sufficiently, satis. suitable, idoneus, -a, -um, with dat. or ad with ace. summon, voco, i. sun, sol, solis, m. supplies, commeatus, -us, m. support, alo, -ere, -ui, altus or alitus. suppose, credo, -ere, -didi, -ditus; existimo, i. sure, certus, -a, -um. surpass, supero, i, with ace.; praestO. -stare, -stiti, -stitus, with dat. surrender (oneself), d6d6, -ere. dedidi, deditus, with reflex. surround, get around, circumvenic -ire, -veni, -ventus. suspect, suspicor, i. suspicion, suspicio, -6nis, /. Swabians, Suebi, -orum, m., pi. sword, gladius, -ii, m. take, bear, fer6, ferre, tuU, litus. take, lead, dQcO, -ere, dQxi, ductus. take 136 unprepared take, take up, capture, capio, -ere, cepi, captus. take away, eripio, -ere, -ui, -reptus. take by storm, expugno, i. take place, fio, fieri, factum est. take possession of, potior, -iri, -itus. tear, lacrima, -ae, /. tear up, eripio, -ere, -ui, -reptus. tell, dico, -ere, dixi, dictus; pro- nuntio, i. tell, show, doceo, -ere, -ui, doctus. tempest, tempestas, -atis, /. ten, decern. tenth, decimus, -a, -um. terms, condicio, -onis, /., sing, or pi. terrify, perterreo, -ere, -ui, -itus. territory, territories, ager, agri, m. ; fines, -ium, m. than, quam, or ahl. after a comparative. that (dem. pron.), ille, ilia, illud; is, ea, id. that, so that, in order that, ut; after verbs of fearing, ne; after negative expressions of doubt, quin. that . . . not, introducing a negative clause of purpose, ne. would that, utinam. their, suus, -a, -um (reflex.) ; eorum. them, cf. he. then, at that time, tum. then, therefore, igitur (usually postpositive) . there, in that place, ibi. therefore, itaque. these, cf. this, thing, res, rei, /. think, puts, i ; existimS, i ; arbitror, I. think, feel, sentio, -ire, sensi, sensus. this, hie, haec, hoc. though, cum. thousand, mille (indecl. adj.). thousands, milia, -ium, n., pi. (fol- lowed by partitive gen.). threaten, impendeo, -ere. three, tres, tria. a period of three days, triduum, -i, n. three hundred, trecenti, -ae, -a. through, per, prep, with ace. throw, iacio, -ere, ieci, iactus ; conicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectus. throw back, reicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectus. throw down, away, abicio, -ere, -ieci, -iectus. tide, aestus, -us, m. . tilling the land, agri cultura, -ae, /. time, tempus, -oris, n. on time, ad tempus. time and again, semel atque iterum. timid, timidus, -a, -um. to, ad, prep, with ace; often translated by dat. to-day, hodie. together with, una cum, with ahl. toward (in space), ad with ace. town, oppidum, -i, n. trader, mercator, -oris, m. transport, adj., onerarius, -a, -um. travel, eo, ire, ii or ivi, itum est. treachery, insidiae, -arum, /., pi. trial, iudicium, -ii, n. tribe, gens, gentis, /. tribune, tribunus, -i, m. tribune of the people, tribunus plebis. tributary, vectigalis, -e. troops, copiae, -arum, /., pi. true, verus, -a, -um. truth, verum, -i, n. try, Conor, i. turn and flee, tergum verto, -ere, verti, versum. twelve, duodecim; XII. two, duo, -ae, -o. unacquainted, imperitus, -a, -um, with gen. unbelievable, incredibilis, -e. uncertain, incertus, -a, -um. uncovered, nudus, -a, -um. understand, intellego, -ere, -lexi, -Iectus. undertake, suscipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptus. ungrateful, ingratus, -a, -um. unharmed, incolumis, -e. unjust, iniquus, -a, -um. unjustly, iniuria. unless, nisi. unprepared, imparatus, -a, -um. unskilful 137 zeal unskilful, imperitus, -a, -um. until, ad, prep, with ace. until, dum; quoad, conj.; when equivalent to before, prius quam. urge, hortor, i ; cohortor, i . use {noun), usus, -us, m. of use, USUI {dative). use, make use of, utor, -i, usus. vacant, lie vacant, vaco, i. valor, virtus, -utis, /. vengeance, take vengeance on, ulcis- cor, -1, ultus. verdict, iudicium, -ii, n. very {adj.), ipse, -a, -um. victory, victoria, -ae,/. village, vicus, -i, m. violence, vis, /. virtue, virtus, -utis,/. voice, vox, vocis, /. wait, delay, moror, i. wait for, exspecto, i. wander about, vagor, i. war, bellum, -i, n. warn, admoneo, -ere, -ui, -itus. way, manner, modus, -I, m. way, road, via, -ae, /. we, nos, gen., nostrum or nostri. weapon, telum, -I, n. weather, tempestas, -atis, /. weigh {of anchor), tollo, -ere, sustuli, sublatus. welfare, salus, -utis, /. public welfare, res publica, rel publicae. what {inter, pron.), quid; {inter. adj.), qui, quae, quod, what {rel. pron), (id) quod, (ea) quae, what great, how great, quantus, -a, -um. whatever, quidquid. what sort of, qualis, -e. when, cum ; ubi. where {place in which), ubi; {place to which), quo. wherever, whithersoever, quocumque. whether, num, -ne, si, utrum. which, see who. which {of two), uter, utra, utrum. while, dum. who, what {inter, pron.), quis, quid. who, which, what {rel. pron.), qui, quae, quod. whoever, whatever, quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque. whole, totus, -a, -um. wholly, omnlno. why, cur. wicked, improbus, -a, -um. wide, latus, -a, -um. width, latitude, -inis, /. wife, uxor, -oris, /. willing, be willing, volo, velle, volul, winter, hiems, hiemis, /. pass the winter, hiemo, i. winter quarters, hiberna, -drum, »., pl' _ wisdom, consilium, -ii, n. wish, volo, velle, volul. not wish, nolo, nolle, nolui. with, cum, prep, with abl. with, near, apud, prep, with ace. withdraw, go away, discedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessurus. without, sine, prep, with abl. withstand, sustineo, -ere, -ui, -tentus. woman, mulier, -eris, /. word, verbum, -i, n. work {noun), opus, operis, n. work {verb), laboro, i. worth, virtus, -utis, /. would that, utinam. wound, volnus, -eris, n. wrong, do wrong, pecc5, i. year, annus, -i, m. every year, quotannis. yet, tamen. yield, cedo, -ere, cessi, cessQrus. you, tu, tul. young man, adul€sc5ns, adulCscentis, m. your {sing.), tuus, -a, -um ; {plu.) vester, -tra, -trum. zeal, studium, -ii, «. ; 8I.AIbau_ CA8SI *' N »:.c./ i>?'\ L EXO Sanarpk L^^' EiUB0V«C6» « GALLIA ^ •CAUC Of HOMAM MILES ~^?- i M ioo fl^ {,UrUantJ Ji Atur Fi, ^t^J O* TOLOSA1 >^^..^ . 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