UC-NRLF ^B 3D7 TSS A ;;<.■■• ;.«. a^i; (■'\ <'.rt j, m iV^M'-rVj^v?/,; i;';;'[lf;i'''':®.S«v'iii-4 /A . C ', i, ' / MANUAL OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC: ^-1^^^^ f*^ mliocll m& m\\^t§. • »- » »• " ».* JOHN S. HART, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY. PHII.ADELPHIA: ELDREDGE & BROTHER, No. 17 North Seventh Street. 1874. A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, BY JOHN S. HART, LL.D. Pirst Lessons in Composition. Composition and Khetoric. A Short Course in Literature. And for Colleges and Higher Institutions of Learning : A Manual of English Literature. A Manual of American Literature, > Entered, a9coi;0i.pg Jo 4ct 0/ Qtjug^ess.jn the y&ar 1870, hy ^ i t /'/^ i jV'RrE> j}*El :&' JB jl T Hi R, ^ / in the OflSce of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. :5*' -^ EDUCATION DEPT. i, philad'a. ^^^P^ 9AXT0K PRI88 OF SHERMAN 4 CO. Preface. THIS is, on the face of it, a text-book. It has been writ- ten for learners, not for the learned. Its object is, not to extend the boundaries of the science by excursions into debatable ground, but to present its admitted truths in a form easily apprehended. By this statement, however, I do not wish to convey the idea that the treatise is unscientific in its character or its methods. I mean merely that I have studioiftsly avoided cumbering my book with the many abstruse and still unsolved questions which environ the sub- ject. Those questions are not without interest or value, and few persons have a keener relish for their discussion than the writer, whose life-long studies have been in that precise line of inquiry. But original investigation is felt to be out of place in a text-book for instruction in the elements. At the same time, it is believed, the attentive reader, who is familiar with the recent literature of the science, will find the subject brought up to the latest clearly ascertained results, while in some directions a decided advance has been made. ^699025 IV PREFACE. The text has been, purposely, and most carefully, broken up into portions convenient for the uses of the class-room. These typographical arrangements necessarily give to the pages a somewhat fragmentary appearance. But any one who will take the trouble to look will see at a glance that the matter throughout is closely connected and continuous, — that it forms a compacted and orderly system. Rhetoric, like grammar, arithmetic, and many kindred subjects of study, is an art as well as a science, and no text- book for the class-room is of much value which is not well furnished with examples for practice. In the preparation of the present work, no labor has been spared in this re- spect. In the apparatus required by the teacher for train- ing students in the practical applications of the principles of Rhetoric, the book, it is believed, may safely challenge comparison with any work on the subject that is before the public. J. S. H. State Normal School, "> Trenton, N. J., July, 1870. j CONTENTS I INTRODUCTION. PAQB General Terms Defined, . . . . . . , . • .13 Limitations of the Subject, ........ 14 General Divisions, ......... 11 Part L STYLE. Definition of Style, ..,...,.. 15 Division of the Subject, ........ 16 CHAPTER I. Punctuation and Capitals. Definition and History of the Subject, . ...... 17 Division of the Subject, . ....... 18 SECTION I.— The Comma. Rule 1. Parenthetical Expressions, . . . . . . .20 Rule 2. Intermediate Expressions, ....... 22 Rule 3. Dependent Clauses, . . . . . . . .23 Rule i. Relative Clauses, ........ 24 Rule 5. Co-ordinate Clauses, . . . . . . . .28 Rule 6. Grammatical Expressions in the Same Construction, ... 26 Rule 7. Words in the Same Construction . . . . . .27 1* V Vi CONTENTS, PAOl Riile 8. Words or Phrases in Pairs, ....... 28 Rule 9. Nouns in Apposition, . . . . . . .29 Rule 10. The Vocative Case, ....... 30 Rule 11. The Case Absolute, . . . . . . .30 Rule 12. Inverted Expressions, . . . . . . * , 30 Rule 13. Ellipsis of the Verb, 31 Rule 14. Short Quotations, . . . . . . .31 Rule 15. Punctuation of Numerals, . . . . . .32 SECTION II.— The Semicolon. Rule 1. Subdivided Members in Compound Sentences, , . . .32 Rule 2. Clauses and Expressions having a Common Dependence, . . 33 Rule 3. Sentences Connected in Meaning, but not Grammatically, . . 34 Rule 4. The Clause Additional, ....... 35 Rule 5. A Genei-al Term in Apposition to the Particulars under it, . .35 SECTION III.— The Colon. Rule 1. Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences, . . . . .36 Rule 2. Before a Quotation, ........ 36 Rule 3. Yes and No, . . . . . . . . . 37 Rule 4. Title-Pages, ......... 37 SECTION IV.— The Period. Rule 1. Complete Sentences, . . . . . . . .89 Rule 2. After Titles, etc. 39 Rule 3, After Abbreviations, ........ 40 SECTION v. — The Interrogation. Rule L The Direct Question, . . . . . . . .43 SECTION VI. — The Exclamation. Rule 1. After Strong Emotion, ........ 44 Rule 2, After an Interjection, ....... 44 Rule 3. Double Exclamations, . . . . . . . .45 SECTION VII.— The Dash. Rule 1. ConBtniction Changed, . . . . . . .46 Rule 2. Change in Sentiment, ....... 46 Rule 3. Emphatic Generalisation, . . . . . . .46 Rule 4. Elocutionary Pause, ........ 47 Rule 5. Expressions Dependent upon Concluding Clause, . . . .47 Rule 6. Rhetorical Repetition, ....... 47 Rule 7. Reflex Apposition ........ 47 Bale 8. The Dash Parenthetical, ...... 48 Bole 9. Titles Run in, . . .49 Bale 10. Question and Answer, ....... 49 Bale 11. Omissions, ......... id Eule 12. Examples oo a New Line, . . ... 49 CONTENTS. Vll SECTION VIII.— The Parenthesis. PAGK Eule, .51 SECTION IX. — Brackets. Rule 52 SECTION X. — Quotations. Rule 1. Words Taken from Another Author, . . . . .54 Rule 2. Quotation Within a Quotation, ...... 55 Rule 3. Consecutive Paragraphs, . . . . . . .56 SECTION XI. — Apostrophe, Hyphen, &g. Apostrophe, Hyphen, Caret, Index, etc., .... .57 Captions, Side-heads, Kinds of Type, etc., ...... 58 SECTION XII. — Capitals Rule 1. Title-pages, and Headings, . . . . Rule 2. First Words ...... Rules 3-10. Numbered Clauses, etc., .... Rules 11-14. Names of God, etc., .... Rules 15-18. Proper Names, etc., .... Rules 19-20. Speaial Importance, Personification, 59 CHAPTER II. Diction. Definition — How to Obtain Command of Words, . . , . .67 Division of the Subject, ........ 68 SECTION I. — Purity. 1. Foreign Words, . . 68 2. Obsolete Words, and New Words, ...... 69 3. Words without Proper Authority, . . , . . . .71 Use the Law of Language, ........ 72 SECTION II. — Propriety. Difference between Propriety of Diction and Purity, . . . .74 Means of Attaining Propriety, ....... 75 Examples of Words Used Improperly, . . . . . . .75 SECTION III. — Precision. Meaning of Precision, . . . . . . . . .79 Examples of Words not Used Precisely, ...... 79 The Study of Synonyms, . . . . . . . .79 Books on the Subject of Synonyms, . . , . . .79 Examples of Synonyms, ........ 80 Appendix : Camphell's Essay on Use as the Law of Language, . J^ . . • • ^ via CONTENTS. CHAPTER HI. Sentences. PAOI DiTiflion of the Subject, 87 PART I. — Kinds of Sentences. Section 1. Periodic Sentences, ........ 87 Section 2. Loose Sentences, . . . . . ... .88 Examples 6f each, . . . . . . . .89 Section 3. Balanced Sentences, ....... 93 F" oQples, ......... 94 OSes of the Balanced Sentence, ...... 95 Section 4, Short and Long Sentences, . . . . . . .95 Rule in Regard to the Use of the Various Kinds of Sentences, . . 96 PART II.— Rules for the Construction of Sentences. RULE I. — Cleaeness. Section 1. Position of the Adverb, Section 2. Position of Adverbial Clauses, Section 3. Squinting Construction, . Section 4. Use of the Pronouns, Summary of Rule I., . BULB n. — Emphasis. Section 1. The Principal Subject, Disposal of Subsidiary Matter, Section 2. The Principal Predicate, Principal Words not to be Entangled, RULE IIL— Unitt. General Illustration of Unity, Section 1. Change of Subject to be Avoided, Section 2. Crowding Together Things Unconnected, Section S. Management of Relative Clauses, Section 4. Parentheses, .... Section 6. Supplementary Clauses, . RULE IV.— Stebnoth. Section 1. Redundant Words, . Section 2. Use of Very, etc.. Section 3. Words of Connection and Transition, Section 4. Bringing to a Conclusion, Section 5. Contrasted Changes, Section 6. Climax, .... BULE v.— Haemont. Section 1. Prevalence of Pleasant Sounds, Section 2. Accents at Convenient Intervals, Section 3. Cadence at the Close, Section 4. Adapting the Sound to the Sens*, . 101 . 104 107 . Ill 112 . 113 114 . 115 118 . 119 120 . 121 121 . 122 125 . 127 127 . 129 131 . 131 134 136 137 . 138 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER IV. Figures. PAGK Relation of the Subject to what Precedes, ...... 147 Definition of Figures, ......... 147 Origin and Use of Figures, ........ 148 SECTION L — Simile. Why Similes Please, ......... 150 Object of Simile, ......... 151 Rule 1. The Resemblance should not be too Near and Obvious, . . . 152 Rule 2. The Resemblance should not be too Remote, .... 152 Rule 3. Should not be Drawn from Objects with which Ordinary Readers are Unacquainted, ....... . 153 Rule 4. Should not be Drawn from what is Mean and Low, . . . 153 Rule 5. Should not be Stilted, ........ 154 Rule 6. Should not be Used in Cases of Strong Passion, .... 154 SECTION 11. — Metaphor. Difference between Metaphor and Simile, ...... 156 Rule 1. Metaphorical and Literal should not be Mixed, .... 156 Rule 2. One Metaphor should not be Mixed with Another, .... 157 Rule 3. Metaphors should not be Crowded Together, .... 157 Rule 4. Metaphors should not be Multiplied to Excess, .... 158 Rule 5. Metaphors should not be Carried too Far, ..... 159 SECTION III. — Allegory. Relations of Allegory to Metaphor and Simile, . . . . . . 159 Allegory, Parable, and Fable, ........ 160 SECTION IV. — Antithesis. Definition of the Subject, ........ Iffl Rule in Regard to Antithesis, . . . . . . . lei SECTION v. — Epigram. Relation of Epigram to Antithesis, ....... 163 SECTION VI. — Metonymy. Definitions and Illustrations of the Subject, ...... 164 SECTION VII. — Synecdoche. Explanation of the Subject, . . . . . . , ^ lg5 SECTION VIIL — Interrogation. Definition, •........,, 165 Uses and Peculiarities, ........ 166 SECTION IX. — Exclamation. Explanation of the Figure, , . . . . . , , Ijj ac CONTENTS. SECTION X.— Apostrophe. PAO> Definition and Examples, ........ 167 SECTION XI. — Personification. Special Facilities in English, . . . . . . . .168 SECTION XII. — Hyperbole. Caution in Regard to its Use, ........ 169 SECTION XIII. — Irony. Its Uses . . . . . 170 CHAPTER V. Special Properties. Division of the Subject, . . . . . . . . .187 SECTION I. — Sublimity. I. What Constitutes Sublimity. 1. Vastness, ......... 188 2. Power, .189 3. Awfulness, ...*..... 190 4. Obscurity, . . . . . . • . .190 6. Loudness of Sound, ....... 191 6. Moral Greatness, ........ 191 II. The Sublime in Writing. 1. Sublimity of Subject, . . . . . . .192 2. Vivid Conception of the Strong Points, .... 192 3. Suppression of Belittling Details, ...... 193 4. Simplicity and Conciseness of Expression, .... 194 SECTION II. — Beauty. I. Beauty in General. 1. Color as an Element of Beauty, ..... 196 2. Figures, etc., « " " . . . . . .197 8. Motion, .198 4. Complex Beauty, ........ 198 6. Beauty of Countenance, ....... 199 6. Moral Beauty, ........ 199 II. The Beautiful in Writing. 1. Beauty of Subject, .200 2. Beauty of Expression, ....... 200 3. Conciseness not Necessary, ....... 201 SECTION III. — Wit. Ingredients of Wit, 201 Definition of Wit, 202 Examples, ....... .... 203 Pun — aSpeciMof Wit, ..... 204 CONTENTS. XI PAGB Examples of Pun, . . . . . . . . ^ . 204 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wit, ...... 205 SECTION IV. — Humor. Ingredients of Humor, ......... 206 Humor Something Characteristic, ....... 207 Humor Kind-hearted, ......... 208 Difference Between Humor and Wit, ...... 208 CHAPTER VI. Versification. The Foun(iation of Verso, . . . . . . . .209 The State of the Question, . . . ... . . .209 Why a Thought in Verse Pleases more than the same in Prose, . . .210 Action of the Vocal Organs, ........ 210 Vocal Impulse, .......... 211 Strong and Light Impulses, ........ 211 Time between Impulses, ......... 211 Accent the Paramount Law, ........ 212 Foundation and Nature of Rhythm, . . . . . . . 213 The Conclusion, ......... 214 SECTION I. — Rhythm. Definition of Terms, . . . . . . . • .215 Kinds of Feet, 216 Kinds and Varieties of Verse, . . . . . . . .216 Tables of Iambic and Trochaic Verse, ...... 218 ffable of Anapaastic and Dactylic Verse, . . . . . .219 SECTION II. — Rhyme. Origin of Rhyme, 220 Definition, . . . . . . .' . . .221 Single, Double, and Triple Rhymes, . . . . * . . . 221 Alliteration as a Species of Rhyme, ...... 222 True Rhyme, . . . . . . . . . .222 Conditions of Single Rhyme, ........ 223 Conditions of Double and Triple Rhyme, ...... 224 Place of the Rhyming Word, ........ 224 Sectional Rhymes, ......... 225 SECTION III. — Blank Verse. Usual Form, . , . . . . . . . .226 Other Forms of Blank Verse, . ...... 226 SECTION IV. — Mixed Verse. English Verse Different from Classic, ....... 226 Mixed Verse in English, . ... . . ... . 227 English Hexameters, ......... 227 Conditions of Success to Mixed Verse, ...... 228 XU CONTENTS. SECTION v. — Stanzas. PAOI Rhythm-Royal, or Chaucerian Stanza, ....... 229 Spenserian Stanza, . ........ 229 Sonnet Stanza, .......... 230 Psalm and Hymn Stanzas, ........ 231 Long, Short, Common, and Particular Metres, ..... 232 SECTION VI. —Modern Verse Accentual. Essential Difference Between Ancient Verse and Modern, .... 235 Present State of English Verse, . . . . . . . 236 SECTION VII. — Elision. Mistake of the Older Critics, ........ 237 Requirements of Modern Verse in Regard to Elision, .... 238 CHAPTER VII. Poetry. Defective Definitions, . . . . . . ... . 249 Poetry must be in the Form of Verse, ...... 249 The Matter must be Poetical in Essence, ...... 249 Definition of Poetry, 261 SECTION I. — Epic Poetry. 1. The Subject must be Great and Heroic, ...... 251 2. It must have Unity, ........ 252 3. It must have a Hero, ......... 253 4. It must have Many Actors and a Complex Plot, . ... 263 5. It must be Serious and Earnest,. ....... 263 6. The Story must be Interesting, ....... 253 SECTION II. — Dramatic Poetry. Difference between the Drama and the Epic, ...... 254 Unities of the Drama, ........ 255 Tragedy and Comedy, ......... 255 Farce, Opera, and Melodrama, ....... 256 SECTION III.— Lyric Poetry. 1. Sacred Odes — Hymnic Poetry, ....... 256 2. Heroic Odes, ......... 257 3. Moral Odes, 257 4. Amatory Odes, ......... 257 6. Comic and Bacchanalian Songs, ....... 258 6. Sonnet* 258 SECTION IV. — Elegiac Poetry. Oharaoter and Form, 2»8 CONTENTS. Xlll SECTION v. — Pastoral Poetry. PAGE Its Character, . . . . • 259 Eclogues, . . ........ 259 Idyls, 259 SECTION VI. — Didactic Poetry. Its Character, .......... 259 Objection to its being Ranked as Poetry, ...... 260 Meditative Poetry, . . . . . . . . . .260 Satire and Lampoon, ......... 260 CHAPTER VIIL Prose Composition. Definition and Varieties, . . . . . . . . .261 SECTION I. — Letters. An Important Species of Composition, ....... 261 Letters of Distinguished Persons, ....... 262 What is Required in a Letter, . . . . . . . .262 The Forms to be Observed in Letter-Writing, ..... 263 I. The Heading. 1. The Place of Writing, . . . . . . -263 2. The Time of Writing, or Date, ...... 264 II. The Address. The Military Form, . . . . . . . .265 Ordinary Letters, ........ 265 Business Letters, ........ 266 m. The Subscription. Signing Initials, ........ 266 Married Women and Widows, ....... 267 Arrangement of the Subscription, ...... 267 IV. The Superscription. Why Important, . . . . . . . . . ^68 1. The Name, 268 2. The Title, 268 3. The Residence, ........ 269 SECTION II. — Diaries. Essential Character, ......... 271 Importance of Accuracy in Dates, ....... 271 The Style, 271 SECTION III. —News. Literary Character of News, ........ 272 Things to be Aimed at in News- Writing, ...... 272 1. Accuracy, ......... 273 2. Condensation, . . . . . . . . 273 3. Perspicuity, . . . . . . . . . 274 2 XIV CONTENTS. SECTION IV. — Editorials. PASB A High Order of Composition, ........ 275 Not Impersonal Truth, ........ 276 Diifei-ence between Editorials and News, ...... 276 SECTION v. — Reviews. Character, ........... 278 Macaulay as a Reviewer, ........ 277 Other Reviewers, .......... 278 SECTION VI. — Essays. Different from Reviews, ......... 278 Number of Essayists, . . . . . . . . . 279 Present Mode of Publication, ........ 279 SECTION VII.— Treatises. How Different from Essays, ........ 279 Text-Books, .......... 280 SECTION VIIL— Travels. Compared with Diaries, ......... 280 Accuracy Important, ......... 280 Other Qualities 281 SECTION IX. — History. Its General Character, . . . . . . . . .281 Unity of Subject, 282 Chronological Order, ......... 282 General Qualities of Historical Narration, ..... 282 Gravity of Style, .......... 283 Delineation of Characters, ........ 284 Sound Morals to be Enforced, . . . . . . . . 284 Annals, Memoirs, Biographies, etc., . . . . . . . 285 * SECTION X. — Fiction. Its Prevalence, . . . . . . . . . .286 Historical Novels 286 Delineation of Character, . . . . . . . . .287 Effects of Novel-Reading, ........ 287 Religioua Fictions — Sundoy-School Books, ..... • 287 SECTION XI. — Discourses. Orations, ..... ..... 288 Addresses, 288 Sermons, ........... 289 Lectures, 289 Speeches, 289 Rules for Constructing Discourses, ....... 290 1. Unity 290 CONTENTS. XV PAGB 2. Adaptation to the Audience, ....... 290 3. Symmetry of Parts, ........ 290 a. The Introduction, ....... 291 b. The Statement, . . . . . . . .291 c. The Main Discourse, . . ... . . . 291 d. The Peroration, or Conclusion, ...... 291 Part IL INVENTION. Definition of Invention, . . . . . . . . . 293 Mistakes on the Subject, ........ 294 Method Adopted in the Present Work, . . . . . . .294 CHAPTER I. On Objects. Composition on Paper, ......... 296 Other Subjects for Composition, ....... 297 CHAPTER II. On Transactions. Composition on Going to School, ......... 299 Other Subjects for Composition, ....... 301 CHAPTER III. On Abstract Subjects. Composition on Fear, ......... 302 Other Subjects for Composition, ....... 304 CHAPTER IV. On Imaginary Subjects. Compositions on the Man in the Moon, ....... 305 Other Subjects for Composition, ....... Slf XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Personal Narratives. PAQl Compositions on How I Spent my Vacation, ...... 313 Composition on a Trip by Railroad, ...... 817 Other Subjects for Composition, ....... 321 CHAPTER VI. Descriptions. Our Cat and the Rabbit, Described, .323 The Scene from Trenton Bridge, Described, ..... 325 Other Subjects for Description, ........ 327 CHAPTER VI I. Miscellaneous Subjects. Recapitulation, .......... 328 General List of Subjects for Compositions, ...... 329 CHAPTER VIII. On Proof-Reading. Example of Proof-Sheet, ....... .834 Explanat¥)n8 of the Corrections, ....... 335 Example of Proof-Sheet Corrected, ....... 336 CHAPTER IX. On the Study of the English Language, . . . . . . .337 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, Yz /r^Zj /^ Introduction. 1. Rhetoric is the science which treats of discourse. 2. By Discourse is meant any expression of thought by means of language. 3. Discourse may be either oral or written. Note 1. Rhetoric referred originally to spoken discourse only. This is shown by the etymology of the word, the original Greek ^tjropiKij irhetorike) meaning the art of speaking, from p>jrwp {rhetor), a speaker. But since the invention of printing, and the general diffu- sion of books, speaking forms only a part of the means by which man discourses, or makes known in language his thoughts to others. While, therefore, for convenience, the term Rhetoric is retained, the science itself is extended in its scope, and is made to embrace every kind of discourse, whether oral or written. Note 2. Rhetoric, as thus defined, includes both Written Composi- tion and Oratory ; but the two may with great convenience and pro- priety be treated of separately. In the present treatise, therefore, all that part of the subject which is peculiar to Oratory, including Vocal Delivery, is omitted, and the work is limited strictly to written discourse. There may be some doubt, perhaps, as to the propriety of retaining the general title, when thus avowedly treating of only one of the component parts of the subject. But Rhetoric, as a com- mon subject of study in schools, has long since practically become thus limited in its scope, while Oratory has branched off into a sepa- rate study. Note 3. Rhetoric is closely allied, on the one side, to Grammar, which determines the laws of language, and, on the other, to Logic, which determines the laws of thought. 2* 2 18 C 14 COMPOSITION- AKTD RHETORIC. Note 4. In establishing principles and rules for conducting dis- course, Rhetoric assumes as true whatever is determined by the sci- ences of Grammar and Logic. A discourse, though rhetorical in other respects, will lose much of its effect, if either the expression is ungrammatical, or the thought illogical. On the other hand, how- ever, an expression may violate no rule, either of Grammar or of Logic, and yet be faulty. Rhetoric, in other words, has require- ments of its own, in addition to those imposed by Grammar and Logic. Note 6. In treating of discourse, we naturally divide the subject into two parts — that which considers the matter, or thought to be expressed, and that which considers the mode of expression. The former of these is usually treated under the head of Invention, the latter under the head of Style. Note 6. Theoretically, it is, perhaps, more philosophical to treat first of Invention, and then of Style. It seems but natural that we should first find out what to say, and then study how to say it. But there are practical conveniences in following a diflferent order. Invention is the most difficult part of the subject, requiring no little maturity of mind on the part of the learner. Style, on the other hand, connects itself closely with grammatical studies, which always precede the study of Rhetoric, and it has many details of a simple and positive character, about which the judgment of pupils may be exercised, long before tJiey can enter with profit upon the processes of original thought required by Invention. In the present treatise, therefore, the order is reversed. Style being considered first, and Invention afterwards. Note 7. While the general subject of Invention is thus placed last,' the simpler kinds of exercises in it are clearly suitable to those who are just beginning the study of Rhetoric. It is, therefore, recom- mended to the student to take up some of these simpler exercises at the same time that he begins the study of Style, and thus to carry on the study of the two portions of the book contemporaneously ; in other words, to practise Invention while studying Style. 4. Rhetoric is divided into two parts ; namely, Part I., Style ; Part II., Invention. 6 Part I. , . » » » » » P . ^ Sty l fe. .'o : ''"'-' I'' t\* • » • «' 1. Style is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the mode of expression. Note 1. Any verbal expression of thought, even in its lowest and plainest forms, brings us within the domain of Grammar. But, be- yond the bare expression of the meaning; we can conceive of it as being uttered awkwardly or elegantly, plainly or figuratively, con- cisely or diffusely, and in a great variety of other ways ; and the con- sideration of these various methods of expression takes us at once beyond the region of Grammar, and brings us into that of Rhetoric. Note 2. Style is sometimes used in a more restricted sense, namely, to indicate certain special kinds of writing and speaking. But there is no necessity for limiting the meaning of the word in this way. Webster very properly defines Style to be the " mode of expressing thought in language, whether oral or written," and in this broad sense the word is used in the present treatise. Note 3. The word Style comes from the Latin stylus, a small steel instrument used by the Romans for writing on waxen tablets. The stylus was to the Roman writer what the pen is to us, and became, by an easy metaphor, the means of expressing any one's method of composition, just as we now, by a like metaphor, speak of a gifted pen, a ready pen, meaning thereby a gifted or a ready author. Note 4. Style is concerned equally with Prose and Poetry, and with the various figures of speech which are common to both ; it is coextensive with the whole range of composition and of discourse, 15 16 COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC. both oral and written. To find out what to say is the business of Invention ; but the moulding of the materials thus furnished belongs to Style. It includes in its scope whatever, in the arts and contriv- ances of speech, can make the expression of thought more eflFective. In its lower forms, it treats of Punctuation and the use of Capitals, and of other contrivances of a mechanical sort, which help to give clearness to the meaning, while in its higher forms it enters upon the region of the Imagination and the Passions, and deals with ques- tions of Taste and Fancy. 2. The various topics included in Style are discussed under ^'the fojloAjip^ Re^ds: 1, Punctuation and Capitals; 2, biCTiON; S, Sentences; 4, Figures; 5, Special Prop- .'^kT/E&.^; ST^sJiic ; jS/yERaiFicATiON ; 7, Poetry; 8, Prose Composition. CHAPTER I. Punctuation and Capitals. 1. Punctuatioil is the art of dividing written discourse into sections by means of points, for the purpose of showing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the sense more obvious.* 2. Capitals are used for a like purpose, and, therefore, they may with propriety be treated of at the same time with the Points. Note 1. That the sense is made more obvious to the eye by the use of points and capitals will be evident to any one who will make the experiment. Take almost any familiar sentence, and write it as the ancients used to write, that is, unpointed and unspaced, and with the letters either all small or all capital, and it will require no little skill and patience to decipher the meaning. A reader not apprised of what had been done would be apt to mistake the sentence for something in a foreign language. Here is an example, first in capitals, next in small letters, and then in the form now in use: READINGMAKETHAFULLMANCONFERENCEAREADYMANWRITINGAN EXACTMAN. readingmakethafullmanconferenceareadymanwritinganexactman. Reading maketh a full man ; conference, a ready man ; writing, an exact man. Note 2. The word Punctuation is from the Latin punctum, a point. The points now used in writing were unknown to the ancients. Aristophanes, a grammarian of Alexandria, about two and a half centuries before the Christian era, introduced some * In the preparation of this chapter, the author has received material assistance, as every writer must receive who writes intelligently on the subject, from the excellent "Treatise on English Pimctuation" by John Wilson. That is the most complete and exhaustive treatise extant on this subject. Every teacher should have a copy of it on his desk, if for nothing else, for the admirable collection of classified examples which it contains. 17 18 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. of the marks now used in punctuation. But the points did not come into common use until the time of Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, who reduced the matter to a system about the year 1500, and, by the extreme beauty and accuracy of his editions, gave it general currency. Note 3. The word Capital is from the Latin caput, a head. The letters of the word or words forming the caput, heading, or title of a discourse, are called head-lettera, or capitals. Note 4. The capital letters were those first invented, and were in use many centuries before the invention of the small letters. The oldest manuscripts now in existence, some of which date as far back as the third century, are written entirely in capitals, and are likewise almost without points, and without spacing between the words. The small letters were first introduced about the seventh century ; but, for some time after the introduction of the small letters, the capitals continued to be used much more than they are now. Note 5. It is sometimes stated, in works on Rhetoric and Grammar, that the points are for the purposes of elocution, and directions are given to pupils to pause a certain time at each of the stops. It is true that a pause required for elocutionary purposes does sometimes coincide with a grammatical point, and so the one aids the other. Yet it should not be forgotten that the first and main end of the points is to mark grammatical divisions. Good elocution often requires a pause where there is no break whatever in the grammatical continuity, and where the insertion of a point wotild make nonsense. For instance, the most common of all the elocutionary pauses is that made for the purpose of emphasis. If we wish to make a word emphatic, the way to do so, except in rare cases, is not to pronounce it very loudly, but to make a pause after it. This pause calls attention to the word, and with only a slight change in the tone of the voice makes the word emphatic. The insertion of a point to mark this pause would often detach adjectives from their nouns, nominatives from their verbs, and would, in many other equally absurd ways, break up the connection of the sentence. The fol- lowing line from Shakspeare requires after " words " and " thoughts " a pause equal to that ordinarily assigned to a semicolon, perhaps equal to that assigned to a period. " My words fly up, my thoughts remain below." If a point were inserted to mark this pause, the whole meaning of the sentence would be obscured. Thus: "My words; fly up, my thoughts; remain below." If it were desirable to mark these elocutionary pauses by typographical arrangements, perhaps the best way would be to do it by spacing. Thus : " My words fly up, my thoughts remain below." 3. The principal grammatical points are five; namely, 1. The Comma, , 2. The Semicolon, ; 3. The Colon, : 4. The Period, 5. The Interrogation, ? Note. These points have various degrees of disjunctive force, in separating the parts of a sentence from each other. This force may bo expressed briefly, as follows : The Period, except when used for an abbreviation, marks the greatest separation of all, PUNCTUATION — COMMA. 19 the parts between which it is placed being thereby rendered grammatically entirely independent of each other ; the Colon marks a separation somewhat less than that of the Period ; the Semicolon, less than that of the Colon ; and the Comma, less than that of the Semicolon. The Interrogation, though usually counted as equivalent to a period, may be equivalent to a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a period, according to eircumstances.* 4. Besides the five points already named, several other characters are used for similar purposes. The most common of these are the following : The Exclamation, ! The Dash, — The Parenthesis, ( ) The Bracket, [ ] The Quotation, " " The Apostrophe, * € SECTION I. The Comma. The Comma marks the smallest of the grammatical divi- sions of discourse that require a point. NoTB 1. The word Comma (Greek Koiifia, from cdn-TM, to cut) denotes something cut oflF, a section. It was used originally to denote, not the mark, but the portion of the sentence thus set off. The same is true of the words semicolon and colon. They meant originally portions of discourse, not, as now, the marks by which those por- tions are set off. Period, Interrogation, Parenthesis, and some other like words, are used in both senses ; they mean portions of discourse, and also the marks by which those portions are set off. NOTK 2. The uses of the comma, which are very numerous, may nearly all be re- duced to two heads. 1. The comma is used to set off by itself any part of a sentence which is, in some measure, detached in meaning from the rest, and which has a sort of grammatical coherence and completeness of its own. 2. The comma is used to mark an ellipsis of some kind. Example: "Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an exact man." Here the ellipsis of the verb maketh, after "con- ference," and after "writing," is indicated by the insertion of the comma. Note 3. Although nearly every conceivable instance of the use of the comma may be reduced imder one or the other of these heads, yet for practical convenience in * There aeems no more necessity for sajing Interrogation Point, Exclamation Ptiint^ 4c., than for saying Comma Point, Semicolon Point. Custom, however, still obliges u« to use the expression in some connections. 20 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. teaching iti use, the various instances may very properly be classified, forming a series of independent, though connected rules* t Rule 1. Parenthetical Expressions. — Phrases and single words, used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. v Note 1. Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not essential to the meaning and structure of the sentence in which they stand. Such words and phrases belong rather to some unexpressed thought that is in the mind, than to the thought actually expressed. Thus, "It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world.'' Here the phrase "after all " does not belong to the verb "does." The author does not mean to say that mind does the work of the world, after doing everything else. In like manner, it does not modify any other part of the expressed sentence. On the contrary, it belongs to some unexpressed thought, as though we were to say, " After all that can be claimed for other agents, we may still claim for the mind, that it does the work of the world." Sometimes the parenthetical word or phrase refers to what is expressed in the preceding sentence. Thus, "The danger was fully explained to him. His passions, however, prevented his seeing it." Parenthetical expressions, then, are such as are not necessary to the structure and meaning of the sentence in which they stand, if taken alone, but they are a part of *he machinery, so to speak, by which the sentence is connected with some preceding sentence, or with some unexpressed sentence or thought existing in the mind of the writer. They are, in fact, of a conjunctional, rather than of an adverbial character. Note 2. Many phrases and clauses, now treated as parenthetical expressions, and separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, were formerly inclosed by marks of parenthesis. The difference between a parenthesis and a parenthetical expression is mainly one of degree. If the clause or expression, thus thrust into the body of a sentence, is altogether independent in character, and may be omitted without disturb- ing the construction, or impairing the meaning, it is still usually inclosed in a paren- thesis. But commas are gradually displacing the parenthesis, except in extreme and very manifest cases. Note 3. Some of the phrases in common use, which require to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following : in short, In truth, to be sure, in fact, as it were, to be brief, in fine, as it happens, after all, in reality, no doubt, you know, in brief, in a word, of course. When these parenthetical expressions come at the beginning, or at the end of a sentence, they arc, of course, set off by only a single comma ; as, "To be sure, the man was rather conceited." "The affair passed off to your satisfaction, no doubt." See foot-note below. * In framing these rules, it is customary to say, of certain clauses or sections of a sentence, that they are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, meaning that they have a comma before and a comma after. In some instances, tlie section tlnis designated occurs at the beginning of the sentence, in which case it will of course have no comma before it ; or, it may occur at the end of a sentence, in which case it will have after it, not a comma, but a period, or some other mark greater than a comma. In the great majority of cases, however, the sections designated by the use of the comma occur in tlie body of the sentence, requiring a comma before and a comma after; and the rules will be expressed in this general manner, leaving it to the common sense of the student to make the necessary correetion in the case or sectiona ve PUNCTUATION — COMMA. 21 /7= Note 4. Some of the single words used parenthetically, and ordinarily requiring to tl be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following : therefore, namely, moreover, then, consequently, surely, however, indeed, accordingly, perhaps, too, finally. // Note 6. Most of the words last named are capable of two constructions. They may belong either to the proposition as a whole, or to a single word in it. It is only when used in the former sense that they require to be set off by commas. Two or three examples will show the difference : On this statement, then, you may entirely rely. Then I believed you, now I do not. I thought, too, that you were discontented. I think you are too selfish. He promised, however, to set about reform at once. However much he promised, it l^^as but little that he performed. In all these cases, it will be noticed that when the word has an adverbial charac- ter, no commas ape required ; but when the word becomes connective or conjuuctional, it must be set off from the rest by commas. Note 6. Some words not of a parenthetical character, yet when standing at the beginning of a sentence, and referring to the sentence as a whole, rather than to a particular word, are set off by a comma ; as, " Well, do as you like." " Why, this is all wrong." Some of the words thus used are well, why, now, yes, no, nay, again, further, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. In like manner, liere and there, now and then, when used to introduce contrasted expressions, are set off by a comma ; as, " Here, all is peace and quietness ; there, all is turmoil and strife." Examples for Practice.* 1. Gentleness, is in truth the great avenue to real enjoyment. 2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of passion, 3. He knows very well come, what may that the note will be paid. 4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning languages. 5. He went home accordingly and arranged his business, in the manner described. 6. There are in truth only two things to be consideredjnamely his honesty and his ability. thus cut off at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, and without stopping to make a special exception under each rule. * To THE Teacher. 1. In these and the other examples for practice which will be given throughout the book, constant vigilance must be used to prevent the pupils from marking the corrections in the book. A book so marked is valueless for the purpose of study or instruction. It should at once be destroyed, and replaced by a new copy at the expense of the offending party. A stated inspection of the books, for the purpose of preventing this fraud, is as necessary a part of the teacher's duty, as it is to examine the exercises presented. 2. The exercises should not be brought in written out beforehand, but should in all cases be written in the class-room. This should be considered an essential part of the recitation. There is no other way of ascertaining that the pupil makes the correc- tions from his own independent judgment, and unless he does this, the exercise is a mere waste of time. 3. In most cases, the following will be found a convenient mode of procedure : 1. Let the students seriatim present their books at the teacher's desk for inspection, •ach book, as presented, being open at the page containing the lesson, and let the books remain there piled, until the lesson is over. 2. Let the teacher dictate the examples, and the students write and correct them, using for this purpose either th» blackboards, slates, or paper, according to circumstances. 3 22 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 7. Come then .and let us reason together. 8. No nation in short is free from danger. 9. When however the hour for the trial came, the man was not to be found. 10. Why those are the very books you want. 11. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own admis- sions. 12. On the other hand there is great danger in delay. 13. We must however pay some respect to the opinions of one who has had so large an experience. 14. I have shown how just and equitable the arrangement is ; and now what is the fair conclusion ? 15. Attend first to the study of arithmetic ; and secondly to that of algebra. 16. If I cannot induce you to grant my request, why I shall almost regret having made it. 17. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is no use in trying. 18. Feudalism is in fact the embodiment of pride. 19. The meeting after all was something of a failure. 20. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in your business. 21. Thou knowest come what may that the light of truth can never be put out. _, -^KuLE 2. Intermediate Expressions. Clauses and expres- sions, not parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to come between some of the essential parts of the sentence, as, for instance, between the subject and the predicate, may- be called intermediate expressions, and they should be sepa- rated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Note. Care should be taken to distinguish these intermediate expressions from such as are properly restrictive in thtnr character. An expression is restrictive, when it limits the meaning of some particular word to some particular sense. Thus, " The man who plants the field ought to reap the harvest." Here it is not " the man " merely, but " the man who plants the field," that is the subject of " ought." A sepa- ration of the relative and its adjuncts from " man," by means of commas, would destroy the sense. The clause, therefore, is restrictive. It limits tlie mesuiing to that particular man. But suppose I say, " Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, saw the carriage approach, and, in an ecstasy of delight, hastened to meet it." Here, the expression, " who happened to be in the field at the time," ia'properly a relative clause, and comes under Rule 4, (p. 24) ; and the expression, " in an ecstasy of delight," i« properly intermediate, and comes under Rule 2. The former breaks PUNCTUATION — COMMA. 23 the continuity between the subject and the predicate ; the latter, between the two predicates. Examples for Practice. 1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture are deserving of general attention. 2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a small and inconsiderable portion of the universe. 3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show the incorrectness of his position. 4. Nature through all her works delights in variety. 5. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to depict the horrors of the scene. 6. Christianity is in a most important sense the religion of sorrow. 7. A man of great wealth may for want of education atid refine- ment of manner be a mere cipher in society. 8. Truth like gold shines brighter by collision. 9. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one of the highest Christian graces. 10. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will bring in time large accumulations. BuLE 3. Dependent Clanses. — A dependent clause should t be separated by a comma, or by commas, from the clause upon which it depends. Note 1. Clauses are dependent, when one of them is subject to the other for the completion of the sense. Note 2. One of the dependent clauses usually begins with if, unless, until, when, where, or other word expressive of condition, purpose, cause, time, place, and the like; as, "If you would succeed in business, be honest and industrious." "The tree will not bear fruit in autumn, unless it blossoms in spring." This conditional word, however, is not always expressed, the condition being sometimes implied ; as, " Breathe into a man an earnest purpose, and you awaken in him a npw power.". Here the mean- ing is, '^IfjovL breathe into a man an earnest purpose, you will awaken," &c. Note 3. This rule does not apply where the grammatical connection is very close, the succeeding clause in that case being of a restrictive character; as, "You will reap as you sow," "You may go when you please." l>roTE 4. For the same reason, clauses united by the conjunction that should not be separated by a comma; as, "He went abroad that he might have opportunities for study." When, however, the conjunction is removed some distance from the verb, or the words "in order" precede, so that the grammatical continuity is somewhat broken, the comma is used; as, "He went through the principal provinces of the empire, thai he might see for himself the condition of the people." " He went abroad, in order that he might see foreign countries." 24 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Examples for Practice. [N.B. In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, insert not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also those required by all the preceding rules.] 1. If you would succeed in business, be punctual in observing your engagements. 2. Every man if Jie would succeed in business, must be punctual in observing his engagements. 3. The days in December you know are at their shortest and there- fore you must rise by the dawn if .you would have much daylight. 4. The index at the end of the book will enable the pupil if his memory fail him to discover the particular rule which he needs. 5. The reader should however as he proceeds from sentence to sentence make a note of whatever- strikes his attention. 6. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be for- gotten. 7. Good deeds though forgotten are not in every case lost. 8. John went last year to Canton where he is doing they say an excellent business. 9. If wishes were horses beggars might ride. 10. Unless you bridle your tongue you will assuredly be shut out from good society. 11. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we boast of could the world see our real motive. 12. Attend that you may receive instruction. 13. You may go home as soon as you like. 14. One object of studying Rhetoric is that we may compose better. 15. He studied Rhetoric in order that he might become a better writer. Questions. Which of the commas used in Note 1 can be explained by any of the rules given thus far ? — which in Note 2 ? — which in Note 3 ? — which in Note 4? Rule 4. Relative Clauses. — A clause introduced by a relative pronoun should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, unless the clause is restrictive in its character.* • The teacher should at this point take particular pains in accustoming the student to di«tingui»h clearly and promptly between clauses which are, and those which aro PUNCTUATION — COMMA. 25 Note 1. See Note under Rule 2, for an explanation of what ia meant by restrictive clauses. Note 2. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if it is immediately followed by a word or a phrase inclosed in commas ; as, " Those friends, who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of Robertson's future eminence, were at length amply rewarded." Note 3. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if several words intervene between it and its grammatical antecedent ; as, " He preachea most eloquently, who leads the most pious life." In like manner, of which and of whom, even when used restrictively, are preceded by a comma; as, "No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the groundwork." Note 4. When the relative has for its antecedent several succeeding nouns or clauses, it should be separated from them by a comma, even though the relative clause is restrictive. Thus: " There are fruits which neA'er ripen." " There are apples, pears, and plums, which never ripen." Here, if the comma after "plums" is omitted, th< fact of never ripening is restricted to plums, and the meaning is, "There are appleS; there are pears, and there are unripening plums." But, by inserting the comma, thi restriction is made to refer to all three of these objects. Examples for Practice. 1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous pas- sion had now taken full possession of him. 2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for vengeance. 3. The man of letters who has constantly before him examples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of excellence. 4. Books which are the repositories of knowledge are an indispen' sable part of the furniture of a house. 5. Every teacher must love a pupil who is docile. 6. The child was much attached to his teacher who loved him dearly. 7. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we are born- 8. The eye which sees all things is unseen to itself. 9. Death is the season which tests our principles. 10. Civil war is an awful evil of which however history furnishes many examples. 11. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who ha» never been at sea. 12. The father of Epic poetry is Homer who has given us in the Iliad the story of Troy divine. 13. The powers which now move the world are the printing-press and the telegraph. not, restrictive. "It is barbarous to injure men who have shown us a kindness." Here the first part of the sentence lays down a proposition, and the relative clause restricts the meaning to certain persons. " Give time to the study of nature, whose laws are all deeply interesting." Here the relative clause is not restrictive, but merely presents an additional thought. 8* 26 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC. 14. America may well boast of her Washington whose character and fame are the common property of the world. 16. The man who uses profane language condemns the man who takes his neighbor's property though both in the eyes of God are alike guilty. Questions. Which of the commas used in Note 2 can be explained by any of the rules now given? — which in Note 3? — which in Note 4? — which in the foot-note ? S Rule 5. Co-ordinate Clauses. — In continued sentences, the several co-ordinate clauses or members, if simple in con- struction, are separated from each other by commas. Note 1. If, however, these co-ordinate members are complex and involved, especially if they have commas within themselves, the members should be separated by a semi- colon ; as, "Crafty men, though they may pretend otherwise, contemn studies ; simple men, though they really care nothing about the matter, yet pretend to admire them ; wise men only use them." Examples for Practice. 1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise men use them. 2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you promise. 3. Cassar was dead the senators were dispersed all Rome was in confusion. 4. France was again reduced to its original geographical bounda- ries and England after a struggle of twenty years was undisputed mistress of the seas. 5. Modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels alike moun- tains and rivers and dykes out old ocean himself. Rule 6. Grammatical Expressions in the same Construc- tion. — Grammatical expressions forming a series in the same construction should be separated from each other, and from what follows, by a comma. Note 1. A grammatical expression is a collection of wonls, having some grammatical dependence and connection, but not containing in themselves a predicate. Note 2. If the expressions are brief, and there are but two of them, connected by and, or, or nor, no comma between them is needed; as, "Hard study and neglect of exercise impair the health." If, however, the two connected expressions differ ranch in form, it is better to set them off by commas ; aa, " Hard study, and the entire absence •f attention to the matter of diet, bring on disease." PUNCTUATION — COMMA. 27 Note 3. If the series of expressions brings the sentence to a close, the last of them, of course, is not followed by a comma, but by a period or some other point greater than a comma. See foot-note, p. 20. Examples for Practice. 1. Love for study^a desire to do right^ and carefulness in the choice of friends, are important traits of character. 2. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts from malig- nity and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a paler sky ? 4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill the mind with great ideas. 5. On the rich and the eloquent on nobles and priests the Puritans looked down with contempt. Question. What commas in Rule 6, and in Notes 1 and 2, can be explained by any of the rules thus far given ? iv -^ ^^ KuLE 7. Words in the same Construction.— When words of the same kind follow each other in a series, in the same grammatical construction, the following three cases may arise : 1. There may be a conjunction between each two of the words; as, "Industry and honesty and frugality and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of the words in the series are to be separated by commas. 2. The conjunction may be omitted, except between the last two of the words; as, " Industry,' honesty, frugality, and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, all the words are to be separated from each other by commas. 3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last two words, as well as between the 'others ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, tem- perance, are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, not only all the words of the series are to be separated from each other by com- mas, but a comma is to be inserted also after the last word, to sepa- rate it from what follows. .Note 1. A comma is not in any case to be inserted after the last word of a series, if what follows is only a single word ; as, " The good will form hereafter stronger- purer, holier ties." Note 2. In suoh expressrions as " A beautiful white horse," no comma should bo 28 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. inserted between the two adjectives, because they are not in the same grammatical construction. " White " belongs to " horse " merely. "Beautiful" belongs properly to the whole expression "white horse." It is not simply the "horse," but the "white horse " that is said to be beautiful. Examples for Practice. 1. He was brave and pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 2. He was brave pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 3. He was brave pious patriotic in all his aspirations. 4. He was a brave pious patriotic man. 5. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid sword. 6. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly Vritten. 7. Can flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death ? 8. Within around and above us we see traces of the Creator's hand. 9. We are fearfully wonderfully made. 10. The sun the moon the planets the stars revolve. 11. The sun the moon the planets the stars are all in motion. 12. The sun the moon the planets and the stars are all in motion. 13. Virtue religion is the one thing needful. 14. It is a useful accomplishment to be able to read write spell or cipher with accuracy. 15. Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down. 16. Aristotle Hamilton Whately and McCosh are high authorities in logic. 17. Lend lend your wings. 18. The earth the air the water teem with life. 19. Grand ideas and sentiments elevate and ennoble the mind. Question. Which of the commas used in the Rule and the Notes can be explained by the Rules already given? Rule 8. Words or Phrases in Pairs. — A series of words or phrases in pairs take a comma after each pair. Examples for Practice. 1. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation and ruin are the consequences of civil war. 2. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty reverence and devo- tion were all remarked in him. 3. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and the old have one common Father. / PUNCTUATION —COMMA. 29 4. To have and to holdifor better for worse .for richer for poorer in sickness and in health to love and to cherish. 5. Eating or drinking laboring or sleeping let us do all in modera- tion. Si Rule 9. Nouns in Apposition. — When a noun is in ap- position to s^me preceding noun or pronoun, and lias an adjunct consisting of several words, the said noun and all its connected words should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before and a comma after. Note 1. This construction is sometimes inverted, tlie nonn in apposition, with its adjuncts, being placed first. In that case, this preceding noun with its adjuncts should be separated from the main noun or pronoun by a comma; as, "Himself the greatest of agitators. Napoleon became the most repressive of tyrants." Note 2. Where the noim put in apposition stands alone, or has only an article before it, no comma is required between said noun and the word with which it is in appo- sition; as, "Paul the apostle was a man of energy." "Mason Brothers." Note 3. A noun following another as a synonym, or as giving additional Illustration to the thought, is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before and after; a£ " The word Poet, meaning a maker, a creator, is derived from the Greek." Note 4. When a noun is predicated of the noun or pronoun with which it is in appo- sition, no comma is required between them ; as, "They have just elected him Governor of the State." Note 5. After several words containing a description of a person or thing, if the name of the person or thing is added, it should be set off from the rest of the sen- tence by commas; as, "The greatest of poets among the ancients, Homer, like the greatest among the moderns, Milton, was blind." Note 6. A title, whether abbreviated or expressed in full, when annexed to a noun or pronoun, must be set off by commas; as, "At the request of the Rt. Rev. W. H. Odenheimer, D. D., the ceremony was postponed." Examples for Practice. 1. We the people of the United States do hereby ordain and estab- lish this Constitution. 2. Paul the great apostle of the Gentiles was a man of energy. 3. Virgil the chief poet among the Eomans was fond of rural life. 4. The poet Shakspeare is now considered the greatest of writers ancient or modern. 5. Newton the great mathematician was a devout believer in Chris- tianity. 6. Spenser the author of the Faery Queen lived in the time of Queen Elizabeth. 7. Strength energy is what you want. 3 s^. 30 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 8. Plutarch calls anger a brief madness. 9. Mere learning does not make a man an orator. 10. To call a man a fool is not to make him one. 11. The chief work of Chaucer the Canterbury Tales suggested to Longfellow the plan of the Tales of a Wayside Inn. 12. John Chapman Doctor of Medicine. John Chapman M.D. 13. The wisest of the ancients Socrates wrote nothing, 14. Much stress was laid by the greatest of the ancient orators Demosthenes upon delivery, 15. A man of prodigious learning he was a pattern of modesty. KuLE 10. The Vocative Case. — A noun in the vocative case, or case independent, as it is called, together with its adjunct words, should be separated from the rest of the sen- tence by a comma, or commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my regard. 2. I beg sir to acknowledge the receipt of your favor. 3. I rise Mr. President to a point of order. 4. Show pity Lord ! Lord forgive ! 5. Remember sir you cannot have it. EuLE 11. The Case Absolute. — A clause containing the construction known as the case absolute should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or commas. Examples for Practice. 1. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in the midst. 2. A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than a state of pleasure. 3. Shame lost all virtue is lost. 4. His father being dead the prince ascended^ the throne. 5. I being in the way the Lord led me to the house of my master'! brother. Rule 12. Inverted Clauses and Expressions.— A clause, or a grammatical expression, that is inverted, or transposed PUNCTUATION — COMMA. 31 from its natural order, is separated from the rest of the sen- tence by a comma. Note 1. The infinitive mood, especially when used to express object or design, is often inverted in this way; as, "To obtain an education, he was willing to make sac- rifices." The expressions To proceed, to conclude, &c., when placed at the beginning of a paragraph, and referring to the whole of it, should be separated from what follows by a colon. Note 2. In making alphabetical catalogues, compound names, such as John Quincy Adams, are usually inverted, that is, the last word in the name, being the principal one, is put first, and is then separated from the other parts of the name by a comma; . as, Adams, John Quincy. Examples for Practice. 1. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect. 2. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 3. To supply the deficiency he resorted to a shameful trick. 4. Living in filth the poor cease to respect one another. 6. To confess the truth I never greatly admired him. EuLE 13. Ellipsis of the Verb. — In continued sentences, having a common verb, which is expressed in one of the members, but omitted in the others, the ellipsis of the verb is marked by a comma. Examples for Practice. '' 1. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; writing an exact man. 2. Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist. 3. Semiramis built Babylon ; Dido Carthage ; and Romulus Rome. EuLE 14. Short Quotations. — A short quotation, or a sentence resembling a quotation, should be preceded by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Patrick Henry began his celebrated speech by saying "It ia natural to man to indulge the illusions of hope." 2. A good rule in education is Learn to be slow in forming your opinions. 3. I say There is no such thing as human perfection. 4. Some one justly remarks "It is a great loss to losq an affliction.*' 32 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Rule 15. Punctuation of Numeral Figures. — Figures ex- tending to four or more characters are pointed with a comma before every three from the end. Note 1. Dates are not pointed. Note 2. Numbers expressed in words are left unpointed. Examples for Practice. 1. The population of China was, in 1743, according to the French missionaries, 150 029 855; in 1825, according to Dr. Morrison, 352 866 002. [N.B. Put the same in words.] SECTION II. The Semicolon. The Semicolon marks a division of a sentence somewhat larger and more complex than that marked by a comma. Note. The word is compounded of semi, half, and colon, and means a division half as large as the\colon. KuLE 1. Subdivided Members in Compound Sentences. — When a sentence consists of two members, and these mem- bers, or either of them, are themselves subdivided by com- mas, the larger divisions of the sentence should be separated by a semicolon. Note 1. If the connection between these members is close, the semicolon is not used. The word " when," introducing the first member, indicates this kind of close connection, and prevents ordinarily the use of the semicolon. "As," and "so," introducing the two members, indicate a comparatively loose connection, and authorize the use of the semicolon, if the other conditions exist; as, "As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not perceive it moving; so our advances in learning, consisting of Buch minute steps, are porcoivable only by the distance." The Rule itself furnishes an example of the semicolon omitted in a sentence begin- ning with "when." Note 2. When the members are considerably complex, they are Bometimes separated PUNCTUATION — SEMICOLON. 33 by a semicolon, even though not subdivided by commas ; as, " So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work of fiction ; .and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being softened," Examples for Practice. 1. Sparre was sulky and perverse because he was a citizen of a republic. Sparre the Dutch general was sulky and perverse because according to Lord Mahon he was a citizen of a republic. 2. Bellasys the English general embezzled the stores because we suppose he was the subject of a monarchy. Bellasys embezzled the stores because he was the subject of a monarchy. 3. The most ridiculous weaknesses seemed to meet in the wretched Solomon of Whitehall pedantry buffoonery garrulity low curiosity the most contemptible personal cowardice. 4. Men reasoned better for example in the time of Elizabeth than in the time of Egbert and they also wrote better poetry. 5. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover and like Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love. 6. You may quit the field of business though not the field of dan- ger and though you cannot be safe you may cease to be ridiculous. 7. This is an inconsistency which more than anything else raises his character in our estimation because it shows how many private tastes and feelings he sacrificed in order to do what he considered his duty to mankind. Rule 2. Clauses and Expressions having a Common De- pendence. — When several clauses or grammatical expressions of similar construction follow each other in a series, all having a common dependence upon some other clause, they are separated from each other by a semicolon, and from the clause on which they all depend, by a comma. Example : " Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations ; that Bhe has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries." Note. If the clause on which the series depends comes at the end of the sentence, it is separated from the series, sometimes by a colon, and sometimes by a comma fol- lowed by a dash. Thus : That nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and 4 34 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. that all future generations will continue to make discoveries : these are among the assertions of philosophers. If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom in the cabinet ; of the purest patri- otism ; of the highest integrity, public and private ; of morals without a stain ; of religious feeling without intolerance and without extravagance, — the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these. Examples for Practice. 1. Mr. Croker is perpetually stopping us in our progress through the most delightful narrative in the language to observe that really Dr. Johnson was very rude that he talked more for victory than for truth that his taste for port wine with capilliare in it was very odd that Boswell was impertinent and that it was foolish in Mrs. Thrale to marry the music-master. 2. To give an early preference to honor above gain when they stand in competition to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook no meanness and to stoop to no dissimulations are the indications of a great mind. KuLE 3. Sentences Connected in Meaning, bnt without Grammatical Dependence. — When several sentences follow each other, without any grammatical dependence, but con- nected in meaning, they are usually separated from each other by semicolons. Example: "She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it in her tears; her fancy catches more than an angel's tongue can describe." Note. In all the cases which come under this Rule, two features are essential. First, each of the several members forming the continued sentence should be complete in itself, so that it might grammatically stand alone, with a period following. Sec- ondly, these several members should have some underlying thread of connection in the thought. Authors differ in regard to the punctuation, in these cases. Some insist on separating the members by a period. By such a course, however, we lose one import' ant means of marking nice changes of thought. Others use the colon, instead of the semicolon, for these purposes. This was the case formerly much more than now. The best usage at present is, to employ a period, a colon, a semicolon, or a comma, according to the degree of complexity or simplicity of the several sentences, and the degree of closeness or looseness of connection in the thought. If the connection is close, and the successive members are short and simple, the comma is used ; if the members are somewhat longer, and especially if any of them are at all complex, the semicolon is used ; if, in addition to this, the connection in the thought is but faint, the colon is used ; and when the connection almost disappears, the period is used. The connection in the thought does not disappear entirely until the close of th« paragraph. PUNCTUATION — SEMICOLON. 35 Examples for Practice. 1. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and feel. 2. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with its frosts and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night the beast in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air seek the habitation of men. 3. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the house of God the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs horses neigh beside the altar. Rule 4. The Clause Additional — When a sentence com- plete in itself is followed by a clause which is added by way of inference, explanation, or enumeration, the additional clause, if formally introduced by some connecting word, is separated from the main body of the sentence by a semi- colon ; but, if merely appended without any such connecting word, .by a colon. 1. Apply yourself to study; for it will redound to your honor. 2. Apply yourself to study: it will redound to your honor. Note 1. Some of the connecting words most commonly used for this purpose are namely, for, hut, yet, to vrit, &c. Note 2. The word as, when used to connect an example with a rule, should be pre- ceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Examples for Practice. 1. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus Xenophon and Thucydides. 2. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages viz. the golden^ge the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 3. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 4. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four cardinal vir- tues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and Prudence. EuLE 5. A General Term in Apposition to the Par- ticulars under it. — When a general terra stands in appo- sition to several others which are particulars under it, the general term is separated from the particulars by a semi- 36 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. jolon, and the particulars are separated from each other by commas. Note. If the enumeration of the particulars is given with much formality, so as to make the several expressions complex, containing commas of their own, then these particulars must be separated from the general term by a colon, and from each other by semicolons ; as, — Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes ; Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. Adjective Pronouns are divided into these three classes: first, the Distributive, •which are four in number ; secondly, the Demonstrative, which are four; and tliirdly, the Indefinite, which are nine. SECTION III. The Colon. The Colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly- complete than that of a semicolon. Note 1. The word is derived from the Greek ku^ov (colon), a limb, or member. Note 2. The principal uses of the colon have already been given in Rules 4 and 5. Rule 1. Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences.— When the minor divisions of a complex sentence contain a semicolon, the greater divisions should be separated by a colon ; thus, — As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : 80 the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such insensible steps, are only perceivable by the distance. Rule 2. Before a Quotation. — A colon is used before a direct quotation ; as, Speaking of party. Pope makes this remark: "There never was any party, faction, ■ect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were not the most violent." Note 1. If the quotation is of considerable length, consisting of several sentencen, or begins a new paragraph, it should be preceded by both a colon and a dash ; as, - At the close of the meeting, the president rose and said : — "Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with extreme reluctance that I address you on this oceaaion," Ac. PUNCTUATION — COLON. 37 Note 2. If the quotation is merely some short saying, a comma is suflBcient ; as, Dr. Thomas Brown says, " The benevolent spirit is as universal as the miseries which are capable of being relieved." Rule 3. Yes and No. — The words yes and no, when in answer to a question, should be followed by a colon, pro- vided the words which follow are a continuation or repeti- tion of the answer ; as, — " Can these words add vigor to your hearts ? Yes : they can do it ; they have often done it." Note. Yes and no are often followed by some noun in the vocative case, or case inde- pendent ; as, " Yes, sir," " Yes, my lords," &c. In such cases, the colon should come after the vocative ; as, " Yes, sir : they can do it." " Yes, my lords : I am amazed at his lordship's speech." Rule 4. Title -Pages. — Sometimes the main title of a book is followed by an alternative or explanatory title, in apposition. If this alternative title is introduced by the con- junction or, a semicolon should precede the or, and a comma follow it; but if or is not used, then the alternative title should be separated from the main one by a colon ; as, — Literature in Letters ; or. Manners, Art, Criticism, Biography, &c. English Grammar: An Exposition of the Principles and Usages of the English Language. Note. At the bottom of a title page it is customary to put the place of publication, the name of the publishers, and the year, in the order just named ; and to insert a colon after the name of the place, a comma after the name of the publishers, and a period at the end. Example. Philadelphia: Eldredge & Brother, 1868. Examples for Praetiee on the Rules for the Comma, the Semicolon, and. the Colon. [To THE Student. Give the Rule for each Comma, Semicolon, or Colon that you find in the examples which are punctuated ; and insert these points where needed, giving the Rules for the same, in the examples not punctuated. In the unpunctuated sen- tences, this mark o is inserted at the places where a point of some kind is due.] 1, No one denies that there are greater poets than Horace ; and much has been said in disparagement even of some of the merits most popularly assigned to him, by scholars who have, nevertheless, devoted years of laborious study to the correction of his text or the elucidation of his meaning. 2. Satire always tends to dwarf o and it cannot fail to carica- 4* 38» COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. ture o but poetry does nothing o if it does not tend to enlarge and exalt o and if it does not seek rather to beautify than deform. 3. When he invites Tyndaris to his villa, the spot is brought before the eye: the she-goats browsing amid the arbute and wild thyme; the pebbly slopes of Ustica; the green nooks sheltered from the dog-star ; the noon-day entertainment ; the light wines and the lute. 4. The fundamental characteristic of man is spiritual hunger o the universe of thought and matter is spiritual food. 6. He feeds on Nature o he feeds on ideas o he feeds o through art o science o literature o and history o on the acts and thoughts of other minds. 6. It must be observed o that in suggesting these processes o I assign them no date o nor do I even insist upon their order. 7. This is an iambic line in which the first foot is formed of a word and a part of a word o the second and third o of parts taken from the body or interior of a word o the fourth o of a part and a whole o the fifth o of two com,plete words. 8. Melissa o like the bee o gathers honey from every weed o while Arachne o like the spider o sucks poison from the fairest flowers. 9. The present life is not wholly prosaic o precise o tame o and finite o to the gifted eye o it abounds in the poetic. 10. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united ? No o sir o no united nation can be o that has the spirit to resolve not to be conquered. 11. Be our plain answer this o The throne we honor is the people's choice o the laws we reverence are our bra^e fathers' legacy o the faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity with all man- kind o and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave. 12. The discourse consisted of two parts o in the first was shown h should bo used in more exch-mations where no direct appeal or address to an object is made, and may be followed by the exclamation point or not, according to the nature or construction of the sentence. This distinction, however, is nearly or totally disregarded by most writers, even the best, the two forms being generally used quite indiscriminately. The forra O is the ono most commonly employed for both uses by modern writers. "0 for a kindling toiich from that pure flame I" Wordsworth. "O what a rapturous cry!" "0 Eldon, in whatever sphere thou Bhine." "Strike, oh Muse, in a measure bold!" Macmday. "0, what a fair and ministering angel ! " "0 sweet angel I " Longfellow. " O sir, oh prince, I have n« country: none." Tennyson. PUNCTUATION — EXCLAMATION. 45 Ii'OTE 3, When an interjection is repeated several times, the words are separated from each other by a comma, the exclamation being put only after the last ; as, " Fie, fie, fie ! pah, pah ! give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagi- nation." Note 4. Two of the interjections, eh and hey, are sometimes uttered in a peculiar tone, so as to ask a question. In that case, they should be followed by- the interroga- tion point ; as, " You thought you would not be found out, eh ? " Rule 3. \yhere the emotion to be expressed is very- strong, more than one exclamation point is sometimes used ; as, " That man virtuous ! ! You might as well preach to me of the virtue of Judas Iscariot ! ! " Note. This mode of repeating the exclamation point is much used in burlesque and satire. Examples for Practice. [To THE Student. These examples, though intended mainly for illustrating the Rules for the marks of Interrogation and Exclamation, will yet serve the incidental purpose of reviewing all the preceding rules.] 1. Why o for so many a year o has the poet wandered amid the fragments of Athens and Rome o and paused o with strange and kindling feelings o amid their broken columns o their mouldering temples o their deserted plains o 2. Greece o indeed o fell o but how did she fall o Did she fall like Babylon o Did she fall like Lucifer o never to rise again o 3. Rouse o ye Romans o rouse o ye slaves o 4. Down o soothless insulter o I trust not the tale o 5. Have you eyes o Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed o and batten on this moor o Ha o have you eyes o You cannot call it love o for o at your age o the hey-day in the blood is tame, it 's humble, and waits upon the judgment o and what judgment would step from this to this o 6. Charge o Chester o charge o on o Stanley o on o 7. Who o in a sea-fight o ever thought of the price of the chain which beats out the brains of a pirate o or of the odor of the splin- ter which shatters his leg o 8. King Charles o forsooth o had so many private virtues o And had James no private virtues o Was even Oliver Cromwell o his bitterest enemies themselves being judges o destitute of private virtues o And whato after all o are the virtues ascribed to Charles o 9. Ho o trumpets o sound a war-note o 10. Oho was there ever such a knight o in friendship or in war o as our sovereign lord o King Henry o the soldier of Navarre o 6 4 46 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC, SECTION VII. The Dash. The Dash is used chiefly either to mark a sudden change or interruption in the structure of the sentence, or to mark some elocutionary pause. Note. The Dash, which is of modern origin, has been used so indiscriminately and injudiciously by ill-informed writers, that some critics have insisted on banishing it entirely. This would be only going to another extreme. There are, in many pas- sages, in those particularly which are highly rhetorical, turns of thought, which can be indicated by a dash, and which cannot be indicated by any of the ordinary gram- matical points. The daah, therefore, is a necessity in many kinds of composition. But it should not be used as a substitute for the comma, semicolon, colon, period, or interrogation, as inexpert writers sometimes do mistakenly use it, but should be em- ployed where these reguLar marks cannot be used, and to express things which they cannot- express. The dash, therefore, is incorrect whenever any one of these marks could be substituted for it without changing the meaning. Young writers particu- larly need to be on their guard in using the dash. Mark every dash as wrong, unless some positive reason for its use can be given, and unless it can be shown that none of the ordinary marks would express the idea. KuLE 1. Construction Changed. — A Dash is used where the construction of the sentence is abruptly broken off or changed; as, — Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band ? Was there ever — but I Bcom to boast. Rule 2. Unexpected Change in the Sentiment. — The Dash is sometimes used to mark a sudden and unexpected change in the sentiment ; as, — He had no malice in his mind — No ruffles on his shirt. Rule 3. Emphatic Generalization. — A Dash is sometimes used to mark the transition from a succession of particulars to some emphatic general expression whJch includes them all; as, — He was witty, learned, industrioos, ]piaxuibl»f — everything but honest. PUNCTUATION — DASH. 47 KuLE 4. Elocutionary Pause. — A Dash is sometimes used to mark a significant pause, where there is no break in the grammatical construction ; as, — You have giren the command to a person of illustrioua birth, of ancient family, of innumerable statues, but — of no experience. Note. The mark here is purely elocutionary. A good reader will pause some per- ceptible time after the but, whether there is a mark there or not. The dash serves to indicate to the eye what the good reader will indicate by his voice. This particular use of the dash is pretty well established, and it is not worth while to make any change in regard to it now. But were the matter of elocutionary notation to be undertaken anew, it would seem better to mark this suspension of the voice by a blank space than by a dash, the dash being used for other and very different purposes, EuLE 5. Expressions dependent upon a Concluding Clause. — When there is a long series of clauses or expressions, all dependent upon some concluding clause, it is usual, in pass- ing from the preceding part of the passage to that upon which the whole depends, to mark the transition by insert- ing a Dash, in addition to the comma ; as, — The great men of Rome, her beautiful legends, her history, the height to which she rose, and the depth to which she fell, — these make up one-half of a student's ideal world. Note. The most common example of this use of the dash is where the grammatical subject or nominative is loaded with numerous adjuncts, so that there is danger of its being lost sight of when the verb is introduced. The insertion of the dash here seems to give the mind an opportunity of going back to the main subject ; as, " Every step in the attainment of physical power ; every new trait of intelligence, as they one by one arise in the infantine intellect, like the glory of night, starting star by star into the sky, — is hailed with a heart-burst of rapture and surprise." EuLE 6. Rhetorical Repetition. — When a word or an expression is repeated for rhetorical purposes, the construc- tion being begun anew, a Dash should be inserted before each such repetition ; as, — Shall I, who was bom, I might almost say, but certainly brought up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent general — shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves — shall I compare myself with this half-year captain? Note. This kind of renetition is sometimes called by elocutionists the Echo. Rule 7. Reflex Apposition. — Words at the end of a sen- 48 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. tence, and standing somewhat detached, and referring back by apposition to preceding parts of the sentence, should be separated from the previous portions by a Dash ; as, — The four greatest names in English poetry are among the first we come to, — Chan- cer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton. Kings and their subjects, masters and their slaves, find a common level in two places, — at the cross, and in the grave. Note. The dash here is said by some to indicate the omission of namdy, or that is. It is true that one of these exi)ressious might be inserted in most cases that come under this rule, but the jjassage would thereby lose in rhetorical force. The dash, in this case, as in Rule 4, is in fact purely elocutionary. EuLE 8. The Dash Parenthetical. — Parenthetical expres- sions are sometimes included between two Dashes, instead of the usual signs of parenthesis ; as, — The smile of a child — always so ready when there is no distress, and so soon recur- ring when that distress has passed away — is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without,— if not, as some philosopher* have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet in a moral sense, — exist within us. Note 1. If, when the parenthetical part is removed from a sentence like one of these, the portions remaining require no point between them, no points besides the dashes will be required at the beginning and end of the parenthetical expression. Thus, in the first of the foregoing examples, if the parenthetical part be left out, the remaining portion will read, "The smile of a child is like an opening," &c. But if the parea- thetical part be left out of the second example, it will read, "The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without, exist within us," with a comma at the place where the two dashes come in. In such cases, there must be two commas in the parenthetical form of the sentence, namely, one before each of the dashes, as in the example. Note 2. If the parenthetical words express a question or an exclamation, they must be followed by an interrogation point or an exclamation point, before tlie concluding dash; as. Religion— who can doubt it?— is the noblest theme for the exercise of the intellect. Note 3. The question, whether the marks which separate parenthetical words from the rest of the sentence shall be dashes, commas, or marks of parenthesis, is left a good deal to the fancy of the writer. The subject will be more particularly explained in the section on the Parenthesis. Note 4. When one parenthetical expression is included within nnother, that which is least connected in construction should be set off by the marks of parenthesis, and the other by dashes ; as, — "Sir Smug," he cries, (for lowest nt the board — Just made fifth chaplain of his patron lord, His shoulders witnessing, by many a shrug, How much his feelings sufTcred — sat Sir Smug), "Your office is to winnow false from true: Come, prophet, drink ; and tell us what think you." PUNCTUATION — DASH. 49 Rule 9. Titles run in. — When a title, instead of stand- ing in a line by itself, over a paragraph, is run in, so as to make a part of the paragraph, it should be separated from the rest of the line by a dash ; as, — FiDELiTT TO God. — Whatever station or rank Thou shalt assign me, I will die ten thousand deaths sooner than abandon it. — Socrates. Note 1. If, at the end of a paragraph, the name of the author or of the book from which the paragraph has been taken is given, it is separated from the rest of the par- agraph by a dash. See the word Socrates at the end of the preceding example. Note 2. The word chapter or section, occurring on the same line with the title, is separated from it by a dash ; as, — Chapter I. — Punctuation. Rule 10. Question and Answer.— If question and answer, instead of beginning separate lines, are run into a paragraph, they sh'ould be separated by a dash; as, — Who made you? — God. What else did God make? — God made all things. Why did God make you and all things? — God made all things for his own glory. Rule 11. Omissions. — The dash is used to mark the omissions of letters or figures ; as, — General W n captured the Hessians at Trenton. Matt. 9:1—6. [N. B. This is equivalent to Matt. 9: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.] Rule 12. Examples on a New Line.-— A dash should follow as and thus, when the example following them begins a new line. For examples, see nearly all the preceding rules and notes. Examples for Practice. 1. Almost all kinds of raw material extracted from the interior of the earth o metals o coals o precious stones o and the like o are obtained from mines differing in fertility. 2. The inferiority of French cultivation o which o taking the country as a whole o must be allowed to be real o though much exaggerated o is probably more owing to the lower average of in- dustrial skill in that country o than to any special cause o 3. Each of these great and ever memorable struggles o Saxon against Norman o villein against lord o Roundhead against Cava- lier o Dissenter against Churchman o Manchester against Old 5* 50 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC. Sarum o was o in its own order and season o a struggle on the result of which were staked the dearest interests of the human race o 4. Time was growing to be of high worth o and o from causes which justified a good deal o though not quite all o of their delay o the English at this time were behindhand o 5. Though o as I was saying o it is only the shallow part of one's heart o I imagine that the deepest hearts have their shallows o which can be filled by it o still it brings a shallow relief o 6. Here lies the great o False marble o where o Nothing but sordid dust lies here o 7. Greece o Carthage o Rome o where are theyo 8. "I plunged right into the debate o and" o **Did not say a word to the point o of course " o 9. The essence of all poetry may be said to consist in three things o invention o expression o inspiration o 10. " How are you o Trepid o How do you feel to-day o Mr. Trepid ? " "A great deal worse than I was o thank you o almost dead o I am obliged to you" o "Why o Trepid o what is the mat- ter with you"o "Nothing o I tell you o nothing in particular o but a great deal is the matter with me in general " o SECTION VIII. The Parenthesis. The Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose words which have little or no connection with the rest of the sentence. Note 1. The word parenthesis (QreoYi irupfv&eaii, insertion) signifies something in Berted or ptit in, and applies primarily to a sentence or a part of a sentence inserted, by way of comment or explanation, in the midst of another sentence, of which it is independent in construction, and which is complete without it. Note 2. We must distinguish between parenthesis and marks of parenthesis. The parenthesis is the sentence, or part of a sentence, that is inserted into another sen- tence. The marks of parenthesis are the two curved lines which inclose the words thus let in. The term marks of parenthesis, to indicate these cun'ed lines, is i)referred to parentheses. Parentheses means properly parenthetical sentences, not marks of parenthesis. PUNCTUATION — PARENTHESIS. 51 Note 3. Sometimes commas, and sometimes dashes, are used instead of the curyed lines, to inclose words that are of a parenthetical character, and it is not always easy to determine when to use one of these modes, and when to use another. It may be observed, in general, that the curved lines mark the greatest degree of separation from the rest of the sentence; the dashes, the next greatest; and the commas, the least separation of all. Rule. Words inserted in the body of a sentence, and nearly or quite independent of it in meaning and construc- tion, should be inclosed with the marks of parenthesis. Note 1, A very common example of the use of marks of parenthesis is in the re- ports of speeches, where a person is referred to, but not named. In the actual delivery of the speech, the person meant is sufficiently indicated by the speaker's pointing or bowing to him, or looking at him, or by other significant gesture. But as this cannot be transferred to the written or printed page, the reporter usually sup- plies its place by inserting the name of the person meant, and the name thus inserted by the reporter is inclosed by marks of parenthesis. Thus: "After the very lucid exposition of the matter by the gentleman opposite to me (Mr. Stuart), it will not be necessary for me to say much in defence of this part of the subject." Note 2. In reporting speeches, marts of parenthesis are used to inclose exclama- tions of approbation or disapprobation on the part of the audience ; as, " My lords, I am amazed at his lordship's declaration (hear, hear). Yes, my lords : I am amazed, that one in his position could so far forget the proprieties of debate." Note 3. Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose a query, or comment of any kini, made by the one who is reporting, copying, or quoting the words of another ; aa, " The Romans were the first (indeed ?) who learned the art of navigation." In strict accuracy, the marks in these three cases (Notes 1, 2, 3) should be brackets, because the matter thus inserted is really an interpolation by the reporter. But custom has sanctioned the use of marks of parenthesis in these cases. See Section IX., Note 2 (Brackets.) Note 4. In scientific works, marks of parenthesis are used to inclose figures or let- ters that are employed in enumerating a list of particulars ; as, "The unlawfulness of suicide appears from the following considerations : (1.) Suicide is unlawful on account of its general consequences. (2.) Because it is the duty," &c. Note 5. If no point would be required between the parts of a sentence, in case there were no parenthesis there, then no points should be used at that place, in addition to the marks of parenthesis ; as, " The Egyptian style of architecture (see Dr. Pocock's work) was apparently the mother of the Greek." Note 6. If a point would be required between the parts of a sentence, in case no parenthesis were there, then, when the parenthesis is inserted, said point should be inserted also, and should be placed after the second mark of parenthesis ; as, " Pride, in some disguise or other, is the most ordinary spring of action." " Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man himself), is the most ordinarj spring of action." Note 7. If the parenthetical part of a sentence requires at the end a point of its own, this point should come inside of the last mark of parenthesis, and the point belonging to the main sentence should come before the first mark of parenthesis ; as, "While the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men, (^nd why should he 52 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. not desire it?) he disdains to receive their good-will by dishonorable means." "Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above;) or, Who shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from the dead.) But what saith it ? " Note 8. Sometimes a parenthesis is inserted, not between the parts of a sentence, but between complete and independent sentences, and the parenthesis itself container one or more complete and independent sentences. In such cases, the words inclosed in the curved lines are parenthetical to the whole paragraph, rather than to any one sentence, and the rule for punctuation is, to insert, in addition to the curved lines, whatever other punctuation marks the several sentences and clauses would otherwise require ; as, " Brethren, be followers together of me, and mark them which walk so as ye have us for an ensample. (For many walk, of whom I have told you often, and now tell you even weeping, that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ ; whose end is destruction, whose god is their belly, and whose glory is in their shame ; who mind earthly things.) For our conversation ia in heaven ; from whence also we look for the Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ" S E C T I O N I X. Brackets. Brackets are used to inclose in a sentence a word, or words, which do not form part of the original composition. Note 1. Brackets are somewhat like the marks of parenthesis in form, one, how- ever, being angular, the other curved, and are also in some respects like the latter in signification and use. Note 2. Brackets are used to inclose a sentence, or a part of a sentence, within the body of another sentence, and thus far are like the marks of parenthesis. But the matter included within brackets is entirely independent of the sentence, and so differa from what is merely parenthetical. Further, the matter within the brackets is usually inserted by one writer to correct or add to what has been written by another, Mhile the parenthesis is a part of the original composition, and is written by the same per- son that wrote the rest of the sentence. Note 3. It is worthy of remark that the comma before and after, the dash before and after, the marks of parenthesis, and the brackets, all have something in common. They all are used to include matter which is inserted in the body of a sentence, and which is more or less independent of the sentence, and extraneous to it. They indi- cate increasing degrees of independence and extraneousness, about in the order in which they have just been named, the comma before and after showing least, and the brackets showing most, of this independence. Rule. In correcting or modifying the expressions of PUNCTUATION — BRACKETS. 53 another, by inserting words of your own, the words thus inserted should be inclosed in brackets; as, — A soft answer turn [turns] away wrath. The number of our days are [is] with thee. The letter [which] you wrote me on Saturday came duly to hand. The captain had several men [who] died on the voyage. Note 1. Brackets are used in critical editions of ancient authors to indicate that in the opinion of the editor the words so inclosed are an interpolation, and do not belong to the original. The words thus bracketed are not interpolated by the editor, but the editor takes this means of indicating that they have been interpolated by somebody else. He fears to leave the words out altogether, because they have stood so long iu the text, but he takes this means of showing that he considers them spurious. Note 2. Brackets are also used in dictionaries to separate the pronunciation, or the etymology of a word, or some incidental remark about it, from the other parts of the explanation. Thus : Resemblant [Fr. re.ssemUer, to resemble.] Having resemblance. [Rare.] Note 3. In printing Plays, the stage directions are separated from the rest of the sentence by brackets ; and, if the stage direction occurs at the end of a line, only the first one of the brackets is used. Thus : — Ham. I am very glad to see you. [ To Bernardo.] Good even, sir. Pol. The wind sits in the shoulder of your sail, And you are stay'd for. There, — my blessing with you; {^Laying his hand on Laertes's head. King. I pray you go with me. [Exeunt. Hot. Let them come in. {Exit servant. Note 4. In regard to the us6 of points before and after the brackets, and the punc- tuation of any sentence or clause within the brackets, the same rules will apply that have been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis. Examples for Practice. 1. Last Words of Remarkable Men o The last words of Raleigh were o " Why dost thou not strike o Strike o man o " To the exe- cutioner o who was pausing o The last of the Duke of Bucking- ham o " Traitor o thou hast killed me© " To the assassin Felton o The last of Charles II. o "Don't let poor Nelly starve o " Referring to Nell Gwynne o The last of William III. o " Can this last longo " To his physician o The last of Locke o "Cease now o" To Lady Markham o who had been reading the Psalms to him o 2. If we exercise right principles o and we cannot have them unless we exercise them o they must be perpetually on the in- crease o 3. Are you still o I fear you are o far from being comfortably settled o 4. She had managed this matter so well© oh© how artful a woman 54 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. she was o but my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger. 6. Know then this truth o enough for man to know o Virtue alone is happiness below o 6. Our last kingo Whose image even but now appeared to us o Was o as you know o by Fortinbras of Norway o ©Thereto prick'd on by a most emulate pride o Dar'd to the combat o in which our valiant Hamlet For so this side of our known world esteemed himo Did slay this Fortinbras o 7. The Egyptian style of architecture o see DrPocockonot his discourses o but his prints o was apparently the mother of the Greek o 8. Yet o by your gracious patience o 1 will a round unvarnished tale deliver Of my whole course of loveo what drugs o what charms o What conjuration o and what mighty magic o "* For such proceeding I am charged withal o 1 won his daughter© SECTION X. Quotation Marks. A Quotation is the introduction into one's discourse of a word or of words uttered by some one else. Note. The marks of quotation are two inverted commas (") at the beginning, and two apostrophes ( ") at the end, of the portion quoted. Rule 1. A word or words introduced from some other author should be inclosed by quotation marks. Note 1, It is proper for a writer to use quotation marks in introducing words from some other writings of his own, if the wonis thus introduced are intended as a citation. Note 2. A writer, in quoting from himself, may use his option in regard to the use of quotation marks. It depends upon wliether he does, or does not, wish to make a reference to his previous writings. We have no sudi option, however, when using the words of other people. To use the words of others without acknowledging them PUNCTUATION — QUOTATION MARKS. 65 to be such, is plagiarism, which is only another name for stealing. It is, however, a breach of the Decalogue, rather than of Rhetoric. Note 3. Sometimes, in quoting from another, we wish for convenience to give only the substance of his meaning, but not his exact words. In such a case, we may show that the wording has been thus altered, by using only one inverted comma and one apostrophe, instead of two. Thus: The last six commandments are, 'Honor thy father and thy mother, Thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou ehalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness. Thou shalt not covet.' Unless we indicate in this way, or by express remark, that the phraseology has been altered, we should in quoting be careful to give the exact words of the author, especially where the quotation is from Holy Scripture. Any alteration whatever in the words inclosed in quotation marks is regarded as dishonest, unless in some manner we distinctly indicate that such alteration has been made. Note 4. Quotation marks are not proper when we state the opinion of others in language of our own ; as, Socrates said that he believed the soul to be immortal. If this expression be changed, so as to give the exact words of Socrates, then the quo- tation marks will be needed ; as, Socrates said, " I believe the soul to be immortal." Note 5. Short phrases from foreign languages are usually printed in italics, instead of being inclosed in quotation marks ; as, He believed in the principle of nil admi- rari. Titles and names of various kinds are sometimes marked in this way ; as, The Tempest is regarded by some as one of Shakspeare's earliest plays. This prac- tice, however, is not so much in vogue as it was, the tendency at present being to use, in all such cases, the quotation marks instead of italics. Rule 2. When a quotation incloses within it another quotation, the external quotation has the double marks, and the one included has only the single marks ; as, — It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shalt not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder." Some one has said, "What an argument for prayer is contained in the words, 'Our Father which art in heaven ! ' " Note 1. If the inclosed or secondary quotation ends the sentence, as in the second of the preceding examples, three apostrophes will there come together, of which the first will belong to the inclosed quotation, and the other two to the original. Note 2. When an inclosed quotation itself contains words or phrases that are quoted, those words or phrases have the double marks ; as, " Trench says, ' What a lesson the word "diligence " contains ! ' " Note 3. The preceding note provides for a quotation within a quotation within a quotation. When the sentence becomes more involved than this, the additional de- grees of quotation cannot be expressed without producing confusion, and may there- fore be omitted ; as. It is written in the Gospel, " Jesus answered the Jews, ' Is it not written in your law, I said, ye are gods ? ' " If, in this sentence, it were at- tempted to carry out fully the marking of quotations, the words would stand thus, " It is written in the Gospel, ' Jesus answered the Jews, " Is it not written in your law, ' I said, " ye are gods "'?"'" Note 4. When an interrogation or an exclamation mark comes at the same place •with the quotation marks, the interrogation or the exclamation mark should be placed inside of the quotation marks, if it is a part of the passage quoted ; but if it refers back 56 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC. to something preceding the introduction of the passage quoted, the interrogation or exclamation mark should be outside of the quotation marks. Thus : People talk about the "passing crowd." Yet, if we consider rightly, is there not something of moment- ous interest in this same " passing crowd " ? Here the question goes back beyond the quotation, and therefore the interrogation point should stand outside of it. When Lord Suffolk said in Parliament, "It is lawful to use all the means that God and nature have put into our hands," Chatham quoted the expression with an exclamation of scorn and surprise, " That God and nature have put into our hands " ! Here the exclamation is not Suffolk's, but Chatham's, and therefoi-e should be put outside of the quotation. KuLE 3. When several consecutive paragraphs are quoted, the inverted commas should be placed at the beginning of each paragraph, but the apostrophes only at the end of the whole quotation. Note 1. If the several paragraphs thus quoted do not come together in the original, but are taken from different parts of the book or essay, each several paragraph should begin and end with quotation marks. Note 2. If the extract forms but one paragraph, but is made up of several detached portions taken from different parts of the book or essay quoted, the fact that the extracts are not continuous may be shown, either by inserting several points (....) at each place where there is a break, or by inclosing each detached portion with quotation marks. Note 3. In some publications, the inverted commas are inserted at the beginning of each line of a quotation, no matter how long. The London Times always punctuates in this way. So do some American newspapers. The practice is more common in England than in America, but as it encumbers and disfigures the page without any real advantage, the tendency in both countries is towards the simpler method pre- scribed in Rule 3. Examples for Practice. 1. This definition o Dr o Latham o from whom we borrowed it o illustrates o in his work on the o English Language o p o 359 o by the expression o a sharp-edged instrument o , which means an instrument with sharp edges. 2. The words o all- wise o , o incense-breaking o , o book-seller o , and o noble-man o are compounds. 3. © There is but one object o o says Augustine o o greater than the soul o and that one is its Creator o © 4. Let me make the ballads of a nation said Fletcher of Saltoun and I care not who makes the laws 5. When Fenelon's library was on fire © © God be praised © o said he © © that it is not the dwelling of a poor man © © 6. © Stop a moment here © © said Corinne to Lord Nevil © as he stood under the portico of the church © © pause before drawing aside the curtain which covers the entrance of the temple © © PUNCTUATION — APOSTROPHE, ETC. 57 7. A drunkard once reeled up to Whitefield with the remark o o Mr o Whitefield o I am one of your converts o o I think it very likely o o was the reply o o for I am sure you are none of God's o o 8. Sir Walter Scott's novel o o Guy Mannering o o is one of his best. SECTION XI. Apostrophe, Hyphen, Caret, &e. Note. The other marks used in composition are either so purely grammatical, or they relate so much more to printing than to authorship, that the consideration of them may be despatched very briefly. 1. The Apostrophe ( ' ) is a comma placed above the line. It is used chiefly to mark the omission of a letter or of letters : as, O'er for over. 2. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate a compound word into its constituent parts, or to divide a word into its syllables for the pur- pose of showing the pronunciation ; as, Neo-Platonic, de-riv-a-tive. 3. The Caret { \), used chiefly in manuscript, shows where some- thing has been omitted, and afterward interlined ; as, his He has just finished ^ letter. 4. The Index, or Hand ( Jgj^* ) calls special attention to a sub- ject; as, Jg^"" Terms, invariably cash in advance. 5. The Paragraph ( T[ ), inserted in a manuscript, denotes that a paragraph should begin at that point. 6. The Brace ( -| ) is used to connect several items under one head; as, The Liquids are (r 7. Marks of Ellipsis are sometimes a long dash, sometimes a suc- cession of stars, or of points; as. He denounced C s [Congress] for its venality, and threatened to impeach W * * * [Webster], and A . . . . [Adams]. 8. The Accents are three, the acute { ^ ), the grave ( ^ ), and the circumflex ( " ). 9. The marks of Quantity are three, the long ( ~ ), the short ( « ), and the diaeresis ( •• ). 10. The Cedilla is a mark like a comma placed under the letter c, 6 58 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. in words taken from the French, to denote that the letter has in that case the sound of s; as, fa9ade [pronounced ya-«ao?.] 11. Marks of Reference are the asterisk or star (*), the dagger (f ), the double dagger, (J), the section ( § ), parallel lines ( [| ), the paragraph (^). 12. Leaders are dots used to carry the eye from words at the beginning of a line to something at the end with which they are connected ; Thus, Orthography, page 7 Etymology, "14 Syntax, "87 13. Double Commas inverted are used to show that a word is to be supplied from the line above. (See example under No. 12, where ^^ supplies the place of the word "page.") 14. The Title-page of a book is that which contains the title, and is usually the first page. 15. Running Titles, or Head-lines, placed at the top of the page to show the subject, are usually printed in capitals, or small capitals. 16. Captions, or Sub-heads, are headings placed over chapters or sections, but standing in the body of the page, not at the top. 17. Side-heads are titles run into, or made part of, the line. 18. A Frontispiece is a picture opposite to the title-page. 19. A Vignette is a small picture, not occupying a full page, but mixed up with other matter, either on the title-page, or in any other part of the book. 20. Italics are letters inclined to the right. They are so called be- cause type of this kind was first used by Italian printers. Note 1. In manuscript, one line drawn under a word shows that it should be printed in italics; two lines, that it should be printed in small capitals; and three lines, that it should be printed in CAPITALS. Ordinary letters are called Roman, as opposed to Italic. Note 2. Some writers use Italics to mark emphatic words. This is a weak and foolish device, and cannot be too strongly condemned. Note 3. In the English Bible, words are printed in italic to show that they ar« not in the original, but are supplied by the translators to complete the meaning. 21. The principal kinds of type are the following: Englisli, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o. Fica, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r. Small Fica^ a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q. PUNCTUATION — CAPITALS. 59 Long Primer, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s. Bourgeon, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v. Brevier, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x. Minion, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Nonpareil, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, t, w, x, y, z. Agate, a, b. c. d, e, f, g, h, i, j. k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t. u, v. w, i, y, z. Pearl, a. b, c, d, e, f, g. h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q. r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Diamond, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, t, ir, x, j, %. Biilliint. », b, c, d, .. f. g, h. i. j, k. I, m. D. o, p. q, r, .. t, «. T, w, », T, »# 22. Leads are thin plates of type-metal, by which the lines may be spaced further apart. Matter thus spaced is said to be leaded. Matter not leaded is called solid, 23. Composing, as a part of the printing business, is putting matter in type, or setting up the type. 24. The amount of printed matter is counted by ems, that is, by th« number of spaces of the length of the letter m. 25. A Folio is a leaf or sheet of paper with a single fold, that is, making two leaves or four pages. 26. A book is called a Folio when the sheets on which it is printed are so folded that each s8ieet makes but two leaves. It is called a Quarto, when each sheet makes four leaves ; an Octavo, when each makes eight leaves ; a Duodecimo, when each makes twelve leaves ; a 16mo, 18mo, 24mo, 32mo, 48mo, 64mo, 96mo, &c., according as each sheet makes 16, 18, 24, 32, 48, 64, or 96 leaves. SECTION XII. Capitals. Rule 1. Title -Pages and Headings. — Title-pages and the head- ings of chapters should be entirely in capitals. Note. Tlie head-line of the page is usually in a kind of type called small capitals. The headings of sections smaller than a chapter are sometimes printed in small capi- tals, and sometimes by beginning only the principal words with a capital. Rule 2. The First Word in a Book, &c. — The first word of every book, tract, essay, &c., and of every chapter or section, also of every letter, note, or writing of any kind, should begin with a capital. 60 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. RuLK 3. The First Word in a Sentence. — The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital. Rule 4. Numbered Clauses. — Clauses, when separately numbered, should begin with a capital, though not separated from each other by a full-point; as, — This writer ass'*rts, 1. That Nature is unlimited in her operations ; 2. That she has inexhaustible treasui-es in reserve* 3. That knowledge will always be progressive, and, 4. That all future generations will continue to make discoveries. Rule 5. The first word after a period, except when used as an abbreviation, should begin with a capital. Note 1. The reason of this is that the period brings the sentence to a close. The first word following it, therefore, begins a new sentence, and should have the capital, according to Rule 3, already given. Note 2. For the same reason a capital should follow the mark of interrogation, when equivalent to a period, as it usually is, Rule 6. First Word of an Example. — The first word of a sentence or clause which is given as an example should begin with a capital; as, "Temperance promotes health." Note. If the example is not a sentence or a clause, but only a single word, or a series of words, as, temperance, fortitude, honesty, prudence, &c., no capital is needed. Rule 7. Quoting Titles. — In quoting the title of a book, every noun, pronoun, adjective, and adverb should begin with a capital; as, "Sparks's Life of Washington." Rule 8. First Word of a Direct Question. — The first word of a direct question should begin with a capital ; as, — (Direct question.) His words are, "Why do you not study the lesson? " (Indirect question.) He desires to know why you do not study the lesson. Rule 9. First Word of a Direct Quotation. — The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital; as, — Plutarch says, " Lying is the vice of slaves." Note. If this quotation be changed to the indirect form, no capital will be needed at the point where the quotation begins; as, Plutarch says that lying is the vice of slaves. Rule 10. Capitals Used for Figures. — Numbers are sometimes rep- resented by capital letters; as, I., 11., III., IV., &c. Note. In referring to passages in books, it is very common to number the cliapter, book, sections, Ac, in this way, and to begin with a capital each name of the division PUNCTUATION — CAPITALS. 61 mentioned ; as, •' Mill's Political Economy, Vol. I, Book III, Chap. IV, Sec, VI, p. 573." If the references are numerous, this method is found to be cumbersome and unsightly, and small letters are preferred ; as; " Mill's Political Economy, vol. i, book iii, chap, iv, sect, vi, p. 573." KuLE 11. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should always bo capital letters. Rule 12. Poetry. — The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital. Rule 13. Names of God. — All names and titles of God should begin with a capital ; as, Jehovah, Father, Creator, Almighty, &c. Note 1. When any name usually applied to the Supreme Being is used for a created being, it does not begin with a capital ; as, " The Lord is a great God above all gods:' " Lord of lords, King of kings." Note 2. Providence is sometimes used to mean God, that is, the One who provides for us ; Heaven likewise is used to mean the One who reigns in heaven. In such cases the word should begin with a capital. But if only God's providential care, or his place of abode is meant, a capital is not needed. Note 3. The adjectives eternal, universal, heavenly, divine, &c., when applied to God, need not begin with a capital, unless something in the particular instance makes them emphatic. Custom, however, has made capitals necessary in the following in- stances : Almighty God, Infinite One, Supreme Being, First Cause. Note 4. When an attribute of God is expressed, not by an adjective, as in the in- stances above, but by a noun dependent upon another noun, as " Father of mercies " for " Merciful Father," the dependent noun in such combinations does not require a capital. Note 5. " Son of God," as applied to our Saviour, requires that both nouns should begin with a capital ; " Son of man " requires no capital for the latter noun. Note 6. Great diversity prevails in regard to the pronouns, when referring to God. Some axithors, in printing a hymn or a prayer, make the page fairly bristle with capi- tals, every pronoun that refers in any manner to God being decorated in that manner. The first stage of this fancy is that which prints in this manner Thou, Thine, Thee. In the second stage. He, His, Him are thus treated. The last and highest stage shows Itself in the relative pronouns, Who, Whose, and Whom. In the standard editions of the English Bible, the pronouns, when referring to God, are never printed in this way, not even in forms of direct address to the Deity ; as, " But thou, Lord, be mer- ciful unto me," &c. Rule 14. Proper Names. — All proper names should begin with capitals ; as, Jupiter, Mahomet, Brahma, Pompey, Lake Erie, Mon- day, Good Friday, Rome, China, France. Note 1. The word devil, when used to designate Satan, should Taegin with a capital ; in all other cases, with a small letter ; as, " The Devil and his angels." " The devils also believe and tremble." Note 2. The same persons who capitalize the first letter of the pronouns when re- ferring to God, capitalize the first letter of heaven and full when referring to tU« 6* 5 62 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. abodes of the blessed and of the lost. But such is not the usage in the Bible, which is the most carefully printed book in the language. " If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there : if I make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there." Note 3. North, South, East, and West, when used to denote certain parts of the country or of the world, should begin with a capital; as, "This man evidently is a native of the West." But when they denote merely geographical direction, they should begin with a small letter; as, "Ohio lies west of the Alleghanies." Note 4. When ^a name is compounded of a proper name and of some other word which is not a proper name, connected by a hyphen, the part which is not a proper name begins with a capital, if it precedes the hyphen, but with a small letter, if it follows the hyphen; as, Pre-Adamite, New-England, Sunday-school. Rule 15. Words derived from Proper Names. — Words derived from proper names should begin Avith a capital ; as, Mahometan, Brahmin, Christian, Roman ; French, Spanish, Grecian ; to Chris- tianize, to Judaize, to Romanize, &c. Note 1. The names of religious sects, whether derived from proper names or other- wise, begin with a capital ; as, Christians, Pagans, Jews, Gentiles, Lutherans, Calvin- ists, Protestants, Catholics, &c. The names of political parties likewise begin with capitals ; as Democrats, Republicans, Radicals, Conservatives, &c. Note 2. Some words, derived originally from proper names, have by long and famil- iar usage lost all reference to their origin, and are printed like ordinary words, with- out capitals ; as, simony, damask, jalap, godlike, pldlippic, to hector, to galvanize, to japan, &c. Rule 16. Titles of Honor and Office. — Titles of honor and office, should begin with a capital ; as, The President of the United States, His Honor the Mayor of Philadelphia, President Madison, Queen Victoria, Sir Robert Murchison, -Your Royal Highness, &c. Note. When father, mother, hrother, sister, uncle, aunt, Ac, immediately precede a ptoper name, some wi-itera begin with a capital ; as, Aunt Margaret, Brother John &c. But the tendency at present among careful writers is to discontinue the use of capitals in such cases. In writing to a person of his father, mother, &c., it is customary with some, as a mark of respect, to use the capital ; as, " I met your Father yesterday." In the family circle, Father and Mother often become proper notuis, when, of course, they take the capital. The term father, when used to denote one of the early Christian writers, is always printed with a capital ; as, "Chrysostom and Augustine are among the most voluminous of the Fathers." Rule 17. Subjects first introduced. — In works of a scientific char- acter, when the subject of a particular section is defined, or is first introduced, it begins with a capital; as, "A Pronoun is a word usetll instead of a noun." Rule 18. The Bible. — A capital is always used for the terms ordi- narily employed to designate the Bible, or any particular part or book of the Bible ; as. The Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, the Old PUNCTUATION — EXAMPLES* 63 Testament, the Gospel of Matthew, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistle to the Ephesians, the Revelation, the Psalms, &c. In like manner, a capital is used in giving the names of other sacred writ- ings, as the Koran, the Zend Avesta, the Puranas, &c. Rule 19. Words of Special Importance. — Words describing the great events of history, or extraordinary things of any kind, which have acquired a distinctive name, begin with a capital; as, the Reformation, the Revolution, the war of Independence, the Middle Ages, Magna Charta, the Gulf Stream, &c. Rule 20. Personification. — In cases of strongly marked personifi- cation, the noun personified should begin with a capital ; as, — "Hope for a season bade the world farewell. And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell." Note. This rule, like that in regard to words of special importa.nce, requires dis- cretion on the part of the writer. Young and inexperienced writers are prone to apply it too frequently. Miscellaneous Examples for Practieo. [Punctuate the following sentences, and make the necessary corrections in regard to capitals, giving your reasons for each alteration.] 1. Charles notwithstanding the delay had left england to work his way as best he might out of his Difficulties 2. the scots therefore at the break of day entered the Castle 3. Fashion is for the most part the ostentation of Riches 4. besides if you labor in moderation it will conduce to Health as well as to Wealth 5. Sir Peter Carew for some unknown reason had written to &sk for his pardon 6. The Man when He saw this departed 7. the crowd as Throgmorton left the court threw up their caps and shouted 8. Elizabeth who had been requested to attend was not present 9. The frost had set in the low damp ground was hard the Dykes were frozen 10. a brown curling beard flowed down upon his chest 11. she thought the isle that gave her birth the sweetest mildest land on earth 12. The first Seven carried maces swords or pole-axes 13. She plans provides expatiates triumphs there 14. Who to the enraptured heart and ear and eye Teach beauty virtue truth and love and melody 64 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 15. Give me a sanctified and just a charitable and humble a reli- gious and contented spirit 16. Now a man now a seraph and now a beast 17. the dragon stands the hieroglyph of evil and gnaws at the tree of life 18. The ocelot a beautiful and striped fiend hisses like a snake 19. He that calls upon thee is Theodore the hermit of Teneriflfe 20. Hate madness ruled the hour 21. We saw a large opening or inlet 22. The Egyptian serpent the ass-headed devil deserves the first mention as among the oldest personifications of the spirit of evil 23. Well Sir Nicholas what news 24. Zaccheus make haste and come down 25. The conspiracy being crushed without bloodshed an inquiry into its origin could be carried out at leisure 26. Thus preciously freighted the Spanish fleet sailed from Corunna 27. Cruel and savage as the persecution had become it was still inadequate 28. Faith is opposed to infidelity hope to despair charity to enmity and hostility 29. Allegory kills the symbolical as prose poetry 30. Elizabeth threw herself in front of Marie Antoinette exclaim- ing I am the queen 31. Kant said give me matter and I will build the world 32. Whatever happens Mary exclaims Elizabeth I am the wife of the Prince of Spain crown rank life all shall go before I will take any other husband. 33. In the regions inhabited by angelic natures unmingled felicity forever blooms joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream nor needs any mound to check its course 34. In this way we learned that miss Steele never succeeded in catching the doctor that Kitty Bennett was satisfactorily married by a clergyman near Pemberton that the " considerable sum " given by Mrs. Norris to William Price was one pound and that the letters placed by Churchill before Jane Fairfax which she swept away unread contained the word pardon 35. The daring youth explained everything he presented philoso- phy in a familiar form he brought it home to men's bosoms he made all smooth and easy 36. Then he shivers his sword in pieces he longs to die the yeins of his neck start out they burst his noble blood wells forth PUNCTUATION — EXAMPLES. 65 87. Ars in latin is the contrary of in-ers it is the contrary of in-ac- tion it is action 38. Make hay while the sun shines for clouds will surely come 39. there are five moods the indicative the potential the subjunc- tive the imperative and the infinitive 40. Princes have courtiers and merchants have partners the volup- tuous have companions and the wicked have accomplices none but the virtuous have friends 41. in his last Moments He uttered these words i fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury 42. Length n A S lengdh equivalent to lengu lencg from lang long the longest measure of any object in distinction from depth thickness breadth or width the extent of anything from end to end the longest line which can be drawn through a body parallel to its sides as the length of a church the length of a rope * 43. John Tillotson Archbishop of Canterbury obtained great cele- brity as a preacher his sermons at his death were purchased for no less sum than two thousand five hundred guineas they continue to the present time to be read and to be held in high estimation as instructive rational and impressive discourses 44. Sir Roger L'Estrange enjoyed in the reigns of Charles II and James VII great notoriety as an occasional political writer he is known also as a translator having produced versions of Esop's Fables Seneca's Morals Cicero's offices Erasmus's Colloquies Queve- do's Visions and the works of Josephus 46. Another lively describer of human character who flourished in this period was Dr Walter Charleton physician to Charles II a friend of Hobbes and for several years president of the college of physicians in London 46. Bacchanalian pertaining to the festivals of Bacchus the god of wine which were celebrated by a triumphal procession wherein men and women went about rioting dancing and indulging in all sorts of licentious extravagance 47. Horologe horo hour and loge that which tells or notes is from two greek words signifying together that which tells the hour a sun dial a clock a timepiece • 48. Bacon Francis usually known as Lord bacon was born in London England Jan 22 1560 and died 1626 he was famous as a * The teacher may multiply indefinitely examples of this kind by referring to any large Dictionary containing the derivation and definition of words. Such exercises are of the greatest importance and value in teaching punctuation. A like xise majr be made of the sums in Arithmetic and Algebra. 66 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. scholar a wit a lawyer a judge a statesman a politician but chiefly as a philosopher 49. Early one morning they came to the estate of a wealthy farmer they found him standing before the stable and heard as they drew near that he was scolding one of his men because he had left the ropes with which they tied their horses in the rain all night instead of putting them away in a dry place ah we shall get very little here said one to the other that man is very close we will at least try said another and they approached 50. The clear conception outrunning the deductions of logic the high purpose the firm resolve the dauntless spirit speaking in the tongue beaming from the eye informing every feature and urging the whole man onward right onward to his object this this is elo- quence or rather it is something greater and higher than all elo- quence it is action noble sublime godlike action 51. But it will be urged perhaps sir in behalf of the California gold that though one crop only of gold can be gathered from the same spot yet once gathered it lasts to the end of time while our vegetable gold is produced only to be consumed is gone forever but this Mr president would be a most egregious error both ways 52. Polonius do you know me my Lord Hamlet excellent well you are a fishmonger Pol not I my lord Ham Then I would you were so honest a man Pol honest my lord Ham ay sir to be honest as this world goes is to be one man picked out of ten thousand Pol that's very true my lord Ham Have you a daughter Pol I have my lord J J CHAPTER 11. Diction. Diction is that pgrt of Rhetoric which treats of the selec- tion and the right use of words. Command of Words Important. — No one can be successful as a writer or a speaker, who has not a great number of words at his command, and who has not such a knowledge of the precise meaning of each as to be able in all cases to select just that word which ex- presses most perfectly tie idea intended. How Obtained. — It is not in the power of "rules to give one a command of words. To this end, two things chiefly are necessary ; an enlarged course of reading, and a habit of observation in regard to the words met with. Linguistic studies are particularly suited to enlarge one's vocabulary. Habitual association with persons of edu- cation and refinement has likewise a tendency to increase one's stock of words. Some persons have by nature a special talent for this species of acquisition, and words on almost every subject seem to come at their bidding. Such a talent, whether natural or acquired, is of the greatest importance. Extemporaneous Translation. — One method, strongly recommended by Prof. Marsh,* for acquiring a ready and wide command of words, is the practice of extemporaneous translation, that is, of reading off into English a book, or a newspaper, which is in a foreign language. Authors who are accustomed to express only their own thoughts, form for themselves unconsciously a comparatively narrow vocabulary. The practice of extemporaneous translation forces one into new trains of thought, demanding new words and forms of expression, and thus enlarges continually his vocabulary, and lifts him out of the rut of * Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh, p. 616. 67 68 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. pet words and stereotyped phrases into which he would otherwise fall. Habit of Referring to the Dictionary. — For acquiring an accurate knowledge of the meaning of words, much may be done by judicious training, both at home and at school. Students should be sent to the dictionary, every hour of the day, and in every exercise where a question can arise as to the meaning of a word, until the habit is fully established, in the mind of the learner, of giving a peremptory challenge to every word whose meaning is not thoroughly known. Study of Etymology. — A proper study of the etymology of words, with suitable exercises for practice in combining them, conduces to the same end; and for this purpose, a good manual of instruction in the derivation and meaning of words is an indispensable requisite of the school-room.* Divisions of the Subject. — The qualities of Style most needed, so far as Diction is concerned, are Purity, Propriety, and Precision. Note. These topics have, in former treatises on Rhetoric, been treated under the head of Sentences. But they clearly belong to the subject of Diction. They are attri- butes, not of sentences, but of words, the materials out of which sentences are made. >;^N I. PURITY. Diction, when Pure. — An author's diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to the idiom of the lan- guage, in opposition to words that are foreign, obsolete, newly coined, or without proper authority. Standard of Purity. — The only standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a Barbarism. 1. Foreign 'Words, Pedantry and Affectation. — It savors of pedantry and affectation to introduce unnecessarily into discourse words from foreign languages, as from the French, the Latin, and so forth. This fault is most com- mon with persons whose attainments are comparatively limited, and who are ambitious of showing off what little learning they have. Ripe scholars, whose knowledge of languages is extensive and pro- j . found, rarely interlard their discourse with foreign terms. y^ * Webb's Model Etymology is recommended as an excellent manual for this purpose. DICTION PUEITY. 69 Foreign Words Domesticated. — Sometimes a foreign word acquires a special historical significance, or it is adopted, unchanged from its original form, as an English word ; as, the fiat of the Almighty, the shibboleth of party, the palladium of liberty, an ignis fatuus, an igno- ramus, a cabal, a quorum, an omnibus, an incognito, an anathema, an item, a paradise. In such cases, where the foreign word is one whose meaning has become familiar to ordinary readers, — when, in fact, it expresses that meaning more precisely than any translation could do, — there may be more pedantry in translating the word than in using it in the form with which the public is already familiar. 2. Obsolete Words — New Words, No Absolute Standard. — A word is not necessarily to be rejected because it is new. New words are continually coming into use. This is the general law of all languages. So long as they are living languages, they are subject to perpetual change, old words dropping out and new ones coming in. No absolute rule can be given for deter- mining when an old word has become so far obsolete as to make it unsafe any longer to use it, or when a new word has sufficient sanction from writers and speakers to give it a claim to be considered good English. A few examples will illustrate this. Tliroughly, formed legitimately from the preposition through, was staple English in the time of Spenser. It is now obsolete, except for the purpose of quaiutness or drollery. OutsidAr. — No one now would hesitate to use the word outsider. Yet prior to the convention which in 1844 nominated Mr. Polk for the Presidency, the word had no better claim to being English than insider, undersider, uppersider, rightsider, leftsider, Ac. At that convention, according to Prof. Marsh, w^hen an undue pressure was made upon the delegates, by those from without who were not delegates, some one, with a happy audacity of language, described it as a pressure from the " outsiders ; " and this term, caught up by the reporters, so suited the convenience of the public that it went at once into general circulation, and it has since fairly established itself as a constitu- ent part of the language. Intensify. — It is rather startling to be told that the word "intensify" is not yet fifty years old. Coleridge, in his Biographia Literaria,* tells us that he deliberately coined the word, because there was no other in existence to express a particular shade of meaning which he wished to convey. Starvation was first used by Henry Dundas in 1775, in a speech in Parliament, which obtained for him the name of Starvation Dundas. It was supposed to be the only instance of a noun formed by adding the Latin ending -ation to a Saxon root, but fiirtation is a similar example. Sculptor, peninsula, suicide, opera, and umbrella, were unknown to the English tongue until the middle of the seventeenth century, f * P. 238, Harper's edition. t Trench on " Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries," p. 40, and p. 51, in " Trans* actions of the Philological Society " for 1857. 7 70 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Beutley in the last century had to defend himself for using such novelties as rtpu^ diat&,' concede, vernacular, timid, and idiom. * Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, first published in 1776, marks the following words as so far obsolete as not to be allowable in ordinary prose : tribulation, behest, erewhile, ignore, adroitness, and he hesitates about the following words on account of the newness of their introduction : continental, sentimental, originality, criminality, capability, originate. Suspended Animation of Words. — Words frequently pass out of use for a time, and then resume their place in literature again, and this suspended animation of words, followed by a revival and restoration to full activity, is one of the most curious facts in the history of lan- guage. The word reckless was in current use until after the beginning of the sixteenth eentury. It then became so nearly obsolete that Hooker, who used it in 1650, felt obliged to explain it in a marginal note. It has since been revived, and is now thor- oughly familiar to every English-speaking person, f Abate and abandon, which, after an active existence of some centuries, fell into dis- use in the seventeenth century, and were so marked in the dictionary, are now again a part of current English. Kind of New Words to be Avoided. — A writer who is careful of the purity of his diction will avoid any new word, no matter how dis- tinguished the author by whom it has been introduced, if it is formed in a manner contrary to the genius of the language. i^ -rJ a ^ {] y^ Law of Verbal Formation. — One of the laws of verbal formation is that the component parts of a word should be of similar linguistic origin. This rule is violated when a word is made up of two parts, one of which is Saxon, the other Greek or Latin. For example ; the termination -itt/, which is of Latin origin, corresponds in meaning to the termination -ness, which is Saxon. The Latin ending, therefore, is used in making words from Latin stems, as cavity from c^u-us, unity from un-us, purity from pur-us, brevity from brev-is, acidity from acid-ns. In like manner, the Saxon ending is used in making words from Saxon stems, as hollow-new from hollow, one-ness from one, a&me-ness from same, sour-nes* from sour. Thus also telegraph, telegraphic, telegram are legitimate formations, the various component parts tele, graph, gram, and ic being Greek. But cable-graph and cable- gram are barbarisms, the first part of the compound being from one language, the latter part from another. Ambrotype and electrotype are * Preface to Dissertations upon Phalaris, p. liv. t Mai-sh, p. 179. DICTION — PURITY. 71 legitimate, ivorytype is barbarous. Mongrel formations of this kind should be avoided. Law of Formation not Universal. — The rule given above, in regard to the formation of words, is however far from being universal. Thus appositeness is a good word, although formed with a Saxon end- ing upon a Latin stem. Both Modes of Formation on the Same Stem. — In many cases the same stem gives two words of like meaning, one with a Saxon, the other with a Latin end- ing, as purity pureness, credibility credibleness. In such cases, the one formed regu- larly, that is, with stem and ending both from the same source, is generally a better word than the other, as it is in the instance last given, credibility being a better word than credibleness. Safe Plan in regard to New Words. — The safe plan in regard to new words is not to be in a hurry about using them. A writer has before him, for his selection, such an abundance of words, about which there can be no question, that a case can rarely occur, in which the use of a doubtful word is necessary. We may indeed have occasion to speak of a new invention, or a new idea, for which there is no word but that originating with the invention or the idea itself. In such a case, of course, we need not hesitate about using the new word. But in all ordinary cases, the safest plan for a writer or a speaker is to select only well-known and fully accredited words, in preference either to those which have become partially obsolete and uncurrent, or to those which by reason of the fresh- ness of their coinage are still of doubtful currency. Pope's Rule. — The rule is well stated by Pope, in his Essay on Criticism : In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ; Alike fantastic, if too new or old ; Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.* In discussing the subject of purity of diction, I have thus far spoken of words which are wanting in this respect by reason of their haing foreign, obsolete, orneivly coined. It rematns to speak of those which want proper authority. 3. Words without Proper Authority. The Question. — What constitutes the Proper Authority for the use * The student should commit these lines thoroughly to memory. 72 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. of a word ? What is the court in the last resort, which determines beyond appeal whether a word is, or is not, good English? The Answer. — If a people, by common consent, use a particular word to mean a certain thing, that word is a part of the language of that people. The Dictum of Horace. — The dictum of Horace * to this effect has received, I believe, the general assent of the critics, and it may now be considered as a part of the undisputed creed of the learned, namely, that Use is the law of language, whether for single words, grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Danger of Misconception. — But the law as thus expressed is liable to many misconceptions. •It needs, therefore, some special limita- tions and definitions, in order to make it practically useful for the purpose of determining, in any particular case, whetlier a word is right or wrong. Campbell's Essay. — No one has written on this point with more clearness and comprehensiveness than Dr. Campbell, in his Philos- ophy of Rhetoric, before quoted. His extended chapter on " The Nature and Characters of the Use which gives Law to Language," is exhaustive of the subject, and should be studied by every one who wishes to enter into the matter fully, f The results at which Campbell arrives, and in which all critics since his day have acquiesced, may be summed up as follows: '^^^^'^""^''^ Oampbell's Law. — The Use which determines authori- tatively whether a word is legitimate must have these three marks : 1. It must be Reputable, or that of educated people, as opposed to that of the ignorant and vulgar. 2. It must be National, as opposed to what is either local or technical. 3. It must be Present, as opposed to what is obsolete. " U8U8, Qnern penes arbitrium est et Jus et norma loquendi." — Hor. De ArU, Poet. + For tho convenience of those readers who may not have accesH to Campbell's work, an abstract of his argument is given at the end of the present chapter. DICTION — PURITY. 73 \. The Way to Find these Marks. — The only way to ascertain that a word has these characters is to find it so used in the majority of writers of good reputation. In all ordinary cases, we refer to a Dictionary, since it is the duty of a lexicographer to ascertain these facts by research, and to mark them in his work. In the best works of this kind, ^very word that is admitted to a place in the Dictionary is assumed to have these characters, unless the lexicographer dis- tinctly marks the word as being obsolete, vulgar, provincial, technical, &c. ; and, in very many cases, passages from authors of reputation are quoted, to show how the word is used. Note. The study of Diction is a necessary incident of every other study. We can- not learn any branch of knowledge without, at the same time, and by the same act, becoming familiar with the woms in which that knowledge is conveyed. Still some special study of the subject is desirable; and, to facilitate such a study, the following Exercises have been prepared. The words given below are arranged in lists of ten for mere convenience. They are selected with reference to the question of Purity, under some one or more of the heads now considered, namely, foreign, obsolete, newly coined, withotU proper authority. To test the better the student's knowledge, and to exercise his judgment, the words are put together promiscuously, and part of them are entirely legitimate. The student will need of course a good Dictionary for preparing himself on these exercises; and if he have access to one of the large quartos, all the better. The points to be considered in regard to a word are the following : 1. Is it a foreign word? If so, has it been thoroughly domesticated as good English ? or would its use savor of pedantry ? 2. Is it a word which was once in use, but is now obsolete ? What was its meaning when it was used ? 3. Is it a neto word ? If so, has it been in use long enough to become legitimate ? or would its use be considered doubtful ? 4. Is there any irregularity in the formation of the word? — if so, is the irregu- larity suflBcient to condemn it ? 5. Is the word vulgar, technical, provincial, or in any way unsuited for com- mon use? * 6. In every case, give the meaning and the etymology of the word, and the authority on which it is pronoimced legitimate or otherwise. 7. Whenever possible, quote Extracts from known authors in illustration of the opinion pronounced. These extracts may be brought in ready written, but the other part of the work should be done in the class-room, in the same manner as any, other part of the recita- tion. The student has a model of what he is to learn and to say, in regard to each word, in what is said of the several words introduced and explained on pages 66, 67. Exercises on Purity of Diction. (1. Cisatlantic, alamode, waitress, exit, plebiscitum, depot, role, ultimatum, mulierosity, aborigines. 2. Gallantness, obloquy, incertain, talkist, resurrected, periculous, DttGonrise, docible, cockney, alibi. ■^ 7* 74 COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC. 8. Jeopardize, preventative, orate, memento, n6e, herbarium, soundness, currentness, boyish, locate. 4. Confutement, civilist, expenseless, peristyle, opaque, populos- ity, soup9on, finale, blas6, alias. ^^5. Controversialist, kraal, lapidary, leniency, distingu^, feuille- \li>n, protege, verbatim, rendezvous, surtout. 6. Imprimatur, sangfroid, upholstery, traducement, walkist, pro- faneness, atelier, enthused, thirster, optigraph. 7. Septemfluous, spendthrift, confutant, caviare, underlauded, faleslady, amende, employe, equidistant, terra cotta. 8. Impromptu, pot-pourri, efilorescence, fabulosity, rootfastness, -«liediential, elocutist, disillusioned, rampage, bookish. 9. Ungallantry, discursiveness, optable, amour propre, residuum, parvenu, vesper, rebus, acrobat, fauteuil, 10. Soidisant, rotatory, mandamus, nom de plume, siesta, curi- ousness, fashionist, skedaddle, bootless, oppressure. rll. MisafFected, insulse, exorableness, verily, spirituel, casuality, matin, patois, elegy, instanter. 12. Aifidavit, conversationist, donate, dilettante, on dit, junta, per- siflage, tapis, circumambient, debatement. 13. Disobedientness, optation, chef-doeuvre, fete, plateau, occi- dental, avoidance, admonishment, mulish, misdevotion. To THE Teacher. 1. If any of the words in the foregoing lists are not to be found in the dictionary to wliich the student has access, tlie student should of course be relieved from censure for not being prepared on tliese particular words. 2. The teacher should make a note of all barbarisms in Diction which he hears in the class, and use such words for additional examples. 3. Exercises of this kind should be con- tinued until a habit of attention to the subject is firmly fixed in the mind of the student. II. PROPRIETY. ^ Difference between Purity and Propriety of Diction. — Purity of dictioil ^refers simply to the question whether a word is, or is not, in good and current use, as an established part of the language. But another question arises in regard to every word used in discourse. Is the word used correctly in the sentence in which it occurs? The word may be a perfectly good word, and yet it may not express the mean- ing which the writer evidently intended to express. A writer who fails in this respect offends against Propriety. This, then, is the second point to which a writei or a speaker DICTION — PROPRIETY. 75 should attend. He should see that every word which he uses conveys exactly the meaning which he wishes to convey. Means of Attaining Propriety. — To attain propriety of diction, the chief means are a frequent use of the Dictionary, and a constant ob- servation of the way in which words are used in good authors. A study of the derivation of words is also a help in ascertaining their meaning. But this source of information is to be used with some caution, as many words acquire in actual use a meaning very differ- ent from that which their etymology would suggest. Examples. — A few examples are given of words whose meaning has changed from that indicated by the etymology. Prevent, which means etymologically, and whichonce meant actually, to go before,* now means to hinder. Resent means etymologically to reciprocate, or respond to, any kind of feeling, good or bad, and it once actually had this meaning. Three centuries ago a man could speak of resenting a benefit, as well as resenting an injury. The use of later times has restricted the ward to the single meariing. Censure has undergone a like change. Originally, it meant to express any kind of opinion, favorable or unfavorable ; f now it refers to that only which is unfavorable. Liquidate meant originally to melt, to change from a solid to a liquid state. Next, it meant to make clear, or transparent, and this meaning it bore down to a compara- tively recent date. "Time only can liquidate the meaning of all parts of a compound system." — Hamilton. Now, the word means to pay off debts. Admire, in the time of Milton, was still used in its Latin sense, to wonder at. Now it means only to regard with esteem and reverence.* Spenser speaks of a "chapel edified,'''' meaning built; a modem poet would speak of edifying the hearers, not the building. Milton speaks of his matter being " new or insolent,'''' meaning unusual, unaccustomed. In like manner he "provokes" [challenges] his antagonist to a trial of the truth. 0erk was originally a cfergy^an ; in Chaucer, he is a college student ; now, he is a young man who keeps accounts, or sells tape and buttons. Station is used by Shakspeare for the manner of standing, posture ; now it means lace. X () Violations of Propriety. — This part of the subject may be best illus- trated by quoting a few instances of words used improperly. Predicate. — In a leading editorial of one of the New York daily newspapers, I read this sentence : " It is impossible at the present moment to predicate what will be the issue of the pending contest." It is hardly necessary to say that to predicate is simply to affirm in regard to whkt already is, whereas to predict is to foretell the future. The impropriety of tlie use of predicate here given is so obvious that I should not have * "1 prevented the dawning of the morning." Ps. 119: 147, and so throughout the Psalms. f When Brutus, in the play of Julius Caesar, says to the Romans, " Censtire me in your wisdom," he does not ask them to condemn him, but only to judge him, — to decide for or against him. J " A station like the herald Mercury, New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill." HamUt, Act III, Sc. IV. ^0 76 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. quoted It, had not frequent instances come to my notice of ita being used in this way in publications of respectable standing and character. Mutual is frequently used improperly in the sense of common. " Mutual " always implies reciprocity. It describes that which passes from each to each of two persons. Rom. 1 : 12. "That I may be comforted by the mutual faith both of you and me," that Is, "by my confidence in you and your confidence in me." Ilere the word is used with entire correctness. In like manner we may say " tlie mutual love of man and wife." But it is mere nonsense to speak of the "miitu/il friend of both man and wife." John and James may be mutual friends, that is, the friendship between them may be recip- rocal, John being friendly to James, and James being friendly to John. John and James also may have a common friend, Peter, but it would be absurd to speak of Peter as being on this account' their mutual friend. The word " mutual" designates what is reciprocal between two, not something in one which is common to two or more others. Except is sometimes improperly used for unless. " Except," whether a verb or a preposition, requires after it an objective case ; as, " They all came except Mary and Alice." But to say "They all refused to come except Mary and Alice would" is using the word as a conjunction. The proper word in such cases is unless. Without is like- wise often used in the same way for unless. " I will not go to the city without [un- less] you do." Except is also sometimes used improperly in the sense of besides. " Few men except [besides] Cajsar would have dared to cross the Rubicon." iifce.— Another word often used incorrectly is like. The word is correct whenever it would be proper to supply " to " after it ; as, " The daughter is like [to] her mother." " lie fought like [to] a lion." But many careless speakers and writers use it for as, or at if. " I wish I could write like [as] you do." " He behaved like [as if] he was mad." Avocation is used incorrectly for vocation. " Vocation " is one's business, occupa- tion, or calling. "Avocation" is properly the act of calling aside, or diverting from one's employment. " Blessed impulses to duty, and powerful avocations from sin." South. This use, however, of the^word, though its etymological and primary mean- ing, is now nearly if not quite obsolete, and the secondary meaning, namely, " the business which calls aside," is pretty well established. Even in this sense, however, it means the smaller affairs of life, or those occasional calls which summon a man to leave for a time his ordinary business, or "vocation." Contemptible. — It is not uncommon to hear persons say, "I have & contemptible opinion of the man," by which they mean, not that their opinion is contemptible, but that the man is. The familiar anecdote of Doctor Porson furnishes a good illus- tration both of the incorrect and of the correct use of this word. Some one having said to the Doctor, " My opinion of you is most contemptible," Porson replied, " I never knew an opinion of yours that was not contemptible." Jietpeclivfly. — A large part of the letters which pass through the Post Office end with "Yours, Respectively.'''' Omstrue and Construct. — Occasionally construe and construct are confounded by writers of considerable standing. We construct a sentence when we form or make one. We construe it when we explain its construction. A boy construes a Latin sentence when ho tmnslates it into English and explains its grammatical structure. He con- structs a Latin sentence when he translates an English one into correct Latin. Writers construct; rewlers construe. Replace. — Somo ambiguity has arisen of late in regard to the proper use of the word replace. According to its etymology, and, until lately, according to its uniform use, "replace" meant to put one back into a place which he formerly occupied. It now currently means to put into a place vacated by some else. "After the expiration of his first term, Qcnoral Washington was replaced in the Presidential chair." This DICTION — PROPRIETY. 77 Meant in that day that Washington filled the office a second time. " In the summer of 1867, Stanton was replaced in the War Office by Grant." This now means that Grant was put into the place which Stanton had vacated. This latter use of the word is derived from a French expression, signifying " to take the place of," and has perhaps already acquired so much authority in its favor as to be considered good English. Got. — There is perhaps no one word so variously misused as "got." It would seem almost as if there were no event in history, no fact in science, which might not be ex- pressed by this convenient drudge. I clip the following from an English publication : " I got on horseback within ten minutes after I got your letter. When I got to Canter- bury, I got a chaise for town ; but I got wet through before I got to Canterbury ; and I have got such a cold as I shall not be able to get rid of in a hurry. I got to the Treasury about noon, but first of all I got shaved and dressed. I soon got into the secret of getting a memorial before the Board, but I could not get an answer then ; however, I got intelligence from the messenger that I should most likely get an answer the next morning. As soon ns I got back to my inn, I got my supper, and got to bed. It was not long before I got to sleep. When I got up in the morning, I got my breakfast, and then got myself dressed, that I might get out in time to get an answer to my memorial. As soon as I got it I got into the chaise, and got to Canterbury by three, and about tea-time I got home. I have got nothing more to say, and so adieu." ^ Exercises on Propriety of Diction. Note. Each of the sentences given below contains some word which, though in itself good English, is used improperly here. The student is expected to point out the word thus used, show wherein the impropriety consists, and make the necessary correction. I must repeat here the admonition to teachers about the daily inspection of the text-books. No lesson should be commenced until those pages of the book containing the lessons for the day have passed the inspection of the teacher. A few pencil-marks on the pages containing the examples for practice make the book as useless for the purpose of instruction as if the page were actually torn out of the book. 1. Directly I found the house inhabited, I began to be sorry that it was not as empty as the library and the street. 2. I want a position as a teacher, and I will be greatly obliged to you for a recommend. 3. The girl aggravates me very much by her obstinacy and her impudence. 4. The President intends to evacuate the very day that Congress adjourns. 5. Hearing the whistle of the engine about a. mile off, I ran pgU- mell down the street, hoping to reach the statiou. in time. 6. Mr. Peabody was a friend and patron of ahaost every humani- tarian scheme. 7. He was unwilling to demean himself by making a public apology. 8. His argument was predicated on the belief that what the wit- ness said was true. 9. Neither of the twelve jurors could be induced to believe the man guilty, ^^-'•i -i-^-i.^ 6 78 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 10. The epithets, coward, thief, villain, liar, were heaped upon him without stint. 11. The alternatives set before him were to abjure his faith, to Bubmit to the torture, or to go into perpetual exile. 12. In travelling by railroad, you have to settle for your ticket in advance. ' 13. Do not forget to send me an invite to your wedding. 14. His style of living corresponded with his means. 15. While spending the summer in Utah he enjoyed exceptionable opportunities for observing the peculiarities of the Mormon religion. 16. Here is a ticket for the afternoon matinee. 17. I promise you, I think he will come out all right. 18. She entered heartily into the stern amenities of convent life. 19. This idea (of a vessel without a bowsprit) was a copy of the model inaugurated by the founder of the Collins line. 20. Experience has proved that England lies formidably open to fi^ttack. 21. The troops, though fighting brUvely, were terribly decimated, nearly half of them having fallen. 22. The cars have as good a right to be stopped as the carriage has. 23. Just now he is stopping at the Metropolitan. 24. No doubt the men have some good points about them, but we are told not to fellowship with unbelievers. 25. The letter was very plainly directed, and I think it will be apt to come. 26. Many years have now transpired since the Mexican war. 27. You will have to run faster than that, if you wish to catch the oar. 28. That rents in New York are most unreasonably high just now is a palpable truism. 29. I wish you would bring me a couple of books on chemistry. 80. Miss Goldsmith commenced student in Vassar College in her seventeenth year. (31. There is not much fruit in the section of the State hereabouts. 32. I have every confidence that the ship will arrive in time. 83. Every human being has this in common. 34. At the noise of fire-engines, some rude fellows rushed out into the streets, but the balance of the congregation kept their seats. 85. I expect you had a hard time of it yesterday. 86. I consider the picture Weber's best. 87. The platform adopted by the party was calculated to do the candidate great harm. DICTION — PEECISION. 79 88. This application of reason, so continually, consistently, and generally exercised, predicates a great national future. 39. He completes the book with " Hail Columbia, Happy Land ! " 40. Selfish men sometimes succeed in deceiving the world, and in being set aside as generous. III. PRECISION. Precision is the third quality at which a writer or a speaker should aim in the selection of his words. Meaning of Precision. — The etymology of this term [praecidere, to cut ofi") shows how it is used. We should, if possible, find words which cut oflf all extraneous ideas, — which express only just what is meant, and no more. Eixamples of "Words not used Precisely. — If to express the idea of pouring water from a pot, we speak of '■'■turning it out," the latter word, in addition to the idea of pouring, expresses also the act of turning the pot, in order to the pour- ing. Turning, therefore, in this phrase, is not used precisely. "Notwithstanding the entreaties of the prisoner, the judge was inflexible.'''' A man is inflexible who is incapable of being turned aside by any motive, — by bribery, in- timidation, entreaty, force, &c. As a specific motive is here mentioned, that of en- treaty, a more precise writer would have used the word inexorable, which means specifically one who cannot be moved by entreaty. ^'■Attitude of devotion" is a more precise expression than ^^ posture of devotion," because "posture" signifies any position of the body, while "attitude" refers to such a position of the body as is adapted to express some internal feeling or purpose. The Study of Synonyms. — One who wishes to use words with pre- cision should study carefully the subject of Synonyms. Few words in any language are exactly synonymous. Many, which at first sight appear to be so, are found on examination to have shades of difference, and it is by noticing these slight differences of meaning that we learn to use words with precision. Character of the English Language in regard to Synonyms. — The English, more than almost any other language, has words that are truly synonymous, and this on account of its composite character. For the same idea we have, in thousands of instances, one word from the Saxon, another from the Latin, and sometimes still a third from the Greek; as, daily and diurnal, iveekly and hebdomadal, hap- piness and felicity, everlastiny and sempiternal, fatherly and paternaly nightly and nocturnal, powerful and potential. A Caution. — Even here, however, care must be taken. Optician, from the Greek, means a maker of instruments for the eye ; Oculist, from the Latin, means one who performs operations upon the eye itself; and Eye-doctor, from the mother-tongue, 80 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC. means a quack who has some nostrum for curing sore eyes. Motherly may perhapi be the exact logical equivalent for maternal, but it is worth a good deal more to a loving heart when away from the endearments of childhood and home. Books on the Subject. — Crabbe's Dictionary of Synonyms is a most valuable work for reference on this subject. Another excellent work is Roget's Thesaurus of English Words. The matter is also carefully treated in the latest edition of Webster's Quarto Dictionary, where under many of the leading words the various other words which are nearly synonymous are given, and the. differences ex- plained. The subject is also discussed briefly, but in a judicious and satisfactory manner, by Blair in his Lectures on Rhetoric. I give a few examples, taken chiefly from these sources, though with some alterations to suit the purposes of the present work.^J^ A difficulty, an obstacle. — A diflBculty embarrasses, an obstacle stops us. We re- move the one, we surmount the other. Generally, the first expresses something aris- ing from the nature and circumstances of the affair; the second something arising from a foreign cause. Philip found difficulty in managing the Athenians from the nature of their dispositions ; but the eloquence of Demosthenes was the greatest obstacle to his designs. Opportunity, occasion. — An occasion is that which falls in our way, or presents itself in the course of events ; an opportunity is a convenience or fitness of time and place for the doing of a thing. Hence opportunities often spring out of occasions. We may have occasion to meet a person frequently without getting an opportunity to converse with him on a particular subject about which we are anxious. We act as the occasion may require ; we embrace an opportunity. Malevolence, malice, malignity. — There is the same difference between malevolence and tnalice as between wishes and intentions. A malevolent man wishes ill to others, a. malicious man is bent on doing ill to them. Malignity goea even further; it not only is bent on doing evil, but loves it for its own sake. One who is malignant must be both malevolent and malicious ; but a man may be malicious without being malig- nant. Weight, heaviness. — Weight is indefinite; whatever may be weighed has weight, whether large or small. Heaviness is the property of bodies having an unusual degree of weight. Weight lies absolutely in the thing ; heaviness refers to an opinion which Bome one may have in regard to that thing as being the opposite of light. We esti- mate the weight of things by a certain fixed measure ; we estimate the heaviness of things by our feelings. Pale, pallid, wan, — The absence of color in any degree, where color is a usual qual- ity, constitutes pa/cnc.?s ; pallidness is an excess of paleness, and wanness is an unu- sual degree of pallidness. Fear, or any sudden emotion, may produce paleness ; pro- tracted sickness, hunger, and fatigue bring on pallidness ; and when these calamities are greatly heightened and aggravated, they produce wanness. Pale is applicable to a great variety of objects.as, a paZe face, a pale sky, a pale green, a pal^. rose, and it may be either natural or acquired, desirable or undesirable. Pallid is applicable to the human face only, and never to that except as implying disease or something out of the course of nature. Wan is applicable to a face having such a degree of pallor OM to be ghastly and monstrous. DICTION — PRECISION. 81 Avow, acknowledge, confess. — Each of these words imports the afBrmation of a fact, but in very different circumstances. To avow a thing, supposes a person to glory in it ; to acknowledge, supposes a small degree of faultiness, which the acknowledgment compensates ; to confess, supposes a higher degree of crime. An independent legisla- tor avows his opposition to some measure of the executive, and is applauded ; a gen- tleman acJcnowUdges his mistake, and is forgiven ; a prisoner confesses the crime with which he is charged, and is punished. Lucid, luminous. — A thing is lucid, when it is pervaded with light; it is luminous, when it sends forth light to other bodies. A stream may be lucid; the stars are luminous. An argument is lucid, when the reasoning is perfectly clear to the appre- hension; it is luminous, when the author not only makes his meaning clear, but pours a flood of light upon the subject. Onlr/, alone.— On\y imports that there is no other of the same kind ; alone imports being accompanied by no other. An only child is one who has neither brother nor sister ; a child alone is one who is left by itself. " Virtue only makes us happy " means that nothing else can do it. " Virtue alone makes us happy " means that vir- tue by itself, and unaccompanied with other advantages, is sufficient to do it. ; Kill, murder, assas.e varied exuberance of abundant vegetation. Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and levelled by the roller. Dryden knew more of man in his general nature, and Tape in his local manners. The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation, and those of Pope by minute attention. There is more digmty in the knowledge of Dryden, and more certainty in that of Pope. The man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force ort the plains of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of lona. Junios affords numerous examples : But, my lord, you may quit the field of business, though not the field of danger ; and, though you cannot be safe, you may cease to be ridiculous. They are still base enough to encourage the follies of your age, as they once did the rices of your youth. Even now they tell you, that as you lived without virtue you should die without repentance. Pope. — Perhaps no English writer has given more finished speci- mens of this kind of sentence than Pope, and that both in his poetry and in his prose. Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow. Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist ; in the one, we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuos- ity ; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a generous pro- fusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream. And when we look upon their machines. Homer seems like his own Jupiter, in bis terrors, shaking Olympus, scattering the lightnings, and firing the heavens ; Virgil, like the same power, in his benevolence, counselling with the gods, laying plans for empires, and ordering his whole creation. Various Sources. — The following examples are from various sources : In pe»»ce, children bury their parents; in war, parents bury their children. If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desims. Words are the counters of wise men, and the money of fools. A jugglor is a wit in things, and a wit a juggler in words. When we meet an apparent error in a good author, we are to presume ourselves Ignorant of his undorstanding, until we are certain that we understand his ignorance. Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but does not relieve all the misery it creates. Not that I loved Ctesar less, bat that I loved Rome more. SENTENCES — SHORT AND LONG. 95 Use of the Balanced Sentence. — The Balanced Sentence is well suited to satire and epigram, and to essays in which characters are delineated, or subjects are set off by contrast. It may often be used also in declamation and oratory. But it is rarely proper in narrative, or in description. Hebrew Poetry. — Balanced sentences of a somewhat peculiar kind are to be found in Hebrew poetry. The sort of construction here referred to is called Parallelism, and is an invariable characteristic of Hebrew verse. • A wise son maketh a glad father : but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing : but righteousness delivereth from death. The Lord will not suffer the soul of the righteous to famish : but he casteth away the substance of the wicked. He becometh poor that dealeth with a slack hand : but the hand of the diligent maketh rich. He that gathereth in summer is a wise son : but he that sleepeth in harvest is a son that causeth shame. Blessings are upon the head of the just : but violence covereth the mouth of the wicked. The memory of the just is blessed : but the name of the wicked shall rot. The book of Job, the Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, Eccle- siastes, a large part of the Prophetical books, and the poetical por- tions of all the other books, are made up entirely of these paral- lelisms. 4i Short and Long Sentences. Short and Long. — The division of sehtences into Short and Long does not require definition. The terms explain themselves. It is well, however, to notice the rhetorical eflfect produced by each. Ehetorical Effect. — A fact or a truth, expressed in several short detached sentences, is usually more easily understood than when expressed in one long, involved sentence. Short sentences also give sprightliness and animation to the style. On the other hand, too great a succession of short sentences becomes monotonous and tire- some. A long sentence also, if well constructed, gives a fine oppor- tunity for climax. French and German Writers. — French writers generally are char- acterized by their fondness for this kind of sentences, while German* 96 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. are equally remarkable for sentences which are long, involved, and oumbersome. Bishop Doane. — Among American writers of note, Bishop Doane habitually cast his thoughts into the form of brief, epigrammatic sentences, and not unfrequently carried his partiality for this style of writing to an extreme. The following are examples from his sermons : " The chntch's work is spirit- work. Not to be done amid the heat and noise of controversy ; not to be done through the polemic rage of pamphlets, and of news- papers; not to be done in the Conventions and Councils of the Church. It must be done in private. It must bo done in the closet. It must be done in the sanctuary. It must be done in schools. It must be done in families. It must be done in parishes. It must be done in the room of sickness. It must be done in the death chamber." Works, Vol. 2, p. 374. "Look at the Deacon Stephen. His faithful proclamation of the word oflFends the Jews. They cannot combat him with reason or with truth. They hire false wit- nesses. They stir the people up. They set him before the Council. They condemn him falsely. They cast him from the city. They bind, they strip, they starA'e him. He stands. He looks to heaven. He prays for them. He dies." — Vol. 2, p. 521. Rule on the Subject. — In regard to the use of these several kinds of sentences, Periodic and Loose, Balanced, Short and Long, the only general rule that can be given is to study variety. The ear tires of any one kind of sentences, when long continued. The style becomes monotonous. It is better even to introduce occasionally a sentence that by itself would be faulty, than to have sentences in long succession all formed on the same model, however excellent that model may be. Note. The practice of reconstructing sentences, resolving long complex sentences Into short ones, and combining short independent sentences into long connected ones, is a very useful exercise for the student. In making these changes, a slight change of words is sometimes necessary. It is also necessary occasionally to introduce a new word, such as but, and, thtrefore, however, and the like. The sentences thus recon- Btructed are not necessarily improved thereby. The object of the exercise is to loam how to vary the form of a sentence and yet express clearly the meaning. Whether in Rny particular case the form should be thus changed must be left to the taste and judgment of the writer. Example. " Few words she uttered ; and they were all expressive of some inward grief which she cared not to reveal ; biit sighs and groans were the chief vent which ■ho g^e to her despondency, and which, though they discovered her sorrows, were never able to eaae or assuage them." Recomtructtd. Few words she uttered; and they were all expressive of SENTENCES — SHOET AND LONG. 97 some inward grief which she cared not to reveal. Sighs and groans, however, were the cliief vent which she gave to her despondency. These, though they discovered her sorrows, were never able to ease or assuage them. Examples for Practice. [NoTB. The examples which follow are partly long sentences which are to be resolved into short ones, and partly short sentences which are to be combined into long ones.] 1. I know that that prayer will be answered. I know that that love will be shed abroad. I know that it will swell all hearts. I know that it will kindle every tongue. I know that it will be in every hand more than a sword of fire. 2. The countess was prevailed on by her husband, the mortal enemy of Essex, not to execute the commission ; and Elizabeth, who slill expected that her favorite would make this last appeal to her tenderness, and who ascribed the neglect of it to his invincible ob- stinacy, was, after much delay and many internal conflicts, pushed by resentment and policy to sign the warrant for his execution. [Divide into four sentences.] 3. The wise ministers and brave warriors who flourished under her reign, share the praise of her success. Instead, however, of lessening the applause due to her, they make great addition to it. [Combine into one sentence.] 4. As the disposition to criticize, and to be disgusted, is, perhaps, taken up originally by imitation, and is, unawares, grown into a habit, which, though at present strong, may nevertheless be cured, when those who have it are convinced of its bad eff'ects on their felicity ; I hope this little admonition may be of service to them, and put them on changing a habit, which, though in the exercise it is chiefly an act of imagination, yet has serious consequences in life, as it brings on real griefs and misfortunes. 5. The land journey was no longer thought of. The Greeks were too well known. They had but recently massacred the Latins in Constantinople. Vessels were required for the voyage by sea. The Venetians were applied to. The traders took advantage of the neces- sity of the Crusaders. They would not supply them with transports under eighty-five thousand marks of silver. They chose to Jake a share in the Crusade. In return they stipulated for a moiety of the conquests. 6. At first, this immense concert of simple and barbarous voices — like the chanting on Christmas eve, in the sombre light of a huge cathedral — sounds harsh and grating on the ear, and strange ac- cents, singular and fearful and hardly human voices, mingle in th« 9* 98 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. deep acclaim; so as to render it doubtful whether you have the hymn of thanksgiving for our Saviour's birth, or the dissonant strains of the Festival of Fools, making a wild, fantastic harmony, unlike aught else, and in which every hymn seems to mingle, from the solemn strain of Dies Irse to the thrilling burst of the Alleluia. 7. Many a wife sinks into the character of a mere housekeeper. The husband accepts the arrangement. One is not expected to chat with one's housekeeper. One is not expected to stay in of an even- ing to please her. This consideration explains a phenomenon ex- hibited in some households. 8. I am satisfied. The ship sails on. We cannot see, but we can dream. We have no work, no pain. I like the ship. I like the voyage. I like the company. I am content. , 9. The story of the waxen wings that were melted by the sun is no unmeaning fable, and the continued efforts made to invent a bal- loon, or other contrivances for aerial navigation, is but an expression of the great tendency of humanity to reach upward and beyond for something more than it sees. 10. Antony has done his part. He holds the gorgeous East in fee. He has avenged Crassus. He will make kings, though he be none. He is amusing himself, and Rome must bear with him. He has his griefs as well as Csesar. Let the sword settle their disputes. But he is no longer the* man to leave Cleopatra behind. She sails with him, and his countrymen proclaim how low he has fallen. 11. The Englishman is taciturn. The Frenchman is vivacious. The Spaniard is morose. The American is talkative. The German is meditative. 12. The time is short. Much remains to be done. Prepare for action. 13. Novels as a class are injurious to young people. They destroy the taste for more solid reading. They cultivate the emotions to an undue extent. They convey false impressions of life. 14. A heavy cannonade was kept up for five consecutive hours. At last the line was broken. The troops retreated in the best possi- ble order. 15. Monkeys belong to. the order of bimanae, or animals possess- ing two hands, living generally in trees, and possessing great agility and strength, although some of them are remarkably small, and none of them attain to the great size of the elephant, which is, perhaps, the largest amimal extant. / SENTENCES — CLEARNESS. 99 II. RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES- B,UI > > > J 3. He is considered generally insane. 4. California not only produces gold in abundance, but quicksilver also. 5. It was by the English, French, Spanish, and Dutch, that the New World was principally colonized. 6. If education refined only the manners, we might do without it ; but it also disciplines the mind and improves the heart. 7. The productions mostly consist of corn and cotton. 8. It was by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsisted. 9. Cook potatoes with their jackets, as I call them, on. 10. They allowed themselves to be drawn off when only wearied of their own excesses. 11. It was the advantage gained precisely by^the Saxons which ruined them. ^ 12. One among royal houses alone did not recognize the rights of women. 13. Port wine is now only favored by two classes. 14. To contemplate abstract subjects only disciplines the mind, rarely if ever interesting it. 15. If the genius of the dramatist only can be brought to recog- nize the great responsibilities of his calling. 16. I never expect to see Europe. 17. I always expect to spend my money as fast as I get it. 18. The light, sandy soil only favors the fern. 19. He was elected, but only was seen twice in the House. 20. I only distribute them among the lower ranks. 21. I only spoke to him. I did not speak to any one else. 22. The French nearly lost five thousand men. 23. He merely accompanied me to the brook. I was obliged to go the rest of the way by myself. 24. I did not talk to him, but to you. 25. He called to John mildly, pursuing his way calmly and slowly along the stream. 2. Position of Adverhial Clauses and Adjuncts. What has been asserted of adverbs, is equally true of what may be called adverbial clauses and adjuncts. By an adverbial clause or adjunct is meant a number of words, which, taken together, limit the meaning of some other word. All such clauses or adjuncts should be so placed that they cannot easily be taken to qualify any other word than that for which they are intended. 102, .^ .PPKPQSJTI^N AND RHETORIC. ' * •* It 'cbn£ained aVarVant for conducting me and my retinue to Traldragdubb, or Trildrogdrib, for it is pronounced both ways, as near as I can remember, by a party of ten horse." — Swift. What the author means to say, is that he and his retinue ar» to be conducted by a party of ten horse. What he does say, is that this place with the hard name is pronounced both ways by a party of ten horse. "The following lines were written by an esteemed friend, who has lain in the grave for many years, for his own amusement." — Anonymous. The author means that his friend had written the lines for his own amusement. What he says, is that his friend has lain in the grave many years for his own amusement ! In the English House of Commons, a speaker once said that a certain witness had been " ordered to withdraw from the bar in consequence of being intoxicated, by the motion of an honorable member," — as if the witness was intoxicated by the motion! The speaker meant, that, " in consequence of being intoxicated, the witness, by the motion of an honorable member, had been ordered to withdraw from the bar of the House." "The beaux of that day used the abominable art of painting their faces, as well as the women." — D' Israeli. Ttiat is, the beaux not only painted their faces, but painted the women also ! The author meant to say, " The beaux of that day, as well as the women, used the abominable art of painting their faces." " I remember when the French band of the ' Guides ' were in this country, reading in the ' Illustrated News.' " — Alf(/rd. The author seems to say that these French- men were reading in the Illustrated News. He means, " I remember reading in the Illustrated News, when the French band of the ' Guides' were in this country." Examples for Practice. [The student is expected to criticize and amend the following sentences, in regard to the position of the adverbial adjuncts and clauses.] 1. There is something that whispers of faith, too, in repose. 2. He was born in the old New England town, whose colonial his- tory is so tragically memorable, on the 4th of July, 1804. 3. I could see that the floor had been swept with half an eye. 4. The enemy attacked us before the day had begun to break at three o'clock in the morning. 6. He went to town, driving a flock of sheep, on horseback. 6. Wanted, a young woman to take care of two orphan children, of a religious turn of mind. 7. Dr. Hall will deliver a lecture on the importance of taking exercise before breakfast at three o'clock in the afternoon. 8. Wanted, a room for a single gentlemen, twelve feet long and six feet wide. 9. Lost, a cow belonging to an old woman, with brass knobs on her horns. 10. Slie lived a life of virtue, and died of the cholera morbus, caused by eating green fruit, in the full hope of a blessed immortality, at the age of twenty-one. Reader, go thou and do likewise. 11. The undersigned took up two young mares, four or five yean SENTENCES — CLEARNESS. 103 old, a dark iron-gray, one had a wart an the right side of his head, eight miles north of Altoona. 12. He merely asks leave to come and play a little solo, on the bagpipes, of his own composing. 13. A man with one eye named Robert Welch. 14. Lost by a poor lad tied up in a brown paper with a white string a German flute with an overcoat and several other articles of wearing apparel. 15. Nature tells me, I am the image of God, as well as Scripture. 16. I lived in a small house which for a pleasant back opening Sir Matthew Hale had a mind to ; but he caused a stranger, that he might not be suspected to be the man, to know of me whether I were willing to part with it before he would meddle with it. 17. The thirty years, from the year 1672 to his death, in which he acted so great a part, carry in them many amazing steps of a glori- ous and distinguishing Providence. 18. Though I can't say I ever actually saw a ghost in my life, yet I am certain I should know one if I saw him, better than that comes to. 19. The transition is commonly made with ease from these to the higher and more important duties of life. 20. Passengers are requested to purchase tickets before entering the cars at the company's office. 21. The motion of the pendulum is repeated in the vibration of atoms of ether, not recognizable by the senses. 22. The author's object is to represent for his own pleasure the things witnessed, in as vivid and correct a manner as possible. 23. I recommend to you to take yourself back, and be talked to presently, you fool, while there 's time to retreat. 24. When at last we got into town, the people came out to their doors, all aslant and with streaming hair, making a wonder of the mail that had come through on such a night. 25. A child was run over by a heavy wagon, four years old, wear- ing a short pink dress, and bronze boots, whose parents are not yet found. 26. I would like the congregation to be seated, as I wish to say a few words, before I begin. 27. They laid the three peacefully to rest in the little shaded church-yard beneath the trees, under whose shadow they had chatted with those now surviving a thousand times. 28. He by no means despaired of seeing her come out of the cloud which now covered her with a meek and grateful heart. 104 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 29. Banks of sea-weed were piled up around these huts, kept down from the power of the wind by large stones laid on the top, to ex- clude the cold and snow of winter. 30. I cannot think of leaving you without distress. 31. He felt himself more unworthy every day of such a privilege as life seemed to him to be passed in the intimate society of such a woman. 32. Unlimited authority was given to the female dominion, for everything that might be appropriated to their position, and consist- ent with their known principles of domestic life, in the arrangements for the important event. 33. Among the first arrivals was Mr. Derby, now so loved by every one, who was to officiate on the occasion. 34. They present an attractive, consistent, and amiable example in the community, of the things which are pure, lovely, and of good report. 35. There was a little church mission a few miles from the fort, in the country, maintained by the English Society. 8. Squinting Construction. In connection with these examples it is well to notice what the French call a '* squinting " construction. By this is meant a word, or a grammatical expression, thrown into the middle of a sentence, in such a place that it looks both ways, so to speak ; that is, it can be connected in meaning either with what goes before, or with what follows. This is a very common source of ambiguity. " When I hear a pei"son use a queer expression, or pronounce a name in reading differently from his neighbors, it always goes down, in my estimate of him, with a ruinous sign before it." — Alford. Here the words "in reading" look two ways. They may be construed eitl: "r with those which precede, or with those which follow. We may understand the authoi as saying, either " pronounce a name in reading," or " in read- ing differently from his neighbors." The proper arrangement would be: "When I hear a person use a queer expression, or, in reading, pronounce a name differently from his neighbors," Ac. "Though some of the European rulers maybe km&\iiB, when spoken of altogether, they may be correctly classified under the denomination 'kings.'" — Alford. This may be understood to mean that " some of the European rulers may be females when spoken of altogether." What the author really meant may be expresaed by trans- posing the words italicized and putting them immediately after " they may." Thus : " Though some of the European rulera may be females, they may, when spoken of altogether, be correctly classified under the denomination ' kings.' " " Are these designs, which any man, who is born a Briton, «» any circumstances^ ought to be ashamed to avow ? " The words in italics squint. They may look back to "born," «*r forward to "ashamed." The sentence may mean a "man who In any SENTENCES — CLEARNESS. 105 circumstances is born a Briton," or that he " ought not in any circumstances to bo ashamed." The words should be arranged thus : " Are these designs, which any man, who is born a Briton, ought in any circumstances to be ashamed to avow ? " The Arrangement may be Faulty without being Ambiguous. — In many instances of faulty arrangement, such as those which have been quoted, there is perhaps no real ambiguity. The meaning which the construction suggests is so thoroughly absurd, that we see at once that the author must have meant something else. The ejffect of the bad construction, therefore, is not so much to make the sentence ambiguous, as to make it obscure. Obscurity, however, is a fault quite as much as ambiguity. General Rule. — The writer should never require of the reader, in order to an understanding of the meaning, any- greater degree of attention than is absolutely necessary. The Reason. — Whatever attention we are obliged to give to the words, in order to take in their meaning, is so much deducted from the force of the sentiments. Quintilian's Rule. — "Care should be taken," says Quin- tilian, "not that the hearer may understand, l)ut that he miist understand, whether he will or not." . Language a Transparent Medium. — Language has been well com- pared to air, glass, water, or other transparent medium, through which material objects are viewed "If," says Campbell, "the medium through which we look at any object is perfectly trans- parent, our whole attention is fixed on the object; we are scarcely sensible that there is a medium which intervenes, and we can hardly be said to perceive it. But if there is any flaw in the medium, if we see through it but dimly, if the object is imperfectly represented, or if we know it to be misrepresented, our attention is immediately . taken off the object to the medium. We are then anxious to dis- cover the cause, either of the dim and confused representation, or of the misrepresentation, of things which it exhibits, that so the defect in vision may be supplied by judgment. The case of lan- guage is precisely similar. A discourse, then, excels in perspicuity when the subject engrosses the attention of the hearer, and the language is so little minded by him, that he can scarcely be said to be conscious it is through this medium he sees into the speaker's thoughts." 10 106 COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC. JExatnple. In the following passage from Browning, it is impossible to detep mine from the sentence itself, whether it was the " chief" or the " boy " who fell dead; " You 're wounded ! " — " Nay," his soldier-pride Touched to the quick, he said, " I 'm killed, sire," and his chief beside The smiling boy fell dead. Examples for Practice. [The student is expected to point out the squinting clause in each of the following sentences, and to reconstruct the sentences so as to make them free from this fault.] 1. The poor little beggar longed for some fruit, and after search- ing from one end of the market to the other, for a penny, at length, bought an apple. 2. Substances which have been innocuous, through the winter months, become fruitful in insalutary influences. 3. This part of our good fame in the olden time was forfeited by the negligence of the authorities. 4. Yet we fancy that Franklin, the philosopher, in small things as well as great, rejoiced in his heart when house-cleaning day came. 5. The wild fellow in Pretonius, who escaped upon a broken table from the furies of a shipwreck, as he was sunning himself upon the rocky shore, espied a man rolled upon his floating bed of waves. 6. He [Gibbon] incurred the imputation of avarice, while he was, in fact, exceedingly generous, simply by his ignorance of the pur- chasing power of money. 7. They arose, to a degree, comforted and tranquil. 8. The wreck of his vessel upon the sand-bar remained, in all those succeeding years, a monument of his departure in the midst of the sea. 9. They came together to good Dr. Bemis, to off"er themselves, as they said, to sign their shipping-papers with the Lord. 10. When the morning came and their breakfast was over, to their surprise, Mr. Dalton's carriage stood before the door. 11. Any one whom he considered in all things subject to his abso- lute command. 12. Mr. Derby caught his opportunity, as Colonel Brenton finished his last appeal, to open to him the whole provision of grace and forgiveness. 13. "It shames man not to feel man's human fear." — Lord Lytton't King Arthur. SENTENCES — CLEARNESS. 107 14. This monument was erected to the memory of John Smith, who was shot, as a mark of affection by his brother. 15. Tell him, if he is in the parlor, I do not care to see him. 16. Say to him, if he is in the wrong, he should retrace his steps. 4. Use of the Pronouns. Ambiguity and obscurity are often produced by carelessness in the use of the Pronouns. " When a man gets to his Us" says Cobbett, "1 tremble for him." The skill with which a writer deals with the pro- nouns and other small connecting words is the best evidence of the eitent to which he has attained a mastery of the art of composition. Personal Pronouns. — When two or more masculine nouns occur in the same sentence, the use of " he " often becomes ambiguous. To avoid this ambiguity, some other form must be given to the expres- sion, or, instead of using the pronoun, we must repeat the noun. " The lad cannot leave his father, for if he should leave his father, his father would die." — Gen. 44: 22. A less skilful writer would have said, "if he should leave his father, he would die," leaving it uncertain whether it was the father or the son that would die. Hallam, in his Literature of Modern Europe, says, " No one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having examined titem only in dogs," that is, having examined human kidneys in dogs ! Read, " Vesalius having examined the kidneys of dogs only." In a memoir of John Leyden, it is said, "The intellectual qualities of the youth were superior to those of his raiment," that is, superior to the intellectual qualities of his raiment ! The writer meant probably that the qualities of the youth's intellect were superior to those of his raiment. Dean Alford, in his "Plea for the Queen's English," has this sentence: "Two other words occur to me which are very commonly mangled by our clergy. One of these [words, or clergy ?] is ' covetous,' and its substantive ' covetousness.' I hope some who read these lines, will be induced to leave off pronouncing tliem [lines, clergy, or words?] 'covetious' and 'covetiousness.' I can assure them [lines, readers, clergy, or words?] that when they [lines, readers, clergy, or words?] do thus call them [lines, readers, clergy, or words?], one at least of their [?] hearers has his appreciation of their [^] teaching disturbed." Mr. Moon has shown mathematically that this sentence is capable of ten thousand two huntfred and forty different meanings ! " Men look with an evil ej'e upon the good that is in others ; and think that their [others, or men?] reputation obscures them [?], and their [?] commendable qualities stand in their [? ] light ; and therefore they [? ] do what they [? ] can to cast a cloud over them [? ], that the bright shining of their [? ] virtuea may not obscure them [? ]." Tillotson. Here are no less than four words, "men," "others," "qualities," and " virtues," to any one of which the last " them " may refer. The other pronouns may refer severally to three or to two words, so that the sentence becomes a perfect jumble. By changing " others " to the singular, the pronouns will at once adjust themselves so that the meaning of th« author will be perfectly clear. " Men look with evil eye upon 108 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. the good that is in another; and think that his reputation obscures them, his com- mendable qualities stand in their light; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over him, that the bright shiuing of /as virtues may not obscure them." How to avoid Embarrassment. — A writer who becomes thus em- barrassed in the use of the pronouns, in consequence of having to refer back to two different objects, or classes of objects, will almost always be able to extricate himself from the difficulty by thus changing the construction so as to make one object or class of objects singular and the other plural.* Relative Pronouns. — The Relative Pronouns are used inaccurately oftener even than the Personal Pronouns. "Many," says Swift, "act so directly contrary to this method, that, from a habit of saving time and paper, which they acquired at the University, they write in so diminutive a manner, that they can hardly read what they have written." Swift does not mean that they had acquired time and paper at the University, but that they had acquired this habit there. The sentence then should have been : " From a habit which they had acquired at the University, of saving time and paper, they write in so diminutive a manner." "Thus I have fairly given you my own opinion, as well as that of a great majority of both houses here, relating to this weighty affair ; upon which I am confident you may securely reckon." — Swift. Here, according to the construction, the person addressed may securely reckon upon this weighty affair. But as that would make nonsense, we are led to conjecture that the author meant his friend to reckon upon a majority of both houses. If so, the sentence sliould read: "Thus I have fairly given you my own opinion relating to this weighty affair, as well as that of a great major- ity of both houses here ; upon which I am confident you may securely reckon." * Burton gives a capital story of Billy Williams, a comic actor, which is a good illustration of the i)oint now under consideration. Williams is represented as telling his experience in riding a horse belonging to Ilamblin, the manager. " So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put the saddle on him." "On Tom Flynn?" " No, on the horse. So, after talking with Tom Flynn awhile, I mounted him." " What ! mounted Tom Flynn ? " " No ! the horse ; and thcii I shook hands with him and rode off." "Shook hands with the horse. Billy? " " No, with Tom Flynn ; and then I rodo off up the Bowery, and who shotild I meet In front of the Bowery Theatre but Tom Ilamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by the head." "What! hold Ilamblin by the head? " " No, the horse ; and then we went and had a drink together." " What ! you and the horse ? " " No, me and Ilamblin ; and after that I mounted him again, and went out of town." " What ! mounted Hamblin again ? " " No, the horse ; and when I got tO Burnham, who should be there but Tom Flynn, — he 'd tiiken another horse and rode out ahead of mo ; so I told the hostler to tit him up." "Tie Tom Flynn Tip?" " No, the horse ; and we had a drink there." " What ! you and the horse ? " " No, me and Tom Flynn ! " Finding his auditors by this time in ahorsi' laugh, Billy wound up with — r "Now, look hero, — every time I say hoi-se, you say Ilamblin, and every time I saj Hamblin, you say hors*. I '11 be hanged if I tell you any more about it." SENTENCES — CLEARNESS. 109 * Ifo nowhere meet with a more glorioas and pleasing show in nature, than what appwwfn In the heavens at the rising and setting of the sun, which [sun, rising and settintj', yt show?] is wholly made up of those different stains of light, that show themselves in clouds of a different situation." — Addison. This sentence is not per- haps absolutely ambiguous, for after some study we find that^the "which" must ralate to " show." But the meaning is at least made obscure by the wide sepai-ation of the relative from its antecedent, and by the introduction of other nouns between the relative and its antecedent. This obscurity might have been avoided, and the mean- ing rendered entirely perspicuous by arranging the words thus : " We nowhere meet with a more glorious and pleasing show in nature, than that which appears in the heavens at the rising and setting of the sun, and which is wholly made up of those different stains of light," Ac. Here the second " which " is connected by the con- junction with the first " which," and both refer back directly to " show," and cannot refer to anything else. " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our Heav- enly Father." — Sfierlock. That is, nothing can protect us against treasures! The author meant: "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Examples for Practice. [The student is expected to criticize and amend the following sentences, in reference to the improper use of the pronouns.] 1. Holland, a country wholly rescued from the sea, which pos- sesses very little natural advantages, has been converted into one yast garden by the industry of its inhabitants. 2. Mr. French needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm. 3. The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate. 4. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see ; nor boots, that cannot walk. 5. He must endure the follies of others, who will have their kind- ness. 6. Found, a white -handled knife, by a child, that has a broken back. 7. To rent, a house containing ten rooms, located in a pleasant village, which has a fine bay-window in front. 8. John at last found the key, locked the door, and went off, put- ting it in his pocket. 9. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his cattle were in his fields. 10. Robert promised his father that he would pay his debts. 11. They were persons of very moderate intellects even before they were impaired by their passions. 10* 8 110 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC. 12. I shall be happy if I can contribute to your and my country's glory. 13. Mrs. Jones said to her daughter that perhaps she might go to the city for the zephyr she needed to finish the cushion for her sister's Christmas present. 14. There is a lane at the end of the town, where the young vicar from his study can see the young ladies passing on their way to the cottage of their pensioner, which is muddy and affords an excuse for joining them as they come back. 16. He is like a beast of prey, that is void of compassion. 16. His son, a youth of thirteen, was permitted to stay in prison with his father, who beholding his only surviving parent loaded with irons was overwhelmed with grief. 17. The captain of the ship swam ashore, and so did the cook. She was insured for fifteen thousand dollars, and was heavily loaded with iron. 18. During the procession, a child was run over, wearing a short red dress, which never spoke afterwards. 19. The mad dog bit a horse on the leg, which has since died. 20. When the travellers complained of the ferocity of his dogs, he said they were ill-bred curs. 21. Mary asked her mother if she might go with her, as she was sure she was going to buy something for her. 22. Did you take that book to the library, which I loaned you ? 23. Life with him has ended in a sad mistake which began with such bright prospects. - 24. The day has come of great rejoicing to many glad hearts which we have looked for so long. 25. The body was dragged ashore, and she identified the remains, which were much decomposed, by the clothing. 26. Mr. Greeley denied that he had ever used profane language in an interview which a certain newspaper reporter had put into his mouth. 27. When Abraham sat at his tent-door, according to his custom, waiting to entertain strangers, he espied an old man stooping and leaning on his statf, weary with age and travel, coming toward him, who was a hundred years of age. 28. There is a touching tenderness in a mother's tears, when they fall upon the face of her dying babe, which no eye can behold witk- out emotion. 29. That is a better statement of the case than yours. SENTENCES — CLEARNESS. Ill 80. The teacher should be careful to find no fault with the super- intendent in the hearing of the class, as this would weaken his influ- ence. 31. In memory of the Rey. Gilbert Tennent, the first pastor of this church, whose evangelical labors were abundantly blessed in the ingathering of souls. 32. Every passenger is obliged to show their ticket before enter- ing the car. 33. Gloried in the perfect independence of his control. 34. Dr. Bemis was the rector of the one Episcopal church in that town, to which this family had always belonged. 35. I don't think you can do good to anybody, if you set out with telling them how worthless and bad they are. 36. With her beloved daughter she kept up the most intimate fel- lowship of feeling and conversation, though she tried to hide from her all knowledge of her father's intense cruelty to her. 37. A refrigerator car is running on the New Jersey railroad for bringing fresh meat from Chicago. 38. Mr. Smith uttered no sentiment that might not have been uttered on the Sabbath, with strict propriety, or even in a place of worship. 39. Intemperance is the great moral evil at which it is aimed, by the concession of all mankind. 40. Mary asked her sister if she would bring her work-basket along, as she wished to make something for her mother. 41. Mr. Jones has just received a letter from Mr. Smith, saying that he is expected to deliver the next annual address. Sammary of Rule I. — The examples which have now been cited and commented on are sufficient to explain and enforce the first Rule for the construction of the sentence, namely, that the words should be so arranged that the meaning cannot he mistaken. Three Things to be observed. — In carrying out this Rule, we must, in particular, see — 1. That every adverb and adverbial clause is made to adhere closely to the word which it is intended to qualify ; 2. That where a circumstance is thrown in, it shall not hang loosely in the midst of a period, but be so placed as by its position to show clearly to which member of the sentence it belongs; and 3. That every pronoun shall be so placed as to suggest instantly to the mind of the reader the noun referred to. 112 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC, KULE 1 1. -EMPHASIS. The Words should be so arranged as to give a conspicuous position to the two Main Parts of the Sentence, namely, the Principal Subject and the Principal Predicate. Two Things of Prime Importance. — It is of prime im- portance to the reader or the hearer to know clearly and without effort, first, what the principal subject of discourse in the sentence is, and secondly, what is the principal thing intended to be said of that subject. All the other par^s of the sentence are subsidiary to these two, and should be so arranged that these should strike at once both the eye and the ear. 1. The Principal Subject. The Principal Subject is that about which mainly the writer intends to say something. The Principal Subject, as the term is here used, is not necessarily the Grammatical Subject. "Nature, with most beneficent intention, conciliates and forms the mind of man to his condition." The context to this sentence shows that the author wished to say something, not about Nature, but about the mind of man. The " mind of man," therefore, is really the principal subject of discourse, though grammatically it is the object of the verbs " conciliates " and " forms." A different construction of the sen- tence will show this. " The mind of man is, by Nature's beneficent intention, con- ciliated and formed to his condition." " The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with him [Homer], but his invention remains unrivalled." — Pope. Here the two qualities about which Pope wishes to make an assertion are judgment and invention. These then are the real subjects, though "judgment," in the first member of the sentence, is grammatically in the objective case. Ordinarily, however, the grammatical subject and the principal subject are the same. Examples are found in the following sentences : " Learning taketh away the wildness, barbarism, and fierceness of men's minds." " The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense, nor so refined as those of the understanding." " Our sight is the most perfect and the most delightful of all our senses." Rule. — The Principal Subject, whether grammatically in the nominative or in the objective case, should have a SENTENCES — EMPHASIS. 113 conspicuous position in the sentence, and especially should stand clear and disentangled from other words that might clog it. Most commonly and naturally the place for this subject is at the beginning of the sentence, as in the three sentences last quoted. But there may be cases in which the sense is rendered more striking by putting the subject at the end. Example of Inversion, "On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is his wonderful invention." — Pope. The genius of our language does not greatly facilitate this kind of inver- sion. Still it may be practised occasionally, and sometimes with striking effect, as in the example just quoted. Inversion produced by There and It. — The word <' there," used as a mere expletive, is one of the contrivances we have for producing this inversion. •' There was a man sent of God, whose name was John." "It" is.used indefinitely for a similar purpose. *' It was Brutus that gave the fatal blow." ^n Example. — " The state was made, under pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of their contention, to each of these opposite parties, who professed in specious terms, the one a preference for moderate aristocracy, the other a desire of admitting the people at large to an equality of civil privileges." Here, the author means to make an assertion about the conduct of the " opposite parties." Yet these words, consti- tuting the real subject, are so placed near the centre of the sentence, and so entangled and mixed up with other words, that the meaning is obscured. The sentence, there- fore, should be remodelled, so as to give the subject a conspicuous position. This is done by Whately, as follows : " The two opposite parties, who professed in specious terms, the one a preference for moderate aristocracy, the other a desire of admitting the people at large to an equality of civil privileges, made the state, which they pre- tended to serve, in reality the prize of their contention." Here the true subject is at once brought before the mind of the reader, and the main assertion becomes clear and distinct, notwithstanding the numerous subsidiary ideas that are connected with it. The sentence, even in its amended form, is open to criticism, the words " in reality," towards the close, being capable of a squinting construction. " It is not without a degree of patient attention, greater than the generality are willing to bestow, though not greater than the object deserves, that the habit can be acquired of examining and judging of our own conduct with the same accuracy and impartiality as that of another." Hero again the meaning is obscured by the entangle- ment into which the principal subject is placed. By recasting the sentence, so as to place this subject at the beginning, the whole meaning is cleared up. "7%« hahit of ex- amining and judging of our own conduct with the same impartiality as that of another, cannot be acquired without a degree of patient attention, not greater indeed than the object deserves, but greater than the generality are willing to bestow." Disposal of Subsidiary Matter. — In order to give the principal 114 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. subject a conspicuous position, it is not always necessary to place it either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Sometimes the subsidiary matter, or a portion of it, may be disposed of first, and then the subject come in with good eJBFect. The Participial Construction. — This is especially the case in what is called the Participial Construction. The effect of the participial construction is to keep the mind in suspense. We know that the subject has not yet been announced, and therefore are just as ready for it when it does come, as if it had been given at once. The advantage in this construction is that a multiplicity of cumbersome but necessary details may be disposed of, leaving us thus much freer to proceed from the main subject to the main predicate. JSxample, — ^'Accustomed to a land at home where every height, seen dimly in the distance, might prove a cathedral tower, a church spire, a pilgrim's oratory, or at least a wayside cross, Ihese religious explorers must often have strained their sight in order to recognize some object of a similar character." Qualifying Clauses and Adjuncts. — Clauses and adjuncts which man- ifestly qualify the main subject may in like manner sometimes come in before it, without affecting its prominence. " In the vacant space betwteen Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia, the Arabian Penin- sula may be conceived as a triangle of spacious but irregular dimensions." Here the words " In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia," are an ad- junct of " the Arabian Peninsula." They tell where that Peninsula is, and suggest thereby the reason why it may be conceived as being a triangle. 2. The Principal Predicate. The remarks which have been made in regard to the principal sub- ject of the sentence will apply with little change to the principal predicate. The natural and common place for the predicate is at or near the end of 'a sentence, as that for the subject is at or near the beginning. But circumstances may make an entirely different arrangement preferable. The assertion that " peacemakers are blessed," is rendered more emphatic by transposing the sentence, and giving the predicate first; as, ^^ Blessed are the peacemakers." How much another passage of Scripture would be enfeebled, were we to say, "Diana of the Ephesians is great," instead of saying, '• Great is Diana of the Ephesians." Place for the Principal Predicate. — No definite rule can be given, prescribing when the predicate should be placed at the beginning, when it should be placed at the end, or when elsewhere. It requires, in each case, the exercise of SENTENCES — EMPHASIS. 115 taste and judgment, the writer ever bearing in mind which words constitute the leading subject and predicate, and so arranging the subordinate matter as to make these words prominent. Connection with Elocution. — The words constituting the principal predicate are the ones which the elocutionist selects for his empha- sis. Careless writers sometimes content themselves with marking these emphatic words by italics. But this is a weak device. The sentence ought, if possible, to be so arranged, that the words which the sense requires to be emphatic shall be just those which the voice of a good reader will most naturally and easily select for emphasis. Absence of Italics no Proof of Good Construction. — Some writers, having been taught that the frequent use of italics is a fault, fancy that they avoid the fault by merely omitting to use italics, instead of so constructing their sentences that italics will not be needed. This, as Whately justly observes, is like attempting to remedy the intricacies of a road by removing the guide-posts! The proper remedy is to straighten the road. In the same way, writers who introduce long and perplexing parentheses try to avoid censure by using commas instead of the usual marks of parenthesis, as if it were any help to a lame man to take away his crutches. JExatnples. — " He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakefl; for he must be forced to invent twenty more, to maintain one." Here, in the latter branch of the sentence, the principal assertion clearly is the necessity of inventing twenty more, but it would be difficult to read the passage so as to make this the prominent idea. Arrange the words thus: " For, to maintain one lie, he must invent twenty more," and it will be difficult to read the passage without making these words emphatic. " That our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, quoted to excess, it would be the blindness of partiality to deny." Here the main assertion, in regard to the elder writers, is their habit of excessive quotation. But it would be difficult to read it so as clearly to bring out this meaning. Arrange it thus: "It would be the blindness of partiality to deny, that our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, quoted to excess." Now the principal predicate is so placed that it would be difficult for a reader not to make it emphatic. " Every attempt to dispense with axioms has proved unsuccessful ; somewhere or other in the process, assumed theorems have been found." In the latter branch of the sentence, the most important word is " assumed." This is clearly the emphatie word, and the emphasis which ought to be placed on it can be given more easily, if this word is put either at the beginning, or at the end, of the clause, thus : ^^ Assumed theorems have been found somewhere or other in the process," or, " Somewhere or other in the process there have been found theorems which arc assumed.'"'' The Principal Words not to be Entangled. — On this subject, Blair 116 COMPOSITION AND RHETOBIC. rqakes the following remarks: "In whatever part of the sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is always a point of great moment, that these capital words shall stand clear and disentangled from any other words that would clog them. Thus, when there are any cir- cumstances of time, place, or other limitations, which the principal object of the sentence requires to have connected with it, we must take especial care to dispose of them, so as not to cloud that princi- pal object, nor to bring it under a load of circumstances." Example frotn Shaftesbury. — Comparing modern poets with the ancient, Shaftesbury says : " If, while they profess only to please, they secretly advise, and give instruction, they may now, perhaps, as well as formerly, be esteemed, with jus- tice, the best and most honorable among authors." This sentence contains a great many circumstances and adverbs, necessary to qualify the meaning ; only, secretly, as well, perhaps, now, with justice, formerly ; yet these are placed with so much art, as neither to embarrass nor weaken the sentence ; while that which is the capital object in it, namely, "Poets being justly esteemed the best and most honorable among authors," comes out in the conclusion clear and detached, and possesses its proper place. See what would have been the effect of a different arrangement. "If, whilst they profess to please only, they advise and give instruction secretly, they may be esteemed the best and most honorable among authors, with justice, perhaps, now as well as formerly." Summary of Eules I, and II. — The two rules or principles which thus far have been discussed should govern us in the construction of every sentence. As the first of these rules has for its object to secure Perspicuity, so the second has for its object to secure the proper Emphasis. The former makes the meaning clear, the latter makes it forcible. The two qualities here described lie at the founda- tion of all good writing. The very first thing which a writer must do is so to arrange his words as, first to make his meaning plain, and secondly to give his meaning all the force of which it is capable. This last point is secured in any given sentence by attending chiefly to the position of the principal subject and of the principal predi- cate, and by so placing these important words that in reading we shall naturally and easily make them emphatic. Examples for Practice. [The following sentences are to be reconstructed, so a« to give a more conspicnouB position either to the principal subject, or to the principal predicate.] 1. We put out the lights, and hasten to our own more secluded fireside, glad that the world is at least shut out from here. 2. No matter in what season we view nature, we are always struck with her unity of design. SENTENCES — EMPHASIS. 117 8. When Carrini discovered that the earth travels in a much wider orbit than Tycho Brah6 had supposed, the new theory had become 60 firmly established, that while it was proved that the stars were many hundreds of millions of miles farther from us, astronomers still held to the new order of things. 4. When his genius had once warmed itself in this way, it would seem that it had attained the healthiness natural to its best condi- tions, and could have gone on forever, increasing, both in enjoy- ment and in power, had external circumstances been favorable. 5. These, we may observe, commonly content themselves with words which have no distinct ideas to them, though in other matters, that they come with an unbiassed indiflFerency to, they want not abilities to talk and hear reason, where they have no secret inclina- tion that hinders them from being intractable to it. 6. To subject passengers arriving from foreign ports to unneces- sary inconvenience is very undesirable, while it is very necessary to take proper measures to prevent smuggling. 7. His is a mind that, in discerning and reflecting whatever odd or amusing things occur in the life around him, occupies itself pre- eminently. 8. Surely no effort can be made which will not be fully compen- sated by the possession of a power, which will ^ansform the dreamer into a benefactor. 9. Nevertheless, that the empire has provinces which blend some- thing of foreign genius with their national character, on her every frontier, is of the greatness of France one of the elements. 10. As a method for putting children to sleep, claiming that it is far preferable to the remedies ordinarily employed, especially those which contain opium — a substance whose use for this purpose can scarcely be too strongly reprehended — certain French physicians recommend the use of bromide of potassium. 11. In addition, on a slip of paper (and, by means of an auto- graph apparatus, any number of copies of this list can be produced with great rapidity) the instrument records the name of each mem- ber and how he voted. 12. Two men were killed last evening on the Camden and Amboy Railroad, near the Fish-House Station, who were walking on the track, and were stepping off to get out of the way of one train while another was coming up in another direction and struck them, 13. The Paterson people think that it is the Associated Press tele- grams from that city that it has no police force that is bringing them 80 many burglars an-d robbers from the large cities. 11 118 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC. BULE II I. -UNITY. A Sentence should be so constructed as to maintain Unity of Thought. Numerous Details. — This Unity is not incompatible with including in the sentence a great number and variety of particulars. A sentence may contain a dozen different thoughts or ideas, and yet these may all be so subordinated to the one governing idea, which forms the basis of the sentence, that the impression on the mind is that of one undivided whole. Illustration from House-building. — If we see, lying loosely in a field, heaps of sand, brick, and lime, piles of beams, boards, stones, and iron, all scattered about miscellaneously here and there, we have a picture of many of the sentences, so called, that we find in authors. When again those scattered materials have been brought into harmonious and orderly arrangement, under the hand of the architect and builder, — when they stand before us, not a confused medley of rubbish, but a compacted and commodious house for the dwelling of man, in which every particle of sand and lime, every brick and stone, every piece of wood and iron has its place, and serves one general design, — we have a picture of the perfect Period, as it comes from the hand of the master-builder. Danger in Long Periods. — It requires special skill on the part of a writer to complete one of these complex sentences, without some sacrifice of unity. It is also a hazardous experiment upon the patience of the reader, to expect him to follow out such a sentence to its completion, without some flagging of the attention. A writer who deals much in these long, complex sentences, is apt to become heavy, however faultless may be his periods. Often such sentences may be resolved into two or three independent sentences, greatly to the relief of the reader. " The ladders were now applied, and mounted by several men, which the monkey observing, and finding liimself almost encompassed, and not being able to make speed enough with his three legs, let me drop on a ridge tile, and made his escape." — Sioi/t. Change into two sentences, thus : " The ladders were now applied, and [they were] mounted by several men. The monkey, observing this, and finding himself almost encompassed, and not being able to make speed enough with his three legs, let me drop on a ridge tile, and made Lis escape." SENTENCES — UNITY. - 119 Macaulay's Periods. — No one ever understood the management of sentences better than Macaulay. His longest and most complex sen- tences are thoroughly periodic, observing strictly the laws of unity, and they are always relieved by a succession of brief sentences, each usually containing a single, independent assertion. Take the fol- lowing example, from his description of the trial of Warren Hastings : The place was worthy of such a trial. It was the great hall of William Rufus ; the ball which had resounded with the inauguration of thirty kings ; the hall which had witnessed the just sentence of Bacon and tlie just absolution of Somers ; the hall where the eloquence of Strafford had for a moment awed and melted a victorious party inflamed with just resentment ; the hall where Charles had confronted the High Court of Justice with the placid courage which has half redeemed his fame. Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. The avenues were lined with grenadiers. The streets were kept clear by cavalry. The peers, robed in gold and ermine, were marshalled by the heralds under Garter-King-at-Arms. The judges, in their vestments of state, attended to give advice on points of law. Some of the subordinate rules to be observed in main- taining the unity of a sentence are the following : * 1. Change of Subject. During the course of the sentence, let the subject be changed as little as possible. There is usually, in every sentence, some one person or thing which is the object of general interest. Everything else moves round this, as the centre of the thought. If, in the construction of the sen- tence, this person or thing becomes the grammatical subject of the several verbs, if it is also that to which the several adjectives or par- ticles apply, the unity of the sentence is at once secured. "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where /was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." Here are four verbs, each with a different subject, "we," " they," " I," " who." The mind is hurried from one subject and scene to another, until the thoughts are a perfect chaos. Yet if we stop to analyze the passage, we find a sufficient bond of connection among the several ideas. The con- necting link is the person of the narrator. Rearranging the sentence on this basis, we have the following : " Having come to an anchor, 7 was put on shore, where 7 waa welcomed by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." " The highly raised expectation of the audience was more than satisfied with the exuberance of his thought and the splendor of his diction, while the character and institutions of the natives of India were described by him ; the circumstances in which the Asiatic empire of Britain had originated, were recounted ; and the constitution of the Company and of the English Presidencies was set forth." Here are four separata * Blwr, Lecture XI. 120 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. •ubjecta, carrying the mind successively to four difiFerent points of yiew, and thus effectually destroying all unity of thought. The real centre of interest in the sentence la "he," Burke, the orator. See how everything crystallizes around this central idea of the passage, aa it comes from the pen of Macaulay : " With an exuberance of thought and a splendor of diction which more than satisfied the highly raised expectations of the audience, he described the character and institutions of the natives of India ; recounted the circumstances in which the Asiatic empire of Britain had originated ; And set forth the constitution of the Company and of the Presidencies." 2. Orowding Together tMngs unconnected. Do not crowd into one sentence things which have so little connection that they can just as well be divided into two or more sentences. " He [Tillotson] was exceedingly beloved both by King William and Queen Mary toho nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of London, to stccceed him.'" Here the thought in the latter clause has no natural connection with that in the former, and the two should not be connected grammatically. If the latter clause contained some reason ■why the deceased Archbishop had been so beloved by the King and Queen, as, for example, " who had known him intimately many years," or, if it contained some cir- cumstance showing the extent of their grief, as " who ordered a monument to his memory to be erected in Westminster Abbey," the addition of tlic clause would bo excusable. As it is, the two clauses contain two independent assertions, which are connected grammatically, though unconnected in thought. We might as well say, " The flood carried away the wire bridge built by Mr. Roebling, who lives in the city of Trenton." " To this succeeded that licentiousness which entered with the Restoration, and firom infecting our religion and morals, fell to corrtipt our language ; which last was not likely to be much improved by those who at that time made up the court of King Charles the Second ; either such as had followed him in his banishment, or had been altogether conversant in the dialect of these fanatic times ; or young men who had been educated in the same country ; so that the coiirt, which used to be the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and I think has ever since continued, the worst school in England for that accomplishment ; and so will remain, till better care be taken in the education of our nobility, that they may be set out in the world with some foundation of literature, in order to qualify them for patterns of polite- ness." — Swift. The faults of thig sentence are manifold, besides its utter want of unity. The only way thoroughly to remedy these faults would be to rewrite the sentence, preserving the thoughts, but paying no regard to the present construction. The passage may be to some extent improved by breaking it up into five or six sentences, with a few slight verbal changes, thus : "To this succeeded that licentiousness, which entered with the Restoration, and [which], from infecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt[ing] our language. This last was not likely to be much improved by those who at that time made up the court of King Charles the geoood. [These were] either such as had followed him in SENTENCES — UNITY. 121 his banishment, or such as had been altogether conversant in the dialect of these fanatic times ; or [they were] young men who had been educated in the same country [with him]. Consequently the court, which used to be the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was then, as I think [it] has ever since continued [to be], the worst school in England for that accomplishment. So will it remain, till better care be taken in the education of our nobility, that they be set out in the world with some foundation in literature, in order to qualify them for patterns of politeness." 3. Relative Clauses. Do not complicate a sentence by hanging a relative clause upon another relative clause which is itself in a dependent condition. "What is not Forbidden. — This rule does not forbid two or more relative clauses having a common dependence upon some preceding word or clause, as, for example, in one of the sentences just given: " To this succeeded that licentiousness, which entered with the Restoration, and which, from infecting our religion and morals, fell to infecting our language." The two clauses here, beginning with "which," have a common dependence upon "licentiousness." The construction therefore is allowable. " Cicero was opposed by a new and cruel affliction, the death of his beloved daugh- ter Tullia ; which happened soon after her divorce from Dolabella ; wliost manners and humors were entirely disagreeable to him." Here the third clause, beginning with "whose," is dependent upon the second, beginning with "which," and that in turn is dependent upon the first or principal cause. There is indeed a connection running through ^he whole, but it is the connection of links in a chain, rather than that of independent links hanging separately upon some common support ; and this hanging of one relative clause upon another which is itself dependent is highly objec- tionable. " The march [of the Greeks] was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish." Here the second relative clause is directly dependent upon the first, as the first is upon the main affirmation of the sentence. The construction therefore is in violation of the rule. The second " whose " refers to " sheep," the first to " country." They marched through a country whose inhabitants ate flesh which was bad. The essence of the fault here consists, not in there being no connection in the things mentioned, but in this repetition of the " which " without a common antecedent. The sentence thereby becomes involved and its unity impaired. The passage may be greatly im- proved by a slight alteration, dividing it into two sentences. Thus : " The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated country. Its savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish." 4. Parentheses. Keep clear of parentheses. Blair's Opinion of Parentheses. — "On some occasions, parentheses 11* 122 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. may have a spirited appearance, as prompted by a certain vivacity of thought, which can glance happily aside, as it is going along. But, for the most part, their effect is extremely bad ; being a sort of wheels within wheels; sentences in the midst of sentences; the per- plexed method of disposing of some thought, which a writer wants ^ art to introduce in its proper place." Danger in Using Parentheses. — Writers who indulge much in the use of parentheses are apt to be led on from one thing to another, until the starting-point of the sentence is entirely lost sight of, and it has to be recalled to the reader's attention by " I say," or some such awkward formula of repetition. The use of this clumsy device is a sure sign of a badly constructed sentence. It is an open admission on the part of the writer, that his sentence has become involved, and that he lacks either the skill or the industry to make its construction better. 5. Supplementary Clauses. Do not tack on an additional or supplementary clause, after the sentence has been apparently brought to a close. "With these writings [Cicero's], young divines are more conversant than with those of Demosthenes, who, by many degrees, excelled the other ; at least as an orator." Any one reading this sentence feels, on coming to " other," as if the sense was completed, and the voice at this place naturally comes to a halt. The whole structure of what goes before creates the expectation of a pause here. The proposi- tion is concluded ; we look for no more. The added words, therefore, come in with a very bad grace. How much better the sentence would have been, if constructed thus : " With these writings [Cicero's], young divines are more conversant than with those of Demosthenes, who, as an orator at least, excelled, by many degrees, the other." " The first [writer] could not end his learned treatise without a panegyric of modeTn learning, in comparison of the ancient ; and the other falls so grossly into the cen- sure of the old poetry, and preference of the new, that I could not read either of these strains without some indignation ; which no quality among men is so apt to raise in me as self-sufficiency ." Here "indignation" concludes the sentence. The added clause is a new and independent proposition, and ought to make a separate sentence. Blair on Supplementary Clauses. — "An unfinished sentence is no sentence at all. But very often we meet with sentences that are, so to speak, more than finished. When we have arrived at what we expected was to be the conclusion ; when we have come to the Avord on which the mind is naturally led, by what went before, to rest ; unexpect- edly, some circumstance pops out, which ought, [either] to have been omitted, or to have been disposed of elsewhere ; but which is left lagging behinft, like a tail adjusted to the sentence. All these •djections to the proper close disfigure a sentence extremely. Thej SENTENCES — UNITY. 123 give it a lame, ungraceful aim, and, in particular, they break its unity." — Blair. Examples for Practice. [Sentences to be corrected in reference to Unity, under some of tke heads which have been discussed.] 1. They asserted not only the future immortality, but the past eternity of the human soul, which they were too apt to consider as a portion of the infinite and self-existing spirit which pervades and sustains the universe. 2. *' These things regulate themselves," in common phrase ; which means, of course, that God regulates them by his general laws, which always, in the long run, work to good. 3. Language cannot spring from intuition, for hearts are surely the possessors of instinct, which, however, does not lead them to this method of expressing themselves. 4. Here and there some remnant of a large monument stands as a sentinel, and the whole structure is indeed a sublime relic of past grandeur. 5. Thus with her few notes does nature ring the changes of the seasons; which we admire, and endeavoring to imitate, find but shadowy success. 6. He spoils not a good school to make thereof a bad college, therein to teach his scholars logic. 7. In this way the several churches (in which, as one may observe, opinions are preferred to life, and orthodoxy is that which they are concerned for, and not morals) put the terms of salvation on that which the Author of our salvation does not put them in. 8. There you are, out in an open sea outside, and all at sea inside ; and you feel the need of a chart for the one, and an anchor for the other, if you can find one. 9. Dr. Kane described the Arctic silence as sometimes almost dread- ful; and one day at dinner, while Thackeray was quietly smoking, and Kane was fresh from his travels, he told them a story of a sailor reading Pendennis. 10. They told me, if I would do as you wished, my father, who loves me devotedly, would answer all the questions she asked. 11. The good old man soon grew weary of the gay life in the house of his son, who had taken first-honors at college, and spent much time and money in the entertainment of his sporting friends. 12. He fell into trouble by his first remarks, which might be cor- 124 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. rected by his subsequent behavior after a longer acquaintance with Dr. Johnson, whose readiness to forgive was well known. 13. As we walked through the beautiful streets, whose sides were lined with maple-trees, whose leaves were just changing their color, we wondered whose taste had planted the town. 14. She said, if she could find some one (even if she should not be old enough, and competent to do the work required) for a few weeks, she should be thankful. 15. One bright evening in June, as I ran down to the post-office to get the letters for father, (for I thought it possible James had written, and I stopped to see if I should inquire for our next-door neighbor,) I met the most remarkable-looking woman. 16. I am entirely determined, under any circumstances, to make the journey, unless it rains. 17. There is to be a grand wedding next week, to which we are all to be invited, or at least so I hear. 18. The equinoctial storm occurred last Tuesday, during which the lightning struck a tree near the church that was built last spring. 19. Having finished his house, and furnished it handsomely, he moved into it on the 22d of February, which is Washington's birth- day. 20. When the news of the victory was received at Washington, the people exhibited the greatest enthusiasm, as it was natural that they should. 21. *' Mind your own business " is an ancient proverb, (indeed all proverbs seem to be ancient,) which deserves a due degree of attention from all mankind. 22. He built a large stone house on the brow of the hill, (it cost ten thousand dollars,) which commanded a fine view of the sur- rounding country. 23. The vessel made for the shore, and the passengers soon crowded into the boats, and reached the beach in safety, where the inhabitants received them with the utmost kindness, and a shelter was provided for them. 24. The colonel ordered the regiment forward, and the men, advancing cautiously, discovered a mine which the enemy had made, in order, if possible, to blow them to pieces. 25. As we rode to town, we met a man with a flock of geese, who was talking to a little girl, in a pink sun-bonnet, who was carrying a basket on her arm, containing a few radishes. 26. The boy left the house with a rake in his hand, which his SENTENCES — STRENGTH. 125 father bought at Smithville, where Mr. Jones lives, who lost four children by the scarlet fever last winter, when we had that dreadful snow-storm. KTJLE IV. -STRENGTH. A Sentence should he so constructed as to give to the Thought or Meaning which it contains its full force. What is Meant by Strength. — The quality here referred to is vari- ously designated, as strength, energy, animation, vividness, and so forth. The rules already given are all preliminary and preparatory to this. By rule I, we secure simply the clear expression of the meaning. But the meaning may be expressed in such a way that we cannot mistake it, and yet with such feebleness of style as to make no impression. Rule II advances a little from this mere negative quality, and by giving a proper position to the main subject and predicate of the sentence, makes them emphatic, and thus gives some positive addition to the forcibleness of the expression. Rule III, by securing ao harmonious and rounded whole, removes obstacles, and clears the way for a free current of the thought. Something more, however, is needed than this. A sentence may express the author's meaning, it may give emphasis to the leading parts, it may observe the strictest rules of unity, and yet we feel that it wants something. The author's meaning is not expressed with that force of which it is capable. Of course, it does not belong to Style to give rules for obtaining forcible or strong thoughts. That belongs to Invention. But supposing an author to have a certain thought in his mind, it is the business of the part of Rhetoric which we are now studying, to show how that idea or thought may be so expressed as to produce the strongest impression. In constructing a sentence so as to secure for it the full strength of which the thought is capable, several subordinate rules are to be observed. 1. Eedundant "Words. A sentence is made stronger by leaving out redundant words. It may be taken for granted, that whatever in a sentence does not add to the meaning enfeebles it. Every redundant word is so much dead weight. " The least that is said on the subject, the soonest it will be mended." expresses the 9 126 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. idea clearly enough, but not with half the force of the usual expression, " Least said, soonest mended." " Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is a livelier exprea- Bion than " Bdng content with deserving a triumph, he declined the honor of it." *' There is nothing which so soon perverts the judgment as the habit of drinking intoxicating liquors " becomes much more sprightly by leaving out the unnecessary words, thus : " Nothing perverts the judgment so soon as the habit of drinking intoxicating liquors." Necessity of Pruning. — In the first draught of any piece of compo- aition, we are apt to use inversions and circumlocutions of this kind. A severe eye therefore should be used in revising and pruning our expressions. In this revision we should lop off every word which does not add something to the sense. The only exception to this is where the inversion is needed for securing the emphasis. Whole Clauses are sometimes redundant. As every word ought to present some new idea, so every new clause or member of the sentence ought to present some new thought. " The very first discovery of beauty strikes the mind with inward joy, and spreads delight through all its faculties^ Here the second clause adds little, if anything, to the thought contained in the firsf. The repetition of the same idea in words slightly diflfei-ent only enfeebles the expression. It has a similar effect to tliat'produced by putting an additional pint of water into a beverage already compounded exactly to one's taste. Sentences, as well as tea and coffee, lose flavor by being too much watered. Source of Redundancy. — A common source of redundancy is the use of a separate word to express an idea which is implied in one of the words already used. " To return " is " to go hack." The expression " returning back,'''' is therefore redun- dant. The sentence, "They returned hack again to the same city from whence they came forth" contains five redundant words. The idea is expressed with suflBcient clearness, but it has not bo much force as when we say simply, " They returned to the city whence they came." " The boy had his pocket full of a great many apples" is an example of the same kind. Error in the Opposite Direction. — Before dismissing the subject of redundancy, it may be observed that sometimes words are left out which ought really to be kept in. This is true especially of the Eelative pronoun. The ellipsis of the relative may be sometimes allowable in conversation, where the meaning is helped out a good deal by the tone, emphasis, and gesture, and also in familiar letters ; but in serious composition such ellipsis should rarely take place. The insertion of the relative in its proper place almost always makes the meaning more precise and determinate. "The man I loved " should be "The man whom I loved." " The dominions wc possessed, and the conquests we made " should be " The dominions which we possessed, and the conquests which we made." SENTENCES — STRENGTH*. 127 2. The Use of Very, and other Intensive Expressionsi A sentence is made stronger by avoiding the too frequent use of very, and of other intensive or superlative expressions. Inexperienced writers would do well, after completing any piece of composition, to go through it, pen in hand, and strike out three-fourths of the epithets, every superlative, and every "very," which the sense does not imperatively demand. Blair says, in speaking of sublimity, " It is not easy to describe in words the precise impression which great and sublime objects make upon us. . . . The emotion is cer- tainly delightful, but it is altogether of the serious kind." A feeble writer, wishing to express the same idea, would be apt to dilute it, as follows : " It is not very easy to describe in words mcrdy the precise and exact impressions which very great and sub- lime objects make upon us. The emotion most certainly is extremely delightful, but still it is altogether of a very serious and solemn kind." 3. Words of Connection and Transition. The strength of a sentence may often be increased by care in the use of the words employed to mark connection or transition. These are chiefly the relative pronouns, the con- junctions, and the prepositions. "These little words, but, and, which, whose, lohere, Ac, are frequently the most important of any ; they are tlie joints or hinges upon which all sentences turn, and of course, much, both of the gracefulness and strength of sentences, must depend upon Buch particles." — Blair. No system of rules can be framed to suit all the cases that arise under this head. All that can be done is to give a few examples, with the observations which naturally grow out of them. Splitting Particles. — "Though virtue borrows no assistance /rom, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune." This kind of construction is called splitting particles. It consists in separating a preposition from the noun which it governs. This violent separation of things which ought to be closely united gives an unsatisfied and displeased feeling to the mind. It brings the current of thought to a disagreeable stand-still, and obliges us to rest for a time on a little word which carries no meaning with it until it is connected with its proper object. A better arrangement of the sentence would have been, ** Though virtue borrows no assist- ance from the advantages of fortune, yet it may often be accompanied by them." 128 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Management of And. — Considerable skill is needed for the proper manage- ment of the conjunction and. It is often used for stringing one clause upon another In a careless, slip-shod way, which has an enfeebling effect upon the style. " The Academy set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language ; and, indeed, with such success, that it can hardly be equal- led, and runs equally through their verse and their prose." Here are two faults, first an undue repetition of the "and;" secondly, putting into one sentence what would be more effective if made into two or three sentences. Thus: "The Academy set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and [to] divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue. The French wits have [accordingly] for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language, and with such success, that it can hardly be equalled. It runs equally through their vei'se and their prose." Apparent Paradox. — Here we may notice an apparent paradox in regard to tlie use of conjunctions. The object of the conjunction is to join words together, so as to make their connection more close; yet in effect we often mark a closer connection by omitting the con- necting word. *' [Charity] beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things." Here, by omitting the con- junction between the verbs, we actually bring the several effects or operations more closely together.* In consequence of the conjunc- tion being out of the way, the mind passes more quickly from thought to thought. On the other hand, when the writer wishes us to rest for a moment on each item in an enumeration of particulars, the conjunction is repeated after each. "Such a man might fall a victim to power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." Blair's Observation. — "It is a remarkable peculiarity in language, that the omission of a connecting particle should sometimes serve to make objects appear more closely connected ; and that the repetition of it should distinguish and sepa- rate them, in some measure, from each other. Hence, the omission of it is used to denote rapidity ; and the repetition of it is designed to retard and to aggravate. The. reason seems to be, that, in the former case, the mind is supposed to be hurried so fast through a quick succession of objects, that it has not leisure to point out their connection; it drops the copulatives in its hurry; and crowds the whole scries together, as if it were but one object. When we enumerate, with a view to aggra- vate, the mind is supposed to proceed with a more slow and solemn pace ; it marks fully the relation of each object to that which succeeds it ; and, by joining them together with several copulatives, makes you perceive that the objects, though con- nected, are yet in themselves distinct ; that they are many, not one." * This fipruro, called Axynd^ton (omitting the connectives), was much practised by Greek and Roman writers, and some examples have attained historical celebrity, as the Ve.in,vidi,vici of Caesar, and the Ahiit, excf.tnt,C7-asif., erupit of Cicero. So also the opposite figure, J^lysyndeton (multiplying the connectives), was much in vogue among them. SENTENCES — STRENGTH. 129 Some examples will illustrate these points : "One effort, one, to break the circling host; They form, unite, charge, waver, — all is lost!" — Byron. . , . "Of their wonted vigor left them drained. Exhausted, spiritless, afflicted, fallen." — Milton. Observe .how the r^etition of the and in the following enu- meration, serves to separate the several items, and thus to intensify and aggravate the whole : "Love was not in their looks, either to God Or to each other, but apparent guilt, And shame, and perturbation, and despair, Anger, and obstinacy, and hate, and guile." — Milton. Observe, too, how the supplies needed by David and his men seem to be piled up in his camp by the eager zeal of the country people : " They brought beds, and basins, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of kine." — 2 Sam. xvii. 28, 29. So, too, our Saviour, in his description of the house upon the sand, by repeating the conjunction, obliges the mind of the reader to dwell on each successive stage in the sad catastrophe ; "And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell : and great was the fall of it." — Matt. vii. 27, 28. A similar effect is produced by the repetition of or and nor. " I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, run- things present, nor things to come, nor height, nnr depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from tlie love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." — Rom, viii. 38, 39. "Thus with the year Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or mom, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose. Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine." — Milton. 4. Bringing to a Conclnsion. The strength of a sentence is promoted by due care in bringing it to a conclusion. The Reason. — The mind naturally dwells upon the last word. We should be careful therefore not to end a sentence with any word that 12 130 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC. is comparatively unimportant, mean, or belittling. Such words should be disposed of in some less conspicuous place. It is rarely expedient to end a sentence with an adverb. "Such things were not allowed formerly.'''' This sentence gains decidedly in strength by transposing the adverb thus : " Formerly such things were not allowed." It may be indeed that the adverb is emphatic. In that case, it should of course be placed wherever the emphasis will be brought out most clearly, as in this sentence : " In their prosperity, my friends shall never hear of me ; in their adversity, always." Avoid ending a sentence with ik preposition. " Avarice is a vice which wise men are often guilty o/." Change thus : " Avarice is a vice of which wise men are often guilty." " He is one whom good men are glad to be acquainted with." Change thus : " Ho is one with whom good men are glad to be acquainted." Objections to Ending^ with a Preposition. — Besides the want of dignity which arises from ending a sentence with one of these small monosyllables, with, from, of, in, to, by, and so on, the mind, as already stated, cannot help resting for a moment upon the last word ; and if that word, instead of presenting some idea or picture to the imagination, some substantive import of its own, merely serves to point out the relation of some other words, the effect cannot be otherwise than enfeebling. To laiigii at, dtc. — The rule is not to be observed so strictly in the case of prepositions which are used after a verb in such close relation to it as to make a vir- tual compound, like laugh at, bring about, lay hold of clear up, &c. Even in these cases, however, it is desirable, so far as we can, to find some simple verb, of the same meaning, wherewith to end the sentence. The Pronoun "it," especially when accompanied with a preposi- tion, as withit, in it, to it, &c., makes a feeble ending to the sentence. " There is not, In my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant consideration in religion, than this, of the perpetual progress which the soul makes towards the per- fection of its nature, without ever arriving at a period in it." An unimportant phrase or circumstance brings up the rear of a sentence with a bad grace. " Let me, therefore, conclude by repeating, that division has caused all the mischief or lament ; that union alone can retrieve it ; and that a great advance towards this union, was the coalition of parties, so happily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late so unaccountably neglected ; to say no worse.'" The concluding phrase, which I have placed in italics, makes a sad falling off in a sentence otherwise admirably constructed. Faulty Contrasts. — Observe how a sentence is weakened by faulty contrasts : "William is the better reader, but John writes best." " I cannot draw as well as I am able to sing." SENTENCES — STRENGTH. 131 "Philadelphia ia the largest in extent, but New York contains a greater number of inhabitants." "The President holds the Executive power of the land, but the Legislative power is vested in Congress." 5. Contrasted Changes. In cases of contrast, the sentence becomes stronger and more effective, if the contrasted members are constructed alike. " Tlie laughers will be for those who have most wit ; the serious part of mankind for those who have most reason on their side." Correct thus : " The laughers will be for those who have most wit ; the serious for those who have most reason on their side." " Ignorance is a blank sheet, on which we must write ; error, a scribbled one, from which we must erase." • No English writer is more observant of this rule than Junius. Much indeed of the force of his invective is due to the perfection of his sentences in this respect. " They are still base enough to encourage the follies of your age, as they once did the vices of your youth." " They tell you, that .... as you lived without virtue, you should die without repentance." 6. Climax. A sentence consisting of several clauses receives a great increase of strength by having its clauses arranged with a view to a climax. The following passages afford instances of this style of construction : " The power of man, his greatness, his glory, depend on essential qualities." "A word from his lips, a thought from his brain, might turn their hearts, might influence their passions, might change their opinions, might affect their destiny." " This decency, this grace, this propriety of manners to character, is so essential to princes in particular, that, whenever it is neglected, their virtues lose a great degree of lustre, and their defects acquire much aggravation. Nay, more ; by neglecting this decency and this grace, and for want of a sufficient regard to appearances, even their virtues may betray them into failings, their failings into vices, and their vices into habits unworthy of princes, and unworthy of men." Climax not Common. — It is not always easy to construct a sen- tence in this way, that is, with a succession of clauses, each rising and growing in importance above its predecessor. Not every sub- ject admits of such an arrangement, nor would it be desirable to construct all our sentences, or even a majority of them, on this model. The effect would be to destroy all simplicity, and to make 132 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. the style stiff and pompous. Yet an occasional climax, brought in at the right time and place, has a powerful effect. Climax of Sentences. — Not only clauses of the same sentence should be arranged with reference to this idea, but two or more independent sentences, coming in succession, may be made more effective by a similar arrangement. The general rule of Quintilian on the subject is, "That a weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stronger one." Cicero uses the following climax in his oration against Verres : ". To bind a Roman citizen is an outrage ; to scourge him is an atrocious crime ; to put him to death is almost a parricide ; but to put him to death by ckccifixion, — what shall I call it? " Minor Climax. — Besides this elaborate sort of climax, which is necessarily ©nly of occasional occurrence, there is a minor species of climax which demands constant attention. Very many sentences, perhaps one-half or one-third of all that occur in ordinary composi- tion, consist of two members or clauses, and of these clauses one is ordinarily longer than the other. In such cases, unless in any par- ticular instance there is some reason to the contrary, the shorter clause should come first. Periods, thus divided, are pronounced more easily. Besides this, the shortest member being placed first, we carry it more readily in our memory while proceeding to the second. " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them." This is a better sentence than it would be, if the clauses were transposed, thus : " We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." Examples. — The following examples will show how the meaning may be weakened, and even made ridiculous, by a poorly arranged climax : Oh dear I oh dear ! what shall I do ? I 've lost my wife and seed-corn too I He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog, at one fell swoop. David was a great warrior, a great statesman, a great poet, and a skilful performer on the harp. What were the results of this conduct? — beggary! dishonor! utter ruin! and a broken leg I Examples for Practice. [Sentences containing violations of some of the rules laid down for promoting Strength. The student is expected to point out the inaccuracy, and to reconstruct the sentences, avoiding that particular fault.] 1. Of his ascent up Mount Vesuvius, he gives a very interesting account. SENTENCES — STRENGTH. 133 2. When such a man is found, his name is in every one's mouth, his praises are sounded by all. 3. He goes to Europe in order to recover his health from a severe attack of bronchitis. 4. Few have ever described Niagara with so much vividness as this author. 5. We delight in such a work, whether it pleases the eye, enriches the understanding, or supplies our humbler needs. 6. The Greeks and Romans drew prognostics from prodigies, that is to say, from rare natural appearances ; among which comets, meteors, and eclipses held an important place. 7. The whole of it is pervaded by a spirit of judicial calmness. 8. When will the curtain rise up ? 9. He reduced the pounds down to shillings and pence. 10. From whence did he come ? 11. As I previously remarked before now, I say again. 12. The sentence is full of the greatest number of mistakes. 13. I have got, at the very lowest calculation, at least one hun- dred votes. 14. I was sorry to hear that you were an invalid, that is to say, that you don't enjoy good health. 15. I am quite certain that he was the very identical boy to whom you allude. 16. He took it from, and would not return it to, the child. 17. He walked past, but did not enter into, the garden. 18. There was no evidence of habitation about the place, and nei- ther leaf nor bud was to be seen, and the quail piped, and the crow croaked dismally and unceasingly, and all things were dreary and unattractive. 19. He was sure to give the correct word exactly. 20. I will do it, perhaps. 21. It is a house I should never be willing to live in. 22. That is a vice you cannot accuse me of. 23. The wrongs of Ireland will crumble under one well-directed blow, and D'Israeli is the one man in Parliament who knows how to attend to it. 24. The men were wearied with the exertions of the preceding days, yet he urged them on. 25. I do not know what the house is built of. 26. I cannot tell what street he lives in. 27. He behaved much more dishonorably than was anticipated. 12* v/ 134 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 28. The house was closely crowded with an immense nnmber of people. 29. They ascended up the hill. 80. They descended down into the valley. 31. I will recompense him back again. RULE V. -HARMONY. A Sentence should he so constructed as to have a Pleasing Effect upon the ear. The Rales thus far have had reference to the following points : 1. Clearness, 2. Emphasis, 3. Unity, 4. Strength. Sentences are now to be considered in reference to Harmont, or mere agreeableness to the ear. 1, The Prevalence of Pleasant Sounds. The Harmony of a sentence is promoted by the prevalence in it of pleasant sounds. Sound not to be Disregarded. — Sound, though a quality much infe- rior to sense, is yet not to be disregarded. Men are influenced, not merely by what is reasonable, but by what is agreeable, and no thought can be entirely agreeable which is communicated to the mind by means of harsh and unpleasant sounds. The manner in. which a sentence sounds depends, first upon the choice of words, secondly upon their arrangement. Choice of Words. — Some words are in themselves more agreeable to the ear than others. No definite rules can be given for determin- ing what words have a musical sound. The following points, how- ever, maybe assumed: 1. Whatever words are difficult of pronun- ciation are, in the same proportion, harsh and painful to the ear. 2. A preponderance of vowels and liquids gives softness to the sound and ease in pronunciation. 3. The same eff'ect is produced by a proper alternation of vowels and consonants. Several vowels coming together require the mouth to be opened disagreeably. Several consonants coming together, particularly if they are mutes, close the organs to an extent that makes the utterance difficult. Take the word antiquity. Dropping the consonants, we have aiiy ; dropping the vowels, we have ntqt. The former combination is difficult of utterance on account of the hiatus after each of the vowels ; the latter, on account of the entire absence of hiatus. We pass more easily from one vowel to another for having a consonant between them, and more easily from one consonant to another for having a vowel SENTENCES — HARMONY. 135 between them. A word in which the vowels and consonants are duly mixed up is on that account more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear. Any one can test this by uttering such euphonious combinations as merrily, happiness, remedy, obloquy, demeanor, sonorous, bridal, tidal, hymnal, &c., or such difficult combinations as quencKd, writst, placedst, bak'dst. A Beautiful Example. — Nothing can be imagined softer or more euphonious than the following lines, in which every vowel regularly alternates with a consonant, and nearly every consonant is a liquid : Lay him low, lay him low, In the clover or the snow: What cares he? he cannot know: Lay him low. — Boker. A word, though otherwise euphonious, is disagreeable to the ear, (1.) When two syllables of the same, or nearly the same sound, succeed each other, as in lowlily, holily, gay lily, sillily; (2.) When there is a long succession of unaccented syllables, as in cursorily, arbitrarily, pertmptoriness, meteorological, anthropological, &c. Arrangement of Words. — Words which by themselves are suffi- ciently euphonious sometimes displease the ear on account of their proximity to certain other words in the sentence. This is the case whenever in contiguous words there are similar combinations of sounds ; as, His history ; I can candidly say ; I confess with hwmility the debility of my judgment; sterz7« iVliteracy; bring gingham; they stood up upon their feet; ho will tci7fully persist ; the man manfully endured. The following curious lines illustrate the point: O'er the sea see the flamingo flaming go, The lark hie high, the swallow follow low; The small bees busy at their threshold old, And lambs lamenting the threefold fold.* Alternation of Soft and Harsh Sounds. — The ear is pleased with such an arrangement of words that soft and liquid sounds alternate in due proportion with sounds that are rugged and comparatively harsh. A long succession of words in which there are but few con- sonants, and those chiefly liquids, gives for a time the idea of light- ness and grace ; but if the peculiarity is pushed too far, it produces at length the impression of weakness and eflFeminacy. Observe the multiplication of liquid sounds in the following lines from Poe : And neither the angels in heaven above. Nor the demons down under the sea. * Here is a specimen in Latin, — a witticism on the famous Synod of Dort: Dordrecti Synodus, nodus ; chorus integer, aeger ; conventus, ventus ; sessio, str«c len. Amen ! 136 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Can eyer dissever my soul from the soul Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. Contrast these with the second of the following lines : His sinuous path, by blazes, wound Among trunks grouped in myriads round. Here the "u" in '"trunks" stands imbedded in nine consonants, four of them moreover being mutes; thus, ngtrwnksgr. Perhaps there is not in the language a finer example of the alter- nation of liquid and rugged sounds, than the following lines from Whittier: I love the old melodious lays Which softly melt the ages through, The songs of Spenser's golden days, Arcadian Sidney's silvery phrase. Sprinkling our noon of time with freshest moi'ning dew. What sweeter English was ever written than this description of the fall of Mulciber? (P. Lost, I, 738-746.) Nor was his name unheard or unadored In ancient Greece ; and in Ausonian land Men call him Mulciber; and how he fell From heaven they fabled, thrown by angry Jove ' Sheer o'er the crystal battlements : from morn To noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve, A summer's day; and with the setting sun Dropped from the zenith like a falling star, On Lemnos, the Aegean isle. 2. The Accents at Convenient Intervals. The Harmony of a sentence is promoted by arranging the words in such a manner that the accents come at con- venient and somewhat measured intervals. It is this peculiarity mainly which makes some prose writings 80 much easier to read than others. This measured style is very observable in Dr. Johnson. In the following sentences, the accents come at measured intervals with almost the uniformity of verse. I shall not think my employment useless or ignoble, if, by my assistance, foreign nations and distant ages gain access to the propagators of knowledge, and understand the teachers of truth ; if my labors afford light to the repositories of science, and add celebrity to Bacon, to Hooker, to Milton, and to Boyle. Great Care needed. — If this style of composition is continued through a number of periods in succession, it becomes monotonous and wearisome. Nothing, indeed, in the mere form of expression, SENTENCES — HARMONY. 137 requires greater skill and judgment than the proper alternation of these nicely balanced periods with sentences of a different char- acter. Milton's prose writings furnish some of the finest examples that our literature affords of the harmonious and rhythmical arrange- ment of words. Take the following oft-quoted sentence : We shall conduct you to a hill-side, laborious indeed, at the first ascent; but else 60 smooth, 80 green, so full of goodly prospects, and melodious sounds, on every side, that the harp of Orpheus was not more charming. If the sentence just quoted has the softness and gentleness of an ^olian harp, others have the majestic swell and sonorousness of some mighty organ. They are equally musical, though the music is of a different kind. Witness the following : Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking his invincible locks ; methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full midday beam ; purging and unsealing her long-closed sight at the fountain itself of heavenly radiance ; while the whole noise of timorous and flocking birds, with those also that love the twilight, flutter about, amazed at what she means ! Contrast these passages with the following from Tillotson: This discourse concerning the easiness of God's commands, does, all along, sup- pose and acknowledge the difliculties of the first entrance upon a religious course ; except only in those persons who have had the happiness to be trained up to religion by the easy and insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous education. 3. Cadence at the Close. The Harmony of a sentence is promoted by a due atten- tion to the cadence at the close. Why Important. — It is important to leave upon the ear, at the close of a sentence, a sound both agreeable in itself, and suited to the general impression which we wish to make. The words and clauses therefore should be so marshalled that something pleasing and sonorous may come in at the end. The following passage from "The Wife," by Washington Irving, well illustrates both this rule and the preceding : As the vine, which has long twined its graceful foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it into sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is rifted by the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caressing tendrils, and bind up its shattered boughs ; so is it beautifully ordered by Providence, that woman, who is the mere dependant and orna- ment of man in his happier hours, should be his stay and solace when smitten with sudden calamity ; winding herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, tenderly supporting the drooping head, and binding up the broken heart. 138 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. In this long sentence, the pauses or rests are so adjusted that the voice passes with entire ease from point to point, while in the last line the whole construction is brought to a most graceful and pleas- ing conclusion. Small TJnaccented Words at the End. — Any marked falling off in sonorousness at the end is displeasing to the ear. For this reason, we should avoid closing a sentence with a small unaccented word. Such a termination is injurious to harmony as well as to strength. " It is a mystery which avc firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore the depth of." Change it thus: "It is a mystery, the truth of which we firmly believe, and the depth of which we humbly adore." An Accent Needed near the End. — It seems to hold in general, in our language, that, in order to a musical close, either the last sylla- ble, or the last but one, should have the accent. Hence words which have the accent far removed from the end, such as c6ntrary, aMitory, peremptorily, &c., are, so far as the music is concerned, unsuited for the close of a sentence. To say, "The order was given peremptorily," does not end as agreeably to the ear as to say, "The order was given in a peremptory manner." 4. Adapting the Sound to the Senssi The Harmony of a sentence is promoted by adapting th^e sound to the sense. Character of this Harmony. — The Harmony which arises from this source is of a much higher kind than that which arises from mere pleasantness of sound. This higher kind of* harmony may exist where there are sounds which in themselves are harsh and grating. This very ruggedness of sound may in some cases be a part of the harmony. The author may desire to convey the idea of something disagreeable and horrid, in which case the harshness of the words is in perfect consonance with the thought, and helps the effect. The opening of Hell-gates, in Paradise Lost, is often quoted in illustra- tion of this point. On a sudden open fly "Witli impetuous recoil and jarring sound The infernal doors, and on their hinges grate ' Harsh thunder, that the lowest bottom shook Of Erebus. Greater Variety Admissible. — In seeking, therefore, that kind of harmony which consists in adapting the sound to the sense, a great SENTENCES — HARMONY. 139 rariety of words is admissible. For grave and serious ideas we naturally use words whose sounds are slow and measured. Stern and impetuous thoughts are expressed by words which are harsh and discordant. Gentle and benignant feelings, on the other hand, require soft and flowing words. By selecting words of different so«nds, a writer may indicate many varieties of motion, as swift or slow, easy or difficult, and may even imitate particular noises, as when we speak of the hum of the bee, the hiss of the serpent, the whistling of the wind, the crash of the falling tree. Notice how huge size and unwieldiness are expressed by the choice of words in the following passages from Milton: Part, huge of bulk, Wallowing, unwieldy, enormous in their gait, Tempest the ocean- Scarce from his mould Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved Hia vastness. The labor of Sisyphus is aptly imitated by Pope in the^ following lines, particularly in the last : With many a weary step, and many a groan. Up the Aigh Aill ^e leaves a Auge round stone. The imitation here is rendered more effective by the artifice of the continued repetition of the aspirate. The felling of timber is thus described, in words whose sound is clearly an echo of the sense : Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown. Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down. One of the most remarkable examples of harmony produced by the adaptation of the sound to the sense, is Poe's well-known poem of the "Bells." The poem is too familiar to need quotation. Tennyson's ♦' Bugle Song " is another exquisite instance. Apart from the mere sound of the words, an imitative harmony may be produced in poetry by the rhythm. Thus the galloping of a horse is imitated in the following : At each bound he could feel his scabbard of steel Smiting his stallion's flanks. — Longfdhw. A charge of cavalry is imitated in the following : .^ Forward! break cover! Ride through them! ride over Them! baptize the clover, With blood aa with dew! — Bolcer. 140 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Part of the eflfect of haste in the last passage is produced by what musicians call the slur between ''over" and "them," and between "clover" and "with." Almost every variety of warlike sound is imitated in these lines : Hark to tfie brazen blare of the bugle ! Hark to the rattling clatter of the drums, The measured tread of the steel-clad footmen I Hark to the laboring horses' breath, Painfully tugging the harnessed cannon ; The shrill, sharp clink of the warriors' swords, As their chargers bound when the trumpets sound Tlieir alarums through the echoing mountains! — Boker. How very different the following: And far below the Roundheads rode, And hummed a surly hymn. — Tennyson. Miscellaneous Examples on the Construction of Sentences. [Point out whatever is faulty in any of these sentences, and reconstruct the sentences 80 as to avoid the fault.] 1. In nature, the foundation of order is the plan to which every- thing conforms, and all in perfect harmony. 2. He is a benefactor who from scattered fragments constructs a work, clear in outline, and symmetrical, to endure through the ages. 3. Poverty habitually comes in like an armed man, and misery and want unalleviated, and sometimes apparently unperceived, rule with absolute dominion in the place. * 4. A man very much under the influence of liquor, with a pair of shad, was making his way under difficulties to the depot on Saturday. 5. To this accomplished and unfortunate lady, Anne Boleyn, whose beauty attracted the fatal notice, but could not fix the brutal passion of the king, who " spared neither man in his wrath nor woman in his lust," is sometimes ascribed the following touching poem, though neither Mr, Walton nor Mr. Ritson think justly. 6. This beautiful and highly accomplished woman, Mary Queen of Scots, whose feminine character ill fitted her for the throne of a rude nation in the most agitated period of its history, and who had the misfortune to live among enemies paid to slander her, while none dared to defend her against a haughty, powerful rival, that united to a woman's jealousy of her superior claims, the sternest policies of unscrupulous ambition, is now seldom named without me/ancholy interest, and a wish to forget her faults in the trials of her circum- stances. SENTENCES — MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 141 7. The French being her tongue from infancy, she preferred to write in it; and, though not strictly within the plan of our work, we subjoin a copy of verses written during her imprisonment in Foth- eringay Castle, with a Latin hymn, the musical cadence of which has been greatly admired, " composed and repeated " by her the day before the execution. 8. She added to unusual learning much talent as a painter, and according to her admiring contemporaries, as a poetical writer. 9. She wrote, among other poems, a spirited defence of her sex, in answer to Pope's Characters of Women, which Duncombe praises in his Feminead. 10. She was fond, however, of literary society, as is shown by her friendship for Mrs. Rowe, (she was the authoress of the letter signed Cleora in Mrs. R.'s collection) ; Thomson, whom she kindly patron- ized, (who dedicated to her the first edition of his Spring) ; Dr. Watts (who dedicated to her his Miscellaneous Thoughts in Prose and Verse) ; and Shenstone (who addressed to her his Ode on Rural Elegance). 11. Mrs. Greville (whose maiden name was Fanny McCartney), wife of Fulke Greville, author of Maxims, Characters, &c., 1756, wrote, about 1763, her Prayer for Indifference, which was very popular, and provoked several clever replies, the best being by the Countess of C , supposed to be Isabella, Countess of Carlisle, who died 1793. 12. Mrs. Crewe was. the daughter of Mr^s. Greville ; and her second son, Captain William Fulke Greville, died at Dover in 1837, aged 87, from which we infer that her marriage was antecedent to 1749, 13. She went upon the stage, for which she had long before an inclination, to gain a support. 14. Piozzi died in 1809, but in 1819-20 his sprightly widow showed, not only that her physical elasticity was preserved, by dan- cing with great spirit at public balls, but that her sensibilities were yet warm, by falling in love with Conway, the handsome actor. 15. In 1776, she printed Sir Eldred of the Bower, a ballad, and a little poem, in imitation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, on a rock in Somer- setshire, from which issues a red stream, called The Bleeding Rock, which had been written some years before. 16. This well-known lady, the widow of a Presbyterian clergyman of Inverness-shire, Scotland, whose Letters from |the Mountains have been so generally and universally admired, published a volume of poems in 1801, which shows the same talenta that made her descrip* tiong of scenery so graphic and delightful. 13 10 142 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 17. The editor has far greater pleasure in speaking of her writ- ings, as they struck his youthful fancy, than with the cool judgment of more mature years. 18. Bereaved by death of one to whom her heart was given, she became in an unpropitious hour the wife of the Hon. George Chap- pel Norton, who proved himself utterly unworthy of having com- mitted to him the child of beauty, genius, and generous feeling, whom he has persecuted with the basest accusations and untiring malignity. 19. We may recur to an earlier period, when the crown was devis- able by will in England, or when at least the succession was settled in accordance with the desires of a dying sovereign, for some kind of parallel. 20. He is a public benefactor who from scattered fragments con- structs a work clear in outline and symmetrical, to endure through ages. 21. Rich or poor you have always been to me a true friend. 22.- Is it nothing to be obliged to toil almost in the menial con- cerns of his wretched habitation ? 23. My confidence in the people governing is unlimited ; my con- fidence in the people governed is infinitesimal. 24. Everybody when they buy want the best. 25. I am sure there was a case in the day before yesterday's paper, extracted from one of the French newspapers, about a journeyman shoemaker who was jealous of a young girl in an adjoining village, because she would not shut herself up in an air-tight three-pair of stairs, and charcoal herself to death with him ; and who went and hid himself in a wood with a sharp-pointed knife ; and rushed out as she passed by with a few friends, and killed himself first, and then all the friends, and then her — no, killed all the friends first, and then herself, and then himself — which was quite frightful to think of. 26. Such a man should not be tolerated in office, *for one who re- ceives bribes for the administration of justice can hardly be thought at all times to keep in mind what justice means, nor one who winks at wrong-doing to be free from all taint of misdemeanor himself. 27. Owing to an obstacle on the track, and the badness of the weather, the train was delayed, and as John did not reach home in time to attend the funeral, they concluded to postpone it. 28. My son John rode down to Colchester, mounted upon the old bay horse. Shying at a white gate, he stumbled and cast a shoe, and John was detained an hour at the smithy. SENTENCES — MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 14S 29. The English hate frogs, but the French love frogs and hate the English, and cut off their hind legs and consider them a great delicacy. 30. John Brown, his wife, baby, and dog, came up to town to see the fair, and passing through the streets he amused himself by bark- ing at every unprotected female he met. 31. The moon is situated about two hundred and forty thousand miles from the earth, and is supposed to be an opaque body shining only by the reflection of the rays passing from the sun, and it influ- ences the waters of the earth in such a way as to produce a tidal wave once in 24 hours. 32. A man walked down the street, followed by a little dog, sport- ing a green neck-tie and patent leather boots. 33. He came into church with his wife, wearing a full dress uni- form of the cavalry regiment then stationed in the neighborhood. 34. The man who sat writing with a Roman nose was ordered to leave the room. 35. The old astronomers were free to invent whatever theories they pleased as to the scale on which the sidereal scheme is con- structed, since if the earth were at rest we could never knew how far the stars were from us, and it was only when the earth was set free by Copernicus from the imaginary chain which had oeen con- ceived as holding it in the centre of the universe, that it became possible to form any conception of the distances at which the stars lie from us. 36. By reason of the traces of the awful earthquake of 1812, which did its work with suddenness, almost as appalling as that which destroyed Manilla, the environs of the capital are sadly interesting. 37. Well, sir, I (who am a very quiet, and, I believe, inoffensive man, whose only wish in life is to be allowed to sit in a corner, out of other people's way, and read books,) I had occasion to drive across Hyde Park on the afternoon of Tuesday, the day after the storm, in company with my wife, who, as is her wont, was giving me, who am somewhat infirm of foot, the benefit of a lift to my club — a literary club, as harmless and colorless as myself, and when fairly in the park I found that, though the great storm was over, the waves were very far from gone down : angry little surface- waves, different enough from the grand natural heaving of the true popular sea. 38. By the time I had taken five bottles, I found myself completely cured, after having been brought so near to the gate of death, by means of your invaluable medicine. 144 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 39. An extensive view is presented from the fourth story of the Delaware River. 40. His remains were committed to that bourne whence no travel- ler returns, attended by his family. 41. If the gentleman who keeps a store in Cedar Street, with a red head, will return the umbrella he borrowed from a lady, with an ivory handle, he will hear of something to his advantage. 42. Wanted a groom to take charge of two horses of a serious turn of mind. 43. He walked toward the table and took up his hat and bade adieu to his host and took his departure. 44. As I was on the express train, I watched the conductor pass- ing through the cars, collecting the tickets from the way passengers, and punching the through ones. ' 45. All persons must detest traitors who possess any love of coun- try whatever. 46. John is the best boy in the village that attends the academy. 47. The books treat of trees that are on the fourth shelf. 48. Her apron was torn by a little dog, that was trimmed with pink and white braid. 49. William Penn gave this advice to his children : Let your in- dustry and parsimony go no further than for a sufficiency for life, and to make a provision for your children, and that in moderation, If the Lord gives you any. 50. Why, our cook (she 's fifty, if she 's a day) got a bonnet just like mine, (the materials were cheaper, but the effect was the same,) and had the impertinence (servants have no idea of their place in this country) to wear it before my face. 51. If some men, according to the fashionable metaphor, are square, while others are round, the Right Hon. Robert Lowe must be described as multangular, with whom it is not easy to live com- fortably and at peace. 52. Mrs. Ingram, a most estimable lady, widow of the late pro- prietor, who was a member from Boston, and died last year, is the sole owner of the Illustrated London News. 53. It was midnight — the very hour at which (with a punctuality few of them have exhibited in the flesh) spirits invariably revisit (what can be the attraction in many cases?) their former abodes. 54. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 55. Not only did he find her busy, but pleased and happy ever. 56. I have done that which I have spoken to thee of. 67. Poverty wants some things ; the avaricious want all things. SENTENCES -—MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 146 68. The public is interested in knowing who is the rascal, as he charges, who is drawing thousands of dollars in sinecures from the public purse. 59. I move the appointment of a committee to report what altera- tions are necessary to the next General Assembly. 60. They expect the overthrow of all the old traditions of a race, whose religion, customs, and laws run from time immemorial, in the twinkling of an eye. 61. The reformation of John WickliflFe, which had begun just before he ascended the throne, was, during his reign, preparing the way for religious revolutions in the future. 62. Edward I. had in his youth rescued the crown from the pre- sumptuous Leicester, and had replaced it upon the head of his weak but well-meaning father. 63. Henry Beaufort, the illegitimate brother of Bolingbroke, after- wards the stern and cruel judge by whose sentence the Maid of Orleans was brought to an unworthy death, became the tutor of the prince. 64. When young Henry was eleven years of age, in the year before the revolution which brought his father to the throne, Beaufort, who had been made chancellor of the University of Oxford, took him under his care at Queen's College. 65. Although the king treated his kinsman with much courtesy, he evidently regarded him as a pledge of safety. 66. Henry was conveyed by the king's order to the castle of Tryon, where he and his cousin, young Humphrey, Duke of Glouces- ter, were put in easy confinement. 67. He was shocked that one who had in every way sought his love by gentle kindness, should be deprived of power and liberty by his own nearest kinsman. 68. Yet it was natural for him to conceal whatever sadness he might entertain on account of the misfortune of his friend, in the brilliant scenes of which he was the principal actor. 69. His presence in company with the new king, gave additional ^clat to the usurpation ; for he was looked upon as innocent of the stain, and his youth and beauty elicited the enthusiasm of the pop- ulace, who were now to regard him as their future monarch. 70. Both body and mind were patient under hardships, whether voluntary or under necessity endured. 71. He was impatient, in the generosity of his nature, of that praise which sought him out in injustice of those who had really triumphed. 13* 146 COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC. 72. No man went from his presence with anger in his breast. 73. The intimacy of a prince of the blood royal with common per- sons would be noticed enough to build such traditions upon, and we may be sure, that had Henry really been guilty of drunkenness, burglary, and carousing, we should have had the fact duly authen- ticated by the gossiping chroniclers of the day. 74. One of the most extraordinary men of that, perhaps of any age, appeared to annoy Henry the Fourth, from this time almost to the day of his death. A rebellion headed by him, took its rise, to keep which in abeyance drained the resources of England, and which at times absolutely threatened the integrity of the throne. 75. Owen himself seems to have in a manner retired from the command, and to have delegated his authority to a brave lieutenant, Rees ap Grifi&th, who was not, however, inclined to resume that rash mode of warfare which had made Owen so famed a leader. 76. The king grew prematurely old under the unusual weight of his cares, and the anxieties which would naturally depress one who held his crown by an uncertain tenure. 77. Chivalry thus illustrated its most stately adornments, and the barbarities of which its concomitants almost compel admiration. 78. Thus Pedro threw away the very friendship without which he would still have been an exile, the alienation of which left him exposed without defence to that resistless home party, which still clung to his brother Henry. 79. An opportunity very soon presented itself, and we arrive at that romantic episode in the history of those times, in which were cast the obtrusive events of John of Gaunt's career, and which have been most efficacious to preserve his name and deeds to later genera- tions. 80. Hume says that John of Gaunt was not even enterprising ; but he must mean that he was not ambitious of the crown, nor of the direction of the government ; for his life was one of almost cease- less activity. CHAPTER IV. Figures. Belation of the Subject to those which precede, — In the expression of thought, it is the business of the writer or the speaker, j&rst to obtain the words needed, and then to arrange them into completed expressions. These two points have been already discussed in the chapters on Diction and Sentences. Words are the brick and mortar, sentences are the finished walls, of the mental fabric. But Rhetoric, no less than architecture, needs something more than bare walls. It has, equally with the sister art, its arabesques and mosaics, its arches and columns, its lights and shadows; its curious tracery, its lines of grace and beauty, — its appeal, in short, to the taste and the imagina- tion, as well as to the understanding. We wish, in other words, not only to express our meaning, but to express it in forms which will make it moVe agreeable and attractive. In natural order, therefore, the next subject in Rhetoric, after Diction and Sentences, is the discussion of the various means by which we add to discourse graces and attractions beyond those derived from the bare expression of thought. Among these means none are more conspicuous than those known as Figures. To these, therefore, we shall now address ourselves. Definition of Figure.— A Figure, in Rhetoric, is some deviation from the plain and ordinary mode of expression, with a view of making the meaning more effective. An, Example. — If it is said, " A good man enjoys comfort ip the midst of adversity," the thought is expressed in the simplest manner possible. But if we say, "To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," the same sentiment is expressed in a figura- tive style. There is a deviation from the plain and simple expression. Light is put in place of comfort, darkness in place of adversity, and thi^ change in the mode of expression makes the idea more vivitj. 147 148 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Another Example. — To say, "It is impossible to explore the Divine nature fully by any search we can make," is to utter a simple proposition. But when we Bay, " Canst thou, by searching, find out God? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection? It is high as heaven, what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou know ? " wo introduce a figure. Not only the proposition is expressed, but admiration and astonishment are expressed with it, and the meaning is made in every way more effective. Another Example. — If we say, "That is strange," we use the plain, ordi- nary mode of stating a fact. But if we say, " IIow strange that is ! " the expression is changed from a mere assertion to an exclamation of surprise. It is therefore a figure, a form of speech difierent from the ordinary mode of expression. An Example of a Different Kind. — In the sentence, "Now is the vrinter of our discontent," there is a figure, but it is of another kind. The form of the expression is not changed, but one of the words, " winter," is turned from its literal meaning, a season of the year, and is made to signify a condition of the human feelings. This changing or turning away of a word from its literal meaning is called a Trope, from the Greek word tropos (rporroj), which means a turning. Figures and Tropes. — The ancients observed carefully the distinction between Figures and Tropes. But at present the one term, Figure, is used to cover the whole subject, and to mean any deviation from the plain and ordinary mode of expression, whether in the form of the sentence, or in the meaning of a particular word. Figures not Unnatural. — Though Figures are thus some deviation from the ordinary mode of expression, it does not follow that they are forced or unnatural. Figures are not the inventions of rhetori- cians, any more than the laws of language are the inventions of grammarians. As writers on grammar have observed how men speak, and from this have drawn the rules of speech, so writers on rhetoric have noticed how men depart from the plain and ordinary mode of expression when they wish to give special force or vivid- ness to their meaning, and from this fact the character and rules for such figurative expressions have been derived. The most illiterate men, as well as the most learned, speak in figures. No races, in fact, are so much addicted to the use of figurative language as the pemi-barbarous and the savage. Whenever the imaginations of the multitude are awakened, or their passions inflamed, they pour forth their feelings in a torrent of figures. It is rare, indeed, t]iat any one, learned or unlearned, civilized or savage, in a composed or in an excited state of mind, discourses for any length of time without the use of figures. Figurative expressions are as important to the FIGURES. 149 agreeableness of discourse as are color and form to that of the land- scape. Origin of Figures. — The first source of figures is the bar- renness of language. Explanation. — In the first attempts to use language, men would begin with giving names to the different objects with which they became acquainted. As the ideas of men multiplied, their stock of names and words would be enlarged. But for this infinite variety of ideas and objects in the world, no language would be adequate. Any language would become unmanageable whick should undertake to supply a separate word for every separate idea. Men therefore would seek to abridge the labor of inventing and remembering such an infinite number of words. One word, which had been invented to express some particular idea or object, would be used to express some other idea or object to which it was imagined to bear a like- Sxample. — The -word dull in its primary meaning applies to an instrument having an edge. But when we speak of an essay as being "dull," we imagine the mental effect of such a composition to be similar to the material effect of an edged tool that is dull. So, instead of making a new word, we use the old word in a new and changed sense. This change ig called a figure. A dull knife is literal. A dull essay is figuratire. In this manner a large number of figurative uses of words hare arisen. Mental operations especially are most commonly expressed by werds derived from sensible objects. Thus we speak of a piercing judgment, a clear head, a soft heart ; of one inflamed by anger, warmed by love, swelled with pride, melted with pity, and so on. Second Source. — The other and indeed the principal source of figures is the pleasure which they give. Explanation. -^ In this case we use figures, not because of the bar- renness of language, but because the figurative expression is more agreeable than the literal one. We have words already at our com- mand for expressing the plain, simple meaning ; but we are more pleased with some other expression which, besides the primary and literal meaning, conveys some additional idea of an agreeable char- acter. ICxamples. — Thus the sun becomes "the powerful king of day," youth is called "the morning of life," "gray hairs" means old age, the "sceptre" means the fOyal authority, and so on. Names of the Figures. — The most common figures are 160 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Epigram, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Interrogation, Exclamation, Apostrophe, Per- sonification, Hyperbole, Irony, Climax. I. SIMILE. Simile, or Comparison, consists in formally likening one thing to another. Sx ample 8. — The condemnation of Socrates took him away in his full grandeur and glory, like the setting of a tropical sun. True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, As those move easiest who have learnt to dance. I have ventured. Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, This many summers in a sea of glory. Why Similes Please. — Similes are a source of pleasure to the mind on several accounts : 1. First, we are so constituted that we naturally are pleased in comparing objects with one another, and tracing the points of like- ness or of unlikeness between them. This habit of comparison is common to all persons. Even children take delight in it, as soon as they are capable of taking distinct notice of objects. The mere fact of there being a likeness gives, when observed, a pleasure to the mind. 2. Secondly, a simile usually makes the principal object plainer, or gives it a stronger impression on the mind, and on this account is a source of additional pleasure. An author, wishing to say that the memory of a certain person is both quick and retentive, makes the idea clearer and more forcible, and at the same time more agreeable to the reader, by expressing the thought thus: '* His memory is like wax to receive impressions, and like marble to retain them." 3. Thirdly, by a skilful use of simile, the principal object may be embellished and made more agreeable by being associated with goraething of a superior character — something splendid, graceful, refined, dignified, or grand, according to the occasion. Shakspeare says of a certain strain of music : ... It came o'er my ear like the sweet sound That breathes upon a bank of violets, Stealing and giving odour. Every one feels, on reading such a comparison, that the imag« FIGURES — SIMILE. 151 with which soft music is thus associated has given it an additional embellishment and charm. Burlesque. — Similes are not always used to dignify and elevate an object. The aim of the writer may be, as in burlesque, to make a thing seem mean by com- paring it to something low and degrading. Thus Butler says of Hudibras : ... 'T is known he could speak Greek As naturally as pigs squeak ; [And] Latin was no more difflcile Than to a blackbird 't is to whistle. Thus also he burlesques morning : The sun had long since, in the lap Of Thetis, taken out his nap ; And, like a lobster boiled, the mom From black to red began to turn. The Object of Simile is to increase the effect intended in the main assertion, whether that intention be to exalt or to degrade, to dignify or to burlesque. Likeness of EfFect. — Though the essence of a simile consists in likeness, yet the likeness is not necessarily of a material kind. One thing may be like another, not because they look alike, or sound alike, or have any material qualities in common, but because they produce similar eflFects upon the mind. They raise similar trains of thought or feeling, or the remembrance of one strengthens in some way the impression produced by the other. This kind of subtle likeness often has a more pleasing effect than one which is more obvious to the senses. Example from Ossian. — A certain simile of Ossian's has been much admired on this account. Of a particular strain of music, he says, it was "like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." The effect here is much finer than if he had compared the music to the song of the nightingale, or the murmur of a stream, although in the latter cases there would have been more of actual likeness. Mere Likeness does not of itself constitute a simile. There is no simile, in the rhetorical sense of that word, when one city is com- pared to another city, one house to another house, one man to another man, Napoleon to Caesar, Rothschild to Croesus. In order that there may be a legitimate simile, the objects compared must be of a different kind. Kxamples. — A city in the rapidity of its growth, may be likened to Jonah's gourd. Milton, describing the sudden erection of the huge fabric in Pandemonium, 152 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Bays, it "rose like an exhalation." A great warrior may be compared to a thunder- bolt, or to a desolating tornado ; a sage, to a pillar of state. In each of these cases, there is a legitimate simile, because there is a likeness of some sort between the objects compared, and at the same time the objects themselves are different in kind. The principal Rules to be observed in regard to the use of Similes are the fallowing : Rule 1. Similes should not be drawn from things which have too near and obvious a resemblance to the object com- pared. Effect of Surprise. — One great ]^easure of the act of comparing lies in discovering likenesses where at the first glance we should not expect to find them. The simile in such cases gives us the pleasure of an agreeable surprise. £xainplesi. — Lover says, of a small, swarthy woman, "She's as short and as dark as a mid-winter day." Milton's comparisons nearly always have this quality of giving a surprise, besides that of filling the mind with ideas of majesty and gran- deur. To give us some idea of the countless number of the fallen host, he says, they "Lay entranced Thick as autumnal leaves that strew the brooks In Vallombrosa." Satan's imperial ensign, " full high advanced, shone like a meteor, streaming to the wind." Satan's own appearance, after his fall, is compared to that of the sun suffer- ing an eclipse, and shedding disastrous twilight on the nations. In all these examples, the reader, on recognizing the likeness, feels as though he had made an unexpected and delightful discovery. Milton's comparisons of Eve's bower in Paradise to the arbor of Pomona, and of Eve herself to a wood-nymph, are considered less happy, as no great ingenuity is required to imagine one arbor like another arbor, or one beautiful woman like another beautiful woman. Trite Similes. — Many similes, which were good enough when first used, are no longer available now, because they have become trite and commonplace by fre- quent use. Such similes are those comparing a hero to a iion, a mourner to a^ower drooping its head, chastity to snow, passion to a tempest, and so on. Rule 2. Similes should not be drawn from objects in which the likeness is too faint and remote. Such similes are said to be far-fetched. Bxampleg. — Some of the older poets erred freqtiently in this line. Thus Cow- ley, speaking of a friend, says that at night before retiring to sleep he Avashed away from his soul by tears all the stains it had received during the day, as the sun Sets iu water [the ocean] and is thereby kept unsullied. Still with his soul severe account he kept, Weeping all debts out ere he slopt; Then down In peace and innocence he lay, FIGURES — SIMILE. 153 Like the sun'a laborious light, Which still in water sets at night, Unsullied with the journey of the day." By a good deal of study and thought we can trace here some resemblance between the two objects compared, that is, the man lying down at night bathed in tears, and the sun setting in the ocean ; but the resemblance is faint, and requires entirely too much study. The simile is far-fetched. It is worse even than this. There is absolute falsehood in the figure. The author states as a fact that the sun purges itself in the water, and this falsehood disappoints and vexes the reader. An example of more recent date is the following from Longfellow : The day is done, and the darkness Falls from the wing of night. As a feather is wafted downward From an eagle in his flight. KuLE 3. Similes should not be drawn from objects with which ordinary readers are unacquainted. What is Excluded. — This rule excludes comparisons founded on scientific discoveries, or on objects with which persons of a cerfain trade only, or a certain profession, are conversant. In accordance with this rule, also, it is well to avoid drawing comparisons from ordinary objects in foreign countries, with which most readers are acquainted by reading only. Further Cautious. — There are indeed certain noted objects, such as tho Pyramids, the Alps, the Nile, the Tiber, Rome, Jerusalem, London, and so forth, with which well-read people everywhere are familiar. But, as a general thing, writers should take their illustrations from objects which exist in their own country, and which they and their readers have seen. It is well enough for English poets to sing of the nightingale, whose high note is heard from the boughs in the stillness of mid- night, and of the sky-lark, which "at break of day sings hymns at heaven's gate;'* but American poets and readers know nothing of either except from books. Rule 4. Similes should not, in serious discourse, be drawn from objects which are mean or low. This rule does not apply to Burlesque, or to writings intended to degrade and vilify. In such writings, the very aim of the author is to bring an object into ridicule or contempt, by associating it in the mind with something mean or ridiculous. But in ordinary discourse, the aim is just the opposite, and care should be taken accordingly that the objects to which anything is compared should not only pos- sess a likeness to it, but that they should be of a pleas'ing and ele- vating character. 14 154 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Examples. — There may be truth in the following comparison from Pope, but the simile ofifends the reader, because it associates the name of a great and good man with a mean and degrading idea : Superior beings, when of late they saw A mortal man unfold all nature's law, Admired such wisdom in an earthly shape, And showed a Newton as we show an ape. The two following examples may perhaps be allowable, because the aim of ^he writer is to belittle the subject: «' Mr. would be a powerful preacher if he did not drown his thought in a Dead Sea of words. You don't want a drove of oxen to drag a cart-load of potatoes over a smooth road." • " Skepticism in an honest and thoughtful young man is like the chicken-pox, — very apt to come, but not dangerous, and soon over, leaving both complexion and constitution as good as ever." KuLE 5. Similes should not be drawn from great or sub- lime objects, when we are describing what is low or trivial. Such comparisons may be proper in mock-heroic, or burlesque, but not in serious composition. A popular orator, speaking of one of our common anuiversary-days, uses the follow- ing language: "Pharos of the ages, we hail thy glimmerings 'mid the cataracts of Time." Rule 6. Similes are inappropriate when strong passion is to be expressed. To pause for the purpose of hunting up curious likenesses and comparisons, implies leisure and deliberation ; and passion, just in proportion to its force, is unhesitating and rapid. It has no leisure to cast about for resemblances. The hero in Addison's Cato, in a moment of violent anguish at the separation from his lady-love, makes the following elaborate comparison, which, under the circum- stances, cannot be regarded otherwise than as affected : Thus o'er the dying lamp th' unsteady flame Hangs quiv'ring on a point, leaps off by fits, And falls again, as loth to quit its hold. Thou must not go ; my soul still hovers o'er thee, And can't get loose. II. METAPHOR. Metaphor is a figure founded upon the resemblance which one object bears to another. Hence it is nearly allied to Simile. A metaphor is, indeed, a sort of abridged simile. FIGURES — METAPHOR. 156 Difference between Metaphor and Simile. — If we say of a great gtatesman, " He upholds the state, like the pillar which upholds an edifice," we make the comparison by a Simile. If we say of him, ** He is the pillar of the state," we make the same comparison by a Metaphor. In simile, the comparison is usually expressed by like^ as, such as, or words of similar import. In metaphor, the compari- son, if made at all, is not formally expressed in words. One object is assumed to be so like another, that things properly belonging to the one are attributed to the other, without stopping to draw a formal comparison between them — without, in fact, stopping to think whether such a likeness exists or not. If the metaphor expresses, or even suggests comparison, that metaphor is faulty. Not that a metaphor may not be taken to pieces, and be shown to owe its exist- ence to comparison ; but it should not, at first sight, suggest com- parison. The figure should be so involved in the subject that you can hardly pull the two apart. In simile, on the contrary, the sub- ject and the figure are but Siamese twins : a whip of the knife, and the two are divided, without damage to either. Effectiveness of Metaphor. — The metaphor is a more lively and animated method than the simile for expressing comparison. Meta- phor, indeed, of all the figures, comes nearest to painting, enabling us to clothe at will the most abstract ideas with life, form, color, and motion, and to " give to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." A^few examples will show how much" more condensed and effec- tive the metaphor is than the simile. Simile I As it is a flattering condescension when the eye of a sovereign rests upon a subject, so it is when the light of the morning sun first falls upon the mountain- tops. As an image of burnished gold, when brought within kissing distance of any dull objects, lights them up with its own shining radiance, making them also look like gold, 80 the morning rays of the sun, after first touching? the mountain-tops, descend gradually to the valleys, lighting up the green meadows and the pale etreami, as with some heavenly gilding. Metaphor : Full many a glorious morning have I seen Flatter the mountain-top with sovran eye, Kissing with golden face the meadows green, Gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy. — ShaJcspeare. Simile : As, in passing through a prism, beams of white light are decomposed into the colors of the rainbow ; so, in traversing the soul of the poet, the colorless rays of truth are transformed into bright-tinted poetry. Metaplior : The white light of truth, in traversing the many-sided transparent Boul of the poet, is refracted into iris-hued poetry. — Herbert Spencer. 156 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Simile I The temper of the nation, loaded already with grievances, was lik* a vessel that is now full, and this additional provocation, like the last drop infused, made their rage and resentment as waters of bitterness overflow. MetapUor : The vessel was now full, and this last drop made the waters of bit- terness overflow. — Bolinghroke. Bales for Simile and for Metaphor. — The rules which have been given in regard to the Simile apply in some measure to the Metaphor also. Metaphors ordinarily should not be drawn from things having too near and obvious a resemblance, from things in which the like- ness is too faint or remote, from things with which ordinary readers are unacquainted, from objects mean and low, or from objects too far above that which they are intended to illustrate. Metaphors, however, are often used for the expression of strong passion, and in this respect differ materially from similes. Metaphor, being an abbreviated simile, suits very well the rapid vehemence of passion. Examples of this abound in Shakspeare. No portions of his plays so teem with metaphor as those most highly tragical. The Bastard in King John, seeing Hubert take up the body of the murdered Prince, exclaims. How easy dost thou take all England up! When the assassin discloses to the Prince the red-hot iron, and declares that he haa come to burn out the Prince's eyes therewith, Arthur begs him not to be more cruel than even the instrument of torture : The iron of itself, though heat red-hot. Approaching near these eyes, would drink my tears. And quench his fiery indignation • Even in the matter of mine innocence. As the rules relating especially to the Simile illustrate to some ex- tent the Metaphor, so also the rules relating especially to the Meta- phor illustrate to some extent the use of the Simile. The rules which more particularly limit the use of the Metaphor are the following : KuLE 1. The metaphorical and the literal should not be mixed in the same sentence. Eule Explained. — A metaphor having been introduced into a sen- tence, all parts of the sentence should be made to conform to the figure thus introduced. This rule is violated when part of the words are such as apply to the figure, and part are plain and literal. Kxamples. — Drydon says, speaking of the aids ho had had in some of his liter- ary labors, " I was sailing in a vast ocean [metaphor], without other help than th« pole-star [metaphor continued] of the ancients, and the rules of the French stage [lit- eral] among the moderns." FIGURES — METAPHOK. 157 In Pope's translation of Homer, Penelope, speaking of the loss of her husband, and then of the abrupt departure of her son, says : Long to my joys my dearest lord is lost, His country's buckler, and the Grecian boast; » Now, from my fond embrace by tempests torn. Our other column [met.] of the state is borne, Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent. Here her son is figured in one line as a column, and in the next he is a person, to whom it belongs to take adieu, and to ask consent. This is incongruous. It is mix- ing up the metaphorical and the literal in the same construction. Having spoken of Telemachus under the metaphor of a column, the author should not have ascribed to him in that sentence anything but what could be ascribed to a column. " Boyle was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork." To thee the world its present homage pays, The Tiarvest [met.] early, but mature [met.] the praise [lit.]. The fault here is not serious. Yet every reader feels that but for the sake of a rhyme, the second line would have ended " mature the crop.'"'' Examples of Correct Metaphor. — The following are examples of sentences in which the language of the metaphor is sustained and consistent throughout : Speaking of the king's honor: "The feather that adorns the royal bird supports his flight. Strip him of his plumage, and you fix him to the earth." — Junius. " In the shipwreck of the state, trifles float and are preserved ; while everything solid and valuable sinks to the bottom, and is lost forever." — Junius. Of a hero: "In peace, thou art the gale of spring; in war, the mountain storm." — Ossian. Of a woman : " She was covered with the light of beauty ; but her heart was the bearer of pride." — Ossia7i. "Trotlial went forth with the stream of his people, but they met a rock : for Fingal stood unmoved; broken, they rolled back from his side." — Ossian. Speaking of an artist : " You make him but the spigot of a cask. Round which you, teachers, wait with silver cups To bear away the wine that leaves it dry." — Holland's Kathrina. Rule 2. Two different metaphors should not be used in the same sentence and in reference to the same subject. This produces what is called mixed metaphor, and is a worse fault even than mixing the metaphorical and the literal in the same sen- tence. Kxamples* — Shakspeare's expression, "To take arms against a sea of trouble*," is open to criticism on this ground. Addison says : 14* 11 158 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. "I bridle in my struggling muse with pain. That longs to launch into a bolder strain." The muse, figured as a horse, may be "bridled ;" but when we speak of "launching,'* we make it a ship. The author bridles it to keep it from launching ! In religious discourse people are apt to use Scripture metaphors in a careless way. The following curious jumble once took place : A man prayed tliat " the word which had been preached might be like a nail driven in a »ure place, sending its roots down- ward and its branches upward, spreading itself like a green bay-tree, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners I " Observe the mixing of metaphors in the following passages: "The shot of the enemy mowed down our ranks wit"h frightful rapidity. On every hand men and horses lay in universal carnage, like scattered wrecks on a storm-beaten shore." " His thoughts soared up from earth like fire and winged their flight to distant stars." " Traitors may talk of England going down (In quicksands that their coward selves have sown)— She swims in hearts like these!" — Gerald Massey. Here, in three short lines, we have bad grammar (" England going down " ; it should be "England's going down"), bad rhyme ("down" and "sown"), bad metaphors (England swimming in hearts! and sowing " quicksands " — he might as well have talked of sowing batter-pndding ! ) and lastly, very commonplace thought as the basis of the whole. Rule 3. Metaphors on the same subject should not be crowded together in rapid succession. Explanation. — Though the figure in each case may be distinct and consistently carried out, yet the mind, having in quick succes- sion to conceive the subject, first in its literal sense, then in a figura- tive sense, and then again in still another figure, becomes confused. Example* — Swift says, " Those whose minds are dull and heavy do not easily penetrate into the folds and intricacies of an affair, and therefore can only scum ojf what they find at the top." Here the mind has, first, to think of the literal fact, namely, that dull people do not easily peneti-ate the difficulties of a subject ; next, to think of this fact under the similitude of handling the outer folds of a bale of cloth, without ever getting at the inside ; and then again to think of the same fact under the similitude of skimming the top of some impure liquid without reaching the bot- tom. The two metaphors, though separable, are in such close succession that they have the efiect of a mixed metaphor. Rule 4. Metaphors should not be multiplied to excess. Explanation. — Though the metaphors may refer to different sub- jects, and be in different sentences, and therefore not come within either of the two preceding rules, yet if they are greatly multiplied, they have a confusing effect upon the mind. The variety of subjects distracts the attention. FIGURES — ALLEGORY. 169 Excessive Use of Figures. — The effect of unduly multiplying meta- phors is very much like that produced by being over-dressed. This is true, not of metaphor merely, but of every kind of figure. Fig- ures, whether for ornament or for illustration, to have their proper effect, must be used with moderation. Really good metaphors, occurring only here and there, at judicious intervals, and on suit- able subjects, have a brilliant effect. But if multiplied too much, no matter how sparkling each may be in itself, they produce only a disagreeable glitter. Rule 5. Metaphors should not be carried too far. This fault is committed when the resemblance on which the meta- phor is founded is carried out into a great many minute and irrele- vant circumstances. This is called straining the metaphor. flxample. — Young says of old age, that it should Walk thoughtful on the silent, solemn shore Of that vast ocean it must sail so soon ; And put good works on board ; and wait the wind That shortly blows us into worlds unknown. The expression in the first two lines is universally admired. But when the author begins to "put good works on board," and to "wait the wind," the metaphor becomes strained and loses dignity. Instead of the deep emotion excited by walking "thought- ful on the silent, solemn shore," the mind is brouglit down to the prosaic and calcu- lating operations of a seafaring enterprise. III. ALLEGORY. An Allegory is a sort of continued Metaphor. It is a description of one thing under the image of another. Diflference between Allegory and Metaphor. — Allegory differs from a Metaphor in two respects. First, it is carried out into a great variety of particulars, making usually a complete and connected story. Secondly, it suppresses all mention of the principal subject, leaving us to infer the writer's intention from the resemblance of the narrative, or of the description to the principal subject. Points in Common. — Allegory, metaphor, and simile have this in common, that they are all founded in resemblance, there being in each case two subjects, a primary and a secondary, having certain points of likeness. In Simile, this resemblance is expressed in form, as when it is said, " Israel is like a vine, brought from Egypt, and 160 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. planted in Palestine." In Metaphor the formal comparison is drop- ped, as when it is said, "Israel is a vine brought from Egypt," &c. In Allegory, both the formal comparison and the "principal subject are dropped, and the secondary subject is described by itself, leav- ing the application entirely to the imagination of the reader, as when it is said, "God brought a vine out of Egypt, and planted it in Palestine," The reader knows that by the vine is meant God's people, Israel; yet Israel is not once mentioned, and there is neither metaphor nor simile, though there is a likeness. This allegory occurs in the eightieth Psalm, and is as follows : " Thou hast brov.ght a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room for it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branchoa unto the river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it." Here every circumstance, except that of casting out the heathen, answers to the description of a A'ine, while at the same time God's dealings with the Jewish people, though not once named, are plainly suggested to the mind of the reader. If the Psalmist, instead of saying that the vine was wasted by the boar from the wood, and devoured by the wild beast, had said that it was afilicted by heathens, or overcome by enemies, (which was his real meaning,) he would have spoiled the allegory. Allegory, Parable, and Fable are closely akin to each other, and these terms are often interchangeable. Some distinctions between them, however, are worthy of notice. Allegory is the only term used in reference to extended works of this kind, such as Pilgrim's Progress and the Faery Queen. Shorter allegorical compositions are more frequently called Fables, or Parables, the latter term being specially used for specimens of this kind in the Holy Scrip- tures. The story told by Jotham, in the ninth chapter of Judges, of the trees choosing for themselves a king, is called a Parable. Had it occurred in ^sop, it would have been called a Fable. None of these distinctions, however, in regard to the allegory, the parable, and the fable, are absolute. Where Found. — Oriental nations are much addicted to the use of this kind of writing, and there are many excellent instances of it in the Bible. There are no Parables comparable for excellence to those in the New Testament. Auuiig the ancients the Fables of M*Is [Dryden's] contemporary, Dr. Heylin, said of French cooks, that <'tneir trade was not to feed the belly, but the palate." Dry- den waj a great while in learning this secret, as available in good ■writing as in cookery. He strove after it, but his thoroughly English nature, to the last, would too easily content itself with serv- ing up the honest beef of his thought, without regard to daintiness or flavor in the dressing of it. Of the best English poetry, it might be saict that it is understanding aerated by imagination. In Dryden the solid part too often refused to mix kindly with the leaven, either remaining lumpish or rising to a hasty puffiness. — Lowell. 17 Truth, crush'd to earth, shall rise again; The eternal years of God are hers ; But Error, wounded, writhes with pain. And dies among its worshippers. — Bryant. \h. In his [Dryden's] prose you come upon passages that persuade you he is a poet, in spite of his verses so often turning state's evi- dence against him as to convince you he is none. He is a prose- wriier, with a kind of ^olian attachment — Lowell. 19. Hast thou no friend to set thy mind abroach ? Good sense will stagnate. Thoughts, shut up, want air, And spoil, like bales unopened to the sun. — Young. 20. The smoothness of too many rhymed pentameters is that of thin ice over shallow water : so long as we glide along rapidly, all is well ; but if we dwell a moment on any one spot, we may find our- selves knee-deep in mud. — Lowell. 21. Thought in the mine may come forth gold or dross; When coin'd in words we know its real worth. — Young. 22. He began his dramatic career, as usual, by rowing against the strong current of his nature, and pulled only the more doggedly th« more he felt himself swept down the stream. — Lowell. 23. Speech ventilates our intellectual fire ; Speech burnishes our mental magazine ; Brightens for ornament, and whets for use. — Young. 24. Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee Jest and youthful jollity, Quibs, and cranks, and wanton wiles. Nods, and becks, and wreathed smiles. Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, And love to live in dimple sleek: Sport that wrinkled Care derides, And Laughter holding both his sides. — Milton, 12 174 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 25. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, All but the page prescribed their present state. — Pope. 26. I should say that Dryden is more apt to dilate our fancy than our thought, as great poets have the gift of doing. But if he have not the potent alchemy that transmutes the lead of our commonplace associations into gold, as Shakspeare knows how to do so easily, yet his sense is always up to the sterling standard ; and though he has not added so muCh as some have done to the stock of bullion vrhich others afterwards coin and put in circulation, there are few who have minted so many phrases that are still a part of our daily currency. — Lowell. 27. The spider's most attenuated web Is cord — is cable to man's tender tie Of earthly bliss ; it breaks at every breeze. — Young. 28. Weariness Can snore upon the flint, when resty sloth Finds the down-pillow hard. — Shakspeare. 29. Her tresses, loose behind, Play on her neck, and wanton in the wind ; The rising blushes which her cheek o'erspread Are opening roses in the lily's bed. — Got/. 30. There are whole veins of diamonds in thine eyes, Might furnish crowns for all the queens of earth. — Bailer/. 31. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death. — Young. 32. Who builds his hope in air of your good looks, Lives like a drunken sailor on a mast; Ready, with every nod, to tumble down Into the fatal bowels of the deep. — Shakspeare. 83. For' I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord. — Romans 8: 38, 39. 34. The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed. Lets in new light through chinks that Time has made. Waller. 86. I scarcely understand my own intent; But, silk-worm like, so long within have wrought, That I am lost in my own web of thought. — Dryden, ^ 86. One sally of a hero's soul, Does all the military art control. FIGURES — EXAMPLES. 175 While timorous wit goes round, or fords the shore, He shoots the gulf, and is already o'er, And, when the enthusiastic fit is spent. Looks back amazed at what he underwent. — Dryden. 37. Who shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect? It is God that justifieth. Who is he that condemneth? It is Christ that died, yea rather, that is risen again, who is even at the right hand of God, who also maketh intercession for us. Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? shall tribulation, or distress, or persecu- tion, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword ? — Romans 8: 33-35. 38. Our Garrick 's a salad, for in him we see Oil, vinegar, sugar, and saltness agree. 39. Words are the common property of all men, yet from words those architects of immortality pile up temples that shall outlive pyramids: the leaf of the papyrus shall become a Shinar, stately with towers, round which the Deluge of ages roars in vain. 40. And yet the soul, shut up in her dark room. Viewing so clear abroad, at home sees nothing; But like a mole in earth, busy and blind, Works all her folly up and casts it outward In the world's open view. — Dryden. 41. But after all, he [Dryden] is best upon a level, — table-land, it is true, and a very high level, but still somewhere between the loftier peaks of inspiration and the plain of every-day life. — Lowell. 42. Of no distemper, of no blast he died. But fell like autumn fruit that mellowed long. E'en wondered at because he dropt no sooner ; Fate seemed to wind him up for fourscore years ; Yet freshly ran he on ten winters more. Till, like a clock worn out with eating Time, The wheels of weary life at last stood still. — Dryden. 43. For I am now so sunk from what I was. Thou find'st me at my lowest water-mark. The rivers that ran in and raised my fortunes Are all dried up, or take another course ; What I have left is from my native spring ; I've a heart still that swells in scorn of Fate, And lifts me to my banks. — Dryden. 44. Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down? Canst thou put a hook in his nose ? or bore his jaw through with a thorn ? will he make many •upplications unto thee ? will he speak soft words unto thee ? will 176 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC. he make a covenant with thee ? wilt thou take him for a servant for- ever? wilt thou play with him as with a bird? or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens ? shall the companions make a banquet of him ? shall they part him among the merchants? canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons ? or his head with fish-spears? — Job 41 : 1-7. 46. I do not like to say it, but he has sometimes smothered the child- like simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds of verbiage. — Lowell. 46. His [Dryden's] phrase is always a short-cut to his sense, for his estate was too spacious for him to need that trick of winding the path of his thought about, and planting it out with clumps of epithet, by which the landscape-gardeners of literature give to a paltry half- acre the air of a park. — Lowell. 47. If circumstances could ever make a great national poet, here were all the elements mingled at melting-heat in the alembic, and the lucky moment of projection was clearly come. — Lowell. 48. Above all, we may esteem it lucky that he [Shakspeare] found words ready to his use, original and untarnished, — types of thought, whose sharp edges were unworn by repeated impressions. — Lowell. 49. There is much that is deciduous in books, but all that gives them a title to rank as literature in the highest sense is perennial. — Lowell. 50. Am I not an apostle? am I not free? have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord ? are not ye my work in the Lord ? have we not power to eat and to drink? have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles, and as the brethren of the Lord, and Cephas ? Or I only and Barnabas, have not we power to foi-bear working? Who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges? who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock ? Say I these things as a man, or saith not the law the same also? — 1 Cor. 9: 1-8. 61. Still thy love, Christ arisen. Yearns to reach these souls in prison : Through all depths of sin and loss Drops the plummet of thy Cross ! Never yet abyss was found Deeper than that Cross could sound. 52. There are some thinkers about whom we always feel easy, because they never have a thought of sufficient magnitude to be made uncomfortable by its possession. 53. Save me, God; for the waters are come into my soul. I. sink in deep mire, where there is no standing: 1 am come into deep waters, where the floods overflow me. — Pk. 69: 1, 2. 64. As smoke is driven away, so drive them away : as wax melteth FIGURES — EXAMPLES. 177 before the fire, so let the wicked perish at the presence of God. — Ps. 68 : 2. 55. We do not mean what is technically called a living language, — the contrivance, hollow as a speaking-trumpet, by which breathing and moving bipeds, even now, sailing o'er life's solemn main, are enabled to hail each other and make known their mutual shortness of mental stores, — but one that is still hot from the hearts and brains of a people, not hardened yet, but moltenly ductile to new shapes of sharp and clear relief in the moulds of new thoughts. — Lowell. 56. What was of greater import, no arbitrary line had been drawn between high words and low ; vulgar then meant simply what was common ; poetry had not been aliened from the people by the estab- lishment of an Upper House of vocables, alone entitled to move in the stately ceremonials of verse, and privileged from arrest while they forever keep the promise of meaning to the ear and break it to the sense. — Lowell. 57. I by no means intend to say that he [Shakspeare] did not enrich it [the language], or that any inferior man could have dipped the same words out of the great poet's inkstand. But he enriched it only by the natural expansion and exhilaration of which it was con- scious, in yielding to the mastery of a genius that could turn and wind it like a fiery Pegasus, making it feel its life in every limb. — Loivell. 58. As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, God. —Ps. 42: 1. 59. Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and having on the breast-plate of righteousness, and your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace; above all, taking the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked. And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God. — Ephes. 6: 14-17. 60. Scarce one [commentator on Shakspeare] but thought he could gauge like an ale-firkin that intuition whose edging shallows may have been sounded, but whose abysses, stretching down amid the sunless roots of Being and Consciousness, mock the plummet. — Lowell. * 61. The Gothic Shakspeare often superimposed upon the slender col- umn of a single word, that seems to twist under it, but does not, — like the quaint shafts in cloisters, — a weight of meaning which the modern architects of sentences would consider wholly unjustifiable by correct principle. — Lowell. 16 178 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 62. His [Wordsworth's] longer poems are Egyptian sand-wastes, with here and there an oasis of exquisite greenery^ a grand image Sphinx-like, half buried in drifting commonplaces, or the solitary Pompey's Pillar of some towering thought. — Loioell. 63. Her angel's face, As the great eye of heaven, shined bright, And made a sunshine in the shady place ; Did never mortal eye behold such heavenly grace. — Spenser. 64. Who has so succeeded in imitating him [Shakspeare] as to remind us of him by even so much as the gait of a single verse ? Those magnificent crystallizations of feeling and phrase, basaltic masses, molten and interfused by the primal fires of passion, are not to be reproduced by the slow experiments of the laboratory striving to parody creation with artifice. — Lowell. 65. Love is the ladder on which we climb To a likeness with God. 66. Onions that should water this grief. — Shakspeare, 67. I, writing thus, am still what men call young; I have not so far left the coasts of life To travel inland, that I cannot hear That murmur of the water infinite Which unweaned babies smile at in their sleep, When wondered at for smiling. — Mrs. Browning, 68. Shakspeare does not always speak in that intense way that flames up in Lear and Macbeth through the rifts of a soil volcanic with passion. He allows us here and there the repose of a common- place character, the consoling distraction of a humorous one. He knows how to be equable and grand without efl'ort, so that we forget the altitude of thought to which he has led us, because the slowly receding slope of a mountain stretching downward by ample grada- tions gives a less startling impression of height than to look over the edge of a ravine that makes but a wrinkle in its flank. — Lowell. 69. The language [in Shakspeare's time] was still fresh from those sources at too great a distance from which it becomes fit only for the service of prose. Wherever he dipped, it came up clear and sparkling, undefiled as yet by the drainage of literary factories, or of those dye-houses where the machine-woven fabrics of sham cul- ture are colored up to the last desperate style of sham sentiment. — Lowell. 70. With Shakspeare the plot is an interior organism, in Jonson an external contrivance. It is the diff'erence between man and tortoise. In the one the osseous structure is out of sight, indeed, but sustaini FIGURES — EXAMPLES. 179 the flesh and blood that envelop iT, while the other is boxed up and imprisoned in his bones. — Loioell. 71. The mountains saw thee, and they trembled: the overflowing of the water passed by : the deep uttered his voice, and lifted up his hands on high. — Habakkuk 3 : 10. 72. The depth saith, It is not in me : and the sea saith, It is not with me.— Job 28: 14. 73. In truth, we are under a deception similar to that which mis- leads the traveller in the Arabian desert. Beneath the caravan, all is dry and bare ; but far in advance, and far in the rear, is the sem- blance of refreshing waters. The pilgrims hasten forward, and find nothing but sand where, an hour before, they had seen a lake. They turn their eyes, and see a lake where, an hour before, they were toiling through sand. — Macaulay. 74. For weeks the clouds had raked the hills And vexed the vales with raining, And all the woods were sad with mist, , And all the brooks complaining. At last, a sudden night-storm tore The mountain-veils asunder, And swept the valleys clean before The besom of the thunder, — Whittier. 75. In such slipshod housekeeping men are their own largest creditors ; they find it easy to stave off" utter bankruptcy of conscience by taking up one unpaid promise with another larger, and at heavier interest, till such self-swindling becomes habitual and by degrees almost painless. How did Coleridge discount his own notes of this kind with less and less specie as the figures lengthened on the paper! — Loivell. 76. [Such characters] cannot determine on any course of action, because they are always, as it were, standing at the cross-roads, and see too well the disadvantages of every one of them. It is not that they are incapable of resolve, but somehow the band between the mo- tive power and the operative faculties is relaxed and loose. The en- gine works, but the machinery it should drive stands still. — Lowell. 11. Horatio is the only complete man in the play — solid, well-knit, and true ; a noble, quiet nature, with that highest of all qualities, judgment, always sane and prompt; who never drags his anchors for any wind of opinion or fortune, but grips all the closer to the reality of things. — Lowell. 78. Hamlet is continually drawing bills on the future, secured by his promise of himself to himself, which he can never redeem. — Lowell. 180 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 79. I wake, emerging from a Sea of dreams Tumultuous, where my wreck'd, desponding thought From wave to wave of fancied misery At random drove, her helm of reason lost. — Young. 80. Night, E'en in the zenith of her dark domain, Is sunshine to the color of my fate. — Young. 81. Deep on his front engraven Deliberation sat, and public care. — Milton. 82. Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased; Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow ; Raze out the written tablets of the brain; Cleanse the foul bosom of that perilous stuff, Which weighs upon the heart? — Shakspeare. 83. Let come what will, I mean to bear it out, And either live with glorious victory. Or die with fame, renowned for chivalry. *He is not worthy of the honey-comb, That shuns the hive because the bees have stung. — Shakspeare. 84. My May of life Is fallen into the sere, the yellow leaf. — Shakspeare. 85. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches: none Are just alike, yet each believes his own. — Fope. 86. Self is the medium least refined of all. Through which opinion's searching beams can fall; And, passing there, the clearest, steadiest ray Will tinge its light, and turn its line astray. — Moore. 87. His tongue Dropp'd manna, and could make the worst appear The better reason, to perplex and dash Maturest counsels. — Milton. 88. Here rills of oily eloquence in soft Meanders lubricate the course they take. — Cowper. 89. Oh ! as the bee upon the flower, I hang Upon the honey of thy eloquent tongue. — Bulwer. 90. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools. That flattery 's the food of fools ; Yet now and then your men of wit Will condescend to take a bit. — Sioift. 91. I've touched the highest point of all my greatness; And from the full meridian of my glory I haste now to my setting. — Shakspeare. FIGURES — EXAMPLES. 181 92. Of praise a mere glutton, he swallowed what came, And the puff of a dunce, he mistook it for fame ; Till, his relish grown callous almost to disease, Who pepper'd the highest was surest to please. — Goldsmith. 93. She looks as clear As morning roses, newly washed in dew. — Shakspeare. 94. Let our frail thoughts dally with false surmise. — Milton. 95. He cast off his friends as a huntsman his pack. For he knew when he wish'd he could whistle them back. Goldsmith, 96. Love is a sudden blaze which soon decays ; Friendship is like the sun's eternal rays ; Not daily benefits exhaust the flame : It still is giving, and still burns the same. — Gay. 97. Friendship is not a plant of hasty growth. Though planted in esteem's deep fixed soil; The gradual culture of kind intercourse Must bring it to perfection, — Joanna Baillie. 98. There 's a divinity that shapes our ends. Rough-hew them as we will. — Shakspeare. 99. As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm ; Tho' round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal sunshine settles on its head. — Goldsmith. 100. To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, And read their history in a nation's eyes. — Gray. 101. He, who ascends to mountain-tops shall find Their loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow ; He, who surpasses or subdues mankind, Must look down on the hate of those below. Tho' far above the sun of glory glow, And far beneath the earth and ocean spread, Round him are icy rocks, and loudly blow Contending tempests on his naked head. — Byron. 102. Whose game was empires, and whose stakes were thrones, Whose table earth, whose dice were human bones, — - Byron. 103. How oft when Paul has served us with a text, Has Plato, Tully, Epictetus preached. 104. Ocean into tempest wrought. To waft a feather or to drown a fly. — 105. life, poetry. Which means life — life ! cogni^aut of Uffi 16* 182 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Beyond this blood-beat, — passionate for truth Beyond these senses, — poetry, my life — My eagle, with both grappling feet still hot From Zeus's thunder, who has ravished me Away from all the shepherds, sheep, and dogs, And set me in the Olympian roar and round Of luminous faces, for a cup-bearer, To keep the mouths of all the godheads moist For everlasting laughter — I, myself. Half drunk, across the beaker, with their eyes! How those gods look ! — Mrs. Browning. 106. Presence of mind is greatly promoted by absence of body. 107. My life is a wreck. I drift before the chilling blasts of ad- versity; friends, home, wealth — I've lost them all. 108. If in the morn of life, you remember God, he will not forget you in your old age. 109. Born, lived, and died, sum up the great epitome of man. 110. Turn it, and twist it as much as you can, She will still be double you [W] man. 111. Men dying make their wills, But wives escape a task so sad ; Why should they make what all their lives The gentle dames have had ? 112. If you blow your neighbor's fire, don't complain if the sparks fly in your face. 113. earth, so full of dreary noises ! men, with wailing in your voices ! delved gold, the wallers' heap ! strife, curse, that o'er it fall ! God makes a silence through you all, And "giveth his beloved sleep." — Mrs. Browning, 114. dark and cruel deep, reveal The secret that thy waves conceal ! And ye wild sea-birds hither wheel And tell it me. 115. I heard the trailing garments of the Night Sweep thro' her marble halls, 1 saw her sable skirts all fringed with light From the celestial walls. — Longfellow. 116. May slighted woman turn, And as the vine the oak has shaken oif. Bend lightly to the leaning trust again ? — WiUit. FIGURES — EXAMPLES. 183 117. O'erhead the countless stars Like eyes of love were beaming, Underneath the weary earth All breathless lay a-dreaming. The fox-glove shoots out the green matted heather, And hangeth her hoods of snow, She was idle and slept till the sunshiny weather, But children take longer to grow. — Jean Ingelow. 118. Thoughts which fix themselves deep in the heart as meteor stones in earth, dropped from some higher sphere. 119. When descends on the Atlantic The gigantic Storm-wind of the Equinox, Landward in his wrath he scourges The toiling surges Laden with sea-weeds from the rocks. — Longfellow. 120. What has the gray-haired prisoner done? Has murder stained his hands with gore? Not so, his crime is a fouler one: God made the old man poor! For this he shares a felon's cell, The fittest earthly type of hell: For this, the boon for which he poured His young blood on the invader's sword, And counted life the fearful cost, His blood-gained liberty is lost. 121. They boast they come but to improve our state, enlarge our thoughts, and free us from the yoke of error. Yes, they will give enlightened freedom to our minds, who are themselves the slaves of passion, avarice, and pride, 122. Sweet are the uses of adversity. Which like the toad, ugly and venonjous, * Wears yet a precious jewel in his head? — Shakspeare. 123. Flowers are stars, wherein wondrous truths are made manifest 124. The twilight hours like birds flew by, As lightly and as free; Ten thousand stars were in the sky, Ten thousand in the sea: For every wave with dimpled cheek That leaped upon the air. Had caught a star in its embrace, And held it trembling there. 184 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 125. Humor runs through his speeches like violets in a harvest-field, giving sweet odor and beauty to his task when he stoops to put in the sickle. 126. Ignorance is the curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven. — Shakspeare. 127. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is; for the former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees. 128. Reflected in the lake, I love To see the stars of evening glow, So tranquil in the heavens above, So restless in the wave below. Thus heavenly hope is all serene, But earthly hope, how bright soe'er, Still fluctuates o'er this changing scene, As false and fleeting as 'tis fair. — Heher, 129. Night dropped her sable curtain down, and pinned it with a star. 130. The conscious water saw its Lord, and blushed. 131. The aspen heard them, and she trembled. 132. And silence, like a poultice, comes To heal the blows of sound. — Holmes. 133. Her hair drooped down her pallid cheeks, Like sea-weed on a clam. — Holmes. 134. We [alumni] leave, like those volcanic stones, our precious Alma Mater, But will keep dropping in again to see the dear old crater. Holmes. 135. Prologues in metre are to other pros As worsted stockings are to Qng\nQ-h.0BQ. —r Holmes. 136. To thee it [death] is not So much even as the lifting of a latch ; Only a step into the open air Out of a tent already luminous With light that shines through its transparent walls. Longfellow. 187. The burnished dragon-fly is thine attendant, And tilts against the field, And down the listed sunbeam rides, resplendent With steel-blue mail and shield. — Longfellow, 188. The familiar lines Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy. Longfellow's Ode to Dante, FIGURES — EXAMPLES. 185 139. And under low brows, black with night, Rayed out at times a dangerous light, The sharp heat-lightning of her face. — Whittier. 140. It is nothing like the grave irony of Socrates, which was the weapon of a man thoroughly ^n earnest, — the boomerang of argu- ment, which one throws in the opposite direction of what he means to hit, and which seems to be flying away from the adversary, who will presently find himself knocked down by it. — Lowell, 141. And the cares that infest the day Shall fold their tents like the Arabs, And as silently steal away. — Longfellow. 142. He is a close observer, continually analyzing his own nature and that of others, letting fall his little drops of acid irony on all who come near him, to make them show what they are made of. — Lowell. 143. The day is done; and slowly from the scene The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts, And puts them back into his golden quiver. — Longfellow. 144. The perpetual silt of some one weakness, the eddies of a sus- picious temper depositing their one impalpable layer after another, may build up a shoal on which an heroic life and otherwise magnani- mous nature may bilge and go to pieces — Lowell. 145. The consecrated chapel on the crag, And the white hamlet gathered round its base, Like Mary sitting at he;* Saviour's feet, And looking up at his beloved face ! — Longfellow. 146. Shakspeare did not mean his great tragedies for scarecrows, as if the nailing of one hawk to the barn-door would prevent the next coming down souse into the hen-yard. No, it is not the poor bleach- ing victim hung up to moult its draggled feathers in the rain that he wishes to show us. He loves the hawk-nature as well as the hen- nature ; and if he is unequalled in anything it is in that sunny breadth of view, that impregnability of reason, that looks down upon all ranks and conditions of men, all fortune and misfortune, with the equal eye of the pure artist. — Lowell. 147. There through the long, bright mornings we remained, Watching the noisy ferry-boat that plied Like a slow shuttle through the sunny warp Of threaded silver from a thousand brooks. That took new beauty as it wound away. — Holland. 148. If, as poets are wont to whine, the outward world was cold to him [Shakspeare], its biting air did but trace itself in loveliest froit- 186 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. work of fancy on the many windows of that self-centred and cheerful Boul. — Lowell. 149. As from a deep, dead sea, by drastic lift Of pent volcanic fires, the dripping form Of a new island swells to meet the air. And, after months of idle basking, feels The prickly feet of life from countless germs Creeping along its sides, and reaching up In fern and flower to the life-giving sun, So from my grief I rose, and so at length I felt new life returning : so I felt The life already wakened stretching forth To stronger light and purer atmosphere. — Holland. 150. When once the shrinking, dizzy spell was gone, I saw below me, like a jewelled cup, The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip — The serrate green against the serrate blue — Brimming with beauty's essence ; palpitant With a divine elixir — lucent floods Poured from the golden chalice of the sun, At which my spirit drank with conscious growth, And drank again with still expanding scope Of comprehension and of faculty. — Hollaiid. 151. In our school-books we say, Of those that held their heads above the crowd, They flourished then or there : but life in him Could scarce be said to flourish, only touch'd On such a time as goes before the leaf. When all the wood stands in a mist of green, And nothing perfect. — Tennyson. 152 We are puppets, Man in his pride, and Beauty fair in her flower: Do we move ourselves, or are moved by an unseen hand, at a game That pushes us off from the board, and others ever succeed ? Tenny*oiu ■^^ CHAPTER V. Special Properties of Style. A Comparison. — Rhetoric has sometimes been compared to archi- tecture. In this comparison, words are the materials of which a structure is composed, sentences are the finished walls, and figures the ornaments. Each of these topics has now been made the sub- ject of a chapter, under the several heads of Diction, Sentences, and Figures. The Comparison Continued. — The comparison may be carried one step farther. While the points thus far named belong to all build- ings, buildings themselves are classified according to their several styles of architecture, and according to the uses for which they are intended. One is massive and stern, another light and graceful; one is Grecian, another Gothic ; one is a temple for divine worship, or a hall for legislation, another is only a private mansion. Archi- tecture, in other words, has its styles suited to its several occasions, though in every style all the points thus far noticed are necessary. Every building, that has a claim to be architectural at all, necessa- rily supposes materials, walls, and means of ornament. But beyond this, buildings rapidly diverge, and each has something peculiar to itself which others have not. How Applied to Rhetoric, — So it is in Rhetoric. Every kind of composition requires words, sentences, and figures. The discussion of these involves what may be called the general properties of style, that is, those which belong to every species of composition. But beyond this, works have special peculiarities. Some works are sub- lime, some are beautiful, some witty, some humorous. This gives rise to what may be called the special properties of style. 187 188 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. The Special Properties of Style form the next topic of discussion. They will be considered under the following heads : Sublimity, Beauty, Wit, and Humor. I. SUBLIMITY. The highest commendation that can be given to any piece of composition, is to say that it is sublime. Sublimity, therefore, is a quality of style which deserves special study. It is important to determine with some particularity both what it is, and how it is to be attained. I. WHAT CONSTITUTES SITBIilMITT. How we get the Idea. — The easiest way of getting a clear idea of Sublimity, as applied to what is written or spoken, is first to notice what is sublime in other things. The feeling of Sublimity, as a mental emotion, is perfectly simple, and, like all simple states of the mind, incapable of definition. All we know of the matter, on the final analysis, is, that in certain situations the mind experiences a peculiar elevation, of a pleasurable kind, and that to this mental state we give the name of the Sublime. Two Senses of the Word. — This term, the Sublime, or Sublim- ity, is applied sometimes to the objects which produce the feel- ing, sometimes to the feeling itself. Thus we may say, *' Niagara is a wonderful instance of the sublime," "Sublimity is the chief characteristic of Niagara," or we may say, "I have an overpower- ing sense of sublimity (or, of the sublime) whenever I look upon Niagara." How Defined. — Although the sublime, as a simple mental emotion, is incapable of definition, we can enumerate the several qualities and circumstances which, by general consent, produce the feeling, and can thus enable each one to judge what the feeling is, by an appeal to his own consciousness in view of such qualities or circum- stances. 1. Vastness. — The first circumstance that may be named as producing a feeling of the sublime is vastness. Examples of Vastness. — We have examples of this in wide ex- tended plains to which the eye can set no limit, in the firmament of SPECIAL PROPERTIES — SUBLIMITY. 189 heaven, in the boundless expanse of the ocean. Wherever space is eoncerned, amplitude, or greatness of extent in one dimension or another, is necessary to grandeur. Remove all bounds from any object, and you at once render it sublime. Hence, infinite space, endless numbers, and eternal duration always fill the mind with ideas of sublimity. Direction of this Extent. — It is noticeable, however, that vast ex- tent in a horizontal direction does not affect the mind so power- fully as an equal extent upwards or downwards. A spectator may experience a feeling of grandeur in looking over a plain, stretching in every direction, in unbroken lines, twenty, or thirty, or forty miles. But his feeling would be intensified a thousand-fold were he to look up at a mountain, rising boldly to an equal height into the skies, or down over a sheer precipice, sinking to a like awful depth below. The Firmament. — In the case of the firmament, we have vastness of extent in all directions. It is the widest, the highest, the deepest object in all nature. Hence its universal acceptance as a most im- pressive instance of sublimity. 2. Power. — The second circumstance that may be named as producing a feeling of the sublime is great power. A Locomotive. — A man standing by a railroad track, out in the open country, where the trains pass at full speed, and seeing a mon- ster locomotive, with its enormous burden, sweep by at the rate of forty or fifty miles an hour, shaking the very earth as it passes, gets an impression of power that is in the highest degree sublime. Steam-Hammers. — A like impression is produced on contemplating the gigantic machines now used in engineering operations, — pon- derous hammers, weighing in some instances many tons, swayed up and down, with all their resistless mass, with perfect ease and dex- terity, as if mere playthings in the hands of a child. Indeed, the actual processes of modern mechanism, as seen in our foundries and mines, far surpass in grandeur whatever was fabled by the ancients in their wildest imaginings of the labors of Vulcan and the Cyclops. Natural Objects. — Many objects in nature give an impression of power that awakens a feeling of the sublime. Among these may be mentioned earthquakes, thunder and lightning, volcanoes, cataracts, storms at sea, and nearly all unusual and violent commotions of the 17 13 190 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC. elements. Some of the larger animals, such as the lion, display a certain power and majesty that raise an emotion of sublimity in the beholder. IVar-horse. — The war-horse, as described in the book of Job, is a familiar instance. "Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength ; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not aflfrighted ; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is' the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha ! ha ! and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting." (Job 39 : 19 -25.) 3. Awfulness. — The third circumstance that may be named as producing a feeling of the sublime is a certain degree of awfulness and solemnity. Objects which Inspire Awe. — Darkness, solitude, and silence, espe- cially when connected with some indefinable apprehension of danger, all tend to produce a feeling of sublimity. The scenes of external nature which awaken this feeling are not the gay landscape, the flowery meadow, or the busy and flourishing city ; but the hoary mountain, the solitary lake, the aged forest, or the deserted ruin. Wight. — For the same reason, anything which has in itself ele- ments of grandeur becomes still more impressive when observed at night. The firmament, amid the silence and stillness of that season, strikes the imagination with a more awful grandeur than when seen amid the splendors of the noonday sun. The deep tones of a great bell are at any time grand; but they are doubly so when heard at the still and solemn hour of midnight. In the sublime description which the Scriptures give of the presence of Jehovah, he is repre- sented as surrounding himself with a mysterious darkness. " He bowed the heavens also, and came down ; and darkness was imder his feet. He made darkness his secret place ; his pavilion round about him were dark waters, and thick clouds of the skies." (Psalms 18 : 9 -11.) 4. Obscurity. — Another circumstance that helps to awaken a feeling of the sublime is obscurity. How Obscurity Operates. — Obscurity alone does not produce sub- limity, but it co-operates powerfully with other circumstances in producing this feeling. This is one reason why objects otherwis* SPECIAL PROPERTIES — SUBLIMITY. 191 impressive, become more so in the obscurity of the night season. Things seen only in dim, uncertain outline become magnified and exaggerated under the influence of an excited imagination. Ghosts. — Hence the awe inspired by the supposed appearance of ghosts. The mysterious power attributed to such beings, joined to the awful obscurity attending their appearance, has always given them a strong hold upon the imagination. Example. — A good illustration of this is found in the book of Job, (4 ; 13-17,) when Eliphaz describes a spirit as appearing to him in the silence and obscurity of the night ; " In thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up: it stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before mine eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice. Baying, Shall mortal man be more just than God ? " 5. Loudness of Sound. — Another circumstance which often produces the feeling of the sublime is great loudness of sound. What Kind of Loudness Sublime. — It is not, however, every kind of loud sound that produces this effect. Sounds that are shrill or piercing, may terrify or distress, but they do not fill the mind with ideas of grandeur. It is the deep bass of the ocean, the roar of the cataract and of the storm, of thunder and earthquake, the shouting of a multitude, or the bursting of cannon, not the shriek of the loco- motive, that awakens a feeling of sublimity. Example from Revelation. — How many of these ideas are brought together in that sublime scene described in the Revelation, (19 : 6.) " And I heard as it were the voice of a great multitude, and as the voice of many waters, and as the voice of mighty thunderings, saying, Alleluia: for the Lord God Omnipotent reigueth." 6. Moral Greatness. — A feeling ofthe sublime is awakened when we contemplate anything strikingly great or noble in human actions. This is sometimes called the Moral Sub- lime. Explanation. — Whenever, in some critical and high situation, we behold a man uncommonly intrepid, and resting upon himself; superior to passion and to fear ; elevated by some great principle to 192 COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC. the contempt of popular opinion, of selfish interest, of dangers, or of death, then we are struck with a sense of the sublime. Actions of this kind are called heroic, and they produce an effect similar to that produced by the contemplation of the grand objects in nature, filling the mind with admiration, and even with awe. When king Porua, after a gallant defence, was taken prisoner, and was asked how he wished to be treated, he replied, " Like a king:' When the pilot was afraid to put out to sea with Caesar in an open boat in time of storm, Cfcsar said, " Why do you fear? You carry Csesar:' When Gideon condemned the captive princes Zeba and Zalmunna to be put to death, and commanded his son, who was standing by, to slay them, they replied to Gideon, " Rise thou and fall upon us," thinking it more honorable to fall by the hand of a great warrior than by the hand of a mere youth. An English transport, carrying passengers and troops, sprang a leak upon the Indian Ocean. Held to their duty by a young Ensign, the four hundred troops gara up the life-boats to the passengers ; and forming in i-ank and file on the deck, as tho loaded boats sailed oflf to a safe distance, the passengers caught the sound ©f the young Ensign's voice, as he shouted, standing face to face with death, " Fire, my boys, a parting salute to Old England ! " There came a volley of musketry, and when the smoke cleared away, not even a floating spar told where the vessel and her gallant freight had gone down beneath the waters. Actions such as these fill the mind with a feeling of the sublime. History is full of examples. II. THE SUBLIME IN WRITING. Having thus, in regard to actions and to natural objects, formed some definite idea of what those qualities are which raise in us the feeling of the sublime, we are the better able to explain what it is that constitutes the sublime in writing or discourse. This, then, will be our next inquiry. 1. Sublimity of Subject. — The first requisite, in order that a piece of composition shall be sublime, is that the subject of discourse shall itself be sublime. Explanation. — Unless the action, or the natural object or occur- rence, or whatever it is that we discourse about, is itself such that if actually witnessed by us it would awaken a feeling of sublimity, no mere words can make it so. High - sounding words clothing a mean subject are only the lion's skin covering an ass. They give ua a bray, not the genuine roar which sends terror to the heart. 2. A Vivid Conception of the Strong Points. — The second requisite, in order that a piece of composition shall be sub- lime, is that the writer or speaker form a vivid conception of the strong points of the subject of discourse. SPECIAL PKOPERTIES — SUBLIMITY. 193 Explanation. — A man of feeble abilities, though describing the most awful or the most stupendous object in nature, may yet not have the natural elevation of soul which will lead him to notice what is really grand in the object. He must have something grand in himself in order to conceive rightly of what is grand in other things. It is not in rules to give this ability. It is the gift of God. No one can write sublimely, even on a sublime subject, unless he has by nature a certain greatness of soul. Napoleon in Egypt, wishing to inspire his army with enthusiasm for the battle, pointed to the Pyramids, and said : " Thirty centuries are looking down upon you ! " No one who was not himself of heroic mould would have thus conceived or spoken of those hoary monu- ments of antiquity. A thunder-storm at night among the mountains is a spectacle of terrible sublimity. But a description of it, even if accurate in all its particulars, would not necessarily be sublime. The writer must know how to seize strongly upon those few grand features which constitute its sublimity. None but a poet of high genius could have conceived of it as Byron has done: Far along From peak to peak the rattling crags among, Leaps the live thunder! not from one lone cloud, But every mountain now hath found a tongue, And Jura answers through her misty shroud, Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud ! How the lit lake shines, a phosphoric sea, And the big rain comes dancing to the earth! And now again 'tis black — and now the glee Of the loud hill shakes with its mountain mirth, As if they did rejoice o'er a young earthquake's birth. 3. Suppression of Belittling Details. — A tbird condition to sublimity in discourse is that the author knows what par- ticulars to omit, as well as what to insert. Example from Jfilton. — There are, even about the grandest ob- jects, many details which are belittling. Milton, in his battle of the angels, describes them as tearing up the mountains and throwing them at one another : From their foundations loos'ning to and fro, They plucked the seated hills, with all their load. Rocks, waters, woods ; and by the shaggy tops Uplifting, bore them in their hands. Here no circumstance is mentioned which is not sublime. 17* 194 COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC. Claudian. — One of the ancient poets, Claudian, in describing a sim- ilar scene in the wars of the giants, adds a circumstance which makes the whole thing ridiculous. He represents one of the giants with Mount Ida upon his shoulders, and a river, which flowed from the mountain, running down along the giant's back. Virgil. So great a poet as Virgil has made a like mistake in de- scribing an eruption of Mount JEtna. Personifying the mountain, he describes it under the degrading image of a drunken man "belch- ing up its bowels with a groan," (eructans viscera cum gemitu). Blackmore. — Sir Richard Blackmore, by a singular perversity of taste, seized upon this idea as the capital circumstance in his de- scription, and, as one of his critics observes, represents the mountain as in a fit of the cholic. ^tna, and all the burning mountains, fired Their kindled stores with inbred storms of wind Blown up to rage, and roaring out complain, As torn with inward gripes, and torturing pain; Laboring, they cast their dreadful vomit round, And with their melted bowels spread the ground. 4. Simplicity and Conciseness of Expression. — A fourth condition of sublimity in writing is that the expression be simple and concise. Explanation. — Simplicity is here used in opposition to profuse and studied ornament, and conciseness to superfluous expression. In all the celebrated examples of the sublime which literature aflfords, the words used are comparatively plain and few. The sub- limity is in the thought, and that is all the more impressive for stand- ing, like the Pyramids, in simple and unadorned grandeur. Longinus, a learned Greek of the third century, quotes, as an in- stance of the sublime, the manner in which Moses, in the first chapter of Genesis, describes the creation of light: "God said, Let there be light, and there was light; " yet the expression is perfectly plain and simple, without ornament, and without a superfluous word. The grandeur of the passage consists in the strong impression it gives us of the greatness of the divine power, which produces such wonderful off'ects by merely speaking a word. The Sublimity of the Gospels. — Many of the sayings and most of the miracles of our Lord, as recorded in the Gospels, have the same characteristic. They are expressed with the utmost simplicity and SPECIAL PROPERTIES — SUBLIMITY. 195 plainness, and yet they are in the highest degree sublime. The most stupendous miracles are described with a simple majesty fully equal to that in Genesis which extorted such admiration from Lon- ginus. Examples. — In describing the greatest of all his miracles, that of raising from the dead, the record is simply, "Jesus said, Lazarus, come forth: and he that was dead came forth." In healing the worst form of disease then known, he merely said to the leprous man, " Be thou clean : and immediately his leprosy was cleansed." When the disciples were in peril at sea, more terrifying than that which daunted Csesar's pilot, Jesus with calm serenity said, "It is /, be not afraid." His claims to authority, as a teacher come from God, are put forth in few and simple words, but at the same time with a majesty of expression that forced even his enemies to say, " never man spake like this man." Character of these Utterances. — These utterances are either simply blasphemous in their arrogance, or they are in the high6st degree sublime. Imagine any other man that ever lived, saying to the countless tribes of affliction, in all the ends of the earth, "Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy-laden, and / will give you rest." " Let not. your hearts be troubled: ye believe in God, believe also in otang^er8 of "Wit. — "Professed wits, though they are generally courted for the amusement they afford, are seldom respected for the qualities they possess. The habit of seeing things in a witty point of view increases, and makes incursions from its own proper regions upon principles and opinions which are ever held sacred by the wise and good. A witty man is a dramatic performer ; in process of time, he can no more exist without applause, than he can exist without air ; if his audience be small, or if they are inattentive, or if a new wit defrauds him of any portion of his admiration, it is all over with him, — he sickens, and is extinguished. The applauses of the theatre on which he performs are so essential to him, that he must obtain them at the expense of decency, friendship, and good feeling. " It must always be probable, too, that a mere wit is a person of light and frivolous understanding. His business is not to discover relations of ideaa that are useful, and have a real influence upon life, but to discover the more trifling relations which are 18* 14 206 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. only amusing ; he never looks at things with the naked eye of common sense, but is always gazing at the world through a Claude Lorraine glass, — discovering a thou- sand appearances which are created only by the instrument of inspection, and cover- ing every object with factitious and unnatural colors. In short, the character of a mere wit it is impossible to consider as very amiable, very respectable, or very safe." — Sydney Smith. Advantages of Wit. — "I have talked of the danger of wit : I do not mean by that to enter into commonplace declamation against faculties because they ar« dangerous ; wit is dangerous, eloquence is dangerous, a talent for observation is dangerous, every thing is dangerous that has efficacy and vigor for its characteristics; nothing is safe but mediocrity. The business is, in conducting the understanding well, to risk something; to aim at uniting things that are commonly incompatible. The meaning of an extraordinary man is, that he is eight men, not one man ; that he lias as much wit as if he had no sense, and as much sense as if he had no wit ; that his conduct is as judicious as if he were the dullest of human beings, and his imagi- nation as brilliant as if he were irretrievably ruined. But when wit is combined with sense and information ; Avhen it is softened by benevolence, and restrained by strong principle ; when it is in the hands of a man who can use it and despise it, who can be witty and something much better than witty, who loves honor, justice, decency, good nature, morality, and religion ten thousand times better than wit ; wit is then a beautiful and delightful part of our nature. " There is no more interesting spectacle than to see the effects of wit upon the dif- ferent charactei-s of men ; than to observe it expanding caution, relaxing dignity, unfreezing coldness, teaching age, and care, and pain to smile, extorting reluctant gleams of pleasure from melancholy, and charming even the pangs of grief. It is pleasant to observe how it penetrates through the coldness and awkwardness of soci- ety, gradually bringing men nearer together, and like the combined force of wine and oil, giving every man a glad heart and a shining countenance. Genuine and innocent wit like this is surely the flavor of the mind! Man could direct his ways by plain reason, and support his life by tasteless food ; but God has given us wit, and flavor, and brightness, and laughter, and perfumes, to enliven the days of man's pilgrimage, and to 'charm his pained steps over the burning ma,r\e.' " — Sydney Smitli, IV. HUMOR. Humor is, in many respects, like wit. Its object is to excite laughter, and it appeals accordingly to our sense of the ridiculous. Incongruity. — The laughter produced by humor comes from see- ing things which are incongruous. If we see a man pretentiously dressed, but using awkward and clownish gestures, or employing big words while violating the most common rules of grammar, the things seem incongruous, and we have an immediate propensity to laugh. Surprise. — To say that a thing is incongruous is only another way of saying that it is unexpected. Surprise, therefore, is an ingredient in humor as it is in wit. Contempt. — Surprise and incongruity alone, however, are not suf- SPECIAL PEOPERTIES — HUMOR. 207 ficient to constitute humor. To see a refined and delicate lady accidentally fallen into the mud, would excite our pity; to see a perfumed fop in the same condition would make us laugh. There would be incongruity and surprise in both instances ; but in the one, there are circumstances which awake a feeling of tenderness and respect, and this feeling holds in abeyance our sense of the ludi- crous. This suggests another condition as necessary to humor. The incongruity which is to make us laugh must not be in con- nection with circumstances which awaken any higher feeling, such as pity, fear, reverence, and so forth. We must have, in other words, a certain feeling of contempt for the person laughed at. We would not laugh at a man who was in the agonies of dying, no mat- ter how incongruous and absurd might be the contortions of his face. The solemnity of the occasion holds all lighter emotions in check. "It is a beautiful thing to observe the boundaries which nature has affixed to the ridiculous, and to notice liow soon it is swallowed up by the more illustrious feelings of our minds. Where is the heart so hard that could bear to see the awkward resources and contrivances of the poor turned into ridicule? Who could laugh at the fractured ruined body of a soldier? Who is so voicktd as to amuse himself with the infirmities of extreme old age ? or to find subject for humor in the weakness of a per- ishing, dissolving body ? Who is there that does not feel himself disposed to over- look the little peculiarities of the truly great and wise, and to throw a veil over that ridicule which they have redeemed by the magnitude of their talents and the splen- dor of their virtues? Who ever thinks of turning into ridicule our great and ardent hopes of a world to come? Whenever the man of humor meddles with these things, he is astonished to find that in all the great feelings of their nature the mass of man- kind always think and act aright, that they are ready enough to laugh, but that they are quite as ready to drive away with indignation and contempt the light fool who comes, with the feather of wit, to crumble the bulwarks of truth, and to beat down the Temples of God ! " — 5j/dney Smith. Characteristic. — Another important thing to be observed is, that, in humor, the incongruity which excites our mirth is something char- acteristic of the person in whom such incongruity exists. It is something which would be absurd for us to do, and therefore we laugh at it, but it is in perfect keeping for him. Unless it is thus in keeping with his character, it cannot be humorous, although it may be ridiculous. A humorous story told of a Yankee, and in keeping with the Yankee character, would cease to be humorous if told of an Irishman or a Dutchman. The smart sayings of Sam Weller would be laughable anywhere ; but they are humorous only as com- ing from Mr. Weller himself. Humor, to be successful, demands a fitness of things approaching, in sharp exactness, the demands of the sublime. The things described must be congruous in the very midst 208 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. of their incongruity. They must exactly fit the character of the person to whom they are attributed, while equally not fitting for us, and therefore laughed at by us. Kindly. — Lastly, in genuine humor there is always a feeling of kindliness towards the persons who are ridiculed. We have our laugh at them, but in a good-natured way which wishes them no harm. Humor, in this respect, differs widely from wit. It is never bitter, it is never malignant. It is perfectly consistent with the largest charity. Thackeray, himself a humorist of high order, has defined humor to be a compound of wit an^ love. "The best hu- mor," he says, *' is that which contains most humanity, that which is flavored throughout with tenderness and kindness." Humorists Kind-hearted. — In accordance with the last remark, it may be observed that those writers who have been most celebrated for their wit have usually been noted for their ill-temper, while the humorists have in the main been persons of kind and amiable dis- position. Among the humorous writers of recent times who may be quoted in illustration of this remark, are Lamb, Hood, Thackeray, and Dickens, of England, and Irving, Lowell, Holmes, and Saxe, of our own country. Continuance. — Wit and Humor differ in regard to continuance. Wit is concentrated, and comes at intervals, and by flashes. Humor is difi'erent in its nature, and is capable of being continued through a whole performance, and for almost any length of time. CHAPTER VI. Versification. The present chapter has to do with the mechanism of Poetry, rather than with poetry itself. Object of Inquiry. — It is not necessary, at this point, to define what poetry is, as to its essential nature. It is for the present enough to know, that the object which the poet has in presenting his thoughts in a poetical form is to increase thereby the pleasure which the mere thoughts themselves might give the reader, and that a part at least of this increased pleasure depends upon contrivances which are wholly of a mechanical nature. THE FOTTirDATlON OF VERSE. The Question. — Why is it that the same thoughts, even when expressed in the same words, please more, arranged in one particular way, than they do under some other ar- rangement, which conveys the sense with equal clearness ? The Proof. — That the fact is as it is here stated, is a point which any one can decide for himself. Take, for instance, the following passage from Byron, stripped of its poetical form : " It is the hour when the nightingale's high note is heard from the boughs ; it is the hour when lovers' vows in every wliispered word seem sweet ; and gentle winds and near waters make music to the lonely ear. The dews have lightly wet each flower, and the stars are met in the sky, and a deeper blue is on the wave, and a browner hue on the leaf, and that clear obscure in the heaven, so softly dark and darkly pure, which follows the decline of day, as twilight melts away beneath the moon." Example Explained. — Here the sense is just as clear as in the form in which it was originally written, and the words are all the 209 210 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. same : they are only arranged differently. The words, even under their present arrangement, exhibit pleasant pictures to the imagina- tion. But how much is that pleasure enhanced, when they flow forth in the melodious form in which the poet placed them ! It is the hour when from the houghs The nightingale's high note is heard; It is the hour when lovers' vows Seem sweet in every whispered word; And gentle winds and waters near Make music to the lonely ear. Each flower the dews have lightly wet, And in the sky the stars have met, And on the wave is deeper hlue, And on the leaf a browner hue, And in the heaven that clear obscure, So softly dark, and darkly pure, Which follows the decline of day, As twilight melts beneath the moon away. There is probably not a reader living who does not feel an increased gratification in reading the passage in this form. The question arises, whence this increase of pleasure? It cannot be in the sense, for that is expressed with equal clearness, and by the same words, in both cases. Verse in an Unknown Language. — This point is rendered, if pos- sible, still more apparent by remarking that the same principle, whatever it is, that gives us this increase of pleasure, gives us pleasure in the case even of nonsense, that is, in the melodious versification of a language which we do not understand, and which therefore con- veys no sense to us. Example.— Take the first line in Virgil. The sense is expressed clearly enough by the words standing thus : Tu, Tityre, sub fagi patulae tegmine recubans. It is not necessary to understand Latin, to find an agreeable diflfer- ence when the line is read as Virgil wrote it : Tityre, tu patulae, recubans sub tegmine fagi. Explanation. — The difference here cannot be in the sense. It must be in the sound ; and, to be more specific still, not simply in the sounds by themselves, for we have the same identical sounds in both cases, but in the arrangement of the sounds. The ultimate analysis of the subject, therefore, necessarily leads to some consid- eration of the action of the vocal organs in uttering articulate sounds. VERSIFICATION. 211 1. Vocal Impulse. — The first thing to be observed in re- gard to this utterance is that the vocal organs act by im- pulse. This may be accepted as an ultimate fact. A Comparison. — The movement of the voice in pronunciation is not that of a boat gliding equably through the water, but that of a man walking on the ground by distinct steps. The voice goes step by step in the pronunciation of words. Comparison Extended. — Extending the metaphor somewhat, we may say, it is the consonant sound which arrests the voice in its progress, just as the ground arrests the foot of the man walking. So also it is the vowel sound, in which tho voice is prolonged, that represents the space passed over by the traveller in going from one footstep to another. To carry the voice over this space, that is, to carry it from one consonant upon which it has rested, through a vowel, to a lodgment upon some other consonant, requires a distinct, fresh impulse. Syllables. — These impulses are only another name for syllables, and a syllable is so much of a word as is pronounced during one im- pulse of the voice. It includes a vowel always, and generally one or more consonants. 2. Strong and Light Impulsed. — The second thing to be observed in this matter is that in ordinary pronunciation we never utter a long succession of syllables with precisely the same degree of impulse. This also is to be accepted as an ultimate fact. Explanation. — One finds himself naturally and easily giving a quick, strong impulse to every second or third syllable, and a light, tripping one to the syllable or syllables intervening. The organs seem to go most easily and pleasantly, not in the military tread of the soldier, but in the hop-step-and-jump of schoolboys. The syl- lable to which this strong impulse is given is variously called a heavy, a grave, or an accented syllable. 3. Time between Impulses. — A third thing to be observed is, that, after giving one of these strong impulses or accents, some little time is required before the organs are in a con- dition to give another accent. Accentual Intervals. — This interval between two accents may either be left vacant, or it may be filled up with one or more light. 212 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. unaccented syllables. When the time is not so filled up, there is, after each heavy impulse, a pause or rest. Kxamples. — This may be illustrated by the words faith, truth, mirth, spite, hate. In pronouncing these words, thus arranged, we involuntarily give to each a strong impulse or accent, and after each we make a pause. If to each of these words the syllable /wi be added, msiking faithful, truthful, mirth- ful, spiteful, hateful, the additional light syllable will then occupy the time before occupied by the pause. ^ The interval between the accents may be occupied by two light syllables, instead of one, as in the word faithfully. These two light syllables are then considered as occupying exactly the same time as the one syllable, or the pause. The three lines, Faith, Truth, Mirth, Spite, Hate, Faithful, Truthful, Mirthful, Spiteful, Hateful, Faithfully, Truthfully, Mirthfully, Spitefully, Hatefully, are all pronounced in exactly the same time, and are, in versification, all counted as of the same length. Accentual Stress not Arbitrary. — It is not, therefore, by custom, or by the edicts of prosodians and orthoepists, that certain syllables, at short intervals, receive a strong and distinguishing stress or im- pulse of the voice. On the contrary, this alternate action and reac- tion of the voice is as natural and involuntary as are the pulsations of the heart, or the inspiration and expiration of the breath. Accent Paramount. — Accent is thus a paramount law in all speech, dividing it up into convenient and agreeable sec- tions or periods. Names of Accentual Divisions. — These sections or periods have received various names. They are called sometimes "eadences," because at the termination of each the voice seems to fall ; some- times " feet," because the voice seems to go through the syllables step by step; sometimes " metres," because thereby a line or a sen- tence is meted or measured ; sometimes also " numbers," because it thus becomes a matter of count. All these terms may be, and have been, applied equally to prose and verse, because all speech neces- sarily has the accentual divisions indicated by these names. Custom, however, has in a great measure restricted the terms "feet" and "metres" to poetry, and "cadences" to prose. Place of the Accents Important. — The heavy or accented syllables may be placed at such convenient distances apart as to give both ease to the speaker and pleasure to the hearer. On the other hand, we can readily imagine such a combination of syllables with refer- VERSIFICATION. 213 ence to the accent, as to render the pronunciation at once difficult and dissonant. Examples. — Take the following line, made up for the occasion : Necessitous halting to for emphasized alcohol eccentricity. In pronouncing such a line, we find the voice struggling like a man making his way through a bog. How different from this is the flow of the voice in reading such a passage as the following : " I shall not think my employment useless or ignoble, if, by my assistance, foreign nations and distant ages gain access to the propagators of knowledge, and understand the teachers of truth; if my labors afford light to the repositories of science, and add celebrity to Bacon, to Hooker, to Milton, and to Boyle." — Johnson. Rhythm. — This easy and melodious flow of the voice is called the Rhythm. It depends upon the proper adjust- ment and proportion of the syllables in reference to the accent. Both in Prose and Poetry. — This Rhythm may exist in prose. It always does exist in prose that is well written. The passage just quoted from Johnson may be divided into feet, varying in length from two syllables to five, and occurring in parts with some degree of regularity. But if a rhythm may be detected in prose, how much more is it to be looked for in poetry, where the accents occur with almost undeviating uniformity, and never with more than two intervening syllables. Rhythm a Source of Pleasure. — Such is the constitution of the human mind, that we cannot perceive, this rhythm without receiving a pleasure therefrom. This pleasure is based upon the same prin- ciple as that by which we are pleased with the sight of architectural proportions, or the sound of harmonious music. It is the percep- tion of beauty in whatever is symmetrical. The Original Question. — This brings us back to a direct answer in part at least, to the question with which we set out, namely, the same sentiments being expressed by the same words, what Is it that makes the poetical arrangement of the words more pleasing than the prose arrangement? I answer: It is the greater perfection of it» Rhythm. Difference of Prose and Poetry as to Rhythm. — This rhythm exists indeed in both prose and poetry, but in the latter it is in much 19 214 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. greater perfection than in the former. Poetry indeed contains a recognized system of cadences, so divided as to present sensible responses to the ear, at regular, projiortioned, and convenient dis- tances ; prose, on the other hand, is composed of all sorts of cadences, arranged without attention to obvious rule, divided into clauses that have no ascertained proportion, and presenting no responses to the ear at any legitimate or determined intervals. The Conclnsion. — The conclusion of the whole matter is, that a part of the pleasure to be derived from a poetical arrangement of syllables depends upon the perfection of its rhythm ; and the per- fection of its rhythm depends upon its cadences being so arranged as to give that precise mixture of uniformity with variety in the sound, which is found to be most pleasing to the ear. Bhyme. — Rhythm, however, is not the only source of pleasure in Terse. Another equally marked is to be found in Rhyme. Rhyme is like Rhythm in one respect. It is something dependent upon sound, and independent of the sense. The chiming of one syllable with another, at certain regulated and recognized intervals, gives a pleasure to the hearer entirely different from, and additional to, that derived from the thought or meaning. Division of the Subject. — Having thus shown in a general manner what is the true foundation of verse, I proceed to explain some of the terms used in reference to it, and to exhibit some of the forms employed. This will be done under the several heads of Rhythm, Rhymb, Blank Verse, Mixed Verse, Stanzas, Modern Versb, Elision. I. RHYTHM. Rhytlmi is the harmonious arrangement of syllables in reference to sound. Versification. — Versification is simply the making of verses. It is the mechanical part of poetry. Poetry. — Poetry is a more general term, Including versification and something more important in addition. There may be correct versification without poetry. Tliero may indeed be correct verse without sense. A prominent exercise in the Latin Bcliools of England consists in making what are called "nonsense verses," the object being simply to train the ear to accuracy in the rules of prosody. Verse is used in works on Prosody as synonymous with line. A line is callad a verse, f^om the Latin " verto," to turn, becauM at the end of a Uin VERSIFICATION — RHYTHM. 215 we tarn back to begin a new line. In popular language verse is often used incorrectly for "stanza." Stanza. — A stanza is a number of lines taken together and so ad- justed to each other as to form one whole. Couplet. — Two successive lines rhyming together form a couplet. Triplet. — Three successive lines rhyming together form a triplet. Quatrain. — A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. Foot. — Foot is synonymous with metre. It is the smallest part or division of a line, being the unit by which a line is measured. A foot includes an accented syllable and the unaccented syllable or syllables, If there are any, which accompany it in making the accentual divisions of a line. Length of a Line. — The length of a line is expressed by the number of accents or feet which it contains. There is no natural or necessary limit to the length of a line. A line very short, containing only one foot or two feet, is lacking in dignity and seriousness, and is never used except as an occasional variety among lines of greater length. On the other hand, very long lines fatigue the attention, and are now generally abandoned. Number of Lengths of Line. — Practically, we have in verse only six varieties of length ; namely, lines of one foot, two feet, three feet, four feet, five feet, and six feet, and these lines are called severally, Monometers, Dimeters, Trimeters^ Tetrameters, Pentameters, and Hexameters. Kind of Foot. — The kind of foot depends upon two things ; namely, the number of unaccented syllables that are taken with the accented one, and the position of the accented syllable with reference to these unaccented ones. The number of possible varieties depends of course upon the capabilities of the vocal organs. Wo may have, in the first place, just as many varieties as we can con- veniently utter syllables before taking a fresh accent. We have thus : * Mercy-, a foot of two syllables. Merciful, a foot of three syllables. Mercif ulll^, a foot of four syllables, &c. Each of these varieties, secondly, may be doubled, trebled, quadrupled, Ac, accord- ing to the position of the accented syllable in reference to the unaccented ones. Thus : Merciful, ^ Rgferee, > all feet of three syllables, Convention, J yet all unlike, the first having the accented syllable at the beginning, the second at the end, and the third in the middle. * In this chapter, the marks - « are used to indicate, not long and short syllables, but accented and unaccented ones. 216 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Greeks and Latins. — The Greeks and the Latins used many more varieties of feet than we do. Their syllables were divided into longs and shorts, instead of accented and unaccented, and their pros- ody was much more precise and determinate than ours. The popu- lar ear among them, being trained to greater accuracy and uniform- ity in the pronunciation of syllables, admitted readily greater variety in its feet. Number of Kinds of Feet. — Practically, in English, we are limited in verse to feet of two syllables and feet of three syllables, and to two varieties of each, namely, with the accent either at the begin- ning of the foot, or at the end. This gives us our four varieties of feet in common use : Iambus, | v . | iwake "> Trochee, | - v | mercf / feet of two syllables. Anapaest, I « — I r^ferSe | ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ syllables. Dactyl, I " ^ "^ 1 merciful J We have a fifth kind of foot, consisting of two syllables both accented, as twilight, lamplight, outside, hearsay, &c. Such a foot is called a Spondee. But v>q have no whole lines made up of spondees. Consequently we have no such thing as spondaic verse. Kinds and Varieties of Verse. — We have in English the four kinds of verse, growing out of the kind of foot exclusively employed in each, namely. Iambic^ Trochaic, Anapaestic, and Dactylic; and in each kind, six varieties, growing out of the number of feet used in the line, namely, Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, and Hexameter ; making, in all, twenty-four varieties. These kinds and varieties are exhibited at the bottom of pages 218, 219. Formerly a Heptameter, or a line of seven feet, was much in use. What in Hymnology is called Common Metre was onco Heptameter; thus, Hosanna to the Prince of Light, that clothed himself in clay ; Entered the iron gates of death, and tore the bars away. But long lines like this being found unwieldy, and inconvenient both for writing and printing, they have been very generally broken into two lines, the firat of four feet, and the second of three feet ; thus : • Ilosanna to the Prince of Light, That clothed himself in clay; Entered the iron gates of death, And tore the bars away. Maoaolttjr's Laya are au example. Part of them are printed aa Heptameter lines, , VERSIFICATION — RHYTHM. 217 and part are broken into lines alternately of four feet and three feet. The Lay of Horatius begins thus : Lars Porsena of Clusium By the Nine Gods he swore, That the great house of Tarquin Should suffer wrong no more. It might just as well have been printed as follows : Lars Porsena of Clusium by the Nine Gods he swore, That the great house of Tarquin should suffer wrong no more. The Lay of Virginia reads thus : Ye good men of the Commons, with loving hearts and true, Who stand by the bold Tribunes, that still have stood by you. The metre and the rhythm are really the same as in Horatiuf^ and the verse might have been printed in the same way ; thus : Te good men of the Commons, With loving hearts and true, Who stand by the bold Tribunes, That still have stood by you. Iambic Verse. — Until quite recently, nine-tenths of English verse was Iambic, and probably three-fourths of it Iambic Pentameter, which is the English heroic verse, corresponding to the Hexameter of the Greek and Latin. Trochaic verses have been used, though sparingly, for two centu- ries or more. Some of the most finished Trochaics in the language are found in Dryden's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day : I Softly I sweet In | LydiSn | meas&res, I 1 Soon he | soothed his | soul 16 \ pleasQree. 1 War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; Honor but an empty bubble; Never ending, still beginning, Fighting still, and still destroying, If. the world be worth thy winning. Think, oh ! think it worth enjoying : Lovely Thais sits beside thee, Take the goods the gods provide the*. Poe's Raven is in trochaic measure : I 5nce Qplon & | midnight | drgarf, | While I wandered, weak and weary. Over many a quaint and curious Volume of forgotten lore. Anapaests have been in current use for a long time. Dactylic verse was almost unknown in English until the present 19* 218 COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC. century. Even yet it is not in general use, although we have had some brilliant examples of it. Witness the Boat Song in Scott's Lady of the Lake: j Hail to thS I chief whd In | trIQmph &d|vanc68l Honored and blest be the ever-green pine I Long may the tree, in his banner that glances, Flourish, the shelter and grace of our linel Heaven send it happy dew, Earth lend it sap anew, 1. Iambic. 1. — Monomder, | ^ - I I &wake I 2. — Dimeter, | « - | ^^ - I I t(5 me I thS rose | Z.— Trimmer, \^ _|w . |w - | I In pla|c68 far | and near | A:. — Tetrameter, |« -I^-|*'-|^-| and may | at last | m^ wSajry- age | b.— Pentameter, \ ^ - |« "l"" l*'"!^"! I h6w 15ved | hCiw val|u6d Once | avails | th6e nOt | Q. — Hexameter, j - - | « - |« - | « - | « -|^ - | I thj^ realm | fi5r6vl6r lasts | thj- 6wn | M688l,ah rfiigns | 2. Trochaic. 1. — Monometer, | - « | I mgrcj- 1 2. — Dimeter, | - ** I - « I I dn tbS I mountain | 3. — TVimaer, \ - '^ | - ^ I - • " I I when oOr | hearts are | mOurnIng | A.— Tetrameter, \ - v] -w|- w|- «| I I0vel3^ I Thais I sits bS | side th6e | b.—FtntameUr, \ -^ \ - -I - w|- wl-wj I satyrs I by thS | brOoklSt | lOve to | daily I ,. .| - . I - .| - w| . w| .. I I On a I mountain | stretched be | neath & | hOary | wHlOw ( VERSIFICATION — RHYTHM. 219 Qayly to bourgeon, and broadly to grow, While every Highland gleu Sends our shout back again, Roderick Vich Alpine dhu, ho ! ieroe I Hood's Bridge of Sighs : I One mOre tin|f(5rttlnate, \ Weary of breath. Rashly importunate, Gone to her death I 3. Anapaestic. 1. — MonomeUr, | « ^^ - | I rgfgree | 2. — Dimeter, | « « " I " ** - I I dn the plain | &8 hS strode | 3. — Trimeter, |« « -|^ ^- I^*'-| I I wotild hide | with thS beasts | 6f thS chase [ i. — TetramMer, \ « w-|w w - |« w-|vw -j I when rgpojsing that night | 5n m^ pai|16t 6t striw ( 5. — Ptntam,eter, Iw w- 1^ ^ -Iww -Iv/ w-|wv -1 I 6n thS warm | ch6ek 6f youth | th6 gay smile | find th6 rOso | evSr blSnd | 6. — Hexameter, Iw V - Iw w-Iw w -|ww • Iw w -|ww>l I bQt the leaves | ire b6gin|nlng td wlth|6r and drOop | ftnd thSy die | In i dSy | 4. Dactylic. 1. — Manometer, merciful | 2. — Dimeter, 8, — Trimeter, 4. — Tetrameter, 5. — Pentameter, 6. — Hexameter, l-w wj . w w I - w w] . w wl - W W| -WW ^ I 6v6r thS I vall6y with | spged like th§ | wind ftU thS | steeds w6re & | gallOpIng | take h6r tip | tendferlf I -wwl- ww|-w v| weary and | wOrn shS a| waited thSe | -w w|-w ^'l" ww|-W ^1 fad6d thd | vapdrs that | seemed td SnlcOmpass him | - w w I - w w 1 -w w I - w w| . WW I life hath its | pleas &res bat | fading are | they as thS | flSwSrSt | 220 COMPOSITIOlff AND RHETORIC, Tennyson's Charge of the Light Brigade : I CannCn t5 | right 6f th6m, | Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them, Volleyed and thundered: Stormed at with shot and shell. Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of death, Into the mouth of hell, Rode the six hundred I Heber'a Epiphany Hymn : I Brightest and | best 5f th6 | sOns 6f thS I morning, | Dawn on our darkness and lend us thine aid, Star of the East, the horizon adorning, Giiide where our infant Redeemer is laid. II. RHYME. The mechanical arrangements which have been described in the last few pages are for the purpose of perfecting the Rhythm, which is one leading soHrce of the pleasure derived from the form, of poetry. There is, however, in modern verse, an additional source of pleas- ure, of the same nature as rhythm, so far at least that equally with rhythm it depends upon sound, though quite unlike it in other respects. I mean Rhyme. Origin of Rhyme. — The origin of Rhyme is involved in some obscurity. It has been attributed to the nations of Northern Europe, to the Arabians, and to the early Christians. Rhyming hymns are found among the writings of the Latin Fathers as early as the fourth century. Some of the Latin hymns composed by the monks of the middle ages are very sweet and beautiful. The fol- lowing lines are from a hymn on the Nativity, written by a German monk of the ninth centijry. Tribus signis Deo dignis Dies ista colitur: Tria signa Laudo digna Coetus his persequitur. Stella magos Duxit vagos Ad praesepe Domini; Congaudentcs Omncs gontos iyus psallunt nomini. VERSIFICATION — RHYME. 221 Etymology of Rhyme. — The word "rhyme" is of doubtful ety- mology. It is sometimes traced to the Greek rheo, (pew,) which, how- ever, would make rheum, not rhyme. The •word is spelt by some distinguished scholars "rhime." Whatever be its orthography or its etymology, its meaning is not a matter of doubt. Definition. — Rhyme is a correspondence in sound between syllables which, in the scheme of the verse, have some relation to each other. Explanation. — Not every correspondence in sound makes a rhyme. It is only when the syllables so consounding are in some way related to each other, as, for instance, each marking the end of a line, or marking one part of a line corresponding to another part, and so on. It is too much, we daily kear. To wive and thrive both in one year, — Tusser, In this example, **hear" and "year" are related to each other as each marking the end of a line, and "wive" and "thrive" are related as marking corresponding parts of the same line. Location of Rkyme not Limited. — There is nothing in the nature of Rhyme to limit its use to the end of a word, or to the end of a line. It may be used legitimately at the beginning of a wprd, or at the beginning, the middle, or even in the quarters of a line, and historically it is found in all these positions ; and in each it is sub- ject to laws which do not necessarily govern it elsewhere. Rhyme Single, Double, &c. — Rhyme may be single, double, triple, quadruple, &c., according to the number of syllables that chim« together. Double rhymes are common. Look not thou on beauty's charming. Sit thou still when kings are arming. Taste not when the wine-cup glistens. Speak not when the people listens. — Scott. Triple rhymes are more rare, and are mostly imitated from th« Italian, in which they abound. Oh ye immortal gods, what is theogony f Oh thou too mortal man, what is philunthropy f Oh world that was, and is, what is cosmogony f Some people hare accused me of misanthropy ; 16 222 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. And yet I know no more than the xnaJiogafty That forms this desk, of what they mean : — hjcanthropjf I comprehend, for without transformation Men become wolves on every slight occasion. — Byron. More Extended Rhymes. — RhysQes extending to more than three syllables are found only among the Arabians and Persians, where sometimes every line in a whole poem ends in the same sound, and that sound extends to four and even five syllables. Bhyme at the Beginning of a Word. — This is usually called Allite- ration, and it admits of three varieties. (1.) Where the cotTespondence of sound is between two initial consonants ; as. And now is religion a rider, a roamer by the streets, A teader of Zove-days, and a Zand-buyer. — Piers Plowman. This is the old Saxon alliteration. It prevailed universally in the Anglo-Saxon verse, and in that of many of the other northern nations cognate to the Saxons, and formed indeed the governing law of their verse. In modern English this consonantal alliteration is never used as a prevailing law of the verse, but occurs frequently as an occasional variety, and often with striking and beautiful effect. -Silently sat the artist alone, es»rving a Christ from the ivory bone. Little by little, with toil and pain, He won his wa.y through the sightless grain. Boker's Ivcry-Odrver. • The strength he ^^ains is from the embrace he pives. — Pope. (2.) Where the correspondence of sound is between two initial vowels. This is said to have been a common method of rhyming among the Irish.* In English it is used only as an occasional alliteration, and to give increased point to an antithesis. "Charm ache with air." — Shakspeare. Oppression is the same In /taly or iudia, in Austria or Albany. (3.) Where the correspondence in sound includes both a consonant and a vowel ; as, riding, rhyming; ^ddling,jffsting. Rhyme at the end of a Word. — This is the only kind of correspond- ence in sound generally recognized as rhyme. This likewise admits of three varieties. (1.) Where the correspondence in sound is limited to the consonants following the final vowel ; as, comprehenc? reprimand. This is not now recognized as legitimate rhyme, though said to have once been common. (2.) Where the correspondence in sound includes the final vowel, the consonant sound after it, and the consonant sound before it. * Guest's English Rhythms, Vol. I., p. 117. VERSIFICATION — RHYME. 223 Bonaparte the rogue The council did prorogue. This la called the rich rhyme, and is said to be in favor among some races, though distasteful to the English ear. (3.) Where the correspondence in sound includes the final vowel and the consonant sound after it ; as, sibout, without. This last is our common rhyme, and is the only one considered as legitimate in modern English verse. Conditions of Single Ehyme. — When it is intended in English to make a single syllable rhyme to another in the manner most accept- able to the ear, the following conditions are necessary: (1.) The rhyming syllable should be an accented one. This rule is violated in such an example as the following : The fire oft times he kind^e^A, His hand therewith he singe-eth. (2.) The vowel of the rhyming syllable, together with the consonant or consonants following the vowel, should be of precisely the same sound in the two syllables. Thus " breath " does not rhyme to " heath.'" The consonant sounds are alike, but the vowel sounds are not. So also "disease" does not rhyme to " increase," because, while the vowel sounds are alike, the consonant sounds difi"er. It should be observed too, in this connection, that rhyme is entirely a matter of sound, not of spelling. Then, King of glory, come, And with thy favor crown This temple as thy dome, This people as thy own. In this example " come " and " dome," " crown " and " own," are very faulty as rhymes, though corresponding entirely in the spelling. (3.) The vowel in each of the rhyming syllables should be immediately preceded by a consonant, not by another vowel. Thus, Howsoe'r Greet the ear, is not an agreeable ryhme. The vovels o and e, preceding the rhyming syllables, produce an unpleasant hiatus. If a consonant is placed before one of them, aa Howsoe'er Greet his ear, the rhyme is improved, though still not perfectly agreeable. By patting, in like manner, a consonant before the other, as Now or ne'er Greet his ear, all objection is removed. (4.) The consonantal :ound thus immediately preceding the rhyming vowel should differ in the two syllables. Thus omit, remit, abound, rebound, are not agree- able rhymes. They constitute the objectionable rich rhyme, before described. What the ear requires is a difference of consonantal sound immediately preceding the rhyming vowel. 224 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. (5.) "When, in a stanza, two or more lines rhyme together, and two or more con* tiguous lines have another and a different rhyme, that other rhyme should difTer from the first in its vowel as well as in its consonant sound. Thus, in a quatrain, if the four lines should end severally in the words time, ride, crime, bide, the alternation would not be entirely satisfactory, because of the continued recurrence of the i sound. Change to iim^, rode, crime, bode, and the ear is satisfied ; the alternation is complete. Conditions of Double and Triple Rhyme. — When the two or three final syllables of one word rhyme to the two or three final syllables of another word, the first of the two or three syllables thus rhyming together should be made to observe all the five conditions just given for single rhyme ; but, in the remaining syllable or syllables, all the elements of one, that is, the vowel, the consonant before it, and the consonant after it, should sound exactly the same as the correspond- ing elements in the other. Thus: treas-ure, pleas-ure ; tink-Ung, spr ink-ling ; phi-lan-thropy, mi-san-thropy. The rosy light is dawning Upon the mountain's brow ; It is Sabbath morning. Arise and pay thy vow. The double rhymes in this example are incorrect, the first syllables in each, "dattm- " and " morn-," not conforming to the conditions laid down for single rhyme. Position of the Rhyming Word in the Line. — I have spoken of the place of the rhyme in the word to which it belongs. In this respect, the rhyme may be placed at the beginning of a word, in which case it is usually called alliteration, or it may be placed at the end of a word, in which case it constitutes the true ordinary rhyme. It now remains to speak of the place of the rhyming word in the line. Usual Place. — In the more formal kinds of poetry, the rhyming word is usually placed at the end of the line. This, however, is not the only place where it can be legitimately used. Two sections of the same line often rhyme to each other. The interlacings of the rhymes in these ways in some of our poets is curious in the extreme. Then up with your cup, till you stagger in speech, And match me this catch, though you swagger and screech. — Scott. To feed my need, he will me lead To pastures green and fat ; He forth brought im to liberate, To waters delicate. — Archb. Parker. Variety of Forms. — It would take a volume to set forth fully th« VERSIFICATION — BLANK VERSE. 225 Tarious forms of verse occasioned by changing the position and the number of the rhymes. These forms are sometimes merely curious In other cases, however, they are used with almost magical effect. And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cold, And ice Tna.st-high came floating by. As green as emerald. — Coleridge. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes. And the wild cataract leaps in glory. — Tennyson. Lightly and brightly breaks away The morning from her mantle gray. — Byron, It is too much, we daily hear. To wive and thrive both in one year. — Tusser. Yet none but one the sceptre long did sway Whose conquering name endures until this day. — Wallctct, Let other poets raise a fracas 'Bout vines and wines and drunken Bacchus. — Bums. And then to see how ye 're negleckit, How huffed and cuffed and disrespeckit. — Burns. Freedom in Sectional Rhymes. — It is not essential that these sec- tional rhymes should conform to all the conditions of rhyme at the end of a line. Often an apt consonantal alliteration answers every purpose. But he has gotten to our grief Ane to succeed him, A chiel wha '11 soundly buff our heef^ I muckle dread him. — Bums. And do I hear my Jennie own That equal transports move her? i ask for dearest life alone, That I may live to love her. — Bums. Her look was like the morning star. — Bums. There is nothing of the kind in the language finer than the exam- ple last quoted. III. BLANK VERSE. Blank Verse is verse that does not rhyme. Most of our blank verse is Iambic pentameter. In this are writ- ten Milton's Paradise Lost, the Plays of Shakspeare, and three- 20 226 COMPOSITION AND EHETOEIC. fourths at least of the rest of our heroic and dramatic verse. So commonly indeed is this form observed by those who have written blank verse, that many have imagined it tp be the only form suited to that species of composition. This, however, is a mistake. Blank verse may be written with two, three, or four feet to the line, as Well as with five, and in trochaic, anapaestic, or dactylic measure, as well as in iambic. Boker's "Song of the Earth" contains a great variety of blank verse, in dififerent metres and in lines of different lengths; as the following in dactylic measure : Hark to our | voices, ] mother of ] nations ! Why art thou dim when thy sisters are radiant? Or this in iambic : vex I me not, [ ye evler burn ling plan|eta; Nor sister call me, ye who me afflict. Or this in trochaic : Daughter | of the | sober | twilight, Lustrous planet, ever hanging. Longfellow's Hiawatha is a familiar specimen of blank verse in trochaic tetrameter : I Should you | ask m6 | whence th6se | stories, | Whence these legends and traditions, With the odors of the forest. With the dew and damp of meadows, With the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great rivers. With their frequent repetitions. And their wild reverberations. As of thunder in the mountains? Evangeline also is in blank verse, being hexameter, and mainly dactylic. IV. MIXED VERSE. Law of English Verse. — The prevailing law of English verse is that the feet in any one line shall all be of one kind, that is, they shall all be iambuses, trochees, anapaests, or dactyls, and the line be accordingly iambic, trochaic, anapsestic, or dactylic. Classic Verse Different. — In this, our verse differs essentially from the verse of the ancients, in which feet of different kinds are mixed VERSIFICATION — MIXED VERSE. 227 together freely in the same line. In the Latin, for instance, the heroic hexameter, with the exception of the sixth foot, may have dactyls or spondees indiflFerently, according to the choice or conve- nience of the writer ; and these feet were variously combined to suit the varying turn of the thought. A preponderance of dactyls gave a rapid movement to the verse, suitable to a light, gay, or beautiful subject, as in the familiar line* of Virgil describing the horse-race: ] Quadrupeidante pii|trem s6ni|tu quatit ] unguis | campQm. ] In reading this line rapidly one seems almost to hear the clatter- ing of the horse's hoofs.* A preponderance of spondees, on the other hand, made the move- ment of the verse slow, stately, and solemn. An example familiar to all students of Virgil is that in which he describes the slow, heavy motion of the Cyclops at work on the anvil: j Oir initer seise mag|na vi ] brachiS | toUunt. j Mixed Verse in English. — Some attempts have been made in Eng- lish to write continued poems in this kind of mixed verse. The most conspicuous example is Longfellow's Evangeline, which may be described as a poem in blank verse, hexameter, and prevailingly dactylic, but with a free intermixture of iambuses, trochees, ana- psests, and spondees. The following lines will serve to illustrate the point : I Thi8 IS the 1 forgst prilmevai. Thg ] murmilrTng ] pines &nd thg ] heml5cks, j I Bearded with | moss, and in | garments | green, indis(tlnct In thS j twilight, | J Stand like | Druids df J old, with | voic6s | sad and pr5jphetic- | Of Doubtful Success. — Even the genius of Longfellow, who is one of the best rhythmists known to our literature, has not yet quite reconciled the English ear to this kind of verse. Our syllables and accents are not sufficiently fixed and determinate to enable ordi- nary readers to perceive the rhythmus without that conscious eflfort which of itself mars the pleasure. A Successful Specimen. — Perhaps the most successful epecimen * The same general effect was intended in the construction of the English hexame- ter given on page 219. A similar and still more striking efifect is produced by two line« of Longfellow's describing the galloping of a horse : At each bound he could feel his scabbard of steel Smiting his stallion's flanks. 228 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. ever produced, of English verse constructed on the model of iht Latin hexameter, is the following: I Clearly- th6 | rSst I bSlhold of thS [ dark-eyed | sOns Of X|chafa; | I Known tO m6 | well &re thS | lacSs Cf | all; tb6ir | names 1 r6jmemb8r; | I Two, two I Only- re; main, whom I | see not ftjmong the comjmand6rs, j Castor fleet in the car, Polydeuces bravo with the custus — | Own dear brethren of mine, — one parent loved us as infanta. Are they not here in the host, from the shores of loved Lacedaemon, Or, though they came with the rest in the ships that bound through the watera^ Dare they not enter the fight or stand in the council of heroes. All for fear of the shame and the taunts my crime has awakened? So said she; — they long since In Earth's soft arms were reposing There, in their own dear land, their fatherland, Lacedaemon. — Hawtrey. Condition of Success. — Mixed verse seems to succeed best when combined with rhyme, and when the lines are comparatively short. A fine example of this occurs in Longfellow's Golden Legend. It is the soliloquy of Friar Claus in the wine-cellar of the convent- 1 1 all ways gn|t6r this saicrSd place [ I "With a thought I ful, sOIjemn, and revJOrSnt pace, | I Pausing I long 6|nough On | each stair ] I TO breathe | an 6jac|riiat0|ry- prayer, | I And a ben|6dIc|tion on | the vines ) I Which produce | thfese Ya|riOus sorts [ Of wines. ] Another tqually signal example is found in Boker's Ivory-Carver* I sngntiy- 1 sat thS | artist a|lone, I Carving a | Christ frOm thS ] IvOrJ- f bone. I LlttlS by- I llttlO, I with toil I and' pain, | I H6 won I his way ] thrOugh the sight i less grain, | I That held | and y6t hid | thS thing | h§ sought, I I Till the work | stoOd up, i a grOw|ing thought. } Sheridan's Ride, by Read, and Barbara Frietchie, by Whittier, ar« familiar examples of the same peculiarity. I Cp frOm thS | SOoth at | brSak Of [ day, I Bringing tO | Winch6st6r [ fresh dls|may, I The affrlght|6d air | with k shudldOr bore, | ' I Like a her aid In haste, | tO thO chief Italn'a dOojr, | I ThS ter|rlbI6 grumlblO, and riimiblO, and roar, j I Telling thS j battlS | was on | Once more, | I And Sherldin twen|ty miles | away. | I Cp fW5m the I m5ad0w8 | rich with | cOm, I Clear In thS | cool SSp|t5mb6r | mOrn, I The cins tfir'd spires | Of Fr6di6rlck stand, f I Qreeu-waird | hf thS hills | Of Marjj^laud. | VERSIFICATION — STANZAS. 229 V. STANZAS. A Stanza is a number of lines taken together, and so adjusted to each other as to form one whole. A stanza may consist of almost any number of lines, from two upwards. In the formation of stanzas, our poets have an unlimited license, which they have used freely, and not always with entire discretion. Some particular stanzas have acquired his- torical celebrity. Bhythm-Royal. — The Rhythm-Royal, or seven-line stanza, invented by Chaucer, is one of these. It is in iambic pentameter. Here is an example from Shakspeare : So on the tip of his subduing tongue, 1 -v All kind of arguments and question deep, 2 n) All replication prompt, and reason strong, 3 A For his advantage still did wake and sleep: 4^^ To make the weeper laugh, the laugher weep, 5 He had the dialect and different skill, 6 "> Catching all passions in his craft of will. 7 Construction of the Stanza. — In this stanza, as will be seen by the diagram, the first four lines make an ordinary quatrain, the lines rhyming alternately; the fifth line repeats the rhyme of the fourth, and the last two form a couplet. Spenserian Stanza. — Another still more celebrated stanza is that invented by Spenser, and known as the Spenserian Stanza. It is the stanza in which the Faerie Queene was written. The following is the first stanza of that poem. A gentle Knight was pricking on the plain, Ycladd in mightie armes and silver shielde, Wherein old dints of deepe woundes did remaine, The cruel markes of many a bloody fielde ; Yet armes till that time did he never wield : His angry steede did chide his foaming bitt, As much disdayning to the curbe to yield : Full jolly knight he seemed, and faire did sitt, As one for knightly giusts and fierce encounters fitt. Construction of the Stanza.— The Spenserian Stanza, as will be seen from the foregoing diagram, consists of nine lines, all iambic penta- meter, except the last, which is hexameter. In respect to the rhyme, the construction of the stanza is as fol- lows : First, there are two ordiifary quatrains, with lines rhyming alternately. These quatrains are then tied together by the last line 20* 230 COMPOSITIOIS^ AND RHETORIC. of the first quatrain rhyming with the first line of the second qua- train. After the two quatrains are thus completed, a ninth line is added, rhyming with the eighth. This ninth line has a peculiar and very pleasing eflfect. It seems to come in as a supplementary har- mony, — a sort of " linked sweetness long drawn out," on which the ear loves to linger. Its Uses. — This stanza has been found to be peculiarly suited to long poems. The most successful cultivator of it among recent poets is Byron, a large part of whose poetry is written in it. Sonnet Stanza. — Of all the stanzas that bear a recognized and well- defined character, none is more elaborate in its construction than that appropriated to tlie Sonnet. Its Construction* — The Sonnet stanza consists of fourteen lines, iambic pentameter. It is divided into two distinct portions, called the Major and the Minor. The Major division consists of eight lines, called an Octave, and has but two rhymes. The Minor division consists of six lines, called the Sestette, and has sometimes three rhymes, sometimes two. The Octave is composed of two quatrains ; in each qua- train, the first and fourth lines form one rhyme, the second and third form the other. Furthermore, the rhyme of the first and fourth in one quatrain is the same as the rhyme of the first and fourth in the other; also, that of the second and third in one is the same as that of the second and third in the other. Thus the whole Octave is thoroughly compacted and knit together, while each of the two parts has an organ- ization of its own. The Sestette is not so fixed and rigid in its structure. One of its most common forms is contained in the following Sonnet from Milton. In this there are three rhymes ; the first line rhymes to the fourth, the second to the fifth, and the third to the sixth. Thus the Sestette, equally with the Octave, is thoroughly knit together and compacted in itself. Unity of the Whole. — To prevent the two parts from swaying apart, care is usually taken that there shall be no grammatical break in passing from the one to the other, and thus the whole structure is made one.* 1 When I consider how my life is spent 2 Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 3 And that one talent, which is death to hide, 4 Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 6 To serve therewith my Maker, and present 6 My true account, lest he, returning chide ; 7 "Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?" 8 I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent 9 That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need 10 Either man's work, or his own gifts. Who best 11 Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state 12 Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, 13 And post o'er land and ocean without rest; 14 They also serve who only stand and wait." * See the " Book of the Sonnet," by JLeigh Hunt and S. Adams Lee (Roberts Brothers) for an exhaustive discussion of everything pertaining to the history and structure of the Sonnet. VERSIFICATION — STANZAS. 231 Psalm and Hymn Stanzas. — The variety of stanzas in successful use is almost endless. It would be impossible in a work like this to describe, or even enumerate them. It may be proper, however, to notice briefly those most commonly used in psalms and hymns for public worship. The three most common of all are those known severally as Long, Short, and Common Metre. These are all qua- trains, and all in iambic metre ; so far they agree. But the Long Metre stanza consists of tetrameters ; the Common Metre has its first and third lines tetrameter, and its second and fourth trimeter ; the Short Metre has the first, second, and fourth lines trimeter, while its third is tetrameter. The following formula exhibits to the eye the construction of these three familiar stanzas : Long Metro. I . - I . - I . - I I . - I . - I . - I I . - I . - I . - I I . - I . - I . - I Common Metre. I V - I . - 1 . - I . ^ j I w - I V - I V - I |--|v-|.-|._| I . - I . _ I w - I Short Metre. I - - I I w - I . - I - I . - I - I . - I In respect to rhyme, the stanzas vary. Sometimes the lines rhyme together in couplets, the first rhyming to the second, and the third rhyming to the fourth. Thus : Lord, thou hast searched and seen me through; Thine eye commands with piercing view My rising and my resting hours, My heart and flesh, with all their powers. Sometimes the rhyme alternates, the first responding to the third, and the second to the fourth. 232 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Before Jehovah's awful throne, Ye nations bow with sacred joy: Know that the Lord is God alone: He can create, and he destroy. Frequently also the first and third are without rhyme. Almighty God, thy word is cast, Like seed, upon the ground; Now let the dew of heaven descend, And righteous fruits abound. Long Particular Metre. — One stanza, in which a few of our hymns are written, is called Long Particular Metre. It is in iambic metre, and consists of six lines, all tetrameter, the third and sixth rhyming together, and the others rhyming in couplets. The effect is very pleasing to the ear, and it seems rather surprising that the stanza has not been more cultivated by our hymn writers. The fol- lowing is an example : I '11 praise my Maker with my breath. And when my voice is lost in death. Praise shall employ my nobler powers : My days of praise shall ne'er be past. While life and thought and being last. Or immortality endures. Hallelujah Metre. — Another stanza of considerable celebrity among psalms and hymns is that known as Hallelujah Metre. It is in iambic metre, and consists of eight lines. The first four are tri- meters, rhyming alternately. The last four are dimeters, with the first rhyming to the fourth, and the second rhyming to the third. Thus: Lord of the worlds above, How pleasant and how fair The dwellings of thy love, Thy earthly temples are ! To thine abode My heart aspires With warm desires, To see my God. The sixth and seventh lines are often printed as one. Thus : They go from strength to strength, Through this dark vale of tears. Till each arrives at length, Till each in heaven appears; glorious seat, Where God our King shall thither bring Our willing feet I VEESIFICATION — METRE 233 other Metres. — No names have been given to the various stanzas invented for those hymns which are in trochaic, anapaestic, or dac- tylic metre. In the hymn books, they are absurdly called 6'8, 7's, 8's, &c., according to the number of syllables in a line, as if that alone gave any clue to the rhythmic movement. With all my powera of heart and tongue is 8'8 just as much as Guide me, thou great Jehovah. The difference between the lines is not in the number of syllables, but in the movement. One is iambic, the other trochaic. The proper way of designating such metres is to add the name of the verse, (that is Anapaestic, Dactylic, Trochaic, &c.,) immediately after the figures representing the number of syllables. Thus : " Saviour, visit thy plantation," — 8's, 7's, 4's, Trochaic, "Jesus, lover of my soul," — 7's, Trochaic. ** Sweet the moments, rich in blessing," — 8's and 7's, Trochaic. ** I would not live alway : I ask not to stay," — ll's, Anapsesiic. "Thou'rt gone to the grave, but we will not deplore thee," — • 12's, and ll's, Anapsestic. '• The voice of free grace cries. Escape to the mountain," — 12's, Anapsestic. "Daughter of Zion, awake from thy sadness," — ll's, alternately Dactylic and Anapsestic. " Brightest and best of the sons of the morning," — ll's and lO's, Dactylic. "Come, ye disconsolate, where'er ye languish,". — lis and 10s, Dactylic. The formulas for these metres are exhibited in the following tables : 8's, 7's, 4's, Trochaic 8. I 7. I 8. I 7. I 4. — w — w I , — W I ~ V I — w I — ?34 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC, 7's, Trochaic. 7. I - . I - . I - « I 7. I - . I - . 1 - w 1 7. I - . I - . I - . I 7. I - . I - . I - . I 8's and 7's, Trochaic, 8. I - . I - V I - . I - V I 7. I - « 1 - . I - . I _ 8. I - . I - n - - I - w I 7. I - V I - V I - V I - ll's, Anapaestic. 11. V - I V . - I I 11. « - 1 — - 1 — - 1 11. - - 1 — 1 — - 1 11. w - 1 . w - I I 12's and ll's, Anapasstio. 12. w - I I . . _ I . .-• I . 11- — I — - I — - I I 12, « - ! V . - I . « _ I « . _ I , 11. - - I — - I — - I — - I 12's, Anapaestic. 12. w - I . . - I . . _ I _ _ I 12. - - 1 - V - I . . _ I . . _ I 12. V - 1 _ _ I _ _ I _ _ , 12. w - I I . . _ I . . _ I II'b, alternately Dactylic and Anapaestic 11. I - w w I - V w I - « V I - . (Dactylic.) 11. w-|ww-|„w_jw«-| (Anapaestic.) 11. I - V V 1^- w V I - V w I - V (Dactylic.) • 11. w-|'vv-|v.w-|vw-| (Anapaeotio.) VERSIFICATION — MODERN VERSE. 235 ll's and ID'S Dactylic 11. I- «w|-vv|-wv|_W 10. 1 _ . w I - . V I 1 - 11. I _ . . I - V w I - w w 1 - V 10. I - V « 1 - V w 1 - w . 1 - '« Begone, unbelief, my Saviour is near," is usually designated as lO's and ll's. The true construction of these stanzas is obscured by the way in which it is printed. For typographical convenience and economy of space, two lines are printed as one. If the hymn be printed in stanzas of eight lines, the true construction will at once appear, and the proper designation will be o's and 6's, Ana- josMiic. Thus : Begone, unbelief, 5. w — V w — j My Saviour is near. 5. w — V w - j And for my relief, 5. w — w V - i Will surely appear : 5. w — V w — j By prayer let me wrestle. 6. V V — 1 And He will perform; 5. V — w V — 1 With Christ in the vessel. 6. w — V w - 1 I smile at the storm. 5. w — j w w — 1 VI. MODERN VERSE ACCENTUAL, NOT SYLLABIC. Modern poetry, especially English poetry, is distinguished from that of the ancients by the manner in which the verses are measured, or rather by the manner in which we obtain the foot or measuring unit. Ancient Verse. — In Latin and Greek, syllables are divided into long and short, two short syllables being counted as equal to one long. A foot in those languages is determined by the length of time occupied, — and the law of the verse is satisfied by making the foot of the right length, without reference to the number of syllables or the position of the accent. Sxample. — Take for instance the vFordfund'us,Sind its deriTatives funda'men, fundament' urn. In these three words, the syllable fund- is invariably long. No shifting of the accent, no change of tprmination, aflFects the character of that sylla- ble, or its availability for the purpose of versification. It still makes one-half a foot. On the other hand, in the English words hu'man, human'ity, humanita'rian, the availability of the first syllable Jm- for versification, is changed by the changing of the accent. According to this view, 236 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Eights of English Syllables. — A syllable in English has no inhe- rent, indefeasible rights of its own, but is subject to the caprice of the accent, which makes the same identical syllable, now the third, and now the half, of a foot, now a part of an iambus, noW of a tro- chee, now of an anapaest, and now of a dactyl. The Difference. — Modem verse is governed by the accent ; ancient verse was governed by the syllables, which had cer- tain fixed and determinate lengths. Modern verse, there- fore, is accentual ; ancient verse was syllabic. Importance of this Distinction. — This distinction, once made thoroughly familiar, will save a world of technical rules, and will throw light upon many points connected with the versification of Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton, which were stumbling- blocks to Pope and Dryden. The four poets first named, whether with or without any definite theory on the subject, wrote according to the genius of the language and the dictates of a cultivated ear. That is, they wrote accentual verse. The two latter, desiring to refine upon the subject, and not comprehending in this respect the true genius of modern verse, attempted to subject it to the rules of the classic models. Mistake of Pope and Dryden. — Setting out with an erroneous theory of what English verse ought to be, they found in their predecessors much tnat was pronounced faulty, that was at least contrary to the arbitrary rules which they had made for the governnient of verse, although they could not but pronounce even the objectionable pas- sages highly beautiful and harmonious. Their procedure in this respect was about as wise as it would be for a painter to represent the Cavaliers and the Roundheads, or the Canterbury Pilgrims, dressed in the tunic and toga of the old Romans. Present Opinion. — A more advanced stage of criticism has drawn clearly the line between ancient verse and modern, and shown wherein lie the genius and strength of the latter. It has also res- cued English verse from the Procrustean bed upon which it was about to be stretched, and has restored it to the freedom of limb characteristic of its northern birth. Present State of English Verse. — English verse for the last half century has been better in every respect than that of the half cen iury of which Alexander Pope was the centre. VERSIFICATION — ELISION. 237 VII. ELISION. One of the points about which the critics have been divided is the elision of vowels. Take the following examples : J Blest as | the loiiiwr\tdX gods | is he. | I A pillltfr of date | deep on | his front ) engraren. | Explanation. — In each of these examples, the foot printed in italics gives us three syllables where by analogy only two are expected. Such examples afford not the slightest diflficulty, when we have once admitted that our verse is accentual, not syllabic. The two syllables which here accompany the accent are such as can easily be sounded while the organs are recovering their position for making a fresh accent, and occupy only the time ordinarily occupied by one syllable. Mistake of the Older Critics. — Some of the older critics supposed that, because the examples are from iambic verse, where the feet consist of two syllables, these particular feet must be reduced to two syllables, both in pronunciation and. in writing. Hence in such cases these words are written " th' immortal," and ''pill'r," and are pronounced accordingly. Examples. — Among the thousands of words which thus suffered syncope may be named enmy, destny, victry, prisn, weltring, admant, Ac. These words, in such cases, are sometimes written as just given, and sometimes witli an apostrophe over the place where the elision has taken place, as en'my, desVny, vicfry, pris'n, &c. The True Solution. — According to the theory now received, there should be no elision, either in writing or in pronunciation. The whole word should be written out, and the two syllables which thus occupy the place of one should both be pronounced, but pronounced lightly so as to occupy only the time of one. This is no more than is done in all anapaestic and dactylic verse, and why trochaic and iambic verse should not be varied by occasional mixtures of ana- paests and dactyls is more than I can comprehend. Eequirements of Modern Verse. — The rhythm of modern verse, be it repeated, is governed by the accent, not by the number or the length of the syllables. The beauty of the rhythm depends. Indeed, in a great measure, upon uniformity in the movement. If a number of lines consists of iambuses, that is, of feet of two syllables with the accent on the last, the ear gets accustomed to that movement, and expects it to occur regularly. This uniform movement gives 21 16 238 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. ease to the reader and pleasure to the hearer. At the same time it may give satiety. Too uniform a rhythm may produce monotony. Variety Allowed. — A poet, either to interrupt this monotony, or to attract attention, or to mark some transition in the thought or feeling, may legitimately insert into one of these lines a foot with the accent on the first syllable. That is, he may make a mixed verse, putting an occasional trochee into iambic verse, or iambuses into trochaic, &c. In like manner, if a number of lines consists of feet, in which there are two unaccented syllables to every accented one, the ear expects a continuance of the same. For the purposes just named, however, anapaests may be legitimately varied by dactyls, or dactyls by anapsests, or either of them by iambuses and trochees. Examples for Practice. [Note. — The extracts which follow are intended to illustrate some of the varietiw of metre and stanza. The student is expected to bring the passages in, copied on paper, with the versification marked. In marking the Tersification, the following process is recommended : 1. Each syllable that is sounded should be marked, as being accented or unac- cented. For this purpose, we use "for convenience the marks generally employed for long and short, namely, - for accented, and w for unaccented. Thus : 1. Ring out the old, ring In thS new. 2. Why lament th6 Christian dying? 3. Th6 voice 6f freS grace cries, escape td th6 mount&in. 4. Hail tC th6 chief whd in triumph advances. 2. When a number of lines in any piece have been thus marked, the student must determine", which he can then do almost by inspection, Avhether the movement is Iambic, Trochaic, Anapasstic, or Dactylic (see pp. 218, 219), and must mark it off accordingly into feet. Thus : 1. I Ring out I thS old, ] ring In | thS ngw. ] 2. I Why laiment th5 | Christian | dying? | 3. Th6 voice | fSf freg grace | cries, escape | t6 thS moiint|aIn. 4. I Hall to thS I chief wh6 in | trlQmph adjvanc6s. S. The proper designation should then be given to the verse, as being iambic, tro- chaic, &c., and as being monometer, dimeter, trimeter, Ac. (see pp. 218, 219). Thus, in the lines here given, No. 1 is Iambic tetrameter, No. 2 is Trochaic tetrameter. No. 3 is Anapfestic tetrameter (the additional syllable at the end making up for the syllablo wanting at the beginning), and No. 4 is Dactylic trimeter, with two syllables over. 4. In case of the passage rhyming, the rhyme should be described as being in couplets, quatrains, sonnet-metre, Ac, and the formula for the rhyme and the stania should be given, as on pages 229, 230, 231, 233-235.] 1. Nobody knew how the fisherman brown, With a look of despair that was half a frown. YERSIFICATION — EXAMPLES. 239 Faced his fate on that furious night, Faced the mad billows with hunger white, Just within hail of a beacon light, That shone on a woman fair and trim Waiting for him. — Lucy Larcom. 2. And the sinuous paths of lawn and of moss, That led through this garden along and across, Some open at once to the sun and the breeze, Some lost among bowers of blossoming trees, Were all paved with daisies and delicate bells, As fair as the fabulous asphodels, And flow'rets that, drooping as day drooping too, Fell into pavilions white, purple, and blue. To roof the glow-worm from the evening dew. 3. Hark to the solemn bell Mournfully pealing ! What do its wailings tell. On the ear stealing ? Seem they not thus to say. Loved ones have passed away? Ashes with ashes lay, List to its pealing. 4. 'Mid scenes of confusion and creature complaints, How sweet to the soul is communion with saints ; To find at the banquet of mercy there 's room, And feel in the presence of Jesus at home I 6. High in yonder realms of light, Dwell the raptured saints above ; Far beyond our feeble sight, Happy in Immanuel's love. 6. From Greenland's icy mountains. From India's coral strand ; Where Afric's sunny fountains Roll down their golden sand; From many an ancient river. From many a palmy plain. They call us to deliver Their land from error's chain. — Heher, 240 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC, 7. Lord, dismiss us with thy blessing: Fill our hearts with joy and peace: Let us each, thy love possessing, Triumph in redeeming grace; refresh us. Travelling through this wilderness. 8. Saviour, breathe an evening blessing Ere repose our spirits seal : Sin and want we come confessing, Thou canst save and thou canst heal. Though destruction walk around us. Though the arrow near us fly. Angel-guards from thee surround us, We are safe if thou art nigh. 9. Sometimes a light surprises The Christian while he sings; It is the Lord who rises. With healing in his wings; When comforts are declining, He grants the soul again A season of clear shining, To cheer it after rain. 10. Encompassed with clouds of distress, Just ready all hope to resign, I pant for the light of thy face, And fear it will never be mine. 11. How happy are they Who the Saviour obey, And have laid up their treasures above I what tongue can express The sweet comfort and peace Of a soul in its earliest love ? 12. When through the torn sail the wild tempest is streaming, When o'er the dark wave the red lightning is gleaming, Nor hope lends a ray, the poor seaman to cherish, We fly to our Master; "Save, Lord, or we perish." VERSIFICATION — EXAMPLES. 241 13. When reposing that night on my pallet of straw, By the wolf-scaring fagot that guarded the slain ; At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw, And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again. — Campbell. 14. This world is all a fleeting show, For man's illusion given ; The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — There's nothing true but heaven! — Moore. 15. I saw from the beach when the morning was shining, A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on : I came, when the sun o'er that beach was declining — The bark was still there, but the waters were gone. — Moore. 16. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, There is a rapture on the lonely shore. There is society, where none intrudes, By the deep sea, and music in its roar ; I love not man the less, but nature more, From these our interviews, in which I steal From all I may be, or have been before. To mingle with the universe, and feel What I can ne'er express, yet cannot all conceal. — Byron. 17. Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early morn; Leave me here, and when you want me, sound upon the bugle- horn. 'Tis the place, and all around it, as of old, the curlews call. Dreary gleams about the moorland flying over Locksley Hall. Tennyson. 18. You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear ; To-morrow '11 be the happiest time of all the glad new-year; Of all the glad new-year, mother, the maddest, merriest day; For I'm to be Queen-o'-the-May, mother, I'm to be Queen-o'' the-May. — Tennyson. 19. Airy, fairy Lilian, Flitting, fairy Lilian, When I ask her if she loves me, 21* 242 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC. Clasps her tiny hands above me, • Laughing all she can ; She'll not tell me if she loves me, Cruel little Lilian. — ^ Tennyson. 20. Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures, Whilst the landscape round it measures ; Russet lawns, and fallow gray, Where the nibbling flocks do stray; Mountains on whose barren breast The laboring clouds do often rest; Meadows trim with daisies pied, Shallow brooks, and river wide: Towers and battlements it sees Bosom'd high in tufted trees, Where perhaps some beauty lies. — Milton. 21. Spake full well in language quaint and olden. One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, When he called the flowers, so blue and golden, Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. — Longfellow, 22. Not when the buxom form which nature wears Is pregnant with the lusty warmth of Spring; Nor when hot Summer, sunk with what she bears, Lies panting in her flowery off"ering; Nor yet when dusty Autumn sadly fares In tattered garb, through which the shrewd winds sing, To bear her treasures to the griping snares Hard Winter set for the poor bankrupt thing ; Not even when Winter, heir of all the year, Deals, like a miser, round his niggard board The brimming plenty of his luscious hoard; ' No, not in nature, change she howsoe'er. Can I find perfect type or worthy peer Of the fair maid in whom my heart is stored. — Boker. 23. 0, the Rose of Granada was blooming full-blown, And she laughed at the suitors who thought her their own, Till there came from Morocco the Moor, Ala Jaerr, And he tossed from bis spear-head the horse-tails in air, VERSIFICATION — EXAMPLES. 243 Saying, "List to me, lady; For hither I've flown, Rose of Granada, To make thee my own." — Boker. 24. There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill — Ferry me over the ferry — Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill. When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still, Her lips were as full as a cherry. — Boker. 25. Thou lingering star, with lessening ray, That lov'st to greet the early morn, Again thou usher'st in the day My Mary from my soul was torn. — Burns. 26. At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still, And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove, When nought but the torrent is heard on the hill, And nought but the nightingale's song in the grove : 'T was thus, by the cave of the mountain afar. While his harp rung symphonious, a hermit began': No more with himself or with nature at war, He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. — Beattie. 27. Vital spark of heavenly flame. Quit, oh, quit this mortal frame ; Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying — Oh the pain, the bliss of dying! Cease, fond Nature, cease thy strife. And let me languish into life ! — Pope. 28. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, And still where many a garden flower grows wild, There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, The village preacher's modest mansion rose. — Goldsmith, 29. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on dark Galilee. — Byron. 244 COM*POSITION AND RHETORIC. 30. At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power ; In dreams, through camp and court, he bore The trophies of a conqueror ; In dreams, his song of triumph heard; Then wore his monarch's signet ring ; Then press'd that monarch's throne, — a king: As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, As Eden's garden bird. — Halleck, 81. Long years had elapsed since I gazed on the scene, "Which my fancy still robed in its freshness of green — The spot where a schoolboy, all thoughtless, I stray'd. By the side of the stream, in the gloom of the shade. 32. Men of thought ! be up and stirring night and day ; Sow the seed — withdraw the curtain — clear the way. Men of action, aid and cheer them, as ye may ! There 's a fount about to stream, There 's a light about to beam. There 's a warmth about to glow, There 's a flower about to blow ; There 's a midnight blackness changing into gray. Men of thought and men of action, clear the way I 33. I come from the ether, cleft hotly aside, Through the air of the soft summer morning ; I come with a song as I dash on my way, — Both a dirge and a message of warning : No sweet, idle dreams, nor romance of love, Nor poet's soft balm-breathing story Of armor-clad knight, at tournament gay, Where a scarf was the guerdon of glory ; — Whistling so airily Past the ear warily, Watching me narrowly, Crashing I come ! {Song of tht OoLwnon Ball.'] 84. There's a game much in fashion, — I think it's called euchre (Though I never have playard it for pleasure or lucre,) VERSIFICATION — EXAMPL'ES. Ii45 i In which, when the cards are in certain conditions, The players appear to have changed their positions, And one of them cries, in a confident tone, — "I think I may venture to go it alone!" — Saze. So. One by one the sands are flowing, One by one the moments fall ; Some are coming, some are going : Do not strive to grasp them all. — A. Procter. 36. I will go to my tent, and lie down in despair ; I will paint me with black, and will sever my hair ; I will sit on the shore where the hurricane blows, And reveal to the god of the tempest my woes; I will weep for a season on bitterness fed, For my kindred are gone to the hills of the dead ; But they died not by hunger, or lingering decay, — The steel of the white man hath swept them away : My wife, and my children, — oh, spare me the tale ! For who is there left that is kin to Geehale ! [Indiari's Lament] 37. Oh ! a wonderful stream is the river Time, As it runs through the realm of tears. With a faultless rhythm, and a musical rhyme, And a broader sweep and a surge sublime. As it blends in the ocean of years! — B. F. Taylor, 38. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime. And departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. — Longfellow, 89. Stand here by my side, and turn, I pray, On the lake below, thy gentle eyes ; The clouds hang over it, heavy and gray, And dark and silent the water lies ; And out of that frozen mist the snow In wavering flakes begins to flow ; Flake after flake, They sink in the dark and silent lake. — Bryant, 40. The mighty master smiled to see That love was in the next degree ; 246 COMPOSITION AND RHETOBIC. 'T was but a kindred strain to move ; For pity melts the mind to love. Softly sweet, in Lydian measures, Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures: War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; Honor but an empty bubble ; Never ending, still beginning, Fighting still, and still destroying: If the world be worth thy winning. Think, oh, think it worth enjoying! Lovely Thais sits beside thee ; Take the good the gods provide thee. The many rend the skies with loud applause ; So love was crown' d ; but music won the cause. — Dry den. 4K Forth into the mighty forest Rushed the madden'd Hiawatha; In his heart was deadly sorrow, In his face a stony firmness, On his brow the sweat of anguish Started, but it froze and fell not. — Longfellow. 42. With fingers weary and worn. With eyelids heavy and red, A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, Plying her needle and thread, — Stitch! stitch! stitch! In poverty, hunger, and dirt. And still, with a voice of dolorous pitch, She sang the "Song of the Shirt." — Hood. 48. A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers, There was lack of woman's nursing, there was dearth of woman's tears ; But a comrade stood beside him, while his life-blood ebbed away. And bent, with pitying glances, to hear what he might say. The dying soldier faltered, as he took that comrade's hand. And he said : I never more shall see my own, my native land ; Take a message, and a token, to some distant friends of mine, For I was born at Bingen, — at Bingen on the Rhine. Mr*. Norton. VERSIFICATION — EXAMPLES. 247 44. There is no flock, however watched and tended, But one dead lamb is there ! There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair ! — Longfellow. ^ 45. There 's a bower of roses by Bendemeer's stream, And the nightingale sings round it all the day long; In the time of my childhood, 't was like a sweet dream, To sit in the roses and hear the bird's song. — Moore. 46. Whom do we dub as gentlatnan? The knave, the fool, the brute. If they but own full tithe of gold, and wear a courtly suit ! The parchment scroll of titled line, — the ribbon at the knee. Can still suflBce to ratify and grant such high degree ! 47. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. — Gray. 48. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore — While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber-door. "'Tis some visitor,"I muttered, *' tapping at my chamber-door — Only this, and nothing more." — Poe, 49. Singing through the forests. Rattling over ridges, Shooting under arches. Rumbling over bridges ; Whizzing through the mountain. Buzzing o'er the vale. Bless me ! this is pleasant, Riding on the rail ! — Saxe. 60. I sometimes have thought in my loneliest of hours, That lie on my heart like the dew on the flowers. Of a ramble I took, one bright afternoon. When my heart was as light as a blossom in June. 248 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. The green earth was moist with the late-fallen showers, The breeze fluttered down and blew open the flowers; While a single white cloud floated off in the west, On the white wing of peace, to its haven of rest. 51. Hear the sledges with the bells — Silver bells — What a world of merriment their melody foretells I How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, In the icy air of night! While the stars that oversprinkle All the heavens, seem to twinkle With a crystalline delight; Keeping time, time, time. In a sort of Runic rhyme. To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells From the bells, bells, bells, bells. Bells, bells, bells — From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. — Poe. 62. Speak gently of the erring, — oh! do not thou forget, However darkly stained by sin, he is thy brother yet: Heir of the selfsame heritage, child of the selfsame God, He hath but stumbled in the path thou hast in weakness trod. F. G. Lee. 53. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green That creepeth o'er ruins old ! Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, In his cell so low and cold. The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed; To pleasure his dainty whim ; And the mould'ring dust that years have made Is a merry meal for him. Creeping where no life is seen, A rare old plant is the ivy green. — Bickem. CHAPTER VII. POETRY. Defective Definitions. — Most of the definitions of Poetry which have been proposed are open to the objection that they apply equally well to certain kinds of prose. They describe what is poetical, rather than what is poetry. Passages without number in the prose writings of Milton, in Jeremy Taylor, in Pilgrim's Progress, in Ruskin, in Hawthorne, and in many other imaginative writers, are thoroughly poetical, but they are not poetry. Indispensable Conditions. — Nothing is really poetry unless it is in verse.* This is an indispensable condition. Not, however, the only condition. " Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November," is verse, but it is not poetry. In order that anything may be truly accounted poetry, it must, in the first place, be in the form of verse, and, secondly, it must be poetical in its essence. What constitutes verse has been shown in the previous chapter. It remains now to show what makes a thing poetical. Poetical in Essence. — A piece of composition is essen- tially poetical when it has these three marks : 1. It is the * " Notwithstanding all that has been advanced by some French critics, to prove that a work not in metre may be a poem, universal opinion has always given a con- trary decision."' — W/iateli/. One reason why writers on this subject have^generally failed in their definition of it, is that they have begun wrong. Verse being an essential condition of poetry, wa should begin by defining verse, and from that proceed to a definition of poetry. When that which is in itself poetical is put in the form of verse, we have Poetry. 22 249 260 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. product of an excited imagination. 2. It is the product of a creative imagination. 3. Its primary object is to please. Let us consider each of these points. 1. An Excited Imagination. — Poetry is the product of an excited imagination. Shakspeare refers to this quality, when he speaks of "the poet's eye in a fine frenzy rolling." The poetical is distin- guished, in this respect, from the prosaic, by being raised above what is merely narrative, descriptive, argumentative, or scientific. The mind, in producing anything poetical, is always raised above its ordinary level of thought and feeling. 2. A Creative Imagination. — Poetry is equally the product of a creative imagination. The word poet (Gr., riotrjrjjj) means a maker. The poet is one who creates new forms of thought. This quality is also referred to by Shakspeare, when he speaks of the poet's bodying forth the forms of things "unknown," and giving name and place to "airy nothing." Tlxe Process seems to be this: The imagination first becomes excited, and then, when thus excited, it becomes creative. Both parts of this process are ex- pressed in the passage already referred to -. The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling. Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven ; And, as imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen Turns them to shape, and gives to airy nothing A local hatiitation and a name. ^^ 3. Primary Object to Please. — The primary object of poetry is to please. This quality distinguishes it from Oratory, and some of the other higher kinds of prose, which often have the first and second qualities here named, but not the third. Their primary object is not to please, but to move and persuade. When Daniel Webster* uttered the concluding passage of his memorable reply to Hayne, in the Senate of the United States, he was under the influence of a power- * " When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a once glo- rious Union; on States dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the glorious ensign of the Republic, now known and honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies stream- ing in their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured, bearing for its motto, no such miserable interrogatory as — ' What is all this worth ? ' nor those other words of delusion and folly — ' Liberty first, and Union afterward ; ' but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ampU POETRY — EPIC. 251 fblly excited imagination, his eye, no doubt, " in a fine frenzy rolling; " and the ideas and forms of thought bodied forth by him were as truly the work of a creative imagination as anything ever penned by Shakspeare or Milton. Such a passage also undoubtedly gives pleasure. But that is not its primary object. Had there been a suspicion, in the case just cited, that the object of that sublime burst of eloquen^-o was merely to excite applause, the speaker would have been hooted out of the Senate in contempt. From these elements it is not difficult to proceed to a definition of poetry. Definition of Poetry. — Poetry may be defined to be the product of an excited and a creative imagination, with a primary object to please, and expressed in the form of verse. Belation to other Arts. — Poetry is one of the Fine Arts, and is thereby allied to Music, Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, iu all of which the primary object is to please. Kinds of Poetry. — The different kinds of poetry may be con- veniently included under the heads of Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, Ele- giac, Didactic, Satiric, and Pastoral. I. EPIC POETRY. An Epic Poem is a poetical recital of some great and heroic enterprise. Its High Character. — Epic poetry is universally* admitted to be the highest and most difficult kind of poetical composition. The num- ber of successful Epics is accordingly very limited. Most civilized nations have one, few have more than one. The three Epics of greatest celebrity are Homer's Iliad in Greek, Virgil's jEneid in Latin, and Milton's Paradise Lost in English. The chief qualities of an Epic poem are the following: 1. The first condition of an Epic poem is that its subject should be great and heroic. The Iliad. — This poem narrates the siege and downfall of Troy, the most memorable event in the early history of the Trojans and the Greeks, the two most renowned nations of antiquity. folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every true American heart, — LiBEKXT AMD Union, now and forbvjee, one and insbpabable ! " 252 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. The iEneid. — This has for its subject the perils and labors of jEneas, the reputed founder of the Roman race, in laying the foun- dations of that great nation and city, which became for a long time the mistress of the world. Paradise Lost. — Milton's theme is grander still, involving the interests, not of one nation merely, but of the whole human race, and not of men merely, but of the great angelic host, and even cele- brating in lofty strains the very "throne and equipage of God's almightiness." So it will be found, in regard to every poem that has been gen- erally received as an Epic, that its subject is one that can be truly regarded as great. It must be one that involves momentous interests, and that calls for the display of heroic achievements. 2. The second condition of an Epic poem is that it should form a completed and connected whole. Unity of the Epic. — This is what is generally known as the Unity of the Epic. By this is meant that there is some one important event or achievement which is set before the reader as the main end of the story. Not only all the particular incidents must have relation to this event, and be kept in subordination to it, but this event must be given in its completeness, so that when we are through with the poem we feel that we have the whole story. How Produced. — In producing this completeness, poets usually employ the artifice of beginning in the middle or near the close of the story, and weaving in the antecedent parts by means of conver- sation among the actors. Thus the ^Eneid begins with the ship- wreck of the hero otF the coast of Carthage, after he has gone through nearly three-fourths of his labors and exploits. Being invited to a great feast by Queen Dido, he, at her request, entertains the com- pany with a narrative of the antecedent parts of his story. Method of Poetical Narrative. — So in the case of every great epic. The poet does not proceed in the manner of a history, but dashes at once into the very midst of tlie events, about the time that they are getting to be most highly interesting, the early causes and antece- dents necessary to the completeness of the whole being brought in, from time to time, in an incidental way. This method of proceed- ing makes the whole more picturesque, and produces a more power- ful effect upon the imagination. POETRY — EPIC. 253 3. A third condition of an Epic poem is that it should have its hero. Explanation. — There should be some one principal actor, in whose exploits and destiny we are more interested than in those of any other. This feature is perhaps implied in the preceding. Still it is well to give it a distinct mention. The hero of the Iliad is Achilles, that of the iEneid is ^neas, that of Paradise Lost is Man, or Adam, as the representative of his race. Such at least was Mil- ton's intention, though it must be confessed that, on closing the book, the figure which stands out most boldly before the imagination is that of Satan, the great arch-enemy of God and man. 4. A fourth condition of an Epic poem is that it should involve many actors and a complicated plot. Explanation. — The story of a single actor, like that of Robinson Crusoe on his solitary island, could never be a proper subject for an epic, no matter how great and heroic the man might be in himself. Nor could an epic be made out of a single, isolated transaction, no matter how momentous or sublime the transaction might be. A poem on such a subject would bear the same relation to an epic, as would a duel to a fight between two great armies. 5. A fifth condition of the Epic is that its tone should be prevailingly serious and earnest. Thersites and Falstaff. — Homer, it is true, once raises a laugh over the braggart, Thersites. But this is quite exceptional. A story containing a leading character given to fun, like Falstaff, for instance, or a story made up chiefly of scenes and characters of a gay and festive kind, would be manifestly unsuited to the purposes of the epic. 6. A sixth condition of the Epic is that the story itself, merely as a story, should be interesting. Different from other Poetry. — The case is different with many other kinds of poetry. In Lyric, Didactic, Pastoral, and some other kinds of poetry, there is either no story at all, or if any, not enough to affect to any considerable extent the merits of the piece. But an Epic is essentially a story, such in its materials and its artistic arrangement that it would be of absorbing interest even if told in 22* 17 254 COMPOSITION AND EHETOEIC. prose. This story, thus interesting in itself, receives the superadded splendors and glories of the very highest type of poetical beauty. Metrical Romance. — The Metrical Romance is inferior in dig- nity and grandeur to the Epic, but belongs essentially to the same species of composition. It is a narrative of adventure, and has indeed nearly every quality described as belonging to the Epic, but has them in a less marked degree. Sxamples. — The Faerie Queene, by Spenser, if indeed it be not reckoned as an Epic, yet certainly comes very nearly to that level, and must be regarded as the high- est specimen extant of the Metrical Romance. The number of poems of this class is Tery great. In our older literature we may instance the Romaunt of the Rose, by Chaucer, and in later times the Lady of the Lake, and Marmion, by Sir Walter Scott, and the Idyls of the King, by Tennyson. Metrical Chronicle. — The Chronicle belongs to the same gen- eral class of compositions, being narrative in form, and relying very much upon the story for its effect, but it is inferior in style and dig- nity to the Romance. II. DRAMATIC POETRY. Dramatic Poetry ranks with the Epic in dignity and excellence, and has nearly all its essential characteristics. Likeness to the Epic. — Like the Epic, the Drama, at least in its higher forms, must have some great and heroic transaction for its subject; it must, even more than the Epic, maintain unity in the action ; it must hare one leading character or hero ; it must have some complication of plot. TTnlikeness. — In its form, the Drama is essentially unlike the Epio and all other narrative poems. What they narrate as having been done, the Drama represents as actually doing before our eyes.* In the Drama, the action is carried on solely by means of dialogue between the actors. In epic poetry, indeed, the narrative often becomes dramatic, and takes the form of dialogue. But in the drama, the form is exclusively that of dialogue. The Unities. — Besides unity of subject, vv^hich it has in common with the Epic, the Drama requires also two other unities, namely, those of time and place. Unity of Time. — By unity of time was meant originally that the * Tb* word is from the Oreek ip* Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving 11 \y his master Fausts design, and being himself 12^^ fdesirous\ ardentl^ to improve the art, found cut (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting { in e idcn di) the characters j^^ in a matrix, that the letters might easily be */ / singly cast I instead of bieng cut. He pri- ^^'/ '*l vately cut matrices] for the whole alphabet; Taust was so pleased with the contrivanj /that he promised Peter to give him hjji^nly '. 16 /(ja^ghter Christina in marriage a/promises c^ ^ /^vhich he soon after performed^A^ jg *® ^^1 (^ut there were many djjffiiculties at first '^^ |I with these letters, as there had been before ^ ^^om, 20 ^_ with wooden ones, fh© metal being too soft ^_^a/i to support the fojK^e of the inTpression: buta-'-^/ this defect was soon remedied, by mixing a substanp^with the meta l which sufficiently ^, f hardeiam ity ^^^Zii. caa^ j^m m.ed6 ma^ttce^i PROOF-READING. 335 EXPLANATIONS OF THE CORRECTIONS. Note. — The numbers refer to the figures in the margin. 1. "Wrong Letters or Wordg. — A wrong letter in a word is noted by drawing a short slant line through it, as here through the e in severd, making a similar slant line in the margin, and writing to the left of it the correct letter. ° A whole word, if wrong, is corrected by drawing a line across it, and writing the cor- rect word in the margin opposite. 2. liCtters Upside-down. — A letter that is upside-down is noted by draw- ing a slant line through it, and making in the margin the mark here given. 3. Caps, Small Caps, and Italics. — If letters or words are to be altered • from one character to another, it is noted by drawing parallel lines below the letters or words so to be altered ; namely, three lines for Capitals, two lines for Small Capi- tals, and one line for Italics ; and by writing in the margin the word Caps, Sm. Caps, or Italics. 4. l>ele-in§^. — When a word or a letter is to be taken out, make a slant line through it, and place in the margin the mark here given, which is the old way of writing the letter d, and stands for the Latin dele, destroy. 5. Clianging Punctuation. — A point is to be corrected in the same man- ner as a letter (No. 1). If the point to be inserted is a period, it should be enclosed in a circle. (See example at the bottom of the page.) 6. Space Omitted. — If a space is omitted between two words or letters, put a caret under the place where the space ought to be, and put in the margin the char- acter here given. 7. Hyplien Omitted. — If a hyphen has been omitted, put a caret under the place, and write the hyphen in the margin between two slant lines. 8. Letters Omitted. — If a letter has been omitted, put a caret under the place, and put in the margin a slant line with the letter to the left of it. 9. Closing Up. — If a line is too widely spaced, or letters are separated that Bhould be joined, the letters that are to be brought together should be connected by a curved mark, either above, or below, or both, and a corresponding mark should be placed in the margin. 10. New Paragrapli. — When a new paragraph is required, put a carat at the place where the new paragraph should begin, and a quadrangle in the margin. 11. Apostroplie, &c. — When the apostrophe, inverted commas, the star and other references, or letters and figures of any kind that go over the line, have been omitted, put a carei at the place, and write the omitted apostrophe or other character in the margin, in the bosom of an angle made for the purpose, and opening upwards. 12. Transposing. — When a word is to be transposed, draw a line round it and carry the line over to the place where the word is to be put, writing in the margin tr. (transpose). If two or three letters in a word are misplaced, draw a line under them, and write them correctly in the margin. If several words are misplaced, draw a line under them all, write over them the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to show the order in which they should stand, and put tr. in the margin. 13. Stet. — When by mistake a word has been marked to be struck out, and you wish it to stand, put a row of dots under it, and the word stet (let it stand) in the margin. 14. Space Projecting. — When a space (a thin slip of metal used for spacing) projects, draw a line under it and the corresponding mark in the margin. 15. "Words Out. — When several words have been left out, write them at the foot of the page, and draw a line from them to the place where they should be in- serted. If the matter omitted is too much to be thus written at the foot of the page, write on the margin the words Out, see copy, and write likewise on the margin of the copy the word Out, and enclose the omitted words in brackets. 16. Letters Standing Crooked. — The marks here given show the mode of noting this defect. 17. "Wrong Fount. — When a letter of a different fount has been inserted, mark it with a slant line, and write w. f. (wrong fount) in the margin. 18. No Paragraph. — When a paragraph has been made where none was intended, draw a line from the broken-off matter to the next paragraph, and write in the margin No \. 19. Left Out.— When a word has been left out, make a caret at the place, and ■write the word in the margin. 20. Faulty Letter. — When a letter is faulty, draw a cross under it, and make a small cross in the margin. 336 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIO, THE EXAMPLE OF PROOF-SHEET. CORRECTED. Though several differing opinions exist as to the individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the .person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttenbergs : he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Aschaffenburg : •Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiv- ing his master Faust's design, and being him- self ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting [incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con- trivance, that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difiiculties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup- port the force of the impression : but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with » substance which sufficiently hardened it.' CHAPTER IX. The Study of the English Language. Rhetoric is, from its very nature, so closely connected with the study of Language, that I shall make no apology for appending to the present treatise some remarks upon the English Language, giv- ing a general outline of its origin, history, affiliations, and charac- ter, and some suggestions as to the manner in which its study and culture are to be pursued. These remarks are not intended as a part of the text, to be studied in the ordinary routine of the class- room, but as a matter of information for those students who may not have access to the numerous and extended volumes which are de- voted to this particular subject. Linguistics is gradually acquiring the consistency of a science. If not so definite as mathematics and other pure sciences, it has yet made good its claim to be regarded as a science, both by the character of its methods and the wide generalizations which it has reached. Languages have long, almost always indeed, been a subject of study. But one may be an accomplished linguist, reading and speaking many tongues, without being an adept in the science of language. This science, in its more recent and exact form, differs perceptibly even from philology. The material, or subject-matter of the science, is not one language, or any one class of languages, ancient or modern, living or dead, but language itself, in its entirety. Its methods are to observe, arrange, and classify all the forms of speech that are, or ever have been, in use, and from them to deduce the necessary laws of speech for a race constituted as the human race is. It aims to show how language originated, that is, to show why we speak at all, and why we speak as we d^ to show what is the inner life of lan- guage, and how its changes are effected ; to trace the relations between language and thought ; and, finally, as the geologist is able from exist- 29* 337 338 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. ing phenomena to read the history of the globe far back anterior to human records, so from the existing forms of speech to travel back into the prehistoric annals of the race, and to trace the doings and the character of races of whom there is no other record. The science of language, as thus understood, is the youngest of the sciences, younger even than geology, being yet hardly half a century old. Among its cultivators are two particularly noticeable by those of the English-speaking race, both as being on the foremost wave of the advancing science, and as using our language in their investi- gations, and being, therefore, the more accessible to English and American students. These are Professor Max MUller, of the Uni- versity of Oxford, and Professor Whitney, of Yale College. Professor "Whitney's book,i although it has been but a short time before the public, has already placed its author in a position of most honorable distinction before the eyes of his countrymen. If not so brilliant and fascinating in style as are the volumes of Max Miiller,^ the work is equally learned, and is decidedly more sober and trustworthy in its conclusions. The recent contributions to the study of English by Professor Marsh,' Professor Scheie de Vere,* Richard Grant White,^ and Ed- ward S. Gould, 6 of this country, and by Latham,'' Trench, « Alford,* and Moon,^" in England, as well as the elaborate reviews which have appeared in nearly all the leading periodicals in both countries, show that the subject has awakened public attention. All the works referred to have been received with marked favor, and they have done much towards making the genius and resources of our language better understood by those who use it. But the works of Professor MUller and Professor Whitney, while necessarily dealing largely with English, and while of great interest and value to the mere stu- dent of English, yet take a much wider range than those of the other 1. Language and the Study of Language. By William Dwight Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit in Yale College. 8vo. 2. Science of Language, 2 vols. ; and Chips from a German Workshop, 2 vols. 3. The Origin and History of the English Language. 1 vol., 8vo. Lectures on tht English Language. By George P. Marsh. 1 vol., 8vo. 4; Studies in English. By M. Scheie de Vere. 1 vol., 8vo. 5. Words and Their Uses. By Richard Grant White, 6. Good English. By Edward S. Gould. 1 vol., 12mo. 7. The English Language. By R. G. Latham. 8. English, Past and Present. By Richard Clie|pnix Trench. The Study of Words. By Ricliard Chevenix Trench. 9. The Queen's English. By Henry Alford, Dean of Canterbniy. 10. The Dean's English. By G. Washington Moon. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 339 writers who have been named. The difference between them is like the difference between a work on general geology and a work on trilobites or on the carboniferous era. Having referred thus to the principal sources of information on this subject which are accessible to the English student, I proceed to give a brief outline of the accepted theory in regard to the origin and character of the English language, and of its relation to the other languages of the earth. In doing this, it will be necessary first to take the reader to regions apparently remote from the topic named. But in many things a comprehensive survey of a whole subject is the shortest way of get- ting at a precise knowledge of a particular division of it. Some idea of the general grouping of the languages of the earth is necessary to a proper understanding of the place which English holds, both in history and in general philology. This is the more necessary, be- cause the whole science of language has been revolutionized, or rather it has been created, in times within the memory of persons still living. The old theory, which until lately nobody even ques- tioned, was, that the Hebrew was the original language of the earth, and that all other languages in some way sprung from it. <*A11 antiquity," says Jerome, " affirms that Hebrew, in which the Old Testament is written, was the beginning of all speech." When, there- fore, attempts began to be made at a scientific classification of lan- guages, the problem which presented itself to scholars was, " He- brew being undoubtedly the mother of all languages, how can we explain the process by which it became split into so many dialects, and how can we trace back the words in all the various languages of the world to their original Hebrew roots? The amount of learn- ing and ingenuity bestowed upon the solution of this problem was prodigious, and has well been compared to that bestowed by the earlier astronomers in undertaking to explain the movement of the heavenly bodies on the assumption that the earth was the centre of the universe. The foundations of the old theory of language began to be shaken as far back as the time of Leibnitz, in 1710, and pri- marily by Leibnitz himself. But no great and certain advance was made in the way of establishing a true theory, until near the close of the last century. The steps which then led to the discovery and the establishment of the science of language, as now understood, originated in undertakings not by any means scientific in their aim. The English East India Company, in the government of their Indian empire, have always had in their employ a number of eminent jurists, to act as judges i» the eivil administration. These judges early 340 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC. found that the jurispradence which they were called upon to ad- minister was interwoven with a vast body of national traditions of unknown, but certainly most venerable antiquity, and that to inter- pret these traditions rightly, it would be necessary to become ac- quainted with the old original language, in which they were con- tained. The English and American missionaries in that country made a similar discovery. The people of India were found to be in this respect very much in the condition of the nations of Southern Europe, which have survived the disintegration of the Roman Em- pire. As France, Spain, and Italy look to ancient Rome for the basis both of their several languages and their system of jurispru- dence, so in modern India many nations and tribes were found with languages distinct indeed, but closely affiliated, and having a common basis in a tongue which ceased to be spoken more than two thousand years ago. This dead language, existing in India as the Latin does among the nations of Southern Europe, is known by the name of the Sanskrit. The jurists and civilians of the East India Company found, that in order to acquire the necessary authority as interpreters of Indian law, they must acquaint themselves with the Sanskrit language. The missionaries were obliged to study it for a like reason. It was the only way in which they could obtain a hearing as instructors of the people, or in which they could, satisfactorily to themselves, explain and confute the system of theology and philosophy on which the vast superstructure of Indian religion was based. These two classes of Europeans, therefore, addressed themselves with zeal to the study of this ancient tongue. Their labors in this line first took shape in the formation of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, in 1784, from which event, indeed, the history of Sanskrit Philology as a European study may be dated. As the results of their studies were transmitted from time to time to the learned of Western Europe, it became gradually apparent that the facts disclosed were likely to have an important bearing upon the entire science of philology. A surprising coinci- dence, for instance, was found between this ancient language at the foot of the Himalayas, which had been a dead language for more than two thousand years, and the languages of Western Europe. More surprising still, this language was found even more like to the Latin and Greek. This coincidence included not only a vast number of words of like meaning, but most wonderful similarities in declen- sions, conjugations, and syntax. Grammatical forms and construc- tions in Latin and Greek, which had become anomalous and. unex- plainable before the time of Julius Ctesar and the grammarians of THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 341 Alexandria, were found to be explained by corresponding forms in Sanskrit, where they existed in a state less impaired, or more fully developed. Such results as these necessarily led to a careful re-examination of the whole theory of the affiliation of languages. It would not comport with the object of the present article to enter into a history of the investigations and discussions which followed, nor to state the discrepancies of opinion which still exist among philologists, as to the general classification and the geographical distribution of the languages of the earth. The examination of the subject has led, however, to some well-ascertained results, in regard to which the learned are pretty much agreed. All the leading languages, from the Himalaya Mountains in Asia, on the east, to the Atlantic; shore of Europe, on the west, are found to have numerous affinities and points of resemblance too strong to be accounted for in any other way than by supposing an historical and ethnical connection. The ethnographical -theory, by which these extraordinary analogies and identities are explained, we shall now proceed to state in the briefest manner possible. It will be understood to be the merest outline. The principal nations embraced in the immense space of longitude that has been named, are supposed to have all sprung originally from the same central hive in Asia, the precise location of which it is not necessary to the theory either to establish or assume, and to have proceeded thence, in very early times, in successive swarms, to the several countries where they are found within the historic periods. These tides of population are supposed to have followed each other at distant intervals, and to have proceeded, as migratory nomads usually do, in the direction of their original impulse, until the impulse was spent, or until it met with some obstacle sufficient to arrest its further progress. The earliest wave rolling westwardly would necessarily be arrested by the Atlantic, and would eventually become stationary in the regions along the coast and in the adjacent islands. The next succeeding wave in the same direction would be compelled to pause on reaching the range of countries occupied by its predecessor. The earliest easterly wave seems to have been arrested by the formidable obstacle presented by the Himalaya Mountains, and to have settled at its feet'among the plains of Hin- dostan. So on with the several emigrations, east and west, and more or less remote, until we imagine the whole area occupied between our two extreme points. Taking this general idea, which is admitted to be in the main purely theoretical, we find the following distinct groups of lan-r 342 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. guages, marked off and yet connected by well-defined characters, and by well-known and indisputable facts. I. The Indic, or the languages of India. The ancient original language of India is the Sanskrit. It ceased to be a spoken lan- guage at least 300 B. C. Its earliest form is to be found in the Vedas, the most ancient of the sacred books of the Hindoos. Between the Sanskrit and the present living languages of India, are two succes- sive stages, or dialects (both however dead), namely, the Pali, con- taining sacred books less ancient than the Vedas ; and the Prakrit, containing various remains, both literary and religious, and ap- proaching to more modern times. The chief modern dialects sprung from the above, but largely mixed with the languages of the succes" sive conquerors of the country, are such as the Hindi, Hindostani, Bengali, Mahratti, etc. II. The Ieanic, the language of Iran, or Persia. The ancient language of the Zoroasters, or Fire-worshippers, the inhabitants of Persia, which was originally called Iran, is the Zend. Its earliest form is in the Zend-Avesta, the most ancient of the sacred books of the Persians. Two stages of this also are found, the Pehlevi, some centuries after the Christian era, and the Parsi, or old Persian, about 1000 A. D. The chief living representatives of the Zend are the Persian and the Armenian. III. The Celtic. The tribes found by the Romans in Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Ireland, and in the smaller islands along the Atlantic coast, had certain remarkable points of coincidence, showing them all to belong to the same race. They are called Kelts or Celts, and they have been divided into two branches, the Cymric and the Gaelic. From the Cymric branch are derived the Welsh (the lineal descend- ants of the old Britons), the Cornish (inhabiting Cornwall), and thq Armorican, in the province of Brittany or Armorica on the coast of France. From the Gaelic branch came the Erse or Irish, the High- land Scotch, and the Manx on the Isle of Man. IV. The Italic. With the ancient language of this family, the Latin, we are all familiar. The Roman power and civilization car- ried their language into all those provinces which were thoroughly subdued. The chief modern Latin languages, or Romance languages, as they are generally called, are six, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Wallachian (spoken in Wallachia, Moldavia, and parts of Hungary, Transylvania, and Bessarabia), and the Romanese (spoken among the Grisons of Switzerland). V. The Hellenic. This is represented by the ancient Greek, the modern Greek usually called Romaic, and perhaps the Albanian. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 343 VI. The Teutonic. The oldest of the languages belonging to this class is the Gothic. It became extinct in the ninth century. Ulfilas, a bishop of the Moeso-Goths, about A. D. 350, translated the whole of the Scriptures, except Kings, into the Gothic. Of this transla- tion a considerable portion of the New Testament and a small por- tion of the Old, have survived, and constitute a most important relic of this ancient tongue. The modern Teutonic languages may be divided into two distinct groups, the Scandinavian and the Germanic. The Scandinavian includes the tribes north of the Baltic, and is represented by the Danish, the Swedish, the Norwegian, and the Icelandic. The Germanic includes the tribes in Central Europe south of the Baltic, and is subdivided into two branches, the High German and the Low German. From this latter has sprung the Hollandish or Dutch, and the Anglo-Saxon, the parent of English. It has been conjectured that the Italic and Hellenic races entered Europe south of the Euxine, following the coast of the Mediterra- nean. In like manner the Teutonic tribes are supposed to have passed north of the Euxine, and in the course of their wanderings westerly to have become gradually separated into two streams, part verging north, to and beyond the Baltic, forming the Scandinavian nations, and part going more centrally, pressing upon the Romans on the south, and upon the Celtic nations on the west. This, at all events, is the position in which we find them in the times of Livy, Caesar, and Tacitus. VII. Slavonic. The last of the great waves of population that we shall notice, the last perhaps in point of time in its western exodus, is the Slavonic. It is found in the northeastern parts of Europe and the conterminous regions of Asia, pressing westerly upon the Ger- manic and Scandinavian peoples, and southerly upon the Graeco- Roman. The languages of this group are very numerous. The principal are the Russian, Bulgarian, Illyrian, Polish, Bohemian, Lusatian, Lettish, Lithuanian, and old Prussian. The seven groups of languages, that have been thus briefly de- scribed, form one of several great Families of Languages, into which the numerous varieties of human speech have been divided. This family has been variously named. It has been called the Japhetic, because the nations included in it are supposed to have descended from Japhet, one of the sons of Noah. Another name is the Indo- European, which is a purely geographical name, and has been given purposely to avoid mixing up the philological question with the eth- nical one. Of the linguistic affinities, there is no doubt. The ethnical connection has not been so clearly established. Still another name 344 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. has been given to the family, and has been much insisted on by those eminent scholars who have pushed their inquiries into the subject farthest. This name is the Aryan. It is bo named from an ancient country in Central Asia, called Arya in the Sanskrit books, and known by this title among the Greeks and Romans, and supposed to be the starting-point from which these various nations migrated. Besides this family, there are two or three others, which we need not describe, as they are not connected, except in a most remote degree, with our present subject. One of these is the Shemitic family, so called because the nations embraced in it are descended from Shem, the oldest son of Noah. The principal languages included in this family are the Hebrew, Samaritan, Syriac, Chaldee, Arabic, and Ethiopic. The other families of languages are not as yet suflBciently defined, and therefore need not be named in this extremely cursory review. The English language, it will be seen, bears intimate relations to two of the groups of the great Indo-European or Aryan family, namely, the Teutonic and the Latin. More than nine-tenths of English words are derived from one or the other of these sources. At the same time, there are numerous words in English that cannot be claimed as being exclusively either Teutonic or Latin, but are common to both sources. Some words, indeed, are found running through all the seven groups of the Indo-European family, showing that they existed before the great dispersion. A few words are found even common both to the Indo-European and the Shemitic families, bearing in this fact a history that carries us back to the ark itself. It would be impossible, in such a review as this, to give the induc- tion of particulars that are proper in the way of illustration even, much less of proof, of these generalizations. A very few familiar examples will be quoted. TIIREE. 1. Sans. : tri. 2. Zend: thri. 3. Celt.: Erse, ^n;'Welsh, tri. 4. Ital. : Lat., tres, tria ; Fr., trois ; It., tres; Sp., ire. 5. Hell. : Gr., rpeij, rpia. 6. Teut. : Goth., thri; Ger., drei; Sw., tre; Dan., tre; Sax., thr$o^ thri; Eng., three. 7. Slav. : Russ., tri; Let., tri. TH^ ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 345 SEVEN. 1. Sans. : saptan. 2. Zend: haptan; Per., heft. 3. Celt. : Welsh, sailh. 4. Ital. : Lat., septem; It., sette; St^., sieie; Fr., sept. 6. Hell. : Gr. tnra. 6. Teut. : Goth., sihun; Ger., sieben; Du., zeeven; Dan., st/v ; Sax., teofen; Eng., seven. 7. Slav.: Rus., aew; Let, septi/ni. FATHER. 1. Sans. : jt?27n. 2. Zend: paitar ; Yer., pader. 3. Celt. : Ers., athair (initial consonant elided). 4. Ital.: Lat, pater ; IL, padre; B>t^., padre; Fr. phre. 6. Hell. : Gr. narrip. 6. Teut.: Goth., vatar ; Ger., vater ; Du. fader; Dsin. fader; S"vr., fader; Sax., /aeJer; Eng.,/a^Aer. 7. Slav, (doubtful). MOTHER. 1. Sans. : matri. 2: Zend: Per., mader. 3. Celt. : Ers., mathair. 4. Ital.: Lat., mater; It., madre; Sp., madre; Fr., w^r«. 5. Hell. : Gr., iinrnp. 6. Teut.: Ger., mutter; Du., moeder ; Sw., moder; Dan., moder ; Sax., moder ; Eng., mother. 7. Slav. : Rus., wa^. TO BEAR. 1. Sans. : 6n, hhar-adi. 2. Zend: bairan; Pers., ber. 3. Celt. : Ers., bear-adh. 4. Ital.: Lat., /ero, pario, porto ; It., portare; Sp., portar ; Fr., 5. Hell. : Gr. (fepcj, ^opfw, /i^apoj (a thing borne, a burden), /?apvf.* 6. Teut.: Goth., bairan; Gqt., fiihren; Du.., beuren; Sw., bsera ; Dan., bxre; Sax., bseran; Eng. 6ear. 7. Slav. : Rus., 6erM. Some words, it is to be observed, not only run through the entire Indo-European or Japhetic group, but likewise appear in the She- znitic. Thus the numeral " seven," already quoted, is evidently con- nected with the sheba of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Ethiopic, 30 346 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. and the sahaia of the Arabic and Hebrew. In like manner, ''bear" seems to have an etymological connection with the Hebrew parah, which means to "bear," and perhaps with the Hebrew hara, meaning "to create," <'to produce," "to bring forth," (comp. Eng. bairn, that which is born or brought forth.) This word "bear," both in its generic meaning of bearing a bur- den, and its specific meaning of bringing forth (as of animals, trees, earth, etc."), is probably more widely diffused than any other word to be found in the world. There is no word of which we would feel it safer to guess that it was used by Noah himself, and that it is verily older than the flood. Let us look at a few of its forms in the English alone. Here we have it both as a Teutonic word, coming' directly from the Saxon hseran, and as a Latin word, in its three several forms of fero, pario, and porio. First, let us enumerate some of the forms of Teutonic origin. Bear, bearing, bearer, bearable, bearably, bier; forbear, forbear- ing, forbearingly, forbearance ; over-bear, over-bearing, over-bear- ingly ; bore, over -bore, for -bore; borne, over -borne, for -borne; born, bairn, birth ; burden, burdening, burdened, burdensome, bur- densomely, burdensomeness ; over-burden, over-burdening, overbur- dened, unburden, unburdening, &c. From the Latin fero, we have fertile (bearing freely, productive), fertility, fertilize, fertilization, fertilizer, fertilizing, fertilized. Fors (forts) comes from fero, as the Greek (popnov from (pspo, rponof from rpena. Fors, fortis (whatever bears or brings itself along, chance) gives us fortune, fortuning, fortuned, fortunate, fortunately, fortuneless ; unfortunate, unfortunately ; misfortune ; fortuitous, fortuitously, fortuity. Fortis (that which bears everything before it, strong, brave) gives us forte ; fort, fortlet, fortalice, fortress ; fortitude, fortify, fortifying, fortified ; force, forcing, forced, forcer, forceless, forceful, forcefully, forcible, forcibly; enforce, enforcing, enforced, enforce- ment; reinforce, reinforcing, reinforced, reinforcement. There is somef connection evidently between fero, to bear, and ferry, to bear across a stream ; hence we have ferry, ferrying, ferried, ferriage, ferryman, etc. Fer as an adjective termination, in conjunction with ous, is compounded with many hundreds of Latin nouns, giving rise to such words as somniferous, noctiferous, odoriferous, pestiferous, vociferous, etc., some of which again originate a new progeny, as vociferous, vociferously, vociferate, vociferating, vociferated, vocif- eration, etc., etc. Fero, in composition with the Latin prepositions, gives a still mor« prolific progeny of words ; as, TUJE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 347 Circum-/er-ence, circumferential, circumferentor. Con-fer, conferring, conferred, conference, conferrer, conferee. De-fer, deferring, deferred, -deference, deferential, deferentially. Dif-fer, differing, differed, different, indifferent, differently, indif- ferently, difference, indifference, differentiate, differentiating, dif- ferentiated. In-fer, inferring, inferred, inferrible, inference, inferential, infer- entially. Of-fer, offering, offered, offerer, offertory. Pre-/er, preferring, preferred, preferrer, preferment, preference, preferable, preferably, preferableness. Prof-/er, proffering, proffered, profferer. Re-/er, referring, referred, referee, referrible, reference. Suf-/er, suffering, suffered, sufferer, sufferance, sufferable, suffer- ably, insufferably. Trans-/er, transferring, transferred, transferrer, transferee, trans- ference, transferrible, intransferriblfe. The connection between fer-o, and ^ar-io, to biang forth or bear, may not be obvious at first sight ; but the words are not more removed than are pdpos and Hc CHASE AND STUAET'S CLASSICAL SEEEES. THOMAS CHASE, A.M., PROFESSOR OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE, HATSBFORO COIXSGK, PSNNA. EDITED BY GEOEGE STUAKT, A.M., PROFESSOR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE, CENTRAL HIOH SCHOOL, PBILADA. AND E. P. CROWELL, A.M., PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 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The compiler cannot conceal the hope that this glimpse of our general literature may tempt to individual research among its treas- ures, so varied and inexhaustible; — that this text-book for the II school-room may become not only teacher, but friend, to those in whose hands it is placed, and while aiding, through systematic de- velopment and training of the elocutionary powers of the pupil, to overcome many of the practical difficulties of instruction, may accomplish a higher work in the cultivation and refinement of character. THE MODEL SPEAKER: Consisting of Exercises ■*• in Prose, Poetry, and Blank Verse, Suitable for Declamation, Public Readings, School Exhibitions, &c. Compiled for the Use of Schools, Academies, Colleges, and Private Classes, by Prof. Philip Lawrence. Price by mail, post-paid, ;^i.5o. The book is printed on superfine, tinted paper, and handsomely and durably bound in fine English cloth, with bevelled sides. For variety and freshness of selections, beauty of mechanical execution, and economy in price, it is unequalled by any similar work extant. Great care has been taken to consult the authorized editions of the various writers represented, that the extracts from their works may be relied upon as accurate ; though, in some instances, pre- ference has been given to an early edition, when, in later issues, the alterations have not been deemed improvements. Many poems have been introduced which have never before found their way into any book of selections, being now for the first time published in this country in a permanent form. It is believed that this book will be found admirably adapted for use as a " Reader," either in connection with any of the regular series of reading books, or to be taken up by classes that, having used the higher readers of the different series, need variety as an incentive to interest. For this purpose we particularly commend it to the attention of Principals of Academies, Seminaries, High Schools, Normal Schools, and Institutions for Young Ladies* Descriptive Circular, containing entire List of Contents, sent to any address on application. 12 THE MODEL DEFINER. An Elementary Book for Beginners, containing Definitions, Etymology, and Sentences as Models, exhibiting the correct use of Words. By A. C. Webb. Price by mail, post- paid, 25 cents. THE MODEL ETYMOLOGY. Giving not only the ■^ Definitions, Etymology, and Analysis, but also that which can be obtained only from an intimate ac- quaintance with the best authors, viz. : the correct use of Words. With a Key containing the analysis of every word which could present any difficulties to the learner. By A. C. Webb. Price by mail, post-paid, 60 cents. The plan adopted in the Model Definer and Model Etymology is not new. All good Dictionaries illustrate the meaning by a Model. To quote from a good author, a sentence containing the word, as proof of its correct use, is the only authority allowed. A simple trial of the work, either by requiring the child to form sentences similar to those given, or by memorizing the sentences as models for future use, will convince any one of the following advantages to be derived from the Model Word-Book Series. 1. Saving of time. 2. Increased knowledge of words. 3. Ease to teacher and scholar. 4. A knowledge of the correct use of words. Descriptive Circular sent on application. MARTINDALE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. From the Discovery of America to the close of the late Rebellion. By Joseph C. Mar- TiNDALE, M.D., Principal of the Madison Grammar School, Philadelphia. Price by mail, post-paid, 60 cents. 13 * With this book in his hand, the scholar can in a single school- term obtain as complete a kno,wledge of the History of the United States as has heretofore required double the time and effort. Descriptive circular sent on applic3^M[. — <>oj»io« THE YOUNG STUDENT'S COMPANION; or/ Elementary Lessons and Exercises in Translating from English into French. By M. A. Longstreth, Principal of a Seminary for Young Ladies, Phila- delphia. Price by mail, postpaid, ^i.oo. TABLES OF LATIN SUFFIXES. Designed as an "■• Aid to the Study of the Latin Grammar. By Amos N. Currier, A.M., Professor of Latin in the Uni- versity of Iowa. Price by mail, postpaid, 50 cents. A FRENCH VERB BOOK; or, the New Expositor ** of Verbs in French. By Ernest Lagarde, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages in Mount St. Mary's College. Price by mail, postpaid, ;^i.oo. Lagarde's French Verb Book embraces a comprehensive analysis of the conjugations, a new method for the formation and use of the tenses, and a complete paradigm of all the verbs, the whole gpc- plained and exemplified by full illustrations. It is believed that the book will be found a valuable aid to the study of the French language. rOMPENDIUM OF FRENCH RULES. A Com- ^ pendium of the Grammatical Rules of the French Language. By F. A. Bregy, A.M., Professor of French in the University of Pennsylvania. IN THREE PARTS. PART FIRST. Price by mail, postpaid, 75 cents. PART SECOND. « « 50 " PART THIRD. In Preparation. 14 These hand-books can be advantageously used in connection with any system. They lead the student from the first elements of the language to and through the principal rules of the French Syntax, enabling him, in a short time, to master intelligently what otherwise would prove a tedious, and difficult task. CELECTIONS FOR LITTLE FOLKS. A Book of ^ Poetical Selections for Children. Price by mail, postpaid, 50 cents. That sympathy which loves to link the present with the past, has prompted the preparation of this volume. Simply to make a child glad, is a worthy motive for storing its mind with poetic utterances, especially when the remembrance of such happiness becomes a well-spring of delight for a lifetime. This little book is intended for children not more than nine or ten years of age, and the compiler would feel it a good excuse for adding another book to those already extant, should the little ones find pleasure in it. IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM ; or, Chapters in the * Philosophy of Education. By John S. Hart, LL.D., Principal of New Jersey State Normal School. Price by mail, postpaid, ^1.25. This work gives the results of the experience and observation of the author "in the School-room " for a period of years extending over more than one-third of a century. No teacher can afford to be without it. It is a teacher's library in a single book. Descriptive circular sent on application. THE MODEL ROLL-BOOK, No. 1. For the Use •'• of Schools. Containing a Record of Attendance, Punctuality, Deportment, Orthography, Reading, Penmanship, Intellectual Arithmetic, Practical Arith- metic, Geography, Grammar, Analysis, Parsing and History, and several blanks for special studies not enumerated. Price by mail, postpaid, 115.00. IS THE MODEL ROLL-BOOK, No. 2. For the use ■*■ of High Schools, Academies and Seminaries. Con- taining a Record of all the studies mentioned in Roll-Book No. I, together with Declamation, Elo- cution, Algebra, Geometry, Composition, Rhetoric, French, Latin, Philosophy, Physiology, and several blanks for special studies not enumerated. Price by mail, post-paid, ^5.00. Since the fii*st publication of the Model Roll-Books, they have been very materially improved. They have been made uniform in size and price ; each page has been arranged to exhibit a record for one month, and space has been assigned for a monthly summary. These Roll-Books are in use in the leading schools in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, and very extensively in Academies, Seminaries, and High Schools throughout the Country. They will, on examination, be found to be the most complete and practical yet published. All teachers who use them speak of them with unqualified approval. THE MODEL POCKET REGISTER AND GRADE- BOOK. A Roll-Book, Record, and Grade-Book combined. Adapted to all grades of classes, whether in College, Academy, Seminary, High or Primary School. Handsomely bound in fine English cloth, bevelled sides, crimson edges. Price by mail, post- paid, 65 cents. THE MODEL SCHOOL DIARY. Designed as an ■*■ aid in securing the co-operation of parents. It con- sists of a Record of the Attendance, Deportment, Recitations, &c., of the Scholar, for every day in the week. At the close of the week it is to be sent to the parent or guardian for his examination and signature. Copies will be mailed to teachers for examination, post-paid, on receipt of ten cents. Price per dozen, by mail, post-paid, ^1.05. T"! i6 MODEL MONTHLY REPORT. The general character of the Monthly Report is the same as that of the Model School Diary, excepting that it is in- tended for a Monthly instead of a Weekly Report of the Attendance, Recitations, &c., of the Pupil. Copies will be mailed to teachers for examination, postpaid, on receipt of ten cents. Price per dozen, by mail, postpaid, $1.05. DOOK- KEEPING BLANKS. Consisting of six '^ blank books, as follows: Day Book, Cash Book, Ledger, Journal, Bill Book, and Book for Miscel- laneous Exercises. Price for each book by mail, postpaid, 15 cents; or the entire set of six books by mail, postpaid, 90 cents. These books have been prepared as a matter of practical con- venience for students in Book-keeping. They can be used with any treatise, and vi^ill be sold singly or in sets, as may be desired. Teachers corresponding with us are requested to supply us with a copy of the circular or catalogue of the school of which they are the Principal, or with which they are connected. Descriptive circulars of all our publications will be sent to any address on application. Please address, ELDREDGE & BROTHER, No. 17 North Seventh Street, PHILADELPHIA. MB9902 fr7 /f7f EDOC nEPT. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ■mmm # 'mm ipil